REESE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CA-LIFORNIA 
 
^ 
 
 
 m 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR THE STUDENT 
 AND MANUFACTURER 
 
 BY VIVIAN B^LEWES F.I.C., ETC 
 
 PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE GREENWICH 
 
 CHIEF SUPERINTENDING GAS EXAMINER TO THE 
 
 CORPORATION OF THE CITY OF 
 
 LONDON ETC ETC 
 
 WITH 228 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 WESTMINSTER 
 ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1900 
 
BUTLER & 
 THE SBLWOOD PRINTING WOBKS, 
 FBOME. AND LONDON. 
 
V 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 DURING- the past six years the manufacture 
 of calcium carbide and the installation of 
 apparatus for lighting by Acetylene has become so 
 important an industry, that the time seems to have 
 arrived when a book on the subject, which should 
 gather together not only the information gleaned 
 in recent years, but also the immense mass of facts 
 discovered with regard to Acetylene in the sixty- 
 four years which have elapsed since its discovery 
 by Edmund Davy, in 1836, would not be unaccept- 
 able to those interested in this beautiful illuminant. 
 France possesses no less than three handbooks 
 dealing with the subject, whilst Germany has Herr 
 Liebetanz' excellent work, Calciumcarbid und Acety- 
 len, and also the translation of M. Pellissier's French 
 work from the facile pen of Dr. Anton Ludwig ; 
 but so far no textbook worthy of the name has 
 been published in the English language, although 
 an excellent translation of Perrodil's Le Carbure de 
 Calcium et I 1 Acetylene appeared in serial form in the 
 pages of the Progressive Age, which, as far as the 
 
 v 6 
 
PREFACE 
 
 author knows, has not been republished in book 
 form. 
 
 In writing this book the difficulty soon arose that 
 in attempting to make it a complete record of the 
 work that has been done, risk was run of over- 
 loading the technical side of the question with 
 scientific researches which, although invaluable to a 
 student working on the subject of Acetylene, would 
 not be welcomed by a generator maker desirous 
 of finding the reasons for the overheating of a 
 special . form of apparatus ; and in order to as far 
 as possible avoid this difficulty the book has 
 been written in two divisions, the first part de- 
 voted to the scientific side of the preparation and 
 properties of Acetylene, whilst the second part 
 deals with the technical developments of the last 
 few years considered from a scientific stand- 
 point. 
 
 The foreign textbooks on the subject have all 
 been written by engineers who have presented the 
 subject from the point of view most familiar to 
 them, and although the present work may be found 
 not so full of mechanical detail, it is hoped that 
 the subject may not have suffered thereby. In 
 order to make the book as useful as possible to 
 those engaged in practical work on Acetylene, a 
 third part has been added containing the legal 
 enactments of various countries, a list of the patents 
 
 vi 
 
PKEFACE 
 
 taken out in this country with a precis of their 
 contents, and an Appendix of useful data. 
 
 The author desires to express his grateful thanks 
 to Dr. Polis, late Professor of Chemistry at the 
 Technical School of Aix-la-Chapelle, for the aid he 
 has given in the first part of the book, and also to 
 his assistants and all those who have so kindly 
 helped with data and drawings of special apparatus ; 
 whilst especially does he desire to acknowledge 
 the aid given by Mr. F. Gr. Worth, the Managing 
 Director of the Acetylene Illuminating Company, 
 who from the first introduction of calcium carbide 
 has done all in his power to encourage scientific 
 research into the manufacture of carbide, and the 
 questions arising therefrom. 
 
 GREENWICH 
 May, 1900 
 
 vn 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAET I. SCIENTIFIC 
 
 Chapter I 
 
 THE HISTOEY OF ACETYLENE FEOM ITS DISCOVEEY 
 
 BY EDMUND DAVY IN 1836 TO THE INTEODUCTION 
 
 OF COMMEECIAL ACETYLENE IN 1895 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Edmund Davy's Discovery and Communication to the 
 British Association. The Work of Quet, Voegel, and 
 Eeischauer. Acetylene detected in Coal Gas. Berthelot's 
 Eesearches upon Acetylene. Woehler's Discovery of Cal- . 
 cium Carbide. The Formation of Acetylene during the 
 Incomplete Combustion of Hydrocarbons. The Discovery 
 of the Direct Formation of Calcium Carbide in the 
 Electric Furnace. The Claims of Willson, Moissan, and 
 Borchers to priority 1-25 
 
 Chapter II 
 THE PEEPAEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The Formation of Acetylene by the Direct Union of its 
 Constituents. The Work of Berthelot and Dewar. The 
 Preparation of Acetylene by the Incomplete Combustion 
 of Gases containing Hydrogen and Carbon. The Methods 
 Employed by Berthelot, McLeod, Eieth, Jungfleisch, and 
 Polis. The Preparation of Acetylene by the Chemical 
 Decomposition of Organic Compounds. The Preparation 
 of Acetylene by the Double Decomposition of certain Car- 
 bides in Contact with Water 26-62 
 
 Chapter III 
 ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 Nomenclature. Composition. Specific Gravity. Heat of 
 Formation. Heat of Combustion. Occurrence. Smell, 
 ix 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Solubility. Liability of Dissolved Acetylene to Explosion. 
 Liquefaction of Acetylene. Properties of Liquid Acetylene. 
 Detonation of Acetylene. Influence of Pressure on De- 
 tonation. Solid Acetylene. Spectrum. Electrical Ee- 
 lations of Acetylene 63-101 
 
 Chapter IV 
 THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The Action of Heat upon Acetylene. Action of Carbon upon 
 its Decomposition. Influence of Dilution upon De- 
 composition. . The Luminous Decomposition of Acetylene 
 by Heat. -Acetylene Theory of Luminosity. Combina- 
 tion of Acetylene and Oxygen. Heat of Combustion with 
 Oxygen. Explosive Limits of Mixtures of Acetylene and 
 Air. Products of Combustion. Complete and Incom- 
 plete Combustion. Pressures Produced on the Ex- 
 plosion of Mixtures of Acetylene and Air. Berthelot 
 Summarises the Explosive Properties of Acetylene. 
 Action of Light on Acetylene. Action of Oxidising 
 Agents on Acetylene. Action of Palladium, Hydrogen 
 Peroxide, and Platinum Black. Acetylene Hydrate. 
 Action of Chlorine upon Acetylene. Chlorides of Acety- 
 lene. Bromine Compounds. Iodides of Acetylene. 
 . Synthesis of Alcohol from Acetylene. Acetylene and 
 Nitrogen. Action of Sulphuric Acid upon Acetylene. 
 Synthesis of Phenol. Action of Acetylene on Metals and 
 Metallic Salts. Metallic Acetylenes. Copper Acetylene. 
 Action of Acetylene on Silver Salts. Silver Acetylene. 
 Action on Mercury Salts. Action of Reduced Metals on 
 Acetylene. The Formation of Explosive Compounds with 
 Metals under Ordinary Working Conditions. The Toxic 
 Action of Acetylene 102-169 
 
 PAET II. TECHNICAL 
 
 Chapter V 
 
 THE ELECTEIC FURNACE AND ITS APPLICATION TO 
 THE MANUFACTUEE OF CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 The Formation of Calcium Carbide. Importance of the 
 Electric Furnace. Early History of the Electric Arc 
 and its Utilisation for Heating Purposes. The Tempera- 
 ture of the Arc. The Napier, Pichon, Depretz, Joule, 
 Werdermann, and Siemens Furnaces. The Clere, Cowles, 
 Bernard, and Heroult Furnaces. The Eeadman, Eeuleaux, 
 
 X 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Kiliani, Parker, Willson, Schneller, Laval, Girard, and 
 Moissan Furnaces. Arc Furnaces and Resistance 
 Furnaces. Borcher, King, and Maxim Furnaces. 
 Willson's Spray Furnace. American Practice. The In- 
 stallations at Niagara and Merritton. Later Installations 
 at Niagara and Saulte Ste. Marie. The Horry and Bradley 
 Rotary Furnaces. The Union Carbide Company's Works. 
 English Practice. The Leeds Experimental Installation. 
 The Carbide Works at Foyers. European Practice. 
 Bullier Furnaces : Eun Carbide. The Froges Works. The 
 Early History of the Continental Carbide Industry. In- 
 stallations of the Allgemeine Electricitats-Gesellschaft 
 and the Electricitats Aktien-Gesellschaft. The Eathenau 
 and Schuckert Furnaces. The Siemens-Halske Furnace. 
 The Gin-Leleux Installations. Meran Works. Italian 
 Practice. The Terni Works. San Marcello. Spanish 
 Works. Relative Merits of the Eun and Ingot Carbide 
 Processes. The Frankfort Furnace. Pre-heating Furnaces. 
 The Pictet and Ingleton Installation. Landin Process. 
 Patin Furnace. Borcher's Water-Jacketed Furnace 173-263 
 
 Chapter VI 
 
 THE MANUFACTUEE, PEOPEETIES, AND IMPUEITIES 
 OF CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 Importance of Purity in the Materials Used. Lime. Lime- 
 stone. Various Forms of Calcium Carbonate. Lime 
 Burning. Variation in Purity with Different Forms of 
 Limestone. Limes Used in Continental Carbide Works. 
 Carbon Employed. Coal : Its Formation and Variation 
 in Composition. Anthracite and its Composition. Coking 
 Coal. Coke. Physical Properties of Coke. Ash in Coke. 
 Composition of Coke and Coke-Ash. Analyses of Coke. 
 Sulphur and Phosphorus in Coke. Wood Charcoal. 
 Analyses of Charcoal. Influence of Temperature in Car- 
 bonising Wood. Experience with Charcoal, and its Draw- 
 back in Carbide Making. Tar Carbon. Peat and Turf 
 Charcoal. Bituminous Coal. Theoretical Proportion of 
 Lime and Carbon Eequired. Proportion of Lime and 
 Carbon Adopted. Carlson's Experiments with Excess of 
 Carbon. Proportions Used in Practice. Influence on 
 Yield of Gas. The Coarseness of the Mixture. Effect of 
 Fine Grinding. Granulating Machinery. Power for 
 Carbide Works. Water Power. Steam Power. Possi- 
 bility of Carbide Manufacture for Electric Light Stations. 
 The Gas Engine. Dynamos. Early Forms of Dynamo. 
 Siemens' and Wheatstone's Discoveries. Alternating Cur- 
 
 xi 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 rents. Single and Poly-phase Machines. The Commutator. 
 Relative Efficiency of Direct and Alternating Currents. 
 Current Tension Transformers. Arrangement of Furnaces 
 and Conductors. Factors to be Considered in Calculating 
 Energy Required. Bredel's Calculation. Pictet's Estimate. 
 Sieber's Calculation. Energy Required Based on Practical 
 Working. Carbide Made per E.H.P. Day. Tapping v. 
 Ingot Furnaces. Size of Furnace. Current Density. 
 Effects of Overheating. The Actions Taking Place in the 
 Arc. Researches by Gin and Leleux. Dissociation of 
 Carbide in the Arc. Carbon Electrodes and their Manu- 
 facture. Properties of Calcium Carbide. Necessity for 
 Ventilating the Works. Carbon Monoxide. Effect of 
 Carbon Monoxide on the Blood. Treatment for Poisoning 
 by Carbon Monoxide. Effects of Over Gas Production in 
 the Furnace. Dust. Arrangements for Minimising the 
 Disadvantages at Foyers and Meran. Commercial Sizes 
 for Carbide. Breaking up Carbide. Machinery. Loss 
 from Carbide Dust. Utilisation of Small Carbide. 
 Briquettes of Carbide. Treatment of Ingot Carbide for 
 the Market. Blending Ingot and Crust. Run Carbide. 
 Necessity for a Standard Quality of Carbide. Price of 
 Cat bide based on Gas Production. Cost of Power Works. 
 Cost per E.H.P. per Year. Cost of Carbide per Ton. De- 
 tails of Cost of Carbide Making at Meran. List of Carbide 
 Works in America, Germany, England, France, Italy, 
 Norway, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland, and Spain. At- 
 tempts at Carbide Making without Electricity. By 
 Heating Calcium Tartrate. By Passing Hydrocarbon 
 Vapours over Heated Lime. By Using a Metal with a 
 Strong Affinity for Oxygen. By Using Ordinary Combus- 
 tion Heat. The Woodside Process. Liquid Air Applied to 
 Carbide Making. Borcher's Process. Bergemann's Oxygen 
 Furnace. Carbide as a Bye-Product. Blast Furnace Slag. 
 Carbolite. Treatment of the Slag and Method of Manu- 
 facture. Yield of Gas from Carbolite. Carbolite Plant. 
 The Packing and Storing of Carbide. Carbide Drums. 
 Lid Valves for Drums. Storage. Colour of Calcium 
 Carbide. Moissan's Researches on Pure Carbide. Bullier 
 and Perrodil's Researches on Foreign Matter in Carbide. 
 Silicides of Carbon. Metallic Nodules in Carbide and 
 their Composition. Siliciuretted Hydrogen. Silica from 
 Acetylene Soot. Gerard's Researches on Carbide Residues. 
 Moissan's Researches on Commercial Carbide. Action of 
 Hydrochloric Acid on the Residue. Calcium Silicide. 
 Calcium Sulphide. Metallic Sulphides in Carbide. Alu- 
 minium Sulphide. Organic Sulphur Compounds. Iron 
 Compounds. Graphite 264-337 
 
 xii 
 
CONTENTS 
 Chapter YII 
 
 THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Woehler Forms Acetylene from Calcium Carbide. Eeactions 
 of Calcium Carbide with Water and Calcium Hydrate. 
 Venable's Analysis of Willson's Carbide. Early Attempts 
 to Utilise Acetylene as an Illuminant. The First Acety- 
 lene Generator. Growth of the Generator. Methods of 
 Generating Acetylene. Classification of Generators. 
 Automatic Generators. Non- Automatic Generators. Ex- 
 ^rimental Forms of the "Drip," "Water Rising," 
 "Dipping," and "Carbide to Water" Apparatus. Heat 
 Generated During Decomposition. Drip Generators. 
 Early American Generators. The Introduction of Acety- 
 lene into England. The First English Generator. Present 
 Forms of Drip Generator. The Forbes Generator. The 
 Manchester and Midland Generators. Formation of a 
 Lime Coating over Carbide in Drip Generators. The 
 Beacon Generator. Desiderata in a Good Generator. De- 
 termination of Heat Evolved. Experiments with Broken 
 Carbide. Small Pieces give Less Heat than Large Ones. 
 The Development of Heat in Drip Generators. Effect of 
 Pressure on the Temperature Produced. Effect of the 
 Size of the Charge and Shape of the Apparatus. Pre- 
 cautions Necessary for Measuring the Temperature 
 Generated. Heating Often only Local. After-Generation 
 in Drip Apparatus. Conditions Governing After-Genera- 
 tion. The Causes of After-Generation. Experiments on 
 After-Generation. Volume of Water Required for Com- 
 plete Decomposition. Reasons for Using a Large Excess 
 of Water. Danger of Undecomposed Carbide in Residue. 
 Drip Generators Abandoned on the Continent. Water 
 Rising to Carbide Generators. Conditions Necessary in 
 a Good Generator of this Class. Automatic Generators. 
 The Ideal Generator. Subdivision of Carbide Charge. 
 Sunlight Generator. Acetylene Diluted with Carbon 
 Dioxide. The Exley Generator. Read-Holliday Generator. 
 Thorscar Generator. Bailey's Generator. Drawbacks of 
 a Displacement Holder. Advantages of a Store Holder. 
 Grubb's Generator. Fourchotte, Trouve, Graetz, and 
 Owen's Generators. Caro's Remarks on "Flooding" 
 Generators. Heat Evolved. After-Generation. Dipping 
 Generators. The Sunbeam, Sardi, Liver, and Abingdon 
 Generators. Caro Contrasts Drip and Dip Generators. 
 Lewes Experiments on the Heat Evolved. Measurement 
 of Temperature. Lechatelier Thermo-couple. Size of 
 Wires. Calibration and Precautions Necessary. Tests 
 xiii c 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 with Dripping Apparatus. Arrangement of Apparatus 
 and Method of Conducting Experiment. Discrepancies in 
 the Results and the Causes. Experimental Results. The 
 Temperature reached often Shown by the Condition of 
 Residue. Experiments on Dipping Apparatus. Condi- 
 tions of Experiment. Results. Conclusions. Effect of 
 Heat on Acetylene. Production of Tar and Benzene. 
 Haber's Results. Action in the Generator. Troubles 
 Due to Polymerisation Products. Influence of Overheat- 
 ing on the Gas. Analysis of Overheated Gas. Troubles 
 Due to Benzene. The First Carbide to "Water Generator. 
 Pictet Generator. Difficulties of Designing this Type of 
 Generator to Work Automatically. The Acetylite, 
 Si^urdsson, Ross, Strode, Szepezynski, Bertrand-Taillet, 
 Gibbs, and French Generators. Non-Automatic Carbide 
 to Water Generators. The Perfection, Kleine and Haus 
 Central e, and Pintsch Generators. Conditions Leading to 
 Overheating. The Use of Grids. Dangers of Using too 
 Large a Charge or Big Lumps. Loss of Acetylene from 
 Solution. The Settling of the Lime Sludge. Experimental 
 Results. Conclusions. Influence of Time and Shape of 
 Generator on the Lime Residue. Caro on the Water to Car- 
 bide Generator. Troubles Due to this Type of Generator. 
 Generators Using Carbide Enclosed in Cartridges. In- 
 fluence of the Type of Generator on the Purity of the Gas, 
 and on the Volume. Experimental Results. Effect on 
 the Residue of the Type of Generator. Importance of 
 Flooding the Residue. Drawbacks of the Drip Apparatus. 
 Frothing in Generators : Its Cause and Prevention. Car- 
 bide to Water Generators a Necessity in Big Installations. 
 Town Installations. The Installation at Oliva. Dangers 
 of Large Air Spaces in Generators. Temperature Needed 
 to Cause Explosion. Spontaneously Inflammable Gases in 
 Acetylene. Percentage of Phosphuretted Hydrogen 
 Necessary to Cause Spontaneous Ignition. Experiments 
 on the Percentage of Calcium Phosphide Required to Pro- 
 duce Spontaneous Ignition. Results. Time Necessary to 
 Develop a Dangerous Temperature. Prevention of Danger 
 from Mixtures of Gas and Air in the Generator. Gerdes' 
 Experiments. Conclusions. Construction of Generators. 
 Precautions in Charging. Special Points to be Observed 
 in Making Generators. The Use of Oil in Generators. 
 Generators for Large and Small Installations. Acetylene 
 Cycle Lamps and their Drawbacks. The Conditions 
 Necessary for a Good Lamp. The Construction of Acety- 
 lene Cycle Lamps. Size of Carbide to be Used in Them. 
 The Twentieth Century, Excelsior, Windmiller, Pheno- 
 menon, Triumph, Majestic, Leuchtkugel, Bundy, Cetolite, 
 
 xiv 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Acetylator, and Solitaire Lamps, in which Water Drips 
 on to the Carbide. Water Rising to Carbide : the 
 Veritas and Acetylette. Water Syphons on to Carbide : 
 the Yahr. The Scharlach, Fritz, and Hutton Cycle Lamps. 
 Carriage Lamps. The A.C.A.G. and Scharlach Carriage 
 Lamps. Acetylene for Signalling. Portable Generators. 
 Acetylene Lamps for Drives. Table Lamps and their 
 Drawbacks. Escape of Surplus Gas . . . . 338-469 
 
 Chapter VIII 
 
 THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE, AND 
 THE PROCESSES ADOPTED FOR THEIR REMOVAL 
 
 The Causes which Lead to Impurity in Crude Acetylene. Phos- 
 phuretted Hydrogen and the Formation of Haze. The 
 Presence of Sulphuretted Hydrogen and the Products of 
 its Combustion. Ammonia. The Importance of Purifica- 
 tion. The Extent to which Impurities are Present in 
 Crude Acetylene. Improvements in the Purity of the 
 Calcium Carbide. The Percentage of Phosphuretted Hy- 
 drogen in 1896 and 1899. Analysis of Crude Acetylene. 
 Willgerodt Removes Phosphuretted Hydrogen by Bromine 
 Water. Source of the Phosphuretted Hydrogen. Moissan's 
 Researches on Calcium Phosphide. Caro's Investigations 
 on Phosphides. Liquid and Gaseous Phosphuretted Hy- 
 drogen. Effect of Temperature on the Phosphorus Com- 
 pounds. Separation of Organic Phosphorus Compounds 
 and their Nature. Phosphuretted Hydrogen in Dipping 
 Apparatus. Renault's Work on Calcium Phosphides in 
 the Electric Furnace. Action of the Phosphides on Water. 
 Analysis of Liquid from Condenser. Formation in Dip 
 Generators. The Action of the Arc on Metallic Sulphides. 
 Source of the Sulphuretted Hydrogen. Caro's Experi- 
 ments on the Distribution of Sulphur Products in a 
 Carbide to Water Generator. Experiment with a Dipping 
 Apparatus. Influence of Increased Rate of Flow of Water. 
 Influence of Aluminium in the Carbide: Caro's Con- 
 clusions. Presence of Sulphocyanides and Mercaptans. 
 Presence of Sulphocarbides. Sulphur in Carbide. Alu- 
 minium Sulphide. Influence of Temperature. Superiority 
 of Carbide to Water Generators. Practical Experiments 
 with Generators. Influence of the Type of Generator and 
 Pressure. Polis' Results. The Presence of Metallic 
 Silicides in Carbide. Explanation of the Presence of 
 Siliciuretted Hydrogen. Ammonia in Crude Acetylene. 
 Bamberger's Theory as to its Presence. Nitride in Car- 
 XV 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 bide. Influence of the Generator on the Amount of 
 Ammonia. Caro's Criticism of Bamberger's Conclusions. 
 Pressure an Important Factor. Carbon Monoxide in Crude 
 Acetylene, and the Causes which give Rise to its Forma- 
 tion. The Causes of Free Hydrogen in the Acetylene. 
 Traces of Air in Acetylene. Vapours of Hydrocarbons 
 other than Acetylene. Action of Overheating on Acety- 
 lene. Polymerisation and its Causes. The Formation of 
 Tar and Benzene. Action of Benzene on Burner Tips. 
 The Naphey Burner. Formation of Carbon at the Burner, 
 and its Causes. Washers for Removing Foreign Vapours. 
 Impurities that need not be Removed. Injurious Im- 
 purities. Conditions for a Purifying Material. Pictet's 
 Purification. Potash and Bromine Purification. Acid 
 Mercuric Chloride. Commercial Substances Available. 
 Bleaching Powder. The Preparation and Action of 
 Bleaching Powder on the Impurities. Ahren's Experi- 
 ments with Bleaching Powder. Wolffs Mixture. Pre- 
 sence of Carbon Monoxide. Use of Lime after Bleaching 
 Powder Purification. Ahren's Investigation of Chlorine 
 in Purified Acetylene. Troubles Due to Bleaching 
 Powder. Drawbacks of Bleaching Powder for Purification. 
 Action on Acetylene. Experimental Results. Heating 
 with Sawdust. Chloride of Nitrogen. Practical Eesults 
 with WolfFs Mixture. Purification by Acid Solution of 
 Copper and Iron Salts. Action of Acidulated Cuprous 
 Chloride. Regeneration. Impregnation of Kieselguhr. 
 Objections to Frank's Purifier. Cost of Purification. 
 Conclusion. Ullmann's Purification by Acidulated Chromic 
 Acid. Action of Acidulated Chromic Acid. Wach's Ex- 
 periments on Ullmann's Process. Influence of Rate of Flow 
 on Purification. Amount and Cost of Material. Contrast 
 between Frank's and Ullmann's Material. Purifying 
 Effect of Acidulated Ferric Chloride, Acidulated Chromic 
 Acid, Acidulated Cuprous Chloride, and Chromic Sul- 
 phate. Effect of Alkaline Chlorides. Goettig's Experi- 
 ment. Results Obtained. Exley's Purifying Slabs. Limit 
 of Purification Necessary in Practice .... 470-520 
 
 Chapter IX 
 
 THE GENERATION OF LIGHT AND POWER 
 FROM ACETYLENE 
 
 Early Photometric Determinations of the Illuminating Value 
 of Acetylene. The Illuminating Value of a Gas. Methods 
 for Obtaining Complete Combustion. Effect of Pressure 
 
 xvi 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 on Combustion. The Luminosity of Flame. Sir Humphry 
 Davy's Eesearches. Sir Edward Frankland's "Dense 
 Vapour" Theory. The Eesearches of Soret and Burch, 
 and t Others. Dewar and Liveing on Acetylene Flames. 
 The Part Played by Acetylene in a Flame. Lewes' Ex- 
 periments. Pictet on the Luminosity of Acetylene Flames. 
 The Endothermic Nature of Acetylene. Smithells on the 
 Acetylene Theory of Luminosity. The Light given by 
 Acetylene. Size of Burners. Influence of the Burner on 
 the Light obtained from Coal Gas and Acetylene. Early 
 Forms of Acetylene Burner. Lewes and Bray Burners. 
 Smoking of Burners. Bullier's Burner. Importance of 
 Bullier's Patents. Holliday and Cruveillier Burners. 
 Double Jet Flat Flame Burners. Billwiller and Naphey 
 Burners. Forms of Naphey Burners. French Quadrant 
 Tip Burner. Developments of the Billwiller Burner. 
 Schulke Burner. Hera Burner. Mushroom Burner and 
 Modifications. Single and Multiple Jet Burners. Ap- 
 plications of Jet Burners. Cockscomb, Slit, and German 
 Union Jet Burners. Modifications of Bray Burner. 
 Wonder and Ideal Burners. Atmospheric Acetylene 
 Burners. Heat given by Atmospheric Acetylene Burners. 
 Velocity of Explosion in the Mixing Tube. Diameter of 
 Tubes that will Stop the Explosive Wave. Construction 
 of Existing Mantle Burners. Results. Importance of 
 Complete Purification of the Gas. Illuminating Power 
 and Illuminating Effect. Arrangement of Burners for 
 Best Effect. Importance of Illuminating Effect over 
 Illuminating Power. Importance of Reflection. The 
 Effect of Intensity in Making Contrasts. The Use of 
 Globes and Shades. Comparison Between Various Globes. 
 Holophane Globes. The Effect of Fog or Mist on Illumi- 
 nants. Experimental Method of Showing Effect of Fog. 
 Character of Acetylene Light. Characteristics of Various 
 Illuminants. Erdmann's Researches. Acetylene as a 
 Standard of Light. Results Obtained by Erdmann. 
 Hartmann on the Colour of Light given by Diluted 
 Acetylene. Standards of Light. The Standard Candle. 
 Keate's Lamp. The Carcel. The Hefner Alteneck Unit. 
 Violle Platinum Standard. The Methven Screen. The 
 Harcourt One-Candle Unit. Pentane. The Dibdin Ten- 
 Candle Standard. Harcourt Ten-Candle Pentane Standard. 
 Violle Acetylene Standard. Fery Acetylene Standard. 
 Acetylene as a Standard for Photography. Value of 
 Acetylene for Photographic Work. Vidal's Results. 
 Acetylene for Projection Work. Molteni's Experiments. 
 Sanitary Effect of Various Illuminants. Heating Effect 
 of Acetylene Flame. Cost of Acetylene and Coal Gas 
 
 xvii 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Lighting. The Field for Acetylene Lighting. The Price 
 of Acetylene. Cost of Acetylene Compared with Other 
 Illuminants for an Ordinary House .... 521-614 
 
 Chapter X 
 THE UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 Early American Experiments with Mixtures of Acetylene and 
 Air. Illuminating Power of Such Mixtures. The Danger 
 of Such Mixtures. Bullier Proposes to Use Acetylene for 
 Enriching Water Gas and also to Use Nitrogen as a 
 Diluent. Failure of Acetylene as an Enricher of Blue 
 Water Gas. Dr. Love's Experiments. Enrichment Value 
 of Acetylene with Coal Gas. Method of Conducting En- 
 richment Experiments. Importance of Securing Uni- 
 formity in the Mixtures. Lewes' Determination of the 
 Illuminating Powers of Mixtures of Acetylene with 
 Hydrogen, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Nitrogen, 
 and Methane. Percy Frankland's Experiments on the 
 Effect of Diluents on the Candle Power of Ethylene. 
 Flame Temperature and Its Importance. Heat Evolved 
 by Combustible Diluents. Influence of the Diluent on 
 the Size of the Flame. Cause of the Superiority of 
 Methane as a Diluent. Acetylene for Bailway Carriage 
 Lighting. Mixtures of Oil Gas and Acetylene. The Re- 
 searches of Gerdes on the Safety of Acetylene and Mixtures 
 of Acetylene and Oil Gas for this Purpose. Conditions 
 under which Railway Cylinders of Compressed Acetylene 
 are Liable to Explosion. Influence of Dilution on Ex- 
 plosion. Practical Experiments and Conclusions. Safety 
 of Diluted Acetylene. Tables of the Results of Experi- 
 ments. Home Office Experiments. The Illuminating 
 Value of the Licensed Mixture. Economical Considera- 
 tions in Favour of such a Mixture. Possible Future Field 
 for Diluted Acetylene. A Cheap Combustible Diluent for 
 Acetylene. Diluted Acetylene as a Gas Supply for Small 
 Towns. The Generation of Acetylene Diluted with Com- 
 bustible Gases from Mixed Carbides , 615-658 
 
 Chapter XI 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL FOR CARBIDE MANU- 
 FACTURE AND OF CARBIDE AND ACETYLENE 
 
 Importance of Chemical Analysis in the Carbide Manufacture. 
 Necessity for Blending Commercial Carbide. Risk of 
 Using Inferior Material. The Analysis of Coke or Coal, 
 xviii 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Sampling. Estimation of Moisture. Volatile Matter. Ash. 
 Sulphur. Phosphorus. Silica. Iron and Alumina. 
 Manganese. Lime and Magnesia. Calculation of Re- 
 sults. Analysis of the Lime or Limestone. Moisture 
 and Carbon Dioxide. Silica. Iron and Alumina. Lime 
 a"nd Magnesia. Sulphur and Phosphorus. Calculation 
 of Eesults. Estimation of the Yield of Acetylene from 
 Commercial Carbide. Influence of the Method of Genera- 
 ting the Gas. Influence of the Crystalline Character of 
 the Carbide. Importance of Proper Sampling. Method 
 of Determining Yield of Gas Proposed by Perrodil and 
 Sertier. Lunge and Cederkreutz. Fuchs and Schiff. Re- 
 sults Obtained. Bamberger's Gravimetric Method. Ad- 
 vantages. Calculation of the Yield of Gas and Percentage 
 of Pure Carbide in the Sample. Table showing Eatio 
 between Volume of Gas and Percentage of Pure Car- 
 bide. Estimation of the Impurities in Crude Acety- 
 lene. Qualitative Tests. Phosphuretted Hydrogen. De- 
 termination of Sulphur Compounds. Method of Calcu- 
 lating Eesults. Table for the Conversion of Volume per 
 Cent, into Grams of Phosphorus or Sulphur per Cubic 
 Metre. Estimation of Ammonia. Qualitative Eeactions 
 of-Acetylene 659-694 
 
 PAET III 
 
 Legal Enactments in force in various Countries 
 
 with regard to the use of Acetylene . . 697-788 
 
 English Patents with Short Extracts : 
 
 Generators 789-930 
 
 Burners 931-936 
 
 Appendix of Useful Data 937-947 
 
 Index 949-978 
 
 xix 
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS OF REFERENCES 
 IN TEXT 
 
 Amer. Chem. Jour. American Chemical Journal. 
 
 Ann. Chim. Pharm. Annales de Chimie et de Pharmacie. 
 
 Ann. Chim. Phys. Annales de Chimie et de Physique. 
 
 Berl. Ber. Berliner Akademie-Berichte. 
 
 Brit. Assoc. Rep. British Association Reports. 
 
 Bull. Soc. Chim. Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris. 
 
 Chem. News Chemical News. 
 
 Chem. Soc. Jour. Journal of the Chemical Society of London. 
 
 Compt. Rendu. Comptes Rendus de 1'Academie des Sciences. 
 
 Dingl. Pol. Jour. Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal. 
 
 Chem. Zeit. Zeitschrift fur Chemie. 
 
 Jour. Franklin Instit. Journal of the Franklin Institute. 
 
 Jour. f. Gasbeleuchtung Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung. 
 
 Jour. Chem. Soc. Ind. Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry. 
 
 Jour. Prakt. Chem. Journal fur Pracktische Chemie. 
 
 Jour. Soc. Arts Journal of the Society of Arts. 
 
 Lieb. Ann. Liebig's Annalen der Chemie. 
 
 Pogg. Ann. Poggendorf 's Annalen der Physique und Chemie. 
 
 Proc. Roy. Soc. Proceedings of the Royal Society. 
 
 Thermoch. Unters. Thermochemische Untersuchungen. 
 
 Trans. Amer. Instit. Min. Eng. Transactions of the American 
 
 Institute of Mining Engineers. 
 W. & I. Acetylene in Wissenschaft und Industrie. 
 Wagner Jahresb. Wagner Jahresbericht. 
 Zeit. Electrochem. Zeitschrift fiir Electrochemie. 
 Zeit. f. Chem. Zeitschrift fur Chemie. 
 Zeit. f. Calc. Acet. Zeitschrift fiir Calciumcarbid Fabrikation und 
 
 Acetylen Beleuchtung. 
 Zeit. f. Anorg. Chem. Zeitschrift fiir Anorgischen Chemie. 
 
 XX 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 1. Berthelot's Apparatus for the Synthesis of Acetylene . 27 
 
 2. Dewar's Experiment 31 
 
 3. McLeod's Apparatus for Making Acetylene ... 34 
 
 4. Lecture Apparatus for Rieth's Experiment ... 35 
 
 5. Jungfleisch's Apparatus ....... 37 
 
 6. Section of Burner of same 37 
 
 7. Modification of the Jungfleisch Apparatus ... 42 
 
 8. PolisTube 43 
 
 9. Polis's Apparatus Complete 44 
 
 10. Miasnikoff ' s Apparatus 52 
 
 11. Simplified Apparatus 53 
 
 12. Apparatus for Making Acetylene from Calcium Carbide 60 
 
 13. Another Form of Apparatus ...... 61 
 
 14. Berthelot's Tube for the Detonation of Acetylene by 
 
 Mercuric Fulminate 80 
 
 15. Same, fitted with Electric Battery ..... 81 
 
 16. Section of Apparatus for Decomposition of Acetylene 
 
 under Pressure ........ 84 
 
 17. Effect of a Blow on a Cylinder of Acetylene ... 89 
 
 18. Effect on the same when Detonated by a Fulminate Cap 89 
 
 19. Liquid Acetylene being Sprayed from a Cylinder . . 96 
 
 20. Solid Acetylene Snow 97 
 
 21. Apparatus used by Lewes 106 
 
 22. Apparatus used by Bone and Cain ..... 123 
 
 23. The Electric Arc 176 
 
 24. Siemens Furnace 179 
 
 25. Siemens Furnace, No. 2 180 
 
 26. Clerc Furnace 180 
 
 27. Cowles Furnace 181 
 
 28. Cowles Horizontal Pole Furnace 181 
 
 29. Bernard Furnace 182 
 
 30. Heroult Furnace 182 
 
 xxi 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 31. Cowles Continuous Furnace 183 
 
 32. Readman Furnace 184 
 
 33. Reuleaux Furnace 184 
 
 34. Crompton Furnace 185 
 
 35. Sections of Kiliani's Furnace 185 
 
 36. Parker Furnace 186 
 
 37. Willson's Hollow Pole Furnace 186 
 
 38. Schneller Furnace 187 
 
 39. Laval Furnace 187 
 
 40. Girard Furnace 188 
 
 41. Moissan's Furnace ........ 189 
 
 42. Variation of same 190 
 
 43. 191 
 
 44. Borcher's Furnace 193 
 
 45. King's Furnace ........ 194 
 
 46. Willson's Works at Spray 196 
 
 47. Willson's Dynamo 196 
 
 48. The Spray Furnaces 197 
 
 49. Carbon and Holder, Spray Furnace ..... 198 
 
 50. Sections of Old Niagara Furnace 200 
 
 51. Exterior of Willson Furnaces, Niagara .... 201 
 
 52. The Merritton Works 202 
 
 53. The Merritton Furnaces 203 
 
 54. Willson Furnaces 204 
 
 55. Foyers' Crucible, with Patent Front . . . .206 
 
 56. Horry Rotary Furnace . . . . . .207 
 
 57. Section of the Horry Furnace 208 
 
 58. Elevation of ditto 209 
 
 59. Bradley Furnace 210 
 
 60. 210 
 
 61. Union Carbide Works, Saulte Ste. Marie . . . .212 
 
 62. Niagara Transformer 213 
 
 63. Leeds Experimental Plant 214 
 
 64. Leeds Furnace 215 
 
 65. Electrical Power Works, Foyers 216 
 
 66. Dynamo Room, Foyers 217 
 
 67. A Foyers Dynamo 218 
 
 68. Ingot Room, Foyers ........ 218 
 
 69. Ingots Cooling, Foyers 219 
 
 70. Ingot of Carbide, Foyers 220 
 
 71. Section of Bullier's Furnace 221 
 
 72. Section of Bullier's Tapping Furnace .... 222 
 
 73. Steam-Driven Dynamos at Bitterfeld .... 224 
 
 74. Turbines at Rheinfelden 226 
 
 75. Dr. Rathenau's Furnace .227 
 
 xxii 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 76. Sections of Rathenau's Furnace 228 
 
 77. The Hafslund Water Power 229 
 
 78. General View of the Sarpsborg Power Works . . . 231 
 
 79. Section of the Siemens-Halske Furnace .... 233 
 
 80. The Works at Meran 234 
 
 81. General View of the Meran Factory . . . .235 
 
 82. Turbines at Meran 236 
 
 83. The Meran Dynamos 237 
 
 84. The Transformers, Meran 238 
 
 85. An Electric Furnace, Meran 240 
 
 86. The Furnaces, Terni Works 243 
 
 87. The Frankfort Furnace 252 
 
 88. Latest Form of Frankfort Furnace ..... 253 
 
 89. The Ingleton Dynamo 258 
 
 90. Two Sections of Bergemann's Furnace .... 323 
 
 91. " Drip " Type of Generator 342 
 
 92. " Rising " Type of Generator (Kipp's) . . . .343 
 
 93. " Dipping " Type of Generator 344 
 
 94. Gearing's Generator 346 
 
 95. Section of Forbes' Generator 348 
 
 96. Large Installation of Forbes' Generators .... 349 
 
 97. " Midland " Generator 350 
 
 98. " Manchester " Generator 351 
 
 99. " Beacon " Generator 353 
 
 100. Early Type of American Generator 363 
 
 101. " Ideal " Generator 364 
 
 102. Large Installation of " Ideal " Generators . . . 365 
 
 103. The Sunlight Generator 366 
 
 104. The Exley Generator 369 
 
 105. Section of the Read-Holliday Generator . . . .370 
 
 106. Large Installation, Read-Holliday Generator . . . 371 
 
 107. Still Larger Installation, 372 
 
 108. Section of the Thorscar Generator 373 
 
 109. Bailey's Generator, Holder, and Section of Generators . 374 
 
 110. Section of Holder . . . .374 
 
 111. One of Button's Drive Lamps 376 
 
 112. Grubb's Generator 377 
 
 113. Two Sections of the Fourchotte Generator . . . 379 
 
 114. Generator Building, Wolverton Station, G.E.R. . . 380 
 
 115. Fourchotte Generators 381 
 
 116. Owen's Generator 383 
 
 117. " Sunbeam " Generator 385 
 
 118. Section of " Sunbeam " Installation 387 
 
 119. The " Sardi " Generator 389 
 
 120. " Liver " or " Sovereign " Generator 390 
 
 xxiii 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS 
 
 PIG. SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 121. Vertical and Horizontal Sections of the " Abingdon " 
 
 Generator 391 
 
 122. Sections of the " Acetylite " Generator . . . .403 
 
 123. Sigurdsson's Generator 404 
 
 124. Eoss's Generator 404 
 
 125. Section of Eoss's Feed Hopper 405 
 
 126. The " Strode " Generator 406 
 
 127. Section of Szepezynski's Generator ..... 408 
 
 128. Section of the Bertrand-Taillet Generator . . .409 
 
 129. French Automatic Generator . . . . . .411 
 
 130. Metal Carbide Holder of same 412 
 
 131. Vertical Section of same . ' 412 
 
 132. " Haus Centrale " Generator 414 
 
 133. Pintsch's Generator 415 
 
 134. Acetylene Supply Works, Oliva 427 
 
 135. Interior of Generator House, Oliva ..... 427 
 
 136. Sectional View of Gasholder for Gerdes' 1st Experiment 433 
 
 137. View of the Explosion in 1st Experiment . . . 434 
 
 138. View of same (second stage) . ..... 435 
 
 139. Generator, after Gerdes' 2nd Experiment . . . .436 
 
 140. 3rd .... 437 
 
 141. " Twentieth Century " Cycle Lamp 446 
 
 142. Section of same ' . . . .446 
 
 143. Section of " Excelsior " Cycle Lamp . . . .447 
 
 144. The " Windmiller " Cycle Lamp 448 
 
 145. Section of same ......... 448 
 
 146. The " Phenomenon " Cycle Lamp 449 
 
 147. Section of same 450 
 
 148. Section of the " Triumph " Cycle Lamp . . . .450 
 
 149. The " Majestic " Cycle Lamp 451 
 
 150. Section of same 451 
 
 151. The " Leuchtkugel " Cycle Lamp 452 
 
 152. Section of same 452 
 
 153. The " Bundy " Cycle Lamp 453 
 
 154. Section of same ......... 453 
 
 155. The " Cetolite " Cycle Lamp 454 
 
 156. Section of same 454 
 
 157. The " Acetylator " Cycle Lamp 455 
 
 158. Section of same 455 
 
 159. The " Solitaire " Cycle Lamp 456 
 
 160. Section of same 456 
 
 161. The " Veritas " Cycle Lamp 457 
 
 162. Section of same 457 
 
 163. The " Acetylette " Cycle Lamp 458 
 
 164. Section of same 458 
 
 xxiv 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. 
 
 SUBJECT 
 
 PAGE 
 
 165. 
 
 The " Yahr " Cycle Lamp 
 
 . 459 
 
 166. 
 
 Section of same 
 
 . 459 
 
 167. 
 
 The " Scharlach " Cycle Lamp 
 
 . 460 
 
 168. 
 
 Section of same 
 
 . 461 
 
 169. 
 
 The " Fritz " Cycle Lamp . . . . . 
 
 . 462 
 
 170. 
 
 Section of same ........ 
 
 . 462 
 
 171. 
 
 The " Hutton " Cycle Lamp 
 
 . 463 
 
 172. 
 
 An Acetylene Carriage Lamp 
 
 . 464 
 
 173. 
 
 The " A.C.A.G. " Carriage Lamp .... 
 
 . 465 
 
 174. 
 
 The " Scharlach " Carriage Lamp .... 
 
 . 466 
 
 175. 
 
 Acetylene Signalling Lamp 
 
 . 467 
 
 176. 
 
 Mounted Read-Holliday Generator .... 
 
 . 468 
 
 177. 
 
 Lewes' Burner ........ 
 
 . 532 
 
 178. 
 
 Bray Burner ........ 
 
 . 533 
 
 179. 
 
 Early French Burner 
 
 . 534 
 
 180. 
 
 Section of Bullier's Burner ..... 
 
 . 535 
 
 181. 
 
 Section of Bullier's Argand Burner .... 
 
 . 535 
 
 182. 
 
 Latest Form of Cruveillier Burner .... 
 
 . 536 
 
 183. 
 
 Billwiller Burner ....... 
 
 . 538 
 
 184. 
 
 Side View of same ....... 
 
 538 
 
 185. 
 
 Section of a Naphey-tipped Burner .... 
 
 . 539 
 
 186. 
 
 Different Shape of Naphey Burner .... 
 
 . 540 
 
 187. 
 
 ?J 5? 
 
 . 540 
 
 188. 
 
 ?j ?? n * ' * * 
 
 . 541 
 
 189. 
 
 ?> >j j> ?> 
 
 . 542 
 
 190. 
 
 )> M > 
 
 . 542 
 
 191. 
 
 French Quadrant-tip Burner ..... 
 
 . 543 
 
 192. 
 
 Naphey Burner with Steatite Bar .... 
 
 . 544 
 
 193. 
 
 Development of the Billwiller Burner 
 
 . 545 
 
 194. 
 
 j? 5? ?) n * * * 
 
 . 545 
 
 195. 
 
 >> ?j >? jj 
 
 . 547 
 
 196. 
 
 Schulke Burner 
 
 . 548 
 
 197. 
 
 Composite Hera Burner 
 
 . 548 
 
 198. 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ...... 
 
 . 549 
 
 199. 
 
 ,, ,, ...... 
 
 . 549 
 
 200. 
 
 " Mushroom " Burner 
 
 . 550 
 
 201. 
 
 Modification of same 
 
 . 550 
 
 202. 
 
 ,,....... 
 
 . 551 
 
 203. 
 
 ,, ,,....... 
 
 . 552 
 
 204. 
 
 ., ,,....... 
 
 . 552 
 
 205. 
 
 Single Jet Burner ....... 
 
 . 553 
 
 206. 
 
 Multiple Jet Burner 
 
 . 553 
 
 207. 
 
 ,, ,, ,,....... 
 
 . 554 
 
 208. 
 
 ., ,, ,,....... 
 
 . 555 
 
 209. 
 
 Aerated Multiple Jet Burner 
 
 . 555 
 
 XXV 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS 
 
 FIG. SUBJECT PAGE 
 
 210. " Cockscomb " Burner 556 
 
 211. Flat Flame Burner 556 
 
 212. German Union Jet Burner 557 
 
 213. Modified Bray Burner 558 
 
 214. Flat Flame Burner 559 
 
 215. " Stewart " or Epworth Wonder " Burner . . .559 
 
 216. Composite " Stewart " Burner 560 
 
 217. "Ideal "Burner 561 
 
 218. Acetylene Argand Burner 561 
 
 219. Acetylene Engine 614 
 
 220. Temperature Chart for Acetylene Diluted with 
 
 Hydrogen 631 
 
 221. Acetylene Cylinder after Explosion 635 
 
 222. Cylinder, taken after No. 1 of Gerdes' Experiments . 637 
 
 223. Three Cylinders, after Experiments 20, 21, and 24 . . 637 
 
 224. Three Cylinders, after Experiments 27, 31, and 32 . . 639 
 
 225. Two Cylinders, after Experiments 29 and 34 . . . 641 
 
 226. Bamberger's Apparatus for Estimating the Yield of Gas 
 
 from Carbide 678 
 
 227. Bamberger's Apparatus Connected to a Gasholder . . 681 
 
 228. Bamberger's Apparatus Connected to Absorption Bulbs 684 
 
 XXVI 
 
Part I 
 
 SCIENTIFIC 
 
' UNIVZ? 
 
 \ 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 FROM ITS DISCOVERY BY EDMUND DAVY IN 1836 TO 
 
 THE INTRODUCTION OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 IN 1895 
 
 \ CETYLENE occupies a position almost unique 
 A\. in the history of useful discoveries, as, long 
 before we had the power of producing it commercially, 
 its properties had attracted much scientific interest. 
 
 Many people at the present time seem to consider 
 that our knowledge of this beautiful illuminant is of 
 modern date, whilst all that the last decade has 
 brought forth has been little more than the discovery 
 of how to produce the gas on a commercial scale, and 
 details as to its properties and behaviour in evejy- 
 day use. 
 
 The original discovery of the gas is due to Edmund 
 Davy, Professor of Chemistry to the Royal Dublin 
 Society, and it was at a meeting of this body in 
 March, 1836, that he first described some of its more 
 important properties, whilst in the autumn of that 
 year he introduced his discovery to the British 
 Association at their Bristol meeting. 
 
 Edmund Davy's communication * to the British 
 Association is so clear and concise that it is well to 
 reproduce it here in extenso. 
 
 " Early in the present year the author, in attempt- 
 ing to procure potassium by strongly heating a 
 
 1 British Association Reports, 1836, 62. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Discovery of 
 
 Acetylene, 
 
 1836 
 
 Edmund 
 Davy's com- 
 munication 
 to the 
 British 
 Association 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 properties 
 
 covered 
 
 Composition 
 as **venby 
 
 mixture of calcined tartar and charcoal in a large 
 iron bottle, obtained a black substance which readily 
 decomposed water and yielded a gas which, on ex- 
 amination, proved to be a new compound of carbon 
 and hydrogen. This gas is highly inflammable, and 
 when kindled in contact with air burns with a bright 
 flame, apparently denser and of greater splendour 
 than even olefiant gas. If the supply of air is limited 
 the combustion of the gas is accompanied with a 
 copious deposition of carbon. When the new gas is 
 brought in contact with chlorine gas instant explosion 
 takes place, accompanied by a large red flame and 
 the deposition of much carbon ; and these effects 
 readily take place in the dark, and are, of course, 
 quite independent of the action of the sun's rays or 
 of light. 
 
 " The new gas may be kept over mercury for an 
 indefinite time without undergoing any apparent 
 change, but it is slowly absorbed by water. Distilled 
 water recently boiled, when agitated in contact with 
 the new gas, absorbs about its own volume of it ; 
 but on heating the aqueous solution the gas is evolved 
 apparently unaltered. The new gas is absorbed to 
 a certain extent by, and blackens, sulphuric acid. 
 It detonates powerfully when mixed with oxygen 
 gas, especially if the latter forms three-fourths or 
 more of the mixture ; and the only products of its 
 combustion with oxygen are carbonic acid gas and 
 water. 
 
 " The new gas requires f6r its complete combustion 
 two and a half volumes of oxygen gas, which are 
 converted into two volumes of carbonic acid gas and 
 water. 
 
 " From the author's analysis of the new gas by 
 different methods it appears to be composed of one 
 volume of hydrogen and two volumes of the vapour 
 of carbon condensed into one volume. Hence the 
 
 2 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Possibility 
 
 of using 
 
 Acetylene as 
 
 an 
 
 new gas contains as much carbon, but only half the 
 quantity of hydrogen, that is in olenant gas. The 
 density of the former is therefore less than that of 
 the latter by the weight of a volume of hydrogen 
 equal to its own bulk. The new gas is, in fact, a 
 bicarburet of hydrogen, composed of two proportions 
 of carbon and one of hydrogen, and may be repre- 
 sented by the formula C 2 + TL l or 20 + H, and differs 
 in constitution, the author presumes, from that of 
 any other known compound of carbon and hydrogen. 
 
 "From the brilliancy with which the new gas burns 
 in contact with the atmosphere, it is, in the opinion 
 of the author, admirably adapted for the purposes 
 of artificial light if it can be procured at a cheap llluminant 
 rate." 
 
 In reading this intensely interesting communi- 
 cation it must be borne in mind that Davy was 
 using the system of symbolical representation then in 
 vogue, and under which ethylene or olenant gas was 
 represented as C 2 H 2 , instead of, as at present, C 2 H 4 , 
 so that in stating that " the new gas contained as 
 much carbon, but only half the quantity of hydrogen 
 that is in olefiant gas " he was absolutely correct. 
 
 The concluding sentence of Davy's paper also shows 
 that he grasped the commercial possibilities of acety- 
 lene as an illuminant, whilst his method of preparing 
 the gas by acting upon potassium carbide with water 
 is only a step removed from the reaction which has 
 to-day rendered acetylene available for the purpose 
 foreshadowed by its discoverer. 
 
 In 1839 Torrey * noticed in the gas mains of New Torrey, 1839 
 York, which at that time were made of copper, the 
 formation of a brown deposit which could be ex- 
 ploded by a blow or by heat, and which was probably 
 the acetylene-copper compound. 
 
 Another remarkable observation was made four 
 
 1 Americ. Gas Light Jour., Oct., 1859. 
 3 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 years later, when in 1840 Hare 1 noticed that on 
 heating mercuric cyanide with lime a black residue 
 containing carbon was produced, and on heating this 
 in the electric arc a black mass formed, which developed 
 a gas possessing an unpleasant odour when water 
 was poured on it. 
 Hare makes j^ j s ev ident that Hare not only made calcic carbide 
 
 Calcic J 
 
 Carbide in by electric fusion, but decomposed it with evolution 
 EleC i840 ArC of acetylene by the action on it of water, although 
 he had no idea of the compound with which he was 
 dealing, nor of the reactions taking place. 
 
 From this date until 1858 nothing appears to have 
 
 been done bearing upon the subject of acetylene, but 
 
 ttuet, isss, [ n that year Quet 2 obtained in one hour, by the 
 
 makes . . . 
 
 Acetylene by action of an induction spark upon alcoholic potash, 
 t^es^ark near ^y a litre ^ a g as which gave a red precipitate 
 on Alcoholic with ammoniacal cuprous chloride. This substance, 
 after drying in a vacuum over sulphuric acid, or by 
 heating on the water bath, became brown, and 
 detonated with development of light when heated 
 to a temperature a little over 120 C., or when struck 
 with a hammer. He also found that this compound, 
 when gently heated with hydrochloric acid, liberated 
 a gas which had the property of burning with a bright 
 flame and of forming carbon dioxide. 
 
 First use of The gas thus formed by the action of electric sparks 
 
 Cuprous and on alcoholic potash yielded a white precipitate when 
 
 l " passed through ammoniacal silver solution, which 
 
 detect turned yellow in air and became grey when dried. 
 
 And this compound, like the precipitate formed by 
 
 the action of the gas on ammoniacal cuprous chloride, 
 
 detonated by a blow, or when heated to 100 C. 
 
 Acetylene The same gas was also produced by passing the 
 
 produced by to i [ -i 
 
 passing vapour of alcohol through a red-hot porcelain tube, 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 Vapour i U Institut^ 1840, 312. Berzelius, Lehrbuch, fiinfte Aufl., vol. 
 through red- o n -Q 
 
 - 4- +iiVto ? -LO^ 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 46, 903 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 108, 116. 
 
 4 
 
THE HISTOEY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 and when bubbled through ammoniacal cuprous 
 chloride or silver solutions, the same detonating 
 compounds were formed. 
 
 In the same year also Vogel and Reischauer J Vogei and 
 
 , -, , i ... P T i -i i T Reischauer, 
 
 noticed that a precipitate was formed on bubbling 1858 
 coal gas through a neutral silver nitrate solution, 
 and that this precipitate would explode on heating 
 or on a blow with a hammer. By acting on the The 
 compound with hydrochloric acid a gas was set free cety lene in 
 which had the odour of coal gas and burnt with a coal s as 
 bright flame. This gas, passed again through the 
 silver solution, yielded once more the explosive silver 
 precipitate. They found that the quantity of silver 
 present in the precipitate was from 78'3 to 84 per 
 cent., and also that the quantity of this gas in coal 
 gas seemed to vary. 
 
 During 1859 Boettger 2 made some researches on Boettger, 
 the action of common coal gas and of the gas made Acet 1 ^ne in 
 by the destructive distillation of resin, or of a the products 
 mixture of Boghead coal and resinous wood, on tive 
 different solutions, and found that, when passing these distillation 
 gases through ammoniacal cuprous chloride, cinnabar 
 red flakes were formed in a short time ; and that 
 after several hours they increased to such an extent 
 that the whole of the lower part of the bottle was 
 filled with them. Boettger was of opinion that the 
 body in question was a compound of copper with 
 a hydrocarbon, and he also succeeded in making the 
 analogous gold and silver compounds, and confirmed 
 their explosive properties as noticed by Vogel and 
 Reischauer. 
 
 The period 1858-1859 may be taken as marking 
 the discovery of the formation of metallic acetylides, 
 and also of the fact that acetylene is formed by the 
 action of heat on hydrocarbons and on such com- 
 
 1 Jahresber., 11, 208. 
 
 2 Ann. Chem. Pharm.. 109, 351. 
 
 5 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Berthclot's 
 
 nrst 
 
 research on 
 
 Acetylene, 
 
 1860 
 
 Specific 
 gravity and 
 composition 
 
 Acetylene 
 formed by 
 passing 
 Organic 
 Vapours 
 through red- 
 hot tubes 
 
 Action ol 
 
 Sulphuric 
 
 Acid on the 
 
 gas 
 
 pounds as alcohol, and is produced during destructive 
 distillation, being consequently found in the gaseous 
 products of all such processes. 
 
 The recognition of these facts was the forerunner 
 of the great discoveries which commenced with the 
 publication by Berthelot 1 in i860 of the first of his 
 classical researches upon acetylene. In this paper 
 Berthelot made no mention of the work of previous 
 observers, and it is not clear whether he knew how 
 much had already been done. It was in this paper 
 that the name u acetylene " was first bestowed upon 
 the compound, and Berthelot, having determined the 
 composition by careful eudiometric analysis and 
 having ascertained that its specific gravity was O92, 
 adopted for it the formula C 2 H 2 , and pointed out that 
 it was the simplest member of the C n H 2n _ 2 series. 
 
 He prepared the gas by allowing the vapours of 
 alcohol, ether, aldehyde, met hylic alcohol, methane 
 and styrolene, to pass through red-hot tubes, and 
 found that he obtained the best yield with ether. 
 The vapour of chloroform when passed over red-hot 
 copper also gave some acetylene, and finally he stated 
 that it occurred in coal gas. In order to isolate the 
 acetylene from other gaseous products always formed 
 at the same time, he passed it through ammoniacal 
 cuprous chloride and decomposed the well-washed 
 copper compound by hydrochloric acid. 
 
 He described the acetylene as a colourless gas, fairly 
 soluble in water, and of a specific and somewhat 
 disagreeable odour, burning with a bright, smoky 
 flame, and exploding when mixed with chlorine. 
 
 He further stated that sulphuric acid would absorb 
 the gas, and he prepared the acetyl-sulphuric acid, 
 and from this the acetyl- alcohol was made. Finally, 
 he succeeded in making ethylene from acetylene by 
 
 Compt. Rendus, 50, 805 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 116, 116. 
 
 6 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the action of nascent hydrogen prepared from zinc 
 and ammonia on copper acetylide. 
 
 C 2 H 2 + H 2 = C 2 H 4 . 
 
 In 1861 Miasnikoff 1 prepared acetylene from vinyl 
 chloride C 2 H 3 C1 and vinyl bromide C 2 H 3 Br by the chloride or 
 decomposition of their vapours by hot alcoholic 
 potash, 
 
 C 2 H 3 C1 + KHO = KC1 + H 2 + C 2 H 2 
 
 C 2 H 3 Br + KHO = KBr + H 2 + C 2 H 2 . 
 
 The gas so liberated was led into ammoniacal silver 
 solution and silver acetylene formed, whilst he also 
 made very accurate eudiometric analyses of the gas. 
 
 In the same year Sawitsch 2 obtained acetylene by Preparation 
 the action of alcoholic potash on ethylene bromide Ethyiene 
 C 2 H 4 Br 2 + 2KHO = 2KBr + 2H 2 + C 2 H 2 , 
 
 and also by heating vinyl chloride with sodium 
 ethylate or amylate. 
 
 C 2 H 3 Br + C 6 H u ONa = C 5 H n OH + NaBr + C 2 H 2 . 
 1862 saw the publication of the second instalment Bertheiot's 
 
 second 
 
 of Bertheiot's great work, 3 in which he showed that research, 
 the action of heat, or better, an intense induction 
 spark, split up methane, with formation of acetylene 
 and hydrogen 
 
 and in the same year he discovered 4 the direct syn- Actionot thc 
 
 J induction 
 
 thesis of acetylene from its elements. First, retort spark on 
 
 carbon, purified by heating in air and chlorine, was 
 
 raised to an intense temperature in a current of hydro- synthesis oi 
 
 T-T i Acetylene, 
 
 gen, but no acetylene was formed. He then tried 1862 
 allowing induction sparks to pass between carbon 
 
 1 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 118, 330. 
 
 2 Rep. de Chimie pure, 1861, 98 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 119, 
 182. 
 
 3 Compt. Bend., 54, 515 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 123, 207. 
 
 4 Compt. Rend., 54, 640; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 123, 212. 
 
 7 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The best 
 
 carbons for 
 
 synthesis of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and 
 Chlorine 
 
 Copper 
 Acetylene 
 
 pencils purified in the same way, and still no acetylene 
 was produced. At length, trying the influence of the 
 electric arc when formed between poles of purified 
 carbon in an atmosphere of hydrogen, he found that, 
 under these conditions, combination of the two ele- 
 ments took place, acetylene being thus synthesised. 
 
 In another communication 1 he repeated his experi- 
 ments on the synthesis of acetylene, using different 
 kinds of carbon to form the poles, and found that 
 retort carbon and graphite gave the best results, 
 whilst charcoal produced the worst ; and finally he 
 again stated that the induction spark, even when 
 tried under different conditions, yielded no acety- 
 lene. 
 
 Later on 2 he showed that acetylene would explode 
 when mixed with chlorine, and that carbon was at 
 the same time liberated, and also stated the possibility 
 of forming acetylene dichloride. He found that 
 acetylene might be formed by decomposing chloroform 
 in a red-hot tube, and also by allowing a mixture of 
 hydrochloric acid gas and carbon monoxide to pass 
 through a red-hot tube, and he came to the conclusion 
 that, in most cases, the decomposition of organic 
 substances under the influence of a red heat would 
 yield this gas. 
 
 In this paper he also examined the copper compound 
 formed by acetylene, and wrote of it : " Besides its 
 production from ammoniacal cuprous chloride it can 
 also be made by means of a solution of cuprous chloride 
 in potassic chloride when acetylene is bubbled through 
 it. Under these conditions the copper compound is 
 produced immediately, but its formation stops very 
 soon ; on adding, however, a little potassic hydrate to 
 the solution, its formation recommences. The com- 
 pound so formed has the same explosive properties as 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 54, 1042; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 123, 214. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 54, 1044; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 123, 215. 
 
 8 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 when it is prepared from the ammoniacal cuprous 
 chloride. 
 
 The compound cannot be freed from oxygen, and 
 the formula representing it seems to be 
 
 Cu HC 
 
 0. 
 
 The body explodes when heated to nearly 120 C., and 
 water, copper, carbon dioxide, together with a trace of 
 carbon monoxide are produced. 
 
 In another communication 1 he noted the presence 
 of acetylene in coal gas, the amount of which does not 
 exceed 1 in 10,000, but it has a slight influence on 
 the lighting power and helps to give the character- 
 istic smell to the gas. 
 
 During 1862, Reboul 2 reviewed the results obtained 
 by Miasnikoff and Sawitsch, and made acetylene by 
 allowing ethylene chloride to drip into boiling alco- 
 holic potash, condensing the alcohol which distils over 
 in wash bottles, and succeeded in getting 1J litres of 
 impure acetylene per 20 cc. of ethylene chloride. 
 
 The most important scientific achievement, however, 
 that marks the history of our subject in the year 
 1862 was the discovery by the great German chemist, 
 Woehier, 3 of the formation of calcic carbide and its 
 decomposition by water with evolution of acetylene. 
 He found that at very high temperatures carbon acted 
 upon an alloy of zinc and calcium, obtained a short 
 time before by Caron, and that a carbide of calcium 
 was produced, the zinc at the same time distilling off, 
 and it was in this paper that for the first time the 
 name "carbide of calcium" was mentioned. He also 
 found that this compound had the property of being 
 decomposed by water with the formation of calcium 
 hydrate and acetylene. He did not analyse the gas, 
 
 1 Compt. Send., 54, 1070. 
 
 2 Compt. Bend., 54, 1229 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 124, 267. 
 
 3 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 124, 220. 
 
 9 
 
 Action of 
 coa i gas 
 
 Reboui 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 from 
 chloride 
 
 woehier 
 
 bide, 1862 
 
 Action of 
 
 O n Calcium 
 carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Kekule 
 
 forms 
 
 Acetylene by 
 Electrolysis 
 
 Bcrthclot 
 
 discovers 
 
 Acetylene in 
 
 the products 
 
 of 
 
 incomplete 
 combustion 
 
 McLeod 
 
 makes 
 
 Acetylene by 
 
 burning 
 Oxygen in 
 Methane 
 
 Action oi 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Amalgam on 
 
 Chloroform 
 
 but identified it by the brilliancy of its flame, by its 
 exploding when mixed with chlorine, and by the 
 formation from it of silver acetylene. 
 
 Two years later, in 1864, Kekule 1 formed acetylene 
 by the electrolysis of the sodium salts of fumaric and 
 malleinic acids, and in 1865 VohP obtained acetylene 
 by the decomposition of oils in red-hot tubes. From 
 amylhydride and from American petroleum he ob- 
 tained a gas which contained 20 per cent, of acetylene. 
 
 During 1866, Berthelot 3 discovered acetylene in the 
 products of incomplete combustion of many organic 
 substances, and showed that on burning coal gas, 
 ethylene, etc., acetylene is formed, and its presence 
 can be demonstrated by its forming a precipitate 
 when the products are led through a solution of 
 ammoiiiacal cuprous chloride. He obtained the best 
 results when burning ether, amylene, and benzol. 
 
 In the same year also, McLeod 4 constructed an 
 apparatus for showing the preparation of acetylene 
 for lecture purposes, and burnt oxygen in methane 
 and coal gas, the products being aspirated through an 
 ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution, the red pre- 
 cipitate demonstrating the formation of acetylene. 
 
 It was in 1866 also that Kletzinsky 5 made an 
 amalgam of mercury and potassium by melting them 
 together under naphtha, and this amalgam, when 
 heated with chloroform, yielded acetylene. In the 
 same year also Fittig 6 found that traces of acetylene 
 were produced when a mixture of chloroform, ether, 
 and other hydrocarbons was acted upon by sodium ; 
 this decomposition, however, takes place very slowly 
 and is very incomplete. 
 
 1 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 131, 85. 
 
 2 Dingl. Pol. Jour., 177, 58. 
 
 8 Compt. Rend., 62, 44 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., 138, 241. 
 4 Jour. Chem. Soc. (2) 4, 151. 
 
 5 Zeitsch.f. Chem., 2, 127. 
 
 10 
 
 6 Zeitsch.f. Chem., 2, 127. 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 In 1867, Sabanejeff 1 published an improved method 
 for making acetylene, based on the researches of Mia- Acetylene by 
 snikoff, Sawitsch, and Beboul. Concentrated alcoholic th f a ,t 0n 
 potash was heated over a water bath in a flask to Alcoholic 
 which was fitted a reflux condenser, and ethylene Ethyfe 8 neDi- 
 dibromide allowed to drip into the alcoholic potash ; bromide 
 the gas so generated was then led through more 
 boiling alcoholic potash, which decomposed any traces 
 of ethylene dibromide or monobromide which might 
 have been brought over as vapour, whilst a second 
 condenser and wash bottles removed any other im- 
 purities from it. In order to purify it thoroughly he 
 absorbed the gas with ammoniacal cuprous chloride, 
 the acetylide so formed being afterwards decomposed 
 by hydrochloric acid, the quantity of acetylene ob- 
 tained being from 60 to 75 per cent, of the theoretical 
 yield. 
 
 In the same year Bieth 2 prepared acetylene from Rieth 
 a Bunsen burner the flame of which had struck back Acetylene in 
 to the bottom, by aspirating the products of incom- products 
 
 . , ' J * * from Bunsen 
 
 plete combustion through copper solution and decom- burner when 
 posing the acetylide formed with hydrochloric acid. ^JJtJom* 
 Working in this way he obtained in twelve hours 
 nearly 100 grams of the copper precipitate. 
 
 During 1869, Birnbaum 3 made acetylene by heating Acetylene 
 silver acetate with iodine, the gas evolved consisting Acetate and 
 of nearly equal volumes of acetylene and hydrogen ; iodine 
 and in this year also Berthelot 4 prepared it by melting 
 ethylene disulphonate of potassium with potassic 
 hydrate 
 
 C 2 H 4 (S0 3 K) 2 + 2KHO = 2K 2 S0 3 + 2H 2 + C 2 H 2 ; 
 
 but the acetylene so obtained contained a large pro- 
 portion of hydrogen. 
 
 1 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 178, 111. 
 
 2 Zeitsch.f. Chem., 2, 598. 
 
 3 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 152, 111. 
 
 4 Compt. Rend., 69, 563 ; Ann. Chem. Pharm., sup., 7, 373. 
 
 11 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Berthclot 
 
 makes 
 Acetylene by 
 action of 
 silent dis- 
 charge on 
 Hydro- 
 carbon 
 Vapours 
 
 De Wilde 
 
 Action 
 
 of Platinum 
 
 Black on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 mixed with 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Pizarello 
 
 forms 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 by sparking 
 
 Ether 
 
 Vapour 
 
 In 1872, Berthelot 1 prepared the gas by leading 
 hydrocarbon vapours, suspended in a current of hy- 
 drogen, through an ozone tube and exposing the 
 mixture to the action of the silent discharge ; and in 
 the same year Odling 2 showed that acetylene was 
 formed in small quantities when methane and carbon 
 monoxide were passed through a red-hot tube 
 
 During 1874, De "Wilde 3 observed that ethylene chlo- 
 ride was decomposed in a red-hot tube filled with lime 
 or soda-lime, and a good yield of acetylene obtained 
 
 C 2 H 4 C1 2 + 2Na HO = 2Na 01 + 2H 2 + C 2 H 2 . 
 
 He absorbed the gas so produced in ammoniacal cup- 
 rous chloride solution, from which he afterwards pre- 
 pared acetylene by acting upon it with hydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 He further states that platinum black has the power 
 of causing the combination of hydrogen with acetylene 
 
 to form ethane. 
 
 O 2 H 2 + ^H 2 = Gsjxig. 
 
 In an earlier paper, Berthelot had shown that the 
 action of heat upon acetylene gas polymerised it into 
 benzene C 6 H 6 , and styrolene C 8 H 8 ; but the action of 
 the induction spark seems to produce other changes, 
 a brown oily substance being formed, which solidifies 
 after a few hours. 
 
 In 1877 Truchot 4 obtained acetylene by passing 
 induction sparks through different hydrocarbon gases 
 and vapours, whilst Pizarello 5 in 1878 found that 
 ether vapour is decomposed by sparks from an induc- 
 tion coil with formation of carbon monoxide, acetylene 
 and hydrogen ; and in 1879 Haller 6 made acetylene by 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 74, 1462. 2 Watt's Dictionary, 1, 1111. 
 
 3 Bui. Acad. Beige, (2) 19, No. 1 ; Berl. Ber.,1, 352. 
 
 4 Compt. Rend., 84, 717. 5 Gazz. Chim., 15, 233. 
 
 6 Dissert. Nancy, 1879. 
 12 
 
THE HISTOEY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the action of sodium on camphor dissolved in chloro- 
 form and toluene, and found that the sodium salt of 
 camphor gave with chloroform a good yield of the gas. 
 
 In 1880 Jungfleisch 1 constructed a special apparatus Jungfleisch's 
 in which he burnt air and coal gas, and, after cooling 
 the escaping mixture of gases,, allowed them to bubble 
 through ammoniacal cuprous chloride, which absorbed 
 the acetylene evolved as a product of incomplete com- 
 bustion. In the same year, also, Jahn 2 stated that 
 when alcohol was decomposed in the presence of zinc 
 dust by heating to a dull red heat, small traces of 
 acetylene were produced, and also traces of methane 
 and carbon monoxide. 
 
 During 1880, also, Dewar 3 synthetically prepared Dewar 
 
 L T T~ T j- i_ J A. i 1 j synthesises 
 
 acetylene by leading hydrogen through a tube made Acetylene 
 
 of retort carbon heated to a white heat by means of in a 
 
 J tube 
 
 the electric current. 
 
 In 1881 Kutscheroff 4 found that acetylene was pro- 
 duced by the action of lead oxide on vinyl bromide in 
 a closed tube, and in the next year (1882) Tommasi 5 
 recognised acetylene in the products obtained by heat- 
 ing copper acetate in a closed tube ; whilst in 1883 
 Cazeneuve 6 made the gas by acting on iodoform 
 with metallic silver 
 
 2CHI 3 + 6 Ag = 6AgI + C 2 H 2 , 
 
 a reaction which also takes place when zinc, iron, or 
 mercury is employed in place of the silver. 
 
 Destrem, 7 in 1884, allowed the discharge of an in- 
 duction coil to take place in benzol. A gas was set 
 free, consisting of 42 to 43 per cent, of acetylene and 
 57 to 58 per cent, of hydrogen, whilst in the same 
 year Johnson 8 described an apparatus for the produc- 
 tion of acetylene by incomplete combustion. 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 90, 365. 2 Berl. Ber., 13, 983, 2107. 
 
 3 Proc. Roy. Soc., 30, 88. 4 Berl. Ber., 14, 1532. 
 
 5 Bull. Soc. Chim., (2) 38, 156. 6 Comp. Rend., 97, 1371. 
 7 Comp. Rend., 99, 138. 8 Chem. News, 49, 127. 
 
 13 
 
 Action of 
 metals on 
 Iodoform 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 from Bromo- 
 
 form and 
 
 Silver 
 
 Powder 
 
 Roemer's 
 researches 
 
 The 
 
 discoveries 
 of 1892 
 
 The Electric 
 Furnace 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture of the 
 Electric 
 Furnace 
 
 In 1891 Cazeneuve l prepared the gas from bromo- 
 form and powdered silver. The reaction was some- 
 times so intense that the silver became red hot. This 
 method gave a nearly theoretical yield. Another 
 mode of preparation consisted in acting upon 50 gr. of 
 zinc dust and 20 gr. of bromoform with a 2 per cent, 
 solution of cupric chloride. The mixture rose in tem- 
 perature in presence of the zinc-copper element and 
 gave a very good yield of acetylene. 
 
 In 1886 Roemer, 2 working with the apparatus de- 
 vised by Jungfleisch, found that he obtained a much 
 increased yield of acetylene when the coal gas was 
 charged with the vapours of sulphuric ether. He also 
 observed that the gas prepared by acting upon copper 
 acetylene by hydrochloric acid deposited during the 
 night a dark film on the walls of the glass gasholder, 
 and that this deposition was not accompanied by any 
 change in volume. This deposit would probably be 
 one of the poly-acetylenes discovered by Baeyer. 
 
 During the next few years there was a lull in the 
 tide of acetylene researches, followed by the storm of 
 activity which rendered 1892 the most important year 
 in the history of the gas, and as a considerable amount 
 of controversy has arisen with regard to the events of 
 this period, it will be well to treat them at length. 
 
 It was Sir Humphry Davy who first demonstrated 
 the heat and light of the electric arc, and it was late 
 in the seventies that Sir William Siemens inaugurated 
 an entirely new era in experimental and metallurgical 
 work by patenting his electrical furnace, in which the 
 electrical energy could be converted into heat, thus 
 yielding a temperature which had never been before 
 available, and which has been estimated by Violle as 
 approximating to 3,500 C. As gradually the utility 
 of the electrical furnace came to be recognised, other 
 patents were taken out, Bradley patenting a furnace 
 1 Compt. Rend., 113, 1054. 2 Lieb. Ann., 233, 182. 
 
 14 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 in 1883, whilst Cowles took out his patents in 1885, 
 
 and in 1886 patented a lining of lime and carbon 
 
 for the furnace as being more refractory. Although 
 
 these furnaces were used for making aluminium, large 
 
 quantities of carbide of calcium were accidentally made Accidental 
 
 by the action of the heat on the furnace lining, and p calcic 11 
 
 during 1886 and 1887 the lads employed in the works Carbide in 
 
 used often to amuse themselves in the dinner hour by Aluminium 
 
 putting water on the old crucible linings and igniting 
 
 the gas which was set free. Even before this date it 
 
 was recognised and published bv T. Sterry Hunt * that Actions in 
 
 ., % i i I t J.-L -j i the, Electric 
 
 in the Cowles electric furnace the oxides, not only Furnace 
 of the alkaline metals, but of calcium, magnesium, 
 aluminium, silicon and boron, could be reduced in 
 the presence of carbon and could be made to form 
 alloys with other metals present, whilst with alumi- 
 nium and other metals the crystalline compounds 
 formed with carbon could be obtained, and, further, that 
 silicon and the compound of silicon with carbon could 
 be produced. Borchers also, in his treatise on electro- Borchers 
 metallurgy published in 1891, says : " All the oxides 
 are capable of being reduced by carbon heated by 
 electricity," but makes no mention of calcium carbide. 
 
 It is clear, therefore, that as early as 1886 calcic 
 carbide was made in the electric furnace, but its forma- 
 tion was merely accidental, and no commercial import- 
 ance was attached to it. 
 
 Soon after this date Willson conceived the idea of The work ot 
 
 T .,...,, . , T, L. Willson 
 
 reducing aluminium in the presence of copper to make 
 aluminium bronze, and employed practically the same 
 method as that used by Cowles ; but as his attempts to 
 make the bronze were not successful, he attempted to 
 reduce "magnesium and calcium to the metallic state, 
 in order to utilise these metals for the reduction of 
 alumina. It was in the spring of 1892 that he at- 
 tempted to reduce lime by carbon, and he found that 
 1 Trans. Atner. Inst. Min. Eng., xiv. 492. 
 15 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Calcic 
 Carbide 
 made by 
 Willson 
 
 The treat- he obtained by this means a fused bath, the boiling of 
 
 carbon ui* w ^ 1 ^ c ^ 1 ca used the short circuiting of the electric arc, 
 
 the Electric and, in order to prevent this spitting of the liquid and 
 
 the unequal loading of the dynamo, which interfered 
 
 seriously with the working of the machinery and 
 
 water turbines, he added to it a layer of carbon, 
 
 which prevented the splashing of the liquid against 
 
 the sides of the electrode, the only portion of the 
 
 liquid surface exposed being in the immediate path 
 
 of the arc. 
 
 It was in the May of 1892 that carbide was obtained 
 by Willson in quantity, and samples were sent by him 
 to various scientific friends in America, and in June, 
 1892, Venable 1 went to Spray to investigate the pro- 
 gress made by "Willson in his aluminium process, and 
 in writing of this visit says : 
 
 11 1 found that Mr. Willson had attacked his problem 
 from many different sides. Among other plans, he 
 had conceived the idea of preparing some more 
 positive element, like calcium, and making use of 
 this to liberate aluminium from the oxide. In his 
 efforts at producing calcium he had mixed lime with 
 tar and other forms of carbon and treated these mix- 
 tures in his furnace. In this way he had produced 
 a hard, crystalline mass, which disintegrated and 
 crumbled on exposure to the air and gave rise to a 
 violent evolution of a gas when brought in contact 
 with water. This gas was inflammable, burning with 
 a very smoky flame." 
 
 On September 16th, 1892, Willson sent specimens 
 of his carbide to Lord Kelvin. 
 
 The letters which passed between Willson and Lord 
 Kelvin have been published by Mr. Eraser, 2 who was 
 Willson's patent solicitor, and are as follows : 
 
 American Manufacturer, Dec. 16th, 1898. 
 Progressive Age, Feb. 1st, 1898, p. 51. 
 16 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 LETTEE. 
 THOMAS L. WILLSON TO LORD KELVIN. 
 
 " SPRAY, N.C., September 16th, 1892. 
 "Lord Kelvin, Glasgow University, Glasgow, Scotland, 
 
 "MY DEAR blR, 
 
 "It affords me very great pleasure to forward to 
 you some calcic carbide made in my electric ' arc ' 
 furnace. This product is from the reduction of lime 
 calcic oxide by carbon with the high heat of the 
 electric 'arc,' and carbon has displaced the oxygen. 
 
 " The great affinity of the combined calcium for 
 oxygen enables this material to decompose water 
 rapidly, liberating hydrogen combined with carbon, 
 which, upon ignition, burns, the hydrogen uniting 
 with the oxygen of the air, liberating the excess of 
 carbon, which floats in the air. This material greatly 
 interests scientific men here, and I hope will prove of 
 interest to you. 
 
 " Perhaps, with your laboratory facilities, you may 
 be able to obtain metallic calcium from this composi- 
 tion. If you desire any further information in regard 
 to this material, I shall be pleased to place what little 
 knowledge I have of it at your disposal. Hoping that 
 the two jars sent you to-day by express may reach 
 you in safety. I remain, 
 
 "Yours with best wishes, 
 " (Signed) THOMAS L. WILLSON." 
 
 correspon- 
 dence 
 
 between 
 
 wnison 
 
 LORD KELVIN'S LETTER IN REPLY. 
 
 " THE UNIVERSITY, GLASGOW, October 3rd, 1892. 
 " DEAR SIR, 
 
 " I have seen and tried the calcium carbide only, 
 however, so far as throwing it into water and setting 
 fire to the gas which comes off. It seems to me a most 
 
 17 2 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Letter from 
 
 Willson to 
 
 his patent 
 
 solicitor 
 
 Willson's 
 
 patent of 
 
 Feb. 21st. 
 
 1893 
 
 interesting substance, and I thank you very much for 
 sending it to me. 
 
 " Yours very truly, 
 
 " (Signed) KELVIN. 
 " Thomas L. Willson, Esq." 
 
 Mr. Fraser l also publishes another letter written to 
 him by Willson in May, 1892, with regard to the 
 patent Fraser was then drafting, from which the 
 following is an extract : 
 
 , 1892. 
 
 " I want some of my t claims ' to cover the produc- 
 tion of carbide of aluminium and calcium carbide and 
 all the other carbides. 
 
 " Calcium carbide is one of the most curious and 
 interesting of the carbides. Like metallic sodium and 
 potassium, it has the power to decompose water and 
 oxidizes in the air, so has to be kept covered with oil 
 kerosene or in air-tight vessels. It is made by 
 heating lime CaO and carbon. The best result is 
 obtained by infusing the lime in tar, and then sub- 
 jecting to the electric arc." 
 
 These letters make it perfectly clear that Willson 
 was making calcium carbide by the direct fusion of 
 lime and carbon in the early part of 1892, and having 
 finished his experimental investigation on August 
 9th, 1892, Willson filed an application for a United 
 States patent for electric smelting, principally of 
 aluminium, in which he said he proposed to apply 
 the invention " for the production of refractory com- 
 pounds or ores of metals, not necessarily for the 
 production of the metals themselves, but for the 
 production of other compounds thereof. For example, 
 I have already employed it for reducing calcium 
 
 1 Progressive Age, Feb. 1st, 1898, p. 51. 
 18 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 it 
 water to 
 
 form 
 Acetylene 
 
 oxide and producing calcium carbide." This patent 
 was issued February 21st, 1893, No. 492,377. This 
 issue became the first public publication mentioning 
 Willson's invention of calcium carbide. 
 
 In May, 1892, Maquenne l made barium carbide by Maquenne 
 heating barium nitride with carbon in a current of _ 
 
 Barium Car- 
 
 mtrogen, and found that the product so obtained was bide and 
 decomposed by water with evolution of acetylene and 
 hydrogen. Later in the same year, October 17th, 2 he 
 described a new method for the preparation of the gas. 
 Resuming the researches of "Winkler 3 on the result of 
 heating mixtures of magnesium with carbonates of 
 the alkaline earths, which Winkler believed resulted 
 in the reaction 
 
 CaC0 3 + 3Mg = 3MgO + Ca + C, 
 
 and the residue from which, he said, gave off hydrogen 
 having a disagreeable odour when acted on by water. 
 Maquenne fused together 26 gr. of barium carbonate, 
 1O5 gr. of magnesium powder and 4 gr. of retort 
 carbon, when an intense reaction took place. The 
 residue consisted of magnesium oxide and 38 per 
 cent, of barium carbide, a little carbon and traces of 
 cyanides formed by the atmospheric nitrogen 
 
 BaC0 3 + 3Mg + C - BaC 2 + 3MgO. 
 
 The product formed was very light, of a grey colour, 
 and very porous, completely amorphous and unalter- 
 able in dry air. One hundred grammes decomposed 
 in a dripping apparatus produce 5,200 to 5,400 cc. of 
 gas, consisting of acetylene with 2 to 3 per cent, of 
 hydrogen without any other hydrocarbon. 
 
 BaC 2 + 2H 2 = Ba(OH) 2 + C 2 H 2 . 
 
 On December 12th, 1892, Henri Moissan, 4 whose 
 name will always rank high amongst the illustrious 
 
 The forma- 
 tion of 
 Acetylene 
 from Barium 
 Carbide 
 
 1 Bull Soc. Chim., 7, 370. 
 3 Berl. Ber., 23, 2645. 
 
 2 Ibid., 7, 756-773. 
 4 Compt. Mend., 115, 1031, 
 19 
 
 Moissan's 
 
 first mention 
 
 of Calcium 
 
 Carbide, 
 
 Dec. 12th. 
 
 1892 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Travers 
 makes 
 Calcium Car- 
 bide, 1893 
 
 Moissan 
 describes 
 Crystalline 
 Calcium Car- 
 bide, 1894 
 
 band of French, chemists who have done so much for 
 science, read a paper before the French Academy of 
 Science, in which he describes his electrical furnace 
 and the work which he had done in reducing the 
 metals of the alkaline earths, and in this paper he 
 says : " At this temperature 3,000 C. the carbon 
 rapid ly reduces the oxide of calcium, and the metal is 
 liberated in abundance. It easily unites with the 
 carbon of the electrodes and forms a carburet of cal- 
 cium liquid at a red heat, which it is easy to separate." 
 
 In 1893 W. Travers 1 melted 45 gr. of sodium with 
 an intimate mixture of calcium chloride and retort 
 carbon, using an iron crucible and continuing the 
 heating for half an hour. The products of the re- 
 action consisted of sodium chloride, calcium carbide 
 and carbon, nearly 16 per cent, being carbide. One 
 hundred gr. of this product yielded 4 to 5 litres of 
 acetylene when acted on by water. 
 
 On March 5th, 1894, Moissan 2 brought another 
 paper before the Academy of Sciences, in which he 
 described the preparation of crystallised carbide of 
 calcium, made by fusing together an intimate mixture 
 of 120 gr. of lime made from marble and 70 gr. of 
 sugar charcoal in the electric furnace, using a current 
 of 350 amperes and 70 volts for from 15 to 20 minutes, 
 120 to 150 gr. of calcium carbide being obtained. In 
 the introduction to this paper he mentioned the 
 methods used by Woehler and Maquenne in preparing 
 calcium carbide, and also noticed the work of Winkler. 
 He described the carbide as a black, well-crystallised 
 mass, having a specific gravity of 2*22 at 18 C., and 
 obtained for it the following analytical figures : 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 II. III. 
 
 IV. Calculated. 
 
 The 
 
 Calcium . 
 
 . 62-7 
 
 62-1 61-7 
 
 62-0 62-5 
 
 analysis 
 of Calcium 
 
 Carbon . 
 
 . 37-3 
 
 37-8 
 
 37-5 
 
 Carbide 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Proc. Chem. Soc., 9, 15. 2 Compt. Rend., 118, 501. 
 20 
 
THE HISTOBY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 He therefore concluded that the formula was CaC 2 . 
 He also analysed the gas liberated by its action upon 
 water, and found it to be nearly pure acetylene. 
 
 Later 1 he described the preparation of the carbides 
 of barium and strontium and their properties. He 
 found that they were analogous to the carbide of 
 calcium, and decomposed water yielding acetylene in 
 the same way. 
 
 Whilst M. Moissan was conducting his classical 
 researches on chemical actions at high temperatures, 
 using for his experimental work his small electrical 
 furnace, working at about 350 amperes and 70 volts, 
 Willson had been busily employed during 1892 and 
 1893 in working and continuing his experiments on 
 the manufacture of carbide on a commercial scale 
 at the works at Spray, in North Carolina, in which 
 a dynamo, worked by water power and generating a 
 current of 2,000 amperes at 25 volts, was employed. 
 
 There is not the slightest doubt that the work of 
 Moissan and Willson was entirely independent, and 
 that the Canadian experimentalist at Spray and the 
 brilliant Parisian savant had never even heard of 
 each other, much less of the work they were respec- 
 tively doing, until certainly after the publication of 
 Moissan's paper in 1894 ; and it is also perfectly clear 
 that up to the end of 1892 it was Willson, and Willson 
 only, who had made calcium carbide on anything like a 
 large scale, and nothing would ever have been heard 
 of this material on a commercial scale had it not been 
 that he, in attempting to get capital invested in his 
 process, came across several men of sound practical 
 knowledge, whose business instincts led them to grasp 
 the possibilities of carbide and acetylene, and no 
 sooner had these commercial possibilities been noised 
 abroad than others began to try and make capital 
 from them. In France, on February 9th, 1894, Bullier 
 
 1 Compt. Rend,, 118, 683. 
 21 
 
 Metallic 
 Carbides 
 
 Manu- 
 facture of 
 Calcium Car- 
 bide at 
 Spray 
 
 The 
 
 question of 
 priority 
 between 
 
 Moissan and 
 Willson 
 
 Bullier's 
 patent 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Moissan 
 
 admits 
 
 Willson's 
 
 priority as 
 
 regards 
 
 commercial 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Borchers 
 claims 
 
 Borchcrs 
 
 statements 
 
 in 1896 
 
 applied for a patent for the preparation of the carbides 
 of the alkaline earths based on Moissan's researches. 
 M. Moissan himself has never claimed priority in the 
 manufacture of commercial carbide, and, indeed, whilst 
 lecturing before the New York Section of the Society 
 of Chemical Industry on October 26th, 1896, he dis- 
 tinctly stated that the credit of the first production 
 of calcium carbide on a commercial scale was due to 
 "Willson, and the industrial utilisation of acetylene 
 belonged to the Americans. 1 
 
 Borchers is also a claimant for the honour of priority 
 in the preparation of calcium carbide, basing his claim 
 011 the statement made by him in the first edition of 
 his book on Electro-Metallurgy, published in 1891, 
 that " all the oxides are capable of being reduced by 
 carbon heated by electricity." In the second edition 
 of his textbook published in 1896 2 he says: "During 
 the years 1880 to 1890 I succeeded in reducing, by 
 electrically-heated carbon, all the metallic oxides 
 which had not been reduced up to that date. 3 When 
 using an excess of carbon, residues rich in carbon 
 were produced, but to these at that period I paid 
 but little attention, because I was looking for methods 
 for preparing the technically useful metals." In 1895 
 also he states 4 that during the eighties he succeeded in 
 reducing all oxides which had not before been reduced, 
 and that after his publication in the year 1891 every- 
 body is free to prepare metallic carbides by electrical 
 heating mixtures of the respective metal with carbon, 
 and is free to use his (Borchers') or Siemens', or any 
 other electrical furnace. 
 
 In an address to the meeting of the German Electro- 
 
 1 Schweitzer Ztsh. Calc. Sc., 2, 69. 
 
 2 Electro-Metallurgy, 2nd edition, 1896. 84. 
 
 3 Deville and Debray ( Jahr. Ber., 1859, 256) state that carbon 
 and lime heated in their oxy-hydrogen furnace, react, with re- 
 duction of the lime. 
 
 4 Zeitsch.f. Electro-Chem., 2, 7. 
 
 22 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Chemical Society at Frankfort in June, 1895, l he says : 
 u As I have before stated, the reactions taking place 
 in making calcium carbide by the process claimed by 
 Moissan and Willson may be represented by 
 
 1. CaO + C-Ca + CO 
 
 2. Ca + 2C = CaC2 
 
 The second reaction was discovered by Woehler. The 
 first reaction has been published in the first edition of 
 my Electro-Metallurgy, 1891, in which, after describ- 
 ing the furnace shown to-day at this meeting, I 
 pointed out that by means of it all oxides not yet 
 reduced can be reduced. 
 
 "At that time I also obtained calcium carbide, to which 
 I drew no attention, as I was seeking for the metals. 
 At the present time Moissan reduces these refractory 
 oxides, one after the other, in. an electric furnace, and 
 makes out each of his reactions as if they were totally 
 unknown, and reports on them to the French Academy. 
 I have no doubt that Moissan makes his publication in 
 perfectly good faith, and I will not deny Willson's 
 merit in having started the commercial use of calcium 
 carbide in connection with a cheap method of its pre- 
 paration, but there is no doubt that the true method 
 of preparing calcium carbide was first shown in Ger- 
 many by German chemists." 
 
 Still later, Borchers, 2 in speaking of Bullier's patent, 
 says : " There is no disputing the fact that my publi- 
 cations prove that, long before Moissan and Willson, 
 I made calcium carbide by the reduction of lime with 
 electrically heated carbon. 
 
 " I freely admitted in my lectures that, as I was 
 seeking for metals, I did not recognise the value of 
 the carbide and the method of its preparation.' 7 
 
 In considering the question of priority, it must be 
 
 clearly borne in mind that the point at issue is not 
 
 " Who discovered calcium carbide and its power of de- 
 
 1 Zeitsch.f. Electro-Chem., 2, 164. 2 Ibid., 4, 93. 
 
 23 
 
 Borchers 
 
 criticises 
 
 Moissan and 
 
 Willson 
 
 Conclusion s 
 
 as to 
 priority 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 composing water with evolution of acetylene ? " because 
 the honour of that discovery is undoubtedly due to the 
 great Grerman chemist Woehler, but ll who was it who 
 first made calcium carbide in such a way as to bring 
 the acetylene generated from it within the range of 
 commercial utility, and at the same time recognised 
 the possibilities of the process?" 
 
 The claim of Borchers may at once be dismissed as 
 having no reasonable foundation, and, indeed, being 
 nothing more than an ineffectual and scarcely credit- 
 able wail at having missed an important and lucrative 
 discovery. The whole scientific world would rejoice 
 if it were possible to accord to Moissan, " the king of 
 experimental savants," the honour of having given 
 this new process to the commercial world. His results 
 were obtained as factors in a magnificent research, 
 every step in which was logically worked out and 
 verified ; a research which will ever stand out as a 
 scientific classic. But the fact remains that he only 
 attained and published the discovery of the direct 
 formation of calcium carbide in the electric furnace, to 
 find that his work had been forestalled by a few 
 months by the chance observation of an engineer, 
 who, although devoid of chemical knowledge, yet had 
 sufficient practical acumen to grasp the commercial 
 importance of the discovery ; and any one who, with 
 a mind free from prejudice, reads the evidence on this 
 subject is forced to the conclusion that the world owes 
 " commercial acetylene " to the Canadian engineer Will- 
 son and the shrewd business men who supported him. 
 
 Bullier occupies a most unenviable position in the 
 
 affair. In his patent he stands forth as the inventor 
 
 of the process which " consists essentially in heating 
 
 in an electric furnace such as a Moissan furnace, for 
 
 example a mixture of carbon with the oxide of the 
 
 earth metal or alkali metal to be carburised," 1 and 
 
 1 English Patent No. 2820 (1895). 
 
 24 
 
THE HISTORY OF ACETYLENE 
 
 which is manifestly the process described by Moissan 
 in the Comptes Rendus, and it is conceivable that 
 Bullier, having worked with Moissan, and the latter 
 not desiring to patent the discovery, allowed Bullier 
 to do so, although it is strange that 'Moissan should 
 make no mention of the collaboration in his paper. 
 
 In 1896 Willson applied for a special Act of Parlia- 
 ment to antedate his English patent, which by an 
 error had been filed with the date of the English 
 application instead of the American application. The 
 granting of the Act was opposed by Bullier and others, 
 and in his petition Bullier says : 1 " Your petitioner 
 claims to be the first discoverer of the process referred 
 to in the preamble of the Bill." The preamble alluded 
 to gives the process as an invention which consisted 
 in first treating lime with carbonaceous matter in 
 an electric furnace to produce calcium carbide ; and, 
 secondly, in mutually decomposing such calcium car- 
 bide with water to liberate a hydrocarbon gas known 
 as acetylene. 
 
 During the hearing of the evidence Bullier's counsel 
 distinctly suggested that Moissan, in his celebrated 
 paper of March 5th, 1894, 2 had been merely com- 
 municating Bullier's discoveries to the Academie des 
 Sciences, a suggestion probably made without Bullier's 
 sanction, and which the clear priority of Willson robs 
 of any undue significance. 
 
 In 1895 the commercial career of acetylene may be 
 looked upon as being thoroughly established, and many 
 observations were made as to its behaviour in every- 
 day use, but these now became so numerous that it 
 would serve no useful purpose to continue the enume- 
 ration of them in historical order, and in the following 
 chapters the gist of these results will be collected 
 together in discussing the various physical and 
 chemical properties of acetylene. 
 
 1 Par. G. Bullier's petition. 2 Compt. Rend., 118, 501. 
 25 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 A. THE FORMATION OF ACETYLENE BY THE DIRECT 
 UNION OF ITS CONSTITUENTS 
 
 Analysis f|~^HE two methods most used in chemical science 
 X for tracing the changes taking place in matter 
 and determining the composition of bodies are, firstly, 
 breaking up compounds into their ultimate consti- 
 tuents a process which is called " analysis " ; and, 
 secondly, by building up the compound from the 
 elementary matter which forms it, a process to which 
 the name of " synthesis " is given. 
 
 Synthesis Most inorganic compounds can be synthetically 
 produced from elementary matter, but in the so-called 
 organic chemistry it is not so easy to employ such 
 constructive methods for the formation of compounds, 
 and up to the end of the first quarter of this century 
 it was supposed that organic bodies were only pro- 
 duced as the result of animal and vegetable life, and 
 that their formation was due to the so-called " vital 
 force " which was credited with governing all changes 
 synthesis of taking place in living organisms. In 1828, Woehler 
 woehier showed that urea could be formed from cyanate of 
 ammonium, whilst later on Fownes made cyanogen 
 by the direct combination of carbon and nitrogen, 
 these two discoveries, taken together, proving the 
 possibility of forming an organic product from inor- 
 ganic materials ; and after this point had been reached, 
 
 26 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 and the possibility of applying synthetic methods to 
 the production of organic bodies had been demon- 
 strated, compound after compound was built up with- compounds 
 out the aid of either vegetable or animal life, and 
 the barrier between inorganic and organic chemistry 
 finally broken down. 
 
 Certainly one of the most important achievements The 
 in synthetical chemistry was the discovery by the Acetylene by 
 great French savant, Berthelot, that acetylene could 
 be directly built up from its elements under the 
 influence of the electric arc, which he experimentally 
 
 Bertheiot. 
 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 showed to be the case in 1862. l The apparatus which 
 he employed is shown in Fig. 1. 
 
 It consists of an egg-shaped glass globe A, with a 
 tubulure B at one end, and at the other an opening c, 
 closed by a cork carrying a tube leading to the bottom 
 of the cylinder D, and also a metallic conductor, which 
 slides easily in the cork and terminates in the carbon 
 E, so that an arc can be struck with the carbon E'E 
 which is in metallic contact with the tubulure B. 
 
 Apparatus 
 used 
 
 Compt. Rend., 54, 640. 
 
 27 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Having driven all air out of the glass egg by a rapid 
 current of hydrogen, which was allowed to pass for at 
 least a quarter of an hour, he brought the two poles 
 together and struck an electric arc, using for the pur- 
 pose a battery of 50 Bunsen cells. Under these con- 
 ditions he found that 10 to 12 cc. of acetylene were 
 produced per minute, a very fair proportion, consider- 
 ing the smallness of the arc. The poles used should 
 Carbons for b e formed from retort carbon or graphite, which give 
 of Acetylene a better yield of acetylene than any other form of 
 carbon, charcoal being the worst substance to use for 
 this purpose. 1 
 
 TO show The simplest method of repeating this historic ex- 
 experiment periment is to take an egg-shaped glass globe with a 
 for lectures tubulure at each end. Into the two opposite necks are 
 fitted gas-tight corks carrying stout copper wires with 
 carbon pencils at their ends. These corks are also fitted 
 with glass tubes, by which gases can be led in or as- 
 pirated off, and through one of which passes a tube 
 leading from the hydrogen supply. To the exit tube 
 is connected a flask, containing an ammoniacal solu- 
 tion of cuprous chloride, and connected with two 
 Erlenmeyer absorbing vessels, also containing some 
 of the copper solution. 
 
 Method of Hydrogen is passed through the apparatus for some 
 n the 1B ' time in order to drive out the air, and then the carbons 
 experiment are b rou ght together and the arc struck, a current 
 of about 10 to 15 amperes being employed. The 
 acetylene so produced is carried into the flasks con- 
 taining the copper solution, and is there absorbed, 
 forming the red copper acetylene. 
 
 Preparation The ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride is best 
 
 Cuprous prepared by passing sulphur dioxide through a strong 
 
 Chloride solution of cupric chloride, until the solution has 
 
 entirely lost its green colour. The cuprous chloride 
 
 meanwhile precipitates, and can be collected on a 
 
 1 Berthelot, Compt. Rend., 54, 1042. 
 
 28 
 
THE PREPAKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 filter, washed with, acetic acid, and dried. A small Tne so i u tion 
 quantity of this is then dissolved in a little strong for 
 
 & absorption 
 
 ammonia when wanted and the solution diluted with of the 
 
 water. Acetylene 
 
 The cuprous chloride may also be prepared by dis- 
 solving 250 parts by weight of crystallized copper 
 sulphate and 117 of sodium chloride in water, then 
 passing a current of sulphur dioxide through the 
 solution until it is decolorized and cuprous chloride 
 precipitated. 
 
 It is manifest that no very great percentage of Acetylene 
 acetylene can be formed by this process, as acetylene b 
 being decomposed by heat into its constituents once decomposed 
 more, there will be a continual formation and decom- electric arc 
 position of acetylene, which after a time will probably 
 establish a balance. This point has been to a certain 
 extent studied by Bone and Jerdan, 1 who came to the Bone and 
 conclusion " that when the electric arc is passed be- Jordan's 
 
 , , . , , n experiments 
 
 tween carbon terminals in an atmosphere of hydrogen, 
 
 acetylene and methane are both produced. Further, 
 that the rate of formation of these two gases is fairly 
 rapid during the first fifteen minutes of the experi- 
 ment, after which the rate falls, and finally, after 
 about half an hour, a state of equilibrium between the Resu i t O f 
 hydrogen, acetylene, and methane is attained. This experiment 
 equilibrium depends to some extent on the voltage 
 employed." 
 
 The electric arc was formed between terminals of condition of 
 purified gas carbon in an atmosphere of dry hydrogen expei 
 contained in a glass' globe standing in a trough over 
 mercury. The arc was maintained in hydrogen for an 
 hour or more, and samples of the gas were drawn 
 off at the end of 5, 15, 30, 45, etc., minutes in each 
 experiment. These were afterwards analysed in a Analysis of 
 modification of the McLeod gas analysis apparatus. 
 
 The gases almost always contained small amounts 
 1 Proc. Chem. Soc., 1896. 
 29 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Synthesis of 
 Methane 
 
 Equilibrium 
 
 of 
 products 
 
 Separation 
 of Carbon 
 
 of hydrocyanic' acid, due no doubt to the presence of a 
 little nitrogen in the hydrogen employed. Acetylene 
 was always present in considerable quantities, and in 
 addition to this and any other unsaturated hydrocar- 
 bon, appreciable quantities of methane were found. 
 
 The same authors, at an earlier date, 1 found that 
 they could produce methane by passing a slow cur- 
 rent of hydrogen, free from hydrocarbon impurities, 
 through purified carbon heated to bright redness in a 
 porcelain tube placed inside a Fletcher's injector fur- 
 nace. 
 
 These results led to the inference that methane and 
 acetylene could both be synthesized and decomposed 
 by the electric arc, and that if the arc be passed long 
 enough through these gases, a state of equilibrium 
 would be arrived at. This conclusion was fully borne 
 out by subsequent experiments, in which pure acety- 
 lene or methane was subjected to the action of the 
 electric arc passed between carbon terminals in the 
 same apparatus as that employed in the experiments 
 with hydrogen. 
 
 Both methane and acetylene are easily decomposed 
 by the electric arc ; during the first ten minutes of the 
 experiment the gas, methane, or acetylene, as the case 
 might be, was very rapidly resolved into its consti- 
 tuents large flakes of carbon were formed in the 
 neighbourhood of the terminals, and fell on the surface 
 of the mercury below ; the gas in the globe underwent 
 a great increase in volume, much greater than could 
 be accounted for by the mere expansion of the gas by 
 the heat of the arc ; a smoky flame rose from the ter- 
 minals and filled the upper part of the globe. At the 
 end of about ten minutes this extraordinary appear- 
 ance subsided, after which the arc presented the same 
 appearance as in the case of the hydrogen experiments. 
 After the arc had passed for an hour the experiment 
 1 Proc. Chem. Soc., 162, 61. 
 30 
 
THE PKEPABATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 was stopped. Samples of the gas were then collected 
 and subsequently analysed. 
 
 The principal product in each case was hydrogen, 
 with about 9 per cent, of acetylene, and small quanti- 
 ties of methane, nitrogen, and hydrocyanic acid. In 
 the experiment with acetylene a minute quantity of 
 naphthalene was also formed. 
 
 In 1880, Dewar 1 published some very beautiful 
 researches on the electric arc, and "in order to ascer- 
 tain whether the formation of hydrocyanic acid and synthesis of 
 acetylene in the arc was really due to transformations . A 
 induced by some occult power located in the arc, or 
 
 Dewar's 
 
 on the 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 was simply the result of the high temperature attained 
 by the carbons, a series of experiments was made in 
 carbon tubes, the arc being merely used as a means of 
 heating." 
 
 The following is the method of arranging the arc 
 for this experiment : 
 
 A block of limestone about fourteen centimetres Method of 
 long by eight thick was drilled horizontally, as shown 
 in Fig. 2, another hole being drilled so as to meet it 
 in the centre of the mass. 
 
 1 Proc. Royal Soc., 30, 88. 
 31 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 Carbons 
 
 Formation 
 
 of 
 
 Hydrocyanic 
 Acid 
 
 Formation 
 
 of 
 Acetylene 
 
 Influence of 
 
 rate of flow 
 
 on the 
 
 product 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture needed 
 
 for 
 synthesis of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 A drilled purified carbon was placed in the hori- 
 zontal channel and made the positive pole, the nega- 
 tive pole being a solid rod of carbon passing through 
 the vertical aperture. Grases were passed through the 
 positive carbon, and were thus subjected to the intense 
 heat of the walls of the tube, the arc passing outside. 
 
 The walls of the positive carbon burnt through with 
 great rapidity, not lasting, as a rule, more than fifteen 
 minutes. This action could only be prevented by 
 using thicker carbons, and, consequently, reducing 
 considerably the intensity of the heat. 
 
 The porosity of the carbons, which allowed a con- 
 stant diffusion of gases through their walls, was 
 another source of difficulty. 
 
 On passing a mixture of three volumes hydrogen 
 and one volume nitrogen, thoroughly dried, through 
 the positive pole, a large yield of hydrocyanic acid 
 was always obtained ; and on using equal volumes of 
 hydrogen and nitrogen, the quantity was, if anything, 
 increased. 
 
 Pure dry hydrogen by itself gave a trace of hydro- 
 cyanic acid and a considerable quantity of acetylene. 
 
 Pure dry air gave no hydrocyanic acid or acetylene ; 
 moist air, on the contrary, giving abundance of the 
 former, but only a trace of the latter. 
 
 The yield in all these experiments altered consider- 
 ably with the rate at which the gases were passed, 
 a quick stream always producing more than a slow 
 one, unless when oxygen was present, and it is mani- 
 fest from these researches that the direct combination 
 of carbon and hydrogen to form acetylene is simply 
 the result of the high temperature attained in the 
 electric arc. 
 
 This result has never been observed at temperatures 
 
 short of that obtained in the electric arc, and Berthe- 
 
 lot l has shown that induction sparks passed between 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 54, 640 ; ibid., 54, 1042. 
 
 32 
 
THE PEEPAEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 purified carbons in an atmosphere of hydrogen does 
 not yield acetylene. 
 
 B. THE PREPARATION or ACETYLENE BY THE INCOM- 
 PLETE COMBUSTION OF GASES CONTAINING HYDROGEN 
 AND CARBON. 
 
 It was first shown by Berthelot 1 in 1866 that when 
 a cylinder containing coal gas or ethylene is held in 
 a nearly horizontal position, and the gas is ignited, 
 the flame as it runs back into the cylinder being 
 dependent on the air sucked in for its combustion, 
 is not completely consumed, and acetylene is found 
 amongst the products of incomplete combustion. 
 
 The best way of exhibiting this method of pro- 
 ducing acetylene is to take a glass gas cylinder of 
 from 300 to 500 cubic centimetres capacity, and to 
 place in it 6 to 8 cc. of ether, and about the same 
 volume of ammoniacal cuprous chloride. On now 
 holding the cylinder in a sloping position, and apply- 
 ing a light, the vapour of ether ignites at the mouth 
 of the cylinder and gradually burns down into it; 
 and the amount of air being insufficient for the 
 complete combustion of the ether vapour, the copper 
 solution rapidly changes colour ; and if the cylinder 
 be rotated in a nearly horizontal position, the red 
 copper acetylene compound makes its appearance in 
 abundance. 
 
 Benzene, petroleum spirit, or any other highly 
 volatile liquid hydrocarbons, may be substituted for 
 the ether, but the most striking results are obtained 
 with the latter. 
 
 The first idea of utilising this method for the pro- 
 duction of pure acetylene is due to McLeod, 2 who in 
 1866 exhibited before the Chemical Society a mode 
 of forming copper acetylene in considerable quantity 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 62, 44. 2 Journ. Chem. Soc. (2) 4, 151. 
 
 33 3 
 
 Acetylene 
 formed by 
 incomplete 
 combustion 
 
 Method of 
 showing the 
 experiment 
 
 Other 
 Hydro- 
 carbons that 
 may be 
 used 
 
 McLeod's 
 method of 
 
 making 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 by a modification of the process first indicated by M. 
 Berthelot. The apparatus was simply one in which 
 the inverted combustion of oxygen in coal gas was 
 usually shown as a lecture illustration, with an ap- 
 propriate receptacle charged with ammoiiio-subchloride 
 of copper, through which the products of combustion 
 were passed. A gasometer full of marsh gas prepared 
 by heating acetate of sodium with soda lime was in 
 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 this instance made use of, and, to make the proof 
 absolute, the gas was first passed through a pre- 
 liminary washing-bottle containing the same copper 
 solution. A red precipitate of the substance in ques- 
 tion was quickly formed, and McLeod stated that in 
 the apparatus exhibited he had prepared in an hour 
 products of a gramme or more of the copper acetylene. The 
 combustion copper compound so produced could be then decom- 
 posed by hydrochloric acid, and the acetylene liberated 
 from it. 
 
 34 
 
 Purification 
 of the 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 In the following year, 1867, Rieth x showed that 
 when a Bimsen-burner flame strikes back and burns 
 at the nipple of the gas injector, the combustion is 
 so checked by the limitation of the air supply that 
 acetylene is produced in abundance, and by aspirating 
 the products of incomplete combustion through an 
 ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution he succeeded 
 in obtaining nearly 100 grammes of the copper acety- 
 lene compound. 
 
 This method of preparation was, up to the date of 
 
 Rieth shows 
 
 that 
 
 Acetylene is 
 formed by 
 
 the 
 
 incomplete 
 combustion 
 taking place 
 
 in an 
 
 atmospheric 
 
 burner that 
 
 has lighted 
 
 back 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 the discovery of calcium carbide, one of those most 
 widely used. 
 
 The ordinary method of procedure is to use an 
 apparatus of the form shown in Fig. 4, which consists 
 of an ordinary Bunsen burner that has been lighted 
 at the bottom, and which stands on a dish of water 
 in order to prevent the base from becoming red-hot, 
 whilst broad cotton wick is passed from the water 
 over the metal tube between the base and the tubing, 
 and also over the end of the tubing itself, in order 
 to prevent fusion by the conducted heat. Over the 
 
 1 Zeit.f. Chem., 2, 598. 
 35 
 
 Lectu re 
 apparatus 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generation 
 of the 
 
 absorbed. 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Acetylene 
 present in 
 
 the interior 
 of ail 
 
 flames 
 
 Formation 
 of Acetylene 
 
 the flame 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 d t e o carbon 8 
 and 
 
 luminous 
 
 inverted 
 combustion 
 
 mouth of the Bunsen is placed an inverted funnel, 
 which is connected with a cylinder and absorbing 
 flasks containing either ammoniacal cuprous chloride 
 or an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate, and the 
 products of incomplete combustion from the burner 
 are drawn at a fairly rapid rate through the series of 
 absorbing vessels by an aspirator, the acetylene being 
 afterwards obtained from the metallic compound by 
 decomposition with hydrochloric acid. 
 
 In a coal-gas flame burning in air acetylene is 
 always formed in the interior of the flame itself, as 
 when the hydrocarbon gas leaves the jet at which 
 it is being burnt those portions which come in contact 
 with the air are consumed and form a wall of flame 
 which surrounds the issuing gas. The unburnt gas 
 in its passage through the lower heated area of the 
 flame undergoes a number of chemical changes, 
 brought about by the action of radiant heat emitted 
 by the flame walls, the principal action being the 
 conversion of the heavier hydrocarbons into acety- 
 lene, methane, and hydrogen. 
 
 The acetylene so formed is decomposed in the hot- 
 test part of the flame which is just below the outer 
 zone of non- luminous combustion and yields the 
 carbon particles which render the flame luminous, and 
 which, together with carbon monoxide and hydrogen 
 generated in the flame and any residual hydrocarbons, 
 undergo complete combustion in the outer zone of the 
 flame. 
 
 If, however, a jet of air is burnt in an atmosphere 
 of coal gas, the conditions are reversed, and the acety- 
 lene produced by the incomplete combustion of the 
 hydrocarbons, and by the heat of the combination, is 
 formed on the outer fringe of the flame, and escapes 
 undecomposed with the residual coal gas. 
 
 McLeod having shown that the combustion of 
 oxygen in methane yielded acetylene, and Eieth 
 
 36 
 
THE PBEPABATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 having drawn attention to the formation of the gas 
 during the checked combustion of coal gas when an 
 atmospheric burner flashes back and burns at the 
 bottom, it was manifest that if a simple apparatus 
 were constructed for the combustion of a jet of air 
 
 FIG. 5. 
 
 in an atmosphere of coal gas, a good yield of acetylene 
 would probably be obtained, and in 1880 Jungfleisch l 
 devised the apparatus shown in Fig. 5. 
 
 This apparatus consists of two parts : one, the burner jungfleiscn's 
 in which the incomplete combustion is appai 
 carried 011 ; the other, a series of vessels 
 in which the acetylene is separated 
 from the other products of the com- 
 bustion. 
 
 The essential feature of the burner 
 is shown in Fig. 6. 
 
 It is composed of a central tube MN, Jungfieisch 
 pierced at the lower end by a number 
 of small hole's, which open or close by 
 
 1 Manipulations de Chimie, Paris, 1886, p. 744. 
 37 
 
 burner 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 apparatus 
 
 Condensa- 
 tion of the 
 water 
 vapour 
 
 formed 
 
 means of a movable ring o, perforated in a similar 
 manner. This tube serves for the introduction of air, 
 the influx of which is regulated by the perforated ring. 
 In the interior of MN the upright metal partitions 
 prevent the air from rotating a movement which 
 would result in an unsteady flame. 
 
 The gas enters at g, a cylindrical box placed so 
 as to spread it equally over the area of the circular 
 opening rr. The cylinder of combustible gas escap- 
 ing at rr consequently completely envelops the air 
 entering at N. A gallery HH supports a glass 
 chimney v, 30 centimetres high, well finished at 
 either end. A few drops of oil in the gallery form 
 a tight seal, which it is necessary to establish be- 
 tween it and the base of the chimney. It is in this 
 chimney that the combustion takes place. A sliding 
 foot p easily lowers or raises the burner. 
 
 A second metal portion of the apparatus receives 
 the products of combustion, which are carried up by 
 means of a cylinder. This is formed of an upright 
 brass tube c, the lower portion of which overlaps the 
 upper portion of the chimney N, an air-tight joint 
 being formed by the chimney fitting into a circular 
 space formed between the outer tube c and an inner 
 one of smaller diameter to which it is fixed. The 
 tube c communicates at the top, by means of a small 
 metal pipe H, with a brass refrigerator RR', which 
 cools the gas and condenses the water vapour drawn 
 off from it. The refrigerator may consist of several 
 tubes, as shown in the figure, thus possessing a large 
 cooling surface ; or it may be made with only one 
 tube, which must be slightly larger. It is cooled by 
 a current of water entering at E e, and escaping at d D. 
 The lower portion R', consists of a closed chamber, 
 into which both the condensed liquid and the cooled 
 gas enter. By means of proper adjustments the 
 former escapes at v through a bent tube H, thus 
 
 38 
 
THE PREPABATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Absorbing 
 apparatus 
 
 forming a hydraulic seal for the gas, the bend having 
 previously been filled with water, whilst the gases 
 are drawn off by a pipe fixed to the tube s, which 
 supports the refrigerator. 
 
 At o, above the burner, is a small metallic chimney, 
 by which the products of combustion escape when 
 the cylinder, of which mention is made further on, is 
 not in use. These gases are fairly combustible, and 
 have to be kept constantly burning by means of a 
 small gas burner A', fed from g A, and joined at (a) 
 to one of the cold portions of the apparatus. To com- 
 plete the apparatus oi joins the tube s, by an india- 
 rubber connection, to a series of two or three wash 
 bottles F', which contain the ammoniacal copper 
 reagent. 
 
 Any variation of pressure caused by the gas bub- Variation ot 
 bling through the wash bottles is nullified by placing 
 between s and the first bottle F' a similar vessel F, 
 which is filled by the gas. 
 
 The suction throughout the apparatus is produced 
 at T by a rotary pump capable of passing at least 1 
 cubic metre per hour. The ordinary air pump in 
 general use in laboratories only passes 200 to 300 
 litres per hour, and is not capable of working the 
 apparatus. 
 
 To start the apparatus, the burner is first lighted, starting the 
 To do this, the sliding stand p' is lowered and the 
 chimney removed, the ring oi being so adjusted as 
 to allow only a small quantity of air to enter ; the 
 burner is lighted, and the chimney replaced in the 
 oiled gallery, the apparatus being then raised to its 
 former position. A small flame is produced at N, and 
 the surplus gas escapes at o with the products of 
 combustion. The gas is lit at A, the supply of gas 
 and air being at the same time increased in the burner 
 L. A large flame soon appears at o, and the pump 
 can then be started, so as to produce a rapid stream 
 
 39 
 
 apparatus 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 of bubbles in F', and the burner can next be re- 
 gulated. 
 
 Production ,, . . n . . . . . . ,. 
 
 of the flame The essential point is to maintain at the surface 
 of the air at v a regular flame, clearly outlined and 
 surrounded on all sides by burning gas, and to allow 
 no trace of oxygen to escape ; in other words, to pro- 
 duce at v a fixed flame. With the pump in good 
 working order, the height of the flame will decrease 
 with too great a supply of gas, whilst the flame at 
 o will be luminous ; on the other hand, with the air 
 in excess, the flame will rise, expand towards the top, 
 and develop a reddish tint, whilst non-combustible 
 gases escape at o. The exact adjustment for obtain- 
 ing the largest yield of acetylene can only be secured 
 after many trials, observing the above precautions. 
 ; The correct flame at o is of a purple tint, easily ex- 
 tinguishable, and limited in height to a few centi- 
 metres. When the cylinder has been regulated, it will 
 not again want adjusting. 
 
 The interior flame is yellow, long, and slightly 
 smoky. The gas evolved contains about 3 per cent, 
 of acetylene, and up to a certain point the yield in- 
 creases with the rapidity of the suction. 
 
 It is necessary to maintain a constant flame at o, 
 because by the appearance of the flame the apparatus 
 can be regulated, and also because carbonic oxide and 
 cyanide of ammonium being amongst the products 
 of incomplete combustion, these latter must not be 
 allowed to escape into the air ; and, again, the flame 
 at o indicates that an excess of pressure exists at v, 
 and that air cannot be drawn up between the chimney 
 and the cylinder. 
 
 Even with a rapid flow of gas three vessels, as at 
 F', are usually sufficient to almost entirely absorb the 
 acetylene. When the solution in the first bottle 
 ceases to act, the bottle is removed the two others 
 being connected up and its contents emptied, fresh 
 
 40 
 
THE PBEPAKATION. OF ACETYLENE 
 
 solution being then placed in it. It is now connected 
 up behind the other two. During this operation the 
 
 ^ , . _ ment of the 
 
 connection with the pump must be cut off in order absorbing 
 to avoid air entering the copper solution, and com- 
 bustion continues at o, the gas escaping in a long 
 flame. Provided the regulation of the burner has 
 not been interfered with, on connecting up the wash 
 bottles the apparatus will work as before. 
 
 With this apparatus considerable quantities of 
 copper acetylide can be obtained in a short time, and 
 this requires to be kept as much as possible from con- 
 tact with the air and thoroughly washed. 
 
 The Jungfleisch apparatus is costly, and somewhat simple 
 
 XT x- i -i -L modifica- 
 
 complex, but the same action can be easily shown as tion of the 
 follows : an ordinary paraffin or Argand lamp chim- Jungfleisch 
 ney is fitted at the bottom with a cork, through which 
 pass two glass tubes, Fig. 7. One tube passes through 
 the centre of the cork, and is about 10 centimetres 
 long, with a bore of 1 centimetre ; the other tube is 
 bent at right angles, and is of smaller bore, and is 
 connected to the gas supply. A piece of asbestos card 
 about 6 or 7 centimetres square, and with a round 
 hole in the centre about 1J centimetres in diameter, is 
 placed on top of the chimney. A stream of coal gas 
 is passed through the apparatus, the hole in the as- 
 bestos being loosely closed by a covering of card or 
 mica. After a few moments the excess of gas escapes 
 by the central tube, and is then lighted, the hole 
 at the top being at the same time uncovered. The 
 flame then passes up the tube, drawing air in after it, 
 which continues to burn with a faintly luminous flame 
 in the surrounding coal gas. The excess of coal gas 
 escaping from the hole may be ignited, so that two 
 flames are produced the one a flame of air burning 
 in coal gas, and the other a flame of coal gas burning General 
 in air. A glass tube bent at right angles is intro- ^*^~ 
 duced into the chimney through the hole in the apparatus 
 
 41 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Preparation 
 
 of Copper 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 with the 
 
 apparatus 
 
 asbestos card, and is connected at the other end to 
 the absorbing vessel, which is in connection with any 
 convenient aspirating apparatus, such as a Bunsen's 
 pump or an aspirating bottle. The gaseous contents 
 of the lamp chimney are in this way made to bubble 
 through copper solution where the acetylene is ab- 
 sorbed. 
 
 With this apparatus large quantities of the copper 
 
 compound may 
 be prepared, the 
 copper solution 
 being contained 
 in a large 
 Woulfe's bottle, 
 and the opera- 
 tion allowed to 
 continue for some 
 hours. Two or 
 three tubes, lead- 
 ing to as many 
 absorbing bot- 
 tles, may at the 
 same time be in- 
 serted into the 
 chimney, so long 
 as the united 
 FlG " 7 ' volume of gas 
 
 which they draw away is not greater than the volume 
 of coal gas which is passing through the apparatus, 
 in which case air would be sucked down through 
 the hole in the card, and, passing through the copper 
 solution, would oxidize it. It is easy to ascertain 
 whether there is an excess of coal gas escaping either 
 by applying a light, or, better, by bringing a taper, 
 which has been lighted and then blown out and is 
 still smoking, near to the hole, and observing whether 
 the smoke is carried up or drawn into the chimney. 
 
 42 
 
THE PBEPAKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The production of acetylene by the incomplete com- 
 bustion of coal gas in any of these forms of apparatus 
 may be greatly increased by allowing the coal gas 
 to pass through cotton wool moistened with sulphuric 
 ether, contained in a wash bottle or in a wide tube, 
 the influence of the presence of the ether vapour 
 having been noticed by Roemer 1 in 1886. 
 
 It is to be noted that in all cases where acetylene 
 is first converted into copper acetylene, and this com- 
 pound then decomposed by hydrochloric acid, the gas 
 evolved contains 
 traces of chlorine |. 
 
 compounds. Sa- 
 banejeff 2 also men- 
 tions that, on boil- 
 ing copper acetylene 
 with hydrochloric 
 acid, an oily matter 
 
 was formed which 
 condensed in the 
 wash bottles, and 
 Berthelot con- 
 sidered this to be 
 acetylene hydro- 
 chloride, C 2 H 27 
 2HC1, but came to 
 this conclusion without apparently either making an 
 analysis of the body or testing its boiling-point. 
 
 This oily substance distils completely at between 
 56 and 58 C., and is presumably ethylidene chloride, 
 which Bunte has shown to have a boiling-point of 
 57-5. 
 
 Many attempts were made by Polis to get pure 
 acetylene by the action of hydrochloric acid on 
 copper acetylene, but it was always found to contain 
 
 Yield of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 increased by 
 
 the 
 
 presence of 
 Ether 
 vapour 
 
 Impurities 
 
 in Acetylene 
 
 formed by 
 
 the 
 
 decomposi- 
 tion of 
 Metallic 
 Acetylenes 
 with Hydro- 
 chloric Acid 
 
 Lieb. Ann., 233, 182. 
 
 Ibid., 178, 111. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the chlorine compound, which, calculated as ethy- 
 
 lidene chloride, amounts to as much as 0-08 per cent. 
 
 The Polls By far the most elegant method of showing the 
 
 tube for ; P . 
 
 showing the presence 01 acetylene in the names given by com- 
 
 Ac7*yiene < in P oun( ^ s containing carbon is that devised by Polis. 1 A 
 
 flames ' test tube with side tubulure, Fig. 8, is fitted with a 
 
 cork, through which passes a glass tube bent at right 
 
 angles, into the end of which is fused a tube of 
 
 platinum 0*5 mm. in diameter. The test tube is half 
 
 filled with the ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution, 
 
 FIG. 9. 
 
 and the side tubulure attached to an aspirator bottle 
 (Fig. 9). On now placing the tip of the platinum 
 tube in the flame to be tested, and allowing the 
 water to flow from the aspirator bottle, the gases from 
 the interior of the flame are sucked through the 
 test solution, and the presence of acetylene is at once 
 made manifest by the formation of the red copper 
 acetylene. 
 
 This form of apparatus is well adapted for projec- 
 tion on the screen. 
 
 1 Zeitsch., ver. d. Ing., 39, 1337. 
 
 44 
 
THE PBEPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 C. THE PREPARATION or ACETYLENE BY PASSING 
 ORGANIC VAPOURS AND GASES THROUGH HEATED 
 TUBES. 
 
 The decompositions of the simpler forms of hydro- Importance 
 carbons at an elevated temperature have always been of the 
 recognised as a question of the greatest importance, 
 as upon them is dependent a true conception of many 
 of the actions taking place in the manufacture of 
 coal gas and other kindred processes of- destructive 
 distillation. 
 
 It was Boettger 1 who, in 1859, first recognised that Format i n 
 the destructive distillation of resin, resinous wood, f Acetylene 
 coal, and other substances of the same kind, yielded destructive 
 a gaseous mixture which contained a gas capable of di s tillation 
 giving a red precipitate on passing through an am- 
 moniacal solution of cuprous chloride ; and the re- 
 searches of Berthelot 2 showed that acetylene might Berthelot 
 be prepared by allowing the vapours of alcohol, ether, shows that 
 aldehyde, methylic alcohol, and also the hydrocarbons formeTby 8 
 methane and styrolene, to pass through red-hot tubes, the action of 
 and since that time a considerable amount of work organic 
 has been done upon that subject, as, although it is 
 not a method which serves for the convenient prepara- , 
 
 tion of acetylene on a large scale, it is of very great 
 theoretical interest. 
 
 Ethylene has in most cases been chosen as the 
 hydrocarbon which would lend itself most readily to 
 researches upon this point, as, besides being one of 
 the simplest, it is easily prepared, and is, moreover, 
 found as one of the products in nearly all cases where 
 organic compounds are subjected to distillation at high 
 temperatures. Work of the 
 
 No sooner had the difference between ethylene and early 
 
 observers 
 methane been recognised, than experiments were made 
 
 by Deimann, Van Troostwyk, Lauwerenberg, and 
 
 1 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 109, 351. 2 CompL Bend., 54, 515. 
 
 45 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of 
 
 high 
 temperature 
 
 on 
 Ethylene 
 
 Decomposi- 
 tion of 
 Ethylene to 
 Carbon and 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Marchand 
 
 and Magnus 
 
 show that 
 
 Methane is 
 
 formed 
 
 on heating 
 
 Ethylene 
 
 Bondt, 1 to ascertain the action of heat upon the 
 newly-formed compound, and the conclusions to which 
 they came were, that on heating no contraction in 
 volume was observed, but that the tubes in which the 
 decomposition was effected became coated with a black 
 deposit, and drops of an oily body were formed, the 
 gas at the same time losing its property of forming an 
 oily liquid with chlorine. 
 
 These experiments were afterwards repeated by 
 Fourcroy, Hecht, and Vauquelin, 2 who showed that, 
 when heated, ethylene yields hydrogen with deposi- 
 tion of carbon ; whilst in 1805 William Henry 3 showed 
 that ethylene was formed during the destructive dis- 
 tillation of organic bodies, and that on further heating 
 the gas other changes were observed, and the gas 
 eventually converted into hydrogen and carbon. The 
 deposition of carbon was also noticed later by Quet, 4 
 who, on passing sparks through ethylene, found that 
 carbon was deposited and formed a bridge between the 
 poles used for the discharge, whilst Dalton showed, 
 by the continuous action of the electric spark, that 
 ethylene yielded double its own volume of hydrogen, 
 carbon being deposited. 
 
 Marchand 5 came to the conclusion that at a red 
 heat this gas splits up into methane and carbon, but 
 at a white heat into carbon and nearly pure hydrogen ; 
 whilst Magnus, in 1847, 6 made the important observa- 
 tion that on leading ethylene through a red-hot tube 
 a contraction in volume followed : the residual gas 
 consisted of methane, hydrogen, and unchanged ethy- 
 lene, whilst carbon was deposited and fluid and even 
 solid hydrocarbons were obtained. 
 
 In 1860 H. Buff and A. W. Hofmann 7 published a 
 
 1 Ann. Chitn. P/iyx., 1st series, 21, 48. 
 
 2 Gilbert's Annalen, 2, 210. 3 Nicholson's Journal, 1805. 
 
 4 Compt. Rend., 42, 003. 5 Journ. Prakt. Chem., 26, 478. 
 
 6 Fogg. Ann., 80, 470. 
 
 7 Lieb. Ann., 113, 119. 
 46 
 
THE PEEPAEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 paper on the " Dissociation of Gaseous Compounds on 
 Heating by Electricity." 
 
 They found that when a platinum spiral was heated 
 by the galvanic current in pure ethylene, there was 
 at once a visible separation of carbon, which covered 
 the sides of the tubes with a black deposit, whilst 
 hardly any expansion took place in the volume of the 
 gas, from which they assumed that the ethylene had 
 split up into methane and carbon. 
 
 If the action on the gas, due to the incandescent 
 platinum wire, was allowed to continue, then an in- 
 creased amount of the gas underwent dissociation, and 
 soon after the separation of carbon commenced they 
 observed a rapid expansion, which in ten minutes 
 reached a maximum. Similar phenomena were ob- 
 served with the spark current. At first the spark had 
 a pale reddish tint, which gradually turned to violet, 
 immediate separation of carbon taking place, the spark 
 being frequently stopped by scales of carbon, which 
 formed a bridge between the poles. They found that, 
 under these conditions, the volume of gas expanded 
 very slightly at first, and afterwards more slowly still, 
 and that after twenty to twenty- five minutes the point 
 of maximum expansion was reached, so that 7 cc. of 
 dry ethylene gave after decomposition 12*25 cc. They 
 noted also that the residual hydrogen had an unplea- 
 sant smell, and burnt with a slightly luminous flame. 
 
 Berthelot, in 1869, 1 claimed that ethylene would 
 break up under the influence of heat into acetylene 
 and hydrogen, as expressed by the equation 
 
 Qa"H 4 = C 2 H 2 + H 2 , 
 
 and showed that the acetylene then polymerised into 
 benzene, styrene, and other liquid products of higher 
 boiling-points. Naphthalene was also formed by the 
 direct condensation of styrene and acetylene. He also 
 
 1 Ann. Chim. Phys., 4, 16, 144. 
 47 
 
 Decomposi- 
 tion of the 
 gas by a 
 heated 
 spiral 
 
 Decomposi- 
 tion of 
 Ethylene by 
 
 the electric 
 spark 
 
 \ 
 
 Berthelot 
 shows that 
 the decom- 
 position 
 of Ethylene 
 
 yields 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 pointed out that during the heating of ethylene a 
 large proportion of ethane was formed, and his final 
 conclusion was, that the heating of ethylene resulted 
 in the splitting up of two molecules of ethylene into 
 acetylene and ethane, and that the formation of solid 
 and liquid products was due to the subsequent con- 
 densation of the acetylene. 
 
 In 1886 l Davy made a number of experiments in 
 order to determine the lowest point of temperature at 
 which the constitution of ethylene undergoes altera- 
 tion, and the nature of the changes taking place at 
 that temperature. In order to do this he devised an 
 ingenious apparatus in which the ethylene could be 
 heated for very long periods in a hard glass tube. 
 Prom these experiments he concluded that when the 
 action was continued over a long period, the gas 
 underwent change at much lower temperatures than 
 had been previously observed. The alteration in 
 constitution commenced at about 350 C., at which 
 temperature the change was one of condensation with- 
 out the formation of members of any series of hydro- 
 carbons having a percentage of hydrogen and carbon 
 different from ethylene ; whilst if ethylene was main- 
 tained at 400 for a sufficient length of time, it was 
 entirely decomposed, marsh gas, ethane and liquid 
 products being obtained. 
 
 Morton and I* 1 the same year Morton and Noyes 2 made an 
 Noyes elaborate investigation with the object of determining 
 whether crotonylene, C 4 H 6 , which is present in small 
 quantities in illuminating gas and other products of 
 the distillation of organic matter, is formed as a 
 primary product of decomposition by heat, or as a 
 secondary product of the action of heat upon ethylene. 
 
 Coal gas was passed slowly through a hard glass 
 
 tube, 15 mm. in diameter, which was maintained at a 
 
 low red heat for a distance of 60 cm. The products 
 
 1 American Chem. Journ., 8, 153. 2 Ibid., 8, 362. 
 
 48 
 
THE PEEPAEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 issuing from this tube were first passed through, a 
 series of U tubes, surrounded by a freezing mixture ; 
 the products which were not condensed were passed 
 through an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride, 
 to absorb hydrocarbons of the acetylene series, whilst 
 samples of the gases escaping absorption were finally 
 collected over water. Carbon was deposited in the 
 decomposition tube, and at the end of one month 15 
 cc. of liquid had been slowly condensed in the U tubes, 
 and in this liquid they detected benzene, naphthalene, 
 and some other aromatic hydrocarbons, present in 
 quantities too small for determination. Faint traces The liquid 
 only of precipitate were found in the ammoniacal ^bons 
 cuprous chloride solution, whilst amongst the bodies formed from 
 absorbed by bromine they identified crotonylene tetra- 
 bromide, and the gas collected over water proved to 
 be a mixture of methane and ethane. The absence of 
 acetylene from the products obtained led them to the 
 view that these products were formed directly by the 
 action of heat upon ethylene. 
 
 From the work of the earlier observers the text 
 books have accepted the equation 
 
 C 2 H 4 G 2 + 2H 2 
 
 as representing the decomposition which takes place The actions 
 at a very high temperature, whilst, on the evidence coSsSexSd 
 of the work done by Marchand and Buff and Hof- as taking 
 
 ,1 , n i , i . T place when 
 
 mann, they represent the change taking place at a Ethylene 
 
 lower temperature by the equation is heated 
 
 Og-hL^ = O + O-ti^. 
 
 These reactions, however, in no way explained the Lewes's 
 formation of the more complex liquid and solid bodies c ^ c Jo the* 8 
 formed when ethylene is heated, and Lewes, 1 having action of 
 worked upon the effect of heat upon ethylene, came Ethylene 
 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 55, 90. 
 
 49 4 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 to the conclusion that the primary action might be 
 represented by the equation 
 
 The The nascent acetylene so formed polymerises with 
 
 great rapidity, forming in the first place benzene, 
 
 C 6 H 6 , and, at a slightly higher temperature, styrolene, 
 C 8 H 8 ; whilst a still further rise of temperature yields 
 naphthalene, 
 
 5C 2 H 2 = C 10 H 8 + H 2 , 
 
 and higher tar-like products, whilst at the same time 
 the hydrogen combines to a small extent with acety- 
 lene, reforming ethylene. The methane also formed 
 in the primary reaction splits up into acetylene and 
 hydrogen, 
 
 and the various compounds present, by further poly- 
 merisation arid interaction amongst themselves, give 
 rise to the many compounds noticed by various ob- 
 servers. 
 
 The rapidity with which the freshly generated 
 acetylene polymerises renders it impossible to obtain 
 more than a slight percentage of the free acetylene in 
 the gaseous mixture ; and as the temperature reaches 
 the decomposing point of the acetylene, which varies 
 according to the amount of the dilution, polymerisa- 
 tion ceases, and the acetylene splits up directly into 
 carbon and hydrogen, and, all the other products doing 
 the same thing, the final reaction yields carbon and 
 hydrogen only. 
 
 D. THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE BY THE CHEMICAL 
 DECOMPOSITION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Before the introduction of calcium carbide, methods 
 for the preparation of acetylene based upon chemical 
 interactions between the halogen compounds of 
 
 50 
 
THE PEEPABATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 certain hydrocarbons and alkalies were used with 
 considerable success. 
 
 It was De Wilde, in 1874, l who noticed that when Decomposi- 
 the vapour of ethylene chloride was passed through a 
 
 tube filled with lime, or, better, soda lime, heated to Chloride 
 redness in a combustion furnace, the chlorine of the 
 organic compound united with the metal to form 
 chlorides of calcium and sodium, whilst water and 
 acetylene were generated. 
 
 The acetylene thus . set free was absorbed by am- The gas 
 moniacal cuprous chloride in the usual way, and the tws method' 
 copper acetylene used for the generation of the gas, 
 although when yielded by this method it is, as a rule, 
 so pure that in most cases it would be possible to use 
 the gas direct from the decomposmg-tube. 
 
 The reactions taking place may be represented by The dccom - 
 
 the equations taking place 
 
 Ethylene Chloride. Lime. Calcium Chloride. Water. Acetylene. 
 
 C 2 H 4 C1 2 + CaO CaCl 2 + H 2 + C 2 H 2 
 
 and 
 
 Ethylene Chloride. Sodium Hydrate. Sodium Chloride. Water. 
 C 2 H 4 C1 2 + 2NaHO 2 NaCl + 2 H 2 
 
 Acetylene. 
 + C 2 H 2 . 
 
 Another method for the preparation of acetylene, 
 still more widely employed, consists of decomposing 
 ethylene bromide by boiling alcoholic potash. 
 
 The researches of Miasnikoff 2 in 1861 showed that 
 the vapours of vinyl bromide, C 2 H 3 Br, could be de- decom- 
 composed by heated alcoholic potash with the libera- Ethyiene 
 tion of acetylene ; and in the same year Sawitch 3 Br mide by 
 
 J ' J Alcoholic 
 
 showed that an identical action took place when Potash 
 ethylene bromide was used in place of vinyl bromide, 
 whilst Sabanejeff, 4 in 1867, published a method of 
 
 1 Bull. Acad. Belg., 2, 19, No. 1. 
 
 2 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 118, 330. 3 Ibid, 119, 182. 
 4 Ibid, 178, 111. 
 
 51 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carrying out this reaction, which was an excellent 
 way of preparing the gas, as it yielded nearly 75 per 
 cent, of the calculated quantity of acetylene. 
 
 In the decomposition of ethylene bromide by boiling 
 alcoholic potash the gas always contains a certain 
 proportion of vinyl bromide, due to the reaction 
 taking place in two stages. 
 
 The 
 
 reactions 
 leading to 
 
 the 
 
 liberation of 
 Acetylene 
 
 1. Ethylene Bromide. 
 
 Potassium Hydrate. 
 KHO 
 
 Vinyl Bromide. 
 C 2 H 3 Br 
 
 Pot. Brom. 
 KBr 
 
 Water. 
 HoO 
 
 2. Vinyl Bromide. Potassium Hydrate. 
 
 C 2 H 3 Br + KHO 
 
 Water. Acetylene. 
 
 Potassium Bromide. 
 KBr 
 
 Apparatus 
 used 
 
 FIG. 10. 
 
 In order to remove 
 this bromide the 
 mixed gases are 
 again passed through 
 boiling alcoholic 
 potash. The appa- 
 ratus employed, Fig. 
 10, is made by taking 
 a small wide -necked 
 flask fitted with a 
 cork carrying a 
 dropping funnel and 
 a reflux condenser ; 
 a delivery tube from 
 the upper end of the 
 condenser passes into 
 a second similar 
 flask also carrying 
 a reflux condenser, 
 
 52 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 this tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask. 
 A second delivery tube carries the gas to the pneumatic 
 trough. Alcoholic potash is gently heated in both 
 flasks, and ethylene bromide allowed to drop into the 
 first. The gas which is produced carries with it the 
 vapours of alcohol and ethylene bromide, some of 
 which is condensed in the first reflux condenser 
 and is returned to the flask. Such vinyl bromide as 
 is carried forward is decomposed by being made to 
 bubble through the alcoholic potash contained in the 
 second flask, and the gas, which passes, after being 
 deprived of alcohol, through the second condenser, 
 may be collected at the pneumatic trough, and will be 
 found to be nearly pure acetylene. 
 
 Even after its second passage, however, through the 
 boiling alcoholic potash it is not totally free from the 
 vinyl bromide. Zeisel, 1 in order to finally purify this 
 gas, passed it over gently-heated soda lime, which 
 removed the last of the bromide compounds. Great 
 care has to be ob- 
 served in doing 
 this, as, if the tem- 
 perature is allowed 
 to get too high, 
 some of the acety- 
 lene undergoes poly- 
 merisation, and con- 
 densation products 
 make their appear- 
 ance in the acety- 
 lene, and have to be 
 got rid of by pass- 
 ing through two 
 wash bottles, the 
 first containing 
 
 alcohol and the FIG. 11. 
 
 second water. l Ann. Chem. Pharm., 191, 368. 
 
 53 
 
 Necessary 
 precautions 
 
 Final 
 
 purification 
 of the gas 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 If only small quantities of acetylene are required to 
 demonstrate that the gas is formed by the action of 
 hot alcoholic potash on ethylene bromide, the reflux 
 condensers may be omitted, and the simplified ap- 
 paratus shown in Fig. 11 may be used. 
 
 Another method of preparing the gas is due to 
 Cazeneuve 1. 500 grammes of zinc dust are placed in 
 preparation a flask with 20 grammes of bromoform, and a 2 per 
 8 cent, solution of copper chloride is then added, the 
 copper depositing upon the zinc, and forming a 
 galvanic couple which acts upon the bromoform, with 
 the formation of zinc bromide, and the liberation of 
 acetylene. 
 Bromoform. Zinc. Zinc Bromide. Acetylene. 
 
 Cazeneuvc's 
 met the f r 
 
 2CHBr, 
 
 3Zn 
 
 3ZnBr, 
 
 Potassium 
 Carbide 
 
 Moissan's 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 Carbides 
 
 The action 
 of metals at 
 
 high 
 
 tempera- 
 tures on 
 Carbon 
 
 This reaction is a useful one, as it proceeds with 
 considerable rapidity and gives a good yield of the 
 gas. 
 
 E. THE PREPARATION OP ACETYLENE BY THE DOUBLE 
 DECOMPOSITION OF CERTAIN CARBIDES IN CONTACT 
 WITH WATER. 
 
 It was by the action of water upon potassium car- 
 bide that Edmund Davy first made acetylene, whilst 
 the researches of Woehler, Maquenne, Moissan, and 
 Travers show that the carbides of several other metals 
 react with water in the same way. 
 
 These researches have all been noticed in the first 
 chapter of this work ; but no mention of the carbides 
 would be complete without giving in extenso Moissair s 
 resume of his magnificent researches as published in 
 the Comptes Rendus of the Academie des Sciences. 2 
 
 " At the high temperature of the electric furnace a 
 certain number of metals, such as gold, bismuth, and 
 tin, do not dissolve carbon. Liquid copper takes up 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 113, 1054. 2 Ibid., 122, 1462. 
 
 54 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 but a very small quantity, but sufficient to change 
 its properties and strongly modify its malleability. 
 At the temperature of ebullition silver dissolves a 
 small quantity of carbon, which it afterwards gives 
 up, on cooling, in the form of graphite. This melted 
 silver alloy, obtained at a high temperature, presents a 
 curious property that of increasing its volume when 
 passing from a liquid to a solid condition. The phe- 
 nomenon is analogous to that taking place with iron increase of 
 alloy, as both pure iron and silver diminish in volume ^^^oys 
 
 in passing from a liquid to a solid condition. On the of Carbon 
 
 .. . ij.1 with Iron r 
 
 contrary, this alloy of silver or iron, under the same silver 
 
 circumstances, increases in volume. 
 
 The metals of platinum at their boiling-point dissolve 
 carbon readily, and give it up again in the form of 
 graphite on solidification. This graphite is abundant. 
 A large number of metals, on the contrary, at the Tne 
 temperature of the electric furnace produce definite formation 
 and crystalline compounds. We have already noted crystalline 
 that Berthelot prepared carbides of potassium and so- 
 dium. By heating a mixture of lithium oxide, or car- 
 bonate of lithium, and carbon in his electric furnace, 
 Moissan was able to obtain very readily trans- 
 parent crystals of carbide of lithium which evolved 
 570 litres of pure acetylene per kilogram of the 
 carbide. In the same way, by heating a mixture Carbides of 
 of oxides and carbon, he obtained in notable quan- strontium, 
 tities crystalline carbides of calcium, barium, and an . d 
 
 J Calcium 
 
 strontium. 
 
 All these carbides are decomposed upon contact Decomposi 
 with cold water, giving off acetylene. The reaction Alkaline 
 
 is complete and the gas obtained pure. The three 
 alkaline earth carbides correspond to the formula RC 2 , water 
 and the carbide of lithium to the formula Li 2 C 2 . 
 Another type of crystallized carbide, in transparent Carbide ot 
 
 , , , ,. T f Aluminium 
 
 hexagonal plates one centimetre in diameter, is iiir- 
 nished by aluminium. This metal, strongly heated 
 
 55 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Carbide of 
 Glucinium 
 
 Carbides oi 
 Cerium, 
 
 Lanthanum, 
 Yttrium 
 
 and 
 Thorium 
 
 Carbide of 
 Manganese 
 
 Carbide of 
 Uranium 
 
 Liquid and 
 
 solid 
 products 
 
 in the electric furnace in the presence of 'carbon, 
 produces yellow flakes which one can isolate by care- 
 ful treatment with a dilute solution of hydrochloric 
 acid cooled to the temperature of melting ice. This 
 metallic carbide is decomposed by water at the ordin- 
 ary temperature, producing alumina and pure methane 
 gas. It corresponds to the formula A1 4 C 3 . 
 
 Lsbeau obtained, under the same conditions, the 
 carbide of glucinium, which, according to his experi- 
 ment, also produced methane upon contact with cold 
 water. The cerite metals gave crystalline carbides, of 
 which the formula resembles that of the alkaline 
 earth carbides, RC 2 . Moissan made a special in- 
 vestigation of the decomposition by water of the 
 carbide of cerium CeC 2 , lanthanum LaC 2 , yttrium 
 YtC 2 , and thorium ThC 2 . All these substances are 
 decomposed by water, furnishing a gaseous mixture 
 rich in acetylene and containing methane. The 
 proportion of acetylene diminishes, and of methane 
 increases with carbide of thorium. At ordinary 
 pressures and high temperatures iron never gives a 
 definite or crystalline compound. We have known 
 for a long time, thanks to the researches of Troost 
 and Hautefeuille, that manganese produces a carbide, 
 Mn 3 C. This carbide can be produced with the 
 greatest ease in an electric furnace, and in contact 
 with cold water it decomposes, giving off equal 
 volumes of methane and hydrogen. 
 
 Carbide of uranium, Ur 2 C 3 , which Moissan ob- 
 tained by the same process, gave a more complex 
 reaction. This carbide, well crystallized and trans- 
 parent, when in very thin plates, decomposed upon 
 contact with water and gave a gaseous mixture, 
 which contained a large quantity of methane, hydro- 
 gen, and ethylene. The most interesting fact pre- 
 sented by this carbide is that it not only gives off 
 carburetted acids, but also an abundance of liquid 
 
 56 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 and solid carbides, constituting two-thirds of its 
 carbon content. The carbides of cerium and lan- 
 thanum, by their decomposition by water, furnish 
 also liquid and solid carbides, but in less quantities. 
 
 All the carbides decomposable by water at ordinary 
 temperatures, with the production of carburetted 
 hydrogens, constitute the first class of compounds in 
 the metallic carbide family. The second class would Carbides not 
 consist of carbides not decomposable by water at able by 
 ordinary temperatures, such as a carbide of molyb- water at 
 denum Mo 2 C, tungsten Tg 2 C, and chromium Cr 4 C and tempera- 
 Cr 3 C 2 . The latter compounds are crystallized, not 
 transparent, and have a metallic lustre. They possess 
 great hardness, and melt only at elevated tempera- 
 tures. Moissan has prepared all of them in his 
 electric furnace. 
 
 The metalloids, in contact with carbon at the Carbo- 
 electric furnace temperatures, produce definite and 
 crystalline compounds, as, for example, the carbide 
 of silicon, SiC, discovered by Acheson. This product 
 is prepared on an industrial scale under the name of 
 carborundum. The carbide of titanium, TiC, has a 
 hardness so great as to scratch an impure diamond ; 
 the carbide of zirconium, ZrC, and the carbide of 
 vanadium, VaC, may also be mentioned. A general 
 fact may be deduced from the numerous experiments 
 made by Moissan with his electric furnace. The simple con- 
 compounds produced at high temperatures have st jjetainc f 
 always a very simple formula, and in most cases Carbides 
 exist in but one combination. The reaction which 
 appears to be the most curious is the easy production 
 of gaseous liquid or solid hydrocarbons by the action 
 of cold water upon certain metallic carbides. It 
 would seem that these investigations might be of 
 some geological interest. 
 
 The giving off of methane, more or less pure, 
 which one encounters in certain formations, and 
 
 57 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 decomposi- 
 tion of 
 Metallic 
 Carbides in 
 nature may 
 explain the 
 formation of 
 Natural 
 Gas and 
 Petroleum 
 
 Moissan's 
 experiments 
 
 Petroleums 
 and their 
 occurrence 
 
 which has been taking place for centuries, might 
 have its origin in the action of water npon carbide 
 of aluminium. A similar action will explain t lie- 
 formation of liquid hydrocarbons. We know that the 
 theories relating to the formation of petroleum are 
 as follows : first, production through the decomposi- 
 tion of animal or vegetable organic matter ; second, 
 the formation of petroleums by purely chemical re- 
 actions, a theory first brought out by Berthelot, and 
 which was the subject of a publication by Mendeleef ; 
 third, the formation of petroleum through volcanic 
 phenomena, a hypothesis advanced by Humboldt in 
 1804. 
 
 Starting with 4 kilograms of carbide of uranium, 
 Moissan obtained in a single experiment more than 
 100 grams of liquid carbides. The mixture thus 
 obtained is formed of ethylene carbides, a small 
 quantity of acetylene carbides and saturated carbides. 
 These carbides are formed in the presence of a large 
 proportion of methane and hydrogen at ordinary 
 temperature and pressure, a fact which caused Moissan 
 to think that when the decomposition took place at 
 high temperature there would be produced saturated 
 carbides analogous to petroleum. Berthelot has, as a 
 matter of fact, demonstrated that the direct fixing of 
 hydrogen upon non-saturated carbides could be brought 
 about by the action of heat alone. 
 
 The existence of these new metallic carbides, de- 
 composable by water, may in the future modify the 
 theories which have been previously given to explain 
 the formation of petroleums. One should guard 
 against hasty generalizations, for, in point of fact, 
 petroleums exist of different origin. At Autuii, for 
 example, the bituminous schists appear to have been 
 produced by the decomposition of organic matter. On 
 the contrary, in Linaagiie the asphalt impregnates the 
 fissures of a limestone very poor in fossils. This 
 
 58 
 
THE PREPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 asphalt has a direct relation with the basaltic tuffs 
 
 produced by volcanic action. A recent boring 
 
 made at Rioni brought some litres of petroleum from 
 
 a depth of about 4,CXJO feet. The formation of the 
 
 liquid carbide in this stratum could be attributed 
 
 to the action of water. Moissan has shown in his 
 
 note upon carbide of calcium the conditions under 
 
 which this compound can be burned, giving off car- production 
 
 bonic acid. As he has said in this note, it is probable c 
 
 that in the first geological periods of the earth nearly 
 
 all of the carbon existed in the form of metallic 
 
 carbides. When water enters into the reaction, the 
 
 metallic carbides produce carbides of hydrogen, and 
 
 the latter, by oxidation, carbonic acid. An example 
 
 of this reaction can be found near Saint Nectaire, 
 
 where the granites which constitute the border of the 
 
 territory basin give off continuously large quantities 
 
 of carbonic acid gas. Moissan thinks also that certain 
 
 Possible 
 
 volcanic phenomena could be attributed to the action action of 
 of water upon these easily decomposed carbides. All *" 
 
 geologists know that the last manifestation of a 
 volcanic centre consists in the emanation of a great 
 variety of carbides, such as asphalt or petroleum, and 
 finally, by reason of oxidation, carbonic acid. A 
 movement of the strata of the earth brings the water 
 in contact with the metallic carbides, and causes a 
 violent evolution of gas. At the same time the 
 temperature rises, the gases polymerise, and a series 
 of complex products result, such as the hydrocarbons 
 At certain places a volcanic fissure serves as an escape 
 valve or chimney. We know that the nature of the gas 
 collected in the fumeroles varies according to whether 
 the volcanic phenomena take place in the ocean or in 
 atmospheric air. At Santorin, for example, Fouque 
 has collected free hydrogen in the cavities of immersed 
 volcanoes, while he has found only vapour of water in 
 the superficial craters. The existence of these metallic 
 
 59 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 production 
 of Acety- 
 lene from 
 Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 carbides, so easy to prepare at high temperatures, and 
 which probably would be met with in the interior of 
 the earth, allows the explanation of certain volcanic 
 eruptions owing to the formation of hydrocarbon gases, 
 liquids or solids." 
 
 With calcium carbide, easily obtainable at a cheap 
 rate, none of the older processes for making acetylene 
 will be much employed except for lecture demonstra- 
 tion, as the acetylene obtained direct from a good 
 sample of calcium carbide is in many cases purer than 
 
 Apparatus 
 used 
 
 FIG. 12. 
 
 when the gas is produced by the decomposition of the 
 copper acetylene compound by hydrochloric acid, this 
 always containing, as previously pointed out, traces 
 of chlorine compounds. 
 
 The best method of preparing pure acetylene is to 
 take a conical filtering flask, Fig. 12, with side 
 tubulure, and to fit a wide tube, open at both ends, 
 into the cork closing the mouth of the flask, the tube 
 projecting into the flask to slightly below the level of 
 the side tubulure ; over the top of the tube is attached 
 
 60 
 
THE PKEPARATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 a piece of wide indiarubber tubing, the other end 
 
 being slipped over the mouth of a thick glass flask. 
 
 The conical flask is now filled with a 25 per cent. 
 
 solution of sugar, and the glass flask filled with pieces 
 
 of good crystalline carbide, broken to about the size of 
 
 peas ; and when this is attached to the indiarubber 
 
 tube, the weight of the carbide causes the flask to Method ot 
 
 hang down. On raising it the carbide can be thrown e the V gas 
 
 a few pieces at a time into the water, and a steady 
 
 evolution of the gas ensues. The gas is led from the 
 
 FIG. 13. 
 
 tubulure through a wash bottle in which is a 3 per 
 cent, solution of sodium hypochlorite, and then through 
 a tower, containing moistened sodium hydrate. 
 
 The acetylene generated from the ordinary calcium Removal oi 
 carbide contains small traces of sulphuretted and 
 phosphuretted hydrogen and ammonia ; but when the 
 evolution is carried on slowly in the way indicated, 
 the sugar solution absorbs the ammonia, whilst the 
 sodium hypochlorite removes the traces of phos- 
 phuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen. The gas 
 generated in this way is purer than when made by 
 
 61 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Preparation 
 
 from 
 
 Carbide 
 
 where 
 
 absolute 
 
 purity not 
 
 essential 
 
 acting on the copper acetylene compound with hydro- 
 chloric acid. 
 
 If the purity of the gas is not of great importance, 
 the acetylene can be conveniently prepared by putting 
 a layer of sand at the bottom of a 16-ounce flask, Fig. 
 13, and placing on the sand calcuim carbide in pieces 
 the size of hazel nuts. 
 
 The flask is fitted with a cork carrying a dripping 
 funnel and delivery tube, and the water is allowed 
 to fall on the carbide a few drops at a time, the gas 
 being led away through the washing cylinder and 
 tower. When prepared in this way, the purity of the 
 gas largely depends on the rate of evolution ; as with 
 carbide of fair commercial purity, if the gas be 
 generated slowly, it will be sufficiently pure for all 
 ordinary purposes. 
 
Nomen- 
 clature 
 
 Klumene 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 EDMUND DAVY, in 1836, named the newly- 
 discovered gas bicarburet of hydrogen, to mark 
 the fact that he supposed it to be " composed of two 
 proportions of carbon and one of hydrogen " ; whilst 
 later the name " klumene " was bestowed upon it, 
 because it had been derived from a kalium 1 compound 
 potassium carbide. 
 
 It was Berthelot 2 who christened it "acetylene," 
 from the fact that it bears the same relation to the 
 radical acetyle, C 2 H 3 , that ethylene does to the radical 
 ethyl, C 2 H 5 , and it is by this name that it is 
 universally known, although attempts have been 
 made to bring it under the more uniform system of 
 vowel nomenclature proposed by Laurent and adopted 
 by Hofmann, in which the different classes of hydro- 
 carbons are distinguished by definite terminations, the 
 C n H 2u + 2 series having the termination "-ane," the 
 C n H 2n series " -ene," and the C n H 2ll - 2 series, of which Ethine 
 acetylene is the simplest member, the termination 
 a -ine." Hence the hydrocarbons containing two 
 atoms of carbon would be 
 
 C 2 H 6 , ethane ; C 2 H 4 , ethene ; C 2 H 2 , ethine. 
 
 The ratio of carbon atoms to hydrogen, supposed <J r 'bon < t 
 to exist in the molecule of acetylene, reflects the Hydrogen in 
 various phases through which the atomic theory was 
 passing in the early half of the century ; and whilst 
 
 1 Gmelin, viii. 150. 2 Compt. Rend., 50, 805. 
 
 63 
 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 for 
 Acetylene 
 
 Davy expressed its composition as C 2 + H, 1 it was later 
 doubled, and became C 4 H 2 ; 2 whilst, when the atomic 
 weight of carbon was recognised as 12 instead of 6, 
 
 The formula acetylene assumed the formula C 2 H 2 . During the 
 period that these alterations were taking place in its 
 nomenclature and symbolical representation, no varia- 
 tion of opinion existed as to its actual composition. 
 Davy found that it required two and a half volumes 
 of oxygen to complete the combustion of one volume 
 of acetylene, and that two volumes of carbon dioxide 
 
 Determina- and one of water were produced. Berthelot 3 stated 
 as ^ e resu ^ ^ eudiometric analysis that the com- 
 position of acetylene was 
 
 comosition 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 92-3 
 
 7-7 
 
 100-0 
 
 And finally Moissan, 4 analyzing the gas developed by 
 the action of water on calcium carbide, gives as his 
 analytical data : 
 
 Moissan's 
 analysis of 
 Acetylene 
 from Cal- 
 cium Car- 
 bide 
 
 Gas taken . 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Total gas . 
 
 After explosion 
 
 After absorption with potash 
 
 Contraction . 
 
 Carbon dioxide 
 
 1-28 
 
 15-15 
 
 16-43 
 
 14-50 
 
 11-98 
 
 1-93 
 
 2-52 
 
 Molecular 
 weight and 
 density of 
 Acetylene 
 
 whilst the formula C 2 H 2 would require theoretically a 
 contraction of 1-95 and 2*56 as the volume of carbon 
 dioxide ; hence the acetylene obtained from the carbide 
 was practically pure. 
 
 These analytical results show that the ratio of 
 carbon to hydrogen in acetylene is as 12 to 1, and the 
 density of the gas at once shows that the molecule 
 must be represented by the formula C 2 H 2 . It has a 
 molecular weight of 26, and density 13. 
 
 1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1836, 62. 2 Gmelin, viii. 150. 
 
 Compt. Rend., 50, 805. 
 
 Le Four Electrique, p. 297. 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 The specific gravity of the gas, as found by Berthe- 
 lot, 1 was O92, whilst the determinations by Moissan 2 
 gave 0-907 and 0'912 respectively, the theoretical 
 figure being 0*8985, and one litre weighs T165 grams 
 at C and 760 mm. pressure. 
 
 In 1881 Thomsen 3 determined the heat of formation 
 at constant volume and constant pressure, and found 
 it to be-47,700 calories, so that acetylene is a highly 
 endothermic compound ; and on its decomposition the 
 heat absorbed during its formation is again liberated. 
 
 The specific heat was determined by Maneuvrier 
 and Fournier, 4 who, as a mean of forty-two tests, find 
 it to be 1-26. 
 
 The heat of combustion of acetylene has been deter- 
 mined by Berthelot and by Thomsen. 
 
 Berthelot 5 first made the determination by oxida- 
 tion with potassium permanganate, and obtained 
 321,000 calories ; whilst later, 6 by burning the gas in 
 oxygen, he found 317,000 calories. 
 
 Afterwards, when working on explosives, he deter- 
 mined 7 the heat evolved by the detonation of the gas 
 at constant volume, and obtained 314,900 calories, 
 whilst at constant pressure the result was 315,700 
 calories. 
 
 Thomsen, 8 as the mean of several determinations 
 made by direct combustion, found 310,000 calories. 
 
 Berthelot 9 has also given the heat of transformation 
 of acetylene into other compounds as follows : 
 
 1. The oxidation of acetylene into carbon dioxide 
 and water 
 
 C 2 H 2 + 50 = 2 C0 2 + H 2 (liquid) + 321,000 calories. 
 
 Specific 
 
 gravity and 
 
 weight 
 
 Heat of f 3 
 formation 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 an 
 
 endothermic 
 compound 
 
 Heat of 
 combustion 
 of Acetylene 
 
 Berthelot 
 
 Thomsen 
 
 Heats of 
 
 formation of 
 
 bodies from 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Dioxide and 
 
 water 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 50, 805. 
 3 Thermoch. Unters., 4, 74. 
 5 Ann. Chim. Phys. (5), 9, 165. 
 7 Ibid. (5), 23, 180. 
 9 Compt. Rend., 82, 24-28. 
 
 65 
 
 2 La Four Electrique, 297. 
 4 Compt. Rend., 124, 183. 
 6 Ibid. (5), 13, 14. 
 8 Thermoch. Unters., 4, 74. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Oxalic Acid 
 
 Acetic Acid 
 Formic Acid 
 
 Ethylcnc 
 
 Prussic Acid 
 
 Benzene 
 
 Specific heat 
 
 of 
 
 Acetylene 
 Hydrate 
 
 Occurrence 
 
 Smell of 
 Acetylene 
 
 Solubility of 
 
 the gas in 
 
 water 
 
 Solubility 
 
 under 
 pressure 
 
 2. The formation of oxalic acid (solid) from acety- 
 lene 
 
 C 2 H 2 + 20 2 = C 2 H 2 4 + 260,800 calories. 
 
 3. The formation of crystalline acetic acid 
 
 C 2 H 2 + + H 2 = C 2 H 4 2 + 113,500 calories. 
 
 4. The formation of crystalline formic acid 
 
 C 2 H 2 + 20 2 = CH 2 2 + C0 2 + 253,500 calories. 
 
 5. The formation of ethylene 
 
 C 2 H 2 + H 2 = C 2 H 4 + 56,000 calories, 
 
 6. The formation of prussic acid (gaseous) 
 
 C 2 H 2 + N 2 = 2HCN + 36,000 calories. 
 
 7. The formation of liquid benzene 
 
 3(C 2 H 2 ) - C 6 H 6 + 190,000 calories (nearly) ; 
 whilst Villard 1 found the heat of formation of the 
 hydrate C 2 H 2 6H 2 to be + 1,540 calories. 
 
 Acetylene occurs in minute traces in coal gas, and 
 all other gases produced by the destructive distillation 
 of organic matter containing hydrogen and carbon, 
 whilst it is invariably found in the interior of all 
 hydrocarbon names. 
 
 It is a clear colourless gas, having a sweet ethereal 
 odour, the unpleasant smell noticeable in the gas as 
 ordinarily prepared being due to impurities, and dis- 
 appearing as soon as the gas is properly purified. 2 
 
 Davy, 3 in his original memoir, states that recently- 
 boiled distilled water absorbs about its own volume of 
 the gas; and Lewes 4 finds that at 15 C., and 760 mm. 
 ten volumes of water dissolve eleven of the gas, water 
 already saturated with coal gas not taking up acety- 
 lene so readily ; whilst in a saturated salt solution it 
 is practically insoluble, 100 volumes of brine only 
 absorbing five of the gas. 
 
 The amount of gas dissolved increases with the 
 
 1 Compt Rend., 120, 1262. 
 
 2 See under Purification, part II. 
 
 3 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1836, 62. 4 Journ. Soc. Arts, 43, 159. 
 
 66 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 pressure ; and Villard l found that one volume of boiled 
 water at 0. dissolved 1-6 volumes of acetylene at 
 4'65 atmospheres pressure. 
 
 Berthelot 2 tried the solubility of acetylene in various solubility of 
 liquids, and gave as the result of his experiments : ^various 
 
 liquids 
 
 1 vol. of water at 18 C. and 760 mm. dissolves 1 vol. of acetylene. 
 
 ,, carbon disulphide ,, 1 ,, 
 
 pentane 1 
 
 turpentine 2 
 
 carbon tetrachloride ., 2 ,, 
 
 ,, amyl alcohol ,, ,, 3'5 ,, ,, 
 
 styrolene 3'5 
 
 ., chloroform 4 
 
 benzol 4 
 
 acetic acid 6 
 
 According to Fuchs and Schiff, 3 100 volumes of olive solubility in 
 oil only absorb 48 volumes of acetylene. 
 
 Claude and Hess 4 noticed in 1897 that 1 volume of 
 acetone at 15, and under ordinary pressure, dissolves 
 25 volumes of acetylene, and under 12 atmospheres 
 300 volumes. Thus the solubility increases nearly in 
 proportion to the pressure. The solubility in acetone 
 is diminished by half on passing from 15 to 50 ; and 
 therefore the pressure in a reservoir doubles for a rise 
 of about 30. With liquid acetylene a pressure of 24 
 atmospheres increases to 70 for a rise of 18. Dissolved Advantages 
 acetylene mav therefore be stored safelv in weaker and of the 
 
 17 J J solution in 
 
 lighter vessels than liquid acetylene ; and since its co- Acetone over 
 efficient of dilatation is very much lower, the vessels Acetylene 
 may be more nearly filled. A platinum wire, main- 
 tained at bright redness by electric current, was held 
 for an indefinite period with impunity in a solution * 
 
 of acetylene in acetone made under a pressure of 3 
 atmospheres. 
 
 The safety of solutions of acetylene in acetone is an 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 120, 1262. 2 Ann. Chim. Phys. (4), 9, 425. 
 3 Chem. Zeit., 1897, 895. 4 Compt. Rend., 124, 626. 
 
 67 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 important question, as were the solution free from the 
 dangers inseparable from liquid acetylene, 1 it would 
 be possible under pressure to store more acetylene in 
 solution in acetone in a given space, than would be 
 possible with acetylene liquefied per se. 
 
 This point was made the subject of an exhaustive 
 research bjf^Berthelot and Vielle, 2 w> studied the 
 the safety properties of solutions of acetvlencrin acetone under 
 
 of Acetone ,, , , 
 
 tnree heads : 
 
 Berthciot 
 
 solutions 
 
 Pressure 
 exerted by 
 
 dissolved 
 Acetylene 
 
 Liability of 
 dissolved 
 
 Acetylene to 
 detonate 
 
 Inflamma- 
 bility of 
 dissolved 
 Acetylene 
 
 1. PRESSURE or DISSOLVED ACETYLENE 
 Details are given of the pressures over a range of 
 about 60 C. of solutions containing respectively 69 gr. 
 of acetylene and 301 grs. of acetone, 118 grs. of acety- 
 lene and 315 grs. of acetone, and 203 grs. of acetylene 
 and 315 grs. of acetone. The most important results 
 are that the observed pressures follow the same general 
 law as the pressures of the saturated vapour of a homo- 
 geneous liquid, and are attributable almost entirely 
 to the acetylene ; the pressure attributable to the 
 acetone forms only a small fraction a few hundredths 
 of the total pressure. 
 
 2. LIABILITY OP DISSOLVED ACETYLENE TO DETONATE 
 The explosion of 1-5 gr. of fulminate of mercury in 
 
 a metallic bottle of 700 cc. capacity, containing 320 
 grs. of acetone and 132 grs. of acetylene, caused a dull 
 noise with escape of gas. The bottle was cracked, but 
 there was no explosion nor inflammation. In an iden- 
 tical experiment made by the authors with liquefied 
 acetylene the bottle was smashed to small fragments. 
 
 3. LIABILITY or DISSOLVED ACETYLENE, AND OF THE 
 
 VAPOUR, TO INFLAME 
 
 A 50 cc. steel tube, provided with crusher gauges, 
 was charged with 14 cc. of acetone in a first set of 
 experiments, and 8*2 cc. in a second set. The acetone 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 129, 988. 
 68 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPEBTIES 
 
 was saturated with acetylene at the ordinary tempera- 
 ture, and at pressures varying from 10 to 20 kilos, per 
 square cm. ; when the initial pressure did not exceed 10 
 kilos., and the ignition was produced by an incandescent 
 platinum wire in the gas, the observed pressures did 
 not differ from those corresponding to the combustion 
 of pure acetylene under the same pressure. From this 
 it may be concluded that the dissolved acetylene is not 
 decomposed, and that it takes no part in the combus- 
 tion. The maximum pressures observed are only one- 
 tenth of those which would correspond to the explosive 
 decomposition of the whole of the contained acetylene, 
 gaseous and dissolved. But when the initial pressure 
 exceeds 10 kilos., the effect produced becomes analogous 
 to the explosion of pure liquid acetylene. Not only is 
 the acetylene decomposed, but the acetone which holds 
 it in solution is also destroyed simultaneously. The 
 explosive decomposition produces a compact mass of 
 carbon, which takes the form of the tube. The gases 
 formed consist of hydrogen and carbon monoxide 
 mixed with carbonic acid. The experiments have 
 been repeated with a larger receiver (13*5 litres) of the 
 kind commercially used. It is found that the bottle 
 ordinarily used, tested to 250 atmospheres, can support 
 without rupture the pressure resulting from an acci- 
 dental inflammation of the gaseous atmosphere con- 
 tained in the bottles, the acetone having been saturated 
 with acetylene at pressures of 6 to 8 kilos., and tem- 
 peratures of 10 to 15 C. The pressure developed does 
 not exceed 155 kilos. But these bottles are no longer 
 safe if the initial pressure exceed 10 kilos, or if they 
 are exposed to temperatures exceeding 35 C. With 
 an initial pressure of 20 kilos., when the inflammation 
 is produced in a gaseous atmosphere, it can develop a 
 pressure of 568 kilos. ; and when it is produced in the 
 liquid itself, the pressure rises to 5,100 kilos. No com- 
 mercial receiver is safe under such conditions. 
 
 69 
 
 Pressures 
 observed 
 
 Strength of 
 
 bottle 
 needed to 
 
 resist 
 pressures 
 
 found 
 
 Limits of 
 safety 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Conclusions 
 arrived at 
 
 by Bcrthelot 
 and Vicllc 
 
 Explosive 
 decomposi- 
 tion of the 
 solution 
 
 Finally, acetylene is less dangerous when dissolved 
 in acetone, for it cannot be exploded by internal in- 
 flammation when the pressure is below 10 kilos, and 
 the temperature is below 15 C. Acetylene per se can 
 be exploded by internal ignition when a receiver of 
 a litre capacity contains 2'5 grs. or more. Under 
 the conditions stated the same receiver could contain 
 without risk nearly fifty times as much acetylene 
 100 to 120 grs. dissolved in acetone. 
 
 Further, 1 they find that when acetylene is heated in 
 contact with its solution in acetone, in a closed receiver, 
 under certain conditions the dissolved acetylene suffers 
 no decomposition, whilst under other conditions it 
 suffers explosive decomposition. In the latter case 
 the solvent, acetone, is decomposed, and, in the main 
 decomposed into its elements, the oxygen appearing in 
 the form of carbon monoxide and dioxide and water 
 
 4C.JLO = 
 
 cause of the This total decomposition of the solvent is produced by 
 tion of the the explosive shock resulting from the destruction of 
 the acetylene at constant volume. It is exceptionally 
 interesting as an example of the sudden and total 
 destruction of a substance which is formed, as acetone 
 is, with evolution of heat. The determining factor in 
 the conditions is the pressure. The authors proceed to 
 explain from thermochemical considerations why acety- 
 lene dissolved in acetone is stable up to a certain pres- 
 sure about 10 kilos, per square cm. The decomposi- 
 tion of 20 grs. of gaseous acetylene into its elements 
 evolves + 51*4 calories ; allowing for the heat of solu- 
 tion of dissolved acetylene, this would be reduced to 
 + 46'3 calories. The heat of vaporization of a mole- 
 cule of acetone is 7*5 calories, so that the decomposition 
 of a molecule of acetylene would suffice to vaporize 
 
 1 Compt. Bend., 129, 996. 
 70 
 
 solvent 
 
 Heat 
 generated 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 6 molecules, or thirteen times its weight of acetone. 
 Such would be the effect produced in a solution con- 
 taining 77 grs. of acetylene per kilo, of acetone. To 
 this must be added the heat required to heat to the 
 same temperature the carbon and hydrogen produced 
 by the decomposition of the acetylene. Clearly the 
 high temperature required for the destruction of the 
 acetylene cannot be attained under these conditions ; 
 a much larger percentage of the endothermic compound 
 is required. At a pressure of 10 kilos, per square cm., 
 1 kilo, of acetone dissolves 350 grs. of acetylene ; the 
 latter by its own decomposition would evolve 623 '3 
 calories. This at constant volume would raise the 
 mixture of acetone supposed to be unaltered, carbon, 
 and hydrogen to 730 at most. Now this temperature 
 is not high enough to decompose acetylene into its 
 elements. A similar calculation for acetone, saturated 
 with acetylene, under a pressure of 20 kilos., and con- 
 taining 700 grs. of acetylene per kilo, of acetone, gives 
 a temperature of 1,300, which is above the actual 
 temperature of decomposition of acetylene. These 
 calculations are only approximate, and reference must 
 be made to the original for further developments ; e.g., 
 the heat absorbed in the decomposition of the acetone 
 into carbon, hydrogen, and carbonic acid would reduce 
 the above temperature to 1,160 C. But this same 
 decomposition would determine an increase of volume 
 from 1 to 3 1, or at constant volume a corresponding 
 increase of pressure. Taking both into account, the 
 decomposition of acetone would result in the doubling 
 of the final pressure, as compared with that due to 
 the decomposition of the acetylene alone. Under high 
 initial pressures, therefore, the acetone might become 
 a source of danger rather than of safety. 
 
 Acetylene was first liquefied by Cailletet 1 in 1877 ; 
 but from the figures he experimentally arrived at the 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 85, 851. 
 71 
 
 Thermal 
 
 reasons for 
 
 the safety 
 
 of a solution 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 in Acetone 
 
 at a 
 
 pressure of 
 
 less than 10 
 
 kilos, per 
 
 square 
 centimetre 
 
 Liquefaction 
 of Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Ansdell's 
 research on 
 
 the 
 
 liquefaction 
 of Acetylene 
 
 Cailletet 
 pump 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 apparatus 
 
 Preparation 
 
 of the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 used 
 
 gas used must have been impure ; and in 1879 the 
 work was repeated by Ansdell l in the laboratory of 
 the Royal Institution, and as his research still re- 
 mains the most important and reliable work on the 
 subject, it is well to reproduce it in extenso. 
 
 He uses for this work one of Cailletet's pumps, but 
 points out that in doing so he employed a carefully 
 calibrated air manometer instead of the ordinary 
 metallic gauge attached to the pump, which was far 
 from being correct. 
 
 11 The pump itself is too well known to need de- 
 scription ; suffice it to say that two of the iron bottles 
 or reservoirs were used, connected with the pump by 
 a piece of fine-bore copper tubing, so as to equalize 
 the pressure, one containing an air manometer regis- 
 tering the pressures from ten atmospheres upwards, 
 and the other the tube filled with acetylene. The 
 two bottles were then placed side by side, and the 
 height of the column of mercury in either read off by 
 means of a cathetometer. 
 
 " The formulae used for calibrating the tubes, and 
 also for calculating the volume of the liquefied gas, 
 and the pressure by the air manometer, were those 
 given by Dr. Andrews in his researches on carbonic 
 acid (Phil. Trans., 1869 and 1876). The method of 
 preparing the acetylene gas was by the action of 
 alcoholic ' potash on bibromethylene, the disengaged 
 gas being collected in the form of the red acetylide of 
 copper by passing it into a strong solution of the 
 subchloride of copper in ammonia. This red com- 
 pound, after being thoroughly washed and boiled 
 with distilled water, was transferred to a flask with 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, the gas driven off by means 
 of a gentle heat, and conducted through a strong 
 solution of caustic soda, to free it from traces of 
 hydrochloric acid, and finally through two small U 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 29, 209. 
 
 72 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 tubes with fused chloride of calcium. The perfectly 
 pure and dry acetylene was now passed through the 
 tube to be used for its liquefaction in a slow stream 
 for several hours, and the latter carefully sealed off 
 when all the air had been expelled. 
 
 'The sealing off requires great care, as unless rapidly 
 done, and the pressure removed from the inside by 
 cooling the tube, immediately the point is closed the 
 acetylene becomes charred and blown out, a small 
 portion of it being consequently decomposed, and thus 
 interfering materially with the accuracy of the re- 
 sults. 
 
 " The tube for the tension determinations was of the 
 usual shape used in the Cailletet pump, the internal 
 diameter of the capillary part being about 2*5 mm. 
 This was found to be more convenient than a narrower 
 tube, as a larger reservoir could be used, and conse- 
 quently a larger quantity of liquid obtained. 
 
 "The pressure at the different temperatures was 
 always observed when a very slight layer of liquid 
 was formed on the surface of the mercury ; as the gas 
 not being entirely free from air, the pressure was 
 slightly increased on filling completely the upper 
 part of the tube. 
 
 " The following are the tensions obtained compared The tension 
 with those of Cailletet : 
 
 as observed 
 
 Cailletet. &Y Ansdell 
 
 Temperature. Pressure. Temperature. Pressure. and 
 
 -23 C. 11-01 atm. 
 
 -10 17-06 
 
 21-53 + 1-0 C. 48 atm. 
 
 + 5-25 25-48 2'5 50 
 
 13-5 32-77 10-0 63 
 
 20-15 39-76 18-0 83 
 
 27-55 48-99 25'0 94 
 
 31-6 56-2 31-0 103 
 
 36 65-36 
 
 36-5 65-89 
 
 36-9 67-96 
 
 73 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 cooling 
 arrange- 
 ments 
 employed 
 
 Comparison 
 
 of the 
 tension of 
 
 liquid 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and Benzene 
 
 vapour 
 
 The critical 
 
 point of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Villard's 
 experiments 
 
 on the 
 liquefaction 
 of Acetylene 
 
 " The temperatures above zero were kept constant to 
 within one-twentieth of a degree by allowing a con- 
 stant stream of water to now over the tube from a 
 reservoir holding about 45 litres, in which it had 
 been previously thoroughly mixed. The temperature 
 of 10 was obtained by cooling down alcohol with ice 
 and salt, and that at -23 by surrounding the tube 
 with a narrow glass cylinder containing liquid 
 chloride of methyl, which boils constantly at this 
 temperature, this cylinder being again enclosed in a 
 wider one containing a little phosphoric anhydride to 
 prevent moisture from condensing on the sides. 
 
 " It was thought interesting to compare the tensions 
 of liquid acetylene with those of the saturated vapour 
 of benzene, being polymeric bodies, although having 
 totally different principles. For this purpose curves 
 were plotted for the two substances, that for the 
 benzene being taken from Regnault's results (M6m. 
 Acad. Sci., Paris, vol. xxvi. p. 420). They do not, 
 however, run parallel to each other, the benzene 
 having a slower rate of increase at low temperatures, 
 but a quicker rate than the acetylene as the temper- 
 ature rises. 
 
 " The curves, however, have no appearance of actu- 
 ally crossing at higher temperatures. 
 
 " The critical point of acetylene, or that temperature 
 at which no appearance of liquefaction takes place, 
 however great a pressure is exerted on the gas, 
 was found, after many careful experiments, to be 
 37-05 C." 
 
 Villard, 1 in 1895, criticised Ansdell's method of 
 preparing the acetylene, and points out that when 
 the gas is liberated from the copper acetylene com- 
 pound, the products of its combustion always contain 
 hydrochloric acid, and that therefore the acetylene 
 may have contained chlorine compounds. 2 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 120, 1262. 2 See page 43. 
 
 74 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPEBTIES 
 
 Hydrate 
 
 Villard made acetylene by acting on calcium carbide Preparation 
 with water, and, after purifying it as much as possible, Acetylene 
 led it into water under pressure, when crystals of a 
 hydrate, C 2 H 2 , 6A 2 O, are formed, and, being heavier 
 than water, sink to the bottom. 
 
 These crystals dissociate at ordinary temperatures 
 when the pressure is removed, and the gas, when 
 dried, is pure acetylene. His determinations with the 
 purified gas gave the following results : 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Pressure. Temperature. 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 
 -90 C. 
 
 0-69 atm. solid -23'8 C. 
 
 13-2 atm. 
 
 Villard's 
 
 -85 
 
 1-0 0-0 
 
 26-5 
 
 determina 
 
 -81 
 
 1-25 melting point + 5*8 
 
 30-3 
 
 tions 
 
 -70 
 
 2-22 11-5 
 
 34-8 
 
 
 -60 
 
 3-55 15-0 
 
 37-9 
 
 
 -50 
 
 5-30 20-0 
 
 42-8 
 
 
 -40 
 
 7-7 37 
 
 68 critical point 
 
 
 In 1895 also Willson and Suckert, 1 in a paper read 
 before the Franklin Institute, gave the following 
 figures for commercial acetylene prepared by calcic 
 carbide : 
 
 * nd 
 
 Temperature. 
 -82-2 C. 
 
 Pressure. 
 I'O atm. 
 
 -33-6 
 
 9-0 
 
 -23-0 
 
 11-1 
 
 -10-0 
 
 17-06 
 
 o-o 
 
 21-53 
 
 + 5-3 
 
 25-48 
 
 13-5 
 
 32-77 
 
 19-5 
 
 39-76 
 
 These figures show a remarkable coincidence with 
 those given by Ansdell between the temperatures of 
 -23 and +13-5. 
 
 In 1896 Eaoul Pictet 2 made the astounding state- Pic ^t on 
 ment that the figures obtained by previous obser- liquefaction 
 vers were too high, and that when acetylene made of Acet y lene 
 by the action of water on calcic carbide was purified 
 
 1 Journ. Franklin Instit., 139, 327. 
 
 2 L' 'Acetylene Geneve, 1896, 66. 
 
 75 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 by his physico-chemical process of passing it through 
 a solution of calcic chloride cooled to - 40 C, and then 
 through sulphuric acid at a low temperature, and 
 finally through lead salts, the following table would 
 represent the tension of the acetylene at the various 
 temperatures indicated : 
 
 Temperature. Pressure. 
 
 1-6 C. 21-5 atm. 
 
 ,9-5 27 
 
 141 29 
 
 19-5 33-5 
 
 27-6 38-5 
 
 36-5 48 
 
 47 68 
 
 The most extraordinary figure in this table being 
 the last, which credits the acetylene at 10 above its 
 critical temperature with no greater pressure than at 
 its critical point, as determined by such careful ob- 
 servers as Ansdell and Villard. 
 
 Liquid acetylene is colourless and very transparent, 
 and its presence in a tube can only be seen by noticing 
 the upper meniscus. 
 
 The density and compressibility of the liquid were 
 fully studied by Ansdell : 1 
 
 Ansdeii's " -^ or determining the density and compressibility 
 
 experiments o f the liquid at different temperatures, a tube was 
 
 density and used having a capillary bore of about 8 mm. in dia- 
 
 compressi- me ter, the whole of the tube having a capacity of 
 
 liquid 36'3708 cub. cm. This gave a column of liquid about 
 
 15 cm. long, when the upper part of the tube was 
 
 entirely full at 15 C. 
 
 " The density at any particular temperature was 
 taken by forcing the liquid up the capillary tube at 
 that temperature until the upper part was completely 
 filled ; the length of the column of liquid was then 
 read off, its volume calculated, and this observed 
 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 29, 212. 
 76 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 volume divided into the calculated weight of the gas 
 at zero. They are as follows : 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Density. 
 
 -re. 
 
 0-460 
 
 16-4 
 
 0-420 
 
 -3 
 
 0-456 
 
 20-6 
 
 0-413 
 
 
 
 0-451 
 
 26-25 
 
 0-404 
 
 4-4 
 
 0-441 
 
 30-0 
 
 0-397 
 
 9-0 
 
 . 0-432 
 
 34-0 
 
 0-381 
 
 
 
 35-8 
 
 0-364 
 
 The density 
 of liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 "It hatS therefore about half the density of liquid 
 carbonic acid ; and if we take the actual volume of 
 the liquid at 7 as unity, it becomes 1-264 at + 35'8, 
 which gives O00489 as its coefficient of expansion per 
 degree for the total range of pressure. It is therefore 
 only about half as expansible as carbonic acid, whose 
 coefficient is O010, and is not much more expansible 
 than a gas. Comparing the density of liquid acety- 
 lene with that of liquid benzene, the latter is found 
 to be almost exactly twice as great as the former at 
 the same temperature ; as, for instance, at C. the 
 density of the acetylene is O451, whereas that of the 
 benzene is O899. The vapour density, however, of the 
 benzene is three times as great, viz. 2'704. 
 
 " The apparent compressibility in glass was deter- 
 mined by direct observation, the liquid being forced 
 up in the capillary tube until the latter was com- 
 pletely full, and then the pressure gradually increased, 
 and the diminution in volume read off at intervals of 
 about 10 atmospheres up to about 180 atmospheres. 
 
 " Curves were then plotted showing the volume at 
 different pressures for the same temperature, and from 
 these the coefficient of compression at any tempera- 
 ture and pressure was easily deduced. 
 
 " The following tables are constructed from the 
 curves : 
 
 Co-efficient 
 
 of expansion 
 
 of liquid 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Density as 
 compared 
 
 with 
 Benzene 
 
 Compressi- 
 bility of 
 
 liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 77 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Tables of 
 
 coefficients 
 
 of 
 
 compression 
 of liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 1. Mean coefficients of compression of liquid acetylene at differ- 
 
 ent temperatures. Eange of pressure from 36'62 to 182'68 
 atmospheres : 
 
 Temp, of Acetylene. Coeff. Temp, of Acetylene. Coeff. 
 
 35 C. 0-00085 16 C. 0-00050 
 
 28-6 0-00068 4'4 0*00038 
 
 22-5 0-00058 0-00025 
 
 2. Coefficients of compression at the same pressure but varying 
 
 temperatures : 
 
 35 
 28-6 
 22-5 
 16-0 
 
 4-4 
 
 
 
 3. Coefficients of compression at varying pressures and temper- 
 atures corresponding to the same volume: 
 
 Atm. 70. 
 
 Atm. 95. 
 
 Atm. 120. 
 
 Atm. 160. 
 
 
 0-00343 
 
 0-00169 
 
 0-00078 
 
 
 0-00138 
 
 0-00099 
 
 0-00076 
 
 0-00171 
 
 0-00113 
 
 0-00078 
 
 0-00065 
 
 0-00122 
 
 0-00083 
 
 0-00072 
 
 0-00050 
 
 0-00079 
 
 0-00065 
 
 0-00057 
 
 0-00047 
 
 0-00066 
 
 0-00050 
 
 0-00049 
 
 0-00035 
 
 0-00047 
 
 0-00042 
 
 0-00034 
 
 0-00032 
 
 0-00041 
 
 0-00036 
 
 0-00025 
 
 0-00029 
 
 Temp, of Acetylene. 
 
 35 
 
 28-6 
 22-5 
 16-0 
 
 35 
 22-5 
 16-0 
 4-4 
 
 Vol . = 97 cmm . 
 Pressure. Coeff. 
 170-8 0-00080 
 137 
 103-2 
 
 70-0 
 
 0-00085 
 0-00093 
 0-00120 
 
 Vol. = 101 cmm. 
 
 126-3 atm. 0'00128 
 
 98-3 0-00132 
 
 72-7 0-00167 
 
 Vol. = 92 cmm. 
 Pressure. Coeff. 
 
 175-8 atm. 0'00065 
 
 137-8 0-00063 
 
 99-2 0-00065 
 
 59-5 0-00066 
 
 Vol. =89 cmm. 
 
 158 
 115-6 
 49-7 
 
 atm. 0-00054 
 0-00056 
 0-00058 
 
 Effect of " It is evident from the above tables that acetylene 
 
 e is governed by the same laws as other compressible 
 
 pressure on liquids ; that is to say, its compressibility increases 
 
 compress!- . J , , ,. . . -, ,, 
 
 biiity as the temperature rises, but diminishes as the pres- 
 
 1 These two experiments were, of course, made above the 
 critical point. 
 
 78 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 \ 
 
 sure increases. For instance, at a pressure of 95 
 atmospheres it is three times as compressible at 35 C. 
 as at C. 
 
 " The volume being the same, the compressibility 
 appears to be nearly the same at different tempera- 
 tures, which is really due to the curves at high 
 pressures running nearly parallel, thus introducing a 
 corresponding difficulty in the estimation of small 
 differences. 
 
 " On comparing the compressibility of liquid acety- 
 lene with the results obtained by M. Amagat (Ann. 
 Chem., 1877) in the case of benzene, it appears to be 
 about seven times as compressible as the latter body 
 at a temperature of 16 C., and under a pressure of 40 
 atmospheres. The comparison could not be carried 
 out at higher temperatures, for whereas M. Amagat 
 reaches a temperature of 100 C. with the benzene, I 
 was not able to go beyond 35 C. with the acetylene." 
 
 Willson and Suckert 1 also determined the density 
 of the liquid at 20'6 C., and find it to be 0'528 ; anid 
 further state that 1 volume of liquid acetylene at 
 17*8 C. yields 400 volumes of the gas at atmospheric 
 pressure. 
 
 When it was realized that acetylene could be lique- 
 fied with no more difficulty than carbon dioxide, a 
 brilliant future seemed assured for the liquid ; but, 
 unfortunately, these hopes were soon dispelled by 
 several very serious explosions of cylinders containing 
 it, which took place in America and on the Continent. 
 
 As has been pointed out, acetylene is an endo- 
 thermic compound, and when decomposed into its 
 elements gives out nearly as much heat as the com- 
 bustion of an equal volume of hydrogen to form water. 
 
 This characteristic of acetylene first investigated by 
 Berthelot 2 led him to the discovery that it was possible 
 
 1 Journ. Franklin Inst., 138, 327. 
 
 2 Com.pt. Rend., 93, 613. 
 
 / 79 
 7 r& vwC 
 
 Yield of gas 
 from liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 Explosions 
 
 due to 
 
 liquid 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 The 
 
 detonation 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 by means of 
 
 Mercuric 
 
 Fulminate 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 apparatus 
 
 used by 
 
 Bcrthelot 
 
 to explode pure acetylene by firing in it a small charge 
 of mercuric fulminate, and he devised an apparatus in 
 which this experiment is now always carried out. 1 
 It consists of a glass tube A, of considerable strength, 
 luted into a steel collar, the mouth of which is closed 
 gas-tight by a plug F, which is kept in its place by a 
 cap G, which fixes on to the collar of the glass tube 
 with a bayonet joint. The plug F carries a small 
 tube E E, through which passes a stout wire D 
 sealed into it. The end of this wire, which is in the 
 
 Method of 
 performing 
 
 the 
 experiment 
 
 B 
 
 FIG. 14. 
 
 interior of the tube, is connected to a second wire by 
 means of a piece of thin platinum wire, which, after 
 being coiled round the outside of the capillary tube, is 
 fixed in metallic contact with the plug at c, whilst a 
 small cap B, containing 0*1 gr. of mercuric fulminate 
 is attached to the thin platinum wire. The glass tube 
 is now filled with acetylene over the trough, and the 
 tube with the cap passed up into it with the plug fixed 
 in position, the cap being then placed over all and 
 fixed by the bayonet joint. 
 
 1 Sur la force des matieres explosives, Paris, 1883, vol. i. 110. 
 
 80 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 On now passing a current through the wires the 
 fulminate explodes and causes detonation of the acety- 
 lene, which takes place with a brilliant flash of light 
 and the deposition of a cloud of black carbon. On 
 again opening the apparatus under mercury and 
 collecting the gases, it is found that the acetylene has 
 practically all disappeared, and that nothing remains 
 but hydrogen contaminated with small traces of carbon 
 monoxide and nitrogen, produced by the explosion of 
 
 Result of 
 
 the 
 explosion 
 
 FIG. 15. 
 
 the fulminate, and it is clear that the acetylene under 
 the influence of the explosive wave generated by the 
 mercuric fulminate has decomposed into its consti- 
 tuents. 
 
 C 2 H 2 = C 2 + H 2 . 
 
 " The reaction is so rapid that the small cartridge of Rapidity of 
 thin paper which enveloped the fulminate will be explosion 
 found torn but not burned, even in its thinnest fibres, 
 and this is explained if we note that the time during 
 which the paper remained in the explosion centre was 
 
 about 
 
 30000000 
 
 of a second, according to the thickness 
 81 6 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Condition of 
 
 the 
 
 liberated 
 Carbon 
 
 Action of 
 
 heat on 
 
 amorphous 
 
 Carbon 
 
 The 
 
 detonation 
 
 of the gas at 
 
 ordinary 
 
 pressures 
 
 only local 
 
 of the paper and the known data relative to the 
 rapidity of this order of decomposition." 
 
 u The carbon set free exhibits the same general con- 
 ditions as that obtained in a tube at a red heat. It is 
 mainly amorphous carbon and not graphite ; it dis- 
 solves almost totally when treated several times with 
 a mixture of fuming nitric acid and potassium chlorate. 
 Nevertheless, treated in this way, it gives a trace of 
 graphitic oxide, which proves that it contained a trace 
 of graphite, produced, doubtless, by the transformation 
 of the amorphous carbon under the influence of the 
 excessive temperature to which it has been subjected. 
 
 Berthelot l has in fact shown that amorphous carbon 
 heated up to about 2,500 by electrolytic gas commences 
 to change into graphite, and that the lamp-black pre- 
 cipitated by the incomplete combustion of the hydro- 
 carbon also contains a trace of it. 
 
 When attention had been called anew to the safety 
 of acetylene by its commercial introduction in 1895, 
 Maquenne and Dixon 2 made a research upon the ex- 
 plosion of endothermic gases, and found that when 
 acetylene in a lead tube W metres in length and 3 
 centimetres in diameter was exploded by firing in it a 
 charge of 0*5 gr. of mercuric fulminate, the decom- 
 position was of a very local character, and that 0*5 m. 
 from the detonating chamber 85'8 per cent, of the 
 acetylene remained undecomposed ; 1-0 m. from the 
 detonating chamber 92'2 per cent, of the acetylene 
 remained undecomposed : 15'0 m. from the detonating 
 chamber 93*2 per cent, of the acetylene remained un- 
 decomposed ; and that even when 1 gr. of the ful- 
 minate was used to start the decomposition, the deposit 
 of carbon only extended 5 m. from the point of detona- 
 tion, so that large quantities of acetylene still remained 
 undecomposed. 
 
 1 Ann. Chim. Phys., 5th series, 29, 418. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 121, 424. 
 
 82 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPERTIES 
 
 In 1896 Berthelot and Vielle 1 made a most impor- 
 tant series of researches upon the explosive properties 
 of acetylene, both in the gaseous and liquid condition, 
 
 , . , ., 
 
 in wmcn tney state : 
 
 " The industrial importance lately acquired by acety- 
 lene for lighting purposes has led to much research 
 into the precise conditions under which its explosive 
 properties are capable of being manifested, and has 
 served consequently to point out the precautions 
 necessary in its employment. 
 
 Bertheiot 
 
 tne 
 
 explosive 
 
 properties 
 Acetylene 
 
 1. THE INFLUENCE OF PRESSUEE 
 Under a constant atmospheric pressure, the decom- T& e 
 
 ... influence of 
 
 position started at any one point in acetylene does not pressure on 
 extend to any great distance. Neither a spark, nor 
 
 J & detonation 
 
 the presence of an ignited body, not even a cap of of Acetylene 
 fulminate, exert any action beyond the neighbourhood 
 of the region directly affected by the heat or per- 
 cussion. Maquenne and Dixon 2 have published some 
 interesting observations on this point. We have dis- 
 covered, however, that this does not hold good when 
 the pressure on the gas is increased to more than two 
 atmospheres. The acetylene then manifests the or- 
 dinary properties of explosive mixtures. 
 
 If decomposition is started at any one point by 
 means of a fine iron or platinum wire raised to a white 
 heat by the electric current, the decomposition spreads 
 through the whole mass without any appreciable 
 diminution. This phenomenon has been observed to 
 take place in tubes 20 mm. diameter through a length 
 of 4 m. This property can be brought near the lowest 
 limit of the combustion of explosive mixtures under 
 pressure ; it is probably common amongst endothermic 
 gases. 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 123, 523; Ann. Chim. Phys. (7), 11, 5. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 121, 424. 
 
 83 
 
 The propa- 
 
 in " 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Apparatus 
 used 
 
 Measure- 
 ment of the 
 pressures 
 developed 
 
 Measure- 
 ment of the 
 
 initial 
 pressure 
 
 2. DECOMPOSITION OF GASEOUS ACETYLENE UNDER 
 PRESSURE 
 
 In these experiments strong steel cylinders were 
 used, such as are usually employed for the study of 
 the laws of the development of pressures produced by 
 explosives. 
 
 The fig. 16 represents a section of the apparatus, the 
 cylinder having a capacity of about 49 cc. The length 
 of the combustion chamber is 110 mm. The cylinder 
 is provided at one end with a fireproof plug A, carrying 
 a fine iron or platinum wire a, which can be raised to 
 a white heat by means of an electric current. The other 
 end of the cylinder is fitted with a crusher gauge B, 
 
 FIG. 16. 
 
 the piston of which being provided with a recording 
 point, inscribes the force of its motion upon a revolving 
 cylinder. This curve, when compared with the known 
 factor for the compressed cylinder of metal in the 
 crusher gauge, gives a correct estimate of the pressure 
 at each moment of the combustion. By means of the 
 tap R the cylinder can be connected with either an ex- 
 hausting or condensing pump. 
 
 The initial pressure of the gas introduced into the 
 cylinder is measured at absolute value, by means of a 
 Bourdon manometer, which has been previously com- 
 pared with Amagat's free piston manometer. The 
 following table includes the pressures and the duration 
 of the reaction, observed at the time of the ignition of 
 the acetylene by means of the fine wire made red hot 
 in the centre of the gaseous mass. 
 
 84 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 Number of 
 Experiments. 
 
 38 
 
 Absolute 
 Initial 
 Pressure. 
 
 Kgr. 
 2-23 
 
 Pressure 
 observed 
 soon after, 
 reaction. 
 Kgr. 
 
 8-77 
 
 Duration of 
 reaction in 
 To'oo 
 
 or a second. 
 
 Comparison 
 of the 
 Initial and 
 Final 
 Pressures. 
 3-93 
 
 Table 
 showing 
 pressures 
 and 
 duration of 
 the reaction 
 
 43 
 
 2-23 
 
 10-73 
 
 
 4-81 
 
 
 28 
 
 3-50 
 
 18-58 
 
 76-8 
 
 5-31 
 
 
 31 
 
 3-43 
 
 19-33 
 
 
 5-63 
 
 
 39 
 
 5-98 
 
 41-73 
 
 66-7 
 
 6-98 
 
 
 26 
 
 5-98 
 
 43-43 
 
 
 7-26 
 
 
 32 
 
 5-98 
 
 41-53 
 
 45-9 
 
 6-94 
 
 
 25 
 
 11-23 
 
 92-73 
 
 26-1 
 
 8-24 
 
 
 40 
 
 11-23 
 
 91-73 
 
 39-2 
 
 8-50 
 
 
 29 
 
 21-13 
 
 213-70 
 
 16-4 
 
 1013 
 
 
 30 
 
 21-13 
 
 . 212-60 
 
 18-2 
 
 10-13 
 
 
 The final speed is still very much less than that of 
 the explosive wave in an oxy-hydrogen mixture. 
 
 After the reaction, if the crusher gauge end of the 
 cylinder be opened, it will be found full of powdered 
 carbon containing a trace of graphite a sort of light 
 agglomerated soot which takes the form of the 
 receiver, and from which it can be withdrawn in a 
 fragile mass. The gas left after the decomposition is 
 found to consist of pure hydrogen. These results are 
 similar to those observed in previous experiments. 1 
 The final pressure also, after cooling down, is found to 
 exactly correspond with the initial pressure. 
 
 The decomposition then follows the theoretical for- 
 mula 
 
 Products oi 
 the 
 
 decomposi- 
 tion 
 
 The above table shows that under an initial pressure 
 of about 21 kilos., a tension equal to half the tension 
 of vapour saturated with liquid acetylene at a surround- 
 ing temperature of 20, the explosion will increase the 
 initial pressure tenfold. 
 
 The temperature developed at the moment of decom- 
 position can be estimated in the following manner : 
 The heat produced would be about + 58 calories, if the 
 
 1 Sur la force des matieres explosives, 1, 112 and 113. 
 86 
 
 Heat 
 developed 
 
 at the 
 moment of 
 decomposi- 
 tion 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carbon were liberated in the condition of diamonds ; 
 but for the production of carbon in an amorphous 
 state, it would be reduced to + 51 calories. Moreover, the 
 specific heat at constant volume of hydrogen, H 2 , at a 
 high temperature is represented by the formula 
 
 4-8 + 0-0016 (t. = 1,600). 
 
 Taking the specific heat of carbon as determined by 
 Vielle for high temperatures, the value for C 2 = 24 grs. 
 will be 
 
 8-4 + 0-00144 t. 
 
 After combining these numbers and the equation of 
 the second degree corresponding, the temperature of 
 the decomposition at constant volume would be 
 
 t.- 2,750 about. 
 
 Pressure Thus the pressure developed would be eleven times as 
 developed great as the initial pressure, which agrees very well 
 with the results observed under the initial pressure of 
 21 kilos., a pressure high enough, without doubt, to 
 allow of the effects of the cold produced by the walls 
 to be neglected. 
 
 With a lower pressure the cold interferes, reducing 
 
 the temperature, of which the rate of the reaction is a 
 
 function, and the same variable action follows. 
 
 Etfect of Thus the duration of the decomposition of acetylene 
 
 pressure on ra pidly decreases as the pressure is increased, not only 
 
 the rate of r J .... J 
 
 decomposi- on account of the diminished influence of cold, but also 
 as the effect of condensation. Besides, it must be 
 noticed that the ratio of the initial to the developed 
 pressure is here calculated according to the law for 
 perfect gases. 
 
 This ratio ought to rise more and more beyond the 
 preceding limits when the initial pressure is increased, 
 owing to the increasing compressibility of the gas, 
 which produces a more rapid growth in the density of 
 
 86 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PBOPEBTIES 
 
 the charge than in the pressure in proportion as the 
 gas approaches its point of liquefaction. At the same 
 time that the pressure increases the rate of the reaction 
 is also increased. This is accelerated by the gaseous 
 condensation, and tends more and more to approach 
 the relative point of the liquid state. 
 
 Such are the general facts established by the 
 researches of Berthelot, particularly by his experi- 
 ments on the formation of ethers. Liquid acetylene 
 affords fresh points for consideration. 
 
 3. DECOMPOSITION OF LIQUID ACETYLENE 
 
 The reaction takes place in just the same way in 
 liquid acetylene, even when it is started by simple 
 ignition by means of an incandescent wire. In a steel 
 bomb of 48'96 cc. capacity, charged with 18 grs. of 
 liquid acetylene weight estimated after the weight 
 of carbon had been taken a pressure of 5,564 kilos, 
 per square cm. is reached. This experiment would seem 
 to attribute to acetylene an explosive force of 9,500, 
 i.e. almost equal to that of guncotton. In the interior 
 of the bomb is left a block of carbon agglomerated by 
 the pressure, and having a brilliant and conchoidal 
 fracture. This carbon, according to Moissan, contains 
 only traces of graphite, a statement agreeing with 
 previous results. 
 
 The decomposition of liquid acetylene by simple 
 ignition is comparatively slow. In one experiment, 
 No. 41, for which the density of the charge was close 
 on 0'15, the maximum pressure of 1,500 kilos, per 
 square cm. was reached in 10 9 00 of a second. The curve 
 registered on the revolving cylinder indicated a static 
 working of the crusher apparatus, following two dis- 
 tinct stages. The one, taking about the thousandth 
 part of a second, raised the pressure to 553 kilos. ; the 
 other, slower, increased the pressure to 1,500 kilos, at 
 the end of YQ^-Q second. The two stages correspond, 
 
 87 
 
 The 
 explosion oi 
 
 liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 Explosive 
 
 force of the 
 
 liquid 
 
 Condition of 
 the Carbon 
 separated 
 
 during 
 explosion 
 
 Rate at 
 which the 
 maximum 
 pressure is 
 
 attained 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 noticed in 
 the 
 
 explosive 
 
 decomposi- 
 tion of 
 liquid 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 probably the one to the decomposition of the gaseous 
 TWO stages portion, the other to that of the liquid. The same 
 characteristics of discontinuity have been found in 
 many curves of the decomposition of gaseous and 
 liquid mixtures. As a result of the foregoing, every 
 time a gaseous or liquid charge of acetylene under 
 pressure, and, above all, at constant volume, is sub- 
 mitted to an action capable of producing the decom- 
 position of one of those points, and consequently a 
 corresponding local elevation of temperature, the 
 decomposition will be capable of being spread through 
 the whole mass. It now remains to determine the 
 conditions under which this decomposition into ele- 
 ments can be obtained. 
 
 Conditions 
 leading to 
 the decom- 
 position of 
 Acetylene in 
 the liquid 
 state 
 
 Effect of 
 shock 
 
 Result of 
 bursting the 
 cylinder 
 under a 
 hammer 
 
 4. THE EFFECTS OF SHOCK 
 
 We have submitted to shock either by allowing 
 them to fall from a height or by blows from a hammer 
 steel cylinders of about 1 litre capacity, charged, some 
 with gaseous acetylene compressed at 10 atmospheres 
 and others with liquid acetylene, at a charge density 
 of 0-33,000 gr. to the litre. 
 
 1. Repeated falls from a height of 6 metres on to a 
 massive steel anvil gave rise to no explosion. 
 
 2. The crushing of the same receivers under a 
 hammer of 280 kilos, falling from a height of 6 metres, 
 produced neither explosion nor light in the case of 
 gaseous acetylene under a pressure of 10 atmospheres. 
 With liquid acetylene in the experiment the shock 
 was followed after a short interval by an explosion. 
 This phenomenon appears attributable not to the pure 
 acetylene, but to the ignition of the explosive mixture 
 of acetylene and air formed in the moment of time 
 which follows the rupture of the cylinder. The 
 ignition is no doubt brought about by the sparks pro- 
 duced by the friction of the edges of torn metal. An 
 inspection of the cylinder confirms this view. It has 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 FIG. 17. 
 
 simply been broken by the shock, without flying to 
 
 pieces or the deposition of carbon, which proves that 
 
 the acetylene 
 
 has not been 
 
 decomposed into 
 
 its elements, 
 
 but has simply 
 
 burnt under the 
 
 influence of the 
 
 oxygen of the 
 
 air. A similar result following the violent fracture 
 
 of a cylinder charged with combustible gas has been 
 
 noticed under many circumstances, especially in the 
 
 breaking of hydrogen cylinders charged at many 
 
 hundred atmospheres pressure. 
 
 3. A cylinder of wrought iron, containing gaseous 
 acetylene under a pressure of 10 atmospheres, bore 
 without explosion the impact of a bullet which had 
 sufficient velocity to pierce the front and dent the 
 back of the cylinder. 
 
 4. Detonation 
 by a fulminate 
 cap. An iron 
 cylinder con- 
 taining liquid 
 acetylene was 
 provided with a 
 thin wad for 
 the introduc- 
 tion of a charge 
 of 1-5 gr. of 
 fulminate of 
 mercury in the 
 centre of the 
 liquid. The 
 
 whole exploded with violence after the ignition of the 
 fulminate. The broken pieces of the cylinder present 
 
 89 
 
 FIG. 18. 
 
 Result of 
 the impact 
 of a bullet 
 
 Detonation 
 of liquid 
 
 Acetylene 
 by a charge 
 of Mercuric 
 
 Fulminate 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the same appearances as are observed when ordinary 
 explosives are used. 
 
 The fragments are coated with carbon arising from 
 the decomposition into its elements. 
 
 5. HEAT EFFECTS 
 
 Effect of Many causes leading to local rise of temperature seem 
 nqufd and ^ nave been observed in the industrial operations for 
 gaseous the preparation or employment of acetylene. 
 
 1. The first is the result of the action of small 
 quantities of water on the calcic carbide in a closed 
 apparatus. Pictet gives an account of an accident due 
 overheating to this cause. It needs great care to prevent the action 
 generation ^ *^ ie wa ^ er on ^ ne carbide causing a Jocal rise in tem- 
 perature which may reach a white heat, and this at 
 any point, as has been experimentally shown, would 
 suffice to produce an explosion of the whole mass of 
 compressed gas. The local rise in temperature also 
 leads to the formation of styrolene, benzene, naph- 
 thalene, and other polymerisation products of acety- 
 lene. 1 This action also gives rise to heat, and the 
 temperature consequently rises to the point at which 
 the decomposition of acetylene into its elements be- 
 comes complete and even explosive. 
 
 overheating 2. Other causes of danger in industrial operations 
 f sudden reg ult from hasty compression when charging the 
 compression cylinders with gas, as well as the adiabatic compres- 
 sion which accompanies the too sudden opening of 
 an acetylene receiver fitted with a pressure-reducing 
 Elevation of valve or any other reservoir of small capacity. Ex- 
 Bm ^^* ure periments on cylinders of compressed carbonic acid 
 suddenly have shown that the sudden opening of the valve 
 
 opening the . 
 
 valve of a gives rise to an elevation 01 temperature capable 01 
 cylinder carbonising chips of wood placed in the interior. 
 
 3. A violent shock due to an external cause and 
 capable of smashing the cylinder does not, of itself, 
 
 1 Ann. Chim. Phys., 4 ; xii. 52, 1867. 
 90 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPERTIES 
 
 seem to directly cause the explosion of acetylene, but 
 the friction of tho metallic fragments against each 
 other or against external objects is capable of igniting 
 the explosive mixture formed by the mixture of the 
 acetylene with the air following the rupture of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 In conclusion it seems both useful and necessary to 
 define more clearly from the theoretical and experi- 
 mental point of view the explosive nature of acetylene, 
 and to point out from the practical side of the question 
 accidents likely to happen in its employment, but the 
 inconveniences are not of such a nature as to out- 
 weigh the advantages or limit the use of this gas. It 
 is easy to guard against these risks by various ex- 
 pedients shown by experiment ; such as, on the one 
 hand, for the experimentalist to avoid too rapid a 
 discharge of the compressed gas from the governors ; 
 and, on the other, to take care to fully absorb the 
 heat produced by the compression and reactions in the 
 interior of the apparatus, so as to prevent any notice- 
 able rise in the temperature." 
 
 The result of the numerous explosions with liquid 
 acetylene, and the researches which showed that at 
 pressures above two atmospheres acetylene became an 
 explosive capable of detonation without admixture 
 with air, led to the prohibition of liquid acetylene in 
 England, and the use of gas at pressures above 100 
 inches of water over atmospheric pressure being placed 
 under the regulations of the Explosives Act. 
 
 Continuing their researches upon the starting and 
 propagation of explosion in acetylene, Berthelot and 
 Vielle l say : 
 
 " We have shown in a previous publication 2 that 
 the decomposition of acetylene under normal pres- 
 sure does not spread beyond the point at which it 
 was started, but at and above twice the normal pres- 
 
 1 Ann. C/iim. Phys. (7) 13, 24. 2 Ibid. (7) 11, 5. 
 
 91 
 
 Precautions 
 to be taken 
 in making 
 and using 
 
 liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 Prohibition 
 of liquid 
 
 Acetylene in 
 England 
 
 Further re- 
 searches by 
 Berthelot 
 and Vielle 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 sure it exhibits the usual properties of explosive 
 mixtures. Under the same pressure, however, this 
 aptitude for propagation depends on the exciting con- 
 ditions and the external influence of cold. Between 
 the conditions under which an explosion is inevitably 
 produced, and those under which one is not obviously 
 probable, an interval exists, and it is this interval 
 which we shall try to define. 
 
 In view of actual practical applications, it will be 
 as well to define the limits of pressure above which 
 the explosive properties of acetylene become dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 The limits of We have studied two methods by which the ex- 
 plosion may be started : by the incandescence of a 
 
 the ex- metallic thread ; by a cap of fulminate of mercury. 
 perties of The first method corresponds in practice with 
 intense and local heating, which may be produced 
 dangerous either by the attack on a mass of carbide by small 
 quantities of water, or by energetic friction between 
 the metal portions in contact with the gas, such as 
 tightening the nut on the fastening points. 
 The methods The second method may be produced by the com- 
 for^arting bustion of small quantities of very explosive acety- 
 expiosion Kdes, such as might be formed by the acetylene on 
 contact with copper or its alloys in presence of 
 ammonia. 
 
 The in- We have made experiments to show the influence 
 
 te^erature ^ co ^ on ^ e propagation of explosion in volumes of 
 
 on propa- gas inclosed in vessels, the diameter of which equalled 
 
 the height, the capacity varying from 4 to 25 litres ; 
 
 and sometimes in metal tubes of 22 mm. diameter and 
 
 3 metres in length, in which the influence of cold 
 
 surfaces was considerable. 
 
 Propagation in large receivers. The following 
 tables summarise the results obtained. For each 
 experiment, the receiver, after being exhausted, was 
 filled with gas from a metal cylinder containing liquid 
 
 92 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 acetylene ; the receiver was exhausted a second time, The propa- 
 and again filled with gas under a pressure which was ^plosion* in 
 measured by a mercury manometer. The decomposing large 
 force was produced successively in two ways, by an 
 incandescent metal wire, and by a cap of fulminate 
 placed in the centre of the gaseous mass. 
 
 receivers 
 
 Steel Eeceiver of 4 Litres. 
 
 Initial pressure 
 
 in centimetres 
 of mercury. 
 
 by an incandescent 
 wire. 
 
 Firing 
 
 by a charge of O'l gr. 
 mercuric fulminate. 
 
 cm. cm. 
 
 76 and 17 
 
 76 24 1 expmt., no ignition 
 
 76 30-51 
 
 76 38 4 expmts., 
 
 10 expmts., no propagation. 
 4 1 ignition. 
 3 ,, 2 ignitions. 
 3 2 
 
 Results 
 
 46 4 
 
 76 and 52 
 76 61 
 76 70 
 
 Two iron and two platinum wires. 
 
 6 experiments, no ignition. 
 
 5 1 
 
 7 4 ignitions 
 
 Glass Vessel of 25 Litres. 
 
 by an incandescent 
 wire. 
 
 Initial pressure 
 of gas in cc. of 
 mercury. 
 
 76 
 
 76 and 7'5 3 expmts., no ignition 
 
 76 
 
 Firing 
 
 76 
 76 
 76 
 
 10-5 
 16-8 
 24 
 38 
 
 1 expmt., no ignition 
 
 2 expmts., no ignition 
 
 by a charge of O'l gr. of 
 mercuric fulminate. 
 
 1 expmt., no ignition. 
 
 2 expmts., no ignition. 
 
 1 expmt., no ignition. 
 
 j> 
 
 2 expmts., no ignition. 
 1 expmt., ignition and 
 
 rupture of receiver. 
 
 These experiments show that it is impossible with Conclusions 
 a fixed method of starting the action to define an 
 absolutely fixed critical pressure below which propa- 
 gation would be impossible, and above which it would 
 be equally certain. The transition is a progressive 
 one following a scale of pressures to which the increas- 
 ing probabilities of explosion correspond. 
 
 This does not apply only to acetylene. In all ex- 
 plosives the phenomena of propagation, whether by ofpropaga- 
 
 93 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 tion same as 
 with other 
 explosives 
 
 The fulmin- 
 ate cap 
 three times 
 as powerful 
 in starting 
 explosion as 
 the incan- 
 descent 
 wire 
 
 Result of 
 the decom- 
 position 
 
 Influence of 
 metal tubes 
 on the pro- 
 pagation of 
 the ex- 
 plosion 
 
 Size of tubo 
 used 
 
 shock or other influence, present the same character- 
 istics, and the conditions assuring certain explosion 
 are always widely different to those which will assure 
 positive insensibility ; in the interval come dangerous 
 zones, where one can only define the probability of 
 explosion. 
 
 The rapid decrease in these possibilities leads one in 
 the present case to regard a pressure below 52 cm. of 
 mercury, or 7 metres of water, when using an incan- 
 descent wire, as not dangerous. So also a pressure 
 below 17 cm. of mercury, or 2'30 metres of water, 
 when using the cap of fulminate, so that this latter is 
 three times as powerful an agent as the former. 
 
 The experiments carried out in the 25 litre receiver 
 show that the capacity of the vessel has no appreciable 
 influence. 
 
 Ignition gives rise under all pressures to the pro- 
 duction of voluminous clouds of carbon of great 
 density, which coat the walls of the receiver, partially 
 filling it ; at the same time the metallic receiver 
 became heated. When the ignition does not spread, 
 only slight fumes are observable, which are deposited 
 in the shape of a mist, and are only visible in the 
 glass receivers. In these experiments a sufficiently 
 small cap must be used in order to obviate any appre- 
 ciable modification of the general pressure of the 
 receiver, and thus ensure an initial stimulus. 
 
 Propagation in metal tubes. It was difficult to fore- 
 see the influence which the tubulure form of receiver 
 would exert upon the phenomena of propagation. 
 
 It would naturally be supposed that when using the 
 incandescent wire cold would be opposed to propaga- 
 tion, and, on the other hand, that the use of the 
 fulminate cap would increase it, because of the local 
 pressure developed in the centre of the region oc- 
 cupied by the fulminate charge. The experiments 
 were made with a steel tube of 22 mm. diameter and 
 
 94 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 Result of 
 
 the expert- 
 
 ments 
 
 Result of 
 
 3 metres long, closed at one end by a metal plug, and 
 at the other by a strong glass bell. 
 
 These experiments only furnished negative results at 
 
 . ... i rri xu x- 
 
 an initial pressure of 76 cm. of mercury, three times 
 higher than those in which propagation had been 
 observed in vessels of the same capacities, the breadth 
 of which was considerable. 
 
 The capacity of the tube employed was about 1 
 litre, and the first experiments were made with a 
 charge of 0-025 gr. so as to preserve the ratio of the 
 weight of the charge to that of the total volume, since 
 this ratio had been established at the time of the ex- 
 periments with the 4 litre receiver. Propagation not 
 being produced, we then employed, in spite of the 
 reduced volume of the tube, the same cap of O'l gr. as 
 had already been experimented with. This time also 
 with pressure not above 1 atmosphere, and 2*06 mg. of fulminate 
 per square cm. ; no propagation was observed. The 
 explosion of the cap taking place, either against one 
 of the extremities of the tube or at a distance of 30 
 cm., produced only a light cloud of carbon in its 
 immediate neighbourhood. The result of these ex- 
 periments is given in the following table : 
 
 Steel tube 22 mm. diameter, 2'89 long, capacity, T098 litre. 
 
 Initial pressure. Firing. Observations. 
 
 76 and 17 0*025 gr. fulminate 1 experiment, no propagation, Results of 
 
 carbon coating on cork, experiments 
 
 76 30'5 0'025 ., 1 experiment, no propagation, 
 
 carbon coating on cork. 
 
 76 38 0'025 ,, 1 experiment, no propagation, 
 
 carbon coating on cork. 
 
 76 ,, 24 O'l 1 experiment, no propagation, 
 
 carbon coating on cork. 
 
 38'8 O'l cap placed near 1 experiment, no propagation, 
 extremity carbon coating on cork. 
 
 O'l 1 experiment, no propagation, 
 
 carbon coating on cork. 
 0-1 
 
 O'l cap at 30 c.m. from extremity 1 experiment. 
 O'l 3 experiments, no propagation, 
 
 carbon cloud on cork. 
 95 
 
 76 
 
 76 61 
 
 76 76 
 76 38 
 
Explosi- 
 
 bility of 
 
 Acetylene at 
 
 low 
 
 tempera- 
 tures 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 In the three last experiments ignition by a red-hot 
 wire had been previously tried without result." 
 
 In January, 1899, Georges Claude 1 made a commu- 
 nication to the Academie des Sciences on the explosi- 
 bility of acetylene at low temperatures. 
 
 The solubility of acetylene in acetone increases 
 with extraordinary rapidity with fall of temperature, 
 especially as the point of solidification of the acety- 
 
 FIG. 19. 
 
 lene is approached. At 80 C at ordinary atmosphe- 
 ric pressure one volume of acetone dissolves more than 
 2,000 volumes of acetylene, whilst the solution occu- 
 pies four to five times the volume of the original 
 acetone, and a platinum wire may be heated to bright 
 redness in this solution without any explosion taking 
 place. In the same way liquid acetylene cannot be 
 exploded by a red-hot platinum wire at 80 C., at 
 
 1 Compt. Rend.. 128, 303. 
 96 ' 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PEOPEETIES 
 
 which temperature it has a vapour tension of 1*3 
 atmospheres. From these experiments the author safety in 
 comes to the conclusion that acetylene can with "ssured'at 
 perfect safety be liquefied by using a pressure of 1 '3 so c. 
 atmospheres at 80 C. 
 
 When liquid acetylene is sprayed out from a solid 
 cylinder, Fig. 19, so much heat is absorbed by the 
 conversion of the liquid into a gas, that some of the 
 liquid is frozen into a snow-like solid, Fig. 20, in the 
 same way as carbon dioxide, and in a lecture before 
 
 FIG. 20. 
 
 the Franklin Institute, "Willson and Suckert 1 showed 
 this, and stated that acetylene cooled below 81 C. 
 becomes solid, and the snow so formed evaporates but 
 slowly, floats on water, and when ignited burns with 
 a heavy smoky flame. 
 
 Later in 1895, Villard 2 gave the melting-point of 
 solid acetylene as 81 C. 
 
 The spectrum of hydrocarbons has been worked upon 
 by many observers, and the general view is well 
 
 1 Journ. Franklin Instit., 139, 327. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 120, 1262. 
 
 97 7 
 
 Tempera* 
 ture of 
 
 solidifica- 
 tion 
 
 Dewar's 
 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 
 spectrum of 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Hydro- 
 carbon 
 spectra 
 
 Character- 
 istic bands 
 in the 
 Hydro- 
 carbon 
 spectrum 
 
 summarised by Liveing and Dewar, 1 who in a paper 
 published in 1880 say : 
 
 " In a Memoir on ' The Spectra of Metalloids ' Nova 
 Ada Reg. Soc. Upsal., III. ix. Angstrom and Thalen 
 have made a careful analysis of the different spectra 
 assigned to carbon. They distinguish four sets of 
 groups of shaded bands produced under different 
 circumstances, which they define, besides the line 
 spectrum which they ascribe to carbon itself. Of 
 these four sets of bands, two sets, situated at the ex- 
 tremities of the spectrum, they show to be produced 
 in the combustion of cyanogen, a third to be common 
 to all the hydrocarbons, and the fourth to be produced 
 by carbonic oxide. The first two sets, the third, and 
 the fourth sets respectively, they observed to be pro- 
 duced also in the electric discharge between carbon 
 electrodes, according as it took place in nitrogen, 
 hydrogen, or oxygen. Their observations on this 
 subject appear almost conclusive. Nevertheless other 
 observers have since their publication maintained 
 different opinions. 
 
 The spectrum of hydrocarbons burning in air has 
 been repeatedly described ; first by Swan in 1856, and 
 afterwards by Atfield, Watts, Morren, Plucker, Bois- 
 baudran, and others, and has been given in detail by 
 Piazzi Smyth. The characteristic part of this spec- 
 trum consists of four groups of bands of fine lines in 
 the orange, yellow, green, and blue respectively, and 
 we refer hereafter to these as the hydrocarbon bands. 
 These four groups, according to Plticker and Hittorf, 
 also constitute the spectrum of the discharge of an in- 
 duction coil in an atmosphere of hydrogen between 
 carbon electrodes. They are also conspicuous in the 
 electric discharge in olefiant gas at the atmospheric 
 and at reduced pressures. 
 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc,, 30, 152. 
 98 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 The contention of Angstrom and Thalen is that 
 the channelled spectra of the hydrocarbon and cyanogen 
 flames are the spectra of acetylene and cyanogen and 
 not of carbon itself, and that in the flame of burning 
 cyanogen we sometimes see the spectrum of the hydro- 
 carbon superposed on that of the cyanogen, the latter 
 being the brighter ; and that in vacuum tubes con- 
 taining hydrocarbons the cyanogen spectrum observed 
 is due to traces of nitrogen." 
 
 After describing a very beautiful series of experi- 
 ments, they say : " In the next place the green and 
 blue bands characteristic of the hydrocarbon flame are 
 well seen when the arc is taken in hydrogen ; but 
 though less strong when the arc is taken in nitrogen 
 or in chlorine, they seem to be always present in the 
 arc, whatever the atmosphere. This is what we 
 should expect if they be due, as Angstrom and Thalen 
 suppose, to acetylene, for we have found that the 
 carbon electrodes always contain, even when they 
 have been long heated in chlorine, a notable quantity 
 of hydrogen. 
 
 In the flames of carbon compounds they by no 
 means always appear ; indeed, it is only in those of 
 hydrocarbons, or their derivatives, that they are well 
 seen. Carbonic oxide and carbon disulphide, even 
 when mixed with hydrogen, do not show them ; and 
 if seen in the flames of cyanogen, hydrocyanic acid 
 and carbon tetrachloride mixed with hydrogen, they 
 are faint, and do not form a principal or prominent 
 part of the spectrum. This is all consistent with the 
 supposition of Angstrom and Thalen. The fact that 
 the bands are not produced even in the presence of 
 hydrogen, when it is not present in the flame in the 
 form of a compound with carbon, is very significant ; 
 for we know that acetylene is present, and can easily 
 be extracted from the flame of any hydrocarbon, and 
 that it is formed as a proximate product of decom- 
 
 99 
 
 spectrum 
 iven by t& 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 position of hydrocarbons by the electric discharge, but 
 we have no evidence that it is producible as a product 
 of direct combination of carbon with hydrogen at the 
 comparatively low temperature of a flame such as we 
 have mentioned. 
 
 Acetylene The hydrocarbon bands are best developed in the 
 
 ^heTwow" blowpipe flame ; that is, under conditions which at first 
 
 pipe flame sight appear unfavourable to the existence of acetylene 
 
 in the flame. We have, however, satisfied ourselves 
 
 by the use of a Deville's tube that acetylene may 
 
 readily be withdrawn from the interior of such a 
 
 flame, and from that part of it which shows the 
 
 hydrocarbon bands most brightly. 
 
 The question as to whether these bands are due to 
 carbon itself or to a compound of carbon with hydro- 
 gen, has been somewhat simplified by the observations 
 of Watts and others on the spectrum of carbonic oxide. 
 There is, we suppose, no doubt now that the compound 
 has its own spectrum quite distinct from the hydro- 
 carbon flame spectrum. , The mere presence of the 
 latter spectrum feebly developed in the electric dis- 
 charge in compounds of carbon, supposed to contain no 
 hydrogen, appears to us to weigh very little against 
 the series of observations which connect this spectrum 
 directly with hydrocarbons." 
 
 Other papers which contain matter bearing upon 
 this point are Liveing and Dewar, Proc. Roy. Soc., 30, 
 490; ibid., 34, 418; Berthelot and Eichard, Compt. 
 Rend., 68, 1546; Wuellner, Pogg. Ann., 2, 14, 355; 
 and Haselberg, ibid., 2, 7, 691. 
 
 Electrical The electrical relations of acetylene have not been 
 
 verv f u n y studied, but Bredig and UsofF 1 state that 
 
 the electric conductibility of an aqueous acetylene 
 
 solution being very low, acetylene will be a very weak 
 
 electrolyte, and one of the weakest acids. Therefore 
 
 its salts must be completely dissociated in aqueous 
 
 1 Ztsch. Electrochem, 3, 116. 
 
 100 
 
ACETYLENE AND ITS PROPERTIES 
 
 solutions, and the reaction of calcium carbide and water, 
 and the existence of silver suboxide, Ag 2 0, in silver 
 acetylene agree with that view. In a concentrated 
 aqueous solution of calcium chloride, calcium carbide 
 is fairly stable 
 
 Jones and Allen 1 have also worked at this subject. 
 
 1 American Chem. Journ., 18, 375, 623. 
 
 101 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Berthelot's 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 
 action of 
 
 heat on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 The 
 
 formation of 
 liquid and 
 
 solid 
 products 
 
 Formation 
 
 of 
 Naphthalene 
 
 Effect of a 
 
 red heat on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 THE action of heat upon acetylene was first studied 
 by Berthelot l in 1866, who found that : " On 
 heating pure acetylene in a curved tube over mer- 
 cury to a temperature sufficient to soften hard glass, 
 the volume of the gas decreases, and at the same time 
 tarry products make their appearance. 
 
 In one experiment at the end of half an hour 97 
 per cent, of the original acetylene had disappeared, 
 leaving only 3 per cent, unchanged, whilst almost all 
 the carbon and hydrogen of the acetylene are found 
 in the liquid and solid products of the reaction. These 
 latter consist of various carburetted polymers of the 
 acetylene, such as benzene, which is the chief product, 
 3C 2 H 2 = C 6 H 6 ; styrolene, 4C a H 2 = C 8 H 8 , etc. 
 
 The residual gas consists principally of hydrogen, 
 containing 2 per cent, of ethylene and a little ethane, 
 and in addition there is a trace of naphthalene, and a 
 small quantity of carbon corresponding to the hydrogen 
 which constitutes the greater part of the gaseous 
 residue. 
 
 The effect of a higher and more prolonged tempera- 
 ture on acetylene has also been studied. This gas, 
 when passed through a red-hot porcelain tube, decom- 
 poses almost entirely into carbon, which is deposited, 
 and hydrogen, which is set free ; a trace of acetylene, 
 
 1 Ann. Chim. Phys., 4, 9, 446. 
 102 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 however, remains, and a small quantity goes to form 
 naphthalene, which crystallises, 
 
 5C 2 H 2 = C 10 H 8 + H 2 , 
 
 and an almost imperceptible trace of tar, which is 
 condensed, whilst some ethylene and methane are also 
 formed and pass off with the hydrogen, constituting 
 
 about one-tenth of the resultant gas. 
 / / 
 
 These experiments prove that acetylene decomposes 
 
 at a red heat. When, however, acetylene is largely 
 diluted with an inert gas, it is more stable than any 
 other gaseous hydrocarbon. // 
 
 The decomposition of acetylene varies entirely ac- 
 cording as the gas is acted upon per se or in the 
 presence of other bodies. 
 
 For instance, in the presence of carbon which has 
 been quenched under mercury it has been found that 
 the disappearance of the gas is slightly more rapid than 
 when the gas is used by itself. The products, however, 
 are different ; the volume of the gas hardly changes, 
 whilst the gaseous residue consists of almost pure 
 hydrogen. In other words/ -'in the presence of carbon 
 a gaseous hydrocarbon resolves itself into its elements. 
 This influence of carbon deserves further attention, 
 as its presence is almost inevitable in all the heat 
 reactions in which acetylene is produced. //The almost 
 complete decomposition of acetylene at a red heat 
 appears to be principally determined by the carbon 
 deposited in the tubes. To explain its first formation, 
 it must be admitted that the decomposition of acety- 
 lene at a red heat begins in the same way as at a 
 lower temperature ; that is, by successive polymeric 
 condensation, followed by the resolution of the last 
 polymers into their elements. / 
 
 Of all the metals which have been tried, iron ex- 
 hibits the most interesting action, producing the 
 complete decomposition of acetylene at a lower 
 temperature, and at a greater rate, than when the 
 
 103 
 
 Influence of 
 
 dilution 
 
 upon the 
 
 action 
 
 Action of 
 Carbon on 
 the decom- 
 position 
 
 The 
 formation of 
 
 Carbon 
 during the 
 decomposi- 
 tion by heat 
 of Hydro- 
 carbons 
 
 The 
 
 influence of 
 Iron on the 
 decomposi- 
 tion by heat 
 of Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 experiment is made with the gas alone ; and as the re- 
 
 sult, carbon and hydrogen equivalent to about half 
 
 the acetylene decomposed are formed together with 
 
 certain empyreumatic hydrocarbons unlike those 
 
 formed by the action of simple heat on the same gas. 
 
 influence of Acetylene, when mixed with its own volume of 
 
 ^n^decom" n ^ ro g erL 5 carbon dioxide, methane or ethylene, is de- 
 
 position composed with less rapidity than by itself, and with- 
 
 out appearing to give rise to any special phenomena. 
 
 In each case the quantity decomposed is proportional 
 
 to the duration of the heat. 
 
 influence of Acetylene, when mixed with an equal volume of 
 Hydrogen n y(j rO g en? ac t s i n a similar manner as with other 
 diluents, i.e. decomposes rather more slowly than 
 when by itself. It also gives rise to a greater pro- 
 portion of ethylene, the hydrogen entering into com- 
 bination with the acetylene 
 
 C 2 H 2 + H 2 = C 2 H 4 . 
 
 The The direct formation of benzene in such large quan- 
 
 Benzene due ti^ es * s n0 ^ comparable with ordinary phenomena of 
 
 to direct decomposition, as it *does not arise from the immediate 
 
 of the destruction of the affinity binding the carbon and 
 
 Acetylene hydrogen, but is effected by a very different process, 
 molecules J . & . ' . J V. * 
 
 which is by no means incompatible with the great 
 
 stability of acetylene. What is effected by the heat 
 is not a decomposition, but, on the contrary, a com- 
 bination of the highest order, developed by the re- 
 ciprocal union of several molecules of acetylene 
 
 The same process seems to occur in a great number of 
 heat reactions, though they are rarely so marked as 
 in the case of acetylene. /) 
 
 The tendency shown by acetylene to form poly- 
 mermised hydrocarbons seems a natural consequence 
 of its composition. 
 
 Acetylene can combine with hydrocarbons in general, 
 
 104 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 and particularly with a hydrocarbon of similar com- Combination 
 position, such as benzene. When these condensation %rttn%ther 
 products are exposed to the influence of a high tem- 
 perature, say a red heat, they soon return to their 
 original form, and fix their own rate of condensation influence of 
 
 . , . . , , . . , . . . . . ! heat on the 
 
 and decomposition without returning to their initial condensa- 
 
 state, because the changes which must be completed 
 
 to reproduce this state are not effected in one way 
 
 only. Hydrogen and the more condensed hydro- course 
 
 carbons are first formed, the latter becoming more and 
 
 more rich in carbon, showing the production of naph- 
 
 thalene at the expense of the acetylene, and then 
 
 comes carbon containing traces of hydrogen, represent- 
 
 ing the limit of this progressive condensation. 
 
 Carbon and hydrogen appear, then, to be the ulti- Cartoon and 
 mate result of the decomposition, not of acetylene 
 
 itself, but of the polymerisation products derived from products of 
 it. The carbon also, when once produced, seems to tion 
 exert an action of its own in resolving by its contact 
 the acetylene into its elements, an action which can 
 be explained as follows : at the same temperature as cause of the 
 that at which highly-condensed Hydrocarbons have carbon in 
 the power of combining with acetylene with separa- &e decom- 
 tion of hydrogen, carbon reacts on this hydrocarbon, Acetylene 
 uniting with its carbon and also giving rise to the 
 liberation of hydrogen. 
 
 Be that as it may, the decomposition of acetyleneX 
 takes place in two successive stages polymerisation, / 
 followed by the resolution of the poipners-into their/ 
 elements. ' 
 
 Such are the facts and theories which enable us to 
 understand the decomposition of acetylene by heat." 
 
 In 1894, Lewes 1 tried the effect of passing acety- Lewes' 
 lene through a heated tube under the following con- O n the 
 
 ditions : a platinum tube, 2 mm. in diameter and a/ 5 * 1011 of 
 
 * ' heat on 
 
 about 40 cm. in length, was used ; and in order to Acetylene 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 55, 90. 
 105 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Apparatus 
 used 
 
 Measure- 
 ment of 
 temperature 
 
 accurately measure the temperature to which the gas 
 in the tube was heated, the following arrangement 
 was devised : 
 
 Acetylene was collected in a gasholder, and, after 
 passing over calcium chloride to dry, it entered the 
 platinum tube. In this tube a platinum and plati- 
 num-rhodium couple was arranged in the following 
 fashion : 
 
 The two wires were twisted together for a length of 
 3 mm., and the wires on either side of the twist were 
 then passed through thin glass tubes, which were fused 
 on to them. Having been in this way coated with 
 glass, so that only the twist was exposed, they were 
 
 Collection of 
 the products 
 of condensa- 
 tion 
 
 FIG. 21. 
 
 passed through the platinum tube, the glass insulat- 
 ing the wire from the tube, and also keeping the 
 thermo-junction in such a position that it registered 
 the temperature of the gas in the tube, not that of 
 the wall of the tube. 
 
 To each end of the platinum tube glass T-pieces 
 were fitted, down the steins of which the wires passed 
 to mercury seals ; from the metal seals conducting 
 wires led to the resistance coils, the key and a reflect- 
 ing galvanometer. The products, after leaving the 
 platinum tube, passed through a U-tube cooled in ice 
 and salt, in order to condense any liquids, and then 
 through a collecting tube, from which the sample of 
 gas for analysis was taken ; thence to Volhard ab- 
 
 106 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 sorption flasks, containing ammoniacal silver nitrate, 
 for the estimation of acetylene, the flow of gas 
 throughout the apparatus being regulated by means 
 of the aspirator bottle. 
 
 Analysis of Original Gas. 
 
 Acetylene 94'28 
 
 Oxygen 1-12 
 
 Nitrogen 4'60 
 
 The gas was then passed through the platinum 
 tube, 25 mm. of which was heated to a temperature 
 of 1,000 C. 
 
 Analysis of the Heated Gas. 
 
 Acetylene 25'95 
 
 Other unsaturated hydrocarbons . . 61/97 
 
 Saturated hydrocarbons . . . 3'21 
 
 Carbon monoxide I'Ol 
 
 Oxygen O38 
 
 Hydrogen 1'50 
 
 Nitrogen 5'98 
 
 100-00 
 
 Carbon and Oil formed per 100 cc. of Gas. 
 
 Oil 0-095 grin. 
 
 Carbon O'OIS 
 
 Volume before heating .... 309 cc. 
 
 after 174'2 
 
 Analysis of 
 the gaseous 
 products of 
 
 the decom- 
 position 
 
 Solids and 
 liquids 
 formed 
 
 showing that, under these conditions, nearly three- 
 quarters of the acetylene had undergone polymerisa- 
 tion. 
 
 The unsaturated hydrocarbons consisted chiefly of The 
 
 , 111 formation of 
 
 ethylene, with some benzene vapour, the ethylene Ethyiene 
 having probably been formed by the direct combina- 
 tion of acetylene and hydrogen, an interaction first 
 noticed by Berthelot 
 
 (-Aj-fcig + jig = Gg-H^. 
 
 This also accounts for the small quantity of free 
 hydrogen found on analysis, which, having regard 
 
 107 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Haber's 
 researches 
 
 Method of 
 heating 
 
 Con- 
 struction of 
 
 the 
 
 apparatus 
 employed 
 
 to the amount of carbon deposited, should have been 
 considerably higher. 
 
 Haber and Oechelhaeuser, 1 in 1896, also tried the 
 effect of heat on acetylene, and give the following 
 account of the form of apparatus employed : 
 
 " A uniformly high temperature, which may be kept 
 absolutely constant or varied with precision, is not 
 readily obtainable by processes of combustion. Atten- 
 tion was therefore directed to the electric furnace, of 
 which there are two typical patterns. The arc pat- 
 tern has already been used by Moissan in investigating 
 phenomena of the chemistry of gases, but it is only 
 suitable for very high temperatures. The heating of 
 a constant resistance, which is the principle of the 
 other pattern, was more suited for application in these 
 researches. This type of furnace was readily adapted 
 to the purpose ; the heated conductor was made 
 tubular, and the stream of gas passed through it. 
 The conductor may be either of platinum or plati- 
 num-rhodium or of carbon. The former is best, so 
 long as its relatively low melting-point is not at- 
 tained, as it does not undergo change in air. In 
 either case the walls of the conductor are not im- 
 permeable to gas, and, for quantitative experiments, 
 a thin- walled porcelain tube was passed through the 
 platinum conductor. Tubes of the No. 7 size, from 
 the Royal Berlin Porcelain Works, could be used at 
 any temperature below that at which the platinum 
 conductor melted. With the carbon conductor quali- 
 tative experiments only could be made by passing 
 the gas under pressure through the conductor itself. 
 Some gas then escaped through the walls of the con- 
 ductor. 
 
 The platinum furnace was made by rolling a piece 
 of sheet platinum 0-05 m/Hbhick, 400 mm. long, and 
 
 1 Experimental-Untersuchung iiber Zersetzung und Ver- 
 brennung von Kohlenwasserstoffen (Muenchen, 1896), pp. 43, 71. 
 
 108 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 55 mm. wide, into a tube. To each end of the sheet 
 of platinum was soldered a sheet of copper 1 m. in 
 thickness, of such dimensions that when the platinum 
 sheet with the copper ends was formed into a roll of 
 one turn, there remained at each end copper flaps 
 50 mm. wide and 40 mm. deep. These flaps, dipping 
 into mercury in iron cups, served to convey the cur- 
 rent to the platinum tube. A porcelain or glass tube, 
 protected externally by a thin coating of asbestos 
 paper, was then pushed through the platinum con- 
 ductor, the middle part of which was wrapped in 
 several turns of asbestos paper. This wrapping of the 
 middle of the platinum conductor with asbestos pre- 
 vents the loss of heat from that part, and it may thus 
 be brought to a white heat whilst the uncovered 
 end portions do not even glow. The furnace was 
 inclined slightly to permit tar to flow away, and it 
 was supported by fire-bricks, so that it did not bend 
 of its own weight as it became hot. The iron cups 
 were put at the necessary heights for the copper flaps 
 to dip into them, and they were two-thirds filled with 
 mercury, which was then covered by a thin layer of 
 water. 
 
 The conducting wires from the battery of accumu- 
 lators were clamped to these cups. Two batteries 
 were available one of 36 elements of 36 ampere- 
 hours capacity, and the other of 36 elements of 160 
 ampere-hours. The first, coupled in groups of 4 cells, 
 gave a choice of 8, 24, or 72 volts ; the second, in 
 groups of 6 cells, gave a choice of 12, 24, 36, or 72 
 volts. The conducting wires were chosen of such dia- 
 meter that they caused practically no loss of potential. 
 The resistance of the furnace was about 0'06 ohm 
 at 1,000 C., and therefore the small battery of 8 
 volts gave a current of 120 amperes, and the large 
 one at 12 volts 200 amperes. These currents were 
 too powerful for producing temperatures up to about 
 
 109 
 
 Arrange- 
 ments for 
 heating the 
 
 tube 
 
 through 
 
 which the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 was passed 
 
 The source 
 
 of the 
 
 Electrical 
 
 power used 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 1,200 C. A resistance piece, formed of two parallel 
 brass tubes connected at their lower ends, was there- 
 fore used. Water under constant pressure circulated 
 through the tubes, and the resistance was found to 
 be OO7 ohm. By means of a copper slide on the tubes 
 this resistance could be lessened by any desired amount. 
 This resistance piece served, when coupled with the 
 small battery at 8 volts, to give currents of 60 to 110 
 amperes. With the larger battery three such resist- 
 ance tubes were used. After the resistance piece, an 
 amperemeter was placed in the circuit. 
 
 The For measuring the temperatures attained in the 
 
 tube ^ the electric furnace during the experiments, 
 tempera- a Le Chatelier thermo-couple was used after stan- 
 empioyed dardizing at the Imperial Physico-Technical Institute. 
 For measuring the electromotive force any delicate 
 galvanometer may be used, provided that its resistance 
 is so great that the total of all losses of tension be- 
 tween the junction and the instrument is quite small 
 compared with the difference of potential between the 
 two terminals of the galvanometer. Le Chatelier 
 used one of d'Arsonval's galvanometers, which had a 
 very high resistance, and this was the instrument 
 employed in this series of researches. 
 
 It would have needed too much time and care to 
 carry out the measurement of the electromotive force 
 by means of the compensation method whilst the de- 
 composition was going on. It was therefore necessary 
 to determine the value of the beats of the d'Arsonval 
 galvanometer. This was done by observing the beat 
 produced by the electromotive force which corresponded 
 to a certain temperature, according to the determina- 
 tions of the Imperial Institute, when such electro- 
 motive force was applied at the terminals of the 
 galvanometer. 
 
 All that then remained to be done was to devise 
 some protection for the thermo-element against the 
 
 110 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 hot gases in the furnace. A thin-walled glass or 
 porcelain capillary tube was drawn through the fur- 
 nace tube, and the thermo-element drawn through the 
 capillary, which terminated in the third arms of T- 
 pieces before and after the furnace. The wires of the 
 thermo-element were soldered to fine copper wires 
 500 mm. in length and the junctions were kept in ice. 
 These copper wires were connected by mercury con- 
 tacts with stout copper wires which passed to the 
 galvanometer some metres distant. The resistance in 
 the circuit exclusive of the galvanometer amounted to 
 2' 75 ohms, which denotes an error of 0'9 per cent, 
 in the temperature. This was, however, disregarded, 
 as the fluctuations in the temperature of the junction 
 were more considerable. 
 
 The temperature readings at different points in the 
 tube were taken by pushing the wires of the thermo- 
 element to and fro in the capillary, the distances of 
 the couple from the centre of the furnace being ob- 
 served by means of scratches on the wires. After a 
 few readings the initial point was again checked. 
 It was always found to have remained constant if 
 measurements had not been made too rapidly after the 
 commencement of heating. The temperature altered 
 as soon as the passage of vapour began, and had to 
 be regulated by the current. During the passage of 
 vapour, provided that the current was not varied, the 
 temperature within the tube only fluctuated in con- 
 sequence of changes in the rate of gasification, of 
 which it therefore gave a very ready indication. 
 
 The furnace was blown out with acetylene, and the 
 silver solution and sulphuric acid washing-flasks were 
 removed from the apparatus. The gas-collecting globe 
 was filled with a solution of common salt, saturated 
 with carbonic acid. The acetylene used was made 
 from calcium carbide, was free from air, and contained 
 97 per cent, of pure acetylene. It passed through 
 
 111 
 
 Protection 
 
 of the 
 thermo- 
 couple 
 
 Precautions 
 
 to test 
 constancy of 
 
 the 
 temperature 
 
 Method of 
 performing 
 
 the 
 experiment 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 washing-flasks containing a solution of caustic soda 
 and calcium chloride before it reached the furnace. 
 The temperature at the hottest part of the tube 
 ranged from 638 to 645 C. during the experiment. 
 In 4 hours 49 minutes 15-24 litres of gas were passed 
 through, and 1O83 litres were obtained from it, both 
 volumes being measured over brine under like con- 
 ditions. The gas collected contained 91 '8 per cent, of 
 acetylene, 1-3 per cent, of ethylene, i.e. absorbed by 
 bromine but not by silver solution, and 1-7 per cent, 
 of combustible constituents not absorbed by bromine. 
 The remainder of the gas was carbonic acid from the 
 Results confining liquid. The formation of gaseous defines 
 and paraffins and the splitting off of hydrogen were 
 therefore inconsiderable, but there was a marked 
 production of solid and liquid products. The tube 
 increased in weight by O50 gr., the tar collector 
 by 2-304 grs., and the paraffin oil flasks by 0-9 gr. 
 The actual carbon amounted to very little. The tar 
 began to boil at 80 C., and about 40 per cent, distilled 
 under 84 C. Then the residue distilled fairly uni- 
 formly up to 305, when a small quantity of carbona- 
 ceous residuum was left. Formation of naphthalene 
 was not detected. 
 
 Results at a An experiment carried out similarly at 790 C. was 
 temperature brought t a conclusion in half an hour through a 
 thick deposit of carbon in the tube. The tar was 
 extremely thick and viscous, but benzene was detected 
 by nitration, and there was an odour of naphthalene. 
 The gas contained in addition to 25 per cent, of acety- 
 lene only hydrogen and quite insignificant quantities 
 of methane and olefines.'V 
 
 Dlsii The apparent discrepancy in the results obtained by 
 
 crepancies Lewes and Haber is manifestly due to the tempera- 
 reTuits of ture employed ; as whilst Lewes passed the acetylene 
 
 tnrou g n 25 mm - of lieated tulbe at i) 0000 C -7 Haber 
 only employed a temperature at which acetylene 
 
 112 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 undergoes polymerisation and not decomposition. In 
 Lewes' experiment it was the nascent hydrogen 
 liberated by the decomposition of the acetylene 
 which, combining with more acetylene, formed the 
 unsaturated hydrocarbons found in the residual gas. 
 
 In 1895, Lewes 1 made the interesting observation Tne 
 that the decomposition of acetylene by heat liberates luminous 
 
 .... . ., decomposi- 
 
 the carbon 111 an incandescent condition owing to the tion of 
 
 endothermic heat of the compound being confined at Acetylene 
 the moment of decomposition to the products. Com- Light 
 menting on the flash of bright light seen when emitted 
 acetylene is detonated by mercuric fulminate as in Acetylene is 
 Berthelot's experiment, he says : " Although the in- detonated 
 stantaneous liberation of heat on the decomposition of 
 the gas by detonation appears to confine the tempera- 
 ture to the products of its decomposition, it was to 
 be expected that on being decomposed by heat, and 
 probably therefore at a slower rate, the increase in 
 temperature should be detected. 
 
 To prove this, pure acetylene was passed through a 
 platinum tube 2 mm. in diameter and 40 cm. long, in 
 which a Le Chatelier couple was arranged. A steady 
 flow of acetylene was allowed to pass through the 
 tube, and was led into water at the other end. The 
 tube was slowly and carefully heated for about 
 100 mm. of its length, and as the temperature reached 
 700 C. white vapours began to flow from the tube, 
 and these, as the temperature rose, increased in 
 quantity. The source of heat had been so regulated sudden 
 that the temperature had risen about 10 per minute ; ^J"*^ 1 
 but almost immediately 800 C. was passed the gal- composing 
 vanometer registered a sudden leap up in temperature 
 to about 1, 000 C., whilst finely divided carbon poured 
 from the tube. This seemed to indicate that 800 C. 
 w^as about the temperature at which the pure acety- 
 lene broke up into its constituents, and an experiment 
 1 Proc. Eoy. Soc., 57, 455. 
 
 113 8 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Carbon 
 separates 
 from de- 
 composing 
 
 Acetylene in 
 an incan- 
 descent 
 condition 
 
 Dilution 
 with other 
 
 retards the 
 luminous 
 decomposi- 
 tion and 
 necessitates 
 
 a higher 
 temperature 
 
 was now made to see if this developed incandescence 
 in the liberated carbon. 
 
 A small glass combustion tube was well supported, 
 and heated to the highest temperature attainable with 
 one of Fletcher's big blowpipes, whilst pure acetylene 
 was flowing slowly through it, the heating not being 
 commenced until the tube was filled with the pure 
 gas, all air being thoroughly rinsed out. As the 
 temperature reached the softening point of the glass, 
 the acetylene apparently burst into a lurid flame at 
 the point where it entered the zone of heat, and clouds 
 of carbon swept forward through the tube ; but al- 
 though the carbon particles had to traverse 25 mm. 
 or more of tube more highly heated than the point of 
 entering the hot zone, it was only at this latter point 
 that the luminosity was developed, proving beyond 
 doubt that it was the heat evolved by the decomposi- 
 tion, and not the external heating, which caused the 
 carbon particles to emit light." 
 
 Haber failed to obtain this phenomenon except when 
 small quantities of oxygen were present in the original 
 gas, but this was probably because the rate of flow in 
 the tube was too slow. Under these conditions the 
 acetylene polymerises into benzene and other com- 
 pounds as it approaches the heated zone, and the 
 vapours so dilute the acetylene that no luminous de- 
 composition takes place, the temperature used being 
 insufficient. The acetylene employed in Lewes' ex- 
 periments was carefully freed from oxygen. 
 
 Lewes l has shown that the temperature necessary 
 to bring about the luminous decomposition of acetylene 
 increases with the degree of dilution of the acetylene ; 
 and in order to do this a tube made of specially in- 
 fusible glass 4 mm. in diameter was taken, and the 
 Le Chatelier thermo-couple was fitted into it in the 
 same way as before used with the platinum tube, and 
 1 Proc. hoy. Soc., 55, 90. 
 114 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 all air having been rinsed out by a current of the 
 mixture to be experimented with, the gas was allowed 
 to pass at a steady rate of flow through the tube, the 
 point at which the thermo-couple was situated being 
 steadily heated by the Fletcher blowpipe, whilst the 
 temperature recorded on the scale was noted the 
 moment that the incandescent liberation of carbon 
 commenced. 
 
 Percentage composition of gas. Temperature necessary Tempera- 
 
 to cause deposition ot' tures 
 
 Acetylene. Hydrogen. carbon with luminosity. needed to 
 
 100 780 C cause de- 
 
 90 10 896 
 
 composition 
 of diluted 
 
 80 20 1,000 Acetylene 
 
 It was found impossible to obtain a glass tube which 
 would stand temperatures higher than this ; but on 
 plotting out the points so obtained, and which give a 
 fairly straight line, it is seen that even if the increase 
 in temperature only continues for increased dilution in 
 the same ratio as shown in the experimental deter- 
 minations, which is extremely unlikely, the reason of 
 the destruction of luminosity in highly diluted hydro- 
 carbon gases is at once explained, as an increase of 
 each 10 per cent, in the dilution would necessitate an 
 increase of 100 C. in the temperature of the flame, and 
 with 90 per cent, dilution a temperature of over 
 1,700 C. would be required to bring about decompo- 
 sition. 
 // The action of heat upon acetylene is probably far Thc action 
 
 , ,i i. ot heat on 
 
 more complex than any of these experiments indicate, Acetylene 
 and the products will vary with every change in the 
 temperature : the first action is undoubtedly condensa- 
 tion to benzene, and, with a careful regulation of 
 temperature, it is conceivable that the action might 
 possibly be limited to this ; but with a slight increase 
 in the heat further changes, due to the shedding of 
 hydrogen, continue until, as noticed by Berthelot ? 
 
 115 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 naphthalene and tar are formed just below the point 
 of decomposition. // 
 
 Secondary Whilst these changes are progressing, secondary 
 taking place actions of an additive character are also taking place, 
 the nascent hydrogen from one molecule attaching 
 itself to others, and thus building up ethylene, which 
 in turn breaks down again to acetylene and methane, 
 and so by actions of both synthetical and analytical 
 character are formed the great numbers of compounds 
 generated by acetylene between 400 and 780 C., above 
 which temperature it is decomposed into its constituent 
 elements. 
 
 Acetylene ^ Experiments made by withdrawing the gases from 
 
 presenMn various parts of luminous flames show that 110 matter 
 
 the interior w hat is the initial character of the hydrocarbon 
 
 of luminous . ^ 
 
 hydro- present, acetylene is always produced before lumiiios- 
 flam! *ty makes its appearance, and moreover that the 
 illuminating power of the flame follows the ratio of 
 acetylene so produced ;\ and this fact, taken in con- 
 junction with the observation that when acetylene, 
 free from air, is allowed to flow through a Jena glass 
 tube heated up to a temperature of 780 C., it is de- 
 composed with luminosity, whilst the carbon set free 
 in flowing forward through the zone of heat is per- 
 fectly non-luminous, formed the basis of what is now 
 known as the acetylene theory of luminosity. 
 The acety- Stated in its simplest form, this theory is as follows : 
 in' y ~~^ n ^ e same way that the decomposition of the 
 osity acetylene in flowing through a heated tube endows 
 the carbon particles with a luminosity which the heat 
 of the tube alone is unable to impart, so does the 
 decomposition of the acetylene generated in a hydro- 
 carbon flame increase the light-yielding power of the 
 carbon particles liberated by its decomposition over 
 what might have been the light emitted had they 
 only been heated to the temperature of the flame 
 itself. 
 
 116 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 There are conditions under which acetylene can be 
 burnt without the development of light. If acetylene 
 be diluted with about 92 per cent, of hydrogen or 
 carbon monoxide, the molecules are burnt up without 
 decomposition, and there being no solid matter in the 
 name to heat to incandescence, the flame remains 
 non-luminous. This is due to the acetylene requir- 
 ing a higher temperature to decompose it when it is 
 diluted than when it is pure, and the greater the 
 dilution the higher the temperature needed. 
 
 If burning alcohol, which in the open air gives a 
 faintly luminous flame, be placed under a bell-jar, the 
 temperature of the flame is lowered by some of the 
 products of combustion being checked in their escape, 
 and the flame becomes absolutely non-luminous ; if 
 now oxygen be supplied to the flame its temperature 
 becomes greatly increased, and not only does the 
 flame become highly luminous, but freely deposits 
 carbon on a cold surface held within it, whilst gas 
 withdrawn from the interior of the flame under each 
 condition is found to contain acetylene in abundance. 
 
 Another very striking example of the same kind is 
 to be found in cyanogen, a gas which has always been 
 noted for the beauty of the rose-pink flame with 
 which it burns. Although cyanogen contains the 
 same amount of carbon as acetylene, and is even more 
 endothermic, no one until lately had ever thought of 
 the possibility of its burning with a luminous flame, 
 this being due to the fact that the temperature neces- 
 sary to break up the molecule was so far above the 
 heat of the flame that the cyanogen molecule burnt 
 as a whole, and there being no deposition of carbon 
 no luminosity would result. 
 
 If, however, the cyanogen flame be surrounded 
 with pure oxygen instead of air, a faint luminosity 
 appears in the flame owing to the increase of tem- 
 perature ; whilst if the flame be surrounded by 
 
 117 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 may be 
 present in 
 non-lumin- 
 ous flames 
 
 The alcohol 
 flame 
 
 Presence of 
 
 Acetylene in 
 
 the alcohol 
 
 flame 
 
 The flame of 
 cyanogen 
 
 Cyanogen 
 more lumin- 
 ous than 
 acetylene 
 itself 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 nitrogen dioxide, another endothermic compound, the 
 temperature is so increased that the flame becomes 
 more intense in its illuminating power than the 
 acetylene flame itself, and yields a dense deposit of 
 carbon and para-cyanogen to any cold surface held 
 within it. 
 
 The acetylene theory of luminosity will be found 
 
 more fully discussed in the chapter devoted to the 
 
 combustion of acetylene for the development of light. 
 
 Tempera- Lewes gives the temperature of decomposition of 
 
 composition acetylene as 780 C., whilst Haber places it between 
 
 770 and 790 C. Frank, however, gives it as above 
 
 1,000, but upon what evidence is not clear. 
 
 Davy, 1 in 1836, in his original paper, pointed out 
 
 that acetylene burns in air "with a bright flame, 
 
 denser and of greater splendour that even olefiant gas 
 
 (ethylene). If the supply of air is limited, the com- 
 
 bustion of the gas is accompanied by a copious deposi- 
 
 tion of carbon." He also found that one volume of 
 
 acetylene required 2| volumes of oxygen, or ap- 
 
 proximately 12 1 of air, for its complete combustion, 
 
 and yielded 2 volumes of carbon dioxide and one of 
 
 Le water vapour. In 1895, Le Chatelier made an in- 
 
 researches teresting research on the combustion of mixtures of 
 
 air and acetylene and found 2 that the combustion of 
 
 products ol u 
 
 combustion mixtures of acetylene and air containing less than 
 
 of Acetylene comp l e t e ly to car- 
 
 bonic acid and water with a yellowish flame of low 
 illuminating power. Between 7'74 and 13'37 per cent. 
 the flame is pale blue with a feeble yellowish aureole, 
 and hydrogen and carbon monoxide are amongst the 
 products of combustion, the relative proportions of 
 these gases being represented by the same formula of 
 equilibrium as in the case of other combustible gases. 
 With more than 13'37 per cent, of acetylene the 
 
 1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 183G, G2. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend,, 121, 1144. 
 
 118 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 reactions are incomplete, and free carbon and unburnt 
 acetylene are present in the gases from the flame, 
 as well as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the flame 
 being red and smoky. 
 
 In oxygen. 
 
 Lower limit of combustibility . 2'8 
 Upper .. ., . 93*0 
 
 In air. 
 
 2'8 per cent, acetylene. 
 65-0 
 
 In tubes these limits decrease as the diameter de- 
 creases. The flame of a mixture of air and acetylene 
 cannot travel along tubes the diameter of which is less 
 than 0*5 m .79. only in tubes lm. in diameter can the 
 flame of the most inflammable mixtures pass. 
 
 Limits of 
 combustion 
 in mixtures 
 
 of air or 
 
 Oxygen and 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Diameter of tubes, 
 mm. 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-8 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 
 Limit. 
 Lower per cent. Upper per cent. 
 
 7-7 
 
 5 
 
 4-5 
 
 4 
 
 3-5 
 
 3'1 
 
 2-9 
 
 10 
 15 
 25 
 40 
 55 
 62 
 64 
 
 Influence of 
 
 the 
 
 diameter of 
 
 tubes on the 
 
 explosive 
 
 limit 
 
 In a tube 40 mm. in diameter the velocity of the flame 
 is 0*1 m. per second, with 2*9 per cent, of acetylene, 
 but increases rapidly with the percentage of acetylene 
 until the latter reaches 8 per cent., when the velocity 
 is 5 nrh^. per second, and afterwards it increases slowly 
 to a maximum of 6 m^. per second with 9 to 10 per 
 cent, of acetylene, whilst beyond this limit it decreases 
 rapidly. The temperature of ignition is only 480 C., 
 and hence explosive mixtures of acetylene can be 
 ignited in glass tubes heated with a spirit lamp. The 
 calculated temperature of combustion with 7*74 per 
 cent, of acetylene is 2,420 C. 
 
 2-50 
 
 t = 2,420; 
 + 9-4N 2 = 2CCX 
 119 
 
 H 2 
 
 Velocity of 
 propagation 
 of the flame 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture of 
 
 ignition of 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 air and 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Heat of 
 combustion 
 of various 
 
ACETYLENE 
 for 12*2 per cent, of acetylene, when the conditions of 
 
 mixtures of ., ., . 
 
 Acetylene equilibrium are 
 
 and air 
 
 C 2 H 2 + 1*50 2 + 5*65N 2 + 4(200 + H 2 0) |(C0 2 + H 2 ) 
 + 6-65N 2 .. t = 2.260; 
 
 Heat of f r 17*37 per cent, of acetylene the temperature of corn- 
 combustion bastion t = 2,100; when burnt with its own volume 
 
 of Acetylene _ 7 
 
 and oxygen of oxygen, the temperature of the flame should be 
 4,000, which is 1,000 higher than the oxy-hydrogen 
 flame. 
 
 The heat of combustion has been determined by 
 Thomsen 1 as being 310,600 calories ; and also by 
 Berthelot, 2 who found it to be 321,000 calories. 
 Develop- \\The fact that acetylene is combustible and highly 
 
 s. / ment of ... ^ 
 
 power on endothermic, whilst the igniting point is lower than 
 
 that of any other inflammable gas, would at once lead 
 
 one to expect that the explosion of mixtures of acety- 
 
 lene and air would develop greater power than with 
 
 ordinary combustible gases,/ /and in 1894 L. Meyer 3 
 
 published a warning note on this subject, in which he 
 
 Force of recounts that whilst exploding a mixture of acetylene 
 
 e ^ix7ures 0f ' an d oxygen as a lecture experiment, the small glass 
 
 of Acetylene cylinder containing the gases and surrounded with a 
 
 n duster was blown to pieces, even the solid foot being 
 
 smashed to atoms by the violence of the explosion. 
 
 He calculated that the temperature of the com- 
 bustion of acetylene was 11,180, whilst that of ethy- 
 lene would be 9,160. These temperatures, however, 
 are probably never reached on account of dissociation. 
 
 As early as 1874 E. v. Meyer, 4 whilst making ex- 
 periments on incomplete combustion, had noticed the 
 violence with which mixtures of acetylene and oxygen 
 explode, and attributed it to the endothermicity of the 
 compound ; and he also found that whilst a mixture 
 of 1 volume of acetylene to 0*2286 of oxygen is 
 
 1 Thermochem. Unters., 4, 74. 2 Ann. Chim. Phys., 5, 9, 165. 
 3 Berl. Ber., 27, 2764. 4 Journ.f. Prakt. Chem., 10, 233, 341. 
 
 120 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 inflammable, when the oxygen is reduced to O184 of 
 a volume the mixture ceases to inflame. 
 
 The most valuable work on the limiting proportions 
 of mixtures of acetylene and air which give explosion 
 was done by Clowes. 1 The experiments were con- 
 ducted as follows : 
 
 The mixtures were made in a glass cylinder of 
 known capacity 75 mm. in diameter, which was closed 
 at one end. A volume of water equal to that of the 
 combustible gas to be introduced was poured into the 
 jar, and a light xylonite ball, whose volume had been 
 allowed for in taking the capacity of the cylinder, was 
 dropped in. The jar was then inverted with its open 
 mouth in a pan of water, and the remainder of the 
 water was replaced by the combustible gas. The 
 mouth of the cylinder was then closed by a glass plate. 
 After the closed cylinder had been removed from the 
 water, the air and gas were thoroughly mingled by 
 causing the ball to run up and down inside some 
 twenty times. 
 
 The cylinder was then removed into a dark room, 
 and a small Bunsen atmospheric gas flame was brought 
 to its mouth. 
 
 If a sheet of flame travelled quickly through the 
 whole length of the cylinder, the mixture was con- 
 sidered to be combustible independently of the external 
 atmosphere. Such a mixture, although it burst 
 silently in the small mass contained in the cylinder, 
 would undoubtedly produce explosive effects if it were 
 kindled in larger quantity. 
 
 If the mixture refused to kindle in contact with the 
 flame, or if it simply burnt slowly as the external air 
 reached it, it was considered to be non-explosive at 
 ordinary atmospheric pressure. 
 
 It was found that the mixtures were more readily 
 kindled upward by a flame introduced at the bottom 
 1 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1896. 
 121 
 
 Clowes' 
 experiments 
 
 on the 
 
 explosive 
 
 limits of 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 combustible 
 
 gases with 
 
 air 
 
 Method of 
 making the 
 determina- 
 tions 
 
 Influence of 
 ignition 
 
 from below 
 
 or from 
 
 above 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 than downward by a name introduced at the top. 
 Accordingly the composition of the limiting explosive 
 mixtures varied according as the firing was upward or 
 downward. 
 
 The experiments were carried out with several 
 different combustible gases, and with coal gas. The 
 limiting explosive mixtures varied in their proportion 
 of gas to air when different gases were employed. 
 
 In order to measure accurately small volumes of in- 
 flammable gas in making the mixtures, the gas was 
 diluted with nine times its volume of air. In this way 
 a tenfold volume could be dealt with. Allowance was 
 made for the air thus introduced with the gas, in cal- 
 culating the composition of the mixture to be experi- 
 mented with. 
 
 The results obtained by repeated experiments made 
 with the same gas were concordant. In every case the 
 next percentage of gas, below or above as the case 
 might be, failed to fire back. 
 Expiosi- J It was found that air must contain at least 3 per 
 
 ^ mixtures of cent, of acetylene before it can be kindled with a 
 
 n * ame 7 an( ^ ^ ne mixture caused to burn throughout. 
 As the proportion of acetylene is increased the ex- 
 plosive character is augmented. When 22 per cent. 
 of acetylene is present, carbon begins to separate 
 during the burning. The amount of carbon which 
 separates increases until the explosive character of the 
 mixture disappears. This point is reached when 82 
 per cent, of acetylene is present in the air. 
 
 The limiting percentages in air which are explosible 
 are, accordingly, as follows, and may be compared with 
 those already determined for other combustible gases. 
 
 Comparison 
 
 of the Acetylene ...... 3 to 82 
 
 explosive Hydrogen ...... B to 72 
 
 limits of n v -i 10 * nr. 
 
 mixtures 01 Carbon monoxide . 13 to 75 
 
 combustible Etheylene . . . . . 4 to 22 
 
 gases with Methane ...... 5 to 13 
 
 alr 122 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 It will be seen that acetylene gives a wider range 
 of explosive proportions than any other of these gases 
 does. Probably this is due to its endothermic char- 
 acter, which leads to the gas being able to generate 
 heat by its own decomposition. Heat thus generated 
 would undoubtedly aid in causing explosion, and 
 would thus extend the limits of explosive mixtures. 
 
 Some experiments on the same subject are recorded 
 by Le Chatelier and Boudouard, 1 who give the lower 
 limit of inflammability as 2*8 per cent, of acetylene. 
 
 Fi.;. 3. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 FIG. 22. 
 
 When acetylene is exploded with 2| times its 
 own volume of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water 
 vapour are produced, and Bone and Cain, 2 have 
 studied the reactions taking place when acetylene 
 is exploded with less than its own volume of oxygen. 
 The experiments were carried out as follows : 
 
 As mixtures of acetylene and oxygen explode with 
 great violence, it was necessary to carry out the 
 operation in a leaden coil. The coil A (Fig. 22), 5 
 metres long and of an internal diameter of 13 mm. 
 
 1 Com.pt. Bend., 126, 1510. 
 * Journ. Chem. Soc., 71, 26. 
 123 
 
 The 
 
 products 
 
 formed 
 
 when 
 
 Acetylene is 
 
 exploded 
 
 with less 
 
 than its own 
 
 volume of 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Apparatus 
 employed 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 
 capacity about 700 cc., was immersed in a bucket of 
 cold water, a stout glass firing-piece B being attached 
 to the coil, by means of Faraday cement. Each end 
 of the coil was opened by strong steel taps a b and 
 communication was made through b and a glass tail 
 tap c with a mercury manometer c ; the latter served 
 to indicate, as will afterwards be shown, the pressure 
 in the coil after an explosion. By means of a tail tap 
 c a direct connection could be made with the outside 
 atmosphere instead of with the manometer, so that the 
 products of explosion could be readily drawn off for 
 Precautions analysis. Before making an experiment, the coil 
 preparing was thoroughly tested to see if all the joints were 
 tight by exploding a mixture of coal gas and 
 air in it. The inside of the coil was then thor- 
 oughly dried by boiling the water in the bucket, 
 and blowing a good current of dried air through the 
 coil for several hours. The water in A was then 
 allowed to cool, or was syphoned off and replaced by 
 cold water from the mains, the air current through 
 the coil being maintained meanwhile. 
 
 The mixture of acetylene and oxygen was intro- 
 duced into the coil b y attaching the gasholder to 
 the end a and raising the mercury reservoir ; then, on 
 opening the taps b and c, the air was expelled from 
 the coil. After about a litre of the mixture had been 
 passed into the coil, the exit gases from c were found 
 to be highly explosive ; but another half -litre of gas 
 was sent through the coil in order that there might 
 be no doubt as to its being filled with a gaseous mix- 
 ture of the same composition as that originally made 
 in the gasholder ; the tap a was then closed and a 
 few moments later the tap b. Thus the coil was 
 filled with gas at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. 
 The tap c was then turned so as to bring the coil in 
 connection with the manometer, and the mixture was 
 fired by an electric spark at B. If the various joints 
 
 124 
 
 The 
 
 gaseous 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 had successfully resisted the shock of the explosion, 
 the coil and its contents were allowed to stand for a 
 quarter of an hour in order that they might cool 
 down to the temperature of the surrounding water, 
 and then by opening the tap 6 connection with the Methods of 
 manometer c was made, and the pressure of the gases A ^**^ s 
 in the coil read off. In every case a considerable in- and results 
 crease in pressure was observed. Finally, samples of 
 the products were drawn off through c and collected in 
 tubes over mercury : these samples were subsequently 
 carefully analysed. The rest of the products were dis- 
 placed by a current of air, and sent through an am- 
 moniacal solution of silver chloride. In every case a 
 precipitate of silver acetylene, identified by the usual 
 method was obtained, showing that the products of 
 explosion contained free acetylene. 
 
 The results of their experiments are briefly stated Results 
 
 obtained 
 as : from the 
 
 1. When acetylene is exploded with less than its experiments 
 own volume of oxygen, carbon monoxide and hydrogen 
 are finally obtained, owing to the partial combustion 
 
 of the acetvlene in accordance with the equation Products 
 
 formed 
 
 the cooled products of explosion in the coil being 
 under considerable pressure. 
 
 2. The excess of acetylene is for the greater part Effect of the 
 resolved into its elements by the shock of the explosion Excess of 
 wave. A small quantity of acetylene as much as Acet y le: 
 
 1 per cent, in some cases is, however, found in the 
 products of explosion. This may be due to acetylene 
 which has escaped decomposition altogether, or pos- 
 sibly to a recombination of hydrogen and carbon in 
 the rear of the explosion wave. The presence of any 
 other unsaturated hydrocarbon in the products of 
 explosion has not been detected. 
 
 3. Methane does not appear to be formed when 
 
 125 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Absence of 
 Methane 
 from the 
 products of 
 decomposi- 
 tion 
 
 Traces of 
 Carbon 
 Dioxide 
 formed 
 
 Deposition 
 of Carbon 
 
 acetylene is exploded with less than its own volume 
 of oxygen, at any rate not in any appreciable amount. 
 This point has been very carefully investigated, and 
 although from some of the earlier experiments the 
 presence of a small quantity of methane some 0*5 per 
 cent. in the products of explosion was suspected, a 
 more rigid examination left no doubt that methane 
 was entirely absent. 
 
 This is particularly interesting, seeing that when 
 ethylene is exploded with less than its own volume 
 of oxygen, methane is produced, in certain cases to 
 the extent of 6 per cent, of the whole products. The 
 difference in the two cases is probably due to the fact 
 that acetylene is readily resolved into its elements by 
 shock, whilst in the case of ethylene the excess of 
 hydrocarbon which escapes combustion is subjected to 
 a "roasting" process, and thereby decomposed into 
 carbon and methane. 
 
 4{ Small amounts of a gas absorbable by solid 
 potassic hydroxide were invariably found in the pro- 
 ducts of explosion. This was in part, if not altogether, 
 due to the presence of carbon dioxide ; for when the 
 products of explosion were aspirated through a clear 
 solution of baryta, a white precipitate of barium car- 
 bonate was formed. 
 
 5. Carbon was deposited. This was shown by 
 firing a small volume of each mixture in a short 
 eudiometer made of very stout glass. In the case of 
 mixtures containing acetylene made with less than 
 three-quarters of its own volume of oxygen, a thick 
 deposit of carbon formed, but where mixtures con- 
 tained a larger proportion of oxygen, much less car- 
 bon separated. 
 
 Whilst it follows that the main reaction, occurring 
 when acetylene is exploded with less than its own 
 volume of oxygen may be expressed by an equation 
 such as one of the following : 
 
 126 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 C 2 H, + 2 = 2CO + H 2 Probable 
 
 * action 
 
 2C 2 H 2 + 2 = 2CO + 2H 2 + 20 taking place 
 
 it must be admitted that some steam is also produced : 
 this is evident from the fact that the ratio of the 
 hydrogen to the carbon monoxide in the products is 
 always less than the above equations require. More- 
 over it would be very difficult to account for the 
 presence of carbon dioxide in the products were no 
 steam produced. 
 
 Some remarkable results, due probably to the com- 
 bined action of explosion with air, and detonation of the 
 excess of acetylene have been observed by Gerdes. 1 
 
 Working with 90 litres of the various mixtures in 
 
 , . ,. T , ,1 experiments 
 
 an explosion cylinder, and measuring tne pressures O n the 
 
 by means of a manometer and indicator, the following 
 
 results were obtained : exploding 
 
 mixtures of 
 Acetylene 
 
 Pressures given by exploding mixtures of acetylene and air. an a a i r 
 
 Percentage of 
 Acetylene 
 
 Atmospheres 
 Pressure 
 
 Percentage of 
 Acetylene 
 
 Atmospheres 
 Pressure 
 
 2-5 
 
 0-05 
 
 11-1 
 
 ll'l 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-7 
 
 12-5 
 
 10-6 
 
 4-7 
 
 4-9 
 
 16-6 
 
 7-2 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 20-0 
 
 16-0 
 
 6-6 
 
 6-8 
 
 25-0 
 
 16-9 
 
 7-7 
 
 8-2 
 
 33-0 
 
 18-4 
 
 8-3 
 
 8-6 
 
 50-0 
 
 20-3 
 
 9-1 
 
 9-7 
 
 66-0 
 
 10-0 
 
 10-0 
 
 11-1 
 
 80-0 
 
 6-3 
 
 These results show that the maximum of explosive 
 force is obtained with a mixture of equal volumes. 
 
 The maximum of pressure should occur when com- Maximum of 
 pleted combustion yields the greatest heat effect, and force 
 the acetylene is burned to carbon dioxide and water 
 vapour, and this mixture explodes with the greatest 
 noise. 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Gale. Ac., 2, 260. 
 127 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Gerdes explains this unexpected result by the 
 assumption that the carbon is gaseous at the moment 
 of liberation, but this theory is hardly tenable. 
 If a mixture of equal volumes of acetylene and 
 air be ignited in an open cylinder 500 mm. high, a 
 Expiana- lurid disc of flame runs down the cylinder and a vast 
 phenomenon cloud of carbon is given off, but no sign of anything 
 approaching explosion occurs. If, however, this be 
 done in a closed vessel, the very slowness of the com- 
 bustion brings about the explosion, as the combustion 
 of the portion of the mixture first ignited creates a 
 pressure under which the remainder detonates at the 
 temperature of combustion, and gives the high pressure 
 noticed in these experiments. 
 
 In experiments made by Polis, it was found 
 extremely difficult to ignite such a mixture of air and 
 acetylene in a tube by means of an electric spark; but 
 if a flask be employed so that a considerable volume 
 of the mixture be present, the spark at once causes a 
 violent explosion, the finely divided particles into which 
 the glass is blown being an ample proof of the explosive 
 force having been of an extremely sharp character. 
 
 The fact that a mixture of one volume of air and 
 one volume of acetylene burns extremely slowly in an 
 open cylinder, and also the fact that it is difficult to 
 ignite by a spark the mixture in small proportions, are 
 no argument against the explosibility of the mixture ; 
 as, if one takes a mixture of carbon disulphide and 
 nitric oxide in a short cylinder, it burns with simply a 
 bright flash of light, which is noted for its richness in 
 actinic rays, whereas, if a very long narrow cylinder 
 be employed, it burns downs to a certain point and 
 then detonates, blowing the cylinder to pieces ; such 
 phenomena being entirely due to the increase in 
 rapidity of combustion, which finally terminates in an 
 explosive wave. 
 
 The whole question of the explosive properties of 
 
 128 
 
 Formation 
 
 of an 
 explosive 
 
 wave 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 acetylene is well summarised in a communication 
 made by M. Berthelot to the International Acetylene 
 Congress, held at Buda-Pesth in May, 1899, which is 
 as follows : 
 
 " The remarkable lighting properties, which have 
 given such impetus to the Acetylene Industry in 
 Europe and America, are bound up in closest union 
 with the explosive properties of the gas, both depend- 
 ing on the exceptional heat developed in combustion 
 by reason of its endothermic character, the luminosity 
 of the flame increasing rapidly with the rise of tem- 
 perature. The explosive properties of gases used for 
 lighting purposes are of two kinds the one common 
 to all combustible gases mixed with air, and the other 
 peculiar to endothermic gases such as acetylene. //' 
 
 The properties common to all combustible gases 
 mixed with air do not differ much in acetylene and 
 coal gas except for slight variations in the limits of 
 the relative proportions and the heat at which ignition 
 takes place, the presence of actylene tending generally 
 to lower these limits. The precautions to be taken, 
 however, are, on the whole, the same : they have been 
 the object of numerous and thorough researches, on 
 which I have no need now to touch. 
 f Acetylene is the only one amongst the usual light- 
 ing gases likely to explode by itself and without 
 oxygen, and its properties in this connection have 
 been the objects of my researches since 1865. Indeed, 
 it was at this period that I discovered that acetylene 
 was formed from its elements with absorption of heat, 
 that is to say, that it was endothermic and decompos- 
 able with evolution of heat. I have since measured 
 the heat given off in its decomposition, and found it 
 about equal to the heat given off by the combustion 
 of an equal volume of hydrogen. From this it follows 
 that acetylene might be explosive by itself, a fact 
 which I verified in 1882 by detonating this gas by 
 
 129 9 
 
 Berthelot 
 gives a sum- 
 mary of the 
 explosive 
 question 
 
 The illumin- 
 ating pro- 
 perties and 
 cxplosibility 
 of Acetylene 
 both due to 
 its endother- 
 mic proper- 
 ties 
 
 Explosive 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and air 
 
 Berthelot's 
 
 account of 
 
 his great 
 
 discoveries 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 
 niumina- 
 
 means of a cap of fulminate of mercury. This 
 property is apparent in cyanogen, whilst methane 
 and the analogous carbides notably those of petro- 
 leum are formed with the generation of heat, and 
 therefore will not detonate by themselves. Owing to 
 this circumstance, the temperature of their combustion 
 is lower, and their lighting power less considerable. 
 
 The advantage of acetylene in this respect is very 
 mar ked, its lighting power being six or seven times 
 as great as that of coal gas, and as it can be economi- 
 cally prepared on the spot, every one is making his 
 own gas without special systems of pipes ; these con- 
 ditions go far to extend its general use. 
 
 Care must be taken, however, to guard against its 
 explosibity, and it is in this study that I have been 
 occupied with M. Vielle for many years from a purely 
 scientific point of view. 
 
 He first investigated the influence of pressure, a 
 researcn made necessary by the use of liquid acetylene. 
 
 i . * i -n 
 
 The use of this is particularly simple, as it only calls 
 ^ or ^ ne employment of strong receivers capable of re- 
 sisting great pressure, such as are manufactured on a 
 large scale at the present day. Acetylene lighting 
 thus becomes as simple as the use of oil lamps. 
 The spread It has already been stated that the explosive de- 
 piosive wave composition of acetylene brought about at any one 
 in Acetylene point by a spark or an ignited body does not spread 
 beyond the region submitted to the direct action of 
 the heat. It is quite the reverse when the gas is con- 
 densed and under a pressure of more than two atmos- 
 pheres. The reaction then spreads, and gives rise to 
 violent explosion. 
 
 The effect of Shock, pure and simple, or even crushing, of the 
 receiver, does not give rise to explosion, provided the 
 pressure does not exceed ten atmospheres, and that no 
 sparks are produced in the crushing. But the shock 
 produced by a cap of fulminate will give an explosion. 
 
 130 
 
 The in- 
 fluence of 
 
 pressure on 
 
 the expiosi- 
 
 ausfag Tx- 
 plosion 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 An explosion can also be brought about in compressed 
 acetylene if water in excess be dropped on to the 
 calcium carbide in such a way as to raise any portion 
 of the mass to incandescence. 
 
 The same risk exists when the gas is compressed 
 too hastily in a reservoir, or even when the gas 
 previously compressed escapes rapidly from the re- 
 ceiver to be again compressed further on at the 
 mouth of a holder, in fact, every time acetylene is 
 submitted to sudden heat by means of too hasty com- 
 pression. 
 
 These various observations define the dangers run in 
 the use of liquid acetylene, and at the same time 
 suggest the precautions which must be taken to regu- 
 late its employment and prevent the risk, precautions 
 simple enough to be observed. Attempts have been 
 made to diminish the risks by resorting to the use of 
 solvents, the presence of which tends to stay the ex- 
 plosive properties of the acetylene dissolved in them, 
 whilst permitting the gas given off to resume its 
 previous conditions. 
 
 Amongst these solvents is acetone, which dissolves 20 
 to 25 litres of acetylene for every kilogramme of 
 absolute pressure, which would give, for example, 40 
 per cent. Ibs of acetone under a pressure of 13 kilo- 
 grammes. The explosive liability of such a mixture 
 is much diminished, as no explosion can take place in 
 the heart of the liquid itself, either by simple igni- 
 tion, or under the action of a cap, unless the pressure 
 is considerably over 10 kilogrammes more than the 
 ordinary temperature. 
 
 It is different with the gas arising from the solution, 
 for the acetylene having become almost pure again 
 recovers its normal explosive properties. 
 
 In the case of the explosion taking place in the 
 liquid itself, the solvent, i.e. the acetone, is at the 
 same time destroyed, this destruction absorbing part 
 
 131 
 
 The effect of 
 
 generation 
 
 The effect of 
 
 The retard- 
 
 The expio- 
 sive pro ~ 
 
 perties of 
 
 solutions of 
 AC acetone *" 
 
 Th e effect of 
 explosion on 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 of the heat given off by the acetylene and tending to 
 diminish the effects of the explosion. 
 
 Instead of burning pure acetylene in a gaseous state 
 from a receiver containing it in a liquid condition or 
 dissolved in a suitable solvent, we have tried latterly 
 to burn acetylene mixed with a non-explosive gas, 
 capable of lessening the condensation of the explosive 
 gas as well as the heat developed by its decomposi- 
 tion. 
 
 The effect oi These results become more marked if we employ as 
 diluents in the added body an exothermic compound capable of 
 explosion ^eing destroyed by the heat evolved by the decompo- 
 sition of the acetylene. This compound may itself be 
 endued with luminosity which would be increased by 
 the addition of the acetylene. We have experimented 
 with mixtures of this kind, the first consisting of 
 acetylene and hydrogen, and the second acetylene 
 and ordinary lighting gas. We have noted that the 
 aptitude of acetylene to spread decomposition excited 
 at any one point varies rapidly with the pressure, and 
 that there exists for each mixture a curve of pressure, 
 a zone below which the probability of propagation 
 becomes almost nil, and a knowledge of which deter- 
 mines the degree of safety in industrial enterprise. 
 The safety This limit, for example, ha^ been found to be at 
 pressure in a ^ out ^ kilogrammes from the initial pressure in a 
 mixtures of mixture of equal volumes of acetylene and hydrogen, 
 with other an d at about 10 kilogrammes in a mixture of 3 volumes 
 gases o f hydrogen to 1 of acetylene. 
 
 For ordinary lighting gas the limits are still higher, 
 being about 7 kilogrammes in equal volumes, and 40 
 kilogrammes for a mixture containing only one-fourth 
 of acetylene. The risk is thus diminished by the pres- 
 ence of a coal gas, a gas rich in methane, a compound 
 decomposable by absorption of heat. This influence 
 conforms to the theory advanced above. 
 
 At the same time, the gas which in use diminishes 
 
 132 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the heat developed in the decomposition of the The ends to 
 
 acetylene, as well as in combustion, decreases thus to * 
 
 a certain degree the illuminating power. It is between 
 
 these two classes of phenomena that we must steer in 
 
 practice, seeking at the same time those conditions 
 
 least dangerous in use, and those most favourable to 
 
 the development of the light." 
 
 Bone and Wilson 1 have made some experiments on The effect of 
 the effect of light on acetylene. The gas was prepared Acetylene 
 from copper-acetylene by the action of hydrochloric 
 acid, and was exposed during June and July to the 
 action of direct sunlight. A brownish deposit formed, 
 and in fourteen days the surface of the glass tubes en- 
 closing the gas was completely covered. The compo- 
 sition of the deposit was not ascertained, and where the 
 tube was screened from light no deposition took place. 
 The action also seemed to cease when the sides of the 
 tube were sufficiently clouded to cut off the direct 
 rays. 
 
 It should be noted that Eoemer, 2 in 1886, found that Roemer 
 acetylene prepared from copper-acetylene by the action deposit from 
 of hydrochloric acid yielded a dark deposit on the sides Acetylene 
 
 prepared by 
 
 of the glass gasholder in which it was standing, and the action 
 
 no change of volume was noted. The deposition, how- C hi ric d AcId 
 
 ever, seemed to be independent of the action of light, on copper- 
 and may be due to one of the poly acetylenes discovered 
 by Baeyer. 
 
 The action of the induction spark upon acetylene The action 
 
 was tried by Bert helot, 3 who found that under its induction 
 
 influence the gas partly decomposed with liberation of spark on 
 carbon, whilst some polymerised to liquid products, 
 and part also condensed to polyacetylenes. 
 
 The action of oxidising agents upon acetylene was The action 
 
 also first tried by Berthelot, 4 who investigated the ac- agentfupon 
 
 tion of an alkaline solution of potassium permanganate Acetylene 
 
 1 Proc. Chem. Soc., 14, 155. 2 Lieb. Ann., 233, 182. 
 3 Compt. Rend., 93, 613. 4 Ibid., 64, 34. 
 
 133 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of 
 Palladium 
 on mixtures 
 of air and 
 Acetylene 
 
 Action of 
 Peroxide of 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 on Acetylene 
 
 under 
 
 pressure 
 
 The 
 
 catalytic 
 action of 
 
 upon the gas, and found that, after shaking with 
 the solution and well cooling, potassium formate and 
 oxalate were formed and carbon dioxide was produced, 
 but later, 1870, 1 he tried the action of chromic acid, 
 and found that, according to the concentration of the 
 solution used, he obtained either forjnic acid and car- 
 bon dioxide, or acetic acid. 
 
 In 1882 Mailfert 2 tried the effect of ozone upon 
 acetylene, and found that it converted it into formic 
 acid and carbon dioxide. 
 
 F. Phillips, 3 in a paper on the oxidation of hydrogen 
 and hydrocarbons, finds that in the presence of palla- 
 dianised asbestos at temperatures above 339 C. 31 per 
 cent, of the acetylene mixed with air is completely 
 oxidised to carbon dioxide and water, and that under 
 these conditions acetylene is more stable than hydro- 
 carbons of the ethylene series. He also finds that the 
 oxidation of the carbon and hydrogen takes place 
 simultaneously, forming water and carbon dioxide, 
 whilst if there is not sufficient oxygen, carbon mon- 
 oxide may also be produced. 
 
 In 1896 Campbell 4 passed pure acetylene over 
 palladianised copper oxide, and found that even at 
 225 to 230 C. water begins to form, but no carbon 
 dioxide, and even up to 400 C. carbon was deposited 
 in the combustion tube, and the proportion of water 
 produced was always in. excess of the carbon dioxide. 
 
 Bergmann, 5 in 1897, stated that if acetylene under 
 5 atmospheres pressure be heated with hydrogen per- 
 oxide to 150 C., water and graphite are produced. 
 II It was De Wilde, 6 in 1866, who first pointed out 
 that under the catalytic action of platinum black, 
 acetylene and hydrogen would unite to form ethane, 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 67, 417. 2 Ibid.. 94, 860. 
 
 3 Zeitsch. f. Anorg. Chem., 6, 212. 
 
 4 Amer. Chem. Journ., 17, 681. 
 
 5 Journ. f. Gasbel., 41, 689. 6 , Bull. Soc. Chiyn,-* 2, 5, 175. 
 
 134 
 
THE CHEMICAL 'REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 C 2 H 2 4- 2H 2 C^H^ Platinum 
 
 Black on 
 
 whilst later l he repeats this statement, and also con- Acetylene 
 eludes that under certain conditions ethylene also Hydrogen 
 might be obtained, 
 
 r^ TT , TT r* TT 
 
 The tendency of nascent hydrogen to attach itself 
 to the molecule of acetylene with formation of ethy- 
 lene was demonstrated by Berthelot in 1862, 2 when he 
 acted on copper-acetylene by nascent hydrogen, pro- 
 duced by the action of ammonia solution on finely 
 divided zinc, and produced ethylene. 
 
 "When cold water is saturated with acetylene under 
 pressure, a well-defined and crystalline hydrate, C 2 H 2 
 6H 2 0, is formed, and being heavier than water, sinks 
 to the bottom of the solution. 
 
 It was Villard 3 who in 1897 discovered this com- 
 pound, and investigated its properties. 
 
 He found that at atmospheric pressure it required a 
 temperature of - 40 C. to prevent any decomposition 
 taking place, and that the compound dissociated under 
 the following conditions of temperature and pressure 
 into water and acetylene once more. 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 0C. 
 
 4-6 
 
 7-0 
 
 9-6 
 
 15-0 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 5'7 atmospheres. 
 
 9-4 
 
 12-0 
 
 16-4 
 
 33-0 
 
 Villard uses the formation and dissociation of this 
 hydrate as a method of obtaining pure acetylene. 
 
 In 1894 Deprez 4 found that a considerable volume 
 of gaseous acetylene was absorbed by freshly burnt 
 charcoal, and that on heating the mass in water in a 
 closed tube to 325, and keeping it at that tempera- 
 
 1 Berl. Ber., 7, 352. 2 Compt. Rend., 54, 315. 
 
 3 Compt. Rend., 120, 1,262. 4 Bull, Soc. Chim. (3), 11, 362. 
 
 135 
 
 
 Acetylene 
 Hydrate 
 
 Conditions 
 necessary 
 for forma- 
 tion and 
 preserva- 
 tion of 
 Acetylene 
 Hydrate 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Mixed 
 Hydrates 
 formed by 
 Acetylene 
 
 The action 
 of Chlorine 
 
 upon 
 Acetylene 
 
 Formation 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 Bichloride 
 
 ture for half an hour, direct combination took place 
 between the water and the acetylene, and aldehyde 
 was formed. 
 
 It was also noticed by De Forcrand and Thomas, 1 in 
 1897, that at a temperature of C. and under slight 
 pressures in the presence of water, acetylene forms 
 mixed hydrates with carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, 
 ethylene dichloride, methyl iodide, bromoform, vinyl 
 bromide, methylene chloride, and ethane trichloride ; 
 these hydrates decomposing with evolution of acetylene 
 when the temperature is allowed to rise. ^ 
 // The action of chlorine upon acetylene was first 
 noticed by its discoverer, Davy, 8 who in his original 
 paper pointed out that when it is allowed to come in 
 contact with chlorine gas, explosion instantly takes 
 place, accompanied by a large flame and the deposition 
 of much carbon, and he also points out that this action 
 readily takes place in the dark, and is, unlike the com- 
 bination of chlorine and hydrogen, independent of 
 light. In 1860 Berthelot 3 stated that when acetylene 
 and chlorine are mixed in diffused daylight, they 
 detonate, with separation of carbon ; but that under 
 certain circumstances acetylene dichloride, C 2 H 2 C1 2 , 
 may be formed, and no explosion occur./ j Nine years 
 later Jungfleisch and Berthelot 4 showed that penta- 
 chloride of antimony unites with acetylene to form 
 rhombic crystals having the composition C 2 H 2 SbCl 5 . 
 
 In 1884 Schlegel 5 found that when equal volumes of 
 acetylene and chlorine were mixed in a strong glass 
 tube, they might remain in contact for a considerable 
 period in the dark without any reaction taking place, 
 but that the light of a gas flame was suincient to 
 cause violent explosion of the mixture. 
 
 These apparent discrepancies were to a great extent 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 125, 109. 2 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1836, 62. 
 
 3 Compt. Rend., 51, 1,044. 
 
 4 Ann. Chem. Pharm., Sup. F., 225. 5 Lieb. Ann., 226, 155. 
 
 136 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 explained by Roemer, 1 in 1886, who found that when 
 pure acetylene is mixed with chlorine, no explosion 
 takes place, and came to the conclusion that the 
 explosions noticed by previous observers were caused 
 by the presence of traces of polyacetylenes such as 
 the gaseous diacetylene C 4 H^ discovered and studied 
 by Baeyer in the same year ; but a far more likely 
 explanation is that given by Mouneyrat, 2 who in 1898 
 found that when free from any trace of oxygen, acety- 
 lene and chlorine combine in diffused daylight, to form 
 acetylene tetrachloride, whilst if air or oxygen be 
 present a violent explosion takes place. 
 \ \These various researches showed that acetylene 
 unites directly with chlorine to form the di- and tetra- 
 chloride C 2 H 2 C1 2 and C 2 H 2 C1 4 , whilst the work of Ber- 
 thelot, 3 Berend, 4 and others, showed that the analogous 
 compounds with bromine and iodine could be obtained. 
 
 In 1882 Plimpton 5 made an important research upon 
 the halogen compounds of acetylene and the di-deriva- 
 tives, of which the following is an extract. 
 
 " By the action of bromine on acetylene Berthelot 
 obtained a dibromide boiling at 130, and a tetra- 
 bromide. Under ordinary conditions, however, when 
 the gas is passed through bromine, the products are, 
 as shown by Reboul (Compt. Rend., 54, 1229) and 
 Sabanejeff (Annalen, 178, 112), the tetrabromide and a 
 small quantity of a solid body, C 2 HBr 3 , crystallising in 
 laminae, and melting at 174. 
 
 By treating the tetrabromide mixed with its own 
 volume of alcohol with zinc powder, as recommended 
 by Sabanejeff (Ber., 9, 1,441), a considerable quantity 
 of dibromide was prepared. It boiled at 110-111, and 
 did not solidify at 17. Its specific gravity at was 
 2-268. 
 
 1 Lieb. Ann., 233, 215. 2 Bull. Soc. Chim. (3), 19, 448. 
 
 3 Ann. Chim. Phys. (4), 9, 426. 4 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 131, 122. 
 5 Journ. Chem. Soc., 41, 391. 
 137 
 
 Explana- 
 tions given 
 of the dis- 
 crepancies 
 between 
 various 
 observers 
 
 Acetylene 
 Di- and 
 Tetra- 
 chloride 
 
 Plimpton's 
 work on the 
 compounds 
 of Bromine 
 and Iodine 
 
 with 
 Acetylene 
 
 Bromine 
 compounds 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 lodino 
 compounds 
 
 The Di- 
 
 Properties 
 
 Properties 
 
 bromide 
 
 The di-iodide was prepared by passing acetylene 
 Qver iodine moistened with a i co hol (Sabanejeff, An- 
 
 nalen, 178, 109). The absorption is very slow. On 
 removing the iodine a semifluid mass was obtained, 
 which, when crystallised from alcohol, yielded long 
 elastic needles of the di-iodide, melting at 73. This 
 body is remarkably stable, and may be distilled with- 
 out decomposition. Boiling point, 192 corr. On 
 distilling the alcoholic mother liquor, a further portion 
 of the solid iodide volatilised, together with some iodo- 
 form, and the residue, when precipitated with water, 
 yielded a small quantity of the liquid isomeric iodide 
 described by Sabanejeff. It solidified readily in ice. 
 
 Acetylene chloriodide, C 2 H 2 C1I, may be prepared in 
 ^ e same way as the corresponding ethylene compound 
 obtained by Maxwell Simpson (Proc. Roy. $0c., 11, 
 590 ; 12 ? 278), by the absorption of acetylene by a 
 solution of iodine monochloride in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 The chloriodide was obtained as a heavy liquid, 
 becoming pink on exposure to light, with an odour 
 like that of ethylene bromide. It boils at 119 ther- 
 mometer in vapour. Specific gravity at = 2-2298. 
 
 Bromine displaces the iodine, yielding acetylene 
 chlorobromide and other products. 
 
 Acetylene chlorobromide is a volatile liquid with a 
 Peasant ethereal odour, boiling at 81-82. Specific 
 gravity at - 1 -8157. 
 
 It is isomeric with the chlorobromethylene obtained 
 by Hugo Muller (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1864, 2, 420) by 
 the action of potassium cyanide on chlorethylene 
 bromide, and also by Denzel (Lieb. Ann., 195, 206), 
 who treated the same compound, C 2 H 3 ClBr 2 , with 
 alcoholic potash. The compound obtained by these 
 chemists differs greatly from acetylene chlorobromide. 
 It boils at 62, has an excessively pungent odour, and 
 polymerises with great ease. Its constitutional for- 
 mula has been proved to be CHCl-CHBr, as, indeed, 
 
 138 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 might be expected from its mode of formation and 
 boiling point. 
 
 Acetylene bromiodide is formed together with other 
 products on passing acetylene through an aqueous 
 solution of bromine iodide. 
 
 Acetylene bromiodide is a heavy, colourless liquid, 
 which becomes red on exposure to light. Its specific 
 gravity at 0, when solid, is 2-750, and at 17-5, 2-6272. 
 It boils without decomposition at 150 corr., and solidi- 
 fies at about 8. Heated with alcoholic soda, it gives 
 off a gas having the properties of bromacetylene." 
 
 In 1895 Caro l tried the action of acetylene on con- 
 centrated hydriodic acid and obtained acetylene di- 
 iodide, which r on boiling with a concentrated solution 
 of potassic hydrate, decomposed, yielding potassic 
 acetate, acetylene, and alcohol. He stated that in 
 this way he made 70 grs. of alcohol in one opera- 
 tion, and in a comparatively short period ; whilst if 
 the acetylene di-iodide be decomposed by moist silver 
 oxide, only small quantities of acetylene result, and 90 
 per cent, of alcohol and potassic acetate are produced. 
 
 He also states that if the acetylene di-iodide is 
 heated in a closed tube with water, aldehyde is 
 formed, of which he obtained 40 per cent, of the theo- 
 retical yield, and he considers that on a large scale 
 the percentage would be even greater, jj 
 
 The importance of these observations caused Krueger 
 and Pueckert 2 to repeat Caro's experiments with the 
 greatest care, and they found that it took three 
 months to make 50 grs. of the di-iodide, and that 
 even when working with this quantity they were 
 unable to detect the formation of alcohol, although 
 they formed aldehyde and proved its presence by 
 various reactions. 
 
 Caro's reply 3 to this was that he had concluded that 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 ] 
 
 Properties 
 
 caro's 
 
 of 
 
 ) 
 
 from 
 
 Action of 
 
 ^^Jj^ 
 and water 
 
 Krueger and 
 
 caro's 
 
 Chem. Ind., 18, 226. 
 3 
 
 Ibid., 18, 454. 
 
 139 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Berthelot's 
 
 synthesis of 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 from 
 Acetylene 
 
 Action of 
 Acetylene 
 
 and 
 
 Nitrogen 
 under the 
 influence of 
 the induc- 
 tion spark 
 
 an amount of alcohol should be formed equivalent to 
 the potassic acetate found, and that on repeating his 
 experiments he found he had been mistaken. 
 
 Long before Berthelot 1 had stated that acetylene 
 would combine with nascent hydrogen to form ethy- 
 lene, but Krueger could not succeed in obtaining this 
 reaction, otherwise the ethylene could be converted 
 into alcohol by the action of sulphuric acid, and then 
 of water, 
 
 G 2 M 2 + _hL 2 = G 2 ti 4 
 C 2 H 4 + H 2 S0 4 = C 2 H 6 S0 4 
 C 2 H 5 S0 4 H + H 2 = C 2 H G + H 2 S0 4 ; 
 
 and A. Frank 2 based a paper on the commercial manu- 
 facture of alcohol on this reaction, and attempted to 
 show that alcohol could be obtained more cheaply from 
 calcic carbide than from potatoes by the ordinary pro- 
 cess of fermentation.! / 
 
 According to Berthelot, 3 acetylene mixed with 
 nitrogen when exposed to the action of the induction 
 spark yields hydrocyanic acid, 
 
 and the action is aided by the presence of about 10 
 per cent, of hydrogen, whilst Zeno 4 found that if a 
 mixture of nitrogen dioxide and acetylene is passed 
 through water, cyanic acid is formed, 
 
 Dewar, 5 in 1877, recounted an experiment made by 
 Ramsay, who found that by transmitting a mixture 
 of acetylene and hydrocyanic acid through a red hot 
 tube, pyridine bases were produced, whilst he himself 
 found that by passing a mixture of acetylene and 
 ammonia gas through a red hot tube, pyrrol might be 
 
 4 ,. 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 54, 515, 
 3 Compt. Rend., 64, 35. 
 
 2 Chem. Incl., 18, 74. 
 4 Luce e Galore, 1897, 118. 
 5 Proc. R<g/. Soc., 26, 65. 
 140 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 formed synthetically. He notes, however, that the 
 acetylene employed contained a small quantity of 
 vinyl bromide, and it is possible that the reaction 
 may have taken place between that body and 
 ammonia. Only a small quantity of pyrrol is formed, 
 the principal product being cyanide of ammonium. / / 
 
 According to V. Meyer, 1 when acetylene is passed 
 through boiling sulphur, thiophane is formed, whilst 
 the action of sulphuric acid upon acetylene has been 
 studied by several observers, and considerable dif- 
 ferences of opinion have arisen, largely owing to im- 
 pure acetylene being used in the experiments. Ber- 
 thelot 2 found that on dissolving acetylene in sul- 
 phuric acid, with constant agitation, about a litre an 
 hour is absorbed, and an acid is formed which yields 
 an unstable barium salt, occasionally obtained as well- 
 defined crystals, which he believed to be vinyl sulphate 
 of barium, Ba(C 2 H 3 S0 4 ) 2 . The vinyl sulphuric acid, 
 H(C 2 H 3 S0 4 ), was decomposed by boiling with water, 
 yielding sulphuric acid and vinyl alcohol, C 2 H 4 0. 
 The existence of this latter compound being very 
 doubtful. Lagermark and Eltekoff, 3 in 1878, re- 
 peated Berthelot's researches and came to the con- 
 clusion that vinyl alcohol was not produced, but that 
 it is croton aldehyde which is formed, a statement 
 which Berthelot adversely criticised, 4 whilst Zeisel 5 
 showed that the acetylene used by Lagermark and 
 Eltekoff had contained vinyl chloride, and that it was 
 this impurity which had produced the croton alde- 
 hyde. 
 
 Zeisel found that he could absorb 6 litres of acety- 
 lene by means of sulphuric acid in from 10 to 12 
 hours, but failed to obtain vinyl alcohol. 
 
 Later, Berthelot 6 acted on acetylene with fuming 
 
 
 1 Berl. Ber., 16, 2176. 
 3 Berl. Ber., 10, 687. 
 3 Lieb. Ann., 191, 366. 
 
 2 Ann. Chim. Pliys. (3). 57, 82. 
 4 Bull. Soc. Chim., 27, 540. 
 6 Compt. Rend, 64, 34. 
 141* 
 
 Synthesis of 
 Pyrrol from \ 
 
 Acetylene 
 and 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Formation 
 
 of 
 Thiophane 
 
 Action of 
 Sulphuric 
 
 Acid on 
 Acetylene 
 
 Absorption 
 of Acetylene 
 
 by 
 
 Sulphuric 
 Acid 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of sulphuric acid and obtained acetylene-sulphuric acid, 
 sulphuric which was not decomposed by water, and this sub- 
 stance, when melted with potassic hydrate, yielded 
 phenol, so that it is probable that acetylene is first 
 polymerised to benzol and then the sulphonic acid 
 formed. 
 
 L. Schroter, in 1898, 1 tried the action of sulphuric 
 acid containing 50 per cent, of sulphur trioxide upon 
 acetylene, and got as a result acefcaldehyde disulpho 
 acid, decomposition products of this acid, i.e. methylene 
 disulpho acid and formic acid, and also sulphates of 
 acetaldehyde disulpho acid, whilst Erdmann, in 1898, 2 
 found that when acetylene was passed through a 
 boiling solution of three volumes of sulphuric acid, 
 with seven volumes of water, acetylene was transformed 
 
 Formation { n ^ o aldehyde, the reaction being aided by adding 
 
 of Aldehyde J . > . TT J 
 
 some mercuric oxide to the liquid. He decomposed 
 125 grs. of calcium carbide with water, and the acety- 
 lene from this yielded 80 cc. of a 5 per cent, solution 
 of acetaldehyde. 
 synthesis of In 1898 also Berthelot 3 passed dry purified acety- 
 
 Phenol from , , i -i n i " i _ i i 
 
 Acetylene l ene through sulphuric acid, containing J 01 sulphur 
 trioxide, for 18 hours; diluted with 15 volumes of 
 water, and neutralised with potassic hydrate. After 
 separation of the potassic sulphate, by crystallisation, 
 and the addition of an equal volume of alcohol, the 
 solution was concentrated and yielded an amorphous 
 potassium acetylene sulfonate, 
 
 3C 2 H 2 + 4S0 3 + 4KHO = (C 2 H 2 ) 3 (S0 4 HK) 4 , 
 
 which on heating for twenty minutes at a tempera- 
 ture of 180-200 C in an atmosphere of hydrogen, 
 treating with cold dilute sulphuric acid, and distilling, 
 yields phenol. 
 
 In 1899 Berthelot 4 analysed this potassium acety- 
 
 1 Lieb. Ann., 303, 114. 2 Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem., 18, 48. 
 
 3 Compt. Rend., 127, 908. 4 Compt. Rend., 128, 333. 
 142 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 lene sulfonate, and found that it corresponded to the 
 formula, 
 
 (0 3 H 2 ) 3 (S0 4 HK) 4 , 
 and must be a salt of triacetylene tetrasulfonic acid. 
 
 He also attempted to obtain this body by the action 
 of acetylene on ordinary sulphuric acid, but only 
 obtained a very small quantity of the potassium salt 
 from which traces of phenol were obtained. 
 \ \ It is evident from these researches that the action 
 of sulphuric acid upon acetylene is of a very complex / 
 nature, and varies to a very great extent with the 
 strength of acid used.\\ 
 
 The reactions of acetylene upon other hydrocarbons 
 have not been muchjtudied. Ramsay, in 1877, 1 when 
 passing r acetylene and hydrocyanic acid through a 
 heated tube, found that picolyne was produced, but 
 Ljubawin 2 failed to obtain this action. Prunier, in 
 1878, 3 found that when a mixture of acetylene with 
 amylene and butylene is passed through a red hot 
 tube, butyl acetylene and amyl acetylene are formed. 
 
 ACTION ON METALS AND METALLIC SALTS. 
 
 Berthelot has studied the action of sodium and some 
 other metals upon the gas. He found 4 that when 
 sodium is gently heated in acetylene, it is transformed 
 into sodium acetylene, C 2 HNa, whilst at a dull red 
 heat disodium acetylene, C 2 Na 2 , is obtained, and under 
 the same conditions potassium is transformed into di- 
 potassium acetylene, C 2 K 2 . Both compounds are de- 
 composed on contact with water, liberating acetylene ; 
 magnesium also probably gives a carbide under these 
 conditions, 6 and iron decomposes acetylene with the 
 formation of hydrocarbons, the liberation of hydrogen, 
 and the deposition of carbon. 
 
 1 Phil. Mag., 52, 41. 
 
 3 Ann. Chi'm. Phys., (5) 17, 5. 
 
 5 Ann. Chim. Phys., 4, 9, 404. 
 143 
 
 2 Berl. Ber., 19, 481. 
 4 Compt. Rend., 62, 455. 
 
 The action 
 of Acetylene 
 on other 
 Hydro- 
 carbons 
 
 The action 
 of Acetylene 
 
 on metals 
 
 and metallic 
 
 salts 
 
 Mono- and 
 Disodium 
 
 and 
 
 Potassium 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of 
 heat on 
 Mono- 
 sodium 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Compound 
 of Di- 
 sodium 
 Acetylene 
 
 with 
 Acetylene 
 
 In 1898 numerous researches were made upon the 
 action of metals with acetylene, and Erdmann and 
 Koehner 1 found that the temperature needed to con- 
 vert sodium when heated in acetylene into sodium 
 acetylene, C 2 HNa, is 190 C., and that at 210 C. this 
 compound decomposes into disodium acetylene and 
 acetylene, according to the formulae, 
 
 2C 2 HNa = C 2 Na 2 + C 2 H 2 . 
 
 Metallic rhubidium does not act 011 acetylene gas, 
 nor does zinc, mercury but little, whilst metallic iron, 
 when heated in acetylene , gives products of polymeri- 
 sation. Moissan 2 also found that the white compound 
 obtained by the action of acetylene on sodium at com- 
 mon temperatures was a monosodic carbide, or sodium 
 acetylene, C 2 HNa, and that on heating this, acetylene 
 is evolved and disodium acetylene or sodium carbide is 
 produced, whilst if the temperature be still further 
 raised until the hard glass softens, this compound is 
 again entirely decomposed into sodium and carbon. 
 / , Later on he found 3 that when acetylene acts on 
 an ammoniacal solution of sodiumammonium at - 40, 
 there are formed transparent crystals, and,, the tem- 
 perature Jails to 60. Moissan believes this action to 
 be, 
 
 3C 2 H 2 + 2NaNH 3 = 2C 2 NaH + 2NH 3 + C 2 H 4 . 
 
 The monosodium acetylene and ethylene were care- 
 fully determined, and further experiments showed 
 that the crystals obtained are in reality a compound 
 of sodium carbide and acetylene, Na 2 C 2 , C 2 H 2 , and this 
 breaks up by dissociation, forming the monosodium 
 acetylene, 
 
 Na 2 C 2 ,C 2 H 2 = 2C 2 HNa. 
 
 He prepared a similar compound of potassium carbide 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem., 18, 48. 2 Compt. liend., 126, 302. 
 
 3 Ibid., 127, 911. 
 
 144 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 with acetylene, K 2 C 2 ,C 2 H 2 , but found that when lithium 
 was used the reaction was of a different character ; 
 well-formed crystals were obtained arid were found to 
 consist of a compound of lithium carbide, acetylene 
 and ammonia, Li 2 C 2 ,C 2 H 2 ,2NH 3 , and a similar crystal- 
 line compound of calcic carbide, acetylene and ammonia 
 was also formed. 
 
 In the formation of these bodies ethylene is liber- 
 ated, and both compounds burn in carbon dioxide and 
 also in chlorine. 
 
 It will be remembered that Davy first made acety- 
 lene by acting with water upon a black residue left 
 in the retorts used for the manufacture of potassium 
 by igniting potassium tartrate, and this compound was 
 examined by Berzelius, 1 who came to the conclusion 
 that iiy was potassium carbide. Liebig, 2 however, found 
 that a compound having somewhat similar properties 
 was formed when carbon monoxide is passed over 
 potassium, heated just to melting, and Brodie 3 con- 
 firmed the results obtained by Liebig, and, further, 
 showed that 28 parts by weight of carbon monoxide 
 are absorbed by 39- 1 parts of potassium, so that the 
 compound is probably potassium carbonyl. This body 
 is a greyish solid, extremely explosive, decomposes 
 water, and is resolved at a red heat into potassium and 
 carbon monoxide. Some authorities, notably Watt's 
 Dictionary (new edition, Morley and Muir), consider 
 that Liebig's potassium carbonyl is the same substance 
 as the material from which Davy first prepared acety- 
 lene, which is an evident error, as the body was 
 obtained from the retort itself, and had been sub- 
 jected to a temperature which would have entirely 
 decomposed the carbonyl compound. Moreover, Davy's 
 analysis shows the gas formed by the decomposition 
 of water in contact with it to have been practically 
 
 1 Poyg. Ann., 4, 31. 8 Lieb. Ann., 11, 182. 
 
 3 Chem. Journ. 12, 269. 
 
 145 10 
 
 Compounds 
 of Carbides 
 
 with 
 Acetylene 
 
 and 
 Ammonia 
 
 Davy's 
 preparation 
 of Acetylene 
 
 from 
 
 Potassium 
 Carbide 
 
 Potassium 
 Carbonyl 
 
 Confusion 
 between 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 and 
 
 Potassium 
 Carbonyl 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Compounds 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 with other 
 
 metals 
 
 Copper 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 noticed by 
 
 Torrey in 
 
 1839 
 
 The red 
 
 precipitate 
 
 formed 
 
 when 
 
 Acetylene is 
 
 passed 
 
 through 
 
 Ammoniacal 
 
 Cuprous 
 
 Chloride 
 
 pure acetylene, whilst the gaseous mixture evolved by 
 the action of potassium carboiiyl on water would be 
 carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The latter compound 
 is formed in the condenser of the potassium plant, as 
 the vapours condense to liquid potassium, and occa- 
 sionally choke the leading tube, whilst Davy's com- 
 pound was left as a residue in the retort, and must 
 have been either potassium acetylene, K 2 C 2 , as stated 
 by Berzelius, or a mixture of this compound with 
 calcic carbide formed from the lime always present as 
 an impurity in crude potassic tartrate. 
 
 The most studied metallic compounds formed by 
 acetylene have been the copper, silver and mercury 
 acetylenes. 
 
 | jit was as early as 1839 that Torrey * noticed a dark- 
 brown compound in the copper gas mains of New 
 York, and found that it exploded when struck by a 
 hammer, or when heated to 200 C ; he had no idea, how- 
 ever, of its composition, and it was not until 1862 that 
 it was realized that this body was a compound due to 
 acetylene. In that year Crova 2 found that metallic 
 copper became coated with a brownish film when 
 exposed to a mixture of acetylene and air, and that 
 finely-divided copper, under the same conditions, forms 
 copper acetylene, the action being aided by the pre- 
 sence of ammonia. / 
 
 Nickles 3 also noticed the formation of copper 
 acetylene in gas pipes made of coppsr, but no com- 
 pound of a like character in iron or lead pipes. 
 )/ Quet, Boettger, and Vogel, 4 had already noticed the 
 formation of a red precipitate when acetylene was 
 passed through ammoniacal cuprous chloride, and had 
 studied its properties, but it was Berthelot, 5 who, in 
 1862, first attempted to determine its composition, and 
 
 1 American Gas Light Journ., Oct., 1859. 
 
 2 Compt. Rend., 55/435. 3 Ibid., 55, 505. 
 
 4 See chap. i.. p. 15. 
 
 146 
 
 5 Compt. Bend., 54, 1044. 
 
THE CHEMICAL EE ACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 came to the conclusion that it was a monocuprous 
 acetylene, mixed with a varying proportion of cupric 
 oxide, and gave it the formula C 2 CuH 4 + nCuO/ /He 
 further found that when acetylene is passed through 
 a concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in potassic 
 chloride, a yellow crystalline precipitate of cuprous 
 vinyl chloride C 2 HCu 2 Cl is formed, and he obtained 
 corresponding bromides and iodides by a similar 
 process. 
 
 Four years later l he further investigated the pre- 
 cipitate formed by acetylene in ammoniacal cuprous 
 chloride, and found that the reaction was so delicate 
 that one two-hundredth of a milligram of acetylene 
 diluted with hydrogen gives a red precipitate, and 
 he now gives the formula of the true compound as 
 2(C 2 Cii 2 H)0. 
 
 Whilst Berthelot had been making these researches, 
 Reboul 2 had also investigated the compound, and 
 found no oxygen in it, and gave its composition as 
 being C 2 CuH. 
 
 In 1874, Blochmann 3 attacked the problem of its 
 composition, and having analysed it, declared it to be 
 C 2 H 2 Cu 2 0, a formula that was generally accepted. 
 
 The formation of the body he represents by the 
 equation 
 
 CuCl + 2NH 
 
 22 
 
 H 2 
 
 C 2 H 2 = C 2 H 2 Cu 2 + 2NH 4 C1, 
 
 and its decomposition by hydrochloric acid as 
 
 C 2 H 2 Cu 2 + 2HC1 -= C 2 H 
 
 22 
 
 Cu 2 Cl 2 
 
 H0. 
 
 Delicacy oi 
 
 this re- 
 action as a 
 
 test for 
 Acetylene 
 
 Attempts to 
 
 determine 
 
 the 
 
 composition 
 of the red 
 
 precipitate 
 
 Action of 
 
 Hydro- 
 chloric Acid 
 on Copper 
 Acetylene 
 
 
 In 1886 Roemer 4 pointed out that copper acetylene sulphuric 
 
 , , n i -,1 i ,- e , i i Acid does 
 
 cannot be decomposed with evolution of acetylene by no t liberate 
 
 sulphuric acid. If the acid is weak, it does not act * cet i lene , 
 
 r , from the red 
 
 upon it, whilst strong acid gives many products but precipitate 
 practically no acetylene. 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 62, 455. 
 3 Lieb. Ann., 173, 176. 
 
 147 
 
 2 Ibid., 54, 1229. 
 4 Ibid., 233, 183, 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Keiser 
 shows the 
 
 red 
 
 precipitate 
 
 to be Copper 
 
 Acetylene, 
 
 Cu.,C., 
 
 Keiser, 1 in 1892, noted that the precipitate obtained 
 by passing acetylene through ammoniacal cuprous 
 chloride always contained small traces of carbon, which 
 were left after decomposing it with hydrochloric acid. 
 
 He found that he obtained the purest copper acety- 
 lene by passing the gas through cuprous hydrate 
 suspended in water, and that it contained 83-36 to 
 83*96 per cent, of copper, a result which led him to 
 adopt the formula 
 
 Action of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 on Cupric 
 
 Salts 
 
 which requires 84-08 per cent, of copper. 
 
 He found, by exploding the compound in a vacuum, 
 that it contained no hydrogen. / / 
 
 C. Phillips 2 pointed out that the compound must be 
 kept from contact with air, as otherwise the yield of 
 acetylene, obtained by decomposing it with hydro- 
 chloric acid, is much diminished, and he proposed wash- 
 ing and filtering the precipitated copper acetylene in 
 an atmosphere of carbon dioxide. 
 
 In 1897 Soederbaum 3 noted that the action of 
 acetylene on cupric salts seemed, for the most part, to 
 have been disregarded, although, on passing a stream 
 of the pure gas into an ammoniacal solution of either 
 cupric sulphate or nitrate, a black flocculent precipi- 
 tate was slowly produced. 
 
 This substance, after being dried over sulphuric acid, 
 gave various results, on analysis, a fact which was 
 found to be due to the absorption of oxygen from the 
 air during the process of drying ; in an exhausted 
 desiccator, however, the substance ceased to increase in 
 weight after two days, and then yielded, on analysis, 
 numbers corresponding with the formula (C 17 Cu 8 H 4 3 )n. 
 This copper acetylene is a black, amorphous powder, 
 insoluble in water and organic solvents ; it explodes 
 
 1 Amer. Chem. Journ., 14, 285. 2 Ze.it. Anorg. Chem., 6, 255. 
 
 3 Berl. Ber., 30, 760. 
 
 148 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 between 70 and 80 when heated, and decomposes 
 quickly on heating with hydrogen chloride with 
 formation of the halogen salt of copper, and a car- 
 bonaceous residue of the formula (C l2 H 4 3 )n ; this is 
 probably similar to the graphite hydrate obtained by 
 Schuetzenberger and Bourgeois from crude iron. 
 
 On passing acetylene into a neutral or faintly acid 
 solution of copper acetate, a precipitate is formed 
 corresponding in composition with the formula 
 (C 8 Cu 4 0)m + (H 2 0)n, and differing from the compound 
 above mentioned in being stable in air and non-ex- 
 plosive. It seems, therefore, from these experiments 
 that a large number of copper acetylenes are capable 
 of existing. 
 
 A. Hofmaiin and Kuespert * found that the compound 
 (Cu 8 01 8 ) 8 ,C 8 H 8 , obtained by the action of pure acetylene 
 on a solution of anhvdrous cupric chloride in absolute 
 
 , i j. IT j- 11 n xi 
 
 alcohol, crystallised 111 colourless needles ; the same 
 
 compound is also obtained when methylic alcohol is 
 employed, but the substance then crystallises in 
 forms resembling those of Karlsbad feldspar. When 
 treated with water, it is converted into copper acety- 
 lene, whilst with hydrochloric acid it is decomposed 
 into acetylene and cuprous chloride. The reduction 
 of the cupric chloride is due to the action of the 
 acetylene, for by mixing the alcoholic filtrate from 
 the crystals with water, and extracting the mixture 
 with ether, an oily liquid is obtained which yields 
 acetylene when treated with zinc. The compound is 
 not explosive. If 75 per cent, alcohol is employed in 
 the preparation, a reddish-brown powder is obtained, 
 which is slightly explosive, and, when treated with 
 hydrochloric acid, yields acetylene, cuprous chloride 
 and a black residue. 
 
 During 1898 a large amount of work was done upon 
 the copper compounds. May 2 found that freshly-made 
 
 1 Zeit. Anorg. Chem., 15, 204. 2 Journ.f. Gasbel., 41, 683. 
 
 149 
 
 
 Action of 
 
 Cupric 
 
 Chloride 
 
 Conditions 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 becomes 
 explosive 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 copper acetylene could be heated to 60, and even 
 higher, without explosion, but that explosion always 
 takes place under these conditions if the copper acety- 
 lene has been exposed to air for a few hours. 
 
 He also notices that when copper acetylene has been 
 gently warmed in a current of oxygen, it explodes on 
 contact with acetylene, and he concludes that the 
 oxygen converts the compound into copper diacetylene, 
 which afterwards interacts with more acetylene. }) 
 Compound Chavastelon l found that when cuprous acetylene is 
 A1C treated with hydrochloric acid in the cold, there is no 
 
 cuprous appreciable evolution of gas, a fact which is attributed 
 
 Chloride * , .. , , , . , ,., 
 
 discovered to the lormation 01 a compound 01 acetylene witn 
 
 Chavastelon cu P rous chloride, which is decomposed on warming. 
 This compound, which analysis shows to have the 
 composition C 2 H 2 ,Cu 2 Cl 2 , may be prepared (1) by 
 passing acetylene into a saturated solution of cuprous 
 chloride in dilute hydrochloric acid HC1 and 10H 2 t) 
 to HC1 and 7H 2 maintained at a temperature not 
 exceeding 12 ; (2) by the action of acetylene on an 
 aqueous or alcoholic solution of cuprous chloride 20 
 to 40 per cent. in presence of metallic copper. By the 
 first and most suitable method the substance is ob- 
 tained in the form of large hexagonal prisms belonging 
 to the orthorhombic system ; and by the second in silky 
 needles, which are liable to contamination by a violet 
 purple deposit, which is produced at the commence- 
 ment of the reaction. In order to isolate the crystals 
 unchanged, they must be quickly washed with abso- 
 lute alcohol and anhydrous ether, both of these liquids 
 having been previously cooled to and saturated with 
 acetylene, and finally dried in a current of acetylene. 
 The crystals soon alter by exposure to air, and are 
 immediately decomposed by water or solutions of 
 alkali chlorides, with evolution of acetylene, and the 
 production of the violet purple substance above men- 
 1 Compt. Rend., 126, 1810. 
 150 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 tioned, the nature of which is being investigated. On Effect of 
 
 warming they dissociate without explosion, and the The^oulbie 11 
 
 following measurements of the pressure at different compound 
 temperatures have been made : 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 Pressure. Temperature. 
 
 3 mm. 46 U 
 
 25 60 
 
 50 78 
 
 131 
 
 Pressure. 
 220 mm. 
 480 
 2620 
 
 The compound described above is different from that 
 prepared by Hof mann and Kuespert, which Chavastelon 
 was unable to obtain. 
 
 Later, Chavastelon found that * the crystalline com- 
 pound of acetylene with cuprous chloride, C 2 H 2 Cu 2 Cl 2 , 
 is decomposed by water with production of a violet 
 compound. Acetylene is at the same time slowly 
 liberated, and the liquid found to contain free hydro- 
 chloric acid, which limits the decomposition. The 
 violet substance is best prepared by digesting the 
 compound C 2 H 2 ,Cu 2 Cl 2 , with a large excess of water 
 saturated with carbonic anhydride out of contact with 
 air. The crystals are washed with absolute alcohol 
 and anhydrous ether, and finally dried over calcium 
 chloride in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. 
 Estimation of the copper and chlorine, and the 
 measurement of the volume of acetylene which the 
 compound yields when treated with concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid, show that it has the composition 
 C 2 H 2 ,Cu 2 Cl 2 ,Cu 2 0. 
 
 Erdmann and Koehner 2 came to the conclusion that 
 when acetylene is passed over finely-divided copper 
 heated to 400-500, it is decomposed into hydrogen 
 and carbon, the latter being deposited in the graphitic 
 condition. At lower temperatures below 250 the 
 copper combines with the gas to form a yellowish- 
 brown compound, which, unlike Soederbaum's cupric 
 1 Compt. Rend., 127, 68. 2 Zeit. Anorg. Chem., 1898, 18, 48. 
 
 151 
 
 The violet 
 compound 
 prepared 
 
 by the 
 
 action of 
 
 water on 
 
 C.HLCu ,C1 , 
 
 Composition 
 
 of the violet 
 
 compound 
 
 Action of 
 
 finely 
 
 divided 
 
 Copper on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 New 
 
 compound of 
 
 Carbon and 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 with Copper 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 as an 
 
 analytical 
 
 reagent 
 
 The 
 explosion of 
 
 Copper 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 does not 
 
 detonate 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Explosion 
 
 due to 
 Copper Di- 
 acetylene 
 
 acetylene, is not explosive. The new substance is 
 more conveniently prepared by heating finely-divided 
 cuprous oxide in a current of acetylene at 250 ; it is 
 exceedingly voluminous, and its composition corresponds 
 with the formula C 44 H 64 Cu 3 ; when heated with excess 
 of zinc dust, it yields 20 per cent, of an oil boiling 
 between 190-250, and possessing an odour like 
 Caucasian naphtha. If the mixture is heated to a 
 higher temperature, aromatic hydrocarbons appear in 
 the distillate, and naphthalene is obtained, whilst a 
 portion which dissolves in caustic soda has properties 
 resembling those of cresol. 
 
 It is evident that the extreme delicacy of the 
 reaction between ammoniacal cuprous salts and 
 acetylene not only gives an extremely delicate test 
 for the latter gas, but also, as has been pointed out 
 by Soederbaum, 1 makes acetylene a useful analytical 
 reagent, and offers an easy method for the separation 
 of copper from cadmium. 
 
 In 1898 Freund and May 2 found that when a few 
 centigrammes of copper acetylene, dried in air for four 
 to five hours at 50-60, were introduced into a com- 
 bustion tube, and a slow current of acetylene was 
 passed through the tube, an explosion with evolution 
 of light took place. This explosion was always local, 
 and did not propagate backwards in the gas. The 
 phenomenon took place with commercial as well as 
 with carefully purified acetylene. 
 
 It was observed that only copper acetylene dried in 
 contact with air behaved in this way. If dried in a 
 vacuum or in a current of carbon dioxide, the com- 
 pound will not explode. It seems that the oxygen of 
 the air forms copper diacetylene 
 
 CH C - Cu - Cu - OH 
 CH s C-Cu-Cu-OH 
 
 ( ~ 
 
 - Cu - Cu - OH 
 C-Cu-Cu-OH 
 
 Berl. Bar., 30, 902. 
 
 2 Acet. Wiss. Ind., 1, 285. 
 152 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 This observation agrees with May's previous paper. 
 h It seems evident from these various researches that 
 acetylene forms with copper and copper salts a 
 number of compounds ranging from the copper 
 carbide, Cu 2 C 2 , up to the complex bodies noted by 
 Soederbaum, the composition of these products vary- 
 ing with the concentration and character of the 
 solutions used, and the presence or absence of air. 
 
 There is but little doubt that the reddish-brown 
 precipitate formed when acetylene is passed through 
 ammoniacal cuprous chloride is true copper acetylene, 
 Cu 2 C 2 , a non-explosive body which yields acetylene on 
 treatment with hydrochloric acid. It is, however, 
 intensely oxidisable, and on contact with air absorbs 
 oxygen, becoming explosive ; and it is the presence of 
 varying quantities of oxidation products that has 
 given rise to the differences observed by various 
 experimentalists. // 
 
 It was in 1858 that Quet 1 first noticed the precipi- 
 tate formed when acetylene was passed through an 
 ammoniacal solution of a silver salt, and found that 
 when dry it was of an explosive chapter ; and in the 
 same year Vogel and Reischauer % determined the 
 amount of silver present in it as being from 78 3 to 
 84 per cent. Boettger 3 also, in 1859, noticed the 
 formation of this body ; whilst Miasnikoff,* in 1861, 
 gave the formula for it as C 4 H 4 Ag, and Berthelot, 
 in 1866, gave its composition as being (C 2 HAg 2 )0. 
 Berend, 5 in the same year, calculated from deter- 
 minations made by Reboul 6 that its composition must 
 be (C 2 HAg) 2 ,Ag 2 0, and in 1874 Blochmann, 7 after 
 careful determinations, gave it the formula C 2 H 27 Ag 2 0, 
 corresponding to the copper compound C 2 H 2 ,Cu 2 0, and 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 46, 903. 2 Jahr. Ber., 11, 208. 
 
 3 Ann. Chem. Pkarm., 109, 351. 4 Ibid.. \ 18, 330. 
 5 Ibid., 135, 258. 6 Compt Rend., 54, 1229. 
 
 7 Ann. Chem. Pharm., 173, 174. 
 163 
 
 Action of 
 Acetylene 
 
 on the 
 
 Ammoniacal 
 
 Cuprous 
 
 Chloride 
 
 Solution 
 
 Action of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 on Silver 
 
 Salts 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 also stated that the silver compound is more explosive 
 than the copper acetylene. 
 
 Reiser This view of its composition was the one generally 
 
 composition accepted until 1892, when Keiser 1 brought an investi- 
 of the silver option upon this body before the Franklin Institute. 
 
 precipitate 6 F J 
 
 to be Ag,,c , and showed that when pure acetylene is conducted 
 into an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate, the 
 yellowish- white precipitate which is formed has, when 
 dried, the composition represented by the formula 
 C 2 Ag 2 . It may, in fact, be regarded as acetylene 
 in which both hydrogen atoms have been replaced by 
 silver. The formula that has been generally adopted 
 for this substance is C 2 H 2 Ag 2 0. But such a compound 
 contains only 83- 71 per cent, of silver, whereas in 
 three specimens of the substance prepared by Keiser 
 the quantity of silver found was 89'32, 89'44 and 
 89*60 per cent. The formula C 2 Ag 2 requires 89'9 per 
 cent, silver. That the compound contains no hydro- 
 gen was shown by exploding a weighed quantity of 
 it in a glass tube which had been exhausted with an 
 air pump ; no hydrogen was obtained. In the same 
 year Plimpton * published his researches on the 
 
 Plimpton's metallic derivatives of acetylene, and says : " The 
 
 experiments J . . , ., 
 
 with the precipitate formed by acetylene in ammoniacal silver 
 nitrate is in dilute solutions decinormal bright 
 
 compounds 
 
 yellow. In strong solutions the yellow curdy sub- 
 stance first thrown down is prone to pass into a 
 white and less bulky form. The yellow substance 
 often undergoes the same change when allowed to 
 stand under water containing acetylene and protected 
 from light. The white substance usually yields a 
 somewhat higher percentage of silver. Strong am- 
 monia appears to be without action on the yellow 
 acetylide, and the quantity present during precipi- 
 tation does not influence the composition of the 
 precipitate." 
 
 1 Amer. Chem. Journ., 14, 185. 2 Proc. Chem. Soc., 1892, 109. 
 
 154 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Silver estimations in eight specimens dried over 
 sulphuric acid gave percentages of silver ranging 
 from 87-38 to 88'85. Of these, two had been dried 
 for three and six weeks respectively, and yielded 88*7 
 and 88-8. Blochmann's formula, C 2 Ag 2 H 2 0, requires 
 83-7; that of Berthelot, C 2 Ag 2 ,|H 2 or (C 2 HAg 2 ) 2 0, 
 86-7. 
 
 An attempt to prepare silver acetylene in neutral or 
 acid solution, so as to diminish the risk of the precipi- 
 tate carrying down with it silver oxide, was successful. 
 Silver acetate was wholly precipitated by acetylene with 
 separation of the whole of the acetic acid. The acety- 
 lene so prepared had the same properties as that 
 obtained in ammoniacal solution, but had not the 
 same tendency to turn brown on drying, and, like 
 the latter, separated as a yellow curdy precipitate, but 
 became white under the same conditions. 
 
 The silver was estimated in fifteen specimens, care- 
 fully dried in a vacuum over sulphuric acid until they 
 ceased to lose weight, and in some cases at 60-70. 
 The results lay between 86*6, the percentage of silver 
 required for C 2 Ag 2 , JH 2 0, and 87'9, nearly that required 
 for C 2 Ag 2 ,JH 2 0, 87-8. 
 
 Drying at 60-70 caused a slight loss of weight, 
 but darkened the precipitates. Those specimens 
 which had become white yielded higher results than 
 those which remained yellow. Two portions of the 
 same precipitate, of which the one was left in contact 
 with strong ammonia for several days, were dried, and 
 yielded the same percentage of silver, 86*56. 
 
 The acetylene given off from a known weight of 
 the dry substance with chlorhydric acid was measured, 
 and the silver chloride weighed : ratio of silver to 
 acetylene as 38 to 20, or 10*3 per cent. ; carbon, 
 C 2 Ag 2 ,JH 2 0, 9-7; percentage of silver, 87-47. Other 
 experiments by the same method, made with the com- 
 pound from ammoniacal silver nitrate and from silver 
 
 155 
 
 Silver 
 
 compound 
 
 always 
 
 contains 
 
 water 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Double Salts 
 
 of Silver 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and Silver 
 
 Nitrate 
 
 Double Salt 
 
 of Silver 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and Silver 
 
 Sulphate 
 
 Chavas- 
 
 telon's 
 
 researches 
 
 on Silver 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 acetate, also gave one molecule of acetylene to two 
 atoms of silver. 
 
 Silver chloride dissolved in ammonia gave a yellow 
 compound containing 87*85 per cent, silver, and free 
 from silver chloride. 
 
 Silver nitrate in aqueous solution decinormal is 
 precipitated by acetylene, three-fourths of the acid 
 being liberated. Precipitates prepared from solutions 
 of different strengths contained varying proportions of 
 silver nitrate. 
 
 Alcoholic silver nitrate yields a precipitate much 
 richer in nitrate, containing equal amounts of silver 
 as acetylene and as nitrate. The action of hydro- 
 carbons of the acetylene series on alcoholic silver 
 nitrate has been studied by Behal. The analyses 
 of precipitates from the nitrates gave as limits 
 3C 2 Ag 2 2AgN0 3 Aq and C 2 Ag 2 2AgN0 3 Aq, the latter 
 being obtained from alcoholic solutions. 
 
 Silver sulphate solutions are also completely pre- 
 cipitated by acetylene, and with a solution containing 
 O2 gr. in 100 cc. two-thirds of the sulphuric acid 
 was set free. Precipitates obtained from such a solu- 
 tion gave results corresponding to 2C 2 Ag 2 Ag 2 S0 4 Aq. 
 
 Chavastelon l studied the action of silver acetylene 
 on silver nitrate, and found that when acetylene is 
 passed into an aqueous solution of silver nitrate, a 
 white precipitate is formed, and the acidity of the 
 liquid increases somewhat rapidly, until all the silver 
 nitrate has been precipitated, after which it in- 
 creases slowly. In presence of an excess of the silver 
 salt the quantity of free nitric acid is always higher 
 than that which corresponds with the quantity of 
 silver nitrate that has disappeared. The acetylene 
 compound combines with some silver nitrate as such, 
 and the quantity of silver nitrate decomposed is twice 
 as great as that which enters into combination in this 
 1 Compt, Rend., 124, 1364. 
 156 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 way. Experiments with definite volumes of acetylene, 
 combined* with an analysis of the precipitate, show 
 that the first compound formed has the composition 
 C 2 Ag 2 .AgN0 3 . It is decomposed by the prolonged 
 action of acetylene, or by hot ammonia solution, the 
 silver nitrate being decomposed or dissolved, whilst 
 silver acetylene, C 2 Ag 2 , is left. The action of acetylene 
 on an ammoniacal solution of the silver salt yields 
 silver acetylene at once, as Keiser stated. These re- 
 sults are analogous to those obtained by Bruylants 
 and Behal with hydrocarbons derived from acetylene 
 by substitution. 
 
 Arth 1 also made a research on these compounds, and 
 points' out that silver acetylene is variously described 
 as yellow and white. In reality, the precipitate 
 formed 011 passing the gas through an ammoniacal 
 solution of silver nitrate is at first yellow, but subse- 
 quently becomes colourless, even when excess of the 
 hydrocarbon is employed. The compound C 2 Ag 2 , 
 AgN0 3 becomes deep yellow when treated with 
 
 ammonia, but soon becomes colourless. 
 
 / I 
 
 y Silver acetylene C 2 Ag 2 is always produced when 
 excess of acetylene is passed through an ammoniacal 
 solution of silver nitrate, but the compound C 2 Ag 2 , 
 AgN0 3 is formed in ordinary aqueous solutions, and 
 is pure only when these are sufficiently concentrated. 
 An N/2 solution of silver nitrate yields a colourless 
 product, and the precipitate does not begin to be 
 yellow until the dilution reaches N/24, the quantity 
 of nitric acid set free increasing with the dilution. It 
 therefore appears that the initial action of acetylene 
 on a neutral solution of silver nitrate gives rise to the 
 compound C 2 Ag 2 ,AgN0 3 , which is converted into a 
 yellow intermediate compound of unknown composi- 
 tion capable of existence in presence of ammonia, 
 this substance ultimately yielding silver acetylene. 
 1 Compt. Rend., 124, 1534, 
 157 
 
 conditions 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 are 
 
 Artn's 
 
 V 7 
 
 Double 
 
1 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 The action 
 
 on 
 
 salts 
 
 Formation 
 Mercury 
 
 The 
 compounds 
 
 with 
 
 the action of 
 them. P l 
 
 Silver acetylene and the compound C 2 Ag 2; AgNO 3 
 dissolve readily in a solution of potassium cyanide, 
 acetylene being regenerated. / 
 
 The action of acetylene on mercury salts was first 
 notice(i in 1869 b 7 Basset, 1 who found, when passing 
 acetylene through a solution of mercuric iodide in 
 potassic iodide and potassic hydrate, that a light- 
 coloured precipitate, having explosive properties when 
 dried, is formed and can be decomposed by hydro- 
 chloric acid with evolution of acetylene. He ascribes 
 to this compound the composition C 2 H,HgI,HgO. 
 
 In 1883 Kutscherow 2 noted that when acetylene is 
 passed through a solution of mercuric chloride a pre- 
 cipitate is obtained, which, when treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid, yields aldehyde, which can be readily 
 converted by reduction into alcohol. 
 
 In 1892 Plimpton 3 showed that mercuric acetate 
 solutions yield white precipitates, which become grey 
 towards the end of the precipitation. If the solutions 
 are not too strong, the whole of the metal is thrown 
 down with separation of the acetic acid. When 
 washed with alcohol, and dried in vacuo over sulphuric 
 aci^ the substance has the composition required by 
 the formula 3Hg02C 2 H 2 . It resembles the compound 
 3Hg02C 3 H 4 3HgCl 2 obtained by Kutscherow from ally- 
 lene, for, unlike the acetylides generally, it does not 
 gi ye onC acetylene on treatment with hydrochloric acid, 
 and is not explosive 
 
 Iodine attacks it apparently with formation of iodo- 
 form. 
 
 Mercurous acetate freshly precipitated and suspended 
 in water is decomposed by acetylene, and is converted 
 into a greyish substance which differs entirely from 
 the mercuric compound, and seems to be similar to 
 silver acetylene in composition and properties. It 
 
 ., 1869, 314. 2 Berl.Ber., 17, 13. 
 3 Proa. Chem. Soc., 1892, 109. 
 158 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 detonates when heated suddenly, and gives acetylene 
 011 treatment with hydrochloric acid. Iodine acts 
 upon it in the same way as upon silver acetylene, yield- 
 ing di-iodacetylene. 
 
 The acetylene used was prepared from the copper 
 compound obtained from the incomplete combustion of 
 coal gas, and was purified by caustic soda. 
 
 Berthelot and Keiser l both made experiments upon 
 this compound, and in 1894 Travers and Plimpton, 2 in 
 a review of their work, say, u Berthelot (Ann. Chim. 
 Phys., 4, 9, 386) by passing acetylene through a solution 
 of mercuric iodide in potassium iodide made alkaline 
 with ammonia, obtained an explosive mercury acety- 
 lene, of which, however, he seems to have made no 
 analysis. The authors have prepared this substance The 
 in various ways, and studied its composition and pro- 
 perties. They have prepared it by the action of acety- and 
 
 /IN f i i i i /ON Plimpton on 
 
 lene : (1) on iresnly precipitated mercuric oxide ; (z) on tne Mercury 
 solutions of mercuric cyanide mixed with ammonia, compounds 
 
 J .of Acetylene 
 
 or, batter, with ammonia and cupric sulphate or zinc 
 chloride ; (3) on solutions of mercuric acetate or sulphate 
 with ammonia, when a part only of the mercury is pre- 
 cipitated ; (4) on mercuric oxide dissolved by the aid of 
 ammonia and ammonium carbonate. The latter method 
 is the most convenient. The heavy white powder 
 which separates is well washed and dried at 100. 
 Analysis gives as the means of four determinations : 
 mercury, 87'1 ; carbon, 10- 1 and 1O3. Calculated for 
 3C 2 HgH 2 : mercury, 87 ; carbon, 104 per cent. The 
 substance could not be obtained free from water, even 
 after long drying at 100. Mercuric acetylene seems 
 to belong to the same class of bodies as the silver and 
 copper acetylenes ; it is explosive, yields part of its 
 carbon as acetylene when warmed with chlorhydric 
 acid, and part as aldehyde, and yields the compound 
 C 2 I 2 , and eventually C 2 I 4 when acted on by iodine 
 1 Amer. Chem. Journ., 15, 535. 2 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1894. 
 159 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Mercuric 
 
 Acetylene, 
 
 CHg 
 
 Purification 
 of Acetylene 
 by Acid 
 Mercuric 
 Chloride 
 Solution 
 
 Double 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Salts 
 
 dissolved in potassium iodide. It differs altogether 
 from the substance obtained from solutions of mercuric 
 acetate described in a previous note Proc. Chem. Soc., 
 1892, 109 which is non-explosive, and in other re- 
 spects resembles the allylene derivatives obtained by 
 Kutscherow from solutions of mercuric chloride and 
 acetate (Ber., 17, 13). Mercuric acetylene detonates 
 violently when suddenly heated or struck sharply ; it 
 can, however, be handled with safety even when dry. 
 
 " Keiser, who had apparently overlooked Berthelot's 
 description of the substance, and the note published in 
 the Proc. Roy. Soc. by one of the authors, has recently 
 Am. Chem. Journ., Nov., 1893 obtained the same 
 substance, and attributes to it the formula C 2 Hg ; the 
 authors have not been able to obtain either this or the 
 silver compound free from water." 
 
 Berge and JReychler l in 1897 suggest the purifica- 
 tion of acetylene made from calcium carbide by passing 
 it through a solution containing 
 
 Water . 
 Hydrochloric acid 
 Mercuric chloride 
 
 80 grams. 
 20 ., 
 
 8-12 
 
 which they say does not act on the acetylene, but 
 purifies it from phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Biginelli, 2 in 1898, makes an acetylene mercuric chlo- 
 ride Cl-CH-CH-HgCl, whilst Erdmann and Koeh- 
 ner 3 identified mercuro-acetylene nitrate, HgC,CHg, 
 Hg,N0 3 + H 2 0, produced by saturating a hot solution 
 of mercuric nitrate with acetylene. It separates in 
 small white crystals, and differs from Keiser's silver 
 analogue C 2 Ag 2 ,AgN0 3 in containing H 2 0. It re- 
 sembles Poleck and Thummel's mercury derivative of 
 
 1 Bull. Soc. Chim., 3, 17, 218. 
 
 2 Ann. di Farm, e Chim., 1898, 16. 
 8 Zeit. Anory. Chem., 18, 48. 
 
 160 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 vinyl alcohol, and yields acetaldehyde on treatment 
 with dilute acids. 
 
 Acetaldehyde is produced when acetylene is passed 
 through mercuric oxide, suspended in boiling phos- 
 phoric acid of sp. gr. 1-15, or in 30 per cent, sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 According to K. Hoffmann, 1 acetylene, when passed Hoffmann's 
 through a solution of mercuric nitrate, acidified with 
 nitric acid, yields a fine, colourless, crystalline precipi- 
 tate, which, after washing with 2 per cent, nitric acid, 
 and drying under reduced pressure, has the composition 
 C 2 Hg 2 N0 4 H. If the gas be passed through the solution 
 for several hours, a black substance is also formed. It 
 is practically insoluble in water, or in dilute 3 per 
 cent. nitric acid, but is decomposed by concentrated 
 acid. With warm dilute hydrochloric acid it yields 
 acetaldehyde, and mercuric chloride goes into solution. 
 When treated with alkalis the nitrogen is obtained in 
 the form of nitrates, and when warmed with sodium 
 hydroxide and potassium cyanide solution, aldehyde 
 resin is formed. The compound may be obtained in 
 the form of large crystals by using an alcoholic solution 
 of aldehyde in place of acetylene ; after remaining 
 for fourteen days, large, colourless, double-refractive 
 prisms, terminated by pyramids, are deposited. The 
 constitution suggested is N0 3 ,Hg,C(:Hg),CH:0. 
 
 Later in the year Hoffmann 2 criticizes Erdmann and Hermann's 
 Koehner's results, and says they describe a substance criticism of 
 
 J J . Erdmann 
 
 obtained by the action of acetylene on a hot solution and 
 of mercuric nitrate as a double compound of mercurous 
 carbide and nitrate, HgC:CHg,HgN0 3 + H 2 0. It is not 
 an acetylide, however, for it gives no acetylene when 
 heated with hydrochloric acid, but aldehyde instead. 
 Neither is it a mercurous compound, for when it is 
 digested for half an hour with dilute hydrochloric acid, 
 83'8 per cent, of mercuric chloride is formed, but only 
 
 1 Bert. Ber., 31, 2212. . 2 Ibid., 81, 2783. 
 
 161 11 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 2*3 per cent, of mercurous chloride, and this is no doubt 
 on account of the reducing action of the aldehyde 
 simultaneously formed ; further, potassium cyanide 
 solution dissolves the compound without decomposition 
 of mercury, and ammonia produces no black colora- 
 tion. The substance analysed by Erdmann and Koeh- 
 ner contained a little mercury ; after removal of this 
 by digestion with dilute nitric acid, the analytical num- 
 bers agree with the formula N0 2 ,Hg,0(:Hg 2 :0),CHO, 
 that of a substituted aldehyde. 
 
 The compound is best prepared by dissolving yellow 
 mercuric oxide 20 grams in dilute nitric acid 
 70 cc. of 30 per cent, acid, and 500 cc. of water filter- 
 ing, and passing a fairly rapid current of acetylene for 
 two hours through the solution, at a temperature of 
 18. The precipitate is then collected, digested three 
 times with 8 per cent, nitric acid 150 cc. at the 
 ordinary temperature for six hours, filtered, washed 
 with alcohol and ether, and dried under diminished 
 pressure over sulphuric acid. 
 
 The action of acetylene upon metals has attracted a 
 fair share of attention. Moissan and Mourreu l have 
 shown that acetylene acts readily at the ordinary 
 temperature on iron, nickel, and cobalt, if they have 
 been reduced from their oxides at the lowest possible 
 \J Action with temperature. \\ There is great development of heat, and 
 if the current of gas be rapid, the metal becomes 
 incandescent. Part of the acetylene is converted into 
 benzene, and other polymerides, but the greater part 
 splits up into carbon and hydrogen. V 
 
 It would seem that the phenomena are due to the 
 energetic absorption of the gas by the porous reduced 
 metal ; heat is thus developed, part of the acetylene 
 is polymerised, and part is decomposed. As soon as 
 decomposition begins, the reserve energy of the acety- 
 lene becomes available, and contributes to the energy 
 1 Compt. Rend., 122, 1240. 
 162 
 
 The action 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 on metals 
 
 Iron, Nickel, 
 and Cobalt 
 
THE CHEMICAL EEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 : 
 
 of the reaction. Carefully prepared spongy platinum 
 produces a similar decomposition. On the other hand, 
 if the acetylene is diluted with nitrogen there is no 
 incandescence, although the acetylene is absorbed and 
 slightly decomposed. 
 
 If the metals have been heated at too high a 
 temperature during the process of reduction, heat is 
 necessary in order to start the decomposition of the 
 acetylene. 
 
 Sabatier and Sinderens 1 find that when nickel, 
 reduced by hydrogen, is exposed to a current of h^dre- 
 1 gejtu-at 300, the acetylene is decomposed, and hydrogen 
 and methane are formed. 
 
 The early observations made by Torrey 2 and Nicies 3 
 on the formation of explosive deposits in copper gas- 
 pipes, owing to the trace of acetylene present, led to the 
 expectation that this gas would act readily upon copper 
 and similar metals. Experiments, however, show that 
 this is not the case. 
 
 In the summer of 1895 H. Grerdes, 4 the chief engineer 
 of Messrs. Pintsch, of Berlin, made an exhaustive 
 series of experiments upon this point, not only with 
 the gas under ordinary pressure, but with mixtures of 
 acetylene with oil and coal-gas at pressures of nearly 
 ten atmospheres. 
 
 This was done by placing the metals to be tested in 
 steel cylinders, the slips being fitted in wooden frames 
 so arranged as to prevent any contact either between 
 the individual metals or the walls of the metal 
 cylinder. Two of these cylinders were filled with 
 pure acetylene, two with a mixture of 80 per cent, of 
 acetylene and 20 per cent, of oil-gas, and one with a 
 mixture of acetylene with 20 per cent, coal-gas ; a small 
 quantity of water being placed into each cylinder in 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 124, 616. 
 
 2 Amer. Gaslight Journ., Oct., 1859. 
 
 Action of 
 
 spongy 
 Platinum 
 
 Action of 
 
 reduced 
 
 Nickel on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Experi- 
 ments by 
 Gerdes upon 
 
 the action 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 on ordinary 
 
 metals and 
 
 alloys 
 
 Compt. fiend., 55, 505. 
 
 Journ.f. GasheL, 40, 201. 
 
 163 
 
s/ 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 order that the gas should be moist, as it was expected 
 that this would greatly facilitate the action upon the 
 metals. These cylinders were filled with the gases at 
 a pressure of nine to ten atmospheres, and they were 
 exposed on the roof of a shed from July 18th, 1895, to 
 April 9th, 1896 this range of time exposing them to 
 the highest temperature of an exceptionally hot 
 summer, and the lowering of temperature incidental 
 to a very cold winter. 
 
 Results of Of all the metals and alloys used, those which are 
 experiments known to resist ordinary oxidation in air remained 
 perfectly unaffected, whilst the easily oxidisable metals 
 suffered on the surface, but in no instance was it 
 possible to trace any acetylene compound ; and no 
 explosion could be produced by either heating or 
 hammering, whilst further experiments with acetylene, 
 ammonia and water showed clearly that such corrosion 
 as had taken place by the simultaneous action of 
 ammonia-gas and acetylene was due exclusively to the 
 action of the former gas, and 110 explosive compounds 
 were formed. 
 
 If acetylene be passed through an ammoniacal solution 
 of cuprous chloride, copper acetylene is formed, and 
 when dry this explodes with great violence, when struck 
 Burner's or when heated ; and independent observations made 
 XP <m the by M. Bullier 1 showed that, in order to obtain this 
 formation^)! ex pl os i ve compound of copper and acetylene, it was 
 compounds necessary that the gas should come in contact with a 
 ^nd^opp'er 8 su b-salt of the metal in the presence of excess of am- 
 monia. 
 The action oi Pictet has claimed that liquid acetylene prepared by 
 
 liquid Acety- . J J 
 
 lene on his process does not act upon copper or copper alloys, 
 but Feischmann, who worked for a couple of years 
 with liquid acetylene, denies this. 
 
 Grittner 2 has criticized Gerdes' conclusions, and 
 
 1 V ' Electrochimie, June, 1895. 
 
 2 Zeit.f. Gale, and, Acet.,3. 106. 
 
 164 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 points out that if absolutely pure acetylene be allowed The action of 
 to pass through an ammoniacal solution of copper Acet y leneon 
 
 * ** ammoniacal 
 
 sulphate, no change takes place. If in this solution solutions of 
 a clean piece of copper wire or a copper sheet be in^"^ pres- 
 dipped, red acetylene-copper is formed directly. This ence of 
 
 ^ X iv j ^ metallic 
 
 proves that metallic copper reduces the cupric com- copper 
 pound to cuprous compound. If the experiment be 
 continued, the copper-acetylene falls off from the piece 
 of copper and swims in the liquid. If the copper sheet 
 is carefully washed, and, after drying, heated, the 
 copper-acetylene on it explodes. The statement that 
 acetylene in presence of ammonia gives no explosive 
 compound is therefore wrong. If it were correct, no 
 explanation could be found for the existence of copper- 
 acetylene in copper gas-pipes. 
 
 Grittner also allowed commercial acetylene from The action of 
 the acetylene works at Palolo to pass for months ^^"lene^ 
 through a pipe containing copper gauze which turned copper 
 black. The gauze emits sparks on heating, and, acted 
 on by hydrochloric acid, gives a gas which yields with 
 acidulated silver nitrate a white precipitate, which 
 explodes on heating or striking with a hammer. 
 
 He also tried if pure but moist acetylene acted on Tne pa rt 
 copper, and found that it did, whilst further experi- P la y ed b y 
 
 rr i ' moisture in 
 
 ments showed that pure dry acetylene did not even the action 
 change the colour of copper when passed over it for 
 72 hours at the rate of 90 litres per hour. 
 
 Grittner further tried the action of commercial The action of 
 acetylene on different copper alloys. The composition 
 
 of the alloys taken was, on copper 
 
 alloys 
 
 Copper 
 Tin 
 
 Brass. 
 
 ... 64-66 
 
 Tombac. 
 
 ... 74-46 ... 
 ... 4-64 ... 
 
 Alpaca. Britannia metal. 
 
 64-44 ... 51-70 
 ... 48-30 
 
 Lead 
 
 ... 0-98 
 
 . . . traces . . . 
 
 
 Zinc 
 
 ... 34-16 
 
 ... 20-67 ... 
 
 16-33 
 
 Nickel 
 
 
 
 18-79 
 
 Strips of these alloys were placed in a glass tube 
 
 165 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The method attached to the gas-pipes leading from the works, and 
 experiment, *k e acetylene flowed over them for three months con- 
 tinuously ; it was found that the brass and tombac 
 were acted upon, and yielded the explosive acetylene 
 compound, but that the other alloys were unchanged. 
 Further experiments prove that the presence of 
 ammonia promotes the formation of the explosive 
 compound, and Grittner finally concludes that, 
 Grittner's / 1 The copper- acetylene compound is always formed 
 
 conclusions -p . , . ,, , , , 
 
 it impure acetylene is allowed to pass through neutral 
 or ammoniacal copper solutions. In acidulated copper 
 solutions a yellowish red precipitate is formed, con- 
 taining no copper-acetylene. 
 
 2 Dry acetylene free from ammonia but containing 
 the other impurities acts on copper and its alloys, as 
 well as the moist and impure gas, and gives the ex- 
 plosive compound. 
 
 3 The pure and dry gas does not act upon copper 
 and its alloys, though the possibility exists that after 
 a long time the explosive compound will be formed 
 under these conditions. , ' 
 
 The toxic ; / Acetylene used to be considered a highly poisonous 
 Acetylene as ? ^ ne researches of Bistrow and Liebreich 1 having 
 apparently shown that it acted upon the blood in the 
 same way that carbon monoxide did to form a stable 
 compound. Experiments upon the toxic action of gases, 
 however, are open to considerable error, partly depend- 
 Bistrow'anci ing upon the method by which the gas has been 
 experiments P re pared, and which will affect its purity ; and partly 
 upon the nature of the animals upon which the experi- 
 ments are tried, rabbits and other rodents resisting the 
 action of gaseous poisons like carbqn monoxide far 
 better than carnivorous animals, such as dogs ; and it 
 is impossible to argue from the action of the gas upon 
 the one what the action will be upon the other, whilst 
 it has not yet been made clear that the action upon 
 1 Berl Ber., 1867, 1, 220. 
 166 
 
THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 either is a very safe index as to the action of the gas 
 upon man. 
 
 In 1895 Frank and Weyl * showed that warm- 
 blooded animals can live for some time in an atmo- 
 sphere containing 9 per cent, of acetylene without 
 apparent injury, whilst Grehant 2 found that a mixture 
 of 20 vols. of acetylene prepared from calcic carbide, 
 20*8 vols. of oxygen, and 59*2 vols. of nitrogen, was 
 breathed by a dog for thirty-five minutes without any 
 marked disturbance. With 40 vols. of acetylene, the 
 proportion of oxygen remaining the same, a dog died 
 in less than an hour, owing to failure of the heart's 
 action, and 100 cc. of blood contained 20 cc. of acety- 
 lene/ With 79 vols. of acetylene and 21 vols. of oxygen, 
 the poisonous effects were still more strongly marked. 
 It follows that acetylene may be fatally poisonous when 
 present in proportions as high as 40 per cent, by 
 volume. 
 
 A mixture of coal-gas with air and oxygen, contain- 
 ing 20*8 per cent, of the latter and 1 per cent, of 
 carbonic oxide, was nearly fatal to a dog after it had 
 been breathed for about ten minutes, and 100 cc. of 
 the dog's blood contained 27 cc. of carbonic oxide. It 
 follows that acetylene is much less poisonous than 
 ordinary coal-gas// 
 
 Berthelot, 3 in some experiments made many years 
 ago, in conjunction with Claude Bernard, found that 
 acetylene, when present to the extent of a few per 
 cents, by volume, is without injurious effects on birds. 
 The poisonous properties often attributed to this gas, 
 as prepared by the older methods, are probably due to 
 the presence of carbonic oxide or hydrogen cyanide. 
 
 Moissan 4 finds that when acetylene is prepared from 
 pure calcium carbide, and is purified by being liquefied, 
 it has a very pleasant etherial odour. If, however, the 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Ver. Deutsch. Iny.. 1895. 2 Conipt. Rend., 121, 564. 
 3 Ibid., 566. 4 Ibid., 566. 
 
 167 
 
 Grehant's 
 experiments 
 show that a 
 large per- 
 centage of 
 Acetylene is 
 necessary 
 
 to be 
 
 dangerously 
 poisonous 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 less 
 
 poisonous 
 than coal- 
 
 The 
 
 poisonous 
 
 properties 
 
 found in the 
 
 older 
 experiments 
 
 due to 
 impurities 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 calcium carbide has been prepared from coal and 
 impure lime, it may contain calcium sulphide and 
 phosphide, and the acetylene prepared from it then has 
 a very disagreeable odour. / 
 
 Action of Brociner 1 also made experiments which show that 
 oxTuiood 100 vols. of blood dissolve about 80 vols. of acetylene ; 
 the solution shows no characteristic spectrum, and is 
 reduced by ammonium hydrosulphide as readily as 
 ordinary arterial blood. In a vacuum part of the acety- 
 lene is evolved at the ordinary temperature, and part 
 at 60. If the blood is allowed to putrefy the volume 
 of acetylene given off at the ordinary temperature 
 remains practically the same, but the quantity liberated 
 at 60 decreases as putrefaction advances. If any com- 
 pound of acetylene and haemoglobin is formed, it is 
 very unstable, and is not analogous to carboxyhaemo- 
 The globin. The poisonous action of acetylene is very 
 properties feeble, and animals can breathe large quantities of the 
 of Acetylene g as f or several hours without iiii'urious effect, provided 
 
 very feeble f J 
 
 the proportion of oxygen is kept up to the normal 
 amount, and the products of respiration are not allowed 
 to accumulate. 
 
 j I Rosemann found that 2 acetylene prepared from cal- 
 cium carbide contained hydrogen phosphide and sul- 
 phide. This impure product is less poisonous than 
 coal-gas. It produces no change in the blood ; it 
 The action causes sleepiness, the respiration becoming slow, deep, 
 cwef^on an( ^ nna % dyspnceic; J Some animals vomited. Its 
 the nervous action appears to be on the nervous system. 
 
 Oliver, in a paper published in the British Medical 
 Journal, 1898, thus describes the physiological effects 
 of acetylene upon a rabbit : 
 
 " When somnolence has been induced, and asphyxia 
 
 not pushed too far, the rabbit, when removed from the 
 
 bell-jar and placed in ordinary atmospheric air, begins 
 
 to move about in a few seconds in as lively a manner 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 121, 773. 2 Chern. Centr., 1895, 11, 998. 
 
 168 
 
THE CHEMICAL BEACTIONS OF ACETYLENE 
 
 as if it had not been interfered with, there being 
 neither weakness nor paralysis of its limbs. In a 
 word, a few inhalations of atmospheric air are suffi- 
 cient to restore to the animal all its faculties. 
 
 "Should the inhalation have been pushed further, The 
 and the animal have been very deeply asphyxiated, S3 ^etiene f 
 death may ensue ; cyanosis hitherto observed being poisoning 
 rapidly replaced by extreme pallor. In the minor and 
 easily recoverable stages of asphyxia the vascular 
 tension is still maintained, and there is no difficulty in 
 obtaining a drop of blood for examination ; but when 
 the deeper stages are reached, so extremely contracted 
 are all the vessels that it is almost impossible to obtain 
 even a trace of blood. When this stage has been 
 reached recovery is very difficult. It is interesting at 
 this point to mention that, when we examined the 
 blood of a rabbit at different stages of intoxication 
 from acetylene, and especially in the deepest asphyxia, 
 this fluid on spectroscopic examination always ex- A p pearance 
 hibited two well-marked bands of oxyhsemoglobin : of t fl e blood 
 also that, unlike the blood in coal-gas poisoning, al- 
 though resembling it in the cherry-red colour which it 
 presented, it was readily reduced on the application of 
 ammonium suphide and gentle heat. To that extent, 
 therefore, if the asphyxia caused by the acetylene is 
 not too profound and under ordinary domestic cir- 
 cumstances it would not be a pure acetylene atmosphere 
 that would be inhaled by an individual, but one mixed 
 with a large proportion of ordinary air the danger to 
 life seems to be less than it would be in coal-gas 
 poisoning, and the prospect of recovery by removal to 
 atmospheric air greater. Death may supervene, how- 
 ever, if the inhalation has been lengthened and atmo- 
 spheric air excluded." 
 
 169 
 
Part II 
 
 171 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 AXD ITS APPLICATION TO THE MANUFACTURE 
 OF CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 THE commercial possibility of utilising acetylene Acetylene 
 for illuminating purposes depends upon its commercial 
 cheap production, as all the time the gas had to be possibility 
 made by such processes as those described in the early 
 portions of Chapter II., it was a laborious operation 
 to obtain even a few cubic feet of the gas, and an 
 impossibility to get it in sufficient quantity for illu- 
 minating purposes. 
 
 When, however, it was discovered that calcium car- 
 bide could be formed by the direct combination of 
 calcium with carbon, it at once became apparent that 
 this might lead to important results, and that the 
 ease with which acetylene could be developed from 
 calcium carbide by the action of water would make its 
 production one of the simplest gas processes known. 
 It was not, however, until the importance of the commercial 
 electric furnace as an agent for producing intense 
 temperatures became fully realised that cheap carbide 
 could be obtained. 
 
 The chemical processes involved in making carbide 
 are two. First, the reduction of the lime or calcium 
 oxide to calcium, and, second, the combination of the 
 calcium with carbon to form the carbide ; and it is 
 for the first part of the operation that the intense 
 temperature of the arc is necessary. 
 
 173 
 
ACETYLENE 
 The causes In order to decompose any compound an amount 
 
 which lead , , ,, 
 
 to chemical * energy equivalent to that produced when it was 
 
 decompose built up has to be employed, and in actions of this 
 kind the form of energy used is either chemical, 
 thermal, or a combination of the two. When the 
 oxides of the alkaline earths are heated with potas- 
 sium, the latter body has a tendency to remove 
 the oxygen if the temperature be sufficiently high, 
 and if carbon be present the nascent metal at the 
 moment of its liberation -combines with it, forming 
 The the carbide. That this is the case is clearly shown 
 
 o^cTrbides ^7 ^ ne formation of carbide in the residues left during 
 the manufacture of potassium, and by the researches 
 of Wohler, Travers, and Maquenne, who all produced 
 carbides by making a mixture of the oxides of which 
 the carbide was required with another metal having 
 an affinity for oxygen, which, if the fusing point of 
 the mass is attained, takes the oxygen from the oxide 
 and sets it free in a condition favourable for its com- 
 bination with carbon. 
 
 The energy I n order to do this the heat necessary is not so 
 
 necessary 
 
 for the re- enormous, as a large amount of the energy employed 
 
 but if the same action is to be brought 
 
 the alkaline about by the smaller amount of chemical energy, due 
 to the affinity of carbon for oxygen, such tempera- 
 tures as those obtained in the electric furnace have 
 to be employed. 
 
 The formation of calcium carbide is by no means the 
 only problem which the introduction of electricity, as 
 a method for obtaining high temperatures, has helped 
 The to solve ; and the re-introduction of the electric fur- 
 nace in 1879, by Siemens, will, in all probability, be 
 
 electric looked back to in the future as marking not only the 
 furnace . . 
 
 introduction of a process capable of cheapening the pro- 
 duction of aluminium and such bodies as calcium carbide, 
 but also as being the starting-point of many processes 
 which, without its aid, would have been impossible. 
 
 174 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 In June, 1800. Volta communicated the discovery voita's 
 
 , ,, -ii-ii- i- O-T r T> i discovery of 
 
 oi the pile which bears his name to oir Joseph. .Banks, the pile 
 
 the then President of the Eoyal Society, and in the 
 fall of the same year Humphry Davy published in 
 Nicholson's Journal an account of experiments made 
 with it, and pointed out that, with his roughly-con- 
 structed pile, he was able to produce sparks that were Sir 
 visible in daylight, and that these sparks could be Davy shows 
 
 obtained between terminals of different metals, but 
 
 varied considerably in brightness according to the veioped in 
 
 material used, well-burnt charcoal giving the best 1 e ^J?* 1 
 
 results. He also found that to render the char- 
 
 coal a good conductor it must be hard and so well 
 
 burned as to be almost metallic in lustre, the best 
 
 carbon being produced by quenching it in quick- 
 
 silver. 
 
 Pepys also, who was a friend of Sir Humphry Pepys 
 Davy, heated diamond dust between two iron ter- x by 
 minals by means of the current, and found that whilst cementation 
 
 / in the arc 
 
 the diamond dust disappeared the iron was converted 
 by cementation into steel. 
 
 This century has been rich in researches upon the 
 electric arc, owing to its introduction for purposes of 
 illumination, but there is undoubtedly much yet to 
 be learnt as to many of its properties. 
 
 When a current is flowing through a wire, the The 
 breaking of the wire causes a leaping of the current ^"the" 1 
 between the fractured ends as long as they are within electric arc 
 a distance sufficiently small as compared with the 
 strength of the current, and with a powerful current 
 this disruptive discharge may be maintained con- 
 tinuously, emitting a dazzling light, though the best 
 .results are obtained, as regards illuminating effect, if 
 the ends of the wires be fitted with carbon pencils. 
 
 The light of the voltaic arc is due partly to the T j JJ^J 08 
 electric arc itself, partly to the incandescent carbon emitted by 
 poles, and partly to the transport of small particles 
 
 175 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 influence oi of carbon from the positive to the negative pole. 
 terminals The softer and more friable the carbon is, the longer 
 
 used on the 
 arc 
 
 FIG. 23. THE ELECTRIC ARC. 
 
 is the arc which can be produced ; but when light is 
 the object of the arc the densest possible carbon is 
 employed, in order to obviate the rapid wasting of 
 
 176 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUBKA.CE 
 
 the positive pole. In starting such an arc the tips 
 
 of the carbon pencils are first brought together, and 
 
 are then drawn apart to such a distance that the 
 
 arc passes freely between them. The tips become Effect of tno 
 
 brilliantly white hot, and after burning for a few ar <* n the 
 
 minutes it will be seen that the positive carbon is s carbons 
 
 slightly flattened out, and that a small hollow crater 
 
 has formed in it, and it is from this point that the 
 
 largest amount of light is emitted. There is then a 
 
 pale blue name between the carbons, and the negative 
 
 pencil takes a pointed form, becoming white hot, but 
 
 not emitting either as much or as white a light as 
 
 the positive pole. 
 
 When the carbons are the right distance apart the Action f 
 arc burns with perfect silence, but when they are the distance 
 
 separated too far it has a tendency to roar and go poieon the 
 
 out, whilst if they are brought too close together a arc 
 hissing sound is noticed, and the negative tip shows 
 a deposition on it of projections. 
 
 The whiteness of the light emitted by the crater The 
 seems to be fairly constant, from which one would ten }P rature 
 
 J oi the arc 
 
 argue that it is always at an equal temperature, but probably 
 the larger the current employed the larger the surface fhe vSati 
 
 of the crater. This naturally suggests the idea that in & point of 
 the apparent fixed temperature of the crater surface 
 is the volatilising point of the carbon, and that it is 
 evaporating off the positive carbon into the arc. 
 
 The experiments of Despretz show that just before Tne 
 the volatilisation of carbon takes place it becomes experiments 
 
 . ... . of Despretz 
 
 very soft, and that there is an incipient liquefaction 
 going on a few degrees below the temperature of 
 volatilisation, and Silvanus Thompson 1 advances the siivanus 
 
 view that the physical state of the crater is such Thompson's 
 r * theory as to 
 
 that the solid carbon is covered with a layer or film the condi- 
 of liquid carbon just boiling or evaporating off. ^arbon*!^ 
 
 As the electric arc burns in the air, carbon dioxide . the arc 
 1 Jour. Soc. Arts, 43, 951. 
 
 177 12 
 
ACETYLENE 
 Gaseous carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocyanic 
 
 products of . , ,, / 
 
 the arc acid, cyanogen, and other gaseous compounds are 
 produced, together with ozone, which give a distinct 
 smell to the products escaping from the arc lamp, 
 high voltages soon giving a noticeable odour, whilst 
 with a normal arc produced at 40 or 50 volts little 
 or no smell can be detected. 
 
 Tempera- The temperature attained in the electric arc has 
 electric arc been variously estimated, Becquerel, in 1860, giving 
 
 2 ? 070 - 2 > 100 G - as bein g the Probable temperature of 
 an arc obtained from 80 Bunsen cells, whilst in 1879 
 Rossetti Rossetti deduced the temperature of the arc from 
 
 deduces it . . f 
 
 - from the observations on the radiation, and came to the con- 
 
 clusion that the temperature of the positive crater 
 
 approximated to 3,900 C. and that of the negative 
 
 determines Pl e to about 3,150 C. Violle has attempted the 
 
 it by calorimetric determination by providing his positive 
 
 experiment J . . -i 
 
 carbon with a small end piece, which became the 
 crater of the arc and was allowed to burn away till 
 quite thin, when it was knocked off into the calori- 
 meter, and the amount of heat it gave out on cooling 
 measured, and he finally came to the conclusion that 
 Gray's de- the temperature of the arc is 3,500 C. Gray has also 
 eri of thY n attempted the solving of the same problem, and states 
 temperature the temperature to be 3,400 C. ; so that in all pro- 
 bability the temperature given by Violle is fairly 
 accurate. Violle also found that, if he used zinc poles 
 instead of carbon ones, he could raise the temperature 
 of a piece of carbon held in the arc itself to a mani- 
 festly higher point than existed at either of the poles, 
 the temperature of which was governed by the vola- 
 tilisation of the metal. 
 
 Assuming that the temperature of the arc is really 
 
 3,500 C., it is evident that it gives a possibility of 
 
 ThC f g tho 8i8 obtaining a temperature between 1,000 and 2,000 
 
 electric hotter than can be arrived at by any other means. 
 
 As early as the forties attempts were made to utilise 
 
 178 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 the temperature of the arc for metallurgical purposes, 
 and Napier, in 1845, produced an electric furnace, in 
 which he hoped to reduce certain metals from their 
 ores.- This consisted of a lined plumbago crucible, 
 into which a carbon electrode was introduced as the 
 positive pole. Children also made similar experiments 
 on a small scale. 
 
 In 1849 Despretz made what was practically a fur- 
 nace of the same type, whilst in 1853 Pichon designed 
 an electrical furnace for the reduction of ores, in which 
 a mixture of the powdered mineral and ground up 
 coke was allowed to fall between two sets of carbon 
 
 Napier's 
 furnace 
 
 The Pichon 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 24. SIEMENS FURNACE. 
 
 poles forming the electrodes, and was thus twice sub- 
 jected to the influence of the arc. 
 
 Joule and Sir William Thompson also tried to 
 utilise the temperature of the electrical discharge, 
 but it was not until the seventies that any practical 
 success attended the efforts to introduce an electrical 
 furnace. 
 
 In 1874 Werdermann suggested electrical fusion for The electric 
 the more refractory minerals, and in 1879 Siemens, 
 Faure, Fox, Lentin, and Bertin were all working at 
 the subject, with the result that Sir "William Siemens, 
 in 1879, took out a patent for an arc furnace, Fig. 24, 
 which was exhibited in 1881. It consisted essentially of 
 
 179 
 
 furnace 
 
 assumes a 
 
 practical 
 
 form 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Siemens 
 electric 
 furnace 
 
 Clerc 
 furnace 
 
 Cowlcs 
 furnaces 
 
 a crucible of refractory and non-conducting material, 
 through the sides of which were introduced the two 
 carbon poles between which the arc 
 was formed. The electrodes ^vere 
 either both of carbon, or the posi- 
 tive pole of carbon and the nega- 
 tive of metal, kept cool by the 
 circulation of water, whilst as the 
 positive pole was consumed the 
 electrodes were drawn together by 
 screws. 
 
 The second modification of the 
 Siemens furnace, Fig. 25, which 
 could only be employed when the 
 material to be acted upon was a 
 good conductor of electricity, con- 
 sisted in bringing the current into 
 the crucible by a metal screw, which 
 transmitted the current to the sub- 
 stance A, whilst the negative pole 
 was brought down on its surface from above. The 
 substance to be acted upon was in this way made 
 the positive terminal, whilst the negative pole above 
 it was kept cool by the circulation of water. 
 
 Another furnace, also exhibited in 1881, was due to 
 Clerc, Pig. 26, and consisted of a block of magnesia or 
 calcic carbonate, in which a cavity was formed, and the 
 
 two carbons brought 
 into it horizontally 
 through holes in the 
 sides. 
 
 The most import- 
 ant electric furnace, 
 as far as marking 
 the introduction of 
 electric furnaces for commercial purposes, was un- 
 doubtedly that patented in 1885 by Alfred and Eugene 
 
 180 
 
 FJG. 25. SIEMENS 2. 
 
 FIG. 26. CLERC FURNACE. 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 Cowles, and used by them in their work on aluminium. 
 The charge to be treated was powdered and mixed 
 with retort carbon, the whole being then brought to 
 
 FIG. 27. COWLES FURNACE. 
 
 incandescence by means of the current. The furnace 
 consisted of a cylinder A, Fig. 27, made of some non-con- 
 ducting refractory material, surrounded by a mass of 
 charcoal or other bad conductor of heat. The positive 
 electrode was a plate of carbon c, which also served 
 to close the end of the retort, the other end being 
 sealed by a graphite crucible D, which acted as the 
 negative electrode. 
 
 Cowles 
 
 retort 
 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 28. COWLES FURNACE. 
 
 Another form of furnace, Fig. 28, was patented in 
 1886 by Messrs. Cowles, in which the carbon poles cc 1 
 
 181 
 
 Cowlcs 
 
 furnace, 
 
 with 
 
horizontal 
 poles 
 
 Bernard 
 furnace 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 were placed horizontally, and the charge D was packed 
 around them, the poles at the start being close to- 
 gether, but being gradu- 
 ally withdrawn as the 
 electric resistance of the 
 furnace fell. This furnace 
 was further improved by 
 the addition of an am- 
 meter, and resistance 
 placed in the circuit in 
 order that the process 
 might be well under con- 
 trol. 
 
 In 1887, Bernard Freres 
 patented a furnace, Fig. 29, 
 
 in which a crucible of re- 
 FIG. 29. BERNARD FURNACE. , -11 
 
 fractory material o 1 , rest- 
 ing on a carbon plate q which formed the positive pole, 
 contained a carbon crucible c in which the charge was 
 
 FIG. 30. HEROULT FURNACE. 
 
 placed. The negative electrode consisted of a rod of 
 carbon a brought down on to the top of the charge. 
 
 182 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 The two crucibles were first heated by an external 
 furnace, and when the requisite temperature was at- 
 tained, the final heating was accomplished by means 
 of the electric current. 
 
 Heroult, in 1887, devised a furnace for the manu- 
 facture of aluminium, in which an inner crucible, 
 containing the charge, was placed inside another 
 crucible made of carbon, the two being capable of 
 being heated by a furnace. The positive pole was 
 
 Heroult 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 31. COWLES CONTINUOUS FURNACE. 
 
 brought centrally into the inner crucible, whilst the 
 negative electrode was formed by the crucible itself. 
 
 In 1887, also, Messrs. Cowles introduced an electric 
 furnace, in which the charge could be fed continuously. 
 This was composed of a vertical carbon tube forming 
 a positive pole, to the upper end of which was fixed 
 a feed hopper. The negative pole was also a carbon 
 tube slightly larger than, and placed a short way 
 below, the positive pole, and resting on a plate fixed 
 at the bottom of the furnace. The space between 
 the electrodes and the walls of the furnace was packed 
 
 183 
 
 Cowles 
 
 continuous 
 
 furnace 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 to the top of the negative carbon with a mixture of 
 charcoal or lime and retort carbon, whilst round the 
 
 Kiliani 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 32. READMAN FURNACE. 
 
 arc was placed the same packing, only in much coarser 
 grain in order to allow any gaseous products to pass 
 through it into the condensers. The top of the fur- 
 nace was closed by a plate, to which was fixed a 
 pivoted arm to enable the positive carbon to be moved 
 for adjustment. 
 
 In 1888 a furnace for the production of phosphorus was 
 brought out by Readman, and in the 
 same year Reuleaux devised an elec- 
 tric cupola, the charge being heated 
 before it was subjected to the arc. 
 
 Crompton, too, in 1888, patented 
 a furnace, Fig. 34, in which the 
 material could be heated by ex- 
 ternal agencies before the current 
 was switched on. 
 
 In the following year Kiliani de- 
 FIG. 33. vised an arrangement, in which the 
 
 REULEAUX FURNACE. pQsitive carbon produced a roc king 
 
 and rotating movement in the bath which formed 
 
 184 
 
 and 
 
 Crompton 
 
 
 F' 
 
 F 
 
 F' 
 
 1 
 
 pre-heating 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 furnaces 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 n 
 
 \ A 
 
 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 the negative pole ; thus the formation of a hard crust 
 
 F 
 
 Fia. 34. CBOMPTON FUKNACE. 
 
 on the top of the bath, which prevented the addition 
 of fresh material, was avoided (Fig. 35). 
 
 Parker, in the same year, 
 1889, employed two rows of 
 electrodes, placed horizon- 
 tally opposite each other, the 
 carbons being in contact 
 before the charge was intro- 
 duced, and then separated. 
 
 In 1890 Willson patented 
 a furnace, the object of which 
 was to diminish the wear 
 and tear of the anode in 
 mixed electric furnaces. In 
 order to accomplish this he 
 formed his anode of a car- 
 
 Parker's 
 multiple 
 
 pole 
 furnace 
 
 Willson's 
 
 furnace, 
 
 with hollow 
 
 pole 
 
 FIG. 35. KILIANI FURNACE 
 
 185 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 bon tube, through which was passed hydrogen, coal 
 gas, or some other hydrocarbon gas. 
 
 FIG. 36. PARKER FURNACE. 
 
 schnciicr Schneller and Astfalck employed high-tension cur- 
 rents in their furnace, this being necessary in order 
 
 FIG. 37. WILLSON'S FURNACE. 
 
 to overcome the resistance of the charge, and also to 
 
 186 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 help the reduction effected by hydrogen or some suit- 
 able hydrocarbon. 
 
 In the Laval furnace, patented in 1892, an alter- 
 nating current was employed, which was passed 
 through a material of low conductivity in a molten 
 condition, thus bringing it to a very high temperature. 
 The furnace was divided lengthways by a bridge of 
 refractory material, the poles being laid at the bottom 
 of the furnace, whilst the current passed through 
 the molten electrolyte over the bridge of refractory 
 material. The charge was dropped in through an 
 
 Laval 
 furnace 
 
 for 
 
 alternating 
 currents 
 
 FlG. 38. SCHNELLER FURNACE. 
 
 FIG. 39. LAVAL FURNACE. 
 
 Girard and 
 
 Street's 
 continuous 
 
 opening in the top of the furnace, whilst the melted 
 metal escaped through outlet pipes- below the surface 
 of the electrolyte. 
 
 Grirard and Street, in 1893, took out a patent for a 
 continuous feed furnace. The crucible containing the 
 charge was placed inside two carbon tubes which feed furnace 
 formed the electrodes, and between which the arc 
 was struck. Upon the arc was brought to bear a 
 magnetic field by winding the outside of the furnace 
 with coils traversed by an electric current, under the 
 influence of which the arc was caused to rotate slowly 
 
 187 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Moissan s 
 researches 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of 
 
 Moissan's 
 experi- 
 mental 
 furnace 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 electrodes 
 
 in a horizontal plane, thus ensuring an even distribu- 
 tion of heat. 
 
 Undoubtedly, the most important experimental 
 work performed with the electric furnace consists of 
 the beautiful researches made by Moissan, for which 
 he devised several modifications of the earlier furnaces, 
 in order to fit them for the special purposes he had in 
 view. His work, however, was of a purely scientific 
 
 character, and the fur- 
 naces only fitted for 
 scientific research on a 
 laboratory scale. The 
 description of the various 
 forms he employed is best 
 given in his own words. 
 
 u Our first model of the 
 electric furnace, brought 
 before the Academie des 
 Sciences in December, 
 1892, consisted of two 
 bricks of quicklime care- 
 fully prepared and placed 
 one on top of the other. 
 The lower brick con- 
 tained a longitudinal 
 groove to receive the two 
 electrodes, and situated 
 in the centre was a small 
 cavity forming the crucible. This cavity might vary 
 in size, and contained a bed some centimetres in 
 depth of the substance to be acted upon by the heat 
 of the arc, or a small crucible of carbon containing the 
 substance to be treated could be placed there. 
 
 " The upper brick was slightly hollowed out in the 
 part just above the arc. As the intense heat of the 
 current soon melted the surface of the lime, giving 
 it, at the same time, a beautiful polish, a dome was 
 
 188 
 
 FIG. 40. GIRARD FURNACE. 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 obtained in this way which reflected all the heat on 
 to the small cavity which contained the crucible. 
 The electrodes were fastened to two movable supports, 
 or, better still, upon two sliding pillars. 
 
 " The difference between this electric furnace and 
 all previous ones is that the substance under examin- 
 ation does not come in direct contact with the electric 
 arc that is to say. with the vapour from the carbon. 
 
 " The apparatus is a reverberatory electric furnace 
 with movable electrodes. The last point is of impor- 
 
 FIG. 41. MOISSAN'S FURNACE. 
 
 tance, as the mobility of the electrodes affords great 
 facility in establishing the arc, in extending or 
 diminishing it at will, and, in fact, greatly simplifies 
 the carrying out of the experiment. 
 
 In our first researches we employed a small 
 Gramme machine worked by a gas engine of 4 H.P. 
 As a rule, the current traversing the furnace in- current 
 dicated 35 to 40 amperes and 55 volts, whilst the used, and 
 
 1 dimensions 
 
 lower lime brick was 16 cm. to 18cm. in length, 15 cm. of the 
 in breadth, and 8 cm. in thickness. The upper brick, 
 which formed the cover, presented the same surface 
 with a thickness of 5 to 6 cm. This size of apparatus 
 
 189 
 
 furnace 
 
Lime used 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 is sufficient for a current of 100 to 125 amperes and 
 50 to 60 volts. 
 
 " When using the furnace for more powerful cur- 
 rents it is as well to enlarge the three dimensions of 
 the furnace by 2 or 3 cm. With a furnace of 22 to 
 25 cm. in length, a current of 450 amperes and 75 
 volts can quite well be employed. The lime used in 
 these researches was slightly hydraulic, obtained from 
 the Parisian basin, and called du bane vert. It is 
 shaped or turned with ease, and is the same as was 
 approved by Deville and Debray for their fusion of 
 platinum on a small scale. 
 
 The carbon 
 poles 
 
 Manufac- 
 ture of the 
 carbons 
 
 FIG. 42. MODIFIED MOISSAN FURNACE. 
 
 " The electrodes were formed from carbon rods as 
 free as possible from mineral matters ; some difficulty 
 was at first experienced in obtaining them pure. 
 They should be made of retort carbon reduced to 
 powder, and selected from the top of the retort. This 
 powdered carbon is treated with acids, to free it as 
 far as possible from the iron it contains ; it is then 
 washed and heated, and finally made into a stiff 
 paste by means of tar. The rods are formed by pres- 
 sure, which ought to be very high and regular ; they 
 are then dried with care and heated to a high tempera- 
 ture. The rods must be tested to see if they contain 
 
 190 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 boric acid or silicates, which are sometimes added to 
 facilitate their manufacture, and all rods containing 
 these substances should be rejected, as well as those 
 containing more than 1 per cent, of ash. 
 
 " For the smaller furnaces we employed electrodes Dimensions 
 20 cm. in length and 12 mm. in diameter. With a 
 current of 120 amperes at 50 volts, we employed rods 
 40 cm. in length and 15 to 18 mm. in diameter. 
 When using a machine of 40 to 45 H.P., electrodes 40 
 cm. in length and 27 mm. in diameter were employed. 
 
 of the 
 
 electrodes 
 
 used 
 
 FIG. 43. MOISSAN FURNACE. 
 
 " The extremities of the electrodes between which influence 
 the arc is produced were shaped into finely pointed poi^t^d 
 cones. This precaution is important, especially with carbons on 
 small currents, as if not taken it is difficult to relight with wnich 
 the arc if it happen to be extinguished at the com- ^JJJ^Jj. 11 
 mencement of an experiment. With 350 amperes and 
 60 volts we employed only one pointed electrode, the 
 other being left smooth. 
 
 " All difficulty disappears once the furnace has be- 
 come hot, and is filled with vapours which are good 
 conductors, and which allow of the arc being re- 
 lighted with the greatest ease. The wires which 
 convey the current are joined to the carbon rods by 
 
 191 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Carbon 
 crucibles 
 
 used in 
 Moissan's 
 researches 
 
 Magnesia as 
 
 a refractory 
 
 material in 
 
 electric 
 
 furnaces 
 
 Electric 
 furnaces 
 may be 
 
 means of copper clamps fixed by screw nuts. This 
 arrangement has already been employed for some 
 time in the use of high-tension currents. 
 
 " During the first period of our researches we em- 
 ployed retort carbon crucibles, which were made 
 circular and in one piece. These crucibles were cylin- 
 drical, and had two holes, one on either side, suffi- 
 ciently large to allow of the easy entrance of the 
 electrodes. With machines of 4 to 8 H.P. we employed 
 crucibles 3 cm. in external diameter and 2 cm. 
 internal diameter. Their height was 4 cm. and the 
 hole 1*5 cm. These retort carbon crucibles are incon- 
 venient, as they expand greatly when changed into 
 graphite under the intense heat of the arc. At our 
 request several manufacturers made for us crucibles 
 of stiff carbon paste moulded by pressure, and in one 
 piece, which have kept their shape under the highest 
 temperatures. A circular space must be allowed 
 round the crucible in order that the heat rays re- 
 flected from the dome may completely surround it. 
 
 " It must not be forgotten that lime is easily reduced 
 at high temperatures by the carbon with formation 
 of calcium carbide. 1 "When a crucible is to be heated 
 in this lime furnace care must be taken to have a 
 bed of magnesia at the bottom of the cavity. Magnesia 
 is, in fact, the only oxide we have ever encountered 
 which is not reduced by carbon. When the experi- 
 ment lasts long enough the magnesia may run 
 down with the already liquid lime in the furnace, and 
 may even volatilise, but never forms a carbide." 
 
 Moissan also designed several other forms of this 
 furnace for specific purposes, but they were all of the 
 same type, and of a purely scientific and experimental 
 character (Figs. 42 and 43). 
 
 Electric furnaces may be divided into two classes : 
 
 I. Those in which the substance to be heated is 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., cxvii, 501. 
 192 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 placed in the path of the electric arc, or is made to 
 form one or both poles for the formation of the arc, 
 as in the furnaces already mentioned. 
 
 II. Those in which the heat is generated by offering 
 resistance to the flow of the current, as when a piece 
 of thin platinum wire is heated to incandescence by 
 making it the link between two copper wires of 
 greater diameter through which the current is pass- 
 ing. 
 
 The furnace of Despretz was the earliest of the 
 second class, as he took a tube made of sugar charcoal, 
 7 mm. in diameter and 23 in length, in which he placed 
 the substance to be heated, and closed the ends of the 
 
 classed 
 
 under two 
 
 heads 
 
 1. Arc 
 
 furnaces 
 
 2. Resist- 
 
 ance 
 furnaces 
 
 FIG. 44. BOUCHER'S FURNACE. 
 
 tubes with carbon poles ; whilst the modern type of 
 this class of furnace may be taken as Borcher's experi- 
 mental furnace, described in 1891, in which he reduced 
 many of the metallic oxides. 
 
 The body of the furnace is made of fire-clay, stand- 
 ing on a bed of refractory firebricks. In the centre is 
 a cavity, in which the mixture to be heated is placed ; 
 the sides of the furnace are pierced by holes, through 
 which pass the conducting carbons, the poles being- 
 joined in the centre of the mixture by a narrow rod 
 of carbon, which, offering resistance to the passage 
 of the current, becomes intensely heated. 
 
 A few attempts have been made to introduce fur- 
 naces of this type for the manufacture of calcium 
 
 193 13 
 
 Borcher's 
 furnace 
 
 Resistance 
 
 furnaces 
 
 proposed for 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 making 
 Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 carbide, King & Wyatt, in 1895, patenting in the 
 United States a furnace consisting of an open hearth, 
 in which one carbon rose from below and the other 
 pole was suspended from above, the two being con- 
 nected by a thin carbon rod, the mixture of lime and 
 carbon being heaped around them, and the ingot of 
 carbide forming in the centre of the mass, so that the 
 
 Maxim- 
 Graham 
 resistance 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 45. KING'S FURNACE. 
 
 excess of mixture really formed the sides of the 
 furnace. 
 
 Hudson Maxim also designed a furnace on this prin- 
 ciple. The mixture of lime and carbon is fed into 
 troughs, the sides of which are made of magnesia 
 bricks, behind which is a tight packing of broken 
 charcoal in connection with the leads from the 
 dynamo, one side of the trough receiving the posi- 
 tive and the other the negative current. Through 
 the broken carbon he passes thin rods of dense carbon, 
 which pass through the mixture and make a connec- 
 
 194 
 
THE ELECTRIC FUKNACE 
 
 tion between the two poles, the broken carbon acting 
 as a contact maker. He claims that, as these rods 
 become incandescent, carbide forms around them, and 
 that, when the rods have fused, the carbide continues 
 to carry the current, and forms more carbide on its 
 surface, and that these rods or ingots of carbide are 
 then picked out from the trough and new material 
 and carbon rods introduced. 
 
 This furnace, generally known as the "Maxim- 
 Graham," was tried at Trowbridge in 1897, and it 
 was claimed to be possible to make with it from 0*4 
 to 0*5 Ib. of carbide per E.H.P. of 81 per cent, carbide 
 per hour. This type of furnace, however, has never 
 been adopted on more than an experimental scale, and 
 it will be well to now trace the growth of the carbide 
 industry and the evolution of the forms of apparatus 
 which are in use on a manufacturing scale at the 
 present time. 
 
 America, the birthplace of commercial carbide, 
 naturally produced the earliest forms of carbide 
 furnace, which were all of the arc type, and pro- 
 duced the compound in the form of ingots. 
 
 First and foremost amongst these stands the furnace 
 employed by Willson. at Spray, in which the earliest 
 commercial carbide was made. The following descrip- 
 tion of the plant is taken from the report to the Pro- 
 gressive Age by Professor Houston and Drs. Kenelly 
 and Kinnicutt upon Willson's process : 
 
 " The plant consists essentially of a pair of electric 
 furnaces for producing the carbide, electric generators 
 for supplying the current, a turbine for driving the 
 electric generators, and suitable apparatus for pulver- 
 ising and mixing the coke and lime required to charge 
 the furnaces. 
 
 "The water motor is a horizontal twin Leffel tur- 
 bine wheel, 30 inches in diameter, and rated as capable 
 under 28 feet fall of generating 300 H.P. at 206 revo- 
 
 195 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 furnace 
 
 The 
 
 Trowbridge 
 experiment 
 
 American 
 
 furnaces 
 
 for making 
 
 ingots of 
 
 ^Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 The Willson 
 Carbide 
 furnaces 
 at Spray 
 
 The 
 machinery 
 
 for 
 
 generating 
 the power 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Willson's 
 
 Works 
 at Spray 
 
 FIG. 46. WILLSON'S WORKS AT SPRAY. 
 
 lutions per minute and f gate opening. The gate 
 opening is controlled by hand. 
 
 " The turbine is belted directly by tandem belts 
 
 FIG. 47. WILLSON'S DYNAMO. 
 
 196 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 to two Thomson-Houston alternators of the 14 pole 
 120 kw. 1,070 revolutions per minute type, giving 
 a maximum effective pressure of 1,155 volts at full 
 load. Each alternator is excited by a standard 
 Thomson-Houston exciter of the 110 volt 18 amperes 
 2,500 revolutions per minute type. Both exciters are 
 run by tandem belts from an outboard pulley on one 
 alternator shaft. The terminals of the alternator are 
 connected to a switchboard supplied with primary 
 volt meters, ammeters, and switches. 
 
 FIG. 48. THE SPRAY FURNACES. 
 
 Trans 
 
 " The mains from the switchboard run to a group of formers 
 sixteen alternating current transformers, eight to each 
 alternator, representing a total capacity of 240 kw. 
 or 321-8 H.P. These transformers are employed to 
 lower the pressure from 1,000 volts at the alternator 
 terminals to 100 volts at the furnace terminals. They 
 are of the No. 4 15,000 watt 60 cycle Thomson- 
 Houston type. The secondary coils of these trans- 
 formers supply in parallel two bundles of copper 
 cables leading to the furnaces, which are situated 
 
 197 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Electric 
 
 furnaces 
 
 used at 
 
 Spray 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 
 Spray 
 furnaces 
 
 within a few feet of the switchboard. Each cable is 
 about J inch in diameter, and is composed of 120 
 separate wires. There are sixteen cables to each 
 furnace eight to the upper and eight to the lower 
 electrode. 
 
 11 There are two open electric furnaces placed side 
 by side in one brick structure. The side and partition 
 walls are of ordinary brick, whilst the front is open, 
 but partly covered by cast-iron doors. The floor space 
 in each furnace is 3 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in., and at a height 
 
 FIG. 49. CARBON AND HOLDER. 
 
 of about 8 feet they rise into a single short chimney, 
 which serves to carry off the gases evolved during the 
 operation of the furnaces. 
 
 " At the base of the furnaces is placed a heavy iron 
 plate about 6 ft. long by 2J ft. wide, and 1 to 2 inches 
 thick. On this bed-plate rest two carbon plates, 
 3 ft. by 2 feet, and 6 to 8 inches thick, one in each 
 furnace. These carbon base plates in connection 
 with the iron plate form the lower electrodes. They 
 are repaired from time to time with carbon left over 
 
 198 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 from partly-consumed upper electrodes. Their renewal 
 thus involves no extra expense in materials. 
 
 " The upper electrode for each furnace is a heavy 
 carbon block 12 x 8 inches in cross section, and 36 
 inches long. It is composed of six carbons laid side 
 by side, each 4x4 inches, 36 inches long, and weigh- 
 ing approximately 30 Ibs. The electrode is protected 
 by a casing of -f^ inch sheet iron. The interstices 
 between the casing and the carbons is filled with a 
 hot mixture of pulverised coke and pitch, so that the 
 electrode becomes practically a solid mass of carbon in 
 intimate contact with an iron shell. The electrode is 
 clamped vertically in a metal holder supported by a 
 vertical copper rod, 3x3 inches, passing through the 
 roof of the furnace to a chain running over a pulley 
 to a hand wheel by the side of the switchboard, so 
 that the upper electrode can be raised or lowered at 
 will by the switchboard attendant. 
 
 " During use the upper electrode consumes at the 
 rate of about -fa inch per working hour. 
 
 " The materials employed in the manufacture of cal- 
 cium carbide are lime and coke, and, incidentally, the 
 carbon of the electrodes. 
 
 " The coke and lime are first passed through a crusher, 
 and are subsequently ground by rollers. They are 
 then thrown in proper proportions into a revolving 
 ball mixer provided with pebbles. The operation 
 effects an intimate mixture between the pulverised 
 coke and lime. 
 
 " The coke and lime, after being separately pulver- 
 ized, are weighed out in suitable proportions into the 
 ball mixer. The lime is pulverised fine enough to 
 pass through a 20-mesh sieve, and the coke is pulver- 
 , ised fine enough to pass through a 50-mesh sieve." 
 
 Later on Messrs. Morehead, King and de Chalmot, 
 in erecting works at Niagara, altered the form of the 
 furnace so as to get it into a more workable shape, 
 
 199 
 
 The 
 
 electrodes 
 used 
 
 Supports 
 
 and 
 connections 
 
 to the 
 electrodes 
 
 The 
 
 preparation 
 of the 
 
 materials 
 used 
 
 The first 
 carbide 
 works at 
 Niagara 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Niagara 
 furnaces 
 
 and also improved the method of introducing the mix- 
 ture of lime and carbon to the arc and of the removal 
 of the ingot when formed. 
 
 The bottom of this furnace was an iron car, a, run- 
 ning on rails, having on its floor a layer of carbon 
 connected to the negative electrode. The positive 
 pole was then brought down on to the layer of carbon, 
 and the mixture of powdered lime and coke fed to the 
 arc through shoots, e e, whilst an oscillatory motion 
 was imparted to the car by means of the rod #, which 
 
 The 
 
 working of 
 the furnace 
 
 FIG. 50. SECTIONS OLD NIAGARA FURNACE. 
 
 moves the car backwards and forwards a distance of 
 about two inches twenty times a minute, thus prevent- 
 ing the formation of layers and crusts. The carbon 
 electrode is gradually raised as the height of the car- 
 bide in the car increases, until the car is completely 
 filled by an ingot of carbide. An empty car is then 
 put in the place of the full one, the pole, &, is lowered, 
 and the operation commences afresh. The loaded car 
 is run out, and after cooling, which takes from six to 
 twelve hours, its contents are tipped upon an iron 
 
 200 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 grating, which permits all the dust and uncombined 
 
 charge to pass away from the ingot. All the doors Prevention 
 
 , , i TIT- j.- of explosive 
 
 of the furnace are kept closed during the operation, mixt ures of 
 except %, which is allowed to remain open in order to s as and air 
 facilitate the expulsion of the air by the furnace gases, 
 but this door is also closed when flames begin to appear. 
 By this means the formation of explosive mixtures 
 with carbon monoxide is prevented. The chimney, a, 
 conducts the hot gases from the top of the car, so that 
 
 FIG. 51. EXTERIOR OP WILLSON FURNACES AT NIAGARA. 
 
 the carbon clamp and rod are not subjected to the hot 
 gases. An air jacket, t0, also aids in keeping the 
 upper part of the furnace cool. 
 
 In 1896 Mr. T. L. "Willson, the original discoverer of 
 
 ' & . Willson's 
 
 the method of making commercial carbide, erected works plant at st. 
 at Merritton, near St. Katherine's, Ontario, on the old Katnerine>s 
 Welland Canal, the power being obtained from three 
 locks, having each of them a fall of about 12J feet, 
 two pairs of 50-inch turbines being worked at each 
 lock, giving a total of 1,650 E.H.P. 
 
 201 
 
Water 
 power and 
 
 dynamos 
 
 Labour- 
 saving 
 appliances 
 
 for 
 
 preparing 
 the material 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 The dynamos used were 150 kw. 60 volt machines, 
 having a stationary armature and a revolving field. 
 
 The arrangements for grinding and mixing the 
 materials were very complete, the lime and coke 
 being unloaded straight from the truck into a hopper 
 connected with the boot of an elevator, upon which 
 they were carried to the crushers on an upper floor. 
 After being ground, the materials were screened to re- 
 move improperly ground portions, and then carried 
 to rotary mixers, where they were thoroughly incor- 
 
 Furnaccs 
 
 Electrodes 
 
 FIG. 52. THE MERRITTON WORKS. 
 
 porated and fed to the furnaces, no handling of 
 the materials taking place after they had been un- 
 loaded from the truck. 
 
 The furnaces were of the same type as those first 
 used at Niagara, and each one took about 200 E.H.P. 
 and made 500 Ib. pigs, or ingots of carbide, per twenty- 
 four hours. 
 
 The carbons used were six inches thick, a foot broad, 
 and eighteen inches long, and were held in position by 
 a chain hoist, electrically regulated. The unit of 
 
 202 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 electromotive force used was 75 volts, the current 
 varying from 1,600 to 2,000 amperes. 
 
 In furnaces such as those used until lately at 
 Niagara, Spray, Foyers, and other leading carbide 
 works, the crucible consists of cast iron, having a very 
 heavy bottom protected by a lining of powdered car- 
 bon mixed with tar and then stamped hard. This 
 
 Ingot 
 
 furnaces 
 
 and their 
 
 general 
 
 working 
 
 FIG. 53. THE FUKNACES AT MERRITTON. 
 
 crucible is mounted on a bogie, running on rails in 
 such a way that it can be wheeled under the brick 
 chamber forming the outer wall of the furnace until 
 it is in position below the movable carbon of the cir- 
 cuit, the heavy metallic bottom being then connected 
 with one terminal of the dynamo. The upper electrode 
 consists of carbon blocks, generally banded together, 
 and suspended from a heavy metal clutch which is in 
 
 203 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Details of 
 construction 
 
 The outer 
 
 casing of the 
 
 furnace 
 
 metallic connection with the other dynamo terminal. 
 This upper electrode hangs vertically over the centre 
 of the crucible when the latter is in position for use, 
 and is capable of considerable vertical movement, 
 which can be controlled by hoisting gear so as to 
 regulate the distance between the two poles. 
 
 The arched firebrick structure which forms the outer 
 casing of the furnace, the ends of which are closed by 
 iron doors to allow of wheeling in and out the crucible 
 on its bogie, generally carries upon the top bins con- 
 
 Raw 
 
 material 
 
 acting as an 
 
 insulator 
 
 The troubles 
 
 incidental to 
 
 this class 
 
 of furnace 
 
 FIG. 54. WILLSON FURNACES. 
 
 taining the raw and pulverised material, which, on 
 the opening of suitable valves by the furnace man, 
 allow the mixture to descend by sloping shoots into 
 the crucible. 
 
 The possibility of using cast iron crucibles depends 
 upon the fact that the arc and the ingot as it grows 
 are surrounded by a considerable amount of raw 
 material. 
 
 The trouble incidental to this class of furnace is 
 largely dependent upon the amount of dust thrown up 
 from the top of the crucible by the escape of the car- 
 
 204 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 bon monoxide and by the heat generated above the 
 mixture by the burning of this gas as it comes in 
 contact with air, which necessitates the carbon holders 
 being made extremely massive in order to prevent 
 their opening and allowing the carbons to fall into the 
 furnace. The dust also gives considerable trouble in 
 keeping the contacts clean, and unless the contact, 
 especially on the bottom plate, be perfect, the lower 
 portion of the crucible will frequently burn out. All 
 contact surfaces must also be of very heavy metal in 
 order to prevent warping by the heat, which would 
 destroy the contact and give rise to considerable 
 damage, as the current passing into a 200 H.P. 
 furnace would be between 2,000 and 3,000 amperes. 
 
 As has been before pointed out, the chemical actions 
 involved in making calcium carbide from lime and car- 
 bon consist in first reducing the lime to metallic cal- 
 cium with evolution of carbon monoxide, whilst the 
 calcium at once combines with the excess of carbon 
 present, forming calcium carbide. The carbon monoxide 
 so produced is an inflammable gas burning with a very 
 hot flame, and this gives rise to considerable trouble 
 at the top of the furnace. The carbon blocks form- 
 ing the upper terminal are very expensive, and for 
 economical working it is necessary to do everything 
 that is possible to preserve them from destruction, and 
 if any length of this carbon electrode is exposed above 
 the crucible, the flame of the burning carbon monoxide 
 playing upon it will lead to its rapid destruction, no 
 matter how good the quality of the carbon employed 
 may be, whilst if, as the carbon grows shorter, it is 
 completely buried in the pulverized material, the car- 
 bon holder is liable to be rapidly destroyed, and it is 
 by no means an uncommon occurrence for the metal 
 clutch to be fused down into the furnace below. 
 
 In order to meet this difficulty at Foyers they use a 
 patented process by which specially made crucibles are 
 
 205 
 
 The dust 
 nuisance 
 
 The 
 
 production 
 of inflam- 
 mable gases 
 in the 
 furnace 
 
 The burning 
 and waste 
 
 of the upper 
 electrodes 
 
 Foyers 
 process for 
 preventing 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 burning of 
 electrode 
 
 provided with, a number of holes at the ends, and a 
 passage is cleared by means of an iron rod through 
 the mass of material in order to allow of the escape of 
 the carbon monoxide through these holes instead of 
 upwards, and where this is done the carbons used are 
 generally about 30 inches in length and are buried up 
 to within a few inches of the carbon holder. 
 
 Most American manufacturers encase their carbons 
 in sheet iron, which is allowed to burn away with the 
 
 Drawbacks 
 of over- 
 heating 
 
 FIG. 55. FOYERS' CRUCIBLE, SHOWING PATENT FRONT. 
 
 electrode, but it is manifest that this will slightly add 
 to the impurity of the carbide. 
 
 Directly the combination has taken place between 
 the calcium and the carbon to form the carbide, it is 
 of the greatest importance that the material produced 
 should be withdrawn as soon as possible from the 
 temperature of the arc, as otherwise dissociation may 
 take place, and a " burnt carbide," having but a low 
 gas yielding power, be produced. One of the points 
 of the utmost importance in good carbide making is 
 
 '206 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 to so arrange the current density as just to reach the 
 combining temperature, and not to get to the point at 
 which dissociation occurs. The general idea is that in 
 order to do this the raw materials have to be very 
 finely ground and very intimately mixed. 
 
 The Willson type of crucible furnace is now being- 
 abandoned in America, and is being replaced by 
 continuous ingot furnaces. In the old works at 
 Niagara, and also the works at Saulte Ste. Marie, 
 
 Current 
 density 
 
 Introduc- 
 tion of the 
 " Horry " 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 56. HOKRY ROTARY FURNACE. 
 
 where Lake Superior empties itself into Lake Huron, 
 and where an enormous volume of water falls about 
 19 to 20 feet, Horry rotary continuous furnaces 
 (Fig. 58) were introduced two years ago. 
 
 In the Horry furnace, instead of the upper carbon 
 pole being slowly raised as the height of the ingot of 
 carbide increases, the arc is produced at a fixed point, 
 whilst the furnace into which the raw materials are 
 fed can be gradually rotated by suitable gearing. 
 
 207 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 " Horry " 
 furnace 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 In the Fig. 57, a a 1 are the carbon poles with their 
 lower ends bevelled so that a vertical passage, &, is 
 formed in which the arc plays, and through which 
 the material to be treated is fed. The body of the 
 furnace, c, is spool-shaped, and is mounted on suitable 
 supports, d, whilst it can be rotated by the worm 
 gearing e, c 1 , e 2 (Fig. 58). Coverplates, /) can be 
 
 General 
 working of 
 the furnace 
 
 FIG, 57. HORRY FURNACE. 
 
 attached to the periphery of the furnace, c, and are 
 secured to it by bolts or clips, as at g. The carbon 
 poles are supported by the sides of the hopper, h, which 
 is lined with fire-clay or other refractory material, 
 and contains the mixed lime and coke. 
 
 When the circuit is closed, the mixed materials 
 pass through the arc in the passage, &, and the molten 
 
 208 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 carbide falls into the receptacle c, where it gradually 
 builds up, at the same time lowering the electrical 
 resistance. When this is shown by the rising of the 
 ammeter, the worm gearing is put in action, causing 
 the receptacle, c, to move, carrying the carbide away 
 from the arc, and allowing fresh material to be 
 acted on. As the reoeptacle is rotated, fresh plates 
 must be added at F to retain the material. The 
 
 FIG. 58. HORRY FURNACK. 
 
 carbide thus forms a ring or part of a ring, and, when 
 it has travelled to the other side of the furnace, the 
 peripheral plates are removed and the carbide broken 
 away. In this way the process is continuous until 
 the carbons are consumed. 
 
 Another continuous rotary furnace of the same class The Bradley 
 is that patented by Bradley, which differs from the 
 Horry furnace by making the core of carbide one of 
 the poles, and as far as possible reducing the resistance 
 of the mass of carbide as it is formed, by bringing the 
 
 209 14 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 Bradley 
 furnace 
 
 current as near to the arc as possible by means of 
 copper plugs inserted at intervals in the rim of the 
 furnace. 
 
 The furnace consists of a rotating wheel (Figs. 59 
 and 60), with semicircular rim to which semicircular 
 plates can be attached, forming a circular chamber. 
 The wheel may be 15 feet in diameter, and the 
 chamber, 36 inches in diameter, is sunk into the ground 
 
 FIG. 59. 
 
 BKADLEY FURNACK. 
 
 FIG. 60. 
 
 so that its axis is carried on journals on the floor level. 
 This wheel can be slowly rotated by means of power- 
 driven gearing. At the floor level the carbon electrode 
 projects into the hollow rim. At intervals on the 
 inner wall of the rim are copper plugs connected with 
 a commutator on the axle of the wheel, which is in 
 electrical communication with the dynamo supplying 
 the current. Automatic means are provided for the 
 supply of the charge. 
 
 210 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 The action is as follows : A charge of the mixed working of 
 materials falls into the chamber round the electrode thc furnaco 
 until its top is immersed therein. The current is then 
 started, and, as the charge is moved away by the 
 rotation of the furnace, an arc is created, and the 
 charge fuses forming a pool of liquid carbide sur- 
 rounded by unacted-on material which protects it 
 from atmospheric influence. Fresh rim plates are 
 added as necessary with the turning of the wheel, and 
 in this way a circular core of carbide is formed, which 
 is surrounded by unacted-on material. When the 
 core of carbide has reached the other side of the 
 furnace, the rim plates are removed one by one and 
 the carbide is broken off. The powdered material 
 falls into the pit in which the wheel works, and is 
 carried by an elevator to the feed-hopper. The copper Means taken 
 plugs form an electrical connection for the passage of to diminish 
 
 *- resistance 
 
 the current through the formed carbide, thus dis- 
 pensing with a second electrode ; whilst the commu- 
 tator causes most of the current to enter by the plug 
 nearest the arc, and avoids the introduction of un- 
 necessary resistance. 
 
 The Union Carbide Company are the largest The union 
 manufacturers of calcium carbide in the world, and company's 
 
 utilise 15,000 H.P., at Saulte Ste. Marie (Fig. 61), 
 whilst the chief feature of 1899 in the manufacture of 
 calcium carbide is the completion of this company's new 
 works at Niagara Falls, which are capable of giving 
 an immense increase in output upon those which 
 formerly existed there. 
 
 These works are equipped for receiving and utilising 
 25,000 E.H.P. per day, which is probably the largest 
 amount of E.H P. which is used by any one works 
 in the world. 
 
 The works are designed and made to manufacture Process em- 
 as nearly automatically as possible, the furnaces and 
 conveying machines being all under automatic control. 
 
 211 
 
Power used 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 Rotary furnaces, constructed under the Horry and 
 Bradley patents, are employed, and embody some im- 
 portant improvements over those which had already 
 been in use in the old works, and also at the works 
 at Saulte Ste. Marie. 
 
 These new works cover about 10 acres, and the 
 electrical current used is generated at the power house 
 
 
 FIG. 61. UNION CARBIDE WORKS, SAULTE STE. MARIE. 
 
 of the Niagara Falls Power Company at 2,200 volts 
 pressure, which is then transformed for conveyance to 
 the carbide works to 10,000 volts pressure, and at the 
 works is reduced by a series of transformers to the 
 required voltage for the furnaces. 
 
 Whilst these changes had been taking place in 
 America, the manufacture of carbide had also been 
 steadily progressing in Europe. A considerable quan- 
 tity of carbide was imported into England in 1894, 
 
 212 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 FIG. 62. NIAGARA TRANSFORMER. 
 
 and a syndicate having acquired Willson's rights, 
 erected in 1895, at Leeds, an experimental plant on a 
 large scale, capable of working continuously at from 
 60 to 70 volts at 1,000 to 1,200 amperes. Steam power 
 was used to drive the dynamo, which was of Desrozier 
 
 213 
 
 The Leeds 
 plant 
 
furnace 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 type, with multipolar field and disc armature. The 
 Dynamo and electric furnace consisted of a heavy iron bed plate, 
 connected with the negative pole of the dynamo, 
 whilst the positive electrode consisted of a carbon rod 
 eight inches square, the height of which above the 
 bed plate could be adjusted by a rack and pinion. 
 
 This installation, which is of interest from the fact 
 that it was the first of the kind in England, is shown 
 
 FIG. 63. LEEDS PLANT 
 
 in the two accompanying figures, Fig. 63 showing 
 the dynamo, whilst Fig. 64 makes clear the arrange- 
 ment of the furnace. 
 The working In using this furnace fire bricks were placed upon 
 the bed plate so as to form a chamber beneath the 
 carbon pole, and the latter being lowered until it 
 struck an arc with the plate ; the material to be fused 
 was shovelled into the chamber around the pole, and, 
 slipping under it, became subject to the full force of 
 the arc. More and more material was then put in, 
 
 214 
 
 of the 
 plant 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 and was, as far as possible, driven in under the pole 
 by a wooden rammer. 
 
 Having demonstrated at Leeds the possibility of 
 making calcium carbide by electrical power in such a 
 way as to be a commercial success, attempts were 
 made to obtain water in place of steam power, and, 
 finally, the Acetylene Illuminating Co. leased a por- 
 tion of the surplus power existing at Foyers, which is 
 
 FIG. 64. LEEDS FURNACE. 
 
 still the only installation of water power of any 
 considerable magnitude in Great Britain. 
 
 The Falls of foyers have long been noted for their The water 
 beauty and for the large fall of water which descends 
 in all save the dryest seasons. The Falls are situated 
 on the south-east side of Loch Ness, which forms part 
 of the Caledonian Canal, where the land rises to a 
 height of 600 to 2,000 feet above the Loch level. 
 Loch Garth and Loch Faraline are situated in a valley 
 running parallel to Loch Ness at the higher level, and 
 
 215 
 
MB 
 
 
 216 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 the water from these lochs, as well as the water from 
 other smaller ones, is discharged over the Falls of 
 Foyers. 
 
 A stone-built dam was erected at the southern end of 
 Loch Garth across this upper valley, and forms a reser- 
 voir five miles long by three-quarters of a mile wide, 
 capable of containing four thousand million gallons of 
 
 FIG. 66. THE DYNAMO ROOM, FOYERS. 
 
 water. From, this a tunnel was built, and the water 
 brought down by six lines of cast iron pipes to five 
 large turbines below which drove the dynamos, each 
 of about 700 H.P. The turbines and dynamos are Foyers 
 mounted on the same shaft, and are driven at the rate 
 of about 150 revolutions per minute. Each dynamo 
 yields over 8,000 amperes, and it is a portion of this 
 power that is utilized for making the carbide. 
 
 217 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 67. A FOYERS DVNAMI 
 
 The turbines employed at Foyers are the Escher 
 Wyss, whilst Oerlikon dynamos are used. These are 
 of solid construction, the armature alone weighing 
 14 tons. They are of the smooth core multipolar drum 
 type, having 24 field poles and 24 brush spindles, 
 
 FIG. 68. THE INGOT J&OOM AT FOYERS. 
 
 218 
 
Electrical 
 output 
 
 THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 carrying 60 positive and 60 negative brushes, each 
 2 inches wide and | inch thick. The output of the 
 dynamo when the turbine sluice is fully open is about 
 500 kilowatts at 55 to 60 volts. 
 
 The current is led direct from the dynamo to the 
 furnaces by means of bare copper strips, laid in the 
 ground with flexible cables to the carbon holders. 
 The main cables are 16 square inches in section, and connections 
 
 FIG. 69. INGOTS COOLING, FOYEKS. 
 
 are made up of 32 strips, each 2 inches wide by J inch 
 thick, divided by distance pieces. 
 
 The furnaces are of the Willson type, but an im- 
 portant modification has been introduced in the 
 crucible (see page 206), which is a heavy cast iron truck 
 running on rails, the ends of which are built up of a 
 number of narrow iron slips or doors, in the centre of 
 each of which is a hole. These slip doors are so made 
 that any one can be opened separately ; and it is found 
 that this arrangement gives considerable economy in 
 the process, as the carbon monoxide generated by the 
 
 219 
 
 The Foyers 
 furnaces 
 
French 
 
 carbide 
 
 furnaces 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 reaction in the furnace escapes laterally and burns at 
 the end holes, instead of being driven upwards and 
 burning at the top of the fuel, thereby saving over- 
 heating and burning to waste of the upper electrode. 
 
 In France, as soon as American action had drawn 
 attention to the commercial importance of calcium car- 
 bide, Bullier, who had been associated with Moissan 
 in his classical researches with the electric furnace, 
 
 Bullier 
 
 ingot 
 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 70. AN INGOT OF CAHBIDK, FOYKKS. 
 
 introduced a form of furnace of the same type as that 
 used in America, with the exception that instead of 
 making the crucible a truck which could be removed 
 with the ingot in it, the body ,.of the furnace was 
 fixed, and a horizontal movable bottom, which could 
 be opened when the operation was completed and the 
 ingot of carbide dropped out, was used. 
 
 This furnace was lined with refractory material 
 such as magnesia, the bottom being closed by a mov- 
 
 220 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 able plate of metal and carbon, b &, which, formed the 
 negative pole. The positive pole consisted of a carbon 
 rod c embedded in the mixed lime and coke. Contact 
 was made by bringing the positive carbon on to the 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 furnace 
 
 CD) (O) 
 
 \\^^^\^VV\^\\^\W\Y>WV^^ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Fig. 71. BULLIER'S FURNACE. 
 
 negative plate, and as the material surrounding the 
 carbon became fused with formation of liquid carbide, 
 the carbon rod was gradually raised. The unacted on 
 material served as a non-conductor of the heat and 
 
 221 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 confined it within narrow limits. After the operation 
 was complete and the current was cut off, the bottom 
 plate was opened and the ingot, with any mixture still 
 unacted upon, dropped into a car and was removed for 
 breaking up and packing. The positive electrode was 
 then lowered into contact with the bottom plate once 
 again, the furnace filled with the mixed lime and coke 
 by means of a shoot, and the operation repeated. 
 
 Another type of this furnace (Fig. 72) had the bottom 
 
 Bullicr 
 running 
 furnace 
 
 FIG. 72. BULLIER'S TAPPING FURNACE. 
 
 plate fixed at an angle in the furnace instead of being 
 movable, forming a sloping chamber, which was filled 
 when starting with calcium carbide, and the positive 
 pole brought down on to the carbide. The mixed 
 lime and coke was fed through holes in the cover of 
 the furnace, and the melted carbide withdrawn from 
 time to time by tapping the furnace just above the 
 top level of the sloping chamber. 
 
 From a commercial point of view the most im- 
 portant development in the method of making calcium 
 
 222 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 carbide in Europe was an outcome of the use of the 
 Heroult furnace in the manufacture of carbide. 
 
 "Works had been established by the French Society Thc 
 of Electro-metallurgists for the manufacture of alu- 
 minium by the Heroult process at Froges, near 
 Grenoble, consisting of three turbines, each of 500 H.P. 
 Two of these were connected with a Brown continuous 
 current dynamo of 6,000 amperes, 60 volts, and the 
 other with one of 500 amperes and 65 volts, the cur- 
 rent from which set in motion the two large dynamos. 
 Both generators are capable of feeding three furnaces 
 at a distance of five metres ; but only three furnaces 
 were actually used, and never more than two were 
 worked at the same time, each being supplied by a 
 special dynamo, whilst they are stopped in turn so that 
 the crucible, which requires frequent repairs, may be 
 attended to. The furnaces were identical with those 
 used in making aluminium, and were provided with 
 wheels to admit of easy adjustment and removal. 
 
 The furnace was rectangular, 1-8 x 1-5 x 1*5 metres in 
 size, and consisted of a graphite crucible with an 
 external coating of cast iron, communicating at the 
 top with a charge opening and at the bottom with 
 another orifice, in front of which was placed a receiver 
 for the melted material. The cables of the negative 
 conductor were fixed by bolts to the back wall of the 
 furnace, whilst the positive electrode consisted of a 
 carbon rod, held in position by four claws, above 
 which were attached six cables supplying the current. 
 By means of screw-gearing the electrode could be raised 
 or lowered, the shaft of the screw passing through a 
 collar forming part of a crutch fixed to the skeleton 
 framework, and also to a screw wheel above the collar 
 which gears with a pinion, the shaft of which crosses 
 the crutch and can be worked by hand. The forma- 
 tion of calcium carbide is very simple. The crucible is The method 
 filled through the charge opening with a mixture of 
 
 223 
 
 he Froges 
 
 f the 
 furnaces 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 furnaces at lime and coke, whilst a workman in charge of the 
 furnace, protected against the enormous heat by a 
 mica screen, stands by to work the pinion shaft. 
 
 "When the crucible is full the electrodes are gently 
 lowered by turning the hand- wheel, and the arc is at 
 once struck between the positive electrode and the 
 material in the crucible. The carbon becomes red-hot 
 
 224 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 almost throughout its entire length, and a long flame 
 escapes at the charge opening. The position of the 
 electrode is regulated according to an am- and volt- 
 meter in the circuit, and the progress of the action is 
 judged by the size and colour of the flame. When 
 the operation is over the bottom orifice is opened, 
 whilst the crucible is again filled at the charge-open- 
 ing and the molten carbide flows in an incandescent 
 stream into the trough placed to receive it, and there 
 cools. 
 
 The electrode still remains plunged in the crucible, 
 and the current consequently is uninterrupted. The 
 work of the furnace is thus continuous, proceeding by 
 successive relays, being emptied about every forty 
 minutes. Each furnace is capable of supplying about 
 300 kgr. of carbide per diem, and is kept in use for the 
 whole twenty-four hours. 
 
 The electrodes form the most expensive portion of 
 the apparatus, being quickly consumed by the great 
 heat at which they are kept, but the Electro-metal- 
 lurgic Society make their own in special furnaces 
 provided for the purpose. 
 
 Many modifications and some improvements of this 
 type of furnace have been introduced, and at the big 
 carbide factories of central Europe the " running " 
 type of furnace is almost entirely used. 
 
 The Electro-chemical works at Bitterfeld were the 
 first to manufacture calcium carbide on the Continent, 
 and early in 1895 were using a furnace of the Willson 
 type with 250 E.H.P., which was afterwards increased 
 to6GOE.H.P. 
 
 The loss of material, and the differing qualities of 
 carbide produced owing to the crust of partly formed 
 carbide adhering to the ingot, caused them to abandon 
 this process, and led to a number of experiments being 
 made with the view of introducing a constant process 
 in which the carbide could be regularly run off from 
 
 225 15 
 
 Output of 
 the furnaces 
 
 Electrodes 
 
 Central 
 European 
 furnaces 
 
 The Early 
 History of 
 
 the 
 
 continental 
 Carbide 
 Industry 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Continuous 
 furnaces 
 
 the furnace by a tap-hole on-the hearth. Considerable 
 difficulties arose in doing this, as the continuous high 
 temperature was destructive to the furnace, and many 
 other troubles had to be overcome. 
 
 226 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 By 1897, however, success had been attained, and 
 steam power proving too costly, the Allgemeine Elec- 
 tric! tat s-Gresellschaft secured a portion of the 16,000 
 HP. water power which had been harnessed at Rhein- 
 felden, and erected a carbide factory, using the latest 
 type of furnace. The furnaces have worked con- 
 tinuously since early in 1898 without interruption or 
 
 FIG. 75. DR. RATHENAU'S FURNACE. 
 
 difficulty, only stopping on the fixed holidays, such as 
 Easter and Christmas. 
 
 These furnaces, which were designed by Dr. Rathe- 
 nau, are shown in Fig. 75, whilst the construction 
 will be seen from Fig. 76. 
 
 The furnace consists of a fire-brick casing, with the 
 bottom formed of a thick carbon plate resting on an 
 iron floor, which forms one of the poles. The top of 
 the furnace is closed by the carbon plate, F, through 
 
 227 
 
 The 
 
 Rathenau 
 furnace 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 furnace 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Working 
 of the 
 
 Rathcnau 
 furnace 
 
 which, but insulated from it, the upper carbon-pole 
 passes. At one side of the cover is a sliding plate, 
 Sj which opens or closes the bottom of the shoot 
 through which the mixed material is fed. The charge 
 is passed in at one side of the furnace whilst the gases 
 resulting from the actions going on escape on the op- 
 posite side of the furnace. 
 
 The mixed material is allowed to flow into the 
 furnace by the shoot N, the sliding plate being with- 
 drawn, and falls into the arc. When the molten 
 carbide is ready for tapping, the supply of lime and 
 coke mixture is stopped by closing the sliding plate, 
 
 FIG. 76. SECTIONS OF RATHENAU FURNACE. 
 
 and as soon as the furnace-chamber has reached the 
 right temperature, the carbide is run off through the 
 tapping hole A. Fresh material is then gradually 
 added by slowly opening the sliding plate, and in this 
 way any rapid lowering of temperature in the furnace 
 is avoided. 
 
 Every precaution is taken to prevent access of air, 
 and by this means the loss in substance of the elec- 
 trodes is limited to the action of the arc and the 
 solvent action of the liquid carbon. 
 
 At the present time installations of upwards of 
 10,000 E.H.P. are either working or under construc- 
 tion in Europe on this system. 
 
 228 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 The Electricitats Aktien Gesellschaft, formerly 
 Schuckert & Co., of Nurnberg, have built and equip- 
 ped a number of big European carbide works, and are 
 at present utilising about 30,000 E.H.P., although this 
 by no means represents the total power at their dis- 
 posal. At Hafslund. for instance, which is one of their 
 
 229 
 
 The 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 Hafslund 
 Works 
 
 General 
 working of 
 the plant 
 
 The 
 
 Sarpsborg 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Works 
 
 The 
 
 Sicmens- 
 Halskc car- 
 bide furnace 
 
 biggest installations, the beautiful Sarpsfoss Waterfall 
 is harnessed for over 20,000 E.H.P., but only about 
 7,200 of this is utilised at present, about 5,000 being- 
 employed in carbide-making, but this will very shortly 
 be doubled. 
 
 Six large and two small turbines and dynamos 
 generate the power which is used in 24 furnaces of 
 about 200 kw. each. These furnaces are arranged 
 in two groups of 12, each group consisting of two 
 rows of six furnaces, back to back, with a chamber 
 between them, through which the gases are drawn off 
 from the furnaces, and in which the dust settles. 
 
 The furnaces are modifications .of the ingot furnace, 
 and are fitted with a tapping hearth from which the 
 liquid carbide is run off every hour, whilst an ingot 
 slowly forms and is withdrawn every few days. 
 Carbons made by Conradti and protected by a special 
 mixture from combustion in the air are adjusted from 
 above, and the carbide mixture is fed in from a trough 
 which runs along above the furnaces. 
 
 On the opposite side of the Sarpsfoss Falls, at Sarps- 
 borg, the power belongs to the Kellner Partington 
 Paper Pulp Co., who rent about 1,500 H.P. to the 
 Allgemeine Carbid- und Acetyleii-G-esellschaft, who 
 manufacture carbide in the Rathenau furnace. 
 
 As has been pointed out, it was Siemens in 1879 who 
 first made a practical electric furnace, and the great 
 electrical firm of Siemens & Halske have during the 
 past five years devoted considerable attention to car- 
 bide furnaces. 
 
 The Siemens-Halske furnace has gone through 
 several modifications, a hollow upper electrode being 
 first introduced with the idea of feeding the mixture 
 of lime and carbon down through it to the arc. This 
 was then abandoned, and the hollow electro retained 
 to allow the escape of carbon monoxide from the action 
 taking place in the arc, this being a great gain, as it 
 
 230 
 
i 
 
 231 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Advantages 
 
 of the 
 
 hollow 
 
 electrode 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 modern 
 
 Sicmcns- 
 Halske 
 furnace 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 
 hollow 
 electrodes 
 
 prevents the uprush of gas through the raw material, 
 which always interferes with the proportions in which 
 the lime and carbon reach the arc, the lighter portions 
 being swept upwards. The negative pole consists of a 
 sloping bed of carbon, on to which the upper electrode 
 is lowered in order to strike the arc, and is then raised 
 to the necessary height to keep the arc constant and 
 to allow the charge to slip down the sloping carbon 
 hearth into the arc, where fusion takes place. 
 
 The bottom of the hearth at first consisted of a 
 movable block which could be lowered to allow the 
 molten carbide to flow out, but it was soon found that 
 the opening rapidly choked owing to the cooling of 
 the carbide round the edges ; but this trouble has now 
 been surmounted by having a large iron elbow tube, 
 with a movable end, below the opening in the bottom 
 of the furnace, and filling this with coarse carbide 
 mixture into which the fused carbide drips, and as it 
 accumulates, gradually pushes the mixture out of the 
 tube, cooling, in this way, out of contact with the air. 
 
 The flexible end to the tube can be replaced by a 
 door or trap. The carbon monoxide led away through 
 the hollow electrode can be conducted to a gasholder 
 or utilised direct for burning the lime used in the 
 mixture. 
 
 The great trouble found with this form of furnace 
 was the impossibility of making the hollow carbon 
 electrodes of even density, as they are about 18 inches 
 external diameter and the hole 9 to 10 inches across, 
 and a little over a metre in length. This has now 
 been got over by .making the tube in a number of 
 sections keyed together and held in position by a 
 metal band. The hollow electrode burns away with 
 perfect evenness, the arc being equally distributed 
 around it, any inequality or lump in the electrode 
 causing a concentration of the current on the pro- 
 jection at that point, which is therefore burnt away. It 
 
 232 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 FIG. 79. SECTION OP THE SIEMENS-HALSKE FURNACE. 
 
 is found that about 21 mm. of the electrode are burnt output 
 away per hour, and the cost of electrode per ton of siemens- 
 
 233 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Halske 
 furnace 
 
 American 
 hollow pole 
 furnace ' 
 
 carbide only amounts to about 10s. The furnace is 
 said to yield 5| kilos of carbide per kw, day, and 
 is guaranteed to give 5. 
 
 An electric furnace with a heavy hollow upper pole, 
 down through which the carbide mixture is fed, has 
 
 234 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 lately been tried at the Armour Institute of Tech- 
 nology, Chicago, but without any very promising 
 results, the difficulties of the feeding being very 
 great. 
 
 Another development of the running process, in 
 
 235 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Gin& 
 Lelcux 
 process 
 
 which the carbide is made partly in a sufficiently 
 fluid condition to be tapped from the furnace and 
 partly in the form of ingot, is known as the Grin 
 and Leleux process, the largest installation of which 
 
 236 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 is to be found at Meran in the Austrian Tyrol, where 
 the water, collected in reservoirs near Partschins, is 
 brought down to five turbines, which are of 'the Ganz 
 type with automatic 'regulation. The generating in- 
 stallation consists of five alternating triphase machines 
 
 237 
 
 The Meran 
 Work* 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 of 1,200 H.P. coupled directly to the turbines and run 
 at the rate of 320 revolutions per minute. Two of 
 these machines supply light to the towns of Meran 
 and Eouzen, whilst two others alternately coupled in 
 
 238 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 parallel furnish the necessary current for making the 
 carbide, the fifth machine being held in reserve. 
 
 The two generators actually employed in making the 
 carbide furnish a total energy equal to 2,000 H.P., and 
 the current is transported by a line of three conductors 
 to the transformers. These consist of two groups of 
 three transformers, having a power respectively of 
 260 kw. at a tension of 33 volts for use with the 
 electric furnaces, secondly a group of three triphase 
 transformers of 20 kw. at a tension of 310 volts, feed- 
 ing the motors working the machinery, and thirdly 
 a group of three triphase transformers of 8 kw. each, 
 furnishing light at a tension of 110 volts. 
 
 The primary winding of each transformer of 260 kw. 
 consists of three bobbins, coupled up in the form of a 
 triangle ; the secondary bobbins are coupled together 
 in the form of a star, each furnishing a normal current 
 of 2,500 amperes at 33 volts. Each furnace is fed 
 simultaneously by a group of three transformers, the 
 bobbins of the same phase being grouped in parallel 
 with return, and the secondary insulation is arranged 
 to keep down as far as possible the effects of mutal 
 induction. All the transformers are by Messrs. G-anz, 
 and are of very good construction, running continu- 
 ously at a temperature of about 30 C. above the air 
 temperature. 
 
 The electric furnaces employed were designed by 
 Messrs. Gin & Leleux, and have a power of about 
 260 kw. ; they are arranged longitudinally in batteries 
 in a large building 40 metres long by 10 metres wide. 
 
 In this installation the question of continuous work- 
 ing has been overcome by dividing the furnaces into 
 groups of two, so that whilst one is working the other 
 can be cleaned out and refilled, one electrode being 
 used for the two furnaces, so that when the operation 
 has been completed in the one the electrode is moved 
 over to the second. Each furnace consists of a crucible 
 
 239 
 
 Moraii 
 trans- 
 formers 
 
 The power 
 used at 
 Mcran 
 
 The Gin- 
 
 Lclcax 
 
 furnaces 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 mounted on a bogie. The casing is of f inch sheet 
 steel, pierced at the back and front with numerous 
 
 FIG. 85. AN ELECTRIC FURNACE AT MERAN. 
 
 holes of about -f^ inch diameter to allow the escape 
 The furnace o f furnace gases. The bottom of the crucible consists 
 
 D0d 
 
 of a thick cast-iron plate or sole, on the centre of which, 
 
 240 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 T 1 he 
 
 electrodes 
 
 and in connection with it, are short blocks of electrode 
 carbon bedded in a hearth of hard powdered anthracite. 
 Level with the top of the hearth is the tapping hole 
 from which the carbide is run in a liquid condition, 
 the electrode carbons in the hearth being brought near 
 to it in order to keep the carbide at this point as liquid 
 as possible. 
 
 The current is conducted to the crucible by cables Conductors 
 
 and crucible 
 
 clamped to a multiple contact plate attached to the 
 sole of the furnace. This crucible having been run on 
 rails under the brickwork arch of the furnace, the 
 upper electrode can be lowered by well-arranged 
 hoisting gear until an arc is struck with the bed 
 of the crucible. 
 
 The upper electrode is built up of four Conradti 
 carbons, each 130 cm. long and 20 cm. square. These 
 are placed in a special mould and a mixture of powdered 
 anthracite and tar is rammed around them to within 
 30 cm. of the top of the electrodes, and is then baked 
 hard in a special furnace, yielding a solid electrode of 
 about 60 cm. square with the four projecting heads of 
 the Conradti carbons as an attachment for clamping to 
 the electric cables! 
 
 An alternating current is employed, and each fur- 
 nace takes about 7,000 amperes and 33 volts, and in 
 consequence of this low voltage the working is very 
 steady and takes the minimum of regulation. In the 
 Meran installation six furnaces are at work using 
 about 1,300 kw. to 1,730 E.H.P. 
 
 For making the carbide pure mountain limestone 
 is obtained from quarries in the neighbourhood and 
 brought to the works by a wire tramway, where it 
 is burnt in a kiln by means of producer gas, with the 
 result that a lime of great purity containing 98' 76 per 
 cent, of calcium oxide is obtained. 1 
 
 Current 
 
 employed 
 
 The 
 
 materials 
 used 
 
 1 See analysis, p. 268. 
 
 241 
 
 16 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 and U fe*ding 
 the material 
 
 furnace 
 
 caused tT 
 bad mixing 
 
 furnaces 
 
 The yield of 
 
 withdrawal 
 
 from the 
 furnace 
 
 i n g re dients are fed into large jaw crushers, 
 from which they fall through tooth roll machines 
 ^ n ^ hoppers, supplying a revolving feed plate, by 
 means of which the proportions of lime and coke in 
 the carbide mixture can be exactly adjusted, and then 
 passes through an automatic mixer to the furnace 
 ^ eec ^- T ne granulation and mixing of the ingredients 
 exercise a considerable influence on the working of the 
 furnace as, if not properly done, pockets form in the 
 fused material, in which carbon monoxide collects and 
 gives rise to dangerous spitting whilst running out 
 the fused carbide. Nor is this the only inconvenience, 
 as want of proper mixing renders the working of the 
 furnace very irregular. 
 
 The grinding and elevating machinery is made by 
 J. Hopf, of Vienna, and works smoothly and well. 
 
 The furnaces are run for three days at a time, the 
 carbide being tapped from them at intervals of about 
 two hours, the amount withdrawn becoming smaller as 
 the outlet gradually becomes choked by deposits of 
 carbide round the mouth of the tapping hole. This 
 causes the gradual building up of an ingot within the 
 crucible, and at the end of the third day the electrode 
 is raised by the hoisting gear, run over the second 
 furnace and lowered into position, the delay only 
 amounting to from five to ten minutes. The crucible 
 is then withdrawn from the first furnace, and the 
 ingot extracted in the usual way. 
 
 The yield of carbide is 5*8 kilos per kilowatt day of 
 a carbide generating 280 litres per kilo at 15 C. and 
 760 mm., equivalent to 5*1 kilos of a 320 litre carbide. 
 The gases evolved during the working of the furnace 
 are drawn off by a ventilator through lateral openings 
 before they can reach the upper part of the furnace, so 
 preventing overheating of the upper electrodes. This 
 is done by fans which draw the gases and dust from 
 t the back of the crucible to a settling 
 242 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 chamber, air at the same time being drawn in through 
 the front holes. 
 
 In Italy the manufacture of calcium carbide has 
 
 increased considerably within the last three years, calcium 
 and there are works at Pont San Martin, near Ivrea, carbide 
 
 "U *1 
 
 whilst a carbide factory at Narni belongs to the turemitaiy 
 Societa Italiana dei Forni Elettrici, of Rome, and the 
 
 243 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Tcrni 
 Works 
 
 The San 
 
 Marccllo 
 
 Plant 
 
 Description 
 
 of the 
 
 apparatus 
 
 used 
 
 Arrange- 
 ments for 
 controlling 
 the current 
 
 Societa Italiana del Carburo de Calcio Gas Acetilene 
 ed Altri G-as have large works near the Marmore 
 Falls at Terni, where they utilise a 3,000 H.P. plant. 
 A view of the furnaces of the Terni Company is shown 
 in Fig. 86, and at these works not only do they run 
 the carbide, but obtain it in so liquid a condition that 
 it is cast into sticks, this being the only factory in 
 the world in which this is done. 
 
 A small carbide factory is also at work in San 
 Marcello d'Aosta, and electric furnaces of a somewhat 
 novel type are utilised there, a description of which 
 appeared in the Electrical World. 
 
 The plant at San Marcello at present utilises 800 
 H.P. from the falls of the Dora Baltea River, but in a 
 short time extensions will be finished, and then the 
 plant will have a capacity three times greater than at 
 present. Four Oerlikon 150 kilowatt three-phase 
 alternators are rope -driven from the flywheels of 
 horizontal turbines, each developing 400 H.P. at 200 
 revolutions per minute. The shafts of the turbines 
 are on the same axial line, and may be coupled to- 
 gether by an elastic coupler. The diameter of the 
 flywheels is 15 feet, and seven cotton ropes are em- 
 ployed for driving. The three-phase alternators were 
 specially designed for this class of work, the armature 
 is of the drum type and revolving, and the field has 
 four poles. The normal speed is 480 revolutions per 
 minute, the frequency is 16 cycles, and the capacity is 
 600 amperes at 146 volts. Exciting current is sup- 
 plied by an independent exciter provided with a 
 switchboard containing a circuit breaker, ammeter, 
 voltmeter, and field rheostat. In each alternator field 
 circuit is a resistance which may be controlled with 
 great nicety. There is also an arrangement whereby 
 the field current cannot be broken without first throw- 
 ing in the whole resistance. The alternators are con- 
 nected together mechanically and electrically two by 
 
 244 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 two, and whenever one of the alternators of a group 
 needs repairing, it is possible to run the other one 
 alone. 
 
 Each pair of alternators has a main switchboard The 
 panel of white marble, on which is grouped all the Alternators 
 apparatus for the control and synchronising. Each 
 panel has two ammeters, two voltmeters, and two 
 three-phase switches. There are two pilot lamps for 
 each alternator, connected across the leads for the 
 control of the voltage, and a third lamp is used for 
 synchronising. Since the alternators are mechanically 
 coupled, a synchronising lamp seems superfluous ; but 
 this arrangement was provided to avoid a considerable 
 difference of potential between the leads. In this 
 latter case the synchronising lamp will blow, and the 
 switchboard attendant be thus notified of the trouble. 
 The ammeters are permanently in series with only 
 one of the leads of each machine : this disposition is, 
 of course, defective, for if it happens that one of the 
 other phases is cut out at the furnace, the ammeter 
 will not indicate the fact, and the switchboard attend- 
 ant cannot judge of the work developed by the 
 machine. 
 
 From this switchboard the mains go to the furnace 
 room, where there is another switchboard for the 
 control of the furnace operation. On this switchboard 
 are two 1,200 ampere switches and three ammeters. 
 The conductors are tape insulated, and supported on The C onduc- 
 paraffined wooden blocks, surrounded by an iron ^"^ ** 
 ribbon tightened with a bolt. The ends of the mains 
 coming from the alternators are soldered to the cable 
 terminals in the usual way, but the ends going to the 
 furnaces have a special joint made with hard solder, 
 since the heat conducted from the furnace in addition 
 to the current-resistance heating would melt the 
 ordinary solder. The cables in proximity to the 
 furnaces are asbestos insulated. 
 
 245 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The San 
 
 Marcello or 
 
 " Mcmmo " 
 
 furnace 
 
 The advan- 
 tages of a 
 triphase 
 furnace 
 
 The con- 
 tinuous form 
 of " Memmo " 
 
 furnace 
 
 The working 
 
 of the 
 
 furnace 
 
 At San Marcello the arc type of furnace has been 
 adopted. The arc is produced in a furnace either 
 between a carbon block and a receptacle containing 
 the material to be treated, or between the carbons. 
 The heating produces the combinations required. 
 Direct or alternating current may be used. Mr. 
 Memmo, the engineer who installed and manages the 
 plant, considers it more advantageous to use three- 
 phase than single-phase alternating currents. There 
 are then three arcs instead of one in the furnace, and 
 the heating surface is thus larger and more uniform. 
 The arcs may be developed either in a triangle be- 
 tween the carbons or in stars between the carbons and 
 a conductive plate acting like the neutral point of the 
 alternators. The control of furnaces using three-phase 
 currents is very much simpler than in the case of 
 other kinds, since, should one of the arcs blow out for 
 any reason, the furnace will still operate on the other 
 two arcs, and the strain on the alternators, due to 
 sudden changes of load, is thus avoided. 
 
 At San Marcello there are two different types of 
 three-phase furnaces continuous operation furnaces 
 patented by Mr. Memmo, and furnaces operating in- 
 termittently. The general features of the first type 
 are that they are cylindrical in shape, and made of 
 refractory bricks. The three carbons are inclined and 
 controlled by three threaded rods, each operated by a 
 small wheel. For filling the furnace a metallic funnel 
 is provided on top. A cast-iron plate, covered with 
 several layers of graphite, may be lowered or raised 
 the whole height of the furnace by means of a screw 
 moved by a gear and pinion operated by a small 
 wheel. In filling the furnace the material falls down 
 between the carbons, the carbide is formed, and the 
 plate is slowly lowered. After six or seven hours of 
 work the plate is at the bottom, and it is possible to 
 take off the carbide already cooled by a door provided 
 
 246 
 
THE ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 The inter- 
 mittent 
 
 " Memmo ' 
 furnace 
 
 at the lower part of the furnace. The furnace may 
 therefore work without intermission. The current 
 during operation is controlled by lowering or raising 
 the cast-iron plate, and the carbons are moved only 
 when necessary to supply the loss caused by their con- 
 sumption. 
 
 The intermittently working three-phase furnace 
 is of the greatest simplicity, and resembles in 
 appearance the Willson furnace. Externally it 
 has the shape of a cubical block, and the internal 
 capacity is about 70 cubic feet. The walls inside are 
 made of refractory bricks, and the outside of ordinary 
 bricks. The bottom of the furnace, which is in con- 
 tact with the melted carbide, is made of compressed 
 bricks of magnesium oxide, or consists simply of a 
 stratum of lime. The opening in front of the furnace 
 is closed by refractory bricks, strengthened by an 
 iron back, and is capable of being securely fixed to the 
 furnace wall by means of iron bars. The furnace is 
 covered by a refractory brick vault in which there 
 are three holes for the three carbons. The front wall 
 above the opening has a hole provided with a cast- 
 iron pipe for filling the furnace while in operation. 
 On the rear wall there is another hole similarly 
 situated for the exit of the gas produced. The gas 
 may either be burned as it leaves the furnace, and the 
 products led away through a flue, or it may, after 
 washing, be conducted to the baking furnace and 
 there burned. 
 
 The carbons are 5 inches in diameter, and held in a The carbons 
 metallic carbon holder, secured to a large iron rod, 
 which conducts the current and controls the position 
 of the carbons. The iron rod is threaded its whole 
 length, and screws up and down in a bronze collar, 
 supported by a cast-iron plate considerably larger 
 than the hole in the vault of the furnace. By turning The system 
 the cylinder by means of a small wheel, it is possible ' 
 
 247 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 furnace 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 to raise or lower the carbons in the furnace, and the 
 control by this system is of great sensibility, as it 
 avoids all sudden movements of the carbons, and 
 makes it possible to gradually lower the carbons as 
 the operation of the furnace requires. The leads are 
 connected by bolts to the cast-iron plates. 
 
 In starting the operation the carbons are lowered 
 to the bottom of the furnace, resting on a block of 
 graphite or carbide, so as to be short-circuited at start- 
 
 The working ing, the mixture of carbon and lime being an insulator. 
 furnace ^ ne ^ urnace * s then filled with briquettes of the mix- 
 ture, and the internal dimensions of the furnace being 
 considerable, there is always about half an inch of 
 material next to the wall, which remains unchanged. 
 It is well in practice not to remove this material, be- 
 cause it avoids excessive heating of the walls, and 
 does not allow the melted carbide to adhere to them. 
 When the furnace is filled, the door is shut and the 
 fissures are filled with clay or lime. The filling pipe 
 is closed with a metallic cover, which also acts as a 
 safety valve, as the waste gases mixed with dust and 
 air have a tendency to explode. The carbons being 
 short-circuited, the switches are thrown and the alter- 
 nators started. When at normal speed, the resistances 
 in the armature circuit are gradually cut off. The 
 speed then drops, and there is danger that the alter- 
 nators may break down if the action of the turbine 
 regulators is not quick enough, or when the water is 
 not sufficient. When all the resistance is cut out, the 
 
 The current normal current ought to be 1,200 per carbon at 145 
 employed vo ^ s . rp o re g u i a t e to this current the carbons are 
 raised by means of the wheels until the current has 
 its normal value. It sometimes happens that one 
 carbon gives more current than the others owing to 
 unequal distances, but the tendency disappears as soon 
 as the first quantity of carbide is produced. 
 
 In these furnaces the carbon employed is charcoal 
 
 248 
 
THE ELECTRIC FUENACE 
 
 from the forests, which are close to the works, the 
 wood being transformed into charcoal in gas retorts, 
 and the gas so made utilised for burning the lime. 
 The material is then powdered and made up into 
 briquettes with a little water and tar, which are then 
 dried and baked after moulding. 
 
 The furnace is filled every fifteen minutes, it being 
 necessary to keep it entirely full. To discharge the 
 furnace it is necessary to stop the production. Each 
 operation lasts from four to five hours. Having re- 
 gard to efficiency, it would be more convenient to 
 work more than five hours, as the production of car- 
 bide is larger during the last moments, and there 
 would not be so great a loss of heat and usage of 
 electrodes. But the troubles which occur after five 
 hours of work are too frequent, and, besides, the 
 quantity of gas produced is so large that it 
 causes considerable inconvenience near the furnace. 
 To stop the operation the alternator field is cut off, 
 and the cables are taken out and connected to the 
 next furnace, which has been prepared for working. 
 
 Before discharging the furnace it is necessary to wait 
 some hours to enable the carbide to solidify. The in- 
 gots weigh from 300 to 500 Ibs., and require many hours 
 to cool after they are taken from the furnace. When 
 the blocks are of good quality, they are very hard to 
 break. There are three different kinds of carbide, 
 corresponding to different portions of the blocks. The 
 carbide on the exterior of the block has the appear- 
 ance of graphite. Inside it has a grey colour, and is 
 partly crystalline. In the central portion of the block 
 the carbide is crystalline, and has a red copper colour. 
 This last kind gives the highest yield of acetylene. 
 
 In Spain at the present time there is only one 
 carbide factory at work at Montesquin ; but several 
 others are in course of construction, and it has been 
 pointed out by Alexandre that the natural advantages 
 
 249 
 
 The 
 
 material 
 employed 
 
 Period of 
 operation 
 
 The carbide 
 ingots 
 
 Quality of 
 
 ingot 
 formed 
 
 The carbide 
 
 industry in 
 
 Spain. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 relative 
 
 merits of 
 
 the ingot 
 
 and the run 
 
 carbide 
 processes 
 
 The econo- 
 mic values 
 of the two 
 processes 
 
 of the country, as well as the high import duty on 
 carbide, should render its manufacture lucrative. 
 
 The reasons which led to the adoption of the run- 
 ning process in continental practice were that it was 
 continuous, that the trouble of crust, inseparable from 
 the ingot process, was done away with, and that a 
 uniformity of quality was ensured, whilst the only 
 apparent limit to the size of the furnace used was the 
 size of the carbons obtainable. With the running 
 furnace, moreover, the materials could be used in a 
 coarser condition, and the dust nuisance in the factory 
 reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The supporters of the ingot process, on the other 
 hand, point out that the temperature needed to get the 
 carbide to run in a satisfactory way without rapid 
 clogging of the outlet is far higher than the tempera- 
 ture necessary to make the carbide, and for this reason 
 so much more current has to be used that running 
 furnaces can only be employed where power is cheap, 
 and that the extra temperature so increases the wear 
 and tear to the furnace that the cost of repairs be- 
 comes a most serious item. 
 
 As in most controversies of this character, many 
 of the discrepancies disappear when the conditions are 
 more carefully investigated. It is found in practice 
 that the life of the running furnace is not appreciably 
 less than that of the ingot crucible, and the price at 
 which run carbide is made certainly does not suggest 
 the use of excessive current. Further investigation 
 shows that the whole question hinges on the quality 
 of the carbide. If a standard were fixed for this of 
 320 litres per kilo, 5'08 cub. ft. per Ib. at C. and 760 
 mm., the running process could not compete with the 
 ingot ; whilst with a standard of 252 litres per kilo, 
 4 cub. ft. per Ib., the running process could more than 
 hold its own. 
 
 This is dependent on the fact that the temperature 
 
 250 
 
THE ELECTEIC FUENACE 
 
 of fusion of pure calcium carbide is about 3,000 C., and 
 that in order to tap it from the furnace the tempera- 
 ture must not be less than 3,500, whilst even then the 
 tapping holes soon clog and the waste of the furnace Run 
 linings and electrodes becomes excessive. If, however, carbide 
 excess of lime be present, this acts as a flux, and causes 
 fusion at a slightly lower temperature. Full advan- 
 tage is taken of this by the manufacturer, and the 
 result is that the run carbide is rarely of such high 
 gas-yielding power as a good ingot carbide. 
 
 It is evident also that the efficiency of a furnace The con . 
 must to a great extent depend on the heat being as servation ot 
 
 . ., , , . .... . . heat in the 
 
 far as possible kept from escaping during working, carbide 
 and in the earlier forms of the ingot furnace this was 
 entirely left to the mass of crude material surrounding 
 the forming mass of carbide, and when the crucible, 
 with its load of red-hot material, was drawn from the 
 furnace and was allowed to cool, considerable loss of 
 heat took place. In the running furnaces, also, con- 
 siderable loss of heat takes place owing to the constant 
 withdrawal of carbide at a temperature of about 
 3,000 C. The Deutschen Gold und Silber Scheide The 
 Anstalt of Frankfort have perfected an electric furnace Frankfort 
 for carbide making on the ingot system, which is a 
 distinct advance, and if a high standard of carbide were 
 insisted upon would undoubtedly be largely employed. 
 
 The furnace consists of a square bottomless chamber The 
 of iron lined on the inner sides with magnesia bricks construction 
 and at the top with fire bricks. The top is pierced to Frankfort 
 allow the upper electrode to pass in and also to admit furnace 
 the mouths of two hoppers from which the material 
 is fed in and a tube to carry off the gases. Below the 
 opening at the bottom of the furnace a small trolley 
 can be run carrying a bed plate fitted with a hearth 
 with conical sides in metallic connection with the bed 
 plate and carrying the lower electrodes. The trolley 
 having been run under the furnace is raised by chain 
 
 251 
 
252 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 Condition oi 
 the material 
 when intro- 
 duced into 
 the furnace 
 
 gearing until the sloping sides of the hearth fit gas- 
 tight into the bottom of the furnace. One cable is The 
 attached to the bed plate of the hearth by a multiple c 
 contact plate, whilst 
 the other is in con- 
 nection with the 
 upper carbon carried 
 in a sliding holder 
 attached to a side 
 guide, which allows 
 exact regulation by 
 means of a series 
 of pulleys and hand- 
 wheels. In the 
 earlier furnaces made 
 by the firm it was 
 supposed to be ne- 
 cessary to grind the 
 materials to a fine 
 powder, and the 
 form of furnace 
 shown in Fig. 87 was 
 used, the hot gases 
 from the action, to- 
 gether with the dust 
 carried with them, be- 
 ing removed through 
 the broad tube seen 
 on the right of the 
 furnace. This type 
 gave very good re- 
 
 3 _ J . 7 /f FIG. 88. THE LATEST FORM OF 
 
 suits, but it was a FRANKFORT FURNACE. 
 
 great improvement 
 
 when it was found that fine grinding was unnecessary, 
 and that the best results were obtained with the lime 
 and coke about the size of peas, which entirely does 
 away with the trouble existing with the old furnace 
 
 253 
 
 Advantages 
 of granula- 
 tion 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The modern 
 
 form of 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 furnace and 
 
 its 
 advantages 
 
 Output of 
 the furnace 
 
 Method of 
 working 
 with the 
 furnace 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture of the 
 escaping 
 gases 
 
 of the rush, of hot gases sweeping out some of the 
 lighter particles and upsetting the proportions of lime 
 and carbon in the mixture. 
 
 The advantage of this form of furnace is self-evident. 
 Being enclosed, the carbon monoxide is, in the latest 
 form, led away by a tube from the furnace crown, and 
 is either discharged into the open air or is utilized in 
 burning the lime. The upper carbon holder now runs 
 on two guides instead of one, Fig. 88, making regulation 
 more easy, whilst the great characteristic of the furnace 
 is that, when the ingot has been built up within it, the 
 hearth is lowered with the trolley and is run out, a 
 new hearth being run in to take its place, in this way 
 saving the heat stored in the furnace walls. The fur- 
 nace works with 2,500 amperes at a tension of 50 to 
 75 volts, 60 to 65 giving the best results. The ingots 
 are freed from crust and granulated to the required 
 size by machinery made by Speyerer, of Berlin, which 
 gives much less dust and waste than the ordinary 
 crusher. These furnaces work very economically, 
 making a ton of carbide from 1 6 to 1*7 tons of lime- 
 coke mixture. 
 
 Prom the foregoing -description it is seen that the 
 working of the furnace might be made nearly con- 
 tinuous ; but it is found better in practice to allow 
 the ingot to slowly cool down to a certain extent in 
 the furnace, as it is found that a larger yield of car- 
 bide is obtained. The explanation given is that as 
 the semi-liquid ingot cools the heat converts the crust 
 around it into true carbide ; and it is quite probable 
 that if there is any quantity of reduced calcium pre- 
 sent, this will go on combining with the carbon 
 present at temperatures far below that existing in the 
 ingot when the current is cut off. The loss of heat 
 from the escaping gases is not as great as might be 
 expected, as they are rarely found to have a higher 
 temperature than from 1,000 to 1,200 C., and it is 
 
 254 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 found that the storage of heat in the walls of the 
 furnace lead to an increase in the output, the second 
 make giving a better result than the first, the increase 
 continuing until the maximum temperature of the 
 walls have been -reached. The make of carbide is 
 slightly over 5 kilos per kw. day of carbide, yielding 
 an average of 300 litres of acetylene per kilo. 
 
 Several forms of furnace have been patented with 
 the idea of raising the mixture of lime and carbon to 
 the highest possible temperature before submitting it 
 to the action of the arc, the idea being that by so 
 doing a considerable economy in electrical energy 
 would be gained ; but it is at present still a somewhat 
 open question as to whether much is to be gained, as 
 the energy required to raise the materials through the 
 first 1,500 is small as compared with that required for 
 the last 2,000, and if the process necessitates much 
 manipulation or costly furnace arrangements, the sav- 
 ing is swamped by the increased outlay. 
 
 Crompton, in 1889, proposed preliminary heating 
 for the materials to be subjected to fusion in the 
 electric arc, and Reynolds designed a furnace which 
 should embody this principle .with continuity in 
 action ; whilst later, Pictet devised and patented a 
 purely theoretical process in which the mixture of 
 lime with excess of carbon is placed in a furnace 
 chamber, in the upper part of which it is subjected 
 to an air blast, and here the combustion of the excess 
 of carbon is used to raise the temperature to about 
 2,000 C. As the mixture at this temperature falls in 
 the furnace, it is played upon by oxyhydrogen blow- 
 pipe flames, which are expected to heat it to 2,400 C., 
 at which temperature it is subjected to the electric arc 
 and converted into carbide. 
 
 Such a process would be entirely impracticable on 
 a manufacturing scale, as even supposing the theoreti- 
 cal temperatures could be attained at a price that 
 
 255 
 
 Prc-hcating 
 furnaces 
 
 General con- 
 siderations 
 
 Crompton 
 furnace 
 
 The early 
 
 Pictet 
 
 furnace 
 
 Drawbacks 
 
 to the 
 
 process 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 would render it commercially possible, the action of 
 the air blast in burning out the carbon would destroy 
 the uniformity of the mixture and would" introduce 
 such an excess of impurities owing to the ash from 
 the carbon burnt away being left in the mixture, that 
 if the carbide could be made it would be too impure 
 to be marketable, whilst in experiments made by the 
 author the formation of fusible silicates from the 
 coke-ash and lime made the mixture "tacky" and 
 stopped its downward passage to the arc. 
 Later modi- Modifications of the process, however, might be em- 
 
 fications of . 
 
 the plant ployed by doing away with the internal combustion 
 by the air blast and allowing the preliminary heating 
 to be accomplished by the combustion of the carbon 
 monoxide produced by the reduction in the electric 
 arc this of course taking place to a certain extent 
 in every electric furnace. 
 The Pictet's idea was to reach the high temperature neces- 
 
 the process sary f or the formation of calcium carbide from lime and 
 carbon by a successive series of steps in the same way 
 that the intense degres of cold necessary for the lique- 
 faction of air is arrived at by a series of successive 
 lowerings of temperature ; but, as the idea came to be 
 practically worked out, it became manifest that the 
 cost of heating by special blast flames would be far 
 too costly, and that if pre-heating were to be done, it 
 must be by the utilization of the heat from the electric 
 furnace and by the combustion of the carbon monoxide 
 generated by the reduction of the lime by carbon ; and 
 
 The Ingleton plant has been erected at Ingleton upon this prin- 
 
 installation ciple 
 
 It consists of two furnaces, one of which can be 
 used as a " stand-by," and these work at 2,000 am- 
 construc- peres. They are composed of an inner part or true 
 ^urnaces 6 furnace which is about 2 feet square by 3 feet high, 
 built of bauxite bricks with an outer casing of ordin- 
 ary firebricks. In the front of the furnace these two 
 
 256 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 layers of bricks are so spaced as to leave an open 
 portion between the two, in which, before the furnace 
 is started, a fire is lit in order to create a draught in 
 the flue which surmounts the furnace. 
 
 The carbons for the arc are 6 inches square, and 
 pass into the inner bauxite chamber, the negative 
 carbon being inclined at an angle of 30, whilst the 
 positive carbon is horizontal and can be moved by 
 means of a running screw, the carbon-holder, where 
 it enters the furnace, being water-jacketed, whilst a 
 second water-jacket is fitted round that portion of the 
 holder to which the cable is attached, the water 
 supply to these cooling devices being in separate 
 insulated cisterns. 
 
 When the electric arc is struck, and acts upon the 
 mixture of carbon and lime, the carbon monoxide that 
 escapes from the furnace is led by a flue between the 
 two lining walls and burns in the firebrick flues, 
 which, passing up above the furnace, lead off at 
 right angles. Inside this firebrick flue is an inner 
 flue of iron, which, leading upwards from the furnace, 
 passes from the outer flue at the bend and is con- 
 tinued to a floor above the furnace, where it is closed 
 by a trap door, and acts as a feed down which the 
 mixture of carbon and lime finds its way. It is 
 manifest that this could not be done with an ordinary 
 mixture of lime and carbon, as the strong draught 
 would carry away a large proportion' of the material, 
 and so the lime and coke are compressed into small 
 briquettes about two inches square, this being done 
 partly to prevent the mixture becoming imperfect, 
 and partly to prevent choking of the arc, as well as to 
 allow a freer passage for the escape of the heated gases. 
 
 The dynamo employed in this installation was of a 
 somewhat novel form ; its normal output is 2, (XX) 
 amperes at 60 volts when running at 425 revolutions 
 per minute. It was of the four-pole type, with cast 
 
 257 17 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 electrodes 
 
 The working 
 
 of the 
 furnace 
 
 Briquettes 
 
 of the 
 
 mixture 
 
 used 
 
 The Ingleton 
 dynamo 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 steel magnets and yoke. The armature was of the 
 slotted drum type, with helical duplex winding, the 
 armature inductors being of Crompton's patent com- 
 pressed stranded cable. There are 68 sectors to the 
 commutator and 68 inductors to each part of the 
 duplex winding, and it was specially designed to 
 run without sparking even when overloaded to the 
 extent of 50 per cent. 
 
 This plant started working in 1898, but was not 
 successful. 
 
 FIG. 89. THE INGLETON DYNAMO. 
 
 The Landin 
 process 
 
 Another pre-heating process of the same character 
 is that known as the " Landin " system, in which the 
 powdered lime and carbon material for which latter 
 anthracite has been found excellent with a small 
 percentage of tar, are formed under high pressure into 
 briquettes, which are heated up to 400 to 500 C., 
 when they change their appearance and form a hard, 
 uniformly caked mass. The hydrocarbons distilled 
 off are condensed and used again for mixing with a 
 fresh portion of lime and carbon. 
 
 The briquettes then contain calcium and carbon in 
 briquettes of the theoretical proportions required for the carbide 
 
 268 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 reaction, and are then further heated to white heat in 
 the upper portion of the carbide furnace, after which 
 they are brought between the electrodes and into the 
 arc, where they are melted and form carbide. Experi- 
 ments have shown that the briquettes heated even to 
 2,200 C. the temperature being measured by the 
 thermophone of Professor J. Gr. Wiborg, of the 
 Technical High College at Stockholm do not change 
 their form, physical properties, or chemical composi- 
 tion in the absence of air. They, therefore, reach the 
 electric arc in a highly-heated state and of the exact 
 composition required. The pre-heating is done in a 
 specially-constructed furnace, where the briquettes 
 pass through -a separate channel heated from the 
 outside, and from which air is excluded, the carbon 
 monoxide from the electric furnace being utilised to 
 supply the necessary heat. 
 
 In order to further facilitate the reaction and lower 
 the necessary temperature of carbide formation a 
 small quantity of calcium chloride or fluoride is mixed 
 with the briquette materials, which melts, and in the 
 arc is dissociated into calcium and chlorine, the cal- 
 cium in the nascent condition combining with carbon 
 to form carbide, and the chlorine in the comparatively 
 cooler parts of the furnace reacting on i>he calcium 
 oxide re-forming calcium chloride, etc. (CaO 132 
 calories. CaCl 2 170 calories), so that the process may 
 be said to be electrochemical as compared with the 
 hitherto exclusively thermoelectrical methods used. 
 That the calcium chloride does not evaporate without 
 action is shown by traces of it having been found in 
 the carbide. 
 
 It is interesting to reproduce the theoretical con- 
 siderations upon which Landin bases his process, as it 
 gives an idea of the margin of gain expected. " The 
 importance of a good pre-heating of the raw materials 
 before their treatment in the electric arc is shown 
 
 259 
 
 lime and 
 carbon 
 
 The con- 
 struction of 
 the Landin 
 
 furnace 
 
 The Landin 
 process an 
 electro- 
 chemical 
 one 
 
 The 
 
 theoretical 
 considera- 
 tions on 
 which 
 Landin 
 bases his 
 process 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 by the following comparative calculations of the 
 quantities of carbide produced by 1 E.H.P. in twenty- 
 four hours with and without pre-heating. Of course 
 such theoretical calculations are not exact, as they do 
 not take into consideration the changes of the specific 
 heat with the temperature, etc., but when made fully 
 comparative they always have a good deal of value. 
 
 Calorific con- 
 siderations 
 
 Specific heat of calcium oxide O ; 2, and of carbon 0*45. 
 Heat of formation of calcium carbide from free calcium 
 and carbon left out of calculation, as of no import- 
 ance. The temperature of the reaction is taken as 
 3,000 C. 
 
 " 1. Without any pre-heating. cal. 
 
 Heating 56 grams CaO to 3,000 C. 3,000 x 0'2 x 
 
 56/1,000= 33-6 
 
 Heating 36 grams C to 3,000 C. 3,000 x 0'45/36/ 
 
 1,000= 48-6 
 
 Dissociation of CaO ...... 132'0 
 
 214-2 
 From which are to be subtracted which are 
 
 given off by the formation of CO . . . 28'8 
 
 Necessary for 64 grams of CaC 2 
 
 " 2. Pre-heating the raw materials to 1,500 C. 
 Heating 56 grams CaO from 1,500 to 3,000 C. 
 Heating 36 grams C from 1,500 to 3,000 C. 
 Dissociation of CaO . . 
 
 From which are to be subtracted . 
 Necessary for 64 grams CaC 2 
 
 li 3. Pre-heating the raw materials to 2,000 C. 
 Heating 56 grams CaO from 2,000 to 3,000 C. 
 Heating 36 grams C from 2,000 to 3,000 C. 
 Dissociation of CaO 
 
 From which are to be subtracted . 
 
 Necessary for 64 grams CaC 2 
 260 
 
 185-4 
 
 16-8 
 
 24-3 
 
 132-0 
 
 173-1 
 
 28-8 
 
 144-3 
 
 11-2 
 
 16-2 
 
 132-0 
 
 159-4 
 
 28-8 
 
 130-6 
 
THE -ELECTEIC FURNACE 
 
 " Thus there are required for 64 grams carbide in 
 
 1, 1854 ; in 2, 144-3 ; and in 3, 130-6 calories. If 1 
 E.H.P. is put to, say, B50 calories per hour, we obtain 
 from 1 E.H.P. in 24 hours, in 1, 4-55 kilos. ; in 2, 5*85 
 kilos. ; and in 3, 6-47 kilos, of carbide, which com- 
 parative figures fully show the importance of the 
 pre-heating. If the temperature of formation of the 
 carbide is taken at 2,700 C., the corresponding figures 
 will be as follows : for 64 grams carbide, 1, 17 7' 18 ; 
 
 2, 136-08 ; and 3, 122-38 calories ; or for 1 E.H.P. in 
 24 hours, 1, 4-77 ; 2, 6'21 ; and 3, 6-50 kilos, of carbide. 
 
 It must also be remembered that most of the 
 heat required can be obtained from the carbon mon- 
 oxide formed by the carbide reaction. For the pre- 
 heating of the raw materials for 64 grams carbide to 
 2,000 C. there are theoretically required 54'8 calories 
 (compare above), but for 64 grams of carbide there 
 are found 28 grams of carbon monoxide, which in burn- 
 ing to carbonic acid will give rise to 69-16 calories, 
 consequently theoretically more than required." 
 
 Such a calculation as this, as Landin points out, is 
 open to many errors, owing to our want of knowledge 
 of the alterations in specific heats, etc., at high tem- 
 peratures, whilst it can only be approximately com- 
 parative owing to unavoidable loss of heat during the 
 working of the furnace owing to radiation, conduc- 
 tion, absorption of heat by the furnace, and other 
 practical factors of the same character. 
 
 It must also be remembered that " pre-heating " is 
 only a question of degree, as in every form of furnace 
 the radiation from the neighbourhood of the arc and 
 the escape of the hot gases will heat the material before 
 it reaches the arc and comes under the direct influence 
 of the electric discharge. It is interesting, therefore, 
 to note what ratio exists between the results obtained 
 in actual practical working and Landin's theoretical 
 figures. 
 
 261 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 formed per 
 
 E.H.P. per 
 
 24 hours for 
 
 different 
 
 degrees of 
 
 pre-heating 
 
 Utilization 
 
 of the 
 Carbon- 
 monoxide 
 
 for 
 pre-heating 
 
 Pre-heating 
 only a 
 
 question of 
 degree 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 practical 
 working of 
 
 an ingot 
 furnace as 
 contrasted 
 
 with 
 
 Landin's 
 
 figures 
 
 Patin 
 furnace 
 
 Borchers' 
 
 proposed 
 
 new carbide 
 
 furnace 
 
 At Foyers, working with, the Willson furnace and 
 the improved crucibles, the average consumption of 
 energy is 5,600 E.H.P. hours per ton of carbide of an 
 average quality of 5 c. ft. of acetylene per lb., and 
 this is equivalent to 4'2 kilos, per E.H.P. per day of 
 24 hours, or 5'5 kilos, of 90 per cent, carbide per 
 kilowatt day. The calculation is based on pure calcium 
 carbide, and, therefore, 10 per cent, must be deducted 
 from the 4'2 kilos, reducing it to 3'78 kilos, per 
 E.H.P. per day, as against the calculated 4'55, a loss 
 of nearly 20 per cent. 
 
 The first degree of " pre-heating " taken by Landin 
 is 1,500 C., and it is very doubtful if in practical 
 working this could be reached it certainly would not 
 be exceeded and, with the briquettes heated to this 
 temperature before the arc is reached, it is calculated 
 that 5'85 kilos, per E.H.P. per 24 hours would be 
 produced ; deducting from this the 20 per cent, for 
 unavoidable furnace losses we obtained 4'63 kilos, of 
 carbide per E.H.P. per 24 hours, an increase of not 
 quite 24 per cent. 
 
 Patin uses a furnace with inclined electrodes, and 
 a movable bottom below them on which the carbide 
 ingot is built up, the bottom or hearth descending as 
 the ingot increases in size, instead of as in the 
 ordinary ingot furnace, the upper electrode being 
 raised. This makes the furnace rather more com- 
 plicated than the ordinary type, but there is the 
 distinct advantage that dust is minimised, and, as 
 very little air can reach the carbons, waste from 
 burning is reduced. 
 
 Borchers has proposed a form of electric furnace 
 designed to obviate the waste of material as dust, the 
 loss of carbide due to cooling in air and waste heat. 
 It consists of a smelting chamber, with thin walls en- 
 closed in a water jacket. The finished block of carbide 
 is left for several hours in the furnace, and the heat 
 
 262 
 
THE ELECTRIC FURNACE 
 
 which it gives out is utilised for steam generation. 
 By working a series of such furnaces at intervals of 
 two hours or less, he claims that a constant supply of 
 heat for steam generation can be obtained. 
 
 The carbon required for the formation of carbide is General 
 supplied by the electrodes, and the lime is used in the details of 
 
 . J * the process 
 
 torm of lumps, not m a fine powder. When the 
 necessary heat has been attained within the furnace, 
 the lime around the electrodes unites with them to 
 form carbide, and this latter flows away in a fused 
 state. The size of the furnace and the charge of lime 
 are so adjusted that the sides of the smelting chamber 
 are always protected by a layer of unused lime from 
 the action of the intense heat at the centre. The 
 system can be used with either arc or resistance fur- 
 naces. Borchers claims for these furnaces that by claims 
 their use one-fourth of the power hitherto used in 
 carbide production can be saved. 
 
 Novel as the idea undoubtedly is, it seems very im- 
 probable that it could ever prove commercially suc- 
 cessful, as a consideration of the price of electrode 
 carbon, as compared with the coke or anthracite 
 usually employed, at once shows that the process 
 would not be feasible. 
 
 Many other forms of electric furnace have been 
 suggested and patented during the past few years, 
 but those described give a fair idea of the working 
 possibilities of the process of carbide making, and 
 practical men are becoming more and more convinced 
 that simplicity and freedom from complicated work- 
 ing parts likely to get out of order at the high 
 temperatures employed, is, after all, the great end 
 to be attained. 
 
 263 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 crude 
 
 carbide 
 facture 
 
 importance 
 
 materials 
 
 causes of 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Acetylene 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND 
 IMPURITIES OF CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 IVT^ matter the form of electric furnace employed, 
 -^^ ^ e crude material used for the manufacture of 
 the carbide is in all cases lime or calcium oxide, and 
 carbon in the densest and purest form obtainable in 
 the locality where the carbide works are situated. In 
 the first two years of the carbide manufacture but 
 little attention was paid to the purity of the ingre- 
 dients employed, and it was not until the extended 
 use of acetylene drew attention to the fact that its 
 combustion in a small room gave rise to a distinct 
 haze in the air, and that occasionally a sample of bad 
 carbide would yield a spontaneously inflammable gas, 
 that the necessity of using lime and carbon of the 
 highest attainable degree of purity was realized, as it 
 was manifest that the traces of phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen that gave rise to these troubles must have been 
 generated from phosphides decomposable by water in 
 the carbide, and that these were formed by the reduc- 
 ^ on ^ ph s P na tes present in the lime or in the ash 
 of the carbon used. As soon as this point had been 
 clearly demonstrated, attention was paid to the purity 
 of the ingredients, with the result that acetylene 
 made at the present time rarely contains one-tenth 
 the amount of phosphuretted hydrogen that was 
 
 264 
 
CALCIUM CAKBIDE 
 
 found in the acetylene made from carbides manu- 
 factured in 1896 and the early part of 1897. 
 
 Lime or calcium oxide, CaO, is a compound con- 
 taining : 
 
 Calcium 
 Oxygen 
 
 71-4 
 
 28-6 
 
 100-0 
 
 and is commercially produced by heating calcium 
 carbonate, CaC0 3 , in a kiln, when carbon dioxide is 
 expelled from the compound and lime remains as the 
 residue. 
 
 The forms in which the carbonate is found are very 
 numerous. In the amorphous state it exists as lime- 
 stone and chalk : the crystalline forms being calc-spar 
 or Iceland spar, and arragonite. Marble has also a 
 crystalline form, and sometimes is found coloured or 
 variegated by the presence of oxides of iron and man- 
 ganese. Black marble owes its colour to the presence 
 of bituminous matter. Calcium carbonate is also the 
 principal constituent of egg-shells, the shells of fishes, 
 and coral. 
 
 All forms of calcium carbonate decompose when 
 heated, splitting up into calcium oxide or lime and 
 carbon dioxide gas : 
 
 Marble. 
 CaC0 
 
 Lime. 
 CaO 
 
 Carbon dioxide. 
 C0 
 
 This process is carried out on an enormous scale for the 
 preparation of calcium oxide or quicklime for manu- 
 facturing and building purposes, by heating limestone 
 by means of layers of fuel in a kiln, which consists of 
 a conical brick building. The limestone loses its car- 
 bon dioxide, and is raked out in the form of burnt- 
 or quick-lime. The ordinary method of kiln burning 
 for the production of lime is inadmissible when that 
 compound is required for carbide making, as the pres- 
 ence of the ash from the fuel used adds so largely to 
 
 265 
 
 Lime 
 
 Carbonates 
 of Lime 
 
 Conversion 
 
 of the 
 
 Carbonates 
 
 into Lime 
 
 Kilns for 
 
 burning the 
 
 Lime for 
 
 Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Thorough 
 
 burning and 
 
 freshness 
 
 essential 
 
 dualities 
 
 needed in 
 
 Lime for 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Impurities 
 
 to be 
 avoided 
 
 Variation of 
 impurities 
 
 with 
 
 different 
 
 forms of 
 
 Carbonate of 
 
 Lime 
 
 Chalk and 
 
 its 
 impurities 
 
 the impurities derived from the calcium carbonate 
 that a bad carbide is sure to result, and in all good 
 carbide works the lime employed is burnt in gas kilns 
 in which the heat is derived from the combustion of 
 producer, Dowson, or water gas. 
 
 The lime for carbide making should be more 
 thoroughly burnt than for ordinary use, and should 
 be used fresh, as if it has taken up moisture or carbon 
 dioxide to the extent of more than 2 per cent., it 
 begins to affect the yield of carbide in the furnace. 
 
 The choice of a site for carbide works is of course 
 primarily dependent on the cost of power at that par- 
 ticiilar place, but the presence of pure calcium carbon- 
 ate within easy reach is an important factor. In. 
 determining the fitness of a lime supply for carbide 
 making, the chief consideration is the absence of 
 phosphates, and the presence of at most only small 
 traces of magnesium and aluminium with as little 
 silica as possible. 
 
 Some carbide makers lay great stress on the absence 
 of sulphates from the lime, but in the absence of 
 aluminium the presence of sulphates in small quanti- 
 ties is of no importance, as unless aluminium sulphide 
 is formed in the carbide it will not find its way into 
 the acetylene as sulphuretted hydrogen in any large 
 quantity. 
 
 The impurities in the calcic carbonate vary very 
 much with its form, the crystalline carbonates, Ice- 
 land spar and arragonite, being practically pure, 
 marble containing but few objectionable impurities, 
 whilst the amorphous limestones and chalk are often 
 too impure for use, and will vary in different parts 
 of the same deposit. 
 
 Chalk is in many parts of the world the most 
 abundant form of calcium carbonate, and may be of 
 fair quality, as is shown by the following analyses 
 from the same deposit : 
 
 266 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 
 Lower Upper 
 deposit. deposit. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 96-51 07-20 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina . 
 
 0-55 1-05 
 
 Magnesia. ...... 
 
 0-25 0-06 
 
 Phosphoric acid . ... 
 
 0-07 0-04 
 
 Sulphuric acid . ... 
 Potash 
 
 0-31 trace 
 0-08 0-17 
 
 Soda 
 
 0-19 0-02 
 
 Insoluble matter silica 
 
 2-04 1-46 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The various forms of limestone vary very much in Limestone 
 purity, those from the older geological series being 
 generally more impure and containing less calcium 
 carbonate than those of later date. 
 
 The older forms show a high percentage of silica 
 and phosphoric acid, such samples being of course use- 
 less as a source of lime for carbide making. 
 
 The newer formations are far purer : 
 
 
 Oolite 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Corn- 
 brasL . 
 
 Mountain 
 Lime- 
 stone. 
 
 Analysis of 
 
 Limestones 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 Oxides of iron and alumina 
 Magnesia .... 
 Phosphoric acid . 
 Calcium sulphate 
 Moisture .... 
 Silica, etc. .... 
 
 1 
 93-91 
 0-98 
 0-73 
 0-14 
 1-34 
 1-46 
 1-44 
 
 2 
 . 95-34 
 . 1-42 
 . 0-73 
 . C-12 
 . 0-20 
 
 . 2-19 
 
 89-19 
 2-98 
 0-77 
 0-18 
 0-24 
 
 G-64 
 
 96-35 
 0-67 
 2-28 
 trace 
 nil 
 
 0-7 
 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 . 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 Many of the mountain limestones are clearly akin 
 to marble, and amongst these are found some of the 
 finest material for carbide making, an analysis of a 
 sample lately made yielding : 
 
 267 
 
 Mountain 
 Limestone 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Analyses of 
 Lime 
 
 used at 
 Continental 
 
 Carbide 
 
 works 
 
 Calcium carbonate . 
 Calcium sulphate . 
 Magnesium carbonate 
 Iron carbonate 
 Silica . 
 Phosphates 
 
 99-90 
 
 trace 
 
 0-02 
 
 0'04 
 
 0-02 
 
 nil 
 
 99-98 
 
 And it is manifest that no finer source of lime than 
 this could be desired. In Norway very pure lime- 
 stone is obtainable, and will prove of great value to 
 the carbide industry that is rapidly springing up 
 around the centres of water power, whilst the lime 
 used at many European works is obtained from 
 mountain limestone of great purity. 
 
 ANALYSES OF LIMES USED FOR CARBIDE. 
 
 Works. 
 
 Hafslund. 
 
 Meran. 
 
 Rheinfelden. 
 
 Froges. 
 
 Lime .... 
 
 94-560 
 
 98-76 
 
 93-36 
 
 95-64 
 
 Magnesia 
 Silica .... 
 
 1-180 
 1-030 
 
 0-09 
 0-99 
 
 o-oi 
 
 0-31 
 
 trace 
 1-69 
 
 Iron and Alumina 
 
 0-530 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-27 
 
 1-51 
 
 Phosphorus Pentoxide 
 Sulphur Trioxide 
 Carbon Dioxide and 
 
 0-048 nil 
 0-128 nil 
 
 trace 
 0-12 
 
 nil 
 046 
 
 Moisture . 
 
 2-524 0-14 
 
 5-93 
 
 0-70 
 
 100-000 ! 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 concentra- It must be clearly borne in mind that although the 
 
 impurities percentage of impurities present in the materials may 
 
 from the appear so minute as to be totally negligible, yet they 
 
 the carbide undergo a process of concentration in the manufacture 
 
 of the carbide that may have a distinct effect upon 
 
 the acetylene generated from it. 
 
 One hundred parts by weight of calcium carbonate 
 when burnt yield 56 parts of lime, and as the heat- 
 ing has practically no effect upon the impurities, this 
 at once nearly doubles them in quantity, whilst no 
 matter what the form of carbon used it will alway 
 
 268 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 Carbon for 
 Carbide 
 making 
 
 Coal 
 
 contain several per cent, of ash, which, consists of 
 very similar constituents to the impurities of the 
 lime. Under the best conditions the mixture of 
 lime and carbon can only yield a little under two- 
 thirds of its weight of carbide, whilst even the in- 
 tense heat of the arc and the reducing actions taking 
 place only lower the percentage of the impurities in 
 about the same ratio, so that it is evident that it is 
 useless to employ anything but the purest materials 
 if the carbide is required of good quality. This is 
 now thoroughly recognised, and more than one works 
 employ lime containing nearly 99 per cent, of calcium 
 oxide. 
 
 The carbon employed at the present time in making 
 the carbide mixture is either coke, anthracite, or 
 charcoal. 
 
 Coal is a compound now ascertained to be of 
 entirely vegetable origin, and is the remains of a 
 vegetation which covered the land long before it was 
 inhabited by man. This vegetation has undergone 
 partial decomposition, and has been covered by ac- 
 cumulations of clay and sand, the pressure of these 
 deep overlying strata has prevented the evolution 
 of gas, and has destroyed most traces of vegetable 
 structure and given to the pit coal its close and 
 compact form ; but ample proof of its origin is to be 
 found in the fossil remains of upwards of five hun- 
 dred different kinds of mosses and ferns, whilst in 
 the layer immediately below the seam fossil roots are 
 found in abundance. 
 
 The three principal varieties of coal are lignite, The different 
 bituminous coal, and anthracite, the lignite or brown fCoai 
 coal being the least carbonised, showing indications 
 of organised structures, and containing considerable 
 proportions of hydrogen and oxygen ; whilst anthra- 
 cite is the most carbonised and often contains little 
 else than the carbon and the mineral matter or ash. 
 
 269 
 
 
 Origin of 
 Coal 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The con- When moist vegetable matter undergoes fermenta- 
 
 version of IT 
 
 woody fibre tion and decay, carbon dioxide and marsh gas are the 
 gaseous compounds which escape, and it is easily 
 conceivable that the final action taking place during 
 long ages, aided by pressure and the internal heat of 
 the earth, is the conversion of woody fibre into carbon 
 in the dense form known to us as graphite ; whilst in- 
 termediate steps in the decomposition give us peat, 
 lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. The com- 
 plete reaction could be represented by the equation : 
 
 Woody fibre. Carbon dioxide. Marsh gas. Carbon. 
 
 2(C 6 H 10 6 ) 5C0 2 + 5CH 4 + 20 
 
 which is supported by the fact that these two gases 
 are always found in the coal seams. The theory that 
 bituminous coal is a " younger coal " than anthracite 
 is not, however, borne out by the fact that in the east- 
 ern part of Wales the coal is of a bituminous nature, 
 gradually shading away into the anthracite found in 
 the western portion of the Principality, and it is ex- 
 tremely unlikely that there is any very great differ- 
 ence in the age of the different parts of the Welsh coal 
 field. 
 
 The gradual conversion of woody fibre into peat, 
 coal, and graphite is illustrated by the following 
 place in the table (Percy), in which to show the gradual elimina- 
 
 conversion . , , / . 
 
 of woody tion oi hydrogen and oxygen the carbon is kept as 
 a constant number :- 
 
 The 
 
 changes 
 taking 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Wood .... 
 
 100 
 
 12-18 88-07 
 
 Peat .... 
 
 100 
 
 9-85 
 
 55-67 
 
 Lignite .... 
 
 100 
 
 8-37 
 
 42-42 
 
 Bituminous coal . 
 
 100 
 
 6-12 
 
 21-23 
 
 Anthracite Wales 
 
 100 
 
 4-75 
 
 5-28 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Graphite . . . 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 2-84 
 
 o-oo 
 
 1-74 
 
 o-oo 
 
 270 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 It will be seen from this that coal contains very 
 different quantities of bituminous matter which 
 varies with the state of conversion to which it has 
 attained, lignite and cannel coal containing a large 
 quantity of hydrogen, which as soon as the coal is 
 heated becomes converted with some of the carbon 
 into tarry matter and then into inflammable gases. 
 Bituminous coals, like Wallsend and Silkstone, also 
 contain hydrogen to a large extent, and it is from 
 this class of coal that those used in the manufacture 
 of illuminating gas are selected, whilst when one 
 reaches anthracite the natural elimination of gaseous 
 matter has proceeded so far that the volatile matters 
 that can be gasified have been reduced to a very small 
 percentage. 
 
 When making carbide it is only this last kind of 
 coal that could be employed, as if a bituminous coal 
 were selected tarry matter distilling out would cause 
 a caking of the mass and prevent the flow of material 
 to the electrodes, whilst the carbon monoxide evolved 
 by the interaction taking place in the arc would be so 
 augmented by the gas evolved from the coal as to 
 cause serious " blows " in the mixed materials, and 
 probably dangerous explosions in the upper part of 
 the furnace. 
 
 The amount of ash present in anthracite is com- 
 paratively low, and with good samples of this 
 material, such as can readily be obtained in South 
 Wales, the ash often does not exceed 2 per cent., and 
 inasmuch as anthracite culm can be obtained very 
 cheaply, it is now being very largely employed in 
 the manufacture of carbide. The following table 
 shows the composition of some of the best Welsh 
 anthracites : 
 
 The 
 
 quantity of 
 
 Bituminous 
 
 matter 
 
 in Coal 
 
 Gas Coal 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 Reasons for 
 
 not using 
 
 Bituminous 
 
 Coal for 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Composition 
 
 of 
 
 Anthracite 
 
 from South 
 
 Wales 
 
 271 
 
Coke 
 
 Coking 
 Coal 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 SOUTH WALES ANTHEACITE. 
 
 
 
 Bitu- 
 men 
 
 Ashes 
 
 Description and Locality of Coal Beds. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Vola- 
 
 flip 
 
 or 
 Gin- 
 
 
 
 Lllc 
 
 Matter 
 
 ders. 
 
 
 Big vein, 1st vein 
 
 91-42 
 
 7-08 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 2nd ,. 
 
 92-89 
 
 5-61 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 3rd 
 
 91-99 
 
 6-51 
 
 1-50 
 
 Ystal-y-fera 
 
 Cefn vein, upper bed . 
 
 91-26 
 
 7-24 
 
 1-50 
 
 Ironworks, 
 
 lower part 
 
 91-89 
 
 6-61 
 
 1-50 
 
 Swansea 
 
 Brass vein, upper part 
 
 92-46 
 
 6-04 
 
 1-50 
 
 Valley . 
 
 lower 
 
 91-52 
 
 6-98 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 Black vein .... 
 
 93-14 
 
 5-36 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 Little vein .... 
 
 90-64 
 
 7-86 
 
 1-50 
 
 
 , Pen try ch wynn . 
 
 95-69 
 
 2-81 
 
 1-50 
 
 f Three-feet vein . 
 
 94-10 
 
 4-90 
 
 0-93 
 
 Cwm Neath . -[ Eighteen-feet vein . 
 I Nine-feet vein . 
 
 91-43 
 93-12 
 
 6-24 
 5-22 
 
 2-28 
 1-59 
 
 During the early years of the carbide manufacture 
 coke was almost exclusively used as the source of 
 carbon, and is still extensively employed, a good 
 metallurgical coke being excellent for the purpose. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the ordinary 
 bituminous coals, and the brown coals, or lignites, 
 could not be used for making carbide, but if the 
 bituminous coal be heated to high temperature 
 out of contact with air, the volatile portions are 
 driven off as gaseous and liquid products, whilst the 
 excess of carbon and the mineral matters which form 
 the ash are left behind in the form of coke. 
 
 It is not possible to make a good coke from very 
 bituminous coal, like lignite or cannel, nor can it 
 be made from coals too poor in volatile matter, such 
 as anthracite, but given an ordinary bituminous coal, 
 such as abounds in the Newcastle and Durham districts, 
 a hard metallic coke can be produced from it. 
 
 Coke is either made as a bye-product in the manu- 
 facture of gas, or else is specially prepared for metal- 
 lurgical work in coke ovens. 
 
 272 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 In making coal gas, the raw coal is taken in pieces, 
 which vary in size from dust to large lumps, and is 
 carbonised in retorts at a temperature of 1,000 C., 
 the operation of driving off the volatile constituents 
 being stopped before completion, as the last portions 
 of gas evolved are so low in illuminating power that 
 if the coke were heated until all the volatile matter 
 was driven out the illuminating value of the gas 
 would be deteriorated, whilst sulphur compounds 
 would appear in the gas in undue proportion. The 
 result is that the coke so made still contains some 
 volatile matter, and a considerable proportion of the 
 sulphur present in the original coal. It is dull in 
 appearance, friable, and soft, and is rarely pure enough 
 to be used for carbide making, often containing a 
 considerable proportion of earthy matter, due to the 
 coal having been used in a "dirty" condition. 
 
 Furnace or metallurgical coke, on the other hand, 
 is specially prepared in chambers, known as coke-ovens, 
 of which many modifications exist. For this pur- 
 pose selected coal is crushed, and after screening is 
 washed, so as to cleanse it from dust and minerals 
 which vary from it in specific gravity, the powdered 
 coal being afterwards converted into coke in the ovens, 
 with the result that earthy matter and pyrites rich 
 in sulphur are, to a considerable extent, got rid of. 
 The coke so produced is far purer than is the case 
 with gas coke, and the temperature employed for the 
 carbonisation being considerably higher, tke coke left 
 behind is harder and less friable. 
 
 Metallurgical coke varies a good deal in appearance, 
 but generally has a bright surface, and when struck 
 an almost metallic ring. Good coke should show a 
 silver-white or light-grey colour when in lump, and 
 when reduced to powder should be dark-grey or black. 
 It is not safe, however, to draw any conclusions as to 
 the quality of the coke from its colour, as the silvery 
 
 273 18 
 
 Gas Coke 
 
 Gas Coke 
 
 unfitted for 
 
 Carbide 
 
 making 
 
 Metallur- 
 gical Coke 
 
 Preparation 
 
 of Coal for 
 
 Coking 
 
 Physical 
 
 properties 
 
 of good Coke 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 lustre is very often absent from coke which has been 
 made in ovens so constructed as to collect the bye- 
 Appearance products, a dulling of the surface being brought about 
 by the hydrocarbon gases as they escape from the 
 coal being kept for a short pariod in contact with the 
 hot surface, and depositing some of their carbon in 
 an amorphous condition on the surface, whilst with 
 ovens, in which the bye-products are simply burnt 
 off, a trace of air generally gains access, and prevents 
 the separation of amorphous carbon, the coke then 
 showing a characteristic silvery appearance. It is 
 often found, too, that the appearance of a coke is 
 spoiled by quenching it with water containing much 
 soluble matter, which, leaving a film of residue on 
 the surface of the coke, deteriorates its appearance. 
 Ash m coke The amount of ash present in coke varies with the 
 composition of the coal from which it was made, and 
 the following table of analyses gives an idea of the 
 amount of variation which may occur in the carbon, 
 ash, and sulphur : 
 
 Composition Carbon 
 of Coke Ash . 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Ash . 
 Sulphur 
 
 Carbon 
 Ash . 
 Sulphur 
 
 95-51 85-85 9O53 94-21 93.41 93'05 89.87 
 2-85 12-07 8-46 510 5'80 5'37 8'35 
 1-64 2-08 1-01 0-69 0'79 1'58 1'78 
 
 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 
 
 84-82 96-42 
 
 14-40 2-75 
 
 0-78 0.83 
 
 97-60 
 1-55 
 
 0-85 
 
 94-08 92-44 89'69 
 5-04 6-00 8-35 
 0-88 1-56 1-96 
 
 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 
 
 91-16 93-54 
 7-65 5-70 
 1-19 0-76 
 
 91-49 94-31 
 7-05 4-97 
 1-46 0-72 
 
 94-67 92-70 
 4-26 5-70 
 1-07 1-60 
 
 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 
 
 Composition The ash left by coke closely corresponds to the 
 
 Coke composition of the ash of coal from which it was 
 
 formed, although the proportions of sulphur and 
 
 \vater of hydration present in some compounds in the 
 
 274 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 coal ash are driven off during the process of coking, 
 and the high temperature of the coke oven will bring 
 about a certain amount of decomposition and recom- 
 bination between the mineral substances of the coal. 
 Thus the calcium and magnesium, which are found 
 as carbonates in the coal, are broken up into lime and 
 magnesia during the process of coking, and these 
 combine with the silica present, so that in the coke 
 ash they would be found as silicates of calcium and 
 magnesium, instead of as the original compounds. 
 
 In the ash both of coal and of coke silicic acid or 
 silica, alumina, oxide of iron, lime, magnesia, sulphur, 
 and phosphorus form the chief constituents, and the 
 following table (see page 276), compiled from the work 
 of various analysts, gives a good idea of the propor- 
 tions in which they are present. 
 
 The sulphur may be present either as the double 
 sulphide of iron and copper, known as pyrites, cal- 
 cium sulphate, or gypsum, while a small quantity is 
 also probably combined with carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen ; the original source from which the sulphur 
 was derived being the plants which formed the coal 
 measures, and in which sulphur played a far more 
 important part than in the vegetation of the present 
 age. The phosphorus is obtained from the same 
 source, M. Carnot l stating that it is principally de- 
 rived from spores and pollen grains, which are easily 
 observable under the microscope in the accumulations 
 of decomposed vegetable matter, whilst the silica, 
 alumina, oxide of iron, lime, and magnesia, which go 
 to make up the mineral constituents of the ash, have 
 been derived either from the sap of the original plant, 
 or the soil surrounding the coal measures. 
 
 In some few parts of the world the difficulty of ob- 
 taining anthracite or good metallurgical coke has led 
 to attention being paid to the possibility of utilising 
 
 1 Compt. Eendu, 99, 154. 
 275 
 
 Analyses of 
 
 typical 
 
 Coke 
 
 Sulphur in 
 Coke 
 
 The source 
 
 of the 
 
 Sulphur and 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 in Coke 
 
 Wood 
 Charcoal 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 CO CO rH Ol COCOX X 
 
 CD CM CO rH OS rH rH X lO CO X CM CD CM iO CD lO CO O i 
 rH LOrHgiCO CM lO CM O CD rH OS I 00 OS 25 ^ ^* I>" " 
 
 r-t 1-1 rH 
 
 ^ 
 
 .S -^ C~ Oi rH l>- !> CM O CM 
 
 | J 
 
 _ _ __ ^ ^ 
 
 OQ -5 43 43 
 
 (DO) 03 
 
 SCD CO CO Ot> ^D CM ^D O 1 ^O ^^ ^D ^D ^D CM "^ 
 
 CpCDCpX rH rHCOaiOOOI>'I>-L^L > -l>-CDOt > - !> 
 
 rH 
 
 CM X 4jH ib tC CO CM Oi Oi !> X -^ CM 4jH b <ji rH b 4^ 
 
 ^ I ! rH iH 
 
 CM O CO CO rH -^ O Q "* "^ ^ 
 
 PH .. D nT,r,n,-tT O5 T^'P^P <? ^P^^T^PP^^P^^^^ ^ 
 
 w 
 
 TO XCDiCOiCOiCCM XO 
 
 CM ppOp !> CMCDt>-Cp-^CpCpO}gippppp rH 
 a " I \ -^ OOGiXCi CD XXrHi lOI>'I> p I>'t>XCDI>'CD-^-l ib 
 
 ^HCMrHrHrHCMrHrHrHCMrH rH r- ' rH 
 
 -K 
 
 'I ^ 
 
 !-H ^D 
 
 s .^| - ' 1 
 
 O J I 
 
 " - JI!^ I ^'O ftcC gj 
 
 I J I |l I J 
 
 l-l 
 
 - 
 
 p 
 
 *! 
 
 g 
 
 276 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 other forms of carbon, and where wood is abundant 
 charcoal has been employed. A well-burnt wood 
 charcoal contains, as a rule, between 2 or 3 per 
 cent, of ash, and is practically free from sulphur. 
 The following analytical results obtained by Faisst 1 
 give an idea of the composition: 
 
 Beech 
 charcoal. 
 
 Hard charcoal 
 made in iron 
 cylinders. 
 
 Light charcoal 
 from wood- 
 gasworks. 
 
 Analyses of 
 Charcoal 
 
 Carbon 
 Hydrogen . 
 Oxygen and Nitrogen 
 Ash .... 
 Water. 
 
 85-89 
 2-41 
 1-45 
 3-02 
 7-23 
 
 85-18 
 2-88 
 3-44 
 2-46 
 6-04 
 
 87-43 
 2-26 
 0-54 
 1-56 
 8-21 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 A well-burnt specimen of charcoal contains, as has Phosphorus 
 been stated, practically no sulphur, but it generally charcoal 
 contains very considerable traces of phosphates, which 
 unfit it for making a good carbide. 
 
 Patera, Ackermann, and Saernstroem in considering 
 the value of charcoal for metallurgical purposes have 
 drawn attention to the quantity of phosphorus present 
 in the ashes of various woods, which are about as 
 follows : 
 
 Wood. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Percentage of phos- 
 phorus in charcoal. 
 
 Beech 
 Pine and Fir 
 Scotch Fir . 
 
 2-97 
 2-15 
 1-99 
 
 0-1485 
 0-1078 
 OO995 
 
 In charcoal the ratio of carbon to ash and also to influence of 
 gaseous constituents varies with the temperature at temperature 
 which the wood has been carbonised, and the follow- of 
 
 Carbonising 
 
 mg table by Yiolette shows how wide the limits may on the char- 
 
 TL . coal found 
 
 1 Wagner Jahresb., 1855, 457 
 
 277 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Experience 
 
 with 
 Charcoal 
 
 The draw- 
 backs to the 
 
 use of 
 Charcoal 
 
 Charcoal 
 briquettes 
 
 Temperature 
 of 
 carbonising. 
 
 Yield of charcoal 
 in percentage of 
 wood used. Wood 
 dried at 100C. 
 
 Composition per 100 parts of 
 charcoal. 
 
 Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Ash. 
 
 280 
 
 36-2 
 
 71-6 4-7 22-1 0-57 
 
 350 
 
 29-7 
 
 76-7 4-1 18-4 0-6 
 
 432 
 
 18-9 
 
 81-6 1-9 15-2 T2 
 
 1,030 
 
 18-7 
 
 81-9 2-3 14-1 1-6 
 
 1,160 
 
 18-4 
 
 83-3 1-7 13-8 1-2 
 
 1,250 
 
 17-4 
 
 88-1 1-4 9-2 1-2 
 
 1,300 
 
 17-5 
 
 90-8 1-6 6.5 1-1 
 
 1,500 
 
 17-3 
 
 94-5 0-7 3-8 0-7 
 
 above 
 
 15-0 
 
 96-5 0-6 0-9 1-9 
 
 Handkop l after using wood charcoal in place of gas 
 coke for a considerable period in a small carbide plant 
 found that 780 kilos of wood charcoal were needed to 
 make 1,000 kilos of carbide, and that a mean output 
 of 4'15 kilos of carbide per E.H.P. day could be 
 obtained. 
 
 This is higher than the result he obtained with 
 coke, and Handkop attributes this to the greater ease 
 with which wood charcoal can be converted into 
 graphite. 
 
 A great trouble with charcoal is that, when finely 
 ground, the charcoal powder is so light that it is 
 largely driven off from the mixture by the rush of 
 gases generated in the actions going on in the arc, 
 and far too large a proportion of it is carried away 
 into the air as dust, destroying the homogeneous 
 nature of the mixture and leaving an excess of 
 lime. 
 
 This, however, can be obviated by mixing the 
 ground-up charcoal into a paste with tar, pressing this 
 into briquettes, and then burning out the hydrocarbons 
 and granulating, or as is now often done, briquettes 
 may be made at once of the right mixture of lime and 
 charcoal powder, and when properly compressed and 
 
 Zeit. Angen. Chem., 1899, 25, 592. 
 278 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 carbonised at a fairly high temperature, it will leave 
 the mixture in a very convenient form, the cost, how- 
 ever, of making the briquettes being a drawback to 
 the process. This, on a large scale, is not as great 
 as might be expected, and where charcoal is cheap, 
 and the price of anthracite or good coke high, owing 
 to the difficulty of carriage, such a process might be 
 commercially successful. 
 
 In the same way attempts have been made to utilise 
 the finely divided carbon which can be obtained from 
 tar, and which consists of the residue left in the tar 
 by the decomposition of hydrocarbon gases in contact 
 with the hot walls of the gas retorts, part of the 
 carbon being deposited in the form of a hard crust 
 on the top of the retort, which is known as retort 
 carbon, while the remaining portion separates as a 
 fine powder, and is swept forward by the gas, and 
 collects in the tar in the hydraulic main and con- 
 densers. 
 
 Another form of carbon the use of which has been 
 advocated is peat charcoal, and also charcoal made 
 from turf ; but in spite of the large area of peat bogs 
 existing in different parts of the world, the cost of 
 getting it into a fit condition for carbide making 
 renders it unlikely that it will ever be very largely 
 adopted for the purpose of making carbide, and it is 
 evident that no form of carbon, which is only obtain- 
 able as a bye-product, or in very limited quantities, 
 could ever be used for this purpose save in very small 
 installations, as the supply would soon become in- 
 adequate, and the price would rise to a prohibitive 
 point, and it is this factor which prevents the use 
 of retort carbon, which would be the ideal form to 
 use. 
 
 For these reasons it may be generally accepted that 
 the carbon used for the manufacture of carbide will 
 be practically restricted to anthracite and metal- 
 
 279 
 
 Possibility 
 of using 
 Charcoal 
 
 Tar Carbon 
 
 Peat and 
 
 Turf 
 Charcoal 
 
 Possibilities 
 
 of 
 
 Bitumenous 
 Coal 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 influence 
 
 of the 
 impurities 
 in Carbide 
 mixture on 
 the purity 
 
 of the 
 Acetylene 
 
 Analytical 
 Results 
 
 lurgical coke, whilst, if at some future time the idea 
 of pre-heating the materials be more generally accepted 
 than at present, some bituminous coals may be 
 employed for this purpose, and the gases evolved 
 used to pre-heat the material before its being exposed 
 to the action of the electric arc. 
 
 The author has endeavoured to trace the influence 
 of the impurities in the material used for carbide- 
 making upon the percentage of phosphuretted and 
 sulphuretted hydrogen present in the acetylene. 
 
 In order to do this, a number of analyses were made 
 of the lime and coke used in making the carbide, and 
 of the acetylene generated from it ; but beyond the 
 general result that pure materials yielded the purest 
 gas, little information was obtained. The following 
 table of some of the results will be of interest, as 
 giving a general idea of what may be expected from 
 materials in which the percentage of impurities is 
 known : 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Per- 
 
 centage, 
 P 2 5 . 
 
 Per- . 
 
 centage, 
 S0 3 . 
 
 Per- 
 
 centage 
 of Phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 of 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Yield of Gas 
 per kilo, of 
 Carbide. 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 of PH 3 . 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 of H 2 S. 
 
 nil 
 
 0-46 
 
 trace 
 
 0-84 
 
 313 litres 
 
 0-071 
 
 0-166 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-21 
 
 trace 
 
 0-71 
 
 306 .. 
 
 0-17 
 
 0-16 
 
 0-03 
 
 0-55 
 
 0-004 
 
 0-58 
 
 310 ., 
 
 0-095 
 
 0-12 
 
 0'16 
 
 0-79 
 
 nil 
 
 0-33 
 
 285 .. 
 
 0-026 
 
 0-085 
 
 nil 
 
 o-ooi 
 
 nil 
 
 0-06 
 
 320 .. 
 
 0-004 
 
 0-041 
 
 0-18 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-005 
 
 0-09 
 
 305 .. 
 
 0-14 
 
 010 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 trace 
 
 0-07 
 
 290 .. 
 
 0-012 
 
 0-05 
 
 nil 
 
 0-02 
 
 0-016 
 
 0-77 
 
 309 .. 
 
 0-049 
 
 0-043 
 
 0-048 
 
 0-128 trace 
 
 0-89 
 
 284 .. 
 
 0-056 
 
 0-152 
 
 It is interesting to note that even with materials 
 so pure that it has not been possible to quantitatively 
 estimate the phosphorus present in the lime and 
 carbon, that distinct traces of phosphuretted hydrogen 
 
 280 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 are found in the acetylene, probably due partly to 
 concentration taking place when, roughly stated, two 
 tons of material are converted into one of carbide, and 
 partly to impurities in the electrodes used. 
 
 As the industry grows, and careful analyses of the 
 materials and carbide are multiplied, it will probably 
 become possible to formulate definite rules as to the 
 limits of impurity allowable in the materials, but at 
 present all that can be said is that the lime should 
 not contain more than 0*05 per cent, of phosphorus 
 pent oxide, and the coke or other form of carbon more 
 than O01 per cent, of phosphorus. 
 
 The purity of the acetylene is also partly dependent 
 on the proportions in which the materials are mixed 
 in making the carbide, as excess of carbon has a great 
 purifying effect by reducing the compounds contain- 
 ing the phosphorus and sulphur, and these elements 
 are then volatilised during the formation of the car- 
 bide. For this reason it is more important to use pure 
 lime and carbon in making "run" than "ingot" 
 carbide, as with the former the lime is nearly always 
 in excess to facilitate the fusion of the mass, and this 
 tends to prevent volatilisation of the important im- 
 purities. 
 
 Having obtained the purest possible lime and 
 carbon, the next point is to determine the right 
 proportions in which to mix them, in order to obtain 
 the best results in the electric furnace. 
 
 When lime and carbon interact, they do so accord- 
 ing to the equation : 
 
 Lime. Carbon. Calcium carbide. Carbon monoxide. 
 
 CaO + 30 = CaC 2 + CO 
 
 and this formula requires that there should be 56 
 parts by weight of lime, with 36 parts by weight of 
 carbon. In practice, however, the lime and carbon 
 are never quite pure, and allowance has, of course, 
 to be made for this. 
 
 281 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 to be 
 arrived at 
 
 Influence 
 
 of the 
 proportions 
 of mixture 
 
 on purity 
 
 Proportions 
 
 of Lime and 
 
 Carbon 
 
 required 
 
 by theory 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 experi- 
 
 Ratios Moissan, in his paper on calcium carbide, takes 120 
 
 P arts of lime and 70 of carbon, which is equal to 
 63'2 per cent, of lime and 36'8 per cent, of carbon ; 
 Willson, in his patent, gives 90 of lime to 60 of carbon 
 as the most advantageous mixture, which works out 
 at 60 per cent, of lime and 40 of carbon, whilst Bullier 
 gives the theoretical proportion of 56 to 36, which is 
 equivalent to 39 -1 of carbon and 60- 9 of lime. 
 Carlson's B. Carlson of the Deutschen Gold und Silber Scheide 
 mfexcess Anstalt, at Frankfort, made a number of experiments 
 of carbon in order to see if excess of carbon in the mixture 
 prevented the formation of crystalline carbide, and 
 found that even if the theoretical proportion of carbon 
 was more than doubled, the mixture could be fused 
 and perfectly crystalline carbide obtained, if a suffi- 
 ciently strong current were employed. 
 
 Proportions taken : lime 54 54 54 
 
 carbon 48 54 81 
 
 Condition of the carbide. Crystalline. Crystalline. Crystalline. 
 Gas yielded by the carbide 
 
 litres per kilo 293 293 250 
 
 Percentage of true carbide 84 84 71 - 8 
 
 Generally The usual proportions now adopted in most ingot 
 car ^ide factories are 100 of lime to 70 of carbon, 
 whilst in order to obtain fusion at a slightly lower 
 temperature, and the carbide in a more liquid state, 
 most makers of run carbide use a rather higher pro- 
 portion of lime, with the result that run carbide 
 has often a lower gas-generating value than a good 
 ingot carbide. 
 
 influence on An excess of carbon in the mixture affects the yield 
 * as fr m t* 16 car kide far less than an excess of 
 lime, the latter seeming to remain in solution in the 
 carbide. 
 
 The degree of fineness to which the carbide material 
 should be ground has already been mentioned in con- 
 sidering the various forms of electric furnace, and as 
 a generalisation it may be stated that fine grinding 
 
 282 
 
 The coarse- 
 mixture 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 has, up to the present, been the rule when ingot 
 furnaces were to be employed, whilst a point of 
 economy claimed for the furnaces making "run" 
 carbide was that granulation, not grinding, was re- 
 quired. 
 
 The idea always has been that in the ingot process 
 a good deal of the economy was derived from the 
 arc being well buried in the mass of material so finely 
 ground that the gas generated by the interaction in 
 filtering between the small particles should part with 
 most of its heat, whilst the intimacy of mixture, as 
 well as fineness of grain, caused the interactions lead- 
 ing to the formation of carbide to take place directly 
 the required temperature was reached, so that if the 
 right current density to just raise the temperature 
 to this point was being employed, no fear of over- 
 heating the carbide existed. 
 
 The great drawbacks to fine grinding are that it 
 is costly, that the rush of hot gases through the fine 
 ground material naturally tends to the separation of 
 two substances of such different specific gravities as 
 carbon and lime, destroying the homogeneous nature 
 of the mixture, whilst the finer particles driven out 
 of the furnace by the rush of gases contaminate the 
 air of the factory and render it unhealthy for the 
 workpeople. 
 
 Later experience with closed ingot furnaces of the 
 Frankfort type seem to show that fine grinding is 
 not the necessity supposed, and if, on extended work- 
 ing, this proves to be the case, it will be an enormous 
 gain, as it practically solves the dust question. 
 
 Where fine grinding is necessary, by far the best 
 form of mill is the continuous feed and discharge Ball 
 mills, as they are the only ones that the coke grit 
 does not seriously affect. In grinding coke it is 
 absolutely essential that it should be quite dry, other- 
 wise it clogs both the mills and the screens, and also 
 
 283 
 
 Effect of fine 
 grinding 
 
 The dis- 
 advantages 
 
 of fine 
 grinding 
 
 Fine 
 
 grinding not 
 
 necessary 
 
 with some 
 
 forms of 
 
 furnace 
 
 Mills for 
 
 fine 
 grinding 
 
 Coke must 
 
 be dry 
 for grinding 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Granulating 
 machinery 
 
 Power for 
 Carbide 
 works 
 
 Water 
 power 
 
 Steam power 
 costly, but 
 
 many 
 advantages 
 
 mixes badly with the lime. Under no conditions 
 should it contain more than O5 per cent, of moisture, 
 so that it is advisable to use a special drying hearth, 
 which, in a carbide factory with plenty of flue heat, 
 should not prove an expensive item. 
 
 Where granulated material instead of ground is to 
 be used, the granulating machinery made by Speyerer 
 is found to work much better than the old mills or 
 jaw crushers, and gives only a very small percentage 
 of dust. In all large works labour-saving appliances 
 are now finding a place, and automatic weighing and 
 mixing machines feeding into elevators are now being 
 introduced into most carbide works. 
 
 In establishing a carbide works, the price at which 
 power can be obtained is naturally the governing 
 factor, and water power at present seems to be the 
 only form which offers a sufficiently low-priced pro- 
 duction of electricity to make acetylene a commercial 
 success. In round figures an electrical horse power 
 per year will yield a ton of carbide, and three years 
 ago water power was looked upon as somewhat scarce 
 in Western Europe ; but the demand has caused the 
 discovery of a supply, and water power is being freely 
 offered at prices that range from 12s. to 4 per E.H.P. 
 per year. Most of these, however, prove to be of a 
 very unsatisfactory character, being either too small 
 to be worth working or else a raging torrent in 
 winter and dry in summer. It may be taken that 
 satisfactory water power in Europe costs 2 to 2 10s. 
 per E.H.P. per year, and the value that it is to the 
 manufacturer varies with the facilities of carriage 
 and the possibility of getting pure lime and carbon 
 at a reasonable rate. 
 
 Steam power has the great advantage that it can 
 be generated close to the lime and carbon supply, 
 but, save under exceptional circumstances, cannot 
 enter into competition with water power, as the 
 
 284 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 lowest price at which it can be obtained on a large 
 scale is 5 to 6 per E.H.P. per year, whilst, as a 
 rule, it is much higher. 
 
 When the demand for carbide first arose it was 
 hoped that its manufacture would prove the means 
 of providing a level load for the big electric light 
 stations, and that instead of standing with banked 
 fires for a considerable proportion of the 24 hours, 
 they would run continuously and utilise the extra 
 current for carbide making to the mutual advantage 
 of both sources of light. The idea, however, does 
 not seem to have been acceptable to them, and carbide 
 is still only made at the special carbide works. 
 
 At the present time it looks as if the supply of 
 carbide would in a short time catch up with the 
 demand ; but if this should prove not to be the case, 
 and if the available water power should be insuf- 
 ficient, the most promising direction in which to look 
 for cheap power is the gas engine, which shows in- 
 dications of playing an important part in the future 
 as a source of energy. 
 
 Rapid strides are being made in perfecting the gas 
 engine, and experiments are showing that with water 
 gas made by such improved processes as that devised 
 by Dellwik, or even with generator, blast furnace, or 
 Dowson gas, power can be obtained at about 3 
 to 4 per E.H.P. per year, and the time may be not 
 far distant when the advantages of being able to 
 erect the plant near to the pit and quarry providing 
 the materials, may make gas power a serious rival to 
 water power, more especially as rents and repairs, 
 which build up the cost of water power, are going on 
 all the year round ; whilst the fuel, which forms the 
 chief item in other forms of power, is only used when 
 the power is required. 
 
 When chemical or other work has to be done on a 
 large scale by means of electricity, the current re- 
 
 285 
 
 Possibility 
 of Carbide 
 
 making, 
 
 yielding a 
 
 level load in 
 
 Electric 
 
 light 
 stations 
 
 The Gas 
 
 Engine a 
 
 promising 
 
 source of 
 
 power 
 
 Cost of 
 power from 
 gaseous fuel 
 
 The 
 
 conversion 
 of power 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 into 
 
 electrical 
 energy 
 
 Trans- 
 mission of 
 electrical 
 
 energy 
 
 Waste of 
 
 power 
 in trans- 
 mission 
 
 Necessity 
 of high 
 voltages 
 
 quired must be generated by means of a dynamo, an 
 arrangement by which mechanical power obtained 
 from a steam engine, gas engine, or more economi- 
 cally by means of turbines using water power, can 
 be converted into electrical energy. To avoid the cost 
 of the fuel required for a steam engine, there has been 
 a tendency of late years to transfer the large electro- 
 chemical industries to the neighbourhood of some 
 natural supply of water power. It is, however, often 
 necessary to convey the electric current for consider- 
 able distances from the power stations where it is 
 generated to the actual locality where it is used, and 
 it may be convenient to consider briefly what are the 
 conditions which may determine in any given case 
 the choice of the particular type of dynamo to be 
 used. The available power in any flow of electricity 
 depends upon the current strength and the electro- 
 motive force. The product of the current in amperes 
 and the E.M.F. in volts divided by 746 will give the 
 equivalent indicated horse-power, subject to a correct- 
 ing factor in the case of alternating currents, to be 
 alluded to later. It would be very uneconomical to 
 transmit this power in the form of large amperage 
 and small voltage. Wherever a current flows there is 
 a waste of power in heating the conductors which is 
 proportional to the square of the current strength and 
 to the resistance of the conductors. Consider the case 
 of a certain amount of power to be conveyed either at 
 100 amperes and 100 volts, or at 10 amperes and 1,000 
 volts : since the current in the former case is ten times 
 as much as in the second, the waste in heat will be 100 
 times as great if the same leads are used, or if the 
 same loss is accepted in each system, the leads in the 
 second case may be only one-hundredth" of the cross 
 section of the former, and the prime cost of the in- 
 stallation will be enormously reduced. Of course, at 
 the higher voltage it will be necessary to have better 
 
 286 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 insulation on the leads, which will reduce to some 
 extent the advantage gained in first cost, but will 
 still leave a very large margin in favour of the higher 
 pressure. It follows, then, that if power is to be con- 
 veyed for any distances exceeding a few hundred 
 yards, it is essential that high voltages should be 
 employed. But in the actual chemical work to which 
 the electrical energy is applied, it is great current 
 strength at comparatively low voltage that is wanted. 
 In the formation of calcium carbide in the electrical 
 furnace, currents of perhaps 1,000 or 2,000 amperes are 
 used at a voltage not exceeding 70 or 80. The high- 
 pressure current must be transformed at the place 
 where it is utilised into one of low pressure and 
 corresponding great current strength. It must be 
 remembered also that the current will be generally 
 required to do some motor work ; the processes of 
 grinding, mixing, elevating, and transporting the 
 materials, etc., can be very conveniently and econo- 
 mically carried out by machines driven by elec- 
 tricity, and the electric light in either the glow or 
 arc system would generally be employed in the 
 workshops. 
 
 We have to consider, then, how the different types 
 of dynamos and the currents produced by them lend 
 themselves to these purposes. The currents employed 
 may be either direct (or continuous), like those obtained 
 from voltaic cells, in which the flow is always in one 
 direction, and at approximately the same strength 
 under the same conditions ; or, on the other hand, 
 they may alternate in direction many times in a 
 second, and at each alternation rise gradually from a 
 zero value to the maximum strength, and fall again 
 to nothing. In a purely electro-chemical industry, 
 like electro-plating, such currents would be useless ; 
 the metal deposited when the current flowed in one 
 direction would be taken off again at the next 
 
 287 
 
 for trans- 
 mission to 
 a distance 
 
 Low voltage 
 
 and great 
 
 current 
 
 strength 
 
 required 
 
 for the 
 
 electrical 
 
 furnace 
 
 Direct and 
 
 alternating 
 
 currents 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The more 
 
 equal 
 
 distribution 
 
 of heat with 
 
 alternating 
 
 currents 
 
 Considera- 
 tions 
 
 governing 
 
 the choice 
 
 of type of 
 
 dynamo 
 
 to be 
 employed 
 
 reversal. Where, however, it is the heat produced by 
 a current that is concerned, either system will give 
 the same result, since the amount of heat developed 
 is obviously independent of the direction of flow. An 
 alternating current will give the same light in a glow 
 lamp as a direct current of the same strength. The 
 heat developed in an arc lamp will also be the same 
 in either system ; but there is the difference to be 
 noticed, that while in the direct current the carbon 
 attached to the positive pole will be much hotter than 
 that connected to the negative, in the alternating 
 current, since each in turn is positive and negative, 
 obviously the temperature of both is the same. In 
 the direct system the temperature of the crater of the 
 positive carbon is usually assumed to be about 3,900 C. ; 
 that of the negative will be much lower, perhaps not 
 exceeding 2,800 C. Since the light emitted is pro- 
 portional to a high power of the temperature, more 
 than eight times as much light is given out by the 
 positive as by the negative. The light of a direct 
 current arc is generally assumed to be about twice as 
 much as that of an alternating for the same power 
 absorbed, since in the latter each carbon has a tempera- 
 ture intermediate between those of the carbons of the 
 former ; the total heat developed in each case will, how- 
 ever, be the same. 
 
 The choice of the type of dynamo to be used in 
 an industry such as the production of calcium carbide 
 will be affected by the considerations mentioned, viz. 
 their adaptability to the production of electrical 
 energy at high pressure and subsequent conversion 
 to low pressure, the ease and facility with which 
 motors can be worked, and the temperature limits 
 which may be found most effective in the reduction 
 of the material. The consideration of the first cost 
 and upkeep of the machine and liability to be injured 
 by the large and sudden fluctuations in the load, 
 
 288 
 
CALCIUM CABBIDE 
 
 which are unavoidable, must also obviously be taken 
 into account. 
 
 The dynamo first invented was of the alternating Early f 0rms 
 type ; no arrangement was used to commutate or of dynamo 
 rectify the current generated so that it might flow 
 always in the same direction in the outside circuit. 
 The alternator is consequently a simpler piece of 
 mechanism than the. direct current machine which 
 involves the commutating device, since it follows 
 from an elementary consideration of first principles 
 that the current must alternate in direction in the 
 parts of the machine in which it is generated. In 
 every form of dynamo the current is due to the number 
 of lines of magnetic force enclosed by a conductor. 
 This conductor generally takes the form of a coil 
 of wire of more or less turns called the armature, 
 which revolves in a powerful magnetic field. The 
 E.M.F. generated depends upon the change per second 
 in the number of enclosed lines multiplied by the 
 number of turns of wire round the coil. The mag- 
 netic field in which the armature rotates was origin- 
 ally due to a battery of permanent steel magnets, 
 but is now formed by powerful electromagnets magne- 
 tised by a current of electricity usually derived from 
 a small auxiliary dynamo of the direct current type. 
 An E.M.F. is set up in one direction in any given coil 
 as the number of enclosed lines of force is increased ; 
 in the opposite direction, as it is diminished. From 
 this it follows that since the same coil cannot in- 
 definitely gain nor lose lines, the direction of the 
 E.M.F. must be reversed at least twice in every 
 revolution. In alternating current machines in pre- Modem 
 sent practice, this change of direction occurs between alternating 
 
 . . current 
 
 the limits of 40 and 300 times in a second. The dynamos 
 two ends of the conductor forming the armature 
 are usually connected to the insulated rings which 
 are fastened to the armature and revolve with it. 
 
 289 19 
 
 The 
 
 magnetic 
 field 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Direct 
 
 current 
 
 dynamos 
 
 Troubles 
 limiting the 
 
 E.M.F. 
 generated 
 
 E.M.F. of 
 
 self- 
 induction, 
 
 and its 
 effects on 
 
 an 
 
 alternating 
 current 
 
 The current is collected by fixed brushes which press 
 against these rings and convey it to the outside 
 circuit. The mechanical construction is simple and 
 strong ; very little trouble is experienced by any 
 sparking between the brushes and the rings, even 
 when a high voltage is employed. In a direct current 
 machine the successive coils of wire wound on the 
 iron core of the armature are connected to correspond- 
 ing commutator segments insulated from each other 
 and from the shaft to which they are attached and 
 with which they revolve. Brushes fixed in position 
 serve to collect from the outside circuit a current 
 which is invariable in direction and does not per- 
 ceptibly fluctuate in amount during a revolution of 
 the armature. It is, however, difficult to suppress 
 all sparking as the commutator segments pass the 
 brushes, and this sparking and the difficulty of 
 satisfactorily insulating the adjacent segments places 
 a limit upon the E.M.F. which can be generated by 
 this class of machine. About 500 volts may be 
 assumed as the limit in ordinary practice obtained 
 from continuous current dynamos. 
 
 Whenever a current of electricity varies in strength, 
 i.e., increases or diminishes, an E.M.F. , called the 
 E.M.F. of self-induction, is set up opposing the 
 change, giving rise to effects very similar to those 
 associated with the inertia of ordinary matter. In 
 the outside circuit of a direct current machine, these 
 effects can only be apparent when the circuit is made 
 or broken, or to a less extent when the strength is 
 altered. They are chiefly manifested by the heavy 
 sparking which occurs when the switch of a circuit 
 containing much self-induction is thrown over. An 
 alternating current may be figured as a wave motion 
 always rising and falling in strength and reversed 
 in direction perhaps 160 times in a second, so that 
 the whole cycle is gone through in one-eightieth of a 
 
 290 
 
CALCIUM CABBIDE 
 
 second. It is only at the crest and trough of these 
 waves that the current momentarily remains at a 
 constant strength. Since the E.M.F. of self-induction 
 depends upon the rate at which the current is chang- 
 ing, it will be greatest when the current is reversed in 
 direction, at which instant its actual value is nothing, 
 and there will be no E.M.F. due to this cause when 
 the current has its greatest values, viz., at the wave 
 crests and troughs. If we figure the whole wave 
 motion as completed in a cycle of 360, the E.M.F. 
 of self-induction is 90 behind the current, and always 
 opposes the change of current strength. It is owing 
 to this effect that the properties associated with an 
 alternating current differ so much from those which 
 have been studied for many years in connection with 
 voltaic cells. In a direct current circuit the current 
 is always acting in " phase " with the E.M.F. ; in the 
 alternating circuit the current is proportional at any 
 instant to the resultant of the E.M.F. impressed upon 
 it from the generator, or other source, and of the 
 E.M.F. of self-induction. The current consequently 
 " lags " behind the impressed E.M.F. by an angle 
 which depends upon the self-induction, or rather upon 
 the proportion which the latter bears to the resistance 
 of the circuit. If the circuit contains coils of wire of 
 several turns, more especially if they are wrapped 
 round iron cores, the effects of resistance may be 
 almost negligible compared to those of self-induction. 
 In this case the lag of the current may amount to 
 nearly 90, and the peculiar condition arises that 
 although the current and E.M.F. may both be great, 
 no power would be developed ; such a current would 
 be spoken of as " wattless." 
 
 In all cases the power developed is the product of 
 the E.M.F. and current multiplied by the cosine of the 
 angle of lag. In a direct current there is no lag, and 
 since the cosine of is 1, the factor disappears. If 
 
 291 
 
 The "lag 
 
 of the 
 
 current 
 
 The power 
 developed 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the lag is 90, since the cosine of 90 is 0, the power 
 also vanishes. In ordinary alternating conditions the 
 factor varies between 1 and 8, so that for the trans- 
 mission of a given amount of power for heating or 
 More other purposes, more current must be transmitted 
 
 needed 6 with a l n g the leads and more current generated in the 
 
 alternating machine in the alternating than in the direct system. 
 
 with direct On the other hand, the great advantage of the 
 system alternating system lies in the fact that by means of a 
 " transformer " practically an iron core wound with 
 two sets of insulated wire it is possible to convert 
 electrical energy received in the form of small current 
 strength and high voltage into the opposite conditions, 
 Trans- viz., large currents and small voltage. The trans- 
 former is practically based on the same general prin- 
 principie ciple as the Ruhmkorff induction coil used for many 
 
 construction years past in laboratories to obtain a very high 
 E.M.F. by means of a few voltaic cells. In each 
 apparatus an iron core is wound with two sets of in- 
 sulated wire, the one of many, the other of few turns. 
 The li primary " is connected to the source of E.M.F. , 
 and is traversed by a current which in the induction 
 coil is rapidly started and stopped. In the transformer 
 the rapid periodic reversal of the current serves the 
 same purpose. An E.M.F. is set up in the u second- 
 ary " wire wound on the same core, which bears 
 approximately the same ratio to the primary E.M.F. 
 as the number of turns in the secondary does to the 
 number of turns in the primary. As the E.M.F. is 
 decreased, the current is increased nearly in the same 
 ratio, and vice versd. In the case of carbide works 
 situate at some distance from a waterfall, the current 
 may be generated at the power station at say 1,000 
 amperes and 100 volts transformed immediately into 
 10 amperes and 10,000 volts, transmitted along the 
 leads with very little loss and by a small conductor, 
 and transformed at the electrical furnace into 1,000 
 
 292 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 amperes and 100 volts. All these transformations in- LOSS 
 volve some loss, but the efficiency of a transformer is mv lvi 
 
 7 *> trans- 
 
 generally over 90 per cent., and the apparatus itself, formation 
 having no moving parts, requires no attention, is not current 
 costly in the first outlay, and is not liable to get out of 
 order. 
 
 The substitute of a transformer in the direct system converters 
 is a rotary " converter " or "motor generator." Two 
 armatures revolve upon the same shaft and between 
 the same field magnets. The one armature receives 
 the high-pressure current, works as a motor, and sets 
 both armatures in rotation. The other armature acts 
 as a generator, and gives out electrical power at a 
 lower voltage. In this case the number of turns of 
 wire on the second armature is less than that on the 
 motor armature in the proportion in which it is re- 
 quired to reduce the electrical pressure. Obviously Principle 
 the same arrangement may be used for the converse CO n f V erter 
 conditions, to raise instead of to lower the pressure 
 It is not necessary that there shall be two separate 
 armatures ; two windings on the same core connected 
 respectively to the primary and secondary circuits are 
 sufficient, but there must be two commutators, and the 
 mechanism, though comparatively simple, requires 
 more attention and is more liable to derangement than 
 the stationary transformer, which has the great 
 advantage of no moving parts. Nor, again, can the 
 very high pressures, reaching in some recent alterna- 
 ing installations as high as 29,000 volts, be used in this 
 case. The rotary converter can also be used if required 
 to transform alternating currents into direct, or vice 
 versd. 
 
 Alternating machines of the type considered so far, single phase 
 giving what are called " single phase" currents, do ^mot^r 
 not lend themselves so conveniently to motor purposes driving 
 as the continuous type. The motor which is driven 
 by an alternating current must generally be brought 
 
 293 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Polyphase 
 machines 
 and their 
 
 advantages 
 
 The 
 principle 
 
 of the 
 polyphase 
 
 motor 
 
 up to the right speed by hand or some auxiliary 
 mechanism before it is connected to the circuit, and 
 the field magnets are usually excited from a continu- 
 ous current derived from some other source involving 
 additional outlay and further complications. 
 
 During the last few years, however, alternating 
 machines have been largely constructed to embody the 
 advantages of the easy conversion of power from high 
 to low pressures, and vice versd, peculiar to the alter- 
 nating current with the facility for driving motors 
 associated with the direct current. These machines 
 give rise to what is called u two phase " or " three 
 phase " currents. In the two phase machines we may 
 consider the armature as wound with two independent 
 sets of coils, each set connected as usual to collecting 
 rings and fixed brushes, and separate leads which 
 convey the current to the receiving station. The 
 winding of the armature coils is always such that the 
 one current is always 90 ahead of the other. In other 
 words, when the one current is at a maximum the 
 other is at a minimum value. The four leads required 
 in this system may be reduced to three, each current 
 as it were using a common return wire. 
 
 To utilise these currents for motor purposes, an iron 
 ring may be imagined wound with copper wire, so 
 that one-half of its surface is traversed by currents 
 brought by one set of leads ; the other half, at right 
 angles to the first, is traversed by currents conveyed 
 by the other set. Remembering that these currents 
 must be regarded as 90 apart, the one having its 
 greatest effect where the other vanishes, the result 
 is to set up a pair of magnetic poles which revolve 
 in the iron ring with the same frequency as the 
 alternating currents which give rise to them. If 
 the period of the latter is one-hundredth of a second, 
 a magnet pivoted in the interior of the ring would 
 revolve 100 times in a second by the mutual attrac- 
 
 294 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 of the 
 
 polyphase 
 
 machine 
 
 tion between its poles and the revolving poles of the 
 
 ring. A pivoted magnet is not, however, necessary ; 
 
 a disc plate or cylinder of copper or other conducting 
 
 material will have eddy currents set up in it by the 
 
 passage through it of lines of force due to the moving 
 
 poles. The reaction of these induced currents will 
 
 give rise to a force causing rotation of the conductor 
 
 on the same principle as in the old experiment of 
 
 causing a copper plate to follow the movement of a 
 
 whirling magnet, the Arago disc experiment. In 
 
 this system there is no " dead point," and the motor 
 
 bears somewhat the same analogy to the single phaser 
 
 as an engine with two cranks at right angles does 
 
 to a single crank engine. It is, in consequence, self- Advantages 
 
 starting, and has the great advantage over the direct 
 
 current motor of requiring no commutator. The 
 
 moving parts are of the most extreme simplicity, and 
 
 there is absolutely no connection necessary between 
 
 the revolving armature if so it should be called 
 
 and any outside circuit. 
 
 The above brief description is intended only to 
 explain the general idea, and not the practical details 
 of the mechanism used, which, moreover, varies much 
 in different cases. 
 
 In a three-phase generator three independent cur- 
 rents are collected from three sets of coils symmet- 
 rically placed round the armature core, follow each 
 other with a phase difference of 60, and are connected 
 to three leads ; in this case each lead may be regarded 
 as acting in turn as the return lead for the other two. 
 One end of all three armature coils may be connected 
 to a common junction. The iron ring which acts 
 as the field magnet of the motor may be wound 
 symmetrically with three sets of coils receiving these 
 currents, and the motor bears an analogy to a three- 
 cylinder engine with cranks 120 apart. 
 
 The polyphase system has also the advantage that 
 
 295 
 
 Triphase 
 circuits 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Compensa- 
 tion possible 
 
 with 
 
 polyphase 
 systems 
 
 Cost of the 
 various 
 types of 
 
 generators 
 
 Continuous 
 
 and 
 
 alternating 
 currents 
 
 Advantages 
 
 of the 
 
 alternating 
 current 
 
 if two or three sets of carbons are used in the same 
 furnace, as is done by Memmo, the unavoidable fluctu- 
 ations of current which must arise from the changes 
 in the arc length, and the resistance of the incan- 
 descent matter between the carbons, will not throw 
 such heavy strains on the generating mechanism. 
 The rapid changes are not likely to occur simul- 
 taneously in the three arcs, and there will conse- 
 quently be a tendency to mutual compensation. 
 
 The efficiency, weight per E.H.P., and cost of the 
 machines of the types considered viz., direct current, 
 single phase, two and three phase do not differ very 
 largely when machines of the same output are con- 
 sidered, and the choice must depend upon the local 
 conditions of each installation. Upon the whole, the 
 polyphase system seems to offer the greatest number 
 of advantages, and will probably be that most largely 
 adopted in the future. 
 
 The first question to consider is what kind of cur- 
 rent is best for the purpose continuous or alternating. 
 Alternating-current furnaces are largely in use in the 
 United States, and appear to have some very sub- 
 stantial advantages, as follows : 
 
 1. The dynamo can be made of more mechanical 
 construction, much more suitable to stand the sudden 
 fluctuations of load which are liable to occur in a 
 carbide plant. 
 
 2. Sparking at the commutators, which gives 'con- 
 siderable trouble in some machines, is, of course, 
 entirely obviated. 
 
 3. By a suitable arrangement of transformers, the 
 variation of load on the furnaces may be brought to a 
 minimum. 
 
 4. The cost of attendance on, and upkeep of, the 
 dynamos is very much less than when direct-current 
 machines are used. 
 
 There is one apparent disadvantage : Since very 
 
 296 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 heavy masses of copper and iron must be used on 
 furnaces carrying heavy currents, there might be some 
 loss and heating trouble due to eddy currents. This, 
 however, could be obviated by careful design. 
 
 With regard to the relative efficiency of direct and Relative 
 alternating current, there appears very little to choose 
 
 between either as regards quality and output per and 
 
 TT-D j ^ i. xi. A 1 f L alternating 
 
 H.P. day, though the Americans claim a somewhat currents 
 larger output for alternating current. 
 
 Using a continuous current, there is no phase dis- 
 placement caused by self-induction. The phase dis- 
 placement with alternating currents using big currents 
 in carbide manufacture becomes a considerable one if 
 special precautions are not taken. Continuous-current 
 dynamos are affected more than alternating-current 
 machines by fluctuations of the current ; and the 
 sparking, and therefore destruction of commutators, 
 being greater, it is better to use alternating currents. 
 When the current is switched on, this causes, with 
 continuous-current machines, difficulties which do not 
 occur with alternating machines. In big factories it The current 
 is a matter of indifference which kind of alternating b y thcTwork 
 current is used, but this is not the case in small works. to be done 
 Two-phase current is suitable for factories of 600 to 
 1,800 H.P., tri phase current for factories of 400 to 
 1,200 H.P. If the two-phase dynamos are fitted with 
 a zero potential cable, such machines may be used 
 with advantage for 400 to 800 H.P., but not for 800 
 to 1,800 H.P., because the investment necessary will 
 in these cases be higher than with other currents. 
 
 If the carbide furnaces are situated not further than Current 
 75 to 100 metres from the dynamos, it is best to 
 construct them for currents at low tension, that they 
 may be directly connected with the furnaces. If the 
 furnaces are further away, the generator must be con- 
 structed for high tension, and the current must be Trans- 
 transformed to the required voltage. The phase dis- 
 
 297 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 furnaces 
 and con- 
 ductors 
 
 Electrical 
 energy 
 
 needed in 
 making 
 Carbide 
 
 placement being important in carbide works, it is best 
 to use dynamos with a low periodic number for 
 instance, twenty to twenty-five per second. If a works 
 possess several dynamos, they must be coupled in 
 parallel, whilst the cables should be so arranged that 
 the induction shall be as small as possible. With each 
 furnace is connected a switchboard containing am- 
 meter, voltmeter, and a simple switch for each pole. 
 In larger works five to eight furnaces may be coupled 
 together and connected with one big conductor, and 
 the conductors of several groups in large works may 
 be switched on in series, so that the dynamos may be 
 built for higher tension and lower current. Using 
 polyphase currents in carbide works where several 
 furnaces work with the same phase, polyphase trans- 
 formers need not be used, but better single-phase 
 transformers, so as to divide the polyphase current 
 into several single-phase currents, by which arrange- 
 ment the cables employed for the secondary current 
 may be much smaller. 
 
 Up to the present time copper only has been used 
 for the conductors, but at some works is being now 
 replaced by strips and flexible cables of aluminium. 
 
 The figures which have been given as to the electri- 
 cal energy needed in the making of calcic carbide vary 
 from three kilos per kilowatt day to twelve kilos for 
 the same amount of energy, these absurd discrepancies 
 being due to these calculations being made either by 
 electricians devoid of any chemical knowledge, or by 
 chemists equally ignorant of electrical data. In 
 making any calculation which shall be of practical 
 value, one must clearly bear in mind that there are 
 several factors which seriously affect the results, as 
 calculated from the beautiful thermo-chemical data 
 given us by Thomsen, Berthelot and others. 
 
 These are : 
 
 1. The lime and carbon used are neither of them 
 
 298 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 pure, and the foreign matters present have to be 
 heated to the same temperature as the carbide. 
 
 2. The materials are rarely, if ever, used in the 
 exact theoretical proportions. 
 
 3. There is a considerable loss of heat from the 
 furnace, due to radiation, conduction, and the escape 
 of heated dust and gases, and the heat withdrawn with 
 the carbide, and by the poles, and walls of the furnace. 
 
 4. The carbide made is not pure carbide ; with run 
 carbide it is a fairly homogeneous mixture of true 
 carbide, lime, and other impurities, whilst with ingot 
 carbide there is the kernel of nearly pure carbide, and 
 the crust which contains less and less true carbide the 
 further it is away from the arc. 
 
 It is manifestly impossible to arrive at any exact 
 estimation of such varying factors as these, but by 
 taking the amount of energy required, as arrived at 
 by theoretical data, and then comparing the result 
 with those obtained in practice, and averaged over a 
 considerable period and checked by careful chemical 
 analysis, we are enabled to form a fairly just estimate 
 of what the losses are, and how far practical results 
 fall short of the theoretical yield. 
 
 The theoretical amount of energy required to form 
 carbide from lime and carbon has already been men- 
 tioned (see p. 260) in considering Landin's calculation 
 of the saving to be obtained by preheating the carbide 
 material. 
 
 The first calculation of the kind was published by 
 Bredel in the American Gaslight Journal, February 
 25th, 1895, in which he works out the calories necessary 
 to bring about the reaction of 87'5 parts by weight of 
 lime with 56'25 parts of carbon, with formation of 
 100 parts of calcic carbide and 43*75 of carbon mon- 
 oxide in the following way : 
 
 1. Heat absorbed in raising two- thirds of the carbon 
 37'5 grams to the temperature of formation of 
 
 299 
 
 Factors to 
 
 be con- 
 sidered in 
 calculating 
 the energy 
 required 
 
 Brcdcl's 
 calculation 
 
 of the 
 
 amount of 
 
 energy 
 
 required 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the amount 
 
 sieber s 
 
 carbide, 3,000 C., on the assumption that the specific 
 heat of the carbon is 0*46 
 
 37-5 x 3,000 x 0-46 - 51-75 calories. 
 
 2. The heat necessary to decompose 87 '5 grams of 
 lime into 62*5 of calcium and 25 of oxygen = 206*25 
 calories. 
 
 3. The heat necessary to bring about the combination 
 of the calcium and carbon, which is so small that it is 
 omitted from the calculation. 
 
 From these factors has to be deducted the heat 
 generated by the combination of 18' 75 grams of carbon 
 to form 43-75 grams of carbon monoxide, equal to 44-68 
 calories. Then 
 
 51-75 + 206-25 - 44-68 = 213-32 calories 
 required to form 100 grams of calcic carbide, or 2,133-2 
 per kilo. 
 
 Pictet, in his pamphlet Le Carbite, published in 
 1896, p. 28, gives 182 -5 calories as the amount of 
 energy required to produce 64 grams of calcium 
 carbide, of which 102 - 6 were needed by the reaction, 
 whilst the remainder was required to give the neces- 
 sa ry temperature to the material used. Sieber l also 
 calculated the heat necessary for the formation of 
 carbide, and leaving out of consideration the energy 
 necessary to raise the raw materials to the temperature 
 of the furnace, came to the conclusion that 9'38 kilos 
 of carbide can be made per E.H.P. per twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 Such calculations are of no practical value, as they 
 leave out of consideration some of the most important 
 factors in the absorption of energy ; and if one desires 
 to come to any useful conclusion as to the amount of 
 energy required, the practical working proportions of 
 material must be dealt with, and the percentage of 
 true carbide in the product formed, determined. 
 
 1 Chem. Zeit., 1898, 31, 308. 
 300 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 Taking ordinary carbide practice, 100 parts by 
 weight of lime and 70 of carbon yield 100 of calcium 
 carbide of approximately 80 per cent, purity, and the 
 factors which would enter into a calculation made on 
 a practical basis are : 
 
 1. Energy needed to raise 100 grams lime and 70 
 grams carbon to 3,000 C. 
 
 2. Energy needed for the reaction that forms 80 
 grams of carbide and 35 of carbon monoxide. 
 
 1. The specific heat of lime equals 0-2 and of carbon 
 0*45, hence the calories necessary to raise the tem- 
 perature to 3,000 C. will be 
 
 100 V./ onAA ., A .,^ 70 \_ 154-5 
 
 calories. 
 
 3,000 x 0-2 
 
 1,000. 
 
 ;,000 x 0-45 x 
 
 1,OUO 
 
 2. 100 grams of impure lime are taken, but 70 of 
 calcium oxide only interact to form 80 of true carbide, 
 and in the same way only 45 of the 70 grams of carbon 
 enter into the action. 
 The data we have are : 
 Heat of dissociation of the gram molecule of calcium 
 
 oxide = 132- cal. 1 
 Heat of formation of the gram molecule of calcium 
 
 carbide = 0'65 cal. 
 Heat of formation of the gram molecule of carbon 
 
 monoxide = 28'8 cal. 
 
 So that the calories necessary to form 64 grams of pure 
 carbide are 
 
 132-65 - 28-8 = 103-85 calories, 
 
 and the 80 grams formed will require 129-8. On now 
 adding together 1 and 2 we obtain 
 
 For heating, 154-5 calories = 284 . 3 calories? 
 For reaction, 129*8 calories 
 or for the kilogram of pure carbide, 3,553-75 calories. 
 
 For all practical purposes the ratio between calories 
 and electrical horse power may be taken as 1 E.H.P. 
 
 1 Determined by de Forcraud. Compt. Bend., 120, 682. 
 301 
 
 Calculation 
 
 of the 
 
 energy 
 
 required in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 making 
 
 based on 
 
 practical 
 
 working 
 
 Energy 
 
 necessary 
 
 to raise the 
 
 materials to 
 
 the melting 
 
 point ot 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Energy 
 needed in 
 the forma- 
 tion of 
 Carbide 
 from Lime 
 and Carbon 
 
 Carbide 
 made per 
 E.H.P. day 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Rough 
 
 statement 
 
 as to power 
 
 needed 
 
 Tapping u. 
 
 ingot 
 furnaces 
 
 The size of 
 furnace 
 
 to 550 calories per hour, so that 1 E.H.P. would give 
 the 3553-75 calories, and make 1 kilo of pure carbide 
 in 64 hours, or 3'7 kilos, equal to 8'1 Ibs., per E.H.P. 
 day of 24 hours. 
 
 This figure is in close agreement with the best 
 results obtained in practice. At Foyers, for instance, 
 the daily yield calculated to pure carbide is 3- 78 kilos 
 per E.H.P. per day. 
 
 In this calculation it must be noted that the whole 
 of the heat generated is lost, and this is practically 
 true in the ordinary working of the furnace. 
 
 For all practical purposes it may be stated that 1 
 E.H.P. per year will yield one ton of carbide, so that 
 the available H.P. of a works will represent its annual 
 output in tons when worked to its full capacity. 
 
 The question of the type of furnace to be employed 
 has been already fairly fully discussed in considering 
 the various forms of running and ingot furnaces, but 
 it may be added that the advantages of the running 
 or tapping systems are smaller capital expenditure, 
 slight economy in wages and material, and absence of 
 crust in carbide, whilst against this must be placed 
 the greater purity and higher output of ingot carbide 
 for equal expenditure of electrical energy. The differ- 
 ence in output per E.H.P. day may be approximately 
 stated as 
 
 Run carbide. Ingot carbide. 
 
 Ibs. per kilos per Ibs. per kilos per 
 e.h.p. day. kilowatt day. e.h.p. day. kilowatt day. 
 Gross output per day . 7'0 . 4'1 . 9'6 . 5'6 
 
 Net output packed . 6'8 . 4'0 . 8'0 . 4*77 
 
 The 9'6 Ibs. per E.H.P. day including some crust, the 
 elimination of which, and loss in crushing, gives the 
 difference between gross and net output, whilst with 
 run carbide it is only the loss in breaking which [is 
 allowed for. 
 
 The size of the furnace used is of course governed by 
 the type ; if a running furnace is employed, the size 
 
 302 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 of the electrodes obtainable seems to be the only limit, 
 whilst if an ingot furnace is adopted, experience shows 
 that the best size is about 200 E.H.P., as a loss of effi- 
 ciency is found if of smaller capacity, and larger fur- 
 naces give more trouble from consumption of the 
 electrodes, and general wear and tear. 
 
 The best current density for such a furnace is about 
 12 to 15 amperes per square inch of electrode section, 
 and a voltage of 55 to 65. 
 
 In making carbide, no matter what the form of 
 furnace used, attention must be paid to preventing 
 overheating or burning of the carbide when once it is 
 formed. M. Nicolai has pointed out that overheating 
 leads to dissociation of some of the carbide, and the 
 result of this is well shown by remelting a sample of 
 carbide of known composition, after which it develops 
 about 12 per cent, less gas than before, whilst a 
 second remelting more than doubles the loss. A 
 second grave disadvantage of overheating also is that 
 metallic calcium is produced, which, during the 
 decomposition of the carbide by water, gives rise to 
 hydrogen. 
 
 In an extremely interesting pa>per by Gin and 
 Leleux, they study the actions taking place in the 
 electric arc as follows : 
 
 " The conditions of adiabatic heating are impossible 
 of realisation, but may be approached by striking the 
 arc in the centre of an extremely poor conductor of 
 heat, for instance, in the pulverised mixture which is 
 used in the manufacture of calcium carbide. In such a 
 centre, unmoved by the affinity of the electrodes, the 
 arc excavates a small pocket presenting a small crater 
 near the upper pole, by which the carbon monoxide 
 and the vapours of lime, calcium, and carbon escape. 
 The size of this cavity increases up to a certain limit, 
 until a condition of equilibrium is reached, as when 
 the volatilisation and chemical actions have ceased 
 
 303 
 
 Current 
 density 
 
 Injurious 
 
 effects of 
 
 overheating 
 
 the Carbide 
 
 " Burnt " 
 Carbide 
 
 The actions 
 taking place 
 
 in the 
 Electric Arc 
 
 The cavity 
 of the Arc 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the quantity of heat given off by the arc is balanced 
 by the emissions towards surrounding centres. 
 
 After cooling it is observed that the walls of the 
 cavity are stratified in concentric layers working from 
 the interior to the exterior. 
 
 structure of 1st. A layer of brilliant graphite of blistered and 
 th thTArc f ^ rot ^ v appearance. 
 
 cavity 2nd. A layer of crystallised calcium carbide. 
 
 3rd. The original and unaltered material. 
 From this it may be deduced that the interior tem- 
 perature has been high enough for the tension of 
 dissociation of the vapours of calcium and carbon to 
 oppose the combination of the two bodies, which can 
 only happen beyond the surface of the level, limiting 
 the region of temperatures inferior to those of dissoci- 
 ation. 
 
 Theories If one does not wish to admit the dissociation of the 
 
 which might calcium carbide, the presence of the graphite layer may 
 
 presence of be explained by the fact that the great temperature of 
 
 e the circuit would provoke so rapid a volatilisation of 
 
 the lime that part would escape reduction, and the 
 
 subsequent carburation leave an excess of carbon as 
 
 residue. To us it seems probable that both these 
 
 phenomena occur simultaneously. 
 
 Tension of The tension of the arc varies with the state of the 
 
 the Arc atmosphere. In the mixture used for calcium carbide, 
 
 the stationary temperature being reached, we have 
 
 obtained arcs at a tension of from 18 to 20 volts for a 
 
 distance of 10 cm. s = 100 cq. - = 10. Under the 
 
 ^ s 
 
 same conditions, in the centre of a mixture of charcoal 
 and oxide of manganese abundant vapours of metallic 
 manganese are produced, and the tension may descend 
 as low as 10 volts, the cavity formed being noticeably 
 larger. The last observation accords with the increase 
 
 of t with 
 
 304 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 If one repeats the experiment, and if, the stationary 
 heat being reached, one introduces into the crater out 
 of which the gases come some granulated calcium car- 
 bide, it shrinks rapidly, and even disappears altogether 
 if the density of the current be sufficiently great. 
 The vapour given off does not yield acetylene, from 
 which it would seem that the carbide has been dis- 
 sociated and not merely vaporised. 
 
 There is found in the cavity a deposit of coke, the 
 skeleton of the compound which has ceased to exist. 
 If the hypothesis of the dissociation of the carbide be 
 rejected, it must be admitted that the graphite de- 
 posit existed before, and that the carbide simply 
 filtered off after fusion through the porous layer of 
 carbon. But if dissociation occurred, it would seem 
 that the temperature at which it is produced is in- 
 ferior to that of the volatilisation of the carbon, and 
 that the calcium carbide cannot be vaporised in the 
 state under which the experiments were made." 
 
 In a further note on the dissociation of the carbides 
 of barium and manganese, they show that these 
 bodies cannot be volatilised without dissociation at 
 the temperature of the arc, and also that the tempera- 
 ture at which they dissociate is lower than the vola- 
 tilising point of carbon. 
 
 The electrodes used in the electric furnace are an 
 important factor of expense in carbide manufacture. 
 
 The best carbons, such as are made by Rudolph, 
 Conradti or Lessing, are expensive, and the loss 
 during the making of a ton of carbide amounts to 
 from 10 to 16 shillings, according to the furnace used. 
 
 Some carbons are made so dense and hard that they 
 will scratch glass, but these are mostly used for elec- 
 trolytic work, and are not so good for carbide making. 
 
 In making carbons for carbide furnaces, pure coke 
 and very slightly bituminous coal, such as anthracite 
 or steam coal, are ground together, and having been 
 
 305 20 
 
 Action of 
 
 the Arc on 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 placed in 
 
 the cavity 
 
 Proof of the 
 
 dissociation 
 
 of Calcium 
 
 Carbide in 
 
 the Arc 
 
 Carbide 
 dissociates 
 before the 
 temperature 
 of volatilisa- 
 tion is 
 reached 
 
 The Carbon 
 Electrodes 
 
 for the 
 furnaces 
 
 The manu- 
 facture of 
 Electrodes 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Properties 
 
 of Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 Differences 
 
 in the 
 
 crystalline 
 
 condition of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Importance 
 
 of proper 
 
 ventilation 
 
 in Carbide 
 
 works 
 
 compressed under hydraulic pressure into a very dense 
 mass, sometimes with a trace of tar, they are fired in 
 a special furnace, and all volatile matter having been 
 driven off, and the carbon from any hydrocarbons 
 present deposited in a graphitic condition, they be- 
 come good conductors of electricity. 
 
 The pressure required is high, but if too excessive 
 the final firing causes the mass to bulge out of shape 
 or warp, and considerable skill is required to obtain 
 them of just the right density. 
 
 Commercial calcium carbide varies very much in 
 appearance, being sometimes in a fine crystalline con- 
 dition, with its surface shot with iridescent colours, 
 whilst other samples present a steel-coloured fracture, 
 which on examination is found to consist of very 
 minute crystalline faces. This difference of appear- 
 ance was at one time thought to indicate differences 
 in purity, but it is now generally recognised that they 
 may be of equal purity, ingot carbide which has only 
 cooled very slowly having formed large fine crystals 
 which owe their wonderful colours to excessively fine 
 films of oxide on their surface, whilst the steel- 
 coloured variety is generally run carbide, the rapid 
 cooling of which has only allowed the formation of 
 very minute crystals. 
 
 A very dark graphitic-looking carbide with streaks 
 of blacker shade is often a bad carbide, and owes its 
 colour to overheating in the furnace, which has caused 
 dissociation of some of the carbide and deposition of 
 amorphous carbon, the calcium having volatilised or 
 being present in metallic form. 
 
 In carbide works the greatest attention must be 
 paid to thorough ventilation, and of course to abso- 
 lutely tight roofs, as moisture is the chief enemy the 
 carbide manufacturer has to dread, not only from its 
 effect on the carbide, but on the raw material. In 
 carrying out the ventilation, however, draughts at 
 
 306 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 the furnace level must be carefully avoided, as the 
 carbons above the furnace are often unduly heated, 
 and any draught causes them to burn away and 
 waste, the same remark applying to the carbonaceous 
 material in the mixture where open furnaces are used. 
 
 It has before been shown that as the interactions 
 leading to the formation of carbide proceed, carbon 
 monoxide is formed by the combination of the oxygen 
 of the lime with one-third of the carbon used in the 
 mixture. 
 
 In the manufacture of 1 ton of carbide 1,232 cubic 
 feet of this gas are produced, and as the smallest trace 
 of it free in the air produces intense headache, whilst 
 less than 1 per cent, inhaled for a short time may 
 prove fatal, it is manifest that every precaution must 
 be taken to prevent any escape into the air of the 
 factory. 
 
 The poisonous properties of carbon monoxide are 
 due to its forming a definite compound with the 
 haemoglobin in the blood. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances of respiration the blood corpuscles, which are 
 chiefly composed of haemoglobin, take oxygen from 
 the air through the cell walls of the lungs and 
 form a weak compound called oxyhsemoglobin, and 
 during the circulation of the blood carry it to the 
 various parts of the body where it is needed for burn- 
 ing up the waste tissues. When, however, the air 
 contains any carbon monoxide, this gas combines with 
 the haemoglobin, forming a much stronger compound 
 than the oxyhaemoglobin, with the result that the 
 blood is robbed of its chief function, and death rapidly 
 ensues. When, however, the gas has only been in- 
 haled in very small traces, headache, and finally 
 vertigo and insensibility occur. Under these con- 
 ditions a workman who has been overcome can 
 generally be quickly brought round again by inducing 
 artificial respiration in the same way as would be 
 
 307 
 
 Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 
 Poisonous 
 
 action of 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Monoxide 
 
 Effect of 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Monoxide on 
 
 the blood 
 
 Treatment 
 for Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 poisoning 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 done in a case of drowning, or better still by taking a 
 small bottle of compressed oxygen, the nozzle of which 
 is fitted with an india-rubber tube. If this india- 
 rubber tube be now placed in one nostril of the insen- 
 sible man, and the other be closed and the mouth held 
 shut, the oxygen can be turned on until the lungs are 
 full, which will be shown by the puffing of the cheeks. 
 use oi The oxygen is then turned off, and by gentle pressure 
 " on the chest the gas from the lungs is discharged 
 
 through the mouth, the lungs being then filled again 
 in the same way as before. On repeating this two or 
 three times the carbon monoxide compound in the 
 blood is slowly decomposed, and the blood resumes its 
 normal functions, whilst the man rapidly recovers. 
 
 In all works where carbon monoxide is generated in 
 manufacturing processes, a bottle of compressed oxy- 
 gen should be kept handy for this purpose. 
 other gases When the ingredients of the mixture are perfectly 
 ^foreign dry, and consist of pure lime and good metallurgical 
 matt r in coke, carbon monoxide is practically the only gas 
 the furnace formed by the action of the arc, but when anthracite 
 or coke made at a low temperature is employed, the 
 decomposition of the small quantity of hydrocarbons 
 present lead to the formation of hydrogen, whilst if 
 the coke or lime contain moisture, this not only 
 abstracts heat from the region of interaction by its 
 conversion into steam and dissociation, but also causes 
 formation of a larger volume of carbon monoxide, 
 whilst the hydrogen of the water vapour again adds 
 importance to the volume of escaping gases. Every precaution 
 air f'nmT'tne mus ^ ^ e taken to prevent access of air to the neigh- 
 heat zone of bourhood of the active zone, as it would not only 
 produce excessive waste of carbon from the mixture 
 and electrodes, but would also lead to the formation of 
 cyanogen and nitrogen oxides. 
 
 The poisonous properties of the gases produced are 
 not the only drawback due to their formation : as 
 
 308 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 they leave the region of the arc, their uprush through 
 the material, if it be finely ground, causes channels, 
 upsets the ration of carbon and lime, and sweeps the 
 finest particles, in the form of dust, out of the furnace, 
 and if this be allowed to escape into the factory, the 
 caustic nature of the lime and the grit of the coke not 
 only are dangerous to the health of the workpeople, 
 but injurious to the machinery, driving belts and the 
 working parts of the machines soon showing their 
 action, and it is for this reason that direct driving 
 should always be employed where possible in a car- 
 bide factory. 
 
 The dust nuisance may be attacked in several ways. 
 Where it is possible granulating instead of grinding, 
 and the use of closed furnaces from which the gases 
 can be led away and utilised for lime burning or 
 other heating purposes, are the simplest solution, the 
 same result being obtained by the use of briquettes of 
 mixture, and the use of the gases for preheating, as in 
 the Landin and Pictet processes. 
 
 In crucible furnaces, such as the improved Willson 
 and Gin & Leleux, the gases are escaping from the 
 small vent-holes provided at the back and front of 
 the crucible, and the trouble is not so easily dealt 
 with. 
 
 With the improved Willson crucibles used at Foyers, 
 a sheet-iron hood is arranged at each end of the fur- 
 nace in connection with a vertical sheet-iron shaft of 
 considerable diameter which leads up well above the 
 roof level. This acts not only in carrying off the 
 gases, but also as a settling chamber for particles of 
 mixture of sufficient size to be again used in the fur- 
 nace, as with the slow current existing in these 
 uptakes the coarse particles readily settle into bins at 
 the bottom of the shaft. 
 
 In the Grin and Leleux furnace, the gases escape 
 from a number of small pipes sunk in the brickwork 
 
 309 
 
 Injurious 
 
 effects of 
 
 over gas 
 
 production 
 
 in the 
 
 furnace 
 
 Dust and its 
 drawbacks 
 
 How to 
 
 avoid the 
 
 dust and 
 
 gas trouble 
 
 Special 
 arrange- 
 ments for 
 minimising 
 
 the dis- 
 advantages 
 
 Foyers 
 arrange- 
 ment 
 
 Gin & 
 
 Leleux's 
 
 Ventilators 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 commercial 
 
 sizes for 
 
 carbide 
 
 of the crucible casing, which lead off the gases in 
 such a way as to prevent the presence of a large 
 volume of gas at one time, which would give the risk 
 of an explosive mixture. 
 
 From these openings the gas is led into a depositing 
 chamber connected with an uptake flue, or, where this 
 is not convenient, an aspirating fan. 
 
 The carbide sent out has to be broken up in order 
 to suit the purposes for which it is intended : for large 
 generators, pieces the size of an egg and up to the 
 size of the fist are convenient, whilst for some auto- 
 matic generators and for bicycle lamps granulated 
 carbide is wanted. At some works standard sizes 
 are adopted, a convenient classification being 
 
 Lumps . 
 Large nuts 
 Small nuts 
 Granulated 
 Siftings . 
 
 5 to 10 cm. 
 2 to 5 cm. 
 1 to 2 cm. 
 5 to 10 mm. 
 
 2 to 4 inches. 
 1 to 2 inches. 
 to 1 inch. 
 to -f inch. 
 
 more or less fine powder. 
 
 The 
 
 of Calcium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 The hardness of calcium carbide is so great that a 
 very large amount of force has to be used to break it. 
 And w hen this is done by hand labour or by machines 
 of the stonebreaker type, a large amount of waste 
 results from the formation of powder and dust. It 
 has been found, however, that this waste is largely 
 reduced when crushing machinery of the right type 
 is employed, as, if a piece of carbide be subjected to a 
 strong squeeze instead of a blow, it splits along the 
 cleavage of the crystals and readily falls to pieces. 
 Speyerer, of Berlin, who has devoted considerable 
 attention to carbide-making machinery, constructs 
 crushers on this principle, which reduce the loss in 
 dust and fine particles to from 5 to 10 per cent., whilst 
 with the old methods of breaking it was often more 
 than double that amount. 
 LOSS from It is manifest that the production of any large 
 
 Carbide dust ... ,, ,, . , r , . , ,. . 
 
 in breaking quantity of " smalls " in breaking up the carbide is a 
 
 310 
 
 crushing 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 serious loss, as if it be mixed with fresh material and 
 put back in the furnace, the finely divided particles 
 expose so large a surface to the action of air that by 
 the time the mixture has been made up and has 
 again reached the arc, the dust has probably returned 
 to the condition of lime and carbon once more, whilst 
 if a special small furnace be employed for again fusing 
 the waste, a poor carbide results, owing to dissociation 
 of some of the original carbide. 
 
 At present the best method of utilising the dust 
 and " smalls " made in this part of the operation is 
 that proposed by Lewes, which is to break up the 
 carbide whilst still fairly hot and to mix the dust as 
 it falls from the sieves with tar which has been boiled 
 for a sufficiently long period to expel all water. The 
 tar is used in just sufficient quantity to make the 
 mass pasty, and then the mixture is pressed into 
 moulds and heated in a muffle furnace to a dull red 
 heat, which causes all volatile hydrocarbons to distil 
 out from the tar and leaves the carbide particles 
 bound together by spongy carbon and in such a con- 
 dition that water can' readily permeate through the 
 mass and decompose the carbide present. These car- 
 bide briquettes can be made of any size and in any 
 form, and as the gas is disengaged from them in a 
 steady stream, they are eminently adapted for use in 
 bicycle lamps, table lamps, and small generators, and 
 yield about 4 c. ft. of acetylene per Ib. 
 
 In making ingot carbide, the ingots as they leave 
 the furnace have to stand some time to ensure solidifi- 
 cation throughout the whole mass. They then have 
 the worst of the crust removed by a hammer, and are 
 broken by hand to a size that enables them to be put 
 in the crusher. This can be so regulated as to give a 
 fairly uniform size of product, and it is found most 
 economical, where small sizes are required, to reduce 
 the size of the lumps by successive operations. 
 
 311 
 
 Utilisation 
 of Carbide 
 dust and 
 
 " smalls " 
 
 Carbide 
 briquettes 
 
 Ingot 
 
 Carbide and 
 its treat- 
 ment to 
 prepare it 
 for the 
 market 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 It is practically impossible to avoid the action of the 
 atmosphere during this part of the operation, and 
 closed crushers or mills are not advisable, as an explo- 
 sive mixture of low igniting point is rapidly formed, 
 and a piece of hot carbide or a spark from the jaws 
 might easily give a most dangerous explosion. For 
 this reason also the crushing room must be well 
 ventilated, and everything done to prevent carbide 
 dust, which affects the workmen's eyes and respiratory 
 organs. 
 
 The ingot as it leaves the furnace contains about 
 
 
 ingot and two- thirds of its weight of pure crystalline carbide, 
 often of 98 to 99 per cent, purity, whilst the remaining 
 one-third varies from 75 to 50 per cent, of purity, as 
 the quantity of unconverted material grows larger 
 and larger as it nears the surface of the mass, and has 
 been further from the zone of strongest action in the 
 furnace. It would be practically impossible to entirely 
 separate the perfectly pure ingot from the less pure 
 outer portions, save by breaking up the whole mass 
 and hand-picking the most perfectly crystallised por- 
 tions. And the most reasonable procedure is to pick 
 out as far as possible the poorest portions of the ingot, 
 and to blend the remainder so as to give a commercia] 
 carbide yielding an average of about 5 c. ft. per Ib. of 
 carbide (315 litres per kilo.), at ordinary temperatures, 
 i.e. of about 85 to 90 per cent, purity. 
 
 The only trouble consequent upon such procedure 
 is that, owing to want of care in blending the mixture 
 of ingot and crust, a sample of carbide containing an 
 undue proportion of the poor carbide is occasionally 
 sent out, and causes dissatisfaction. 
 
 With run carbide this trouble disappears, but, as 
 has been before pointed out, in order to get the carbide 
 sufficiently liquid to run at a temperature that does 
 not cause excessive damage to the furnace and dis- 
 sociation of some of the carbide itself, an excess of 
 
 312 
 
CALCIUM CAEBIDE 
 
 lime has to be used, and this remains dissolved in the 
 carbide, with the result that a standard of 5 c. ft. per 
 Ib. is rarely reached. 
 
 The question of fixing a standard quality for com- 
 mercial carbide has been several times raised, and the 
 outside public has wondered why so apparently easy a 
 question to solve should have remained unsettled. But 
 the crux of the question is that the makers of ingot 
 carbide can produce a carbide up to a standard of 4-8 
 to 5 c. ft. of acetylene per Ib. of carbide (300 to 315 
 litres per kilo.) under the most economical conditions 
 of working with the class of furnaces they employ, 
 and therefore insist upon a high standard of purity 
 being fixed, a view which the public, who have to pay 
 a considerable portion of the freight, endorse, whilst 
 the manufacturers of run carbide, owing to their 
 having to add a slight excess of lime as a flux, would 
 find it more economical in their furnace practice if the 
 standard more nearly approached 4 c. ft. per Ib. (250 
 litres per kilo.). 
 
 This trouble could be overcome if, instead of selling 
 carbide by weight, it were to be sold at so much a unit 
 of gas-producing power, the price being so calculated 
 as to allow for the extra freight, etc., incurred by 
 using a low quality carbide. 
 
 If this were done, it would of course be necessary to 
 rigidly define the form of generator in which the gas- 
 yielding power of the carbide should be determined, 
 and also the way in which the samples should be 
 taken; but when once these details were fixed, each 
 manufacturer would be free to use his plant to the 
 most economical advantage, whilst the consumer 
 would get what he paid for. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that these remarks apply 
 only to the ordinary commercial run carbide, and 
 that it is possible, where carbons are cheap, to make a 
 very fine run carbide by simply adding more carbon 
 
 313 
 
 A standard 
 
 quality for 
 
 commercial 
 
 Carbide 
 
 The unit of 
 
 gas 
 
 production 
 
 to form the 
 
 basis for 
 
 price of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Run Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The cost of 
 power works 
 
 The cost of 
 a 1,000 H.P 
 installation 
 
 Cost per 
 
 E.H.P. per 
 
 year 
 
 Cost of 
 Carbide per 
 ton on the 
 above basis 
 
 to the mixture. Indeed, one of the purest carbides 
 analysed by the author was a run carbide from 
 Froges ; but directly this is done any economy over 
 the ingot process is entirely swamped. 
 
 It is practically impossible to give an idea of the 
 cost of erecting power works, but in many cases the 
 owners of water power are offering it at so much per 
 H.P. per year, which often gives rise to a grave 
 misconception as to the cost of making carbide. Sup- 
 pose, for instance, that 1,000 water H.P. is offered at 
 2 per H.P. per year, including pipes and all the other 
 permanent outlay other than machinery. The tur- 
 bines, dynamos, conductors, and transformers would 
 cost in round figures 7,500, and, as only seven- 
 tenths of the water power at most could be trans- 
 formed into electrical H.P., the cost per E.H.P. per 
 year would be 
 
 
 
 Eental 2,000 
 
 Interest, depreciation, and repairs . 750 
 
 Wages .220 
 
 Oil, waste, stores, etc. . , . 110 
 
 Cost of 700 E.H.P 3,080 
 
 or 4 8s. per E.H.P. per year. 
 
 so that the price of the water power is more than doubled 
 by the time you have got the current to the furnace. 
 
 If the works were so situated that cheap and good 
 coke and lime can be obtained, the cost per ton of the 
 carbide would be approximately as follows : 
 
 Labour, including repairs 
 Carbon electrodes 
 Materials for repairs . 
 Stores .... 
 Coke at 12s. Gd. per ton 
 Lime at 12.9. per ton . 
 Grinding 
 Power . 
 
 say 8 per ton of packed carbide. 
 314 
 
 7 18 3 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 Where the price of coke and lime does not vary 
 widely from the prices in the above estimate, a fair 
 approximation may be obtained as to the cost of 
 manufacturing carbide per ton by adding 3 10s. to 
 the cost per E.H.P. per year. 
 
 With a plant of 5,000 E.H.P. and the best labour- 
 saving conditions, this price could of course be reduced 
 by nearly 1, but the prices mostly given for the 
 production of calcic carbide are as a rule too low. 
 
 L 1 Eclair age Electrique contains the following sum- 
 mary of the cost of carbide at Meran : 
 
 1. Materials. 1 ton of carbide requires 940 kgr. 
 CaO and 650 kgr. carbon. The limestone costs per 
 ton, 2 fL The lime furnace produces 6,000 kgr. of 
 lime with a consumption of 1,800 kgr. coal. The 
 price per ton of lime in the work is 10 fL, the coke 
 used for making the carbide costs 20 fl. per ton. 
 
 2. Electrodes. One electrode is sufficient to make 
 10 tons of carbide, and the cost of making them being 
 80 fL, the cost per ton of carbide will be 8 fl. 
 
 3. Electric Energy. For the production of a ton of 
 carbide 6,400 E.H.P. hours are wanted. The H.P. 
 calculated at 25 fL per year gives 
 
 25x6400 
 
 24= 300 
 
 = 22-9 fl. 
 
 The different machines for transporting and lifting 
 the materials and product require 200 E.H.P. The 
 daily production of carbide, being 6'5 tons, gives 
 
 200x24 
 x300 
 
 = 2-5 fl. 
 
 4. Works Expenses. 21 workmen are employed 
 during the day and 9 at night. The wages 1*75 to 2 
 fL per day, the total being 60 fL per day, therefore, 
 per ton, 9 fL 
 
 5. Packing. The cost is 2'50 n. per ton direct. 
 
 6. Depreciation, etc. Per ton, 12-10 fL 
 
 315 
 
 Cost of 
 
 making 
 
 Carbide at 
 
 Meran 
 
 Material 
 
 Electrodes 
 
 Energy 
 
 Works 
 expenses 
 
 Cost of 
 Packing 
 Deprecia- 
 tion 
 
General 
 expenses 
 
 Carriage 
 
 Mainten 
 
 ance 
 
 Total cost 
 per ton 
 
 List of the 
 
 Carbide 
 
 works of the 
 
 world 
 
 Canada 
 
 United 
 States 
 
 Europe 
 
 Germany 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 7. General Expenses. 
 
 fl. per ton. 
 At works : directors, manager, rates, 
 
 patents, etc 11-000 
 
 At works : various expenses . . 1*400 
 At offices : Directors of the Board, 
 
 office expenses, etc. . . . 12-500 
 
 25-00 
 
 8. Cost of carriage from the works to the railway 
 station is 1-50 per ton. 
 
 9. Maintenance requires 7,500 fl., i.e. 3-75 fl. per ton. 
 The cost of production, taken as the sum of the 
 
 above items, will be 95*05 fl. or 7 18s. 5d. per ton of 
 packed carbide. 
 
 The following is a list of carbide works at present 
 running or in course of construction : 
 
 England 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 Th. L. Willson, St. Catherine's, Ontario . 
 Shewangen Falls ...... 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Union Carbide Co., Chicago, 111., Soo Falls, 
 Saulte St. Marie, and Niagara Falls . 
 
 GEBMANY. 
 
 Aluminium Ing. A. G., Rheinfelden 
 Electrochemische Works, Rheinfelden 
 A. Gr. fur Holzindustrie, Lechbruck . 
 Portland Cement "Works, Lauffen-a-M. . 
 Yersch. Yersuchswerke, Frankfort-a-M., Ne- 
 
 heim, U.S.W 
 
 Schilling & Gutzeit, Guttstadt, Wormditt 
 
 ENGLAND. - 
 
 Acetylene Illuminating Co., Foyers, Scotland 
 
 316 
 
 Water 
 Power. 
 
 12,000 
 5,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 3,000 
 2,500 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 3,000 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Bertholus, Charles, Bellegarde sur la Rhone 
 Cie Fran9aise des Carbures de Calcium, Sechi- 
 
 lienne sur la Romanche .... 
 Cie General d' Electrochimie, Bozel, Savoy 
 Cie des Salins du Midi, Salies du Salafc 
 Corbin & Cie, Chedde, Haute Savoie sur 
 
 1'Arve ....... 
 
 Gayral, Albas sur le Lot ..... 
 
 Omnium Lyonnais, Arudy sur le Gave 
 
 d'Ossau ....... 
 
 Mr. L. Robert, La Bathie, L'Arbine, Savoy . 
 
 Rochette Freres, Epierre, Savoy 
 
 Societe de Carbure, La Bastide de Levis. 
 
 Tarn 
 
 Societe des Carbures Metalliques, Paris, Notre 
 
 Dame de Briancon ..... 
 Societe Electrochimie du Giffre, Bellegarde 
 
 sur la Valserine ..... 
 
 Societe Electrometallurgique Fran9aise, Froges, 
 
 Isere ........ 
 
 Societe Electrometallurgique Fran9aise, La 
 
 Praz sur 1'Arc, Savoy .... 
 Societe Electrometallurgique Fran9aise, Serres, 
 
 Hautes Alpes, sur le Buech 
 Societe Electrometallurgique du Giffre, Mi- 
 
 cussy, Hoch Savoyenne, sur le Giffre 
 Societe L'Acetylene, Ste Beron, Isere 
 Societe des Forces Motrices du Haur Gresi- 
 
 vandan Chapareillan, Isere, sur le Cernon 
 Societe Hydroelectrique des Pyrenees, Le Caste- 
 let, Ariege ....... 
 
 Societe Usines Electrochimique de Crampagna. 
 
 Crampagna, Ariege ..... 
 Cie Internationale de Carborundum, La Bathie, 
 
 Savoy . . ... 
 317 
 
 Water 
 Power. 
 1,200 France 
 
 1,200 
 
 4,000 
 
 300 
 
 2,000 
 450 
 
 2,000 
 1,250 
 1,200 
 
 350 
 
 3,000 
 500 
 600 
 600 
 640 
 
 10,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 800 
 
 2,500 
 
 600 
 
 1,250 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ITALY. Water 
 
 Power. 
 Italy Cav. F. Giorigi, San Marcel, Oberitalien . . 700 
 
 Ing Carlo Mongini, Poggio Misteto, Distrikt 
 
 Eieti 150 
 
 Societa Italiana del Carburo di Calcio, Rome . 2,000 
 
 Le Marmore Terni, Ivrea 1,000 
 
 NORWAY. 
 Norway Aktieselskabet Hafslund in Hafslund bei 
 
 Sarpsborg 5,000 
 
 Aktieselskabet Carbidindustrie, Sarpsborg . 1,500 
 Notodden 2,000 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Austria Acetylene Gas A. G-,, Wien, Meran . . . 2,400 
 Allg. Carbid und Acetylene Gesellsch., Matrei, 
 
 Tyrol 2,000 
 
 Aluminium Industr. A. G., Kend bei Gastein . 4,000 
 
 Bosnische Electrizitats A. G., Jajce, Bosnia . 5,000 
 
 Krasper, Lobhowitz ...... 450 
 
 Societa veneta di Electrochemica Paternion, 
 
 Karnten, A. von Supak, Sebenico . . 600 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Russia A. G. Electrizitats, Warsaw .... 1,500 
 Hameskosky Aktiebolag, Wiborg, Finland . 2,000 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 Sweden A. G. de Laval, Elektrica Smalt Ugen Troll- 
 
 hatten 3,000 
 
 Alby Calcium Carbid Aktiebolag . . . 6,000 
 
 Sp. amforseg Orebo Elektriska Aktiebolag . 2,000 
 
 Mansbo Stockholms Superfosfat Aktiebolag . 2,000 
 
 FINLAND. 
 Finland Hamekoski Aktiebolag ..... 3,000 
 
 Imabro Aktiebolag 5,000 
 
 318 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 SWITZERLAND. Water 
 
 Power. 
 Aluminium Industrie Akt. Gres., Neuhausen . switzer- 
 
 Neuhausen Works 3,000 
 
 Elektrizitatswerk Klosters .... 
 Elektrizitatswerk Lonza in Grampel . . 5,000 
 Schweizerische Gresellsch. f tir Elektrochemische 
 
 Industrie, Bern : 
 
 Works Luterbach, Solothurn . . . 570 
 Thusis, Graubunden . . . 3,500 
 
 Societe d'Electrochimie, Usine du Day, Val- 
 
 lorbes ....... 
 
 Societe Genevoise d'Electricite et des produits 
 
 chimiques, Vernier, Genf .... 1,200 
 
 A. G. Elektrizitatswerke, Wynau . 
 
 Siemens & Halske, A. G., Berlin, Wynau . 750 
 
 Via Mala ........ 
 
 Walliser Industrie Gesellsch., Zurich, Works 
 
 Vernayaz 900 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Mas Revertes y Cia., Barcelona . . . 500 Spain 
 Societe des Carbures Metalliques, Paris, Barga 2,500 
 
 As soon as calcium carbide began to assume a position Attempts to 
 of commercial importance, attempts were made to pro- carbide 
 duce it without the use of electricity, and exhaustive without 
 
 j i,- i. Electricity 
 
 experiments were made to devise a process which 
 should be less expensive than is the case when the 
 temperature of reduction of the lime and formation of 
 carbide takes place in the electric furnace. As has 
 before been pointed out, the temperature necessary to 
 reduce lime to metallic calcium, when carbon alone is 
 the reducing agent, is somewhere about 2,700 C., 
 whilst the temperature of fusion is probably 3,000 C., 
 and it is clear that if such a temperature is to be 
 attained by other than electrical means, considerable 
 
 319 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 By heating 
 Calcium 
 Tartrate 
 
 By passing 
 Hydro- 
 carbon 
 vapours 
 over in- 
 candescent 
 lime 
 
 By using a 
 
 metal 
 having a 
 
 strong 
 
 affinity for 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 difficulties must at once arise in finding a material 
 sufficiently refractory to withstand the necessary 
 temperature. It seems probable, however, that ad- 
 vantage might be taken of the nascent condition in 
 bringing about the desired result, and many experi- 
 ments were made in this direction. 
 
 Zino states that if crude calcium tartrate, such as is 
 obtained in the sediment in wine casks, is heated to 
 about 499 C. (930 F.) in a cast-iron retort raised to 
 the required temperature in an ordinary furnace, a 
 grey spongy mass is left which causes brisk effer- 
 vescence on contact with water, whilst the gas evolved 
 burns with a brilliant light, and he concludes the gas 
 must be acetylene. Even supposing, however, that 
 calcium carbide could be made in this way, the price 
 of the calcium tartrate would prevent its ever com- 
 peting with carbide made in an electric furnace. 
 
 Other attempts to reduce lime by nascent carbon 
 have also been made, one process being to pass the 
 vapour of hydrocarbons through lime heated to a 
 high temperature, the decomposition of the hydro- 
 carbon liberating carbon in a condition of activity, 
 whilst the reducing action is aided by the nascent 
 hydrogen. Experiments on a small scale seem to 
 show that this might be possible, but the inventors 
 of the process found on trying to repeat their work 
 on a large scale that the practical difficulties were 
 insurmountable. 
 
 It is perfectly well known that if a temperature 
 commercially practicable is to be used, some metal 
 with a strong affinity for oxygen must be employed 
 to reduce the lime to calcium before combination with 
 the carbon will take place. Such metals as will do 
 this, potassium, sodium, and magnesium, or even zinc, 
 are however too costly, and if a process were devised 
 in which the vapours of such metals were liberated 
 by reduction from their salts, and were made to 
 
 320 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 interact with carbon and lime at a high temperature 
 it could only be made commercially possible either by 
 a large demand being created for the bye-products, or 
 by these being capable of being cheaply worked up 
 and used over again. In either case the probabilities 
 are that the cost would exceed that of making carbide 
 by electricity generated by water power. 
 
 Many attempts have also been made to manufacture By using 
 carbide directly from lime and carbon by direct heating combustion 
 processes in which the inventors hope to obtain the 
 necessary temperatures, but most of these attempts 
 have not passed beyond the paper stage. In one case, 
 however, small works were erected in the neighbour- 
 hood of London, and an attempt was made to obtain 
 the carbide by first producing a gaseous mixture by 
 alternately causing hydrocarbon vapour and steam to 
 pass through a series of retorts containing hydrated 
 oxide of iron, which was alternately reduced by the 
 hydrocarbons with the formation of steam methane 
 and hydrogen, and in its reduced form was then re- 
 oxidised by the passage over it of steam, which set free 
 hydrogen. The gaseous mixture so obtained having The 
 been stored in a holder was used to feed a number of 
 converging blowpipe burners arranged in a furnace 
 in such a way as to heat a mixture of lime and car- 
 bon which was fed down to them. It is of course 
 manifest that such a process could never be successful, 
 as if a piece of carbide be taken and heated in the 
 oxy-hydrogen blowpipe itself, not only does no fusion 
 take place, the temperature being insufficient, but the 
 carbide is decomposed, and after some heating simply 
 remains as carbon and lime containing a little calcic 
 carbonate. 
 
 No fuel containing hydrogen as the main con- 
 stituent could be used in a process of this kind, as 
 although the temperature may be above the dis- 
 sociating point of the water formed during com- 
 
 321 21 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Liquid air 
 
 and its 
 
 possible 
 
 application 
 
 to Carbide 
 
 making 
 
 Borchers' 
 process 
 
 Bcrgc- 
 mann's 
 Oxygen 
 furnace 
 
 Carbide as a 
 bye-product 
 
 bustion, it is manifest that the formation must take 
 place in order to give the heat, and this instantaneous 
 production would be quite sufficient to break up any 
 carbide produced. 
 
 During the past few years the beautiful researches 
 of Linde have made liquid air a commercial possi- 
 bility, and by allowing some of the nitrogen to boil 
 off from this, a liquid evolving a gas richer and richer 
 in oxygen can be obtained, and there is no doubt 
 that if this were employed for burning purely car- 
 bonaceous fuel the requisite temperature might be 
 attained, but the trouble as to the life of the furnace 
 would still exist. 
 
 Dr. Borchers has patented a process for making 
 calcium carbide by mixing together coke and lime into 
 a paste with liquid air, and igniting the mixture 
 by a fuse ; but although this process has been talked 
 of for some time, no definite results are yet pub- 
 lished, the inventor being anxious that the public 
 should withhold their judgment on his process until 
 the necessary patents to protect it have been taken 
 out. Under these conditions it is of course impossible 
 to offer an opinion as to the feasibility of such a 
 method, but it is hard to believe that it could ever be 
 a commercial success. 
 
 Bergemaim has patented a furnace for the produc- 
 tion and melting of such materials as calcium carbide 
 without electricity, hoping to obtain his result by the 
 combustion of carbon in oxygen, and in order to do 
 this he uses an oven surrounded by a water-jacket, 
 and produces his oxygen by a continuous manganese 
 process. This oxygen is then used for the combustion 
 of coke or liquid fuel. 
 
 Attempts have also not been wanting to make 
 carbide as a bye-product, and a process which has 
 been much talked about is one proposed by Harten- 
 stein for the manufacture of carbide from blast furnace 
 
 322 
 
323 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Blast 
 furnace Slag 
 
 Carbolite 
 
 The process 
 
 claimed for 
 
 making 
 
 Carbolite 
 
 slag and coke dust. A description of the process is 
 here reproduced in the inventor's own words : 
 
 " For every 2,000 Ibs. of pig iron there are obtained 
 1,500 Ibs. of slag. This is not only a waste product, 
 but its removal is usually an expanse to be charged 
 with the cost of the iron. Blast furnace slag is com- 
 posed of from 50 to 55 per cent, of lime, 25 to 28 per 
 cent, of silicon, 16 to 18 per cent, of aluminium, and a 
 small proportion of other substances, varying accord- 
 ing to the composition of the ore reduced and the 
 limestone employed as a flux. By using the pro- 
 cesses mentioned this slag is combined with carbon- 
 aceous material, such as coke, and a new product is 
 obtained, which is known as ' carbolite.' On bring- 
 ing carbolite into contact with water or other liquid, 
 a gas is instantly generated, which, when used in 
 suitable burners, gives a beautiful white flame of 
 great steadiness and remarkable luminosity." 
 
 The method of producing carbolite is as follows : 
 " Slag, being a combination of all the non- volatile 
 substances contained in the charge, except the iron, 
 and being lighter than smelted iron, floats on top, and 
 is drawn off through an aperture in the furnace placed 
 at the upper line of the molten iron into suitable 
 receivers so constructed as to retain the great heat. 
 Being at a very high temperature, it is almost as fluid 
 as water, and by means of great ladles operated by 
 hydraulic power it is passed from the receivers into 
 converters, similar to those used in manufacturing 
 Bessemer steel. Except that the tops are somewhat 
 closed, the opening being much smaller than the 
 central diameter, these converters may be likened to 
 elongated iron kettles hung on hollow shafts or 
 trunnions, so as to easily turn or tip. Through these 
 hollow shafts or trunnions iron pipes are run leading 
 to and connected with a number of small tubes that 
 perforate the bottom of the converter. These pipes 
 
 324 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 arid tubes are so arranged that finely pulverised coke 
 can be fed and forced through them. Before the slag Treatment 
 is poured into the converters a strong gas blast is of the Sla s 
 forced through the pipes to keep the molten mass 
 from running into and filling them up. As soon, 
 however, as the slag is poured into the converter, 
 pulverised coke is fed into the pipes, and by the gas 
 blast carried through and forced into the molten mass. 
 This is continued until the slag is thoroughly im- 
 pregnated with the coke. To ensure uniform mixture 
 the converter can be tipped backward and forward as 
 desired, thus increasing the agitation. 
 
 " When the mixture is complete, the converter can 
 be turned on its shaft, so as to cause the mass to flow 
 between a series of carbon bars or electrodes that 
 serve to introduce a powerful electric current. Coke 
 is an excellent conductor of electricity, while slag is 
 highly resistant. The result is that the particles of 
 slag in connection with the particles of coke form 
 innumerable miniature electric arcs, producing a most 
 intense heat within the mixture. In the course of 
 about twenty minutes the mass becomes so super- 
 heated that the slag is deoxidised, and becomes fused 
 with or carburetted by the coke. When this fusion ^? ttTsu 
 is effected the material is finished. It is then poured and Carbon 
 into moulds of any desired shape and size. When carboiite 
 cool it is of crystalline formation, has a metallic 
 glitter, and is nearly twice the weight of coal. The 
 finished product, carboiite, can be kept indefinitely, 
 and transported without difficulty. It is impervious 
 to almost everything except water. Each pound of 
 good carboiite will produce 5 cubic feet of gas, and Alleged 
 each cubic foot of this gas is equal in illuminating yiel m gas 
 power to about 15 cubic feet of ordinary coal or water carboiite 
 gas. 
 
 " By a little calculation it will readily be seen that 
 at $50 per ton, or 2 cents per lb., 35 cents worth of 
 
 325 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carbolite will produce as much light as 1,000 cubic 
 feet of ordinary coal gas costing $1, and the same 
 amount of light by sixteen-candle-power incandescent 
 electric lamps at 1 cent per hour each would cost up- 
 wards of $2. 
 
 u The construction of a carbolite plant is almost 
 
 Carbolite r 
 
 plant identical with that of the Bessemer portion of a steel 
 plant, except that electrical heat is also used. The 
 converters can handle three or more tons at a single 
 charge, being manipulated by hydraulic power, as are 
 also the cranes and ladles. In fact, nearly all the 
 highly developed mechanism of the modern steel 
 plant is directly adaptable for the manufacture of 
 carbolite. The most favourable conditions for the 
 production of carbolite would be in connection with 
 the manufacture of pig iron and coke. In a combined 
 plant, not only could the slag of the blast furnace be 
 made valuable, but the immense volume of gases from 
 the furnaces, converters, and coke ovens, together 
 with the now wasted sensible heat, could all be trans- 
 ferred into mechanical energy ample to provide for all 
 power requirements, and without the expenditure of a 
 penny for fuel. The famous water power of Niagara 
 cannot compete with this for cheapness, for with fuel 
 furnished without cost, water power cannot compete 
 with the steam engine or gas motor." 
 
 Possibilities This description is given as the idea is existent in 
 England that the process is being worked in America, 
 whilst inquiries from America as to how the process 
 is progressing in Europe suggest that it is still 
 looked upon there as possible. Granting Har ten- 
 stein's assumption that slag is composed of from 50 to 
 55 per cent, of lime, 25 to 28 per cent, silica, and 16 to 
 18 per cent, alumina, and that this could be converted 
 by the method proposed into calcic carbide, aluminium 
 carbide, and carborundum, it would be possible to 
 obtain from such a body a mixture of methane and 
 
 326 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 acetylene which would be valuable for illuminating 
 purposes, if decomposed in a generator the tempera- 
 ture of which rose to the point found in some of the 
 worst forms existing ; but even under these conditions 
 carborundum would remain undecomposed. Harten- 
 stein further goes on to calculate the cost of this 
 wonderful material, which he brings out at $1'75 
 per ton ; and as the material, according to him, is to 
 produce 5 cubic feet of gas per lb., each cubic foot of 
 which is to equal in illuminating value 15 cubic feet 
 of coal gas, the millenium with regard to the genera- 
 tion of light seems to be rapidly approaching. 
 
 No matter how carbide may be made, certain pre- The packing 
 cautions are necessary in packing and storing it. 
 Being acted upon with considerable rapidity by moist 
 air, with evolution of acetylene and formation of a 
 surface coating of lime over the carbide, it is manifest 
 that it must be protected from this deleterious in- 
 fluence, and it is now always packed at the works in 
 strong iron drums in large quantities, or in hermeti- carbide 
 cally sealed tins in smaller bulk. It is of the greatest 
 importance, however, that these vessels should be of 
 sufficient strength to withstand the rough usage in- 
 separable from railway transit. The tendency on the 
 Continent is to use tins of too flimsy construction, 
 which, although having the advantage of cheapness, 
 undoubtedly give rise to the risk of being stoved in 
 by a fall, or by the placing of heavy packages upon 
 them. The carbide itself is so heavy that strength in 
 the vessels is an absolute necessity, and where tins 
 are used they must be encased in wooden boxes for 
 transit. They should be so made as to be practically 
 air-tight, a condition which can readily be attained 
 by a screwed lid or by a clamp ; and it is as well that 
 the maximum contents of each drum should not exceed 
 1 cwt., and iron or steel is undoubtedly the best 
 material of which they can be made. 
 
 327 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The carbide after breaking at the works is generally 
 drums packed into the drums whilst still warm, the drum 
 itself having been exposed to a temperature sufficient 
 to preclude the possibility of its containing moisture 
 in its interior ; and it is manifest that, under these 
 conditions, when the tin is closed, the contraction of 
 the air in the spaces between the pieces of carbide 
 would lead to a diminution in pressure, and cause a 
 sucking in, through any small leak, of air containing 
 moisture. The risk of this, however, is not great, 
 and could be entirely obviated by a screw cap in the 
 lid, to which a drying vessel containing rough calcic 
 carbide could be attached until the tin had cooled 
 down to atmospheric temperature. 
 
 It is important that when sent out the drum should 
 be quite full of carbide, and no large air space left 
 above its surface, and the carbide should never be 
 packed into the drum with organic matter. In 
 America very large drums were at one time used, 
 and wheat chaff was put in with the carbide to fill 
 the interstices ; but when the carbide had been used, 
 this packing was often thrown on dust-heaps, and, 
 containing powdered carbide, sometimes caught fire 
 when wetted by a shower of rain. 
 
 Lid valves Carbide drums are now being made on the Conti- 
 r r drmns de nen ^? i n which the lid is fitted with a small valve, 
 which allows the escape of any gas made from within, 
 and so prevents undue pressure within the vessel 
 itself, whilst it stops any access of air from with- 
 out. 
 
 The forms of the tins and drums vary considerably, 
 one very useful shape being that employed by the 
 Magyar State Eailway in Hungary, these tins being 
 about the size and shape of an ordinary milk-can, and 
 closed hermetically by a lid held in position by a 
 clamp. 
 
 storage There is no more risk in the storage of calcium car- 
 
 328 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 bide than there is in storing any other inert material, 
 provided it is packed dry and warm in hermetically 
 sealed drums, so as to render it impossible for it to 
 come in contact with water or moist air. 
 
 The real risk is in the removal or redistribution of 
 the material, as after opening a drum it may not be 
 again properly closed, and if the drum be left in this 
 condition in the moist air of an ill- ventilated cellar, it 
 is quite possible for a slow generation of gas to take 
 place, and an explosive mixture to be formed by its 
 accumulation. 
 
 All carbide stores should be thoroughly ventilated 
 and above ground, and when this is the case all 
 danger is practically done away with. 
 
 The calcium carbide as formed in the electric furnace 
 is a beautiful crystalline semimetallic-looking solid, 
 having a density of 2*22, and showing a fracture 
 which is often shot with iridescent colours owing to 
 the formation of excessively thin films of oxide on its 
 surface. Moissan, however, 1 has shown that its colour 
 is entirely due to impurities in it, chiefly iron, and 
 that when the materials from which the carbide is 
 prepared are perfectly pure, the true calcium carbide is 
 white and transparent. He obtained absolutely pure 
 calcium carbide by the action of heat on a compound 
 obtained by acting upon calcium ammonium with 
 acetylene, which yielded a compound C 2 Ca C 2 H 2 4NH 3 , 
 a body which becomes incandescent on contact with 
 water, chlorine, carbon dioxide, or sulphur dioxide, and 
 dissociates when heated, yielding pure calcium carbide. 
 Moissan also found that if calcium hydride, CaH 2 , or 
 calcium nitride, Ca 3 N 2 , be heated with pure carbon, 
 thin plates of white transparent calcium carbide are 
 obtained ; and he proved that the colour of the com- 
 mercial carbide was due to iron, as by fusing some 
 pure snow-white carbide in a graphite crucible, with 
 1 Compt. Eendu, 1898, 127, 917, 918. 
 329 
 
 Carbide 
 stores 
 
 The colour 
 
 of Calcium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Moissan's 
 
 researches 
 
 in pure 
 
 Carbide 
 
 
 The pre- 
 paration of 
 
 pure 
 Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Bullier & 
 
 Perrodil's 
 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 
 foreign 
 
 matter in 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 The com- 
 binations 
 of Silicon in 
 Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 a small trace of iron oxide, in the electric furnace, 
 he obtained ordinary commercial carbide. 
 
 Bullier and Perrodil 1 divide the impurities which 
 are to be found in commercial carbide into two classes : 
 those which are not decomposed by water under ordi- 
 nary conditions and those which are. The first class 
 consists of graphite, partly resulting from the action 
 of the heat in the electric furnace on the carbon, and 
 partly formed by the dissociation of calcium carbide 
 from over-heating ; carbide of boron, formed by the 
 action of carbon on boric acid, occurring in the coke ; 
 carbide of silicon, or carborundum, from the action of 
 carbon on the silicic acid present both in the lime, 
 ash of the coke, and electrodes ; and silicides and car- 
 bides of various metals, the oxides of which are in the 
 lime and coke ash. They give, as the impurities of 
 the second class, substances evolving compounds of 
 phosphorus when acted on by water, which yield 
 phosphorous pentoxide when burnt with the gas ; 
 aluminium sulphide, which yields sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen ; organic sulphur compounds, and metallic nitrides, 
 which under the influence of pure or alkaline water 
 set free ammonia. 
 
 Lechatelier 2 pointed out that in commercial carbide, 
 besides the calcium and carbon, there exist silicon and 
 iron ; and although it would be possible for the iron 
 to be united with any of the three other bodies, it is 
 only in combination with the silicon as iron silicide 
 Fe 2 Si, the silicon only combining with the calcium or 
 carbon according to whether the one or the other is in 
 excess. Thus when carbon is present in abundance 
 the hexagonal blue crj^stals of carborundum are 
 formed ; but if the calcium be in excess, calcium 
 silicides are produced as small grey metallic crystals, 
 which may be collected from the lime residue by 
 
 1 Rec. Tech. Ind. de VAcet., 1896, 87. 
 
 2 Bull. Soc. Chem., 3, 17, 193. 
 
 330 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 washing the lime as far as possible away, and treat- 
 ing the residue with acetic acid. 
 
 It appears that two different calcium silicides can 
 exist, the one scarcely acted upon by nitric acid but 
 rapidly by hydrochloric acid with formation of a grey 
 insoluble substance ; the other, which is easily dis- 
 solved by nitric acid and acetic acid, gives a white 
 precipitate with hydrochloric acid, which dissolves in 
 potassium hydrate with evolution of hydrogen. 
 
 It is well known that on breaking a sample of 
 carbide metallic-looking nodules are frequently found, 
 and used to be far more frequent in the carbide before 
 the purity of the materials was insisted on than they 
 are at present. These nodules are generally found in 
 a spherical or oval shape, and have evidently separated 
 from the molten mass on the crystallizing of the true 
 carbide. 
 
 Some of these were analysed in Sweden and were 
 found to contain 
 
 Silicon 
 Iron 
 
 26-4 
 73-6 
 
 corresponding to Fe 2 Si 5 . These nodules were probably 
 not a compound, and they were found to have slightly 
 magnetic properties. 
 
 Lewes l noticed that the nodules from carbide dif- 
 fered somewhat in appearance, two distinct varieties 
 being clearly noticeable. 
 
 (a) Grey nodules, not attracted by the magnet, not 
 oxidised when exposed to air or heated as a solid lump 
 in the blowpipe flame. Specific gravity 3'5 to 5*8. 
 In a fine powder some had a very faint garlic-like 
 odour, gained 5 per cent, when heated for half an 
 hour, and attacked platinum when heated on it for 
 some time. These nodules gave no gas when acted 
 upon by water. 
 
 (fe) Steel-like nodules, which were strongly mag- 
 
 1 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind., 17, 532 
 331 
 
 Silicides of 
 Calcium 
 
 Metallic 
 
 nodules in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Difference 
 
 observed 
 
 in the 
 
 nodules 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 netic and became coated with iron rust when exposed 
 to moisture and air for some time, and which gave 
 no gas when acted on by water. Specific gravity 6*3 
 to 6-8. 
 
 composition Analysis showed that the foreign matter present 
 nodules in the carbide consisted of carborundum or silicide of 
 carbon, metallic silicides, iron, occasionally metallic 
 calcium, magnesium, aluminium, and traces of nitrides, 
 phosphorus, and sulphur compounds. One of the 
 nodules on analysis yielded 
 
 Silicon 30-76 
 
 Iron 58-06 
 
 Calcium ....... 2*65 
 
 Aluminium 3'01 
 
 Magnesium ....... 0*64 
 
 Carbon, etc 4'89 
 
 100-00 
 
 None of these substances gave spontaneously in- 
 flammable gases when acted upon by water, but in 
 a few instances a nodule was found which evidently 
 contained magnesium silicide, and which, when pow- 
 dered and acted upon by hydrochloric acid, gave a 
 few bubbles of spontaneously inflammable gas. 
 sniciuretted M. C. Gerard, chief of the Municipal Laboratory at 
 the Prefecture of Police, Paris, has also analysed some 
 nodules of these nodules with the following results, and found 
 that these alloys, pulverised and treated with con- 
 centrated acid, gave off siliciuretted hydrogen : 
 
 Iron 55-027 53*250 
 
 Silicon 33-1.72 31800 
 
 Aluminium .... 5'579 8*910 
 
 Calcium 2'764 4-120 
 
 Not determined and loss . . 3'458 1-920 
 
 100-000 100-000 
 
 In some cases it was found that the carbon de- 
 posited by holding a cold surface in an acetylene 
 
 332 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 flame contained traces of silica, and this seems to 
 support the idea that siliciuretted hydrogen may 
 occur in the acetylene, but if it does the amount is 
 so small as certainly to give no danger of spontaneous 
 ignition. 
 
 A sample of gas which appeared to give a con- 
 siderable quantity of silica was burnt under such 
 conditions as to allow of the silica being collected ; 
 and on estimating the quantity formed it was found 
 to correspond to O01 per cent, of siliciuretted hydrogen 
 in the original gas. 
 
 M. Gerard also carried out a number of extremely 
 interesting experiments upon the products found in 
 the residues left after treating the calcic carbide with 
 water, and succeeded in extracting from them minute 
 diamonds. The residues were as far as possible dis- 
 solved in hydrochloric acid, and the insoluble portion 
 separated by filtration and washing with water, and 
 the metallic portions separated by sieving. The finer 
 portions were collected in a filter paper, washed and 
 dried, and were then heated with potash in a silver 
 capsule and the insoluble portion treated with aqua 
 regia. After repeating this drastic treatment two or 
 three times, the residue was put into a separating 
 funnel containing a saturated solution of the double 
 iodide of mercury and potassium, which has a density 
 of 2*9, in which silicide of carbon will float whilst 
 graphite sinks. This silicide of carbon is then puri- 
 fied by being treated several times with concentrated 
 hydrofluoric acid, and after washing is dried, whilst 
 the graphitic bodies are treated and separated with 
 iodide of methylene, which has a density of 3'29. The 
 separation of diamondiferous bodies from the silicides 
 of carbon is effected by a saturated solution of cad- 
 mium bromotungstate or iodide of barium and mer- 
 cury. 
 
 The labour entailed in the separation of this 
 
 333 
 
 Silica found 
 
 in the 
 
 Carbon from 
 
 a smoking 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 flame 
 
 Gerard's 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 residues 
 
 from 
 Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Proof that 
 
 minute 
 
 diamonds do 
 
 exist in the 
 
 residue 
 
 Nitrogen in 
 
 commercial 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Moissan's 
 researches 
 
 on 
 
 commercial 
 Carbide 
 
 Microscopic 
 
 examination 
 
 of the Lime 
 
 residue 
 
 diamond-containing powder may be estimated when 
 it is stated that it was necessary to treat no less than 
 between 700 and 900 Ibs. of carbide in order to obtain 
 15-4 grains of this material. 
 
 The evidence upon which M. Gerard bases his 
 assumption that these minute crystals are in reality 
 diamonds, formed at the intense temperature of the 
 arc, is that when they are burnt in oxygen they 
 yield nearly the theoretical volume of carbon dioxide. 
 M. Moissan has failed to find diamonds in the speci- 
 mens of carbide he has examined, but this is probably 
 due to the quantities worked with being far smaller 
 than those treated by M. Gerard. 
 
 The most important scientific researches on the 
 impurities of calcium carbide are probably those made 
 by Moissan, 1 who first noticed the presence of nitrogen 
 in commercial carbide, and found 0*02, 0*12, .0 14, and 
 0*31 per cent, respectively in four different samples, 
 the same fact being also noticed by Chouard, 2 who 
 found in the residue from carbide 0'24 and 0*4 per 
 cent, respectively. Moissan drew especial attention 
 to the important results which might bs obtained by 
 careful research on the residue left after decomposing 
 calcium carbide with water, and in order to more easily 
 examine it the carbide was decomposed by sugar solu- 
 tion, which dissolved the lime as calcium saccharate. 
 The residue left from 10 grams of carbide was filtered, 
 and having been washed with sugar solution and 
 afterwards with water, both solutions being free from 
 carbon dioxide, it was washed with alcohol and finally 
 with ether, and dried in vacuo at 40 C. 
 
 Under the microscope the residue was found to con- 
 sist chiefly of silicon carbide, calcium silicide, and iron 
 silicide, and also a little lime, graphite, and calcium 
 sulphide. This residue when treated with a 10 per 
 cent, solution of hydrochloric acid loses in weight, 
 
 1 Cvmpt. Rendu, 127, 457. 2 Zeit.f. Calc. Acet., 2, 347. 
 
 334 
 
CALCIUM CABBIDE 
 
 iron calcium and a little of the aluminium and cal- 
 cium sulphide with traces .of phosphorus going into 
 solution whilst the silicon carbide and the graphite 
 are not altered. 
 
 The residue so obtained was again acted on by con- 
 centrated hydrochloric acid, iron calcium and silicon 
 dissolving, and the different amounts dissolved by 
 the solvents used are shown by the following figures : 
 
 Action of sugar solution . 3'40 5'3 3'2 3'9 34 
 10 per cent. HC1 210 1-9 1-5 2'4 1-4 
 
 Cone. HC1 . 
 
 1-70 1-7 1'4 2-2 1-1 
 
 Silicon occurs principally as silicon carbide ; the 
 compound is easily recognised under the microscope, 
 the hexagonal blue crystals being very characteristic. 
 Silicon is also met with as calcium silicide, as stated 
 by Lechatelier, though fine nodules of metallic frac- 
 ture are always present containing iron, carbon, and 
 silicon. Eamsden * also noticed the presence of silicon 
 crystals. 
 
 Moissan could not obtain spontaneous ignition due 
 to the presence of siliciuretted hydrogen, but found 
 that the gas was set free by the action of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid on the residues, owing to the decom- 
 position of calcium silicide. 
 
 Sulphur was present as aluminium and calcium 
 sulphide. Calcium sulphide was shown to be present 
 in certain residues obtained by the action of sugar 
 solution by adding, when under the microscope, a 
 solution of lead acetate rendered slightly acid by 
 acetic acid. The white particles of calcium sulphide 
 then became completely black. With water contain- 
 ing calcium hydrate the filtrate did not give a black 
 precipitate, it therefore contained no calcium sulphide. 
 All the carbides tested, however, gave, in the presence 
 of much water, a lime sludge, the clear solution of 
 
 Action of 
 
 the Lime 
 
 Combina- 
 tions of 
 Silicon in 
 
 Lime 
 residues 
 
 Presence of 
 
 Calcium 
 Sulphide in 
 the residue 
 
 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1880, 20. 
 335 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Metallic 
 
 Sulphides in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Aluminium 
 Sulphide 
 
 Organic 
 Sulphur 
 
 Compounds 
 
 Sources of 
 
 the Iron in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 which gave with lead salts a black precipitate con- 
 taining sulphur and phosphorus. 
 
 When making calcium carbide the sulphates con- 
 tained in the lime are reduced, and calcium sulphide, 
 which is not decomposed by water, is formed. On the 
 other hand, when the lime contains aluminium silicate, 
 the silicon forms with the carbon, silicon carbide, and if 
 sulphur be present as sulphate or sulphide, aluminium 
 sulphide is produced, which is decomposed by water 
 with formation of sulphuretted hydrogen. Murlot * 
 made aluminium sulphide, A1 2 S 3 , by the action of 
 antimony sulphide on alumina. This compound was 
 stable at high temperatures. The calcium carbide, 
 therefore, made under these conditions may contain 
 aluminium sulphide yielding sulphuretted hydrogen 
 in presence of water. The sulphur cannot be pre- 
 sent as silicon sulphide, as is shown by the following 
 experiment. Impure aluminium containing silicon is 
 heated in a Florence flask to redness in a current of 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, when fused aluminium sul- 
 phide is obtained, whilst silicon sulphide is deposited 
 on the colder portions of the tube. This compound is 
 easily volatile, and therefore would not be present in 
 carbide prepared in the electric furnace. 
 
 If calcium carbide contains a certain amount of 
 calcium sulphide it always gives, when decomposed 
 by water, traces of an organic compound containing 
 sulphur. Acetylene evolved from commercial carbide 
 was passed through two wash bottles containing lead 
 nitrate, and was then heated and burnt. In three 
 cases small quantities of sulphuric acid were obtained. 
 The total amount of sulphur in three samples of car- 
 bide was 0-37, 0-43, and 0'74 per cent. 
 
 Iron exists in carbide as silicide or carbo-silicide, 
 
 and depends mostly on the purity of the coke. In 
 
 some samples of carbide nodules are found, several c.c. 
 
 1 Compt. Rendu, 123, 55. 
 
 336 
 
CALCIUM CARBIDE 
 
 in diameter, and due very often to the fusion of the 
 iron holder of the electrodes. 
 
 Phosphorus is an objectionable impurity ; the greater 
 part forms calcium phosphide, but it is also found in 
 small nodules of metallic appearance containing iron 
 and silicon. 
 
 Certain samples of carbide contain graphite in very Graphite 
 small plates, sometimes hexagonal but mostly ir- 
 regular in shape, and containing silicon and calcium. 
 
 Finally, the existence of diamonds was investigated Moissan 
 by Moissan, who found that the residue obtained bv Jf ils * fin . d 
 
 t/ dicirn.on.cis in 
 
 water and hydrochloric acid gave a few transparent the Lime 
 particles, none of which burnt in oxygen. None of 
 the samples experimented with contained diamonds. 
 It was at one time considered probable that crude 
 carbide contained carbides of the alkalies and mag- 
 nesium ; but Moissan has shown l that although these 
 metals can be made to form carbides at lower tem- 
 peratures, they are broken up by the heat of the 
 electric furnace, so that the formation of the carbides 
 of sodium, potassium, and magnesium is impossible 
 under these conditions. 
 
 1 Compt. Rendu., 126, 302. 
 
 residue 
 
 337 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Woehler 
 
 first 
 decomposes 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbide and 
 
 water with 
 
 formation of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Reactions 
 taking place 
 during the 
 double de- 
 composition 
 
 Action oi 
 Calcium 
 Carbide on 
 Calcium 
 Hydrate 
 
 THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 IT was in 1862 that Woehler, having made calcium 
 carbide by acting upon an alloy of zinc and calcium 
 with carbon at high temperature, found that the new 
 body formed had the remarkable property of rapidly 
 setting up a double decomposition with water, the 
 carbon of the carbide entering into combination with 
 the hydrogen of the water to form acetylene, whilst 
 the oxygen of the water remained combined with the 
 calcium as lime which was instantly slaked by the 
 excess of water present, a white cloud of calcium 
 hydrate forming in the liquid whilst a certain pro- 
 portion dissolved. 
 
 The reactions taking place are of the simplest char- 
 acter, and may be represented by the equations : 
 
 1. 
 
 Calcium carbide 
 
 CaC 2 
 
 by weight, 64 parts 
 2. Lime. 
 
 Water. 
 
 CaO + 
 by weight, 56 parts 
 
 H 2 
 
 Water. 
 
 H 2 
 
 18 parts 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 = CaO + C 2 H 2 
 18 parts 56 parts 26 parts. 
 Calcium hydrate 
 or slaked lime. 
 Ca(HO) 2 
 74 parts. 
 
 When a small quantity of water comes in contact 
 with an excess of calcium carbide the first reaction 
 is approached, but a certain amount of hydrate is 
 always formed, which on standing is slowly dehy- 
 drated again by the excess of carbide. 
 
 338 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Until 1892, when Willson made carbide by the 
 hundredweight, the amount produced was so small 
 that the generation of the gas rarely went beyond the 
 scale of dropping a piece of carbide the size of a pea 
 into water and igniting the bubbles that escaped, 
 but in 1892 Venable, who was reporting on Willson's 
 aluminium process, obtained samples of the calcium 
 carbide which was being made at Spray, and in con- 
 junction with Kenan experimented with it in order to 
 determine its composition. The analyses made were 
 of an unsatisfactory character owing to free gra- 
 phite in the specimens and the rapid vitiation of the 
 carbide in air, but they soon recognized it as a carbide 
 of calcium, and also that the gas evolved on contact 
 with water was acetylene which gave, with ammoniacal 
 cuprous chloride, the distinctive red precipitate of 
 copper acetylene. 
 
 It was at once manifest that, as they were obtaining 
 3*5 to 3'7 c. ft. of this gas from a pound of the carbide, 
 if a use could be found for the gas it might be com- 
 mercially profitable to use the electrical plant for its 
 production, and attempts were made to burn it at an 
 ordinary gas jet. The flame, however, was red and 
 lurid, and gave so formidable a deposit of soot that its 
 combustion alone was temporarily abandoned. Ven- 
 able then burnt it in admixture with air at an ordinary 
 bat's-wing jet, and obtained such brilliant results that, 
 in spite of an explosion, the experiments were per- 
 severed with during the spring of 1893. 
 
 These experiments showed that a ratio of air and 
 acetylene could be fixed at which there was apparently 
 little or no danger of explosion, whilst the mixture 
 could be burnt at ordinary Bray nipples, and gave a 
 magnificent light. 
 
 In order to introduce the gas for illuminating pur- 
 poses, a simple form of apparatus was designed, in 
 which acetylene could be set free by allowing water 
 
 339 
 
 Venable 
 
 analyses 
 
 Willson's 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Early 
 attempts to 
 
 utilise 
 Acetylene as 
 
 an 
 illuminant 
 
 The com- 
 bustion of a 
 mixture of 
 
 Acetylene 
 and air 
 
 The first 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The growth 
 
 of the 
 
 generator 
 
 tribe 
 
 Methods of 
 
 bringing 
 
 about the 
 
 action 
 
 Only one 
 principle 
 but many 
 modifica- 
 tions 
 
 possible, in 
 
 bringing 
 
 about the 
 
 action 
 
 to come into contact with the carbide, and thus it was 
 that the first acetylene generator came to be made. 
 
 It was not, however, until the end of 1894 and 
 spring of 1895 that acetylene began to make any 
 headway, even in the land of its birth, but the moment 
 that this point had been reached, and the commercial 
 possibilities of the gas had become apparent, there 
 arose the remarkable burst of activity which has 
 marked the last five years. At the present time, in 
 England alone, some 300 forms of acetylene generators 
 have been patented. About 60 of these have been 
 actually made, and half that number have attained to 
 the dignity of being on sale. 
 
 The generation of acetylene by bringing calcium 
 carbide and water into contact is so beautifully simple 
 that this multiplication of the number of forms of 
 apparatus seems not only unnecessary but hardly 
 credible, yet the English patent list contains by no 
 means all the forms that have been designed, and the 
 Continental and American lists bring the total up to 
 a formidable roll. 
 
 Every operation, however, no matter how simple it 
 appears at first sight, is capable of being performed 
 in several ways, and decomposition of the carbide by 
 water may be brought about either by bringing the 
 water slowly into contact with an excess of carbide, or 
 by dropping the carbide into an excess of water, and 
 these two main operations may again be varied by 
 innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity 
 of the contact may be modified and even eventually 
 stopped. The result of this is that, although the forms 
 of apparatus utilised for this purpose are all based on 
 the one fundamental principle of bringing about the 
 contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter 
 into double decomposition with it, they have been 
 multiplied in number to a very large extent by the 
 methods employed, in order to ensure control in 
 
 340 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 working, and to get away from the dangers and in- 
 conveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid 
 generation. 
 
 In attempting to classify acetylene generators, some ciassifica- 
 anthorities have divided them into as many as six Acetylene 
 different classes ; but this is hardly necessary, as they & enerators 
 may be naturally divided into two main classes those 
 in which water is brought in contact with the carbide, 
 the carbide being in excess during the first portion of 
 the operation ; and, secondly, those in which the car- 
 bide is thrown into water, the amount of water present 
 being always in excess. The first class may again 
 be subdivided into generators in' which the water rises 
 in contact with the carbide, in which it drips on to the 
 carbide, and those in which a vessel full of carbide is 
 lowered into water, and again withdrawn as genera- 
 tion becomes excessive. 
 
 Some of these generators are constructed with the Automatic 
 view of making the gas only as fast as it is consumed 8 
 at the burner, with the object of saving the expense 
 and room which would be involved by a storage 
 holder ; and generators with devices for regulating 
 and stopping at will the action going on are gener- 
 ally termed automatic, whilst another set of generators 
 merely aims at developing the gas from the carbide Non- 
 and putting it into a storage holder with as little loss generators 
 as possible, and these are termed non-automatic. 
 
 The laboratory equivalents of these types of gene- 
 rator are of the simplest description. 
 
 The first, or " drip " type, in which water falls on to Experi- 
 the carbide, is found in a Bohemian flask of about 16 "^Ji 
 oz. capacity, Fig. 91, the carbide being dropped on to apparatus 
 a thick layer of sand in the bottom of the flask, this 
 being necessary to prevent breakage from the heat 
 generated during the action. The mouth of the flask 
 is then closed by a good cork, carrying in one hole a 
 right-angled delivery tube to carry off the gas, whilst 
 
 341 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 a dripping funnel with a stopcock is fitted through a 
 second hole. The stopcock can be set to allow the 
 water to pass a drop at a time, and it forms an ex- 
 cellent generator for experimental purposes. 
 
 The second or "rising" type, Fig. 92, already exists in 
 
 FIG. 91. 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 " Water 
 Rising' ' 
 apparatus 
 
 almost every laboratory in the well-known " Kipp's " 
 apparatus used for the generation of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen from ferrous sulphide and dilute acid, or 
 of hydrogen from zinc and acid. To use this for 
 generating acetylene a layer of broken pumice-stone 
 is placed in the central bulb, and upon it the carbide, 
 
 342 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 care being taken that none of the carbide touches the 
 glass, as otherwise breakage from heat is very likely 
 to take place. The upper bulb, with its tube passing 
 to the lower chamber, is then placed in position, and 
 the lower chamber and upper bulb filled with water 
 
 FIG, 92. 
 
 by pouring water in at the top and allowing it to 
 drive the air out through the gas outlet. 
 
 When the lower chamber is nearly full of water the 
 gas-cock is closed, and the apparatus is ready to work. 
 On opening the gas-cock the pressure of the water in 
 the upper bulb drives water up into the central cham- 
 
 343 
 
 Working of 
 
 the 
 
 Laboratory 
 apparatus 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ber, where it generates acetylene ; but when the gas- 
 cock is closed or when more gas is generated than is 
 being used, the pressure created in the central chamber 
 again drives the water down from the carbide. 
 Expert- The third type, in which the carbide, contained in a 
 
 mental form / r ' ' 
 
 of the vessel attached to the bell of the holder, is immersed in 
 
 " Dipping " 
 apparatus 
 
 FIG. 93. 
 
 the water of the holder tank, and as gas is generated 
 is drawn out of the water by the rising of the holder, 
 is well illustrated by fitting a bell jar, Fig. 93. with a 
 good sound bung, through which passes a tube closed 
 by a stopcock and a small nipple. On the underside of 
 Method of the cork is hung a small cylindrical basket of per- 
 
 construction .,..,.. 
 
 lorated zinc, of such size as to freely pass through 
 
 344 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the mouth of the bell jar, and filled with calcium car- 
 bide. The bell jar is placed in a cylinder of water so 
 that the water stands level with the bottom of the 
 tubulure, and the basket is rapidly passed down and 
 the cork pressed in. As soon as the carbide reaches 
 the water gas is evolved, and, filling the top of the 
 holder, causes it to rise. If the gas jet is now lighted 
 the gas burns away, and the holder, re-descending 
 again, plunges the carbide into water and again de- 
 velops gas, this action continuing until the carbide 
 is all exhausted. 
 
 The fourth type, which really constitutes the second Experi- 
 main division of generators, is that in which carbide carbide 
 
 is thrown into water, the latter being always in 
 
 excess. On a laboratory scale this apparatus is best 
 
 made by taking a conical filtering flask, with side 
 
 tubulure, and fitting it with a sound cork through 
 
 which passes a wide tube open at both ends, which 
 
 terminates inside the flask just below the tubulure 
 
 (see Fig. 12, p. 60). Above the cork a piece of india- Working of 
 
 rubber tubing is slipped over the end of the tube, apparatus 
 
 connecting it with a strong glass flask which is filled 
 
 with carbide. The filtering flask having been half 
 
 filled with water, the cork is put into position, and 
 
 on raising the carbide vessel pieces fall down from 
 
 it through the indiarubber tube into the water, and 
 
 the acetylene is evolved. 
 
 Even when working on the laboratory scale with 
 quantities of carbide of 100 to 200 grs., it soon during the 
 becomes evident that considerable heat is evolved, decom P sl - 
 
 tion 
 
 and in the glass vessels employed it is easy to see 
 that, with every type of apparatus except the last, 
 steam, and even sometimes tar vapours, are evolved. 
 Before proceeding to discuss the chemical actions 
 and physical effects taking place in these forms of 
 apparatus, it will be well to see the way in which these 
 laboratory types have been adapted in practice to the 
 
 345 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The intro- 
 duction 
 of Acetylene 
 
 into 
 England 
 
 generation of acetylene on a large scale, and for this 
 purpose a few of the more important of the generators 
 will be described in this chapter as types. 
 
 Class I. Those in which water is by various devices 
 allowed to drip or flow in a thin stream on to a mass 
 of carbide, the evolution of the gas being regulated 
 by the stopping of the water feed. 
 
 It was in January, 1895, that Lewes lectured at the 
 
 Society of Arts 
 upon acetylene 
 and the develop- 
 ment which had 
 been taking place 
 in America, and 
 pointed out that 
 not only was the 
 mixing of acety- 
 lene with air be- 
 fore combustion 
 fraught with con- 
 siderable danger, 
 but also that a 
 certain loss of 
 luminosity took 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 place, and showed that with exceedingly fine- holed 
 burners of the Bray or Manchester type, acetylene 
 could be burnt alone with wonderful effect. 
 
 The introduction of acetylene into England was 
 quickly followed by the patenting of several forms of 
 generators, the first a patent taken by Gearing in 
 April, 1895 being also the first automatic generator 
 made. It consisted of an apparatus in which water was 
 allowed to drip upon the carbide contained in a water- 
 sealed generator, the gas being led through a condenser 
 into a holder, the rising bell of which cut off the water 
 when the holder was two-thirds full, whilst, as the gas 
 was used and the holder fell, it acted upon a lever that 
 opened a cock and started the flow of water on to the 
 carbide once more. 
 
 This, as well as others of the earlier forms of gener- 
 ator, has apparently died a natural death, and at the 
 present time the generator patented by Sir Charles 
 Forbes may be taken as a good type of this class. 
 
 Fig. 95 shows a section of the machine, from which 
 the working can readily be understood. 
 
 The generator A consists of a cast-iron cylinder 
 closed at one end, and having a cover B on the other 
 end, which is clamped up against an indiarubber 
 packing ring c by an easily- worked fastening. 
 
 On the top of this cylinder is water vessel D con- 
 taining an inverted gas bell E, supported on a wide 
 pipe F, which passes up inside the inverted gas bell 
 nearly to the top. The bell is supported in position in 
 the tank by means of a cone G, formed on the upright 
 pipe, which also acts as a valve for cutting off the 
 water when re-charging ; or, if it is desired, entirely 
 stops the action of the generator. The automatic 
 action of the generator, however, does not in any way 
 depend upon this valve. The water has access under 
 the lower edge of the inverted gas bell, and, on rising, 
 reaches a small tube H, which is screwed through the 
 
 347 
 
 The first 
 
 English 
 
 generator 
 
 Present 
 
 forms of 
 
 generators 
 
 of the 
 
 " Drip " 
 
 class 
 
 The Forbes 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working of 
 
 the 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of the 
 water 
 supply 
 
 side of the upright pipe, and is bent over so that the 
 drip of water may be discharged clear of the sides of 
 the pipe direct into the centre of the carbide drawer J 
 beneath. 
 
 The carbide drawer is provided with a V-shaped 
 division in the centre, so that no carbide can be placed 
 immediately under the drip L. The water falling in 
 a drip or very fine stream into the bottom of the car- 
 bide drawer and spreading both ways slowly attacks 
 the carbide M. 
 
 When the generator is charged with calcium carbide, 
 and the superposed tank filled to the desired level with 
 water which may be done by hand, but is more 
 usually supplied from a controlling cistern the water 
 rises under the bell of each generator until it reaches 
 the small dripping 
 tube, and then 
 falls into the car- 
 bide drawer in the 
 cylinder below. 
 The gas is gene- 
 rated, passes in at 
 
 FIG. 95. 
 348 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the top of the cooling coil N, which is surrounded 
 by water, and is discharged through a small quan- 
 tity of water in the washer o ? thence into the 
 
 holder p. As the holder rises, its gradually increas- Automatic 
 ing weight balances the head of water in the 
 generator tank or tanks. At this point the water is stopping the 
 automatically displaced under the small bells in the 
 
 349 
 
" Midland " 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 generator tanks below the level of the small dripping 
 tubes, when the discharge of water into the generators 
 ceases. The generation of gas then gradually stops, 
 and does not begin again until the holder falls to the 
 balancing point. 
 
 Pig. 96 shows an installation of this plant on a large 
 scale, with a battery of four generators feeding the 
 storage holder. 
 
 Another form of drip generator is made by the 
 Midland Acetylene Syndicate. It consists of a dis- 
 
 FIG. 97. 
 350 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 placement holder supplied by generators varying in 
 number with the capacity of the holder, these gene- 
 rating chambers being arranged at different levels so 
 as to come into action consecutively. The carbide is 
 contained in a perforated gauze cage, and placed in the 
 generators D, the hinged covers H and H 1 being then 
 clamped down. These generators are set in a large 
 water jacket j, and water drips upon the carbide from 
 a perforated ring fitted to the hinged cover, and to 
 which water is supplied through the inlet taps E E 1 . 
 The gas then passes through the pipes and taps F and 
 F 1 into the holder. 
 
 The generator made under Kay's patent by the 
 
 FIG. 98. 
 351 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ' The 
 
 Manchester' 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment for 
 automatic 
 control 
 
 The 
 formation oi 
 
 a lime 
 
 coating over 
 the Carbide 
 
 in drip 
 generators 
 
 The 
 
 " Beacon " 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 apparatus 
 
 Manchester Acetylene Gas and Carbide Co. also con- 
 sists of a holder with external retorts fitted in a sloping- 
 position to the sides of the holder tank. These retorts 
 vary in number according to the capacity of the holder. 
 The calcium carbide, broken to the required size, is 
 placed in wire baskets, and three baskets go to form 
 the charge for each cylinder. Along the top of each 
 cylinder a small water supply pipe passes, having three 
 branches through which the water drips on to the car- 
 bide in the baskets below, the water supply being 
 regulated automatically by a valve controlled by the 
 gas holder, the rise of which beyond a certain point 
 lifts a small balance weight which shuts the water 
 valve, which is again opened as the holder falls. The 
 gas evolved in the retorts is led up by a vertical pipe, 
 through a check valve and syphon pipe, to catch any 
 products of condensation, after which it passes down a 
 descending pipe and enters the receiver at the bottom. 
 In many forms of drip machines a certain amount 
 of trouble is experienced owing to the formation of a 
 thick coating of lime over the surface of undecomposed 
 carbide, and, as the water which drips in often makes 
 for itself channels in the mass, a good deal of the 
 carbide in the interior of the lumps may escape decom- 
 position until the whole chamber becomes flooded. An 
 attempt has been made to overcome this difficulty in 
 the " Beacon " acetylene generator, in which the car- 
 bide is placed in the cylinder R, made of stout steel- 
 wire netting. Water is supplied automatically at A 2 
 as needed. This is effected by the regulator o, which 
 is forced outwards from the holder by the bridge N 
 coming into contact with it, and communicates motion 
 by a bell crank, etc., to the valve P, which, when open, 
 allows water to pass through the pipe v into the 
 generator at w, where the water is divided into several 
 small streams, which, passing through the wire netting 
 of the cylinder, fall on to the carbide and generate the 
 
 352 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 gas. The water tank is supplied with a gauge glass 
 B 2 to show the height of the water. 
 
 On revolving the cylinder R, the lime produced by 
 the decomposition of the carbide is mostly shaken off. 
 leaving the carbide fairly clean. The lime accumulates 
 in the lower part of the generator u, and when the 
 
 Method of 
 the 
 
 of 
 
 coating 
 
 FIG. 99. 
 
 charge is spent it is removed through the gas-tight 
 door T. 
 
 The gas, having been liberated from the carbide, Wor j* g oi 
 passes through the pipe M, the greater part of which apparatus 
 is in close contact with the water in the tank H, by 
 which means the gas is partly cooled and deprived of 
 excess of moisture, which falls into the trap ,T, finding 
 an outlet by the tubes K and L, the tube K rising 
 
 353 23 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 gas holder 
 
 Safety 
 
 chamber 
 
 Desiderata 
 
 in a good 
 generator 
 
 from the bottom of the trap, allowing water to flow 
 away without danger of gas escaping. The gas, con- 
 tinuing its way through M M and E, which also tend 
 to arrest any moisture contained in it, passes out of 
 the pipe E and is forced through the water by the cap 
 G, which forms a seal preventing the back-flow of gas 
 when the generator is open. 
 
 The gas-holder B H consists of a tank containing 
 the bell, the hood B enclosing the bell and serving as 
 a guide, also preventing, in case of overflow, the 
 escape of gas except by the air pipe A provided for 
 that purpose. D is for filling and examining the 
 height of the water, and c is a hand-hole to gain 
 access to the interior of the hood. 
 
 The gas on entering the bell raises it to its normal 
 position above o. On the consumption of gas the bell 
 falls until the bridge or inclined plane N comes in con- 
 tact with the regulator o, renewing the production of 
 gas from time to time. The gas on leaving the bell 
 passes through the pipes F to the dehydrator v, 
 where carbide deprives the gas of all moisture. Having 
 left the dehydrator it proceeds to the burners, after 
 making its way through the safety chamber z, which 
 contains two diaphragms of fine wire gauze, the space 
 between being packed with asbestos fibre, the purpose 
 of the chamber being to provide security from explo- 
 sions, in the event of the dehydrator or any part of 
 the machine containing an explosive mixture of gas 
 and air, by preventing a flame from passing back 
 through the pipes. 
 
 The pipe x is furnished for the purpose of dis- 
 charging air which enters the generator at the time 
 of refilling the cylinder. The air passes into the hood 
 B, and thence through the pipe A to the outer air. 
 
 The points to be attained in a good generator 
 
 1. Low temperature of generation. 
 354 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 2. Complete decomposition of the carbide. 
 
 3. Maximum evolution of the gas. 
 
 4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus. 
 
 5. Removal of all air from the apparatus before 
 generation of the gas. 
 
 When carbide is acted upon by water, considerable 
 heat is evolved, and to determine to what this 
 amounted, a good sample of commercial carbide con- 
 taining 92 per cent, true carbide was experimented 
 with as follows : 
 
 A rough calorimeter was made by jacketing a Experi- 
 beaker about 5 inches in diameter with cotton wool, determine 
 This arrangement, though crude, answered its pur- heat evolved 
 
 11 ' \ J A i, during the 
 
 pose well, as experiment showed that some hot water decomposi- 
 placed in it only lost *2C. after standing for ten 
 minutes in a room at 18*6 C., a loss which could be 
 neglected. 
 
 One piece of carbide, the weight of which was 
 known, was dropped into a litre of water at a known 
 temperature in the beaker, and the moment that the 
 evolution of gas ceased, the temperature of the water 
 was taken, the results being as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Experi- 
 
 Grins, of 
 Water. 
 
 Grms. of ' 
 Carbide. 
 
 Eise in 
 Tempera- 
 ture 
 
 o r\ 
 
 Correspond- 
 ing Calories 
 liberated. 
 
 N umber of 
 Calories j Time of 
 liberated ) Reaction in 
 per Grm. Seconds. 
 
 mental 
 results 
 
 
 
 u. 
 
 
 of Carbide. 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 42-7 
 
 17-4 
 
 17,400 
 
 407 
 
 62 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 28-9 
 
 11-4 
 
 11,400 
 
 394 91 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 19-7 
 
 8-2 
 
 8,200 
 
 416 73 
 
 
 which give as an average 406 calories liberated for 
 each gram of carbide. 
 
 Broken-up carbide, the pieces of which weighed 
 from 1 to 5 grams, was thrown into a litre of 
 water in the beaker in quantities of 30, 40, and 50 
 grams respectively. 
 
 355 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Experi- 
 ments with 
 broken 
 Carbide 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Grams of 
 
 Grams of 
 
 Rise in Tern- Correspond- 
 
 Calories 
 
 Time of 
 
 Water 
 
 Carbide 
 
 perature 
 
 ing Calories 
 
 liberated 
 
 Reaction in 
 
 taken. 
 
 taken. 
 
 C. 
 
 liberated. 
 
 per Grm. 
 
 Seconds. 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Carbide. 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 17-6 
 
 17,600 
 
 352 
 
 248 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 18-4 
 
 18,400 
 
 368 
 
 86 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 18-3 
 
 18,300 
 
 366 
 
 123 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 18-4 
 
 18,400 
 
 368 
 
 106 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 15-6 
 
 15,600 
 
 390 
 
 109 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 15'8 
 
 15,800 
 
 395 
 
 101 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 15-0 
 
 15,000 
 
 375 
 
 196 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 15-5 
 
 15,500 
 
 387 
 
 110 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 11-7 
 
 11,700 
 
 390 
 
 76 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 10-8 
 
 10,800 
 
 360 
 
 89 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 11-8 
 
 11,800 
 
 393 
 
 114 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 11-4 
 
 11,400 
 
 380 
 
 85 
 
 The reason 
 
 of small 
 
 pieces of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 giving less 
 
 heat than 
 
 large pieces 
 
 The heat 
 evolved 
 
 The 
 
 intensity 
 of the heat 
 developed is 
 
 The last experiment was repeated with carbide still 
 more finely divided, and the results gave 384 calories 
 for each gram of carbide. 
 
 From these figures it will be seen that, contrary to 
 expectation, the smaller the carbide the less was the 
 yield of heat : but the reason for this is evident. 
 More time is spent in breaking and weighing out the 
 finer carbide than in when dealing with one large 
 piece, and the larger surface presented by the small 
 pieces causes greater decomposition by the moisture 
 in the air than with the single lump, hence the 
 carbide is of poorer quality, and, moreover, the rapid 
 evolution of gas in the case of the small carbide pre- 
 vents the water abstracting all the heat from it. 
 
 Taking this into consideration, the 406 calories will 
 most nearly represent the heat evolved by the decom- 
 position of 1 gram of good commercial carbide, and 
 this would be equivalent to 441-3 calories for pure 
 carbide. 
 
 With this figure as a basis, it is evident that the 
 action develops about one-twentieth of the heat 
 evolved by the combustion of carbon. As, however, 
 
 356 
 
THE G-ENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the intensity of the temperature developed is a 
 function of the time needed to complete the action, 
 and as the decomposition of the carbide by water is 
 extremely rapid, the degree of heat attained varies 
 with every form of generator, and whilst the water 
 in one form may never reach the boiling point, the 
 carbide in another may become red hot and give a 
 temperature of over 800 C. 
 
 When water drips upon carbide, as in generators 
 of subdivision I., the temperature rapidly rises until, 
 after about 18 to 25 minutes, it reaches a maximum, 
 the actual heat developed depending upon the rate of 
 flow of the water and the way in which it is dis- 
 tributed over the mass ; but it is quite possible with 
 generators of this class to reach from 400 to 700 C., 
 and it is probable that in some parts of the mass the 
 higher limit is nearly always attained, traces of tar 
 being generally found in the residual lime. In some 
 cases it is in sufficient quantity to make the lime 
 yellow and pasty, whilst vapours of benzene and 
 other polymerisation products pass off in consider- 
 able quantities with the gas. 
 
 There are many factors which affect the amount 
 of heating of the mass which takes place in a " drip " 
 generator of this class. For instance, the higher the 
 pressure existing in the generator the greater will 
 be the heat produced, and whereas, with an open 
 vessel of carbide, the action may produce a tempera- 
 ture of only 200 C., in a closed vessel, from which no 
 gas could escape, the carbide would be raised to a 
 temperature of 1,000 C. and cause the detonation of 
 the gas. 
 
 Again, the temperature varies very greatly with 
 the size of the charge of carbide and the rate at 
 which the water flows on to it, whilst even the shape 
 of the vessel affects the amount of heat locally 
 developed. 
 
 357 
 
 dependent 
 on the time 
 taken in the 
 decomposi- 
 tion 
 
 The develop- 
 ment of 
 heat in 
 generators 
 
 of the 
 "Drip" class 
 
 The effect 
 of pressure 
 
 on the 
 temperature 
 
 developed 
 
 The effect 
 
 of the size of 
 
 the Carbide 
 
 charge and 
 
 the shape 
 
 of the 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 If a charge of, say, two pounds of carbide is 
 spread out over the bottom of a tray, of such size 
 that the material is in a layer of not more than 2 
 to 3 inches deep, the lumps of carbide not exceeding 
 one inch in diameter, it may be decomposed by the 
 dripping of water upon it in a fairly regular manner, 
 and without excessive heating. But if the same 
 charge of carbide be placed in a smaller cylinder, so 
 that there is a depth of from 5 to 10 inches of material, 
 then the slaked lime will form a coating on the top of 
 the carbide column, and only allow the slow and un- 
 equal passage of the water through it, with the result 
 that very high temperatures would be developed. 
 
 When experiments on this subject were made in 
 in the author's laboratory it was soon evident that 
 special precautions must be taken in measuring the 
 temperature nea ^ evolved, as in most cases the very high tempera- 
 tures only occurred in certain spots ; and that any 
 attempt to detect the highest temperature existing in 
 a mass of carbide by means of thermometers, or by 
 strips of metal of known fusing points, was absolutely 
 useless, as it would often happen that a thermometer 
 in one portion of the charge would be registering a 
 comparatively low temperature, whilst tar vapours 
 were being developed in another portion, making it 
 Heating perfectly clear that there were points of local heating 
 local where the temperature was some hundreds of degrees 
 hotter than that shown by the thermometer. 
 
 A want of attention to this point has caused some 
 observers to doubt the existence of these high tem- 
 peratures in certain forms of generators ; but it is 
 perfectly clear that in those cases where benzene and 
 tar vapours are produced, the necessary temperature 
 for their production must have existed, and the fact 
 that a piece of tin or lead placed in the charge was 
 not melted merely shows that the high temperature 
 was not evenly distributed over the whole mass. 
 
 358 
 
THE GENEEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Leaving the question of the temperature developed 
 in this class of generator, another important point is 
 the length of time over which generation of gas con- 
 tinues after the addition of water to the carbide has 
 ceased. Makers of automatic apparatus of this type 
 seem to think that in order to stop the evolution of 
 acetylene, all they have to do is to cut off the supply 
 of water. This would act very well if the generation 
 of gas really ceased then, but this is not the case, as 
 the gas continues to be evolved, although with in- 
 creasing slowness, for a considerable period after the 
 cutting off of the water. The length of time over 
 which this after-generation extends depends upon the 
 amount of water added, the amount of carbide undecom- 
 posed, and the temperature of the carbide at the time 
 when the water supply is stopped, whilst the genera- 
 tion will itself depend upon 
 
 (a) The dehydration of the calcium hydrate first 
 formed. 
 
 (&) The decomposition of water condensed from the 
 gas present as the temperature of the generator falls. 
 
 As we have before seen, the first result of the action 
 of water upon the carbide is the formation of quick- 
 lime and the evolution of acetylene, whilst, if suffi- 
 cient water be present, the lime takes up another 
 molecule of water to form calcium hydrate. This mole- 
 cule of water, however, at temperatures of 420 to 
 430 C. is driven off from the calcium hydrate, and the 
 affinity of the carbide for any water present causes 
 the reaction 
 
 CaC 2 + Ca(HO) 2 = 2CaO + C 2 H 2 
 
 A series of experiments was made by placing a 
 known weight of carbide in a generating cylinder, 
 running in a known weight of water in a given time, 
 and carefully measuring the volume of gas for the 
 first ten minutes, and again when the action had 
 
 359 
 
 "After- 
 generation " 
 
 in 
 generators 
 
 of the 
 "Drip" class 
 
 Conditions 
 
 governing 
 
 the length 
 
 of time 
 
 during 
 
 which 
 
 " alter- 
 
 generation ' 
 
 proceeds 
 
 The causes 
 of " after- 
 generation " 
 
 Experi- 
 ments on 
 " after- 
 generation ' 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 practically ceased, and not more than 1 c.c. of gas was 
 evolved in 10 minutes. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Time 
 
 
 Time 
 
 Volume 
 
 Percent- 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 taken 
 
 Gas c.c. 
 
 to com- 
 
 of Gas 
 
 age of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 Water 
 
 to flow 
 
 in 10 
 
 plete 
 
 at end of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 in 
 
 in 
 
 in in 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 evolu- 
 
 evolu- 
 
 not de- 
 
 Grms. 
 
 Grms. 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 tion. 
 
 composed. 
 
 18 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 2,400 
 
 80 
 
 2,900 
 
 50-0 
 
 18 
 
 9-0 
 
 6 
 
 2,300 
 
 90 
 
 2,800 
 
 51-5 
 
 18 
 
 9-0 
 
 8 
 
 2,400 
 
 70 
 
 2,700 
 
 53-4 
 
 18 
 
 13-5 
 
 4 
 
 2,900 
 
 60 
 
 3,300 
 
 430 
 
 18 
 
 13-5 
 
 6 
 
 3,000 
 
 55 
 
 3,500 
 
 39-7 
 
 18 
 
 13-5 
 
 8 
 
 3,300 
 
 65 
 
 3,600 
 
 37-9 
 
 18 
 
 18-0 
 
 4 
 
 3',700 
 
 60 
 
 4,100 
 
 29-3 
 
 18 
 
 18-0 
 
 6 
 
 3,600 
 
 62 
 
 4,200 
 
 27-6 
 
 18 
 
 18-0 
 
 8 
 
 3,700 
 
 65 
 
 4,200 
 
 27-6 
 
 36 
 
 18-0 
 
 4 
 
 4,600 
 
 88 
 
 4,300 
 
 54-3 
 
 36 
 
 18-0 
 
 6 
 
 4,650 
 
 81 
 
 4,350 
 
 53-2 
 
 36 
 
 18-0 
 
 8 
 
 4,400 
 
 57 
 
 5,500 
 
 52-0 
 
 36 
 
 27-0 
 
 4 
 
 5,600 
 
 130 
 
 6,600 
 
 43-1 
 
 36 
 
 27-0 
 
 6 
 
 6,000 
 
 72 
 
 6,650 
 
 42-7 
 
 36 
 
 27'0 
 
 8 
 
 5,850 
 
 61 
 
 6,850 
 
 41-0 
 
 36 
 
 36-0 
 
 4 
 
 7,000 
 
 60 
 
 7,850 
 
 32-2 
 
 36 
 
 36-0 
 
 6 
 
 7,100 
 
 54 
 
 8,400 
 
 27-6 
 
 36 
 
 36-0 
 
 8 
 
 7,400 
 
 49 
 
 8,500 
 
 26-7 
 
 54 
 
 27'0 
 
 4 
 
 5,900 
 
 105 
 
 6,600 
 
 62-1 
 
 54 
 
 27-0 
 
 6 
 
 5,800 
 
 78 
 
 6,300 
 
 63-3 
 
 54 
 
 27-0 
 
 8 
 
 5,800 
 
 85 
 
 6,400 
 
 62-6 
 
 54 
 
 36-0 
 
 4 
 
 6,000 
 
 102 
 
 6,950 
 
 60-0 
 
 54 
 
 36-0 
 
 6 
 
 6,300 
 
 79 
 
 7,500 
 
 56-9 
 
 54 
 
 36-0 
 
 8 
 
 7.000 
 
 109 
 
 8,900 48-8 
 
 54 
 
 54-0 
 
 4 
 
 6J600 
 
 90 
 
 8,800 49-4 
 
 54 
 
 54-0 
 
 6 
 
 7,700 
 
 103 
 
 8,900 
 
 48-8 
 
 54 
 
 54-0 
 
 8 
 
 7,600 
 
 105 
 
 10,400 40-0 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 Volume of 
 
 water 
 required to 
 
 ensure 
 complete de- 
 composition 
 
 The results so obtained showed clearly that in any 
 apparatus on this principle the cut-off should be so 
 arranged that at least one-fourth of the total holder 
 capacity is still available to store the slowly generated 
 gas. 
 
 An important point was noticed in these experi- 
 ments, viz. the large excess of water required to en- 
 sure complete decomposition of the carbide, over and 
 above the theoretical quantity. The excess of water 
 
 360 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 needed was largely dependent upon the form of 
 generator employed. 
 
 According to theory, 64 parts by weight of carbide 
 require only 36 parts by weight of water to com- 
 pletely decompose them and convert the lime into 
 calcic hydrate. 
 
 This would mean that each pound of carbide needs 
 a little under half a pint of water to complete the 
 action, whilst in practice, owing to the evaporation 
 due to the heat of the action, half the added water 
 is driven off as steam with the acetylene, or left 
 mechanically adhering to the lime, and the smallest 
 quantity likely to complete the action would be a pint 
 to a pound of carbide, whilst in reality the only safe 
 way is to add sufficient water to drown the residue. 
 
 If this is not done the lime forms so protective a 
 coating to the carbide, that small quantities often re- 
 main undecomposed, and if the residues are thrown into 
 a drain or cesspool the evolution of acetylene would 
 give an explosive mixture, which, on account of its 
 low point of ignition, would be a serious danger. 
 
 These troubles have had a serious effect upon the 
 future of this class of generator on the Continent. In 
 the early days of acetylene lighting, the "drip" 
 generator was a favoured type with the manufacturers 
 of acetylene apparatus, but the troubles of over- 
 heating, after-generation, and often incomplete de- 
 composition of the carbide, have led practically to 
 their abandonment, so that at the present time very 
 few of this class are to be found outside England 
 and America. 
 
 The second subdivision of generators, in which 
 water rises to the carbide, is very popular, and over- 
 heating can be avoided in these, provided they are so 
 arranged that the water is never driven back from 
 the carbide ; and if the charge of carbide used is not 
 too great. Under these conditions, the slowly rising 
 
 361 
 
 Causes 
 necessitat- 
 ing a large 
 excess of 
 water 
 
 Danger of 
 
 undecom- 
 posed 
 Carbide in 
 the residue 
 
 The "Drip" 
 generator 
 practically 
 abandoned 
 
 on the 
 Continent 
 
 Second 
 subdivision 
 
 of 
 generators 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Water 
 rising to 
 Carbide 
 
 Conditions 
 
 necessary 
 
 in a good 
 
 generator of 
 
 the second 
 
 class 
 
 Automatic 
 generators 
 
 of the 
 second class 
 
 Conditions 
 existing in 
 
 these 
 generators 
 
 Early type 
 
 of American 
 
 generator 
 
 water is always in excess at the point where it de- 
 composes the carbide, so that the evaporation, by 
 rendering heat latent, keeps down the temperature, 
 and although the steam so formed partly decomposes 
 the carbide in the upper portion of the charge, the 
 action is never sufficiently rapid to give any very 
 great rise of temperature. In order to fulfil these 
 conditions, it is necessary that there should be a 
 holder of considerable capacity, and that the leading 
 tube, conducting the gas from the generator to the 
 holder, should be of sufficient diameter to freely con- 
 duct away the gas, the water being allowed at the 
 same time to rise in the generator so slowly as to 
 do away with any risk of over-generation. 
 
 In the best generators of this class, these conditions 
 are more or less approached, and it is unusual to find 
 that the melting-point of tin, 228 C., has been reached 
 in the charge of carbide during decomposition. 
 
 Where apparatus of this class are automatic, and 
 have no rising holder to take the gas, it is found 
 that they work satisfactorily when supplying the 
 number of lights for which they were designed, but 
 if they are over driven, and the action becomes too 
 violent, excessive heating takes place, whilst the 
 turning off of the gas and consequent driving back 
 of the water from the carbide also has a tendency 
 to raise the temperature. If, however, the water 
 has risen sufficiently slowly, the carbide below the 
 surface has been practically all decomposed, so that 
 the heating only takes place over a limited zone. 
 
 The first generator put upon the market in America 
 consisted of a glazed earthenware " crock " with two 
 tubulures at the side, and a lid that clamped gas- 
 tight on to a wide mouth at the top. The carbide 
 was placed in a perforated zinc cage inside the 
 "crock," and, standing on a small stool, water was 
 admitted by one of the side tubulures, and, collecting 
 
 362 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 at the bottom of the vessel, gradually rose until it 
 came in contact with the carbide, the gas escaping 
 by the second tubulure to the holder. The gas was 
 then mixed with an equal volume of air in a mixing 
 meter, and passed on to the burners. (Fig. 100.) 
 
 The natural development of this early generator 
 is to be found in the " Ideal," in which a strong metal 
 cylinder with conical bottom, closed by a screw-down 
 lid. and fitted with a sludge cock for the removal of 
 the spent lime, contains the wire carbide cage. At 
 the side of this chamber is the water entrance pipe 
 fitted to a supply cistern, the level of which is so 
 arranged that it is impossible for the water to more 
 than flood the carbide. 
 
 The whole of the apparatus is so regulated that 
 the liquid only slowly rises in contact with the 
 
 The "Ideal 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 water-feed 
 
 FIG. 100. 
 
 363 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carbide ; and should there be any excess of gas, due 
 to over-generation , it stops the inflow of water into 
 the generator till the pressure again falls, when more 
 enters. 
 
 The apparatus, Fig. 101, is extremely simple and 
 
 FIG. 101. 
 
 works admirably, the gas as it is produced being led 
 into a small holder, having a sufficiently large capacity 
 to take the whole of the gas evolved from the largest 
 charge of carbide that the generator can contain ; the 
 gas is first passed through a condenser, and, if desired, 
 a purifier, and stored in the holder for use. 
 
 364 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 When the charge is thoroughly spent, the water 
 has risen to the top of the generator, and the residues 
 being entirely flooded there is no danger of any 
 
 uiidecom posed carbide being thrown away with the 
 lime sludge. 
 
 In order to avoid the evolution of an excessive 
 365 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 subdivision temperature during generation, it is important that 
 chargTof ^ e charge of carbide should be kept small, and in 
 carbide in fitting up large installations this is attained by 
 installations increasing the number of generators instead of in- 
 creasing them in size, and the accompanying illus- 
 tration, Fig. 103, shows such a battery, arranged to 
 supply gas to a large store gasholder. 
 
 The Another generator of the same class, also non- 
 
 generator automatic, is the "Sunlight," in which a novelty 
 
 FIG. 103. 
 
 is introduced, in as much as acetylene mixed with 
 carbon dioxide is produced, instead of the pure gas, 
 it having been shown that the diluted acetylene is 
 more easily consumed, without risk of smoking at 
 the burner, than the pure gas. 
 
 The In order to do this, the generators A and B, Fig. 103, 
 
 diluted 1 with are ma -de of iron, lined with lead, and contain perfor- 
 
 a small ated iron baskets, in which is placed a small proportion 
 
 366 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 of any form of calcic carbonate whiting being 
 generally employed whilst on the top of this the 
 charge of carbide is placed. A cylinder c, also lined 
 with lead, is fixed at a higher level, and contains a 
 five per cent, solution of sulphuric acid, which flows 
 down a pipe and enters the generating cylinders at 
 a point F, close to their base. As it rises, the dilute 
 acid comes in contact with the calcic carbonate, 
 evolving carbon dioxide ; whilst, on reaching the car- 
 bide, acetylene is also produced. The mixed gases, on 
 leaving the generator, then pass through the exits 
 at G, and travel upwards to a cylinder, D, which 
 contains the purifying material employed, consisting 
 of an acidified copper salt, which removes the sulphur- 
 etted and phosphuretted hydrogen, the purified gas 
 then going forward to the gasholder. 
 
 It has been proved that a small amount of carbon 
 dioxide has but little effect on the illuminating 
 power, and has a distinct action in doing away with 
 the danger of smoking. 
 
 A popular form of generator is made by Exley, Fig. 
 104, in which the generating chambers consist of ver- 
 tical iron retorts, placed round a cylindrical iron vessel, 
 the lower portion of which is a water tank and gas- 
 holder, whilst the upper portion contains a condensing 
 coil, and also acts as an overflow when the water 
 is driven back from the lower tank by excessive 
 generation of gas. The generators, which vary 
 in number according to the capacity of the plant, 
 contain cages into which the carbide is placed, a 
 screw-down cover making the whole gas-tight. 
 Water is admitted from the central tank to the 
 bottom of the generator, and rises until it reaches 
 the carbide. The gas which is then evolved is led 
 from the generator into the upper portion of the 
 water tank, and, collecting there, drives the excess of 
 water into the upper tank, and as soon as the pressure 
 
 367 
 
 quantity of 
 Carbon 
 Dioxide 
 
 Purification 
 of the gas 
 
 Action of 
 
 the Carbon 
 
 Dioxide 
 
 The Exley 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Automatic 
 
 regulation 
 
 of the 
 
 water 
 
 supply 
 
 Exley 
 
 generator 
 
 used with 
 
 storage 
 
 holder 
 
 Read- 
 Holliday 
 Acetylene 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working of 
 
 the Rcad- 
 Holliday 
 
 generator 
 
 reaches a certain point, the pressure of gas drives 
 back the water from the carbide. The water again 
 falling from the overflow tank as the gas is con- 
 sumed, rises to the carbide once more, so that the 
 supply of water to the carbide is automatically 
 regulated by the pressure of gas within the gas- 
 holder. As soon as the decomposition is complete in 
 one generator, and the water has risen to the top, it 
 flows over into the second generator, and this action 
 continues until the whole battery has been ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 In some cases, where it is imperative to have a gas- 
 holder, the apparatus is connected directly with it, 
 and the gas being then made steadily, until the holder 
 is full, variations in pressure are done away with. 
 
 An acetylene apparatus of almost identical con- 
 struction is the one made by the Read-Holliday 
 Acetylene Co., who were amongst the earliest makers 
 of generators in this country. 
 
 It consists of a generator A, Fig. 105, which contains 
 a cage, holding the carbide in connection with a dis- 
 placement holder. Water is admitted to the generating 
 vessel by opening the cock H, when water rising in 
 A, and coming in contact with the carbide, generates 
 the acetylene, which passes through a coil of pipe 
 in the water cistern c, so that any excess of moisture 
 brought over with the gas is condensed, and runs 
 back into the generator, whilst the acetylene passes 
 on to the service pipes. Should any excess of pressure 
 arise, owing to over-generation, it forces the water 
 away from the carbide and drives it back into the 
 lower holder B ; the excess of gas also passing 
 through the same tube, and, collecting in B, drives 
 the water up the central tube into the coil cistern c. 
 
 In this way, the tank B acts as a displacement 
 holder, the pressure in which increases with the depth 
 of water driven up into the cistern c, and, as soon 
 
 368 
 
THE GENEEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 as the consumption of gas again exceeds the genera- 
 tion, the acetylene stored in the displacement holder 
 passes through the generator to the outlet, being 
 
 followed in turn by the water, which, on reaching 
 the carbide again, gives rise to the evolution of a 
 fresh supply of gas. This form of apparatus can 
 
 369 24 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ' Thorscar ' 
 generator 
 
 of course have the generators multiplied to the 
 required gas consumption, and is, in fact, made to 
 Battery of su pply installations of from 10 to 1,000 burners. In 
 generators a l ar g e installation it is as well to use the machine 
 in conjunction with an ordinary gasholder, but in 
 many cases it is 
 preferred to use a 
 battery of the 
 large size dis- 
 placement holders, 
 with their at- 
 tached genera- 
 tors, Fig. 107 
 showing an in- 
 stallation of this 
 character. 
 
 The "Thors- 
 car " generator, 
 as it is termed, 
 differs only 
 from the " Ex- 
 ley " and " Eead- 
 Holliday " appar- 
 atus in detail, and, 
 like them, consists 
 of a vertical gene- 
 rator, in which the 
 carbide is placed 
 in a cage sub- 
 divided into seve- 
 ral compartments, 
 
 in which the water rises from below, and the gas then 
 passes into a tank fitted with a rising gasholder in- 
 stead of a displacement holder, as in the two previous 
 forms of apparatus. Fig. 108 gives a section of the 
 apparatus. 
 
 The action of the machine is extremely simple. 
 
 370 
 
 FIG. 105. 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The holder is charged with water so that when it is 
 resting on the bottom the water is above the level 
 of the supply pipe leading to the lower part of the 
 generator, and under these conditions the water flows 
 down the pipe, rising to the carbide, and evolves the 
 
 FIG. 106. 
 
 gas, which is led off by the outlet pipe to a small 
 water dip-chamber, which, although it allows the gas 
 to pass freely from the generator, prevents any return 
 taking place, this water-lock or seal being a distinct 
 advantage. Leaving the seal, the gas flows on into 
 
 371 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the holder, which, rising, causes the water to fall below 
 the level of the supply pipe, so that after a time the 
 generation of gas ceases. As the gas is drawn off for 
 
 Water 
 supply 
 
 consumption the holder again falls, and, having a dis- 
 placement cone inside it, causes water to again rise to 
 a sufficient level to flow into the carbide, this operation 
 
 372 
 
THE GENEEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 continuing automatically until the whole of the carbide 
 in the trays is exhausted. 
 
 The subdivision of the carbide cage into several com- 
 partments, and the fact that a considerable surface of 
 water is present at the point where the carbide is 
 undergoing decomposition, tends to prevent overheat- 
 ing, and in the latest forms of apparatus the size of 
 the holder is so 
 arranged as to be 
 capable of con- 
 taining the full 
 volume of gas 
 made from the 
 charge of carbide 
 used. 
 
 This, of course, 
 somewhat in- 
 creases the size of 
 the holder, but on 
 the other hand 
 does away with 
 the risk of over- 
 heating which 
 exists when the 
 
 Feililf* 
 
 FIG. 108. 
 
 pressures during 
 generation are at all high. 
 
 The gas passes through a small purifying box, con- 
 taining charcoal, which acts as a scrubber, and removes 
 condensation products from it, and the gas is also to a 
 considerable extent washed in the water-seal and in 
 the holder. As the gas leaves the holder it is passed 
 through a long coil of pipe contained in the water of 
 the generator tank, any condensed liquids being col- 
 lected in a catch-box at the bottom of the apparatus, 
 whilst the gas passes on to the purifiers in which the 
 traces of phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen are 
 got rid of. 
 
 373 
 
 Subdivision 
 
 of the 
 Carbide 
 charge 
 
 Scrubber 
 
 and 
 condenser 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Bailey's 
 generator 
 
 Another acetylene apparatus, closely allied to the 
 Exley and Head -Holliday forms, is that made by 
 Messrs. W. Bailey & Co., which consists of vertical 
 
 exterior generators containing the carbide, and a 
 double compartment displacement holder, in which 
 the acetylene is collected, and drives the water from 
 the lower to the upper tank compartment, the pres- 
 
 374 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 working 
 
 sure varying with, the head of water driven into the 
 upper tank. The generators with the particular 
 arrangement of tubes adopted are shown in Fig. 109, 
 whilst a section is shown in Fig. 110. 
 
 In using this apparatus, the outlet cock D, Fig. 109, 
 is opened, and the upper cistern A being filled with 
 water, it flows by gravity into the gas receiver B. 
 As soon as this is full, and a depth of a few inches of 
 water remains in cistern A, the stop-cock D is closed 
 and the gas cocks b b leading to both generators are 
 opened, and also the water cock a to one generator. 
 The water flows in, the acetylene commences to 
 generate, and escaping by the pipe 6 into the displace- 
 ment holder drives the water from it up into the 
 reservoir A. This continues until the water has been 
 driven below the water inlet of the generator. As 
 the gas is withdrawn, the water again descends from 
 the tank to take its place, and, rising above the level 
 of the water inlet pipe of the generator, again produces 
 more gas. This goes on until the charge of carbide in 
 one generator is used, and the water level has risen to 
 the top, w*hen the water flows over, through the gas 
 outlet pipe, into the second generator, and there starts 
 a similar action. 
 
 All forms of displacement holder have the great 
 drawback, that, as the water is driven from the lower placement 
 to the upper tank, the pressure increases to a very 
 considerable extent, and, as in most of them the water 
 is also driven back from the carbide at the same time, 
 the conditions become highly favourable for overheat- 
 ing, this being undoubtedly the great difficulty in 
 generators of this type. 
 
 Besides the trouble arising in such generators from 
 
 . , .... , i , ,i 
 
 the variation in pressure, it also necessitates the use 
 of a governor on the service pipes, and as these con- 
 trivances are none too reliable over a considerable 
 range of pressure, the providing of a store holder, 
 
 375 
 
 
 Advantage 
 
 of a store 
 
 holder 
 
FIG. 111. 
 
 370 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 which keeps the pressure constant, is a distinct ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 In order to obviate the changes in pressure due to sir H. 
 a displacement holder, Sir Howard Grubb, of optical generator 
 fame, devised a generator in which the cistern for 
 
 FIG. 112. 
 
 supplying the water to the carbide chambers was sus- 
 pended from four long spiral springs, so proportioned 
 that for each inch of water that flows out the lighten- 
 ing in weight causes the spring to raise the cistern 
 two inches, so keeping the difference in height between 
 
 377 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hutton 
 Generator 
 
 The 
 
 Fourchotte 
 generator 
 
 General con- 
 struction 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 water 
 supply 
 
 the water in the supply cistern and that in the receiver 
 constant. 
 
 Yet another vertical generator of this type, with 
 automatic action, is to be found in the generator made 
 by Hutton & Co., of Galashiels, in which the genera- 
 tion of gas drives the water away from the carbide. 
 The firm also makes small generators of the same 
 kind for drive lamps (Fig. Ill), which answer very 
 well in cases where the lamp is so far from the house 
 supply as to render its connection with the main 
 installation too expensive. 
 
 Amongst the automatic generators constructed on 
 the principle of allowing water to rise in contact with 
 the calcium carbide, that designed by Professor Four- 
 chotte shows several distinctive features. In its usual 
 form it consists of a small holder with external 
 generator or generators attached. These only differ 
 from the usual form in that they have the upper 
 portion water-jacketed, and the charge of carbide as 
 far as possible sub-divided, to prevent overheating. 
 
 The water rises from below, and floods the carbide 
 compartments successively, the flow of water being 
 regulated by a broad tube, fitted gas-tight to the 
 underside of the top of the holder, and which covers 
 the water supply pipe r, Fig. 113. This is kept filled 
 with water to the level of the water in the tank by 
 means of a hole drilled in it close to the water line, 
 and as the holder descends the air in the large tube 
 becomes compressed, forming a pneumatic piston, 
 which drives the water in the supply pipe up to a 
 return valve D, and then down to the bottom of the 
 generator. The carbide trays A are taken out for 
 recharging by removing the lid of the generator, and 
 arrangements are provided for maintaining a constant 
 water level in the holder tank and the removal of 
 any excess of water from the generator. In this form 
 of the apparatus the pneumatic regulator of the water 
 
 378 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 supply was in the centre of the holder, and any 
 stoppage or trouble with it necessitated dismantling 
 the entire holder, and to obviate this possible trouble 
 a modification of the arrangement has been intro- 
 duced, by which the pneumatic piston is made ex- 
 ternal to the holder. 
 
 A very good installation of this plant is to be seen installation 
 at Wolverton Station on the Great Eastern Railway, Fourchotte 
 which is lighted throughout by acetylene, as is also 
 the station approach. 
 
 FIG. 113. 
 
 Fig. 114 shows the generator building, whilst Fig 
 115 shows the two generating machines which supply 
 the acetylene to the whole installation. 
 
 In some forms of generators belonging to this class, Modification 
 in which water rises until it comes in contact with the 
 charge of carbide, the principle is adopted of fixing the 
 charge in the upper portion of a metal bell, and lower- 
 ing this into a tank of water. The air within the bell 
 prevents the water rising in contact with the carbide 
 
 379 
 
 of this 
 
 form of 
 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 until the tap connecting the upper portion of the bell 
 with the holder is opened : when the water rises, reaches 
 the carbide, and gas generates and passes forward to 
 the holder. Should over-generation take place, or the 
 top of the outlet of the generator be closed, then the 
 pressure of gas drives the water down in the bell, and 
 generation slackens. 
 
 The Trouve 
 generator 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
 FIG. 114. 
 
 One of the earliest generators made on this principle, 
 and which gave very good results, was the Trouve 
 apparatus. The usual form consisted of a gasholder, 
 to the inlet of which was attached a T-piece, con- 
 nected to the outlets of two bells, standing in separate 
 cylinders of water. The carbide cages are fixed either 
 on stands or tripods within the bells, or by springs 
 in the bells, their position being such that when the 
 bell is placed in the cylinder of water, they shall be 
 an inch or more above its surface. 
 
 380 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 This form of apparatus worked extremely well as 
 long as the charges of carbide were kept of reasonable 
 size, and the generator enjoyed considerable popularity 
 in France. The drawback to it was, that indiarubber 
 or other flexible tubes had to be employed to connect 
 the generator to the holder. 
 
 The importance of sub-dividing the charge of carbide 
 empk^ed in the generator, in order to reduce as far as 
 possible the risk of excessive heating, led to the intro- 
 
 FIG. 115. 
 
 cl notion of a type of generator in which the rise of the 
 water successively floods vessels containing the carbide 
 arranged at such heights or levels that the decompo- 
 sition in one is completed before the water reaches the 
 next. The Graetz generator may be taken as a type 
 of this form of apparatus, which undoubtedly has the 
 advantage that it largely does away with the trouble 
 of after-generation, as only one vessel being attacked 
 at a time, and then completely flooded, and all the gas 
 
 381 
 
 Flooding 
 
 forms of 
 
 apparatus 
 
 The Graetz 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working 
 
 the carbide is capable of giving off generated, stopping 
 the rise of the water does to a great extent stop the 
 evolution of gas. 
 
 In this generator a series of carbide cylinders with 
 perforated lids, are placed upon a gradually-ascending 
 spiral stand in the interior of the generator. Water 
 is supplied to the generator by an automatically 
 controlled valve in connection with the supply cis- 
 tern, and the water rises until it floods the lowest of 
 the cylinders. AVith the rise of the holder, and 
 consequent slight increase of pressure, the valve closes 
 the water supply tap; and, as the holder falls, the 
 water is again fed into the generator and liberates 
 gas from the second carbide holder, the action con- 
 tinuing until the water has risen above the level of 
 the highest cylinder, when the generator has to be 
 recharged. 
 
 Several other very good forms of this type of 
 genera tor are to be found on the Continent, whilst the 
 arrangement most generally adopted in England is well 
 generator shown in Owen's generator, Fig. 116, in which tho 
 falling of the holder opens a water valve and supplies 
 water to the carbide contained in the sloping retorts 
 fixed to the side of the holder tank. The carbide, as 
 in the other cases, is placed in a tray divided into com- 
 partments, which slips easily into the retort ; and, the 
 water being admitted at the top, the first compartment 
 fills, and when the whole of the carbide is decomposed 
 the water overflows, owing to the angle at which the 
 retort is placed, into the second division, and this con- 
 tinues until the whole of the charge is decomposed. 
 The gas outlet from the generator is taken from a 
 small dome or box, which prevents the swelling of the 
 lime formed during the decomposition from choking 
 the outlet. 
 
 This form is hardly so good as the one before de- 
 scribed, as, the carbide trays being open, the carbide 
 
 382 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 in the lower ones is sure to be acted upon to a certain 
 extent by the condensation of moisture as the gas 
 cools down ; whilst, with the special lids used in the 
 Graetz generator, this hardly takes place at all, some 
 carbide removed from one of the top cylinders and 
 
 FIG. 116. 
 
 tested by the author yielding 3'5 c. ft. per Ib. (220 
 litres per kilo.), after standing with water in the 
 generator for four months. 
 
 Dr. N. Caro, 1 in detailing experiments made with 
 
 1 Zeit f. Beleuchtungswesen, 1898, 10, 34. 
 383 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Caro on the 
 
 flooding 
 
 type of 
 
 generator 
 
 Heat 
 evolved 
 
 After- 
 generation 
 in flooding 
 generators 
 
 Amount of 
 
 * after- 
 generation " 
 
 fchis type of generator, points out that "the carbide 
 in each small receptacle is flooded by a relatively 
 large quantity of water, and the whole of it is de- 
 composed at once. The evolution of gas takes place 
 rapidly and in sudden rushes, therefore it is abso- 
 lutely necessary to use a gasholder in order to avoid 
 dangerous increases of pressure in the generators. 
 An excessive rise of temperature can only occur 
 momentarily, as the carbide is surrounded by an ex- 
 cess of water, which effectually diminishes the heat 
 developed by the reaction. When the carbide re- 
 ceptacles are disposed side by side, however, the water 
 flows from one into the next before the decomposition 
 of the carbide in the first is completed, and the over- 
 flow at first is small. Thus the conditions resemble 
 those existing in generators of the first class. Caro 
 has indeed observed a rise in temperature of 210 C. 
 (410 F.) in a horizontal generator of this class. The 
 generators where the carbide receptacles are placed 
 one above another are undoubtedly preferable to those 
 in which they are ranged side by side. 
 
 " Both types have one fault in common, viz. the 
 after-evolution of gas. The after-evolution does not 
 arise through the reaction of carbide on calcic hydrate, 
 but is due to the action of aqueous vapour on the 
 carbide. The heat of the reaction drives off aqueous 
 vapour, which acts on the carbide in adjacent re- 
 ceptacles. When carbide was stored in a generator 
 over the surface of water for 8 days it lost 30 per 
 cent, of its gas-making value ; but when carbide 
 was decomposed in a lower receptacle, that in the 
 upper receptacle lost 40 per cent, of its value. A 
 greater amount of carbide appears to be decomposed 
 by aqueous vapour in horizontal than in vertical 
 generators of this class, probably because the tem- 
 perature is higher and the evolution of aqueous 
 vapour greater in the horizontal generators. Caro 
 
 384 
 
THE GTENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 concludes that the use of a generator of this type is 
 quite reasonable, but a gasholder capable of receiving 
 40 per [cent, of the gas which the carbide in the 
 
 generator would yield must be used in conjunction 
 with it. In the generators in which the receptacles 
 are side by side, the water should flood the carbide 
 
 385 25 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 in each receptacle at once, instead of flowing in slowly, 
 as is the case with most of the existing generators of 
 this type." 
 The As has been before stated, subdivision of the charge 
 
 "Spping" ^ car bide and slow rise or supply of water to the 
 class of carbide prevent any serious rise of temperature in 
 this class of generator, but the third division, in 
 which are the generators that rely for their action 
 upon the sinking of the holder immersing the carbide 
 carrier into the water and again withdrawing it as 
 the holder rises, undoubtedly contains the worst 
 offenders in the generation of high temperatures. 
 The In the " Sunbeam " apparatus, Fig. 117, the auto- 
 
 ma ^ c action of the generator is wisely not relied 
 upon to do more than govern the rate of feed of gas 
 to the holder, which is of sufficient size to contain 
 the gas made from the largest charge of carbide the 
 generator will contain. 
 
 The complete apparatus consists of a generator, 
 condenser, purifier, and gasholder. 
 
 Construe- The generator is in reality a small holder B (Fig. 
 l^), working in the tank A, a water-sealed cylinder c, 
 carrying the carbide cage, being fixed in the crown of 
 the holder. The carbide in its holder is attached to 
 the cylinder, which is put into place and is rendered 
 gas-tight by means of the water seal, which is so 
 arranged that by the time the carbide cage is lowered 
 sufficiently to reach the water in the holder tank, 
 there is a seal of six inches of water to prevent escape. 
 As soon as the carbide touches the water acetylene is 
 generated, and if the gas comes off more rapidly than 
 it can pass through the condenser and purifier to the 
 main holder, it accumulates in the generator holder, 
 which, on rising, withdraws the carbide from contact 
 with the water, and slows down the generation ; and 
 when the generator holder again descends it once 
 more plunges the carbide into the water and causes 
 
 386 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 further evolution of the gas, this action continuing 
 until the carbide is exhausted. The generator is 
 fitted with a sludge cock a and a draw-off cock F 2 
 
 1 
 
 to regulate the height of water in the generator tank. 
 
 The gas is led from the generator through a con- washing 
 denser, where it is washed to free it from ammonia, *** P urifl - 
 and is then led through the purifier, which is divided gas 
 
 387 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The Sardi 
 generator 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 Carbide 
 cells 
 
 The Liver 
 generator 
 
 vertically into two compartments L, o, in the first of 
 which the gas is made to pass in thin streams through 
 a layer of 1'5 inches of refined petroleum, which 
 washes it free from benzene and tar vapours, and the 
 gas then passes down through layers of lime and 
 oxide of iron, spread on perforated plates in the second 
 compartment o, and on to the store holder. 
 
 The presence of the store holder enables the gas to 
 be generated very slowly, so preventing any serious 
 overheating and ensuring satisfactory purification. 
 
 The Sarcli apparatus, Fig. 119, very much resembles 
 the Sunbeam in the arrangement of generator. It 
 consists of a gasholder c, counterbalanced and floating 
 in a tank D. A cylinder with water seal B passes 
 down from the crown of the holder to level with its 
 lower rim, whilst a short arm, closed by the cock H, 
 connects the interior of the cylinder with the gas 
 space in the holder. 
 
 The carbide is contained in a series of perforated 
 zinc cells or trays A attached to the rod A 1 , fixed to a 
 cover which fits into the water seal, and in the top of 
 which is a small vent-cock, to allow the escape of air 
 whilst lowering the cover into the seal. 
 
 The outlet pipe from the holder is fitted with a 
 catch-box P to collect any condensed water or tar, 
 and the gas passes to the outlet cock E and supply 
 pipes. 
 
 In the original Sardi apparatus the carbide was all 
 contained in one long cage, but this gave rise to such 
 serious overheating that it was afterwards subdivided 
 into a number of small cells, which to a great extent 
 diminishes this trouble. 
 
 The generation of gas in this apparatus is con- 
 trolled by the rising of the holder, which withdraws 
 the carbide from the water as it rises, and again 
 brings it into contact with the water as it falls. 
 
 Another generator, of much the same construction, 
 
 388 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 in which the make of gas is regulated by the move- 
 ment of the gasholder, is the Liver or Sovereign, Fig. 
 120. In this apparatus the moving bell A is provided 
 with a central tube, in which is placed the carbide 
 holder, the opening being rendered gas-tight by a screw 
 
 clamp. The car- 
 
 '%%?. 
 
 bide holder con- 
 sists of a number 
 of cells, in which 
 the carbide is 
 placed, threaded 
 on a central sup- 
 port, by means of 
 which the cells 
 can be withdrawn 
 or replaced. 
 
 At one side of 
 the gas generator, 
 at the bottom, is 
 the gas outlet, 
 fitted with tap D, 
 and having under 
 it a tube with 
 screw cap E con- 
 taining a sponge 
 for filtering the 
 gas. On the other 
 side of the gene- 
 rator is the out- 
 let B in connec- 
 tion with the 
 safety escape 
 valve situated in tube i, and to which a pipe carried 
 outside the building should be fixed. The tap c 
 permits of the water chamber being emptied when 
 required. By means of the tap F communication 
 between the gasholder and the carbide can be cut off, 
 
 389 
 
 FIG. 119. 
 
 General 
 
 apparatus 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 Abingdon 
 generator 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
 and this is employed when the generator has to be 
 charged, whilst the lights are still being used. 
 
 The Abingdon 
 generator is auto- 
 matic in action, 
 the contact of 
 water and the car- 
 bide being con- 
 trolled by the rise 
 and fall of the 
 gasholder. Fig. 
 121 gives vertical 
 and horizontal sec- 
 tions of this ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 A square water 
 tank A contains 
 the moving gas 
 bell B, within the 
 hollow centre of 
 which is fitted the 
 inverted cylinder 
 c, which acts as a 
 generating cham- 
 ber, and also serves 
 as a relief gas- 
 holder if an undue 
 pressure of gas 
 should arise. Be- 
 tween the gas- 
 holder B and the 
 generating cham- 
 ber c a cylindrical 
 open-topped vessel 
 
 d provided with a central tube is placed, resting on 
 the floor of the tank A. Around the central tube 
 perforated cages for holding the carbide are disposed 
 
 390 
 
 FIG. 120. 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 at varying heights, so that the water can attack the 
 carbide in successive portions. The whole arrange- 
 ment of generating chamber c, the bucket d 1 and 
 
 supporting framework for the carbide cages, works 
 upon a central gas pipe, the lower end of which leads 
 into a water seal to prevent a back flow of gas to the 
 generating chamber. Owing to the generating cham- 
 
 391 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Caro on the 
 relative 
 heating 
 
 with 
 generators 
 
 of the 
 
 " Drip " and 
 " Dip " 
 types 
 
 Tempera- 
 tures 
 observed 
 
 Lewes' 
 
 experiments 
 
 on the heat 
 
 evolved 
 
 ber c and holder B being surrounded by water the gas 
 is delivered to the pipes in a cooled condition. 
 
 Dr. N. Caro, 1 in contrasting the heating effects 
 produced in those forms of apparatus in which the 
 water drips on to a mass of carbide, and those of the 
 last class, says : u At first sight the l dip ' generator 
 appears to have a great advantage over the l drip ' 
 generator because a great quantity of water comes in 
 contact with the carbide. This should apparently 
 prevent excessive rise of temperature, as a portion of 
 the heat of the reaction would naturally be taken up 
 by the water. In reality, however, the generation of 
 the gas does not take place under such improved con- 
 ditions. In all types of 'dip' apparatus, water 
 touches the carbide only momentarily, the carbide 
 absorbs water, acetylene is evolved, and the water is 
 driven away from contact with the carbide. The 
 absorbed water then acts on the carbide, which is now 
 in excess, just as in the i drip ' generators, but the 
 reaction takes place between greater masses, and the 
 generation happens freely on all sides of the carbide. 
 The result is, that the development of heat is even 
 greater. Among ten experiments with ' dip ' gene- 
 rators, alloys melting at 240 C. (464 F.) were fused in 
 two cases, and in one instance an alloy melting at 
 280 C. (536 F.) showed signs of fusion." 
 
 Lewes 2 made experimental determinations of the 
 heat evolved in generators of these two classes, and 
 found that under certain conditions the whole mass of 
 carbide might become red hot. These experiments 
 and results have been to a certain extent misunder- 
 stood. It was by no means intended to convey that 
 such temperatures were of common occurrence, or that 
 all generators of the "drip" and "dip" classes were 
 of necessity liable to overheating of the character 
 
 1 Zeit. f. Beleuchtungswesen, 1898, 10, 34. 
 
 2 Journ. Chem. Soc. Ind., xvii. 
 
 392 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 found : the intention was to determine how high it 
 was possible for the temperature to rise under the 
 worst conditions, as it is manifest that it is only by- 
 knowing this that safety can be secured, and wrong 
 forms of apparatus eliminated. 
 
 In all the experiments the temperatures existing 
 in the mass of decomposing carbide were measured by 
 the Le Chatelier thermo-couple, as preliminary ex- 
 periments showed that thermometers or strips of 
 alloy of known fusing-point were useless for this 
 purpose. 
 
 The use of the Le Chatelier thermo-couple for the 
 determination of temperature is now becoming so 
 general that a description of the necessary pre- 
 cautions in employing it will not be out of place. 
 
 The thermo-couple of platinum and platinum-rho- 
 dium wire was connected in series with a dead beat 
 galvanometer Ayrton and Mether's pattern and a 
 resistance of 19-15 ohms was introduced into the 
 circuit. The galvanometer was calibrated by means 
 of a cell of small internal resistance and a box of 
 high resistance coils ; and, on plotting out the currents 
 and deflections, a straight line was obtained, showing 
 that within the limits of the scale the deflections 
 were directly proportional to the currents. 
 
 The platinum and platinum-rhodium wires used 
 for the thermo-couple were O011 inch in diameter or 
 0-279 mm. The resistance of the platinum wire per 
 metre was 1-71 ohms, that of the platinum-rhodium 
 wire being 3*6 ohms. 
 
 The couple was calibrated with every possible pre- 
 caution, immersion in a paraffin bath, the temperature 
 of which was checked by a standard thermometer, 
 being used to fix the points up to 300 0., whilst the 
 boiling-points of sulphur and tin protochloride were 
 taken to give 448 and 606 C., whilst above this point 
 it is now well known that the line is perfectly straight. 
 
 393 
 
 Measure- 
 ment of 
 Tempera- 
 ture 
 
 The 
 
 Le Chatelier 
 Thermo- 
 couple 
 
 Wires 
 employed 
 
 Calibration 
 
 of the 
 thermo- 
 couple 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Precautions 
 necessary in 
 
 using the 
 
 Lc Chatelier 
 
 couple 
 
 Tests with 
 dripping 
 apparatus 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 apparatus 
 
 Method of 
 conducting 
 
 the 
 experiment 
 
 When very high temperatures are recorded, especi- 
 ally in the presence of acetylene, the couple must 
 again be compared with substances of known melting 
 or boiling-point after every few tests, as the metals 
 forming the couple rapidly become affected by the 
 carbon and record too low, there being sometimes as 
 much as 120 C. difference between the temperature 
 as given by a new couple and one which has been 
 used for some time and which has become carbonised. 
 If these precautions be observed, the thermo-couple is 
 undoubtedly the most accurate means we have of 
 recording all temperatures up to 1,700 C. 
 
 The first set of experiments was made to determine 
 the temperature generated when water drips upon 
 carbide, and considerable difficulty was found in 
 arranging the apparatus in such a way as to make it 
 a fair test of what really takes place in practice. 
 After several failures, the form of apparatus which 
 was finally adopted was as follows : 
 
 A cylindrical cage of wire gauze, for holding the 
 carbide, was stood in a porcelain dish, supported by an 
 iron tripod standing in the circular dish which acted as 
 a mercury seal for the bell jar. The tubulure of the 
 bell jar was closed by a cork, carrying the two glass 
 tubes insulating the thermo-couple, the dripping 
 funnel fitted with a stop-cock and a double jet at its 
 lower extremity, and a wide brass tube, closed with 
 a cork, through which passed the delivery tube. 
 
 Having about half filled the cage with carbide, 
 analysing 91*3 per cent., it was placed in position, 
 standing on a piece of asbestos card in the porcelain 
 basin, and the bell jar placed over it, the bottom being 
 sealed with 2 cm. of mercury in the bottom dish. The 
 cork was put in position (the thermo-couple being 
 raised or lowered until it was at the required depth) 
 in the carbide cage, which was then filled up over the 
 couple by dropping in carbide through the brass tube. 
 
 394 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Size ot 
 charge used 
 
 Dis- 
 
 results 
 
 When the quantity of carbide to be used had been 
 charged in, the brass tube was closed by a cork 
 carrying the delivery tube, which in turn was con- 
 nected to a condenser and collecting bottle, and 
 the water was run in in known quantities by the 
 dripping arrangement, readings of temperature being 
 taken every minute. 
 
 The charge of carbide employed in every case was 
 half a pound ; and a very large number of experiments 
 was made, as it soon became evident that, owing 
 partly to the non-conducting properties of the lime 
 formed, which in many cases crumbled off from the 
 surface of the decomposing carbide and coated the 
 thermo-couple, and partly also to the couple only 
 being about 7 mm. in length, and so only recording 
 the temperature of a very small portion of the charge 
 of carbide, the temperature readings were often 
 manifestly too low, as actions, such as the formation 
 of tar vapours, could be observed going on in parts of 
 the charge, whilst the thermo-couple was registering a 
 temperature of 200 or more degrees less than was 
 known to be needed for the actions visibly taking 
 place. 
 
 Moreover the streams of water impinging upon 
 the carbide must not flow directly on to the thermo- 
 couple, or it is manifest correct readings cannot be 
 obtained. 
 
 The first dozen experiments were necessary to show 
 the various factors which had to be taken into account 
 in making the determinations ; and when the necessary 
 experimental conditions were realised, then the deter- 
 minations began to show something like uniformity 
 in results. 
 
 The following test may be taken as being typical 
 of the results obtained showing how serious the 
 overheating may be in generators of the "drip" 
 class : 
 
 395 
 
 Factors 
 
 false results 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 The 
 
 condition of 
 the Lime 
 residue 
 often an 
 index to 
 
 the 
 
 temperature 
 generated 
 
 Experi- 
 ments on 
 
 the 
 
 tempera- 
 tures 
 
 generated in 
 " dipping " 
 apparatus 
 
 THERMO-COUPLE READINGS PER MINUTE. 
 
 227 grms. of carbide used, and 330 grms. of water dripped 
 on during the first 40 minutes. 
 
 Minutes C. 
 
 Minutes 
 
 C. Minutes 
 
 0. 
 
 Minutes C. 
 
 1 ... 
 
 
 16 ... 
 
 452 31 ... 
 
 558 
 
 46 
 
 417 
 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 17 ... 
 
 616 32 ... 
 
 554 47 ... 
 
 420 
 
 3 '.'.'. 
 
 154 
 
 18 ... 
 
 648 33 ... 
 
 553 
 
 48 ... 
 
 425 
 
 4 ... 
 
 103 
 
 19 ... 
 
 674 1 34 ... 
 
 551 49 ... 
 
 423 
 
 5 ... 
 
 182 
 
 20 ... 
 
 644 35 ... 
 
 530 50 ... 
 
 421 
 
 6 ... 
 
 204 
 
 21 ... 
 
 630 , 36 ... 
 
 503 
 
 51 ... 
 
 417 
 
 7 ... 
 
 209 
 
 22 ... 
 
 623 
 
 37 ... 
 
 497 
 
 52 ... 
 
 414 
 
 8 ... 
 
 218 
 
 23 ... 
 
 625 
 
 38 ... 
 
 470 
 
 53 ... 
 
 402 
 
 9 ... 
 
 213 
 
 24 ... 
 
 623 
 
 39 ... 
 
 430 
 
 54 ... 
 
 398 
 
 10 ... 
 
 244 
 
 25 ... 
 
 619 
 
 40 ... 
 
 393 
 
 55 ... 
 
 390 
 
 11 ... 
 
 250 
 
 26 ... 
 
 616 
 
 41 ... 
 
 417 
 
 56 ... 
 
 387 
 
 12 ... 
 
 265 
 
 27 ... 
 
 600 
 
 42 ... 
 
 418 
 
 57 
 
 383 
 
 13 ... 
 
 284 
 
 28 ... 
 
 580 
 
 43 ... 
 
 417 58 ... 
 
 375 
 
 14 ... 
 
 290 
 
 29 ... 
 
 580 
 
 44 .. 
 
 415 59 ... 
 
 373 
 
 15 ... 
 
 217 
 
 30 ... 
 
 572 
 
 45 ... 
 
 418 
 
 60 ... 
 
 373 
 
 The lime residue in generators of the class in which 
 a mass of carbide is dipped into water and then with- 
 drawn by the rising of the holder is often noticed to 
 be yellow and pasty from the admixture of tar, whilst 
 sometimes it is covered with a surface coating of 
 carbon, phenomena which could only be accounted 
 for on the supposition that the 'temperatures had been 
 very high, and in the latter case had exceeded 780 C., 
 the decomposing point of the acetylene. 
 
 Experiments were then made to see what tem- 
 peratures could be attained in generators of this 
 construction. 
 
 The same bell jar was used as in the former set of 
 experiments, the arrangement of cork, tube for charg- 
 ing, thermo-couple, and delivery tube being also the 
 same, but the cage carrying the carbide was suspended 
 to the cork, whilst a collar fitted around the neck of 
 the bell jar admitted of its being made into the bell of 
 
 1 Maximum reading. 
 
 396 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 a gasholder by suspending it in a glass tank of water, 
 lines attached to the collar being passed over pulleys 
 in a frame above, and so arranged as to allow the bell 
 to be counterpoised. 
 
 The couple was so arranged as to have a central Arrange- 
 position in relation to the walls of the holder, and to 
 be about three-quarters of an inch (17 mm.) below 
 the surface of the carbide, the twist of platinum and 
 platinum-rhodium being as before about 7 mm. in 
 length. 
 
 The charge of half a pound (226'8 grms.) of carbide Conditions 
 having been introduced into the cage with the experiment 
 thermo-couple in position, the counterpoise weights 
 were removed, and the cock on the delivery tube 
 being opened, the bell sank in the water until the 
 carbide cage reached the surface, when the sudden 
 evolution of gas caused the bell to again rise, until 
 the rate of delivery exceeded the rate of generation, 
 when it again sank and immersed the carbide, this 
 action continuing until the carbide was all decom- 
 posed. 
 
 The thermo-couple being in the upper part of the Position of 
 charge, the rise of temperature is not at first shown, 
 but as the action approaches the neighbourhood of the 
 couple it registers a rapid increase of temperature, 
 and the action going on is generally rendered in- 
 visible by the steam, white vapours and even brown 
 tar fumes coming off from the lower portion of the 
 charge. 
 
 In from 12 to 18 minutes from the start, the maxi- Time taken 
 mum temperature is reached at the spot affecting the f 
 couple, and soon after the temperature falls as rapidly maximum 
 
 . , temperature 
 
 as it rose. 
 
 The following Table gives the temperature readings 
 in four experiments : 
 
 397 
 
Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 THERMO-COUPLE READINGS PER MINUTE. 
 
 Centigrade. 
 
 minutes. 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 
 5 
 
 102 
 
 137 
 
 170 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 119 
 
 178 
 
 218 
 
 
 7 
 
 180 
 
 200 
 
 254 
 
 150 
 
 8 
 
 204 
 
 246 
 
 287 
 
 178 
 
 9 
 
 227 
 
 288 
 
 326 
 
 233 
 
 10 
 
 249 
 
 338 
 
 413 
 
 245 
 
 11 
 
 270 
 
 413 
 
 727 
 
 342 
 
 12 
 
 298 
 
 620 
 
 754 
 
 393 
 
 13 
 
 336 
 
 734 
 
 568 
 
 764 
 
 14 
 
 408 
 
 727 
 
 466 
 
 793 
 
 15 
 
 464 
 
 706 
 
 428 
 
 807 
 
 16 
 
 594 
 
 701 
 
 385 
 
 793 
 
 17 
 
 703 
 
 636 
 
 347 
 
 764 
 
 18 
 
 654 
 
 597 
 
 168 
 
 725 
 
 19 
 
 570 
 
 478 
 
 131 
 
 623 
 
 20 
 
 514 
 
 381 
 
 ... 
 
 577 
 
 21 
 
 443 
 
 254 
 
 
 594 
 
 22 
 
 190 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 252 
 
 23 
 
 123 
 
 
 .. 
 
 124 
 
 25 
 
 96 
 
 ... 
 
 
 ... 
 
 conclusions From this it is seen that excessive heating took 
 place in every case, whilst in one it was well above 
 the decomposing point of acetylene, a thin cloud of 
 black smoke being formed immediately around the 
 carbide, whilst tar vapour poured off from it, and on 
 removing the residue after the experiment it was 
 found to be coated with soot and loaded with tar. 
 
 On several occasions the whole of the charge, on 
 removal from the generator when the maximum tem- 
 perature was reached, was found to be at a glowing 
 red heat, and it was a striking fact that the smell of 
 acetylene could hardly be distinguished in the strong 
 tarry odour that was evolved. 
 
 398 
 
THE GENEKATION OP ACETYLENE 
 
 The moment that acetylene is subjected to the action 
 of high temperatures changes of great complexity at 
 once commence. These at first are purely synthetical ; 
 at temperatures which are low as compared to those 
 which are described above the acetylene begins to 
 condense to benzene ; as the temperature rises the 
 condensation of four molecules of acetylene yield styro- 
 lene ; a further increase in the temperature may cause 
 styrolene and benzene to interact, yielding anthracene 
 and hydrogen, and it is probably at this point that the 
 brown tar vapours appear, while naphthalene makes its 
 appearance. These changes, however, still have to be 
 accurately studied. At this temperature, moreover, a 
 fresh set of interactions start : the nascent hydrogen 
 combines with acetylene to form ethylene, and this 
 body, under the action of heat, breaks down to 
 methane and acetylene once more. 
 
 The earlier actions of necessity lead to a great loss 
 in the volume of the acetylene. Dr. Haber found that 
 15 litres of acetylene, when heated for a considerable 
 period to 638 C., left only 10 litres of gas. 
 
 Probably no such condensation as this takes place in 
 an acetylene generator. When the outer layer of car- 
 bide decomposes, the gas is evolved so rapidly that 
 there is no time for the heat to act upon it, but as the 
 decomposition spreads into the centre of the mass, the 
 acetylene generated has to pass through the external 
 layers, which, as shown, may be at a temperature 
 above the point of its decomposition, and it is under 
 these conditions that a considerable loss takes place, 
 and the tar, often found in the residue, or distilled out 
 into generator and tubes, is formed. 
 
 In generators in which excessive heating takes 
 place, this tar is likely to cause considerable trouble, 
 as it is of a very viscous character, and if it condenses 
 in the delivery tubes, causes the lime-dust and carbon 
 particles to collect and bring about stoppage. 
 
 399 
 
 Effect of 
 
 heat on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Production 
 
 of Benzene 
 
 and Tar 
 
 Formation 
 of other 
 Hydro- 
 carbons 
 
 Haber's 
 results 
 
 Action in 
 
 the 
 generator 
 
 Troubles 
 with the 
 
 Polymerisa- 
 tion 
 products 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Alteration 
 
 in the 
 composition 
 
 of the 
 gaseous 
 products 
 
 due to 
 overheating 
 
 Analysis of 
 
 gas 
 produced 
 
 A still more important evil, however, is to be found 
 in the alteration which takes place in the composition 
 of the gas, and which reduces the illuminating value 
 of the gas to a serious extent. 
 
 During one of the experiments samples of the 
 gas were taken as the maximum temperature was 
 approached, and were analysed with the following 
 results : 
 
 n. 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Saturated hydrocarbons 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 70-0 
 11-3 
 
 18-7 
 
 100-0 
 
 69-7 
 11-4 
 
 18-9 
 
 100-0 
 
 Troubles 
 due to the 
 formation 
 of Benzene 
 
 and this alteration in composition reduces the illumin- 
 ating value of the gas from 240 candles to about 126. 
 
 If the temperatures determined in these experiments 
 be arranged as curves, in which time and temperature 
 are taken as factors, it is at once apparent that a very 
 considerable proportion of the generation takes place 
 at a temperature above 600 C., about which point 
 polymerisation commences. As benzene forms a large 
 proportion of it, it is carried forward as vapours, and 
 remains suspended, even in its passage through the gas- 
 holder and delivery pipes. Benzene requires three 
 times the volume of air for combustion that acetylene 
 does, and the result is that the most perfect acetylene 
 burner shows a tendency to smoke directly any 
 quantity of benzene is formed. 
 
 It was Dickerson who first made a generator in which 
 carbide into car bide was fed into an excess of water, and took out 
 
 "Wfttor 
 
 generator a patent for it in December, 1894. He used pulverised 
 or granulated carbide contained in a hopper, at the 
 bottom of which was a valve automatically controlled 
 by the rise or fall of the gasholder, and which allowed 
 
 40} 
 
 The first 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the carbide as required to fall into the water in the 
 generator beneath, the water in which was kept at 
 a constant level. 
 
 Later on Pictet made a generator in which carbide 
 was thrown by hand into water which was kept at a 
 low temperature by a coil of pipe through which ice- 
 cold water could be made to now. From the first it 
 was recognised by scientific men that adding carbide 
 to water was the right way to generate the gas, but it 
 had one drawback. The generator inventors were 
 bitten with a craze for making automatic generators 
 and doing away with a store holder that should con- 
 tain enough gas for the evening's consumption. It 
 was fairly easy to do this if one had merely to regulate 
 the dripping of a liquid like water, but very difficult 
 when a solid like calcium carbide had to be dealt with, 
 and the result was that the first big class of generators, 
 in which the water was brought to the carbide, was 
 devised wholesale, whilst the carbide into water class 
 was neglected. It was not long, however, before the 
 demand for generators of this class led to attempts 
 being made to overcome the problem, and although 
 a thoroughly satisfactory solution has hardly yet been 
 arrived at, still there are several fairly satisfactory 
 automatic generators of this class. The means adopted 
 for feeding the carbide automatically into water 
 are : 
 
 1. By allowing granulated carbide to be fed by 
 gravity from a hopper, closed at the bottom by valves 
 of various construction worked by the rise or fall of 
 
 , , T T T 
 
 the holder. 
 
 2. Drawing carbide from a store holder, and drop- 
 ping it into water by the revolution of a worm or 
 screw. 
 
 3. Unlatching the bottom of holders containing car- 
 bide, so as to discharge the contents into water, or 
 making a series of bottomless holders, filled with car- 
 
 401 26 
 
 The Pictet 
 
 Tne facts 
 militated 
 
 ^f reduction 
 of Carbide 
 
 generators 
 
 Means 
 
 the 
 
 automatic 
 
 feeding of 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 Acetylite 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 generator 
 
 bide, slide on a metal plate over a hole, through which 
 the carbide falls into the water. 
 
 4. Automatically dropping vessels containing carbide 
 into water in a generator ; this latter class hardly 
 belonging to this type of generator, as the infiltration 
 of water to the carbide vessel really makes it a water 
 to carbide machine. 
 
 Omitting the mention of some of the more compli- 
 cated forms of apparatus, which seem to have been 
 designed more with the view of displaying the in- 
 genuity of the inventor than of safely making acety- 
 lene, it will be well to describe some generators in 
 which the above methods are utilised. 
 
 " VALVE " GENERATORS. 
 
 The Acetylite. This generator consists of an inner 
 and outer tank placed concentrically on a base plate, 
 with a gas bell fitting in between the two tanks. On 
 the top of the gas bell is a neck of smaller diameter 
 c (Fig. 122), closed at the top by a cover with screw 
 clamp, and in which is hung a conical carbide hopper 
 fitted at the bottom with a conical valve D, which 
 rests on a suitable seat, and has attached to its 
 underside a rod and weight w. From the crown of 
 the gas bell is also hung a perforated grid F, fitting 
 freely in the inner tank, into which it projects when 
 the bell is in place. The gas exit pipe and raising 
 rod pass freely through holes in this grid. 
 
 On the base plate are fitted a water cock, sludge 
 cock, and gas cock, and a screw is affixed so as to 
 enable the raising rod to be set at any required 
 height. 
 
 Granulated carbide is fed into the hopper on top 
 of the gas bell, and the opening made gas-tight by 
 screwing down the cover. As the bell sinks, the 
 weight of the valve strikes the raising rod G-, causing 
 the valve to lift, and allowing carbide to drop into 
 
 402 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the water. With the rise of the bell the valve again 
 closes, shutting off the supply of carbide. 
 
 In the Sigurdsson generator, Fig. 123, granulated Sigurdsson 
 
 generator 
 
 FIG. 122. 
 
 carbide is contained in a conical hopper fixed to the 
 top of the bell of the holder. This hopper is closed 
 by a sliding valve connected to a shaft having a 
 
 403 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 slotted lever arm, which works on a pin fixed in one 
 of the uprights of the holder. 
 
 FIG. 124. 
 
 FIG. 123. 
 
 generator 
 
 bell of the holder descends, the lever arm is 
 raised by the pin and draws open the valve, thus 
 
 404 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 allowing a charge of the carbide to fall upon a 
 perforated conical disc, placed just below the water 
 in the tank. Acetylene is generated, and as the 
 bell rises the lever is pressed down and slides the 
 valve back into position, so cutting off the carbide 
 supply. 
 
 In Ross' generator the automatic supply of granu- 
 lated carbide to water is brought about by fitting on 
 the top of the generator a small rising holder, contain- 
 ing a hollow drum a 3 . The carbide is contained in two 
 
 Ross' 
 generator 
 
 FIG. 125. 
 
 hoppers H H fixed on the exterior of the apparatus, 
 having a delivery spout h projecting into the generator. 
 This spout is some inches in length, and its central 
 portion is made of flexible tube, whilst the nozzle is 
 carried by w, a weighted lever, working on a bracket, 
 which, when the drum in the holder is raised, lifts the 
 spout upwards and stops the outflow of the carbide, 
 but which, as the drum descends, is pressed downwards 
 and allows the outflow of carbide into the water. 
 Reference to Figs. 124 and 125 will at once make the 
 inventor's intention clear, but one would expect that 
 the arrangement, although highly ingenious, would 
 soon get out of order and clog. 
 
 405 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
The 
 
 " Strode " 
 generator 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working 
 of the 
 
 generator 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 " SCREW " GENERATORS. 
 
 In Strode's generator, the process of dropping the 
 carbide into water as more gas is required is carried 
 out automatically by means of a water wheel actuating 
 a cone, having a spiral chamber, into which the carbide 
 falls by its own gravity, a portion being turned into 
 
 "** 
 
 keKveeo A <5cD. 
 
 FIG, 126. 
 
 the water with each movement of the water wheel. 
 The water acting on this wheel is regulated by the 
 rise and fall of a small gasholder, slightly larger at the 
 top than at the bottom, the walls of the gasholder dis- 
 placing the water in the holder tank, so that it over- 
 flows on to the water wheel, which is provided with 
 pockets, and on one of the pockets becoming filled the 
 wheel gives a quarter turn. The cone piece, being on 
 
 406 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the same spindle, is turned with the wheel, and the 
 carbide, gravitating through the spiral chamber, falls 
 into the water beneath. The water projected from the 
 wheel serves to replenish the water absorbed in the 
 generation of the gas. A water-regulating tank is 
 provided for connection to the water main, with double 
 ball valves and overflow to maintain a constant level 
 of water in the gasholder tank when the gas is not 
 being used. 
 
 The process of charging the generator with carbide 
 and dealing with the sludge and cleaning out is 
 effected very simply. An overflow is provided to the 
 generator, arranged in such a way that any surplus 
 water in discharging into an overflow tank provided, 
 carries with it the lime formed in the generation of 
 the gas. 
 
 A connection is also made between the overflow tank 
 and the generator with full-way valve, so that the 
 sludge and lime can be run off into the overflow tank 
 without interfering with the working of the appara- 
 tus in any way. 
 
 The working part of the generator is covered by a 
 box-shaped cover, open at one end, which slips over the 
 carbide container and water wheel and dips down 
 some distance into the water, thus forming a perfect 
 gas seal, and can be instantly removed or replaced. 
 At the top of this cover is a hopper connected to the 
 cover with a valve. When this hopper requires re- 
 charging the valve is closed to prevent the escape of 
 gas from the generator, or the admission of air, and 
 the hopper being opened is then filled with carbide ; 
 and, after being closed, the valve connecting it with 
 the generator is opened, and the carbide is free to run 
 into the water contained beneath. 
 
 Another generator in which a worm is used to dis- c 
 
 Szepezynski 
 
 charge the carbide into the water is that designed by generator 
 
 Szepezynski, Fig. 127. It consists of a tank generator 
 
 407 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 Carbide 
 hopper 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 A, with the apparatus for supplying the carbide fixed 
 011 the top. The latter is an iron cylinder with an axle 
 passing down the centre, which carries a screw work 
 D. The screw chamber is filled with carbide through 
 the cover c, and as the gasholder falls it releases a 
 rope passing round a pulley on the end of the axle ; 
 construe- the rope carries a weight on its free end, and this 
 
 tion of ^ ' 
 
 automatic causes the axle and screw to rotate, and throws some 
 of the carbide on to the trap valve E, which opens and 
 
 FIG. 127. 
 
 allows it to fall into the water below. As the gas is 
 generated and the holder rises, the rope is again pulled 
 taut and the weight lifted, the pulley running free ; 
 and on the holder again falling, the previous opera- 
 tion is repeated, and more carbide is shot into the 
 water in the tank. 
 
 " Latch" Generators. The " latch " generator in its 
 generator simplest form is to be found in the Bertrand-Taillet 
 apparatus, Fig. 128, in which the fall of the holder 
 empties small charges of carbide in rotation into the 
 water contained in a compartment occupying the 
 
 408 
 
 Bertrand 
 
 Taillet 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 centre of the holder tank. The gasholder bell c 
 works in a water trough formed by the space 
 between the two cylindrical vessels A and B. The 
 interior of A forms the generator, and is filled to the 
 required height with water, whilst a series of carbide 
 vessels D are fixed in the top of the holder. 
 
 These carbide vessels have hinged bottoms, which 
 are kept shut by counterweights suspended on strings 
 
 or wires of varying length, 
 and are closed above by 
 gas-tight lids. As the 
 holder descends, the 
 weight attached to the 
 longest string comes in 
 contact with the bottom 
 of the generator and re- 
 leases the carbide from 
 the vessel to which it be- 
 longs ; acetylene is then 
 liberated and the holder 
 rises, and on again de- 
 scending the charge in 
 the vessel with the second 
 longest string is dis- 
 charged, this action con- 
 tinuing until all the car- 
 bide has been shot into 
 the water. 
 
 Fio. 128. A rather more complex 
 
 form of the " Latch " type 
 
 of generator is found in one of the few carbide-into- 
 water forms of apparatus devised in America. The 
 Gibbs generator consists of a gasholder and generator 
 placed side by side. The gasholder carries at its side 
 a long water seal consisting of two concentric tubes 
 having a water space between them. The inner tube 
 carries the gas into the holder, whilst the outer com- 
 
 409 
 
 Means of 
 
 discharging 
 
 the Carbide 
 
 into the 
 
 water 
 
 The Gibbs 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 
 automatic 
 Carbide 
 supply 
 
 municates at its lower extremity with the water in 
 the holder tank. A tube from the generator telescopes 
 in between these, forming the seal. On the top of the 
 generator is a revolving plate carrying the carbide 
 holders on its edge. These holders are fitted with a 
 hinged cover kept shut against a rubber washer by 
 means of a spring latch, and they are placed lid 
 downwards at the edge of the plate. The plate is 
 caused to rotate by means of a ratchet and pawl 
 operated by the movement of the gasholder, and as 
 the bell descends the plate carrying the carbide 
 holders is revolved until the hinged lid is opposite the 
 mouth of the generator shoot, when the latch is 
 released by its trigger hitting the edge of the shoot, 
 thus allowing the contents of the carbide holder to 
 drop down the shoot into the water in the generator. 
 The gasholder then rises, and the pawl is ready to 
 revolve the plate another step when the holder again 
 descends. The long telescopic seal on the side of the 
 gasholder permits sufficient vertical motion for the 
 gasholder, and the reduced lime is removed by detach- 
 ing the generator bodily from the apparatus and 
 emptying it, a water seal preventing any escape of 
 
 from the holder. 
 
 A generator working on the principle of carbide 
 Carbide into dropping into water, and which is simple in construc- 
 gemjrator tion, is the revolving apparatus made by the Societe 
 du Graz Acetylene, and shown in Figs. 129, 130, and 
 131. In the head of the generator is a metal drum M 
 carrying the carbide, chambers which are open at the 
 bottom, and capable of being rotated by the weight p 
 fixed to a rope coiled round the drum passing over the 
 pulley g. This drum M works on a fixed plate N, in 
 which is a hole corresponding with the open base of 
 the carbide chambers. On the outside of the drum 
 metal pins are attached, corresponding to each carbide 
 chamber, whilst to the bell of the gasholder the 
 
 410 
 
 French 
 automatic 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 weight z is fixed. To the head T is fixed a bracket 
 v carrying a pivoted arm, the end of which nearest 
 the head is forked, whilst the other terminates in a 
 metal plate u. In practice, as the holder descends, the 
 weight z strikes the plate u, causing the top arm of 
 the fork to rise and releasing one of the pins outside 
 the drum M. This allows the drum to rotate till it is 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working 
 
 FIG. 129. 
 
 stopped by another pin catching in the lower arm of 
 the form. At this point the opening in the carbide 
 chamber is exactly over the hole in the fixed plate N, 
 and, therefore, the charge of carbide drops into the 
 water in the tank below. With the evolution of gas 
 the holder rises, bearing with it the weight z ; a 
 
 411 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 130. 
 
 Non- 
 
 water 
 generators 
 
 spring z then pulls up the lever arm and allows the 
 
 drum M to rotate until stopped by the upper pin of 
 
 the next carbide chamber engaging with the top arm 
 
 of the fork, closing the opening in N, and in this 
 
 position it re- 
 
 mains until 
 
 liberated by the 
 
 descent of the 
 
 bell. The car- 
 
 bide falls 
 
 through the 
 
 pipe c into a 
 
 cone G in the 
 
 water, the ob- 
 
 ject of which is 
 
 to prevent the 
 
 accumulation of 
 
 the carbide into heaps. The lime sludge can be re- 
 
 moved through the cock F. 
 
 Non-automa- 
 tic generators 
 
 o f this class 
 , , 
 
 lend themselves 
 to the greatest 
 possible simpli- 
 city of con- 
 struction, per- 
 haps the most 
 simple appara- 
 tus made being 
 that designed 
 by the Acetylene Gas Company of Australasia, and 
 called " The Perfection," which consists of a gas- 
 holder working in a tank with a conical bottom, 
 having at the lowest point a sludge cock for the 
 withdrawal of lime sludge and a tap for the in- 
 troduction of fresh water. At the point where the 
 
 412 
 
 Fie. 131. 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 cone and cylindrical tank meet is a grid upon which 
 the carbide falls, whilst in the top of the bell of the 
 holder is fixed a tube of sufficient diameter to allow 
 the carbide to be dropped down it. This tube is closed 
 at the top and bottom by covers working on the same 
 axle, so that the opening or closing of the exterior one 
 opens or shuts the one at the bottom of the tube. The 
 carbide tube is of the same length as the height of 
 the gasholder bell, so that it will be always sealed 
 with a few inches more water than the bell, the extra 
 depth depending on the pressure of gas in the holder. 
 To make acetylene the sliding covers are opened, the 
 carbide dropped down the tube, the covers closed, and 
 the gas generates and fills the holder. The only 
 drawback to such a generator is that a loss of gas is 
 occasioned as the carbide falls through the water in 
 the tube, but if fair-sized lumps are employed this is 
 small. The dust and small carbide is, in the more 
 modern form of this generator, utilised in a small 
 drip flask at the bottom of the apparatus. 
 
 The next generator in order of simplicity is the 
 " side chute " type, in which the generator is separate 
 from the holder, and consists of a water tank with 
 grid for the carbide to fall upon and tube at the side 
 of the generator down which the carbide is dropped. 
 
 A good example of this form cf generator is the 
 " Kleine Centrale " and " Haus Centrale" of the 
 Allgemeine Carbid- und Acetylen-Gesellschaft of Ber- 
 lin the latter of which is shown in Fig. 132, in which 
 the carbide is dropped by hand into a side box, and 
 falls down the side chute into the water in the 
 generator. This contains a grid which can be cleared 
 from any cinder that may have been in the carbide 
 by means of a manhole, whilst sludge is withdrawn 
 by means of a tap-hole in the bottom of the gene- 
 rator. 
 
 A ventilating pipe is carried up from the chute to 
 413 
 
 The 
 
 'Perfection 1 
 generator 
 
 Working of 
 
 the 
 apparatus 
 
 The 
 
 " Kleine 
 Centrale " 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 above the roof in order to discharge any acetylene 
 generated during the passage of the carbide through 
 the water in the chute into the open air. 
 
 FIG. 132. 
 
 pintsch Messrs. Pintsch used to make a generator of almost 
 generator identical form, but as the demand for acetylene to mix 
 
 414 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 with oil gas for compression in the cylinders used to 
 supply the gas for lighting the Prussian railways 
 increased, they modified the apparatus to the form 
 shown in Fig. 133. It consists of a strong iron gene- 
 rator, from the top of which the feed tube or chute 
 passes down to just below the surface of the water, 
 which fills two-thirds of the generator. 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 The carbide falls upon a conical deflector just below Modified 
 the mouth of the chute, and is spread by it over the generator 
 rocking grid a short distance below. The lime residue 
 and any pieces of carbide crust can be cleaned out by 
 means of a sludge cock and manhole at the bottom of 
 the generator. Water is allowed to flow in slowly but 
 continuously through a feed pipe which dips below 
 the surface of the liquid, and its level is kept con- 
 
 415 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Working of 
 
 the Carbide 
 
 carriers 
 
 The 
 
 conditions 
 
 under which 
 
 heating in 
 
 a " Carbide 
 
 into water " 
 
 generator 
 
 may take 
 
 place 
 
 Protective 
 
 coatings of 
 
 baked lime 
 
 and oil 
 
 stant by an overflow pipe descending into a water 
 seal, which acts as a safety valve in case of any stop- 
 page causing undue pressure. 
 
 Two carbide carriers are arranged to rotate by hand 
 on a bed plate which has an opening exactly over 
 the mouth of the chute, and the carbide carrier 
 which happens to be outside having been filled with 
 carbide, is rotated until the charge is emptied down 
 the tube, by which time the second vessel is in posi- 
 tion for filling. Any escape of gas is as far as 
 possible prevented by a head plate which closes the 
 top of the discharging cylinder, but there is also a 
 funnel which fits over the charging head, and is con- 
 nected with a tube leading above the roof. 
 
 The class in which carbide is allowed to fall into an 
 excess of water is, from a scientific point of view, un- 
 doubtedly the best, as with proper arrangements the 
 trouble of overheating is entirely done way with, and 
 the resulting gas in its passage through the water 
 above the point at which the carbide is decomposed 
 is cooled, washed, and to a certain extent purified. It 
 seems impossible at first sight that with carbide drop- 
 ping into an excess of water overheating could ever 
 take place, but there exist certain conditions in which 
 it is a possibility, and on more than one occasion the 
 author has fused strips of zinc in apparatus of 
 this kind, indicating that a temperature of 423 C had 
 been reached. This may be brought about by certain 
 circumstances, such as when the carbide is allowed to 
 drop into the lime sludge at the bottom of the gener- 
 ator, when the heat evolved by the decomposition of a 
 fairly large piece bakes the lime around it into a 
 protective coating, which limits the access of water to 
 the decomposing mass and causes the rise of temper- 
 ature, and occasionally in the residue from such a 
 generator a mass resembling a small potato will be 
 found consisting of lime and tar baked into a hard 
 
 416 
 
THE GTENEEATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 mass containing a small kernel of undecomposed 
 carbide. 
 
 Such cases are, however, rare and can be prevented 
 by using a grid or screen on to which the carbide 
 falls, and the lime separating during its formation 
 goes through the meshes into the lower part of the 
 vessel and settles there, the small pieces of carbide 
 which find their way through the screen being in- 
 sufficient in size to cause trouble of this character. 
 Nearly all generators of this class now employ grids 
 of this description, and even here overheating of the 
 same character has been found, where the carbide has 
 been put in in too large quantities so as to form a 
 heap in one spot on the screen ; lime is then liable to 
 form over the surface of the mass, and in the interior 
 overheating takes place, whilst, if a solid lump of 
 carbide weighing one to one and a half pounds be 
 thrown in, there is a liability of the same action. 
 
 It has also been urged against this class of gener- 
 ator that the yield of gas from a given sample of 
 carbide is less than the yield from the same carbide 
 used in generators belonging to the other classes, the 
 loss being due to the solubility of the gas in the 
 excess of water present. This objection, however, 
 is often more apparent than real, as the less rapid 
 rise of the holder may be due to the gas being 
 delivered from generators of this character in a much 
 cooler condition than from those generators which 
 have been shown to be liable to overheating. 
 
 Water at normal temperature and pressure only 
 dissolves a little over its own volume of the gas, and 
 this volume becomes rapidly reduced as the water gets 
 saturated with calcium hydrate and rises in temper- 
 ature, so that under ordinary conditions the per- 
 centage loss of gas due to this action would be very 
 small, more especially if the generator is so arranged 
 that the sludge settles freely to the bottom leaving 
 
 417 27 
 
 The use of 
 grids in this 
 
 form of 
 apparatus 
 
 Danger of 
 adding too 
 
 large a 
 
 charge of 
 
 Carbide or 
 
 using big 
 
 lumps 
 
 Loss of 
 Acetylene 
 
 from 
 solution 
 
 Conditions 
 
 which limit 
 
 solubility 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Proper 
 arrange- 
 ment of 
 grids in 
 generator 
 
 The settling 
 
 of the Lime 
 
 sludge 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 saturated limewater above it, and if then only the 
 sludge is withdrawn. 
 
 The best arrangement to employ in a generator of 
 this class is a treble screen placed not more than 4 
 to 6 inches below the surface of the water, the top 
 screen being of such mesh that it retains the large 
 lumps of carbide whilst the smaller lumps remain 
 upon the second screen, the third being of such fine 
 mesh as to practically allow only lime to pass through 
 it. Under these conditions the volume of water 
 through which the gas has to pass is so small a 
 column that it merely cools and washes the gas free 
 from the excess of ammonia and some of the sulphur- 
 etted hydrogen, without dissolving any considerable 
 quantity of the acetylene itself, whilst the gas rising 
 from the carbide on the second and third screens keeps 
 the liquid round the big lumps decomposing on the 
 upper screen so agitated that there is no risk of a 
 coating of lime forming on their surface. 
 
 This treble screen moreover provides a haven of rest 
 in the water below for the settlement of the lime 
 sludge. Experiments were made to see at what rate 
 this might be expected to take place. 
 
 In these experiments known weights of calcium 
 carbide were dropped into a beaker containing a litre 
 of water, and the results obtained were as shown in 
 tables on following page. So that it may be said 
 that after 30 minutes the volume of the lime is 10 
 c.c. per grm. of carbide, and after 90 minutes the 
 volume of lime is 7'5 c.c. per grm. of carbide. 
 
 So that approximately after half an hour's stand- 
 ing each kilo of calcium carbide will give 10 litres of 
 lime sludge, or 1 Ib. of calcium carbide will yield 
 8 pints, which can be got rid of by a sludge cock at 
 the bottom of the apparatus. The rapidity with 
 which settling takes place is of course slightly affected 
 by the form of the apparatus. 
 
 418 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 I 
 
 Water 
 taken. 
 
 Calcium 
 Carbide. 
 
 Volume of lime paste 
 deposited during 
 30 mins. 90 mins. 
 
 Volume of lime paste 
 deposited during 
 30 mins. 90 mins. 
 
 Grms. Grms. c.c. 
 
 c.c. 
 
 Calc. for 1 gnu. CaC 2 - 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 480 
 
 360 
 
 9-6 
 
 7-2 
 
 1,000 50 
 
 470 
 
 340 
 
 9-4 
 
 6-8 
 
 1,000 50 
 
 440 350 
 
 8-8 7-0 
 
 1,000 50 
 
 470 370 
 
 9*4 74 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 430 
 
 330 
 
 10-7 8-0 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 420 
 
 320 
 
 10-5 8-0 
 
 1,000 40 
 
 400 
 
 310 
 
 10-2 
 
 7-7 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 410 
 
 320 
 
 10-5 
 
 8-0 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 340 
 
 240 
 
 11-0 
 
 8-0 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 320 
 
 220 
 
 10-3 
 
 7-3 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 330 
 
 240 
 
 11-0 
 
 8-0 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 330 
 
 240 
 
 11-0 
 
 8-0 
 
 
 
 
 Mean 1O2 
 
 7'6 
 
 II 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 450 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 440 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 450 
 
 1,000 
 
 50 
 
 440 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 390 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 410 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 390 
 
 1,000 
 
 40 
 
 390 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 310 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 300 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 240 
 
 1,000 
 
 30 
 
 300 
 
 340 1 9'0 
 
 6'8 
 
 330 
 
 8-8 
 
 6-6 
 
 330 
 
 9-0 
 
 6-6 
 
 320 
 
 8-8 
 
 6'2 
 
 310 
 
 9-7 
 
 7-7 
 
 310 
 
 10-0 
 
 7'0 
 
 300 
 
 9-7 
 
 7'5 
 
 300 
 
 9-7 
 
 7'5 
 
 210 
 
 10-3 
 
 7-0 
 
 240 
 
 10-0 
 
 8-0 
 
 230 
 
 9-6 
 
 7-6 
 
 220 
 
 10-0 7-3 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 Mean 9'5 
 
 7-2 
 
 In allowing of the settlement of the sludge, the influence of 
 volume occupied will of course entirely depend upon 
 the length of time it is allowed to stand, and if a 
 
 generator 
 
 generator with holder is employed, and the make of eonStion of 
 
 the Lime 
 residue 
 
 gas necessary for the evening's consumption is stored 
 in the holder, it will be found that by the next morn- 
 ing the lime will have settled in a compact mass at 
 the bottom of the generator, with perfectly clear lime- 
 water above it, and this lime will in many cases be 
 
 419 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 found to be so thick that it refuses to flow through 
 the ordinary sludge cock. It is merely a mechanical 
 question, however, to so arrange the cleaning opening 
 that the lime can be withdrawn with a very small 
 portion of the supernatant water, and when this is 
 properly done the loss of gas due to the excess of 
 water present will practically disappear. 
 
 caro on the Caro, in the paper before quoted, in speaking of 
 Carbide to this class of generator, sums up its possible dis- 
 of generator advantages as follows : " By this method of generation 
 of acetylene overheating is out of the question. The 
 quantity of acetylene generated at one time is how- 
 ever large, and therefore ample gasholder capacity is 
 essential. No after-evolution of gas from the carbide 
 which has been dropped into the water is possible. 
 In most generators of this class, the carbide recep- 
 tacles have a number of divisions, the contents of each 
 one of which are automatically discharged in turn into 
 the water. The aqueous vapour, however, has access 
 to the whole of the carbide in the receptacle, and 
 therefore after-evolution does occur. But the amount 
 of gas thus evolved never exceeds 20 per cent, of the 
 total. In some generators of this class one carbide 
 container only is used, and a portion of its contents is 
 discharged into the water at one time, either through 
 a conveying screw or a valve which is controlled by 
 the movement of the gasholder bell. When a screw 
 likely to is used all the carbide is accessible to the water 
 occur with va p 0ur anc [ decomposition takes place, while in the 
 
 automatic - 1 - - 1 - ' 
 
 generators second case carbide appears invariably to stick be- 
 is bween the valve and its seat, and thus prevents the 
 effectual closing of the valve. Generators of this 
 class are quite trustworthy, but care should be taken 
 that a gasholder capable of receiving at least one-fifth 
 of the gas which the carbide in the container will 
 yield is attached to each." 
 
 In many forms of what are apparently at first sight 
 420 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 car bide-in to- water generators, the carbide is enclosed 
 in a tin, or some other form of container, which is 
 plunged under the surface of the water in the gener- 
 ator. Such forms are of course more nearly allied to 
 the water-to-carbide class, in which the water flows 
 into the carbide, as these containing vessels have open- 
 ings of only limited size, so that instead of being 
 entirely surrounded by water, the water is only 
 slowly infiltering to the carbide through the openings, 
 and in this class of generator you find the same 
 temperature relations existing as in those in which 
 the vessels are flooded by the rise of water. 
 
 It will now be well to summarise the influence of 
 the type of generator on the gas produced. 
 
 1. Purity of the acetylene. 
 
 It may be accepted that the purity of the gas 
 produced will be inversely as the heat generated 
 during its production, i.e. the lower the temperature 
 of generation the purer will be the gas, and it is 
 manifest therefore that apart from the washing 
 influence of the water present, the last class of 
 generator will give the purest gas, whilst the "dip" 
 class will give the least pure. The question, however, 
 of the influence of temperature in the generation upon 
 the purity of the gas will be fully discussed in the 
 chapter on the impurities of acetylene and its puri- 
 fication. 
 
 2. The influence of the class of generator upon 
 the volume of gas yielded from a given sample of 
 
 Carbide. 
 
 The author has made experiments on between 
 20 and 30 different generators of the various classes, 
 making from each an average of 600 c. ft. of gas, 
 and using carbide from bulk of even composition. 
 Under these conditions very varying results were 
 obtained, some generators showing themselves capable 
 of evolving the same volume of gas from the carbide 
 
 421 
 
 Generators 
 in which 
 
 cases is 
 
 dropped or 
 
 plunged 
 u: 
 
 Influence of 
 
 the type of 
 
 ge < JJf T ^ r 
 
 purity of 
 
 generator 
 
 volume of 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 Effect of the 
 
 type of 
 
 generator 
 
 on the 
 
 residue 
 
 Importance 
 of flooding 
 the residue 
 
 that had been determined by laboratory experiment, 
 whilst others of the same class gave far lower results ; 
 but by taking the average yield of gas per unit 
 weight of carbide from all the generators of one class, 
 it was possible to obtain data which indicated the 
 general result. 
 
 Water dripping on carbide . 
 Water rising to carbide 
 Carbide dipped in water and with- 
 drawn ...... 
 
 Carbide into water . 
 
 c. ft. per lb. Litres per kilo. 
 4-3 . 267-7 
 4-4 273-9 
 
 4-4 
 4-0 
 
 273-9 
 249-0 
 
 3. The effect of the form of generator on the con- 
 dition of the residue. 
 
 As has been already pointed out, the condition of the 
 residue left from carbide after liberation of the acetylene 
 depends largely upon the complete decomposition of 
 the material and the temperature at which the decom- 
 position has been carried out ; and it is of the utmost 
 importance that there should be no risk of any unde- 
 composed carbide remaining with the residue, as this 
 would give rise to gas if washed away into the drains 
 or thrown into the cesspit, and the quantity needed 
 to yield an explosive mixture being small and the 
 ignition point low such a mixture would be highly 
 dangerous. In order to ensure complete decomposition 
 generators must in every case at the end of the oper- 
 ation remain flooded for a considerable period, as if 
 overheating has taken place the risk always exists of 
 a coating of lime being baked over a small quantity 
 of carbide, and as this resists the action of water to a 
 great extent, it needs some time for the completion of 
 the action. It is always better to leave the residue 
 from one day's make flooded in the apparatus until 
 the next occasion of making, as if the apparatus be at 
 once cleaned out not only does the risk just alluded to 
 exist, but it is also found that there is a certain 
 
 422 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 amount of acetylene mechanically held by the lime. 
 
 The classes of generators in which there is the Drawbacks 
 
 . , . 11-1 of the 
 
 greatest risk of undecomposed carbide remaining are Drip "type 
 those in which the water drips upon a mass of carbide, of generator 
 as in this case it is possible that the action may be 
 stopped before the carbide is flooded and small quanti- 
 ties escape decomposition. Any one who has con- 
 stantly used a drip generator will have noticed that if 
 the action has been stopped after a small amount of 
 acetylene has been generated and the apparatus then 
 allowed to stand for a day or two, although there may 
 be a large amount of undecomposed carbide present, 
 the water has to be turned on for a very considerable 
 period before any fresh gas is evolved, this being due 
 chiefly to the lime formed during the slow after-gener- 
 ation forming a very tough adhesive coating over the 
 surface of the undecomposed material, this coating 
 consisting largely of lime next to the carbide, whilst 
 on the exterior it is chiefly calcium hydrate. 
 
 4. The influence of the generator on frothing. The 
 
 In those forms of generators in which carbide is in "u^J^e * 
 excess, frothing is practically an unknown trouble, <> f generator 
 but where water floods a vessel of carbide, or where 
 the carbide is dropped into water, trouble may some- 
 times arise from formation of foam on the top of the 
 liquid. When the carbide is dropped into water, at 
 first no foaming occurs, but as soon as the water begins 
 to get fairly saturated with lime frothing commences, 
 and is due to the fact that, as the bubble of crude cause of 
 acetylene leaves the carbide and passes up through the 
 saturated limewater, the impurities in that particular 
 bubble are absorbed on the exterior of the surface and 
 form a thin vesicle round the bubble, having a differ- 
 ent composition from the remainder of the liquid. On 
 reaching the surface these vesicles often remain for a 
 moment as a covering to the gas just evolved, and in 
 this way mounting up form the foam. 
 
 423 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Means of 
 preventing 
 
 frothing 
 
 when 
 
 working on 
 a big scale 
 
 Carbide into 
 
 water 
 generators 
 a necessity 
 in installa- 
 tions on a 
 big scale 
 
 The 
 
 Installation 
 at Oliva 
 
 If in the expansion of acetylene illumination on a 
 large scale this is found to be a very serious trouble, 
 it can readily be got over by methods of the same 
 character as those adopted in fermentation vats, where 
 a thin arm rotating at a high rate of speed breaks up 
 the scum as it forms. 
 
 With the introduction of acetylene for the lighting 
 of small towns and villages by distribution from a 
 central generating station with holders, it has been 
 found that it is only the carbide -in to- water class of 
 generator that can be employed with success, as 
 directly one begins to deal with large weights of car- 
 bide the temperature factor becomes so serious that 
 one must either divide the charge up into a multi- 
 tude of small generators or keep continuously charg- 
 ing and discharging the ones in use, and the result is 
 that in practically all the Continental installations on 
 the large scale it is this class of generator which 
 has been adopted. 
 
 The following list (page 425) will give an idea of 
 the acetylene supply works at present in operation or 
 well advanced in construction, and where possible the 
 price charged for the gas per 1,000 cubic feet is also 
 added. 
 
 The method employed and the general arrange- 
 ments are very much the same in all of them, and a 
 description of the installation at Oliva will serve to 
 give an idea of the way in which they are carried 
 out. 
 
 The installation consists of six producers, made by 
 the Allgemeine Carbid- und Acetylen-Gesellschaft of 
 Berlin, four of which are in use, and can produce 
 10 cubic metres per hour, whilst two are held in 
 reserve. If necessary, however, a larger output of 
 gas could be made. These generators are placed in 
 two groups of three, with a platform between them 
 for convenience in feeding in the carbide. 
 
 424 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Country and Name of Place. 
 
 Number of 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 Wabash . . . 
 
 New Milford . . 
 Milford, Delaware 
 Millbrook, N.Y. . 
 Corodenbeath 
 
 12,500 
 
 2,500 
 
 793 
 
 4,249 
 
 Price per 
 1,000 c. ft. 
 
 GERMANY s. d. 
 
 Hassfurt 2,500 380 
 
 Oliva 2,000 3 10 9 
 
 Schonsee 1,536 
 
 Ellerbeck 4,176 
 
 Grossenlinden 3 19 3 
 
 Daaden. 1,767 323 
 
 Strelitz ! 5,000 2 13 9 
 
 Treptow | 4,363 
 
 Peiskretscham 4,500 
 
 Achim 3,500 
 
 Sulzburg 1,111 
 
 Allandorf and Sodeu .... 6,000 
 
 Schlagenbad 2,000 
 
 Durenberg 
 
 Guttstadt 4,504 3 10 
 
 Johannisburg 3,000 
 
 Passenheim 1,967 
 
 Sensburg . 3,562 
 
 Eatzebuhr 2,298 
 
 Friedland 3,598 
 
 Arys 1,324 
 
 Bischofswerder 1,748 
 
 Frauenburg 2,458 
 
 Saalfeld 2,517 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 Mezotur 23,800 
 
 Totis 11,000 339 
 
 Vesprem 13,000 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 Alzonne ' 2,000 
 
 Cremieux ; 2,000 
 
 Marcenat . 
 
 340 
 
 3 16 9 
 
 List of 
 
 towns using 
 
 a central 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 supply, and 
 
 prices 
 charged 
 
 Between each pair of producers is a condenser, so 
 arranged that it can be used either with both pro- 
 ducers or only one, and each group of two is connected 
 
 425 
 
 Arrange- 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 with washers and purifiers through which the gas 
 passes before it reaches the holder. This is a mistake, 
 and in later installations is being altered as whilst 
 the generation of gas is going on rapidly, the flow 
 through the purifiers must be too rapid to allow of 
 proper purification, whilst had the purifying tanks 
 been placed at the outlet for the service, a steady and 
 continuous flow of gas during its consumption would 
 have allowed a far better purification. The holder is 
 of about 1,000 c. ft. capacity, and stands outside the 
 building, and as the gas leaves it is made to pass 
 through a drier and pressure regulator. 
 
 This works is designed for the supply of about 
 2,000 flames, but at present the output is not more 
 than half this number. The price which is charged 
 to ordinary consumers is 2 marks 5 pfennig per cubic 
 metre, whilst the price charged for the street lighting 
 is at the rate of 1-7 marks per cubic metre prices 
 which are equivalent to 3 10s. 9d. and 2 8s. Id. per 
 1,000 c. ft. respectively. 
 
 working The apparatus works smoothly and well, the gas 
 apparatus leaving the generators at very little above the atmos- 
 pheric temperature. The works are also well arranged 
 with regard to the charging and emptying of the 
 generators, the water for which is supplied from a 
 storage tank kept filled by a pump worked by a 
 Korting gas motor, which uses 300 litres of acetylene 
 per horse power per hour, whilst a large cesspool 
 below the generator house serves as a receptacle for 
 the lime sludge drawn off from the bottom of the 
 generators. On standing, the lime rapidly settles and 
 remains at the bottom as a white mud, whilst the 
 clear liquid can be run off from the surface into the 
 drains, the lime residue being cleared out from time 
 to time and used for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Distribution The distribution of the gas is well carried out, the 
 mains as they leave the works being 100 millimetres, 
 
 426 
 
FIG. 134. ACETYLENE SUPPLY WORKS FOR 2,000 LIGHTS. 
 
 FIG. 135. INTERIOR OF GENERATOR HOUSE. 
 
 427 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Advantages 
 
 of such 
 
 installations 
 
 to the 
 
 Carbide 
 
 trade 
 
 The danger 
 
 of large gas 
 
 spaces in 
 
 generators 
 
 Tempera- 
 ture needed 
 to cause 
 explosion 
 
 or, roughly, 4 inches, in diameter, and gradually 
 tapering away as they get further and further from 
 the works to 32 millimetres, or rather over an inch, 
 in diameter. 
 
 The street lamps, of which there are about ninety- 
 six, are all fitted with Munsterberg burners, which 
 are to all intents and purposes the same as Naphey 
 burners, and the light emitted is very effective, and, 
 with the lamp-posts placed at intervals of 150 feet, 
 gives a remarkably well-distributed effect. 
 
 The great advantage of handling small town in- 
 stallations of this character is that, if it be done by 
 a syndicate who are also manufacturers of carbide, 
 only the best quality of carbide need be sold to the 
 public, whilst the inferior samples can be utilised in 
 providing the gas in works of this description. This 
 is a far better solution of the difficulty of getting rid 
 of carbide crust than the usually adopted one of mix- 
 ing the inferior portions with the true carbide so as 
 to obtain a constant yield. 
 
 In most generators there is a considerable amount 
 of space filled with air before the commencement of 
 generation, and as the acetylene comes off from the 
 carbide this space will contain mixtures of every com- 
 position from pure air to pure acetylene ; and as it may 
 take several minutes for all the air to be cleared out 
 from the generator space, and as the range over 
 which mixtures of acetylene and air are explosive is 
 an extremely wide one, it is manifest that during the 
 early stages of generation there is always a risk of ex- 
 plosion taking place, more especially as the tempera- 
 ture of ignition of mixtures of acetylene and air is 
 very low (480 C), although acetylene itself does not 
 decompose into its constituents until a temperature of 
 780 C is reached. The question now arises as to 
 whether a temperature sufficient to ignite the mixture 
 is likely or possible to be attained during the period 
 
 428 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 in which the air is still present in sufficient quantity 
 to produce an explosive mixture. 
 
 The causes which might give the necessary tempera- 
 ture are two in number : 
 
 1. The liberation of spontaneously combustible gases 
 from the impurities in the carbide which, on coming 
 in contact with the air in the generator, might ignite 
 the explosive mixture. 
 
 2. The generation of sufficient heat by the action of 
 the carbide on the water to reach the ignition point of 
 the mixed gases. 
 
 In order to ascertain the likelihood of the ignition 
 of explosive mixtures being brought about by the 
 first cause, experiments were made by the author con- 
 jointly with Mr. Boverton Redwood to try and deter- 
 mine whether this were possible. The two spontane- 
 ously inflammable gases which might give rise to this 
 trouble are the vapours of liquid phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen, P 2 H 4 , and siliciuretted hydrogen, both of which 
 might be generated from impurities in the carbide 
 under certain conditions. 
 
 In view of the generally accepted theory of its pro- 
 duction, phosphuretted hydrogen was made by acting 
 on calcic phosphide with water, and attempts were 
 made to determine what proportion of this gas had to 
 be mixed with acetylene in order to give spontaneous 
 ignition. It was found, however, that the mere con- 
 tact with water necessitated in mixing the gases ren- 
 dered the resulting mixtures non-spontaneously in- 
 flammable even when hot water was used, and that 
 the phosphuretted hydrogen alone failed to ignite 
 after being in contact with water for some time. 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen was then made by acting on 
 phosphorus with boiling sodium hydrate, and it was 
 found that, using hot water, it required over 80 per 
 cent, to render the acetylene and phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen mixture spontaneously inflammable. 
 
 429 
 
 The causes 
 which might 
 give rise to 
 
 the 
 
 necessary 
 
 temperature 
 
 to cause 
 
 explosion 
 
 Spon- 
 taneously 
 inflammable 
 gases in 
 Acetylene 
 
 Percentage 
 
 of Phos- 
 phuretted 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hydrogen From, these experiments it was perfectly clear that 
 "render* wnen once tne mixture of gas is made, even a high 
 Acetylene percentage of phosphuretted hydrogen would be per- 
 
 spon- 
 meous 
 
 inflammable to deleterious products of combustion and might lower 
 the igniting point of the acetylene, but that no risk of 
 
 taneousiy fectly harmless, except in so far as it would give rise 
 to deleterious products of cc 
 the igniting point of the ac 
 spontaneous ignition exists. 
 
 Conditions If, however, one considers the methods by which 
 
 which Phos- the carbide is brought in contact with water in the 
 
 phuretted various forms of acetylene generators, and the very 
 
 might cause high temperature which may be attained by the 
 
 action of water upon the carbide, it is evident that 
 
 there are cases in which water being allowed to drip 
 
 on the carbide, or the dripping of the carbide into 
 
 water, might give spontaneous inflammability to a 
 
 mixture containing air, which, when only moderately 
 
 heated, would be absolutely free from this danger. 
 
 Experi- A series of experiments was then instituted to see 
 
 determine wna ^ proportion of calcic phosphide mixed with calcic 
 
 amount of carbide would cause spontaneous ignition on contact 
 
 Phosphide with. air. In order to get these experiments strictly 
 
 in carbide comparable, it was necessary that the ingredients used 
 
 necessary to . x 1 . ,-,-,. 
 
 give m each experiment should be in the same state of 
 ignition division, and that a similar amount of water should be 
 
 in each case added to the mixture. 
 Method of Pure crystalline carbide and fresh calcic phosphide 
 
 experiment " . f 
 
 were reduced to powder and sieved down to uniform 
 size. Mixtures of the two ingredients were then 
 made and put in charges of 5 grms. into small porce- 
 lain vessels, into each of which 5 c.c. of water was 
 added, and it was found that on testing from 50 per 
 cent, downwards, even when only 1 per cent, of 
 calcium phosphide was present, spontaneous ignition 
 of the evolved gases would in many cases take place, 
 and it was also noted during these experiments that 
 the acetylene came off more readily than the phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen, and that the ignition was gen- 
 
 430 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 erally brought about by a flash from a bubble of 
 phosphuretted hydrogen after the first rush of acety- 
 lene had passed off. In other words, the calcium 
 phosphide was less readily decomposed by water than 
 the calcium carbide, so that what would be 1 per cent. 
 of calcium phosphide in the original mixture would 
 mean a far higher percentage by the time the calcium 
 phosphide came to be decomposed, and it was manifest Result of 
 also that the temperature created by the action of a exper iments 
 limited quantity of water upon the carbide had a 
 great deal to do with the result. 
 
 Other experiments were then made with mixtures 
 of carbide and phosphide by plunging the mixture 
 under the surface of several times its own volume of 
 water, and it was then found that 25 per cent, of 
 phosphide might in some cases be present without 
 leading to spontaneous ignition, this of course being 
 due to the cooling effect of the water present. 
 
 These experiments seemed to show that calcium 
 carbide of ordinary commercial manufacture may be 
 used without any danger from this cause for gener- 
 ating acetylene gas. 
 
 With regard to the likelihood of the temperature Time 
 caused by the action of water on the carbide, experi- "develop a 
 ments were made which showed that, when allowing dangerously 
 water to drip at the rate of about 8 c. cm. per minute temperature 
 upon 227 grms. of carbide, it took always 16 to 17 
 minutes before sufficient heat was generated in the 
 mass to reach 480, the point necessary to ignite an 
 explosive mixture ; and it is manifest that long before 
 this point has been reached an explosive mixture will 
 have ceased to exist, the evolved acetylene having 
 washed all air out of the generator, whilst with the conclusion* 
 form of generator in which carbide is dipped into 
 water and then withdrawn by the rise of the gas- 
 holder, ten and a half minutes elapsed before the 
 necessary temperature was arrived at. 
 
 431 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The pre- 
 vention of 
 danger from 
 mixtures 
 of air and 
 gas in the 
 generator 
 
 Strength of 
 
 the 
 
 generator 
 a factor in 
 its safety 
 
 Gerdes' 
 experiments 
 
 It must be clearly borne in mind, however, that these 
 experiments were made with a quantity of carbide far 
 smaller than that employed in most generators, and it- 
 is just possible that in using charges of greater 
 weight the necessary temperature might be reached 
 before sufficient air was rinsed out of the generator to 
 bring the mixture outside the explosive limits. 
 
 It should be perfectly easy, however, with generators 
 in which there is considerable air space to devise an 
 arrangement by which, after the generator has been 
 charged and before the action is started, all air might 
 be rinsed out of the generator by means of a small 
 tube leading from the gas outlet of the holder, or if 
 this were not possible a small auxiliary carbon dioxide 
 apparatus on Kipp's principle might be arranged to 
 rinse out the air by carbon dioxide, the small propor- 
 tion of this gas so introduced and afterwards carried 
 into the holder having no effect on the illuminating 
 value of the acetylene itself. 
 
 As regards the safety of generators, there are many 
 points which deserve attention. 
 
 The strength of the generator plays an important 
 part in the safety of the apparatus, as it is here that 
 the only practical chance of explosion exists, and 
 proper attention to its construction and power of re- 
 sisting any accidental explosion that might take place 
 must be an important factor in the safety of the in- 
 stallation. 
 
 Gerdes has investigated this point and has published 
 a highly-interesting paper on the subject in Glasers 
 Annalen fur Gewerbe und Bauwesen, 1898, vol. 43, 510. 
 His experiments were carried out with the view of de- 
 termining in what manner an explosion occurring in the 
 generator may act on its walls, and in order to do this 
 the generators were made with metal of a lighter 
 gauge than ordinarily used and partly filled with 
 water, the upper portion containing the mixture of 
 
 432 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 acetylene and air. The apparatus was placed in a pit 
 
 FIG. 136. 
 
 and the top of the pit was covered over with sand 
 
 433 28 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 bags, the contents of which weighed some hundreds of 
 kilos. 
 
 In the first experiment the generator shot up to a 
 
 
 
 FIG. 137. 
 
 Result of height of about six metres above the ground level, 
 
 experiment then turned over and fell upside down. The soil in 
 
 the pit was thrown up by the explosion, and Figs. 137 
 
 434 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 and 138, taken from two different points, illustrate the 
 effect of the explosion at two different stages. 
 
 In the second experiment the bottom of the genera- second trial 
 tor was made stronger, and the explosion merely 
 caused a bulging out of the part filled with water, as 
 shown in Fig. 139. 
 
 A third generator was treated in the same way, and conclusions 
 
 FIG. 138. 
 
 in this case it was burst open in the part filled with 
 water in the manner shown in Fig. 140. These ex- 
 periments show that it is not only the portions of 
 the generator containing gas which are subjected to 
 strain by the force of the explosion, but that the 
 water in such a vessel transmits the pressure to the 
 lower portions. 
 
 It is manifest that it is quite possible, by using good 
 metal of sufficient thickness, to provide a generator generators 
 
 435 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 which, even should an explosion take place, would 
 prevent any serious damage arising ; but there are 
 
 FIG. 139. 
 
 many points besides this which should be considered, 
 and which, if properly carried out, would make anything 
 like an explosion in the generator an impossibility. 
 
 436 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Several accidents have happened through recharging 
 generators at night, when a light was required for 
 carrying on the work. With every generator there is 
 always the probability that the opening of the carbide 
 
 Charging at 
 
 night to be 
 
 avoided 
 
 chamber to put in fresh material will allow a certain 
 amount of acetylene to escape into the air, and a 
 certain amount of air to find its way into the generator, 
 and this should be minimised as much as possible. 
 
 437 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Safety 
 water seals 
 uersus cocks 
 
 Low 
 
 pressure an 
 
 important 
 
 point 
 
 A store 
 holder for 
 
 gas 
 advisable 
 
 Space for 
 ' after- pro- 
 duction " 
 
 Blow-off 
 valve 
 
 A point which should be insisted upon in all installa- 
 tions is that, instead of having a cock between the 
 holder and generator, there should be a water seal, 
 which, when the generator is opened for recharging, 
 will preclude the possibility of gas from the holder 
 finding its way back through the generator : as if 
 reliance be placed on a cock being turned off and on, 
 there is always the chance that this will be forgotten 
 by the unskilled labour on which one often relies for 
 keeping the apparatus running, and should the cock 
 be left open during charging a serious escape takes 
 place. In order to prevent the need of recharging at 
 night, the generator should be so designed as to provide 
 a fair margin over the amount of gas likely to be used 
 in the course of the evening, and should be filled up 
 every day. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the increase of 
 heating in a generator increases rapidly with pressure, 
 and no generator should work at a pressure greater 
 than is needed to put the gas into the holder, so that 
 four to six inches ought to be the outside limit, whilst 
 the holder pressure should be from two to three inches. 
 
 Every one connected with the acetylene industry is 
 now beginning to realise that for anything but the 
 smallest installations a store holder of sufficient capacity 
 to supply all the gas needed for an evening's consump- 
 tion, and to leave sufficient holder room to provide for 
 after-generation, is a necessity. The holder should be so 
 arranged that, in the case of after-generation or over- 
 production, any excess of gas should be allowed to 
 escape without the increase of pressure necessary to 
 blow the seal of the holder, as if this were relied on it 
 would necessitate a regulator to be used between the 
 holder and service, which is better avoided, as the 
 holder itself forms by far the best pressure regulator. 
 
 This may be attained either by having a small 
 sealed blow-off on the inlet pipe just before the gas 
 
 438 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 is delivered into the holder, which will come into 
 action at an inch higher pressure than is provided for 
 in the holder itself, or by the very excellent arrange- 
 ment due to Dr. N. Caro, which consists of a small 
 elbow joint turned up at right angles, and attached 
 to the lower edge of the gasholder, which slides in a holder relief 
 recess provided for it in the holder tank, and which, 
 when the holder has reached its upward limit, comes 
 into a small funnel attached to a pipe leading outside 
 the building, and so allowing an escape for the excess 
 of gas. 
 
 The holder should also be well supported and guided Points to 
 by either a central support or by properly-arranged notice with 
 columns, so that no jamming is possible. A trouble ^giudes^ 
 which is occasionally found owing to improper con- 
 struction is that where the guide pillars are bolted to 
 the rim of the holder tank ; there is often a projection 
 on which the weights counterpoising the holder tank 
 catch and lodge for a few moments whilst descending, 
 thus throwing an extra pressure on the gas, and causing 
 the flames, if the gas is burning, to flare. If such a 
 projection exists, the trouble can easily be overcome by 
 fixing a small sheet metal guide over the joint. 
 
 Outside gasholders that are liable to exposure to 
 frost should be filled with saturated salt solution, but 
 the holder and tank must, under these conditions, be 
 thickly coated with a good protective paint, and any 
 loss from evaporation made up with ordinary water. 
 
 The question of the removal of the lime has already Troubles 
 been dealt with, but it is well here again to point out with s] 
 that with the sludge cocks attached to many forms of 
 apparatus, if the machine be allowed to stand for a 
 couple of days before cleaning out, the lime settles into 
 so dense a mass that the sludge cock becomes stopped, 
 and on breaking a passage through it with a clearing 
 rod the operator becomes exposed to a rush of lime 
 sludge. It should be quite possible to design an 
 
 439 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 No soldering 
 
 work 
 
 allowable in 
 generator 
 
 con- 
 struction 
 
 No Mercury 
 
 seals to be 
 
 used 
 
 Attempts to 
 slow down 
 generation 
 
 The use of 
 
 oil in 
 generators 
 
 apparatus in which, after allowing twenty-four hours 
 for settlement, the lime sludge could be removed by 
 means of an endless screw in such a way that the 
 working of the generator need not be stopped. In any 
 case more attention should be paid to the arrangements 
 for cleaning out the apparatus. 
 
 In constructing a generator, all parts should be made 
 of sufficient strength to resist the effect of explosion, 
 and no soldering should be allowed, everything being 
 either rivetted or screwed, and where water seals are 
 employed to close any part of the apparatus, they 
 should be of such depth as to provide a good margin 
 of resistance over and above the ordinary pressure 
 existing in the apparatus, and must be protected from 
 any chance of lime entering into them during the 
 actions taking place in the generator. Mercury seals 
 must not be used, as they rapidly become affected by 
 the gas and its impurities. Gauge glasses so fixed as 
 to offer any chance of breakage, or indiarubber tubing 
 or other material liable to perishing, must on no 
 account be employed in any part of the generator. 
 
 In some forms of generator, attempts have been 
 made to slow down in various ways the action of the 
 carbide in the water by using saline solutions, and in 
 some cases even a solution of sugar in the generator ; 
 but it is manifest that on a large scale any such devices 
 would be too costly, and are practically not necessary. 
 In some apparatus also, especially with those in which 
 a chute leads the carbide down into the water, a layer 
 of oil has been employed on the top of the water in 
 the chute, with the intention of coating the carbide 
 as it falls through the oil with enough of that sub- 
 stance to prevent the action of water upon it until it 
 gets into the generating chamber itself, whilst some- 
 times the carbide is dipped into oil before dropping it 
 into the generator, with the same effect in view. It is 
 found, however, that the hydrocarbons so passed into 
 
 440 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the body of the generator give rise to a considerable 
 amount of trouble, as the interior of the vessel gets 
 coated with tar and oil, and the exit pipes are liable to 
 choke owing to the sticky paste formed by the evolved 
 products of the oil and lime dust. 
 
 In generators designed for what may be termed 
 domestic use, in which sufficient acetylene has to be 
 provided for the evening's consumption in from five to 
 a hundred burners, all classes of apparatus are to be 
 found, the requirements of the installation not being too 
 large to allow of the water-to-carbide class being debar- 
 red owing to serious overheating, whilst still large 
 enough to admit of the carbide- to- water generators being 
 used with great success ; but the moment either a larger 
 or smaller apparatus is needed, the generators at once 
 naturally divide themselves into the two main classes, 
 the water to carbide type being the only one possible 
 to employ in making small automatic apparatus to 
 supply a single flame, whilst the carbide to water one 
 is the only one it is found possible to use for lighting 
 on a large scale, as where a village or small town has 
 to be supplied from a central installation. 
 
 The success of an acetylene installation largely 
 depends upon the way in which the fitting is done. 
 In putting up an ordinary installation for a house 
 a non-automatic generator should be employed, and 
 a holder capable of containing sufficient gas to last 
 the whole evening with the maximum number of 
 lights burning. The generator and holder should 
 both stand perfectly level upon a firm foundation, 
 preferably of brick or concrete, and all pipes should 
 have a slight fall back to the holder. The generator 
 and holder, according to regulations, must be a short 
 distance away from the house, and the building 
 containing them must be well ventilated, and capable 
 of being warmed by hot- water pipes in cold weather, 
 so as to prevent freezing of the water in the holder 
 
 441 
 
 Natural 
 division of 
 generators 
 
 into two 
 classes for 
 large and 
 
 small 
 installations 
 
 The fitting 
 of Acetylene 
 installations 
 
 The 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Size of 
 pipes 
 
 Making 
 joints 
 
 Taps and 
 fittings 
 
 Soundness 
 of joints 
 
 and in the generator system. Where this is not 
 practicable, the holder tank must be filled with a 
 solution of brine, in which case all iron work, as 
 before mentioned, must be carefully coated with a 
 good protective paint. 
 
 The specific gravity of acetylene being O9 as 
 against 0*4 of ordinary coal gas, the flow through 
 the pipes is rather less ; but inasmuch as less than 
 one-fifth the volume of acetylene is required for each 
 burner that is employed than for coal gas, this factor 
 may be disregarded. A pipe of a given size may be 
 taken as supplying three times as many burners as 
 would be the case if coal gas were used. In ordinary 
 installations the following sizes of pipes may be em- 
 ployed, and in no case should pipes smaller than f 
 be used. 
 
 f inch pipe 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Up to 8 burners. 
 ., 15 
 !, 60 ., 
 ., 100 .. 
 ., 2,000 ., 
 
 In house-fitting no composite pipe should be em- 
 ployed for acetylene, the best iron barrel only being 
 used, and the joints should all be well-cut right and 
 left-handed screw unions. No packing or paint must 
 be used in making the joint, but the threads may 
 be dusted with finely-ground plumbago. The reason 
 for this is that tar, paint, and all the usual substances 
 employed in making joints with coal gas are rapidly 
 acted upon by the acetylene, becoming brittle and 
 cracking, thus giving rise to leakage. The taps must 
 be of the best brass, such as are used for water and 
 steam work, with full taper plugs in deep barrels, 
 so as to give plenty of grinding surface, the ordinary 
 cheap brass fittings rapidly becoming leaky. 
 
 When the whole installation is complete, it should 
 be carefully tested under a pressure of 15 inches of 
 
 442 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 mercury, and should not show a loss of more than 2 
 inches in twelve hours. 
 
 In starting an installation, the holder should be 
 filled with acetylene, and an indiarubber tube should 
 be attached to the gas-fitting furthest removed from 
 the holder, the burner being taken off for this pur- 
 pose, and the end of the tube should be led outside a 
 window. The gas from the holder should be run 
 through the pipes until a test-tube blown full of the 
 gas from the end of the indiarubber pipe burns 
 quietly down in the tube when a light is applied to 
 it ; and where there are several branch services in 
 the house, this should be repeated at the end of each. 
 All the burners being then fixed in position, the gas 
 may with safety be lighted. 
 
 The pressure at which the gas is supplied to the 
 house should not exceed 2J inches. 
 
 The small form of generator finds its most success- 
 ful adaptation in providing out-door lamps for cycles, 
 motors, drive lamps, and signalling apparatus. For 
 this purpose it is comparatively easy to design a 
 generator sufficiently small to supply the gas as re- 
 quired to a single fiame burner, and the great troubles 
 of small generators which are irregularity in the 
 rate of generation, and serious after-generation are 
 of no serious moment, as any excess of gas can escape 
 freely into the outer air without giving rise to the 
 nuisance which would follow in a room or other 
 enclosed space, and which has so seriously militated 
 against the introduction of acetylene lamps for indoor 
 use. 
 
 The acetylene cycle lamp has increased and multiplied 
 to a very large extend during the last few years, and 
 many and varied forms of apparatus have been devised 
 for this purpose. The wonderful illuminating power 
 of acetylene renders it capable of giving a clear view 
 of a considerable distance of road ahead of the rider, 
 
 443 
 
 Starting an 
 installation 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Cycle lamp 
 and other 
 
 small 
 generators 
 
 Acetylene 
 cycle lamps 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Drawbacks 
 cycle lamps 
 
 Conditions 
 
 necessary 
 
 in a good 
 
 cycle lamp 
 
 and although this is from a cyclist's point of view a 
 certain advantage, it is not regarded with equal favour 
 by pedestrians and the drivers of nervous horses, as 
 the rapid passage of so brilliant a beam of light leaves 
 the eye unable to discern surrounding objects for some 
 few moments after the cyclist has passed. Moreover, 
 the acetylene cycle lamp is distinctly more costly both 
 in initial price and in maintenance than the oil lamp, 
 and is also far heavier. The trouble and smell of 
 recharging soon become a drawback when the novelty 
 of the lamp has worn off, and when once the acetylene 
 lamp has been charged, the whole of the carbide has 
 to be used up, as it is impossible to stop the after- 
 generation in so small a mass of material, and the only 
 safe way is to allow the lamp to burn itself out, and it 
 is manifest that this is a great drawback where the 
 rider has to make a call of an hour or two. Unless the 
 lamp is made heavy and clumsy, it does not contain a 
 sufficiently large charge, the average lamp only lasting 
 from 4 to 4 1 hours, whilst in the winter months at 
 least 6 hours' light may be wanted. The fact that 
 the carbide also has to be used in all of them in a 
 granulated condition means that it has been very 
 largely decomposed during granulation, and as a result 
 gives but a low yield of gas, whilst it is very difficult 
 to find a construction in which the carbide and water 
 do not rattle in the lamp with the vibration of the 
 machine a factor which often upsets the working of 
 delicate valve arrangements intended to regulate the 
 generation of the gas. 
 
 A good acetylene cycle lamp should be able to 
 satisfy the following conditions. The charge should 
 be capable of being varied in amount, so that carbide 
 either for a short period or for a maximum of six 
 hours' generation can be put in ; the lamps should 
 not require regulation after having been once lighted, 
 and if this should prove absolutely necessary, the 
 
 444 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 regulating tap should be in such a position that the 
 rider can adjust it without dismounting. Provision 
 should be made for keeping the carbide from shaking 
 about in the lamp, and yet provide room for the lime 
 formed during its decomposition. The gas should be 
 capable of being completely extinguished without any 
 great after production, and should in every case be 
 filtered by passing through such material as silicate 
 wool before being burnt, in order to guard against 
 water vapour and lime dust being carried forward and 
 choking the burner. Cycle lamps should not be con- 
 structed so as to work only with cartridges, as under 
 many conditions it is impossible to get these, and the 
 lamp is rendered useless. 
 
 The reflector should be of such a curve as to diffuse 
 the greater part of the light immediately in front of 
 the rider, whilst a small portion of the light should be 
 concentrated into a beam to illuminate the road some 
 distance ahead. This, reflector should not be made of 
 any metal liable to tarnish, and should be easily 
 cleaned ; and every care should be taken in the con- 
 struction of the lamp to prevent back reflection of the 
 light, either from the front of the lamp or from the 
 ventilation air holes above the burner chamber, as 
 nothing is more dazzling and blinding than an 
 occasional glint from this source. The lens would be 
 much improved if the upper half had its surface 
 ground, an arrangement which would prevent the 
 startling of horses, and the dazzling of passers-by, 
 whilst the light would be still more concentrated upon 
 the roadway. The burner should not be made of 
 metal but of steatite, and, no matter whether a plain 
 jet or flat flame, should be made on the air-injector 
 plan ; whilst provision should be made for cleaning 
 out the burner in case of a stoppage by means of the 
 cycle pump. 
 
 The type of lamp in which a wick sucks or syphons 
 445 
 
 Precautions 
 to be taken 
 
 in con- 
 struction 
 
 Cycle lamp 
 reflectors 
 
 The lamp 
 lens 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Troubles 
 
 with 
 
 capillary 
 syphons 
 
 water to the carbide is not good, as the cotton soon 
 gets choked with lime and loses its capillary powers. 
 The charging and cleaning of the lamps should be 
 made as simple and as easy as possible, the whole lamp 
 being capable of being taken to pieces for cleaning, 
 and the various parts should be made to gauge, so as 
 to be interchangeable. Where fabrics such as cotton, 
 
 muslin, or felt are 
 used to act as a 
 diffusing mate- 
 rial for the water 
 over the surface 
 of the carbide, a 
 surplus supply 
 
 FIG. 141. 
 
 FIG. 142. 
 
 Condition of 
 
 the Carbide 
 
 used in 
 
 should always be kept, so that one set can be dry- 
 ing whilst a fresh set is in use. 
 
 The carbide used in cycle lamps should be granu- 
 lated down to a small and even size, as if lumps 
 B lamus are nsec i wa ter is very apt to collect in cavities in the 
 decomposed material, and by a sudden jerk of the 
 machine is driven on to the carbide and causes a sudden 
 rush of gas. 
 
 446 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 CLASS I. CYCLE LAMPS IN WHICH WATER DRIPS 
 
 ON CARBIDE. 
 
 The Twentieth Century. The carbide is placed in a 
 cup A provided with a central perforated tube D, sur- 
 rounded by a layer of muslin which diffuses the water 
 to the carbide. This cup fits in an outer vessel, B, 
 Fig. 142, which screws on to the base of the lamp, 
 the joint being rendered gas-tight by the rubber 
 ring c. A plate fitted with a spring keeps the 
 carbide from shaking about in the carbide chamber. 
 Water is admitted into D by a tube, having at the 
 end a coned valve E. The flow of water is regulated 
 from without the lamp by the thumb piece r, which 
 actuates the rack-work G G 1 thus opening or closing 
 the coned valve E. The water reservoir H is filled 
 through the screw cap j. The gas is led to the burner 
 K in the focus of the parabolic reflector L. The clip 
 for attaching the lamp to the cycle fits on at p. 
 
 The Excelsior. A separate cup A, Fig. 143, with 
 central perforated tube, holds the charge of carbide, 
 and is fitted in an outer vessel D, 
 which is attached to 
 the body of the lamp 
 by three clips G, a 
 rubber ring c mak- 
 ing the joint gas- 
 tight. The top of 
 the carbide cup is 
 fitted with a perfor- 
 ated cover, over 
 which a piece of linen 
 is stretched and acts 
 as a filter for the gas. 
 The water chamber 
 D is placed above the 
 carbide chamber, and 
 FIG. 143. the rate of flow is 
 
 447 
 
 The 
 " Twentieth 
 
 Century " 
 cycle lamp 
 
 Con- 
 struction 
 
 The 
 Excelsior 
 
 Arrange- 
 ment of 
 water 
 supply 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 regulated by a coned valve E, worked from a thumb 
 
 FIG. 144. 
 
 piece at the top of the lamp. The gas burner j enters 
 
 448 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the burner chamber, which is fitted to the side of the 
 lamp in the focus of the reflector H. A screw thread K 
 below the burner, and provided with a cap, allows of a 
 cycle pump being attached for cleaning the burner. 
 
 The Windmiller (Figs. 144, 145). The carbide cup The " wind 
 A fits into the base of the lamp, and is rendered gas- 
 tight by the base plate M, which screws on to the body 
 of the lamp against the rubber ring N. Water drips 
 from the reservoir D above, into the perforated tube 
 B, and the rate of flow is regulated by the side tap 
 and valve c. A chamber H, filled with a porous 
 material H, acts as a gas filter. The burner is pro- 
 vided with a screw F, to which a pump can be 
 attached for cleaning the burner, and with an ar- 
 rangement for adjusting the size of the flame or 
 shutting off the gas supply altogether. 
 
 The Phenomenon (Figs. 146, 147). In this lamp also The 
 water drips on to carbide contained in the detachable 
 
 Phenom- 
 enon " 
 
 FIG. 146. 
 
 449 29 
 
The 
 
 Triumph 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 cup A enclosed in the chamber D, which is clamped to 
 the body of the lamp by three screw clamps c, a rubber 
 
 FIG. 147. 
 
 FIG. 148. 
 
 ring H making the joint good. The water supply is 
 regulated from the top of the reservoir G by the cone 
 valve F. A gas-filtering chamber is provided at E. 
 
 The Triumph (Fig. 148). The carbide is placed in a 
 cylindrical chamber A, the bottom of which is per- 
 forated, the perforations being covered by a piece of 
 porous paper which requires renewing for each charge. 
 This chamber slides into a horizontal receptacle B at 
 the base of the lamp, which is closed by a screw cap 
 fitted with a mbber washer. Water is admitted from 
 the reservoir c by a coned valve D, which allows the 
 water to flow down the side of the receptable B until it 
 is sucked up by the porous paper and attacks the car- 
 bide. Safety vents, to avoid excessive pressure of gas, 
 are provided at F and p 1 . A novel arrangement is 
 fitted at G, which is a chamber at the back of the 
 burner chamber, and containing a roll of explosive 
 
 450 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 caps. On turning a button outside the lamp, a 
 hammer is lifted and falls on one of these caps, causing 
 a flame which lights the gas at the burner H. 
 
 The Majestic (Figs. 149, 150). The carbide chamber 
 A, fitted with central perforated tube A 1 , is attached to 
 the lamp by a strong wire clamp, which passes from 
 
 The 
 
 " Majestic ' 
 cycle lamp 
 
 FIG. 149. 
 
 the carbide chamber to the top of the lamp, where a 
 lever arm draws the carbide chamber tight against 
 the rubber ring D. The water supplied from M is 
 regulated by the coned valve c, worked from the side 
 of the lamp. The cap F of the water chamber lifts 
 off, and has a rubber washer G to prevent the escape 
 of water, whilst the springs L serve to keep it in 
 position. The gas has to pass through the filtering 
 chamber B before reaching the burner j. 
 
 The LeucMkugd (Figs. 151, 152). In this lamp the 
 carbide chamber f and perforated diffusing tube are 
 separate, the latter passing up through a hole in the 
 
 451 
 
 The 
 
 " Leucht- 
 kugel " 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 cup, and the top of the tube is provided with a screw 
 thread g, engaging with a screw on the water drip, 
 
 FIG. 152. 
 
 the lower end being fitted with a fiange and rubber 
 washer. By this means the carbide cup is drawn up 
 
 452 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 against the bottom of the lamp, the joints being 
 rendered gas-tight by the rubber ring h and the 
 washer of the tube. The water-regulating tap, at 
 the side of the lamp c, allows the water to drip 
 from the water reservoir a into the diffusing tube. 
 
 The Bundy (Figs. 153, 154). An outer chamber r 
 screwing into the lamp carries the carbide, which is 
 made up in cartridge form s. The cartridge is pierced 
 by a centra] tube J, with two lateral openings which 
 allow the water to attack the carbide. The water is 
 admitted to the central tube from the water reservoir 
 m by means of the coned valve ft which is actuated by 
 a small handle n at the side of the lamp. The 
 gas passes through a filtering plug d to the 
 burner^ a. The burner chamber fits over the top 
 
 The 
 Bundy 
 
 FIG. 153. 
 
 FIG. 154. 
 
 453 
 
The 
 Cetolite 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 of the lamp by means of a bayonet joint. The water 
 is poured into the reservoir through Jc. 
 
 The Cetolite (Figs. 155, 156). The water reservoir 
 
 forms the upper part of the lamp D, the carbide being 
 placed in a receptacle K, which screws on to the lamp 
 below. Water is supplied to the carbide by a coned 
 
 454 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 valve E, worked by a button A on the top of the lamp. 
 The gas passes through a chamber filled with filter- 
 ing material F before entering the burner, which 
 is placed in a parabolic chamber at the side of the 
 water reservoir. 
 
 The Acetylator (Figs. 157, 158). The vessel c6ntain- 
 ing the carbide screws on to the lamp at the bottom, 
 and water is admitted to the side of this vessel by a 
 
 The 
 "Acety- 
 lator " 
 
 FIG. 157. 
 
 FIG. 158, 
 
 tube furnished with a coned valve actuated from the 
 top of the lamp, leading from the water reservoir 
 above. The centre portion of the lamp forms the 
 burner chamber, and the products of combustion pass 
 through a chimney, which is fixed in the centre of 
 the water supply. 
 
 The Solitaire (Figs. 159, 160). The water reservoir is 
 situated at the back of the burner chamber and on top of 
 
 455 
 
 The 
 Solitaire 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the portion which contains the carbide. The carbide is 
 placed in a metal cup fitting in the lower part of the 
 lamp, and is pressed up against a wire gauze by means 
 of a spring. The base of the lamp is closed by a screw 
 
 cap. Water drips from the water tank on to the wire 
 gauze, and is diffused over the carbide by a piece of 
 blotting paper placed on top of the carbide, the rate of 
 flow being regulated by a coned valve worked from the 
 
 456 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 top of the lamp. The gas as it is made passes through 
 the carbide, which frees it from water vapour, and is 
 led by a tube from the base of the lamp to the burner. 
 
 CLASS 2. WATER RISES TO CARBIDE. 
 The Veritas (Figs. 161, 162). This lamp is automatic 
 in its working, and requires no regulation of the water 
 supply after the water has once been turned on. The 
 carbide is contained in a cup G, which fits into an 
 outer vessel surrounded by the water reservoir H. The 
 
 The 
 Veritas ' 
 
 FIG. 161. 
 
 FIG. 162. 
 
 water valve B allows the water to fill up the chamber 
 F, which acts as a store for any excess of gas, and rise 
 to the carbide by the diffusing tube E. The upper 
 portion of this tube leads the gas to the burner A at 
 the top of the lamp, the burner chamber being secured 
 to the body of the lamp by a bayonet joint. 
 
 457 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The 
 "Acetylette" 
 
 The Acetylette (Figs. 163, 164). This lamp consists of 
 an ordinary lamp body with lens, etc., but the bottom 
 of the lamp forms a water chamber. It is fitted with 
 spring clips, which hold the "gas candle" in position. 
 
 FIG. 164. 
 
 The "Yahr 1 
 
 FIG. 163. 
 
 The " gas candle " is a cartridge of carbide, the top of 
 the cartridge being pierced with a minnte hole to 
 form a burner, whilst the lower end has a larger 
 hole, through which the water passes to the carbide 
 after traversing a plug of porous material. 
 
 CLASS 3. WATER SYPHONS ON TO CARBIDE. 
 
 The Yahr (Figs. 165, 166). The carbide chamber A 
 is surrounded or jacketed by the water vessel B, the top 
 being closed by a hinged lid, which is clamped against a 
 rubber ring F by a screw and nut. Through the centre 
 
 458 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 of the carbide chamber is a tube, opening at the bottom 
 in the water vessel, and through it pass strands of 
 fibrous material c, such as worsted, the free ends of 
 which fall on a disc of fine wire gauze M on the top 
 of the carbide. A spring D keeps the carbide from 
 
 FIG. 165. 
 
 FIG. 166. 
 
 shaking about, whilst the rubber-tipped screw plug 
 E can be shut down on to the top of the water pipe. 
 The gas is led from the top of the carbide chamber by 
 the pipe G to the burner j, which is in the focus of a 
 reflector H in a chamber at the side of the lamp. 
 
 The Scharlach (Figs. 167, 168). Water drips from a 
 reservoir placed above the carbide chamber into a per- 
 
 459 
 
 Construc- 
 tion and 
 working 
 
 The 
 Scharlach ' 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 forated tube, which is fitted to a flange plate, and is 
 separate from the carbide receptacle. This receptacle 
 is secured to the lamp by three clamps, the joint being 
 made gas-tight by a rubber ring. The water flow is 
 regulated in the large size lamps by a valve, which is 
 worked from the side of the lamp by means of a lever 
 arm, which can be moved to any position on a scale by 
 
 Arrange- 
 ments 
 for working 
 
 and 
 
 cleaning 
 burner 
 
 FIG. 167. 
 
 means of a rack and pinion. A filter chamber for 
 freeing the gas from dust, etc., is provided. The 
 burner can be cleaned by a novel method. Instead of 
 the cycle pump being attached to a screw thread 
 below the burner, a cap is provided which screws over 
 the burner and to which the pump can be attached. 
 In this way the air blast is directed downwards, 
 obviating all danger of blowing out the burner tip, 
 and. at the same time removing all dust, which is 
 blown through a small hole in the gas pipe, this hole 
 being normally closed by the tap seen at the angle of 
 
 460 
 
THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the pipe. The water reservoir and burner chamber 
 are insulated from conduction of heat from the 
 
 FIG. 168. 
 
 carbide chamber by means of washers of vulcanised 
 fibre. 
 
 The Fritz (Figs. 169, 170). A tin vessel containing 
 the carbide is placed in the base of the lamp, which is 
 then closed by the hinged base plate and fastened by 
 three screw clamps. The carbide vessel is perforated at 
 the top and bottom to allow the water to reach the 
 carbide. Water flows from a reservoir on the top of 
 
 461 
 
 The 
 
 "Fritz" 
 cycle lamp 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the lamp, the rate of flow being governed by a miller! 
 head at the top, which actuates a coned valve. 
 
 O id 
 
 The 
 
 Hutton 
 lamp 
 
 In the Hutton cycle lamp, Fig. 171, the generator is 
 separate from the lamp proper, and is clipped on to the 
 diagonal tube of the machine, a small rubber tube con- 
 ducting the gas to the lamp on the lamp bracket. The 
 
 462 
 
THE GENEKATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 171. 
 
 generator consists of a water-dripping arrangement, 
 being divided into two compartments, the upper con- 
 taining the water and the lower the carbide. 
 
 Another form of outdoor lamp for which the use of 
 acetylene is permissible is the carriage or motor car 
 lantern, as here also the after- and super-generation of 
 gas can find vent in the open air. 
 
 In order to encourage the adoption of acetylene for 
 this class of lighting, the carriage lamp has to be 
 made of the same size and interchangeable with the 
 ordinary candle lamp, and this restricts the size of 
 the generator to as small or smaller dimensions than 
 the cycle generator ; whilst it is better to have the General con- 
 generator removable from the head of the lantern, so 
 as to be able to replace it by a candle in the event of 
 the carbide running out. 
 
 A description of one or two forms of these lamps 
 will suffice to indicate the general arrangement. 
 
 463 
 
 Carriage 
 lamps 
 
 struction 
 
FIG. 172. AN ACETYLENE CAKKIAGE LAMP 
 
 464 
 
THE GENERATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The A.C.A.G. Carriage Lamp (Fig. 173). The car- 
 bide is placed in a metal cylinder, open at the top and 
 closed at the bottom, sliding friction-tight into another 
 cylinder open at the bottom and carrying on the top 
 the burner pipe. An outer case enclosing the two 
 
 A.C.A.G. 
 carriage 
 
 lamp 
 
 FIG. 173. 
 
 cylinders screws on to the. body of the lamp. Water 
 is placed in the outer vessel, and finds its way to the 
 carbide by passing between the two cylinders, the 
 carbide cylinder having a row of perforations at one 
 side to allow the water to enter. 
 
 The Scharlach Carriage Lamp (Fig. 174). This lamp 
 works on the same principle as the cycle lamp made 
 by this firm. Water drips from a reservoir below the 
 burner of the lamp into a perforated tube placed 
 in the centre of the carbide chamber. The rate of 
 
 465 30 
 
 The 
 
 Scharlach ' 
 
 carriage 
 
 lamp 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 flow is regulated by a lever arm, which works a coned 
 valve, moving over a scale on the top of the water 
 reservoir. 
 
 Acetylene There are two applications of the acetylene lamp 
 wnicn ? although not offering a very large commercial 
 field, are yet of very considerable importance. The 
 power of signalling by night is one of the greatest 
 
 FIG. 174. 
 
 moment to military forces in the field, and for this 
 purpose acetylene offers marked advantages over any 
 other available source of light, as the apparatus for 
 the purpose is portable and not too heavy, whilst the 
 beam produced is powerful and penetrative. An ex- 
 cellent apparatus for this purpose is shown in Fig. 
 175. 
 
 A second application is the production of a portable 
 
 466 
 
Acetylene 
 search- 
 lights 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 searchlight for use at fires, where the working of the 
 men is often hampered by inability to see owing to 
 steam and smoke, and where a powerful beam of light 
 would be of the greatest value. A cluster of from 
 
 Portable 
 generators 
 
 FIG. 176. 
 
 five to ten lights, arranged in a large lantern head 
 with a good reflector, would answer admirably for 
 this purpose, whilst a generator mounted on wheels, 
 such as is shown in Fig. 176, would easily supply the 
 necessary gas. Such portable generators are already 
 
 468 
 
and the 
 troubles 
 
 that 
 militate 
 against 
 
 them 
 
 THE GENEBATION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 being found of great service for wharf lighting and 
 other purposes of the same kind. 
 
 Ever since the introduction of acetylene on a com- Table lamps 
 mercial scale attempts have been made to construct a 
 table lamp, which should develop the gas as it was 
 required and give no smell ; but all have so far failed 
 to produce a lamp that can be really looked upon as 
 fitted for the purpose. They are as a rule clumsy and 
 ugly in construction, whilst the troubles of over- and 
 after-generation invariably give rise to smell and a 
 feeling of uneasiness on the part of the user. 
 
 Many of them work at dangerously high pressures, 
 and it must be borne in mind that all of them would 
 be classed as acetylene generators, and would come 
 under such stringent regulations as to prevent their 
 extended use. 
 
 The trouble of the escape of any surplus gas into 
 the air of the room in which the lamp is being used 
 is undoubtedly the greatest trouble with this class of 
 apparatus; and the suggestion made by Lorimer of 
 having a chamber in the upper portion of the lamp 
 filled with acetone, or material saturated with this 
 solvent, for the absorption of surplus gas, is undoubt- 
 edly a promising direction in which to look for a 
 solution of this trouble. 
 
 Escape of 
 surplus gas 
 
 469 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 The causes 
 
 which lead 
 
 to imparity 
 
 in crude 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Phos- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 and the 
 
 result of its 
 
 presence in 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 on the air of 
 
 a room 
 
 The 
 influence of 
 
 water 
 
 vapour in 
 
 aiding the 
 
 formation of 
 
 haze 
 
 THE IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL 
 
 ACETYLENE, AND THE PROCESSES 
 
 ADOPTED FOR THEIR REMOVAL. 
 
 THE purity of commercial acetylene gas primarily 
 depends upon the purity of the carbide from 
 which it is formed ; and as long as it is commercially 
 impossible to use absolutely pure calcium oxide and 
 carbon, so long will there be always present in this 
 material calcium phosphide, calcium cyanide, alu- 
 minium sulphide, and magnesium nitride, which, on 
 the decomposition of the mass by water, will yield a 
 gaseous and unwelcome addition to the acetylene of 
 phosphuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
 ammonia. 
 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen, when burning in the 
 acetylene flame, gives rise to phosphorus pentoxide, 
 which escapes into the atmosphere in the form of 
 white fumes ; and although the quantity is so minute 
 that it is invisible as it leaves the acetylene flame, 
 still, when mingled in quantity with the air of an ill- 
 ventilated room, it is the primary cause of the produc- 
 tion of a light haze, which, ever since the introduction 
 of acetylene for illuminating purposes, has been recog- 
 nised as a serious inconvenience in connection with it. 
 
 The atmosphere of a warm room always contains 
 large quantities of water vapour, derived both from the 
 respiration of the occupants and from the products of 
 the combustion of the illuminating flame ; and under 
 
 470 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 ordinary conditions this moisture remains suspended 
 in the atmosphere in an invisible state, but as soon as 
 traces of phosphorus pentoxide escape into it, this 
 substance, having a marvellous affinity for water, 
 causes a condensation of a portion of the water vapour, 
 and converts it into phosphoric acid, so that a very 
 small trace of phosphuretted hydrogen in the gas itself 
 gives rise to an amount of haze totally out of pro- 
 portion to the actual phosphorus present. Where there 
 is a considerable quantity of acetylene consumed, and 
 no proper method of changing the air of the room, 
 this haze will often be found, and it is undoubtedly 
 injurious to health. 
 
 The sulphuretted hydrogen formed by the action of 
 water on the aluminium sulphide in the gas is objec- 
 tionable, not so much because it renders the smell of 
 the acetylene offensive, a function which may be 
 looked upon as a safeguard, but because in its com- 
 bustion in the acetylene flame it forms water vapour 
 and sulphur dioxide, which latter, in ill-ventilated 
 apartments, will absorb oxygen and moisture from 
 the air, and will in this way become converted into 
 minute traces of sulphuric acid, which, concentrating 
 themselves upon any cold surface in the room, give 
 rise to corrosion of metals, and in time to destruction 
 of the binding of books, although the effect is but 
 small upon such fabrics as have not the power of 
 absorbing moisture or condensing it from the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 The chief objection to ammonia, the third impurity 
 present in the acetylene, is that it leads to rapid 
 action upon the brass gas fittings, and is also an 
 important factor in producing explosive compounds 
 of acetylene with metals, although the experiments 
 made by Gerdes have shown that this is not a very 
 real danger. 
 
 The ammonia, on burning in the flame, also forms 
 471 
 
 Haze due to 
 the con- 
 densation 
 of water 
 vapour by 
 Phos- 
 phorus 
 Pentoxide 
 
 The 
 
 presence of 
 Sulphur- 
 etted 
 Hydrogen 
 in crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 The 
 
 products of 
 combustion 
 of Sulphur- 
 etted 
 Hydrogen 
 and their 
 action in the 
 atmosphere 
 
 The action 
 of Ammonia 
 
 as an 
 impurity 
 
 Products of 
 combustion 
 of Ammonia 
 
The 
 importance 
 
 of 
 purification 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 water vapour and nitrous acid ; and when acetylene 
 is burnt for some time in an enclosed space ammonium 
 nitrite can be detected, and salts of this character may 
 add to the formation of the " haze." 
 
 It is quite clear that acetylene, if it is to be used 
 on a large scale as a domestic illuminant, must under- 
 go such processes of purification as will render it 
 harmless and innocuous to health and property ; and 
 the sooner it is recognised as absolutely essential to 
 purify acetylene before consuming it, the sooner will 
 the gas acquire its deserved mead of popularity. 
 
 Before discussing the methods of purification which 
 it is possible to adopt, it will be well to see to what 
 extent these impurities exist and their nature. 
 
 The 
 impurities 
 of crude 
 Acetylene, 
 and the 
 extent to 
 which they 
 are present 
 
 Lundstroem l has studied this question, and gives 
 the impurities and their limits as being : 
 
 
 Minimum. Maximum. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 Ammonia ..... 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen 
 Siliciuretted hydrogen . 
 Arseniuretted hydrogen 
 Carbon monoxide .... 
 Hydrogen ..... 
 Nitrogen ..... 
 Oxygen . 
 
 0-00 1-34 
 0-06 2-80 
 0-03 1-70 
 0-00 0-80 
 0-00 0-004 
 0-00 1-48 
 0-07 0-27 
 0-20 2-91 
 0-55 1-18 
 
 present in 
 the gas 
 
 Hydro- and to these must be added the vapour of benzene and 
 other than. t ner hydrocarbons of the saturated and unsaturated 
 Acetylene series, formed by the action of heat on the acetylene 
 during the process of generation. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the calcium carbide 
 made during the past two years has been far purer 
 than the samples prepared in the early days of the 
 industry, and that this has a marked influence on 
 the purity of the gas prepared from it. 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Cole. Acet, 3, 23, 
 
 472 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 This is more noticeable in the case of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen than with the other impurities, as this was 
 early recognised to be the cause of the troublesome 
 haze incidental to the use of impure gas, and the 
 carbide manufacturers at once turned their attention 
 to obtaining lime and carbon as free from phosphorus 
 compounds as possible. 
 
 In 1896 the author had occasion to investigate the 
 percentage of phosphuretted hydrogen present in 
 acetylene generated from the carbide then on the 
 market. Samples of ordinary commercial carbide 
 were purchased from various dealers, and care was 
 taken that the English, American, and Continental 
 carbide should be all represented. 
 
 The samples were numbered one to twelve, and an 
 equal weight of each being employed, acetylene was 
 generated from them by the action of water. The 
 phosphuretted hydrogen in the gas was then deter- 
 mined with the following results : 
 
 Improve- 
 ment in the 
 
 purity of 
 the Calcium 
 
 Carbide 
 
 The 
 percentage 
 
 of Phos- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen 
 present in 
 Acetylene 
 in 1896 
 
 Number of 
 sample. 
 
 Percentage of 
 phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Number of 
 sample. 
 
 Percentage of 
 phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 1 
 
 0-43 
 
 7 
 
 0-72 
 
 2 
 
 0-91 
 
 8 
 
 trace 
 
 3 
 
 2-30 
 
 9 
 
 0-51 
 
 4 
 
 0-58 
 
 10 
 
 0-02 
 
 5 
 
 0-62 
 
 11 
 
 0-77 
 
 6 
 
 0-32 
 
 12 
 
 0-80 
 
 Results of 
 experiments 
 
 Average from all samples, 0*65 per cent. 
 
 From this it is seen that prior to 1897 it was the 
 exception, rather than the rule, to find less than a 
 half per cent, of phosphuretted hydrogen in the crude 
 acetylene, and with this proportion haze was invari- 
 ably formed in a small room. 
 
 During 1899, however, twelve samples of commercial 
 473 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ThePnos- ca rbide of fairly international character, analysed in 
 phuretted the author's laboratory, gave : 
 
 Hydrogen J ' & 
 
 present in 
 Acetylene 
 
 from 
 
 Commercial 
 
 Carbide in 
 
 1899 
 
 Analyses of 
 
 crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 Willgerodt 
 
 proposes 
 
 Bromine 
 
 water to 
 
 remove 
 
 Phos- 
 
 phuretted 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Number 
 of 
 sample. 
 
 Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 sample. 
 
 Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 1 
 
 0-166 
 
 0-17 
 
 7 
 
 0-14 
 
 o-io 
 
 2 
 
 016 
 
 0-07 
 
 8 
 
 0-11 
 
 0-13 
 
 3 
 
 012 
 
 0-15 
 
 9 
 
 o-io 
 
 0-02 
 
 4 
 
 0-41 
 
 0-04 
 
 10 
 
 0-06 
 
 0-04 
 
 5 
 
 o-io 
 
 0-14 
 
 11 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-038 
 
 6 
 
 0-12 
 
 0-05 
 
 12 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-02 
 
 showing clearly the remarkable advance in purity of 
 the carbide made during the past two years. 
 
 The other impurities are of far less consequence in 
 the gas, and the following analyses made by Wolff of 
 acetylene generated from American, German, and 
 Swiss carbides, as at present made, give a very fair 
 idea of the results obtained in acetylene generated 
 without undue heating from good samples of car- 
 bide : 
 
 
 American. 
 
 German. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen . 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 Ammonia .... 
 Hydrogen .... 
 Nitrogen .... 
 Oxygen .... 
 Acetylene .... 
 
 0-05 
 0-08 
 0-08 
 0-09 
 0-42 
 0-87 
 98-41 
 
 0-03 
 0-07 
 0-07 
 0-07 
 0-20 
 0-55 
 99-01 
 
 0-03 
 
 o-io 
 0-11 
 
 0-16 
 0-34 
 0-63 
 98-63 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 It was "Willgerodt, 1 in 1895, who first pointed out 
 the presence of phosphuretted hydrogen in commercial 
 acetylene, and showed that it could be removed by 
 slowly passing the gas through three wash bottles 
 
 1 Berl. Ber., 28, 2,107. 
 474 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 containing bromine water, which oxidised the phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen into phosphoric acid. 
 
 The presence of this impurity having been clearly The source 
 demonstrated, the theory of the cause of its formation p'j^J 6 
 most generally accepted was that the phosphorus com- phuretted 
 pounds in the lime became reduced, with the result that 
 calcium phosphide was formed, and this, decomposing 
 on contact with water, yielded phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Moissan 1 has studied the preparation and properties 
 of crystallised calcium phosphide as formed in the 
 electric furnace, and made this compound by fusing Phosphide 
 together 310 parts by weight of tricalcium phosphate 
 with 96 parts by weight of lamp black, and found that 
 the crystalline body formed, Ca 3 P 2 , if sufficiently heated 
 in the furnace, was only slowly acted upon by water, 
 and yielded phosphuretted hydrogen that was not spon- O f water on 
 taneously inflammable. He also found that all the p ^g C1 ^ e 
 phosphorus is not liberated in the form of hydride, made in the 
 and that probably a somewhat complex reaction takes fu^ace 
 place. 
 
 Caro 2 has also investigated this point, and says : caro's in- 
 " Phosphorus occurs as calcium phosphate in the lime vestigations 
 and coke used. The phosphate is reduced in the Phosphides 
 electric furnace into phosphide by incomplete reduc- 
 tion, as pointed out by Moissan. An excess of coke 
 reduces this, and the phosphorus distills off, as in the 
 electric process, for the preparation of phosphorus from 
 calcium phosphate devised by Frank and Hilpert. 
 This property of the calcium phosphide enables us to 
 make a carbide poor in this substance, if the product 
 obtained is well fused with an excess of carbon. 
 
 " The calcium phosphide produced is decomposed by Liquid and 
 water with formation of hydrides of phosphorus. It S p'J e ^ 118 
 cannot be decided with accuracy if this calcic phosphide phuretted 
 is a derivative of gaseous (H 3 P) or liquid (H 4 P 2 ) 
 1 Compt. Bendu, 1899, 128, 787. 2 Zeitsch. Calc. Acet., 3, 97. 
 
 475 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 phosphuretted hydrogen. I do not think that the 
 phosphide corresponding to H 4 P 2 occurs in the carbide, 
 because I never succeeded in finding this compound in 
 molten carbide. The phosphide obtained in the ordinary 
 way always gives spontaneously inflammable phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen, but the calcium phosphide obtained 
 by the method employed by Moissan in the electric 
 furnace gives nearly always the non-spontaneously 
 inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen, H 3 P. I also 
 succeeded in proving that the calcium phosphide giving 
 H 4 P 2 is decomposed in the electric furnace, and yields 
 a phosphide which forms the H 3 P. 
 
 The effect " To test this, I obtained the carbide obtained by 
 tae'xiectriG Frank and Hilpert's phosphorus process, which con- 
 Arc on tained 1'38 per cent, of phosphorus. This carbide was 
 
 Phosphide not fused, and gave, by the action of water, a gas 
 which was spontaneously inflammable. This carbide 
 was then fused in the electric furnace, and I obtained 
 a carbide, with 1'26 per cent, of phosphorus, which 
 gave a gas not spontaneously inflammable. This 
 refined calcium carbide was heated to 220, and vapour 
 of phosphorus allowed to pass over it, and when cold 
 it was digested with carbon bisulphide to remove any 
 free phosphorus. It contained 142 per cent, of phos- 
 phorus, and showed spontaneous ignition on decom- 
 position by water. This product, again fused in the 
 electric furnace, gave a carbide with 1'32 per cent, of 
 phosphorus, showing no spontaneous ignition when 
 decomposed by water. 
 
 Caro's con- " From these researches I concluded that in the elec- 
 tric furnace only one calcium phosphide is formed, giving 
 no spontaneously inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 This does not prove that a mixture of acetylene and 
 air is not ignited by this phosphuretted hydrogen if 
 the quantity is sufficient for the heat of its oxida- 
 tion to raise the temperature to the ignition point. 
 Lewes found that this does not occur in mixtures 
 
 476 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 containing less than 15 per cent, of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 " Calcium phosphide being present in the carbide, the 
 phosphuretted hydrogen is always found in the acety- 
 lene liberated from it independent of the method of 
 generation. But there exist differences in the pro- 
 ducts obtained qualitatively and quantitatively accord- 
 ing to the temperature of the generation of the gas. 
 With generation at low temperatures, only phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen was obtained ; with high tempera- 
 tures organic phosphorus compounds could also be 
 detected. 
 
 " The separation of these two kinds of compounds 
 could only be done very incompletely ; the gas was 
 first washed in a wash bottle with petroleum ether, and 
 then passed through sodium hypochlorite solution. 
 After evaporating the petroleum ether a small quan- 
 tity of a body containing phosphorus remained, whilst 
 the distillate contained some more phosphorus com- 
 pounds. The residues from the distillation and the 
 petroleum ether were shaken up for a long time 
 with sodium hypochlorite. The quantities obtained, 
 although working with 5 kgr. of carbide, were so 
 small that these tests could only be used for com- 
 parison. Tested in this manner the distribution of 
 the phosphorus contained in the carbide, in which the 
 total quantity had been estimated by fusing a quan- 
 tity of carbide with sodium carbonate and saltpetre 
 and precipitation of the phosphoric acid, could be 
 traced : 
 
 " Generator, carbide into water. 
 
 In the gas 82 -0 per cent, as phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 ,, '2 ,, ,, organic compounds. 
 
 In the residue 17'8 per cent, calculated by difference. 
 
 Generator, dripping apparatus. 
 
 In the gas 52-2 per cent, as phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 ,, 14-3 ,, organic volatile compounds. 
 477 
 
 Effect ol 
 temperature 
 of genera- 
 tion on the 
 form in 
 which 
 Phosphorus 
 is present 
 
 Separation 
 
 of the 
 
 organic 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 compounds 
 
 Distribution 
 
 of the 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 present in 
 
 the products 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Nature of 
 the organic 
 Phosphorus 
 compounds 
 
 The 
 formation of 
 
 Hypo- 
 phosphites 
 
 by the 
 
 action of hot 
 
 Alkaline 
 
 liquids on 
 
 Phos- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 formed at 
 
 the same 
 
 time as 
 
 Phos- 
 
 phuretted 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 The 
 presence of 
 
 Hypo- 
 phosphites 
 in the Lime 
 residue 
 
 In the gas 2'1 per cent, as organic non-volatile 
 
 compounds. 
 
 " In the residue 31/4 per cent, calculated by dif- 
 ference. 
 
 u The nature of these organic phosphorus compounds 
 could not be determined, but the remarkable result 
 was found that in the presence of ammonia in the gas 
 the organic substances, both volatile and 11011- volatile, 
 contained nitrogen. The results show also the pecu- 
 liar fact that in dipping apparatus the gas generated 
 contains less phosphorus than is present in the acety- 
 lene generated by dropping carbide into water. 
 
 " This seems very remarkable, but the higher tem- 
 perature in the dipping apparatus may be the ex- 
 planation. It is known that phosphuretted hydrogen 
 at ordinary temperatures is only slightly attacked by 
 alkalies, but that at higher temperatures this sub- 
 stance acts on alkalies with formation of hypophos- 
 phites. This reaction, discovered by Winkler, gives 
 an explanation of the fact found by Dulong, that the 
 phosphides of calcium, barium, and strontium give 
 by rapid decomposition hypophosphoric acid. 
 
 " This reaction also partly takes place when phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen is made from potassium hydrate 
 and phosphorus, and the gas thus prepared always 
 contains hydrogen : 
 
 PH 3 + KOH = PH 2 OK + Hg 1 
 
 " Whether the presence of hydrogen in acetylene is 
 due to this reaction could not be determined. The 
 presence of hypophosphites in the lime residue was 
 tested by dissolving a part of the residue in hydro- 
 chloric acid and boiling. Phosphoric acid was found, 
 and phosphuretted hydrogen also. This corresponds 
 with the reaction of hypophosphorous acid : 
 
 1 Most probably PH 3 + KOH + H 2 = KH 2 P0 3 + 2H 2 . 
 
 478 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 " The discovery of the fact that phosphuretted hy- 
 drogen at high temperatures does not exist in the 
 gas but remains as hypophosphorous acid, or its 
 oxidation products in the residue caused me to test 
 for the presence of phosphuretted hydrogen as an im- 
 purity occurring with " dipping " forms of apparatus. 
 I had formerly (Zeit. f. Beleuchtungswesen, 1898, 134) 
 noted that in this form of apparatus the peculiarity 
 exists that in the first stages of the evolution of the 
 gas a quantity of phosphuretted hydrogen was found 
 much higher than the standard quantity previously 
 stated by Liebetanz in his book. I have found that 
 this phenomenon only occurs when the generator is 
 filled with pure water, but when working as usual, or 
 when after filling the generator with limewater, the 
 contrary takes place, the quantity of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen diminishing to the standard figure. 
 
 " This phenomenon, being based on the decomposi- 
 tion of phosphuretted hydrogen by alkaline liquids 
 at a high temperature, has the practical result that 
 the greater amount of phosphuretted hydrogen in the 
 dipping apparatus can be avoided when starting if 
 the apparatus is not filled with pure water but with 
 limewater, i.e. water with some lime sludge in it. 
 
 "I conclude from these researches that with gene- 
 rators with a low temperature the amount of phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen is greater than with those of 
 higher temperature, but in the latter other phos- 
 phorus compounds are less than in the former." 
 
 A. Renault, 1 in studying the reduction of calcium 
 phosphate by carbon in the electric arc, found that 
 under certain conditions a mixture of calcium phos- 
 phides was produced, which when treated with water 
 gave rise to both gaseous and liquid phosphuretted 
 hydrogen. In all probability the calcium phosphides 
 formed were the tricalcium diphosphide, Ca 3 P 2 , and 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 1899, 128, 883. 
 479 
 
 Phos- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen 
 in the gas 
 generated in 
 " Dipping " 
 apparatus 
 
 Influence of 
 the water 
 
 on the 
 amount of 
 
 Phos- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen 
 formed 
 
 Con- 
 clusions 
 
 Renault 
 
 finds that 
 
 a mixture 
 
 of Calcium 
 
 Phosphides 
 
 may be 
 
 formed in 
 
 the electric 
 
 furnace 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of the 
 
 Phosphides 
 
 on water 
 
 The 
 
 formation 
 of Hypo- 
 phosphites 
 explains the 
 presence of 
 Phosphorus 
 compounds 
 in condenser 
 liquor 
 
 Analysis of 
 liquid from 
 condenser 
 
 With " Dip " 
 generators 
 there is a 
 
 larger 
 formation of 
 
 Phos- 
 
 phuretted 
 
 Hydrogen at 
 
 first than 
 
 later 
 
 dicalcium diphosphide, Ca 2 P 2 , which would interact 
 with water as follows : 
 
 Ca 3 P 2 + 6H 2 - 2PH 3 + 3Ca(HO) 2 
 
 and 
 Ca 2 P 2 + 4H 2 = P 2 H 4 + 2 
 
 It is perfectly clear, however, from these researches, that 
 with a well-made and properly-fused carbide there is 
 no fear of spontaneous ignition from phosphuretted 
 hydrogen in the gas, and that the great drawback to 
 its presence is the formation of its combustion pro- 
 ducts. 
 
 The interesting observation, that when phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen is heated with calcium hydrate 
 hypophosphites are formed, is fully borne out by the 
 fact, repeatedly noticed by the author, that in the 
 drip boxes of a generator liable to heating, the liquid 
 collected always contains phosphorus in the form of 
 hypophosphites combined with the lime which has 
 been brought forward as dust by the rush of gas 
 during generation, and which has collected with the 
 water condensed from the gas. 
 
 A sample of liquid taken lately from the drip box 
 of a generator was found to contain : 
 
 Lime . 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Iron and alumina 
 
 Ammonia . 
 
 Grams per litre. 
 . 16-28 
 . 6-92 
 . 4-01 
 . 0-19 
 714 
 
 Caro, 1 in an earlier paper than that just quoted, 
 noticed with a " dip " generator, in which high tem- 
 peratures were developed, that, during the first mo- 
 ments of generation, the gas evolved was unusually 
 rich in phosphuretted hydrogen, and that using a 
 carbide yielding an average of O038 per cent, of 
 phosphuretted hydrogen 0*5 per cent, was observed 
 
 1 Zeit. /. BeleucUungswesen, 1898, 134. 
 480 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 in one experiment and 0*8 per cent, in a second during 
 the first few moments of generation ; and he concludes 
 from this that at the first impact the water princi- 
 pally decomposes the calcium phosphide. Liebetanz 
 repeated these experiments and confirmed Caro's ob- 
 servation. 
 
 It seems hardly possible from a theoretical point of 
 view that it can be so, as the calcium phosphide is 
 shown by experiment to be very evenly distributed 
 throughout the mass of carbide, and if an artificial 
 mixture of granulated carbide and phosphide is made, 
 the acetylene certainly is generated more quickly than 
 the phosphuretted hydrogen, and Caro explains it in 
 the paper just quoted as being due to there being no 
 lime at first to form hypophosphites. 
 
 In 1896, Murlot l showed that at the temperature 
 of the electric furnace the sulphides of zinc cadmium 
 and aluminium remained undecomposed, and it is 
 manifest that they might therefore be present in 
 calcium carbide ; but the only one of these three of 
 which traces are ever likely to be found in carbide is 
 the aluminium sulphide, and as this is known to be 
 decomposed by water, with evolution of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, the presence of this gas in crude acetylene 
 has, ever since the date of Murlot's research, been 
 ascribed to the presence of alumina and sulphur as 
 impurities in the crude material from which the 
 carbide was made. 
 
 Moissan 2 has also shown that calcium sulphide was 
 present in the residues left by the decomposition of 
 calcium carbide, by sugar solution, and the decomposi- 
 tion of this substance at the temperatures existing in 
 some forms of generator would also yield sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 If there be much calcium sulphate present in the 
 
 The action 
 
 of the 
 
 electric arc 
 
 on metallic 
 
 Sulphides 
 
 The source 
 
 of the 
 Sulphur- 
 etted 
 Hydrogen 
 found in 
 
 crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 Calcium 
 Sulphide 
 and Calcium 
 Sulpho- 
 Carbide 
 
 Compt. Rendu., 123, 57 2 Compt. Rendu., 127, 457. 
 481 31 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 lime used for making the carbide, a calcium sulpho- 
 carbide is also produced. 
 
 In making acetylene from carbide the amount of 
 sulphuretted hydrogen which finds its way into the 
 gas varies very considerably with the form of generator 
 and the temperature of generation, and Caro 1 has 
 attempted to estimate the distribution of the sulphur 
 existing in the carbide on decomposition. 
 Caro's 25 kgr. of calcium carbide were well mixed, and 
 
 BXP ^n 1 the lltS ^ kgr. were first decomposed in an apparatus in which 
 distribution the carbide dropped into water. The acetylene was 
 sulphur in passed through a cotton wool filter, then through two 
 tne washers filled with lead acetate solution, and after- 
 a" Carbide wards through two washers filled with a mixture of 
 Lfl enerator" e ^ ner an( ^ petroleum spirit, being then led into a 150 
 litre gasholder. From this holder it was burnt and 
 tested photometrically during the evolution. The test 
 for sulphur was made as follows : The lime sludge in 
 the generator was nearly neutralised by hydrochloric 
 Analytical acid, and the liquor removed. An aliquot part was 
 let * ne s acted upon by a hydrochloric acid solution of a copper 
 experiments sa lt, and the resulting copper sulphide was weighed. 
 The residue left was dried, fused with sodium car- 
 bonate and saltpetre, and the sulphur estimated as 
 barium sulphate. The sulphur precipitated in the 
 washers as lead sulphide was oxidised by nitric acid 
 and weighed as lead sulphate. The liquid from the 
 washers filled with ether and petroleum spirit mixture 
 was distilled, the residue dissolved in a little ether 
 and petroleum spirit, and oxidised with nitric acid 
 at 120-150, and the sulphur estimated as sul- 
 phate. 
 
 With the apparatus in which the carbide drops 
 into water the following quantities of sulphur were 
 found : 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Calc. Acet., 2, 337. 
 
 482 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 a. Eesidue soluble in hydrochloric acid . 
 
 b. Eesidue insoluble in hydrochloric acid 
 
 c. Substance soluble in ether-petroleum 
 
 spirit ....... 
 
 d. In acetylene lead nitrate . 
 
 14-74 gr. 
 1-66 
 
 0-06 
 3-00 
 
 19-46 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 result 
 
 of the 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 compounds 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 The gas finally obtained was passed through a tube 
 heated to redness in which were two boats containing 
 lead chromate : these contained no sulphur after the 
 reaction. 
 
 In this experiment, therefore, we obtained from 5 Distribution 
 kgr. of carbide 19'46 gr. sulphur, of which 3*06 gr. 
 had passed into the gas (15-72 per cent.). Of this 3'00 
 gr. (15-41 per cent.) are present as sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, and O06 gr. (O31 per cent.) as organic 
 compounds soluble in ether and petroleum spirit. In 
 the residue there remained 14-74 gr. or 15-74 per cent, 
 of sulphides, and 1'66 gr. (8'53 per cent.) in a more 
 stable form. 
 
 Totally different results were obtained in a dripping 
 apparatus. For this purpose a Butzke apparatus (old 
 form), was used, and the water only allowed to drop 
 slowly, the apparatus being fitted with a special tap. 
 Quantities of 250 gr. of calcium carbide were decom- 
 posed at a time, and then the acetylene was displaced 
 by nitrogen through the above-mentioned tap. The 
 gas mixture only passed through the washers but not 
 to the gas-holder. 
 
 The same methods as before described were used, 
 and the following results obtained : 
 
 a. Kesidue soluble in hydrochloric acid . 1'08 gr. 
 
 b. Eesidue insoluble in hydrochloric acid 0'16 
 
 c. Dissolved in ether petroleum spirit . 3"36 
 
 d. In acetylene lead nitrate . . '. 13'94 
 
 Sulphur . . 18-54 
 
 i e. 0-92 gr. less than in the first experiment. It may 
 
 483 
 
 Experi- 
 ments with 
 
 a 
 
 "Dripping " 
 apparatus 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Distribution ^ e accepted that this was contained in the gas flowing 
 
 Sulphur into the holder, because I found sulphur in the lead 
 compounds chromate< 
 
 Result of 
 increasing 
 the rate of 
 
 flow of 
 the water 
 
 Experi 
 mcnts to 
 determine 
 
 influence of 
 Aluminium 
 in the 
 Carbide 
 
 There were in the gas 
 
 71' 12 per cent, as sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 17-26 
 4-72 
 
 as sulphur compounds soluble in ether-spirit. 
 ,, as sulphur compounds insoluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 In the residue 
 
 5' 55 per cent, as sulphides. 
 
 0-82 
 
 in a more stable form. 
 
 A repetition of this experiment was made with the 
 modification that the water tap was opened more, and 
 greater quantities of water run in at once. The result 
 was 
 
 a. Residue soluble in hydrochloric acid . P 06 gr. 
 
 b. Residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid O12 
 
 c. Dissolved in ether spirit . . . 4'98 ,, 
 
 d. In the acetylene lead nitrate . . 11*82 ,, 
 
 e. Final gas by difference .... 1*58 ,. 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 18-56 
 
 Hence there were in the gas 
 
 60'79 per cent, as sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 45'59 ,, ,, as sulphur compounds soluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 8-11 
 In the residu< 
 
 4'93 per cent, as sulphides. 
 
 as sulphur compounds insoluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 0-61 
 
 in a more stable form. 
 
 The carbide used contained, as nearly all the carbides 
 do, a certain amount of aluminium. Having a sample 
 of carbide which did not contain even a trace of alu- 
 minium, said to be from Bitterfeld works, I repeated 
 the experiments with this sample, but only with 1'70 
 kgr. instead of 5 kgr. as before. 
 
 In the apparatus where the carbide drops into water 
 the following results were obtained : 
 
 484 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 a. Residue soluble in hydrochloric acid . 4'16 gr. 
 
 6. Residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid 0*02 ,, 
 
 c. Dissolved in ether-spirit . . . OOO ,, 
 
 d. In the gas lead nitrate . . O12 ,, 
 
 e. Final gas ... . OOO 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Hence there were in the gas 
 2*78 per cent, as sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 o-oo 
 o-oo 
 
 4-30 
 
 ,, as sulphur compounds soluble in ether-spirit. 
 as sulphur compounds insoluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 In the residue 
 
 96 74 per cent, as sulphides. 
 0*46 ,, in a more stable form. 
 
 Using the dripping apparatus 
 
 a. Residue soluble in hydrochloric acid . 0'21 
 
 b. Residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid . 0*01 
 
 c. Dissolved in ether-spirit .... 0*62 
 
 d. In the gas lead nitrate .... 2'32 
 
 e. Final gas by difference . . . 1'14 
 
 Hence there were in the gas 
 
 53*95 per cent, as sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 14*41 as sulphur compounds soluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 26'51 ,, as sulphur compounds insoluble in ether-spirit. 
 
 In the residue 
 
 4*88 per cent, as sulphides. 
 
 0*23 in a more stable form. 
 
 Distribution 
 
 of the 
 Sulphur 
 
 with 
 
 " Carbide 
 into water " 
 generators 
 
 The results of these researches are 
 
 That the acetylene evolved from apparatus in which 
 the carbide drops into water is much cleaner than that 
 generated in dripping apparatus is confirmed. The 
 sulphur is nearly all converted into sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, which is for the greater part retained in 
 the generator. With carbide free from aluminium no 
 sulphuretted hydrogen is set free, the calcium sul- 
 phide is dissociated in presence of much water, the 
 sulphuretted hydrogen does not escape, and the gas 
 evolved only contains traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 485 
 
 Distribution 
 
 of the 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 with " Drip " 
 
 generators 
 
 Caro's con- 
 clusions 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The gas from the dripping apparatus contains more 
 sulphur because there is only a small quantity of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen retained, and moreover a quantity 
 
 Presence of o f the more stable sulphur compounds is decomposed. 
 Sulpho- mi , . . *. i.' i. 
 
 cyanides J-he dripping apparatus also produces a gas 111 which 
 
 a S rea ^ P ar ^ f the sulphur is not in a form which is 
 precipitated by lead salts, but as other compounds. 
 The nature of these substances could not be determined. 
 One is soluble in ether-petroleum spirit, the other 
 does not seem to be taken up by this mixture, but 
 escapes with the gas. Neither are precipitated by 
 lead salts. The portion soluble in ether-petroleum 
 spirit consists, as the odour proves, of sulphocyamdes. 
 The substances not removed by ether-petroleum spirit 
 are oxidised by concentrated chromic acid solution. 
 and are removed by acid cuprous chloride solution. 
 They do not seem to be acted upon by chloride of lime. 
 I believe they consist chiefly of mercaptans. 
 Probable The research on the residue insoluble in dilute 
 
 presence of , , , , . . , . T 
 
 Suipho- hydrochloric acid was of special interest. It was 
 Bested separately, and its sulphur was found to be 
 1*48 per cent. This residue was decomposed by boil- 
 ing hydrochloric acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen was 
 evolved. Only a very minute quantity, containing 
 0*32 per cent., was tested, by fusing with sodium car- 
 bonate and saltpetre. When boiled with concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid small quantities of hydrocarbons are 
 produced, so that it is probable that this sulphur in a 
 more stable form is a sulphocarbide compound." 
 
 Caro concludes from these results that the sulphur is 
 present as calcium sulphide and aluminium sulphide, 
 partly also in a more stable form as calcium sulpho- 
 carbide. The calcium sulphide and aluminium sulphide 
 give, in both classes of generator, sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen, whilst the sulphocarbide is only decomposed in 
 dripping apparatus owing to the high temperature. 
 The sulphuretted hydrogen condenses in dripping ap- 
 
 486 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 parattis, and produces compounds partly of the type 
 of sulphocyanides and partly other organic com- 
 pounds, probably mercaptans. In the water to car- 
 bide generators these reactions do not occur, or only in 
 a less degree. 
 
 In a later paper Caro l sums up these results as 
 follows : 
 
 " Sulphur principally occurs in three different com- 
 pounds as calcium sulphide, calcium sulphocarbide 
 and aluminium sulphide. The two first compounds 
 are due to the presence of calcium sulphate in the 
 lime and to sulphur in the coke used. The quantity 
 of both compounds can be reduced to a minimum, be- 
 cause the high temperature of the electric furnace 
 causes these compounds to be split up by the carbon, 
 with formation of calcium carbide and sulphur, which 
 may be oxidised to sulphur dioxide. This has already 
 been recognized by Dollner and Jacobsohn in their 
 process for manufacturing sulphur or sulphur dioxide 
 from sulphate or sulphides. 
 
 " The aluminium sulphide occurs if sulphur and 
 alumina are present. This compound is aluminium 
 pentasulphide, A1 2 S 5 , as stated by Murlot, and is not 
 decomposed by the high temperature of the electric 
 furnace. This quantity also may be diminished by 
 using an excess of carbon, as the aluminium sul- 
 phide is decomposed into aluminium carbide and 
 sulphur. 
 
 "These compounds give, with water, impurities 
 
 containing sulphur, but different ones under different 
 
 conditions. Aluminium sulphide is decomposed by 
 
 water, if cold or warm, with evolution of sulphuretted 
 
 hydrogen. Calcium sulphide is dissociated by cold 
 
 water ; it therefore gives off sulphuretted hydrogen 
 
 only at high temperatures. Calcium sulphocarbide 
 
 is decomposed neither by cold nor hot water, but 
 
 1 Zeitsch. Calc. Acet, 3, 97. 
 
 487 
 
 The 
 
 occurrence 
 of Sulphur 
 in Carbide 
 
 Aluminium 
 Sulphide 
 
 Variation in 
 
 products, 
 according to 
 
 the 
 temperature 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Sulphur 
 reacts with 
 Acetylene 
 at high 
 tempera- 
 tures 
 
 Superiority 
 of " Carbide 
 into water " 
 generators 
 
 Sulphur- 
 etted 
 Hydrogen 
 due to 
 
 primary 
 action 
 
 gives at a higher temperature with acetylene volatile 
 sulphur products. 
 
 " The sulphuretted hydrogen set free is retained at 
 lower temperatures by the lime sludge. At high tem- 
 peratures it reacts with acetylene and forms organic 
 sulphur compounds. I succeeded in identifying sul- 
 phocyanides and mercaptans. They are mixed with 
 other compounds containing sulphur, and may be 
 divided into two classes 
 
 a. Those soluble in petroleum spirit and ether. 
 
 b. Those insoluble in petroleum spirit and ether. 
 
 In presence of ammonia basic compounds are found 
 containing sulphur and nitrogen. 
 
 u With carbide into water apparatus all sulphuretted 
 hydrogen is retained by the lime, only organic sulphur 
 compounds being found in the gas evolved. In dip- 
 ping apparatus there are greater quantities of sulphur, 
 from the decomposition of the calcium carbosulphide. 
 In the residue there is much less sulphur, whilst the 
 greater part is evolved as sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
 more organic compounds are formed." 
 
 Caro 1 has continued this investigation in order to 
 ascertain if the organic sulphur compounds formed 
 during the generation of acetylene are due to primary 
 or secondary actions, and finds that the primary action 
 gives rise to sulphuretted hydrogen only, but that any 
 undue heating at once causes secondary actions be- 
 tween the sulphuretted hydrogen and acetylene (or 
 other hydrocarbons produced by the action of the heat 
 on acetylene), which form organic sulphur compounds. 
 
 He also found that the oily matters obtained from 
 the condensation products from large generators con- 
 tained considerable quantities of sulphur, and that on 
 heating, especially in the presence of steam, they 
 decomposed and evolved sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 1 Zeit.f. Calc. Garb, und Acet., iii. 217. 
 488 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 Caro concludes from this that the sulphuretted organic 
 hydrogen found in the crude acetylene may arise compounds 
 from two sources : (1) the direct liberation of the gas due to 
 
 ... . . . secondary 
 
 from such impurities in the carbide as aluminium reactions 
 sulphide, and (2) by the decomposition of organic 
 sulphur compounds by heat and steam. 
 
 The variation in the amount of sulphur present as Practical 
 sulphuretted hydrogen in gas owing to the form of e cp ^|J en 
 apparatus used was tested by the author in the ex- generators 
 periments with twenty-four generators of different 
 types before alluded to (page 421). 
 
 An average of 600 cubic feet of gas was generated 
 from each apparatus in a test lasting for one month, 
 and the sulphur present in the water of the meter 
 attached to each apparatus was determined, with the 
 following result for each class : 
 
 Class of generator. Sulphur. 
 
 Grains per gallon. Grams per litre. 
 
 Water dripping on carbide . . 24'2 O34 
 Carbide dipping in water and then 
 
 withdrawn .... 25'2 0'35 
 
 Water rising to carbide . . 27'9 O39 
 
 Carbide into water .... 18'0 O25 
 
 At first sight this seems to show that, with the influence of 
 exception of the carbide into water generators being 
 
 superior to the others, there was but little to choose and 
 
 i n i , i -i T i pressure on 
 
 between them ; but on comparing the individual re- impurities 
 suits with the pressures at which the generators 
 worked it was at once seen that this exercised an 
 enormous influence, some forms of generator, working 
 with displacement holders and at pressures of over 
 24 inches of water, having over 70 grains of sulphur 
 per gallon (O99 grs. per litre) in the meter water ; and 
 if these abnormal cases be eliminated, and only the 
 results given by generators working at less than 12 
 inches pressure compared, the figures at once showed 
 the superiority of the last two classes of generator. 
 
 489 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Polis found that on taking a sample of carbide 
 results . . 6 . 
 
 and decomposing it by the dripping process there 
 was present 0*138 per cent, of phosphuretted hydrogen 
 and 0'064 percent, of sulphuretted l^drogen ; whilst if 
 this carbide is allowed to fall into water the acetylene 
 so generated contains - 126 per cent, of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen, and the sulphuretted hydrogen is practically 
 eliminated. 
 
 When the carbide is dropped into a solution of sugar 
 the same result is obtained, and practically no sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen can be detected in the gas so 
 generated. 
 
 The presence of metallic silicides in the calcium 
 metallic carbide has been amply demonstrated by the researches 
 
 of Moissan, Le Chatelier, Grerard, Lewes, and others 
 (see page 330), and there is not the slightest doubt but 
 that siliciuretted hydrogen is often to be found in small 
 quantities in the crude acetylene. The method of 
 formation of this gaseous compound, however, is not so 
 clear, as the metallic silicides found in the carbide are 
 none of them decomposed by water, even at the high 
 temperatures occasionally existing in generators. The 
 most probable explanation of its formation is that 
 gi yen ^J Vigouroux, 1 who points out that, amongst 
 formation the metals contained in the crude materials from which 
 siliciuretted the carbide is made, iron alone forms crystalline 
 
 Hydrogen silicides, whilst calcium, magnesium, and aluminium 
 sometimes . ... . 
 
 present in dissolve silicium, and that on acting on an alloy or 
 
 Acetylene ca li um an cl silicium with water, the nascent hydro- 
 
 gen formed by the decomposition of the water by the 
 
 An alloy of calcium unites with the silicium forming siliciuretted 
 
 silicium hydrogen. It must be remembered that when carbide 
 
 present in j^g ]3 een kept too long in the arc some is dissociated 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbide with liberation of metallic calcium, and the formation 
 of an alloy with silicium under these conditions is 
 extremely probable. 
 
 1 CompL Rendu., 123, 113. 
 490 
 
IMPUBITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 The presence of traces of arseniuretted hydrogen in 
 crude acetylene has been detected by some observers, 
 and could only be formed owing to traces of arsenic 
 compounds in the original materials. 
 
 Undoubtedly the most important impurity, next to 
 the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen, is 
 ammonia. The causes leading to the formation of this 
 compound have been studied by Bamberger 1 who finds 
 that the impurities in acetylene fall into two classes 
 according to their origin, viz. (1) those which result 
 from impurities in the raw materials used in the manu- 
 facture of carbide, such as phosphuretted hydrogen and 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, and (2) those produced in the 
 process of fusion in the electrical furnace, such as 
 ammonia and cyanogen compounds. As ammonia is 
 oxidised to oxides of nitrogen when the gas is burnt, 
 much importance attaches to means for preventing its 
 occurrence. When calcium carbide is decomposed with 
 water ammonia is formed from both nitrides and 
 cyanogen compounds. The nitrides result from the 
 presence of aluminium or magnesium in the line. In 
 the electric furnace magnesia is reduced in the first 
 instance to magnesium, which is then converted into 
 the nitride through the agency of the nitrogen of the 
 air, which always circulates to a certain extent in the 
 furnace, or of the small quantities of nitrogen which 
 exist in the coal, coke, or charcoal employed. Alu- 
 minium is contained as alumina in most samples of lime, 
 and is present in the silicates in coke ash. Alumina is 
 reduced by carbon to the metal or to aluminium 
 carbide. Aluminium carbide always contains nitride, 
 as may be proved by decomposing a sample with 
 water, and, when the evolution of almost odourless 
 gas has ceased, adding excess of caustic soda and 
 warming, whereupon ammonia will be given off in 
 sufficient quantity to be readily detected by the smell. 
 
 1 Zeits.f. angew. Chem., 1898, 31, 720 
 491 
 
 Ammonia in 
 
 crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 Bamberger's 
 conclusions 
 
 as to the 
 cause of the 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Nitrides 
 
 present in 
 
 Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The power 
 possessed by 
 Carbides of 
 
 absorbing 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 The 
 
 influence of 
 the form of 
 generator 
 
 on the 
 amount of 
 Ammonia 
 
 Carbides, especially barium carbide, possess the 
 power of absorbing nitrogen at high temperatures and 
 producing cyanogen compounds. Cyanogen may be 
 detected by its smell on opening a closed vessel in 
 which hot carbide has been allowed to cool. Ammonia, 
 is formed by the action of superheated steam on 
 calcium cyanide, and local superheating often occurs in 
 the usual methods of producing acetylene from carbide. 
 Carbide made from wood charcoal and lime, containing 
 0*5 per cent, of magnesia and O2 per cent, of alumina, 
 was decomposed by dropping water on to samples 
 weighing from 50 to 70 grams. The gas formed was 
 led through standardised sulphuric acid, and was found 
 to contain from - 05 to 0'15 per cent, by volume of 
 ammonia. Even the outer crust of the blocks of 
 carbide, and small fragments which had cooled while 
 exposed to the air, did not yield a higher proportion of 
 ammonia. 
 
 The method by which the acetylene is generated 
 affects the proportion of ammonia in the gas. The 
 drip system of generation allows almost the whole of 
 the ammonia to pass into the gas, and the high 
 temperature favours decomposition of aluminium 
 nitride and calcium cyanide. The dip and flooding 
 systems occupy a mean position between the drip 
 system and that in which carbide is dropped into 
 water. The latter system is the best, because the 
 trifling rise in temperature does not suffice to cause 
 decomposition of calcium cyanide and aluminium 
 nitride, and the surplus water in the generator absorbs 
 the greater part of the ammonia. With an apparatus 
 belonging to this system, which has been in continuous 
 use since December, 1897, ammonia has scarcely been 
 detected in the gas, but is easily recognized in the 
 water in the generator. 
 
 Caro, with regard to Bamberger's conclusions, says : 
 " Nitrogen is in the carbide as calcium and magnesium 
 
 492 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMEECIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 nitride, formed principally from the nitrogen of the 
 coke. These nitrides are decomposed by water, with 
 evolution of ammonia and the formation of hydroxides 
 of the metal. The formation of ammonia is, according 
 to Bamberger, due to the presence of calcium cyanide, 
 this idea being based on Frank and Caro's discovery 
 that nitrogen forms with carbides nitrides. 
 
 "The numerous tests I have made prove that 
 calcium cyanide does not occur in fused carbide, and 
 can only be found in the crust of the carbide ingot, 
 which does not generally occur in commercial carbide. 
 This also corresponds with Frank and Caro's statement 
 that the temperature of the decomposition of calcium 
 cyanide is lower than the temperature of the formation 
 of carbide ; therefore no cyanide can be formed except 
 by the action of atmospheric nitrogen on cooling ingots. 
 The product of the decomposition of the nitride 
 ammonia is formed as well at a low as at a high 
 temperature. Its quantity in the gas varies very much. 
 In carbide into water apparatus more than 90 per cent, 
 is dissolved ; in dipping apparatus a good quantity 
 condenses with sulphuretted hydrogen, as well as with 
 phosphuretted hydrogen and with acetylene. The tar 
 from these forms of apparatus is treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid, when these compounds dissolve, and may 
 be extracted with ether." 
 
 In the author's experiments on the influence of the 
 class of generator on the impurities formed, it was 
 found that the average of the ammonia present in the 
 meter water of the various forms of apparatus was 
 
 Dripping apparatus 
 Dipping ,, 
 
 Water rising 
 Carbide into water 
 
 Grains per gallon. 
 
 . 67-1 
 
 . 19-0 
 
 . 60-4 
 
 11-2 
 
 Grams per litre. 
 
 0-95 
 0-27 
 0-86 
 0-16 
 
 but as soon as the generators with displacement holders 
 working at pressures of over 24 inches of water were 
 
 493 
 
 Caro 
 criticises 
 
 Bamberger's 
 conclusions 
 
 Cyanides 
 not present 
 
 in fused 
 Carbide but 
 
 only in 
 
 crust of 
 ingot 
 
 Variation in 
 the amount 
 of Ammonia 
 [present in 
 
 the gas 
 partly due 
 
 to other 
 impurities 
 
 Pressure in 
 
 the 
 generator 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 an 
 
 important 
 factor 
 
 Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 
 in crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 Causes 
 which give 
 rise to the 
 formation 
 of Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 
 left out of the averages, and only the generators work- 
 ing below a pressure of 12 inches of water were 
 considered, the water rising to carbide generators 
 showed nearly the same results as the carbide into 
 water class. 
 
 This clearly shows the importance of keeping the 
 generator pressures as low as possible if the purity of 
 the gas is to be considered. 
 
 Ludstrom first drew attention to the presence of 
 carbon monoxide in crude acetylene, but no explanation 
 has been offered as to the causes which give rise to it. 
 
 Occasionally a blow-hole in a piece of dense carbide 
 is found to contain this gas, which has evidently been 
 produced by the reduction of the lime by carbon in the 
 electric arc ; but the quantity is so minute that the 
 presence of carbon monoxide in the gas cannot mani- 
 festly be traced to this cause. The author has found 
 that, when any quantity greater than the merest trace 
 of carbon monoxide is present, hydrogen is also to be 
 found in the gas, and that it is never present unless 
 over-heating has taken place in the generator. 
 
 The moment sufficient over-heating has taken place 
 to break up some of the acetylene the steam present 
 at once attacks the liberated carbon with formation 
 of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, an action which 
 will take place at the temperature necessary to cause 
 the polymerisation of acetylene into benzene. 
 
 It is not necessary, however, to have a temperature 
 sufficiently high to decompose the acetylene into its 
 constituents, as on passing acetylene and steam through 
 a tube heated to 500 C. oxides of carbon and hydrogen 
 make their appearance. 
 
 A good deal of the carbon monoxide undoubtedly be- 
 comes oxidised at the temperature of its formation by 
 the excess of steam present into carbon dioxide, but 
 this is rarely found in the gas, being absorbed by the 
 moist lime residue. 
 
 494 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 Hydrogen, which is often found in acetylene in 
 considerable quantities, owes its production to several 
 distinct causes. 
 
 1. The decomposition of water by calcium present 
 in over-heated carbide. 
 
 2. The decomposition of steam by heated hydro- 
 carbons or carbon. 
 
 3. The decomposition of acetylene by heat. 
 
 When the acetylene is made in a properly con- 
 structed generator, and at a temperature below the 
 boiling-point of water, it is only the first cause that 
 can give rise to it, and only very small traces can be 
 detected, but when overheating in the generator takes 
 place, the acetylene may become so diluted with hydro- 
 gen and carbon monoxide as to seriously affect its illu- 
 minating power, and, according to some observers, even 
 to render it nearly non-luminous. 
 
 Traces of nitrogen and oxygen are often shown in 
 analyses of acetylene, and are generally derived from 
 small quantities of air mixed with the gas during the 
 collection of the sample for analysis. 
 
 Moissan has shown, however (page 334), that nitro- 
 gen is to be found in commercial carbide. 
 
 The vapours of benzine and other volatile hydro- 
 carbons, although not as a rule classed as impurities, 
 certainly ought to be considered, as they give rise to 
 a considerable amount of trouble in the combustion of 
 the acetylene. 
 
 The moment that acetylene is subjected to the 
 action of high temperatures, changes of great com- 
 plexity at once commence. These at first are purely 
 synthetical. At 600 C., however, acetylene begins to 
 condense to benzene, and as the temperature rises the 
 condensation of four molecules of acetylene yields 
 styrolene. A further increase in the temperature 
 may cause the styrolene and benzene to interact, 
 yielding anthracene and hydrogen, and it is prob- 
 
 495 
 
 Causes 
 which lead 
 
 to the 
 formation of 
 
 free 
 
 Hydrogen 
 in crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 Traces of 
 
 air in 
 Acetylene 
 
 The 
 
 vapours of 
 Hydro- 
 carbons 
 other than 
 Acetylene 
 
 The action 
 
 of over- 
 heating on 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 LOSS of 
 
 
 ably at this point that the brown tar vapours 
 appear, while naphthalene also becomes noticeable. 
 These changes, however, still have to be accurately 
 studied. At this temperature, moreover, a fresh set 
 of interactions start : the nascent hydrogen combines 
 with acetylene to form ethylene, and this body, under 
 the action of heat, breaks down to methane and 
 acetylene once more. 
 
 The earlier actions of necessity lead to a great loss 
 i* 1 the volume of the acetylene. Dr. Haber found that 
 15 litres of acetylene, when heated for a considerable 
 period to 638 C. left only 10 litres of gas ; probably, 
 however, no such condensation as this takes place in 
 an acetylene generator. When the outer layer of 
 carbide decomposes, the gas is evolved so rapidly 
 that there is no time for the heat to act upon it, 
 The cause of but as the decomposition spreads into the centre of 
 mcrisation the mass, the acetylene generated has to pass through 
 the outer layers, which, as has been shown, may be at 
 a temperature above the point of its decomposition, 
 and it is under these conditions that a considerable 
 volume of gas is lost, and the tar often found in the 
 residue, or distilled out into generator and tubes, is 
 formed. 
 
 In generators in which excessive heating takes 
 pl ace > this tar is likely to cause considerable trouble, 
 as it is of a very viscous character, and if it condenses 
 in the tubes causes the lime dust and carbon particles 
 to collect and bring about stoppage. 
 
 As benzene forms a large proportion of the poly- 
 nierisation products, it is carried forward as vapour, 
 and remains suspended even in its passage through 
 the gasholder and delivery pipes. Benzene requires 
 three times the volume of air for combustion that 
 acetylene does, and the result is that the most perfect 
 acetylene burner shows a tendency to smoke directly 
 any quantity of benzene is formed. 
 
 496 
 
 The 
 
 Benzene 
 
 in causing 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 Still more serious, however, is the action on the 
 burner tip. One of the greatest troubles in the utili- 
 sation of pure acetylene is the question of finding 
 a burner in which to consume it, and it was soon 
 realized that the best of the burners first introduced 
 could only be used for a few hundred hours before 
 a growth of carbon appeared on the nipple, which 
 distorted the flame and brought about smoking of 
 the most pronounced character. It was thought 
 that this trouble had been overcome by the intro- 
 duction of the Naphey burner and the various imita- 
 tions thereof that were at once put upon the market ; 
 but extended experience shows that even these 
 burners are not infallible, and many who have 
 watched the continuous use of acetylene, especially in 
 those parts of the Continent where the gas has been 
 adopted in a pure state as a town supply, declare that 
 the burner question is as far from solution as ever. If 
 a burner which has started smoking be examined, an 
 arborescent growth of filiform carbon is noticed at the 
 aperture or slit, and the general idea is that this has 
 been formed by the overheating of the acetylene by 
 the nipple causing its decomposition with formation 
 of the carbon deposit. On breaking the steatite top 
 off the burner it is found that the burner is carbonised 
 for a considerable distance into the body of the steatite, 
 and it is manifest that this has been caused by the 
 deposition of a liquid hydrocarbon, which has soaked 
 into the material and been carbonised there. 
 
 If smoke or tar vapour be examined under a high 
 microscopic power, it is seen that they consist of 
 minute vesicles or bubbles in a most marvellously 
 active condition of movement, and fulfilling in a 
 most perfect manner the conception one forms of 
 molecular motion. Ever bombarding each other, but 
 never colliding, these small vesicles filled with gaseous 
 matter continue their career until some mechanical 
 
 497 32 
 
 The action 
 of Benzene 
 
 on the 
 burner-tip 
 
 The Naphey 
 burner 
 
 The 
 
 formation of 
 Carbon at 
 the burner 
 
 Carbonisa- 
 tion of the 
 
 burner 
 caused by 
 liquid 
 Hydro- 
 carbons 
 
 The 
 
 condition of 
 
 vapours 
 
 in the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Washers for 
 removing 
 vapours 
 
 The actions 
 leading to 
 
 the 
 
 deposition 
 of Carbon at 
 the burner- 
 tip 
 
 Smoking 
 decreased 
 
 by cool 
 generation 
 
 action bursts them and deposits the minute trace of 
 liquid which formed the skin of the microscopic 
 balloon. 
 
 It is for this reason that the most successful forms 
 of washer for extracting tar during the manufacture 
 of gas consists of fine jets or orifices through which 
 the gas passes at considerable velocity, and comes in 
 contact with a bafEe which breaks up the vesicles ; 
 and any one with experience in water-gas making 
 knows the trouble that arises from filiform growths of 
 carbon, when, owing to an insufficient temperature 
 in the cracking and superheating chambers, the car- 
 buretted gas contains vapours instead of permanent 
 gaseous products. 
 
 AVhen acetylene has been made in a generator at an 
 undue temperature it carries with it benzene vapour, 
 which, as it commences to condense, assumes this 
 vesicular form, and on coming to the extremely 
 minute holes which form the aperture of the burner, 
 the mechanical scrubbing which it encounters causes 
 the breaking up of the vesicles and the deposition of 
 the benzene and other hydrocarbons held in suspension 
 by benzene, which soak into the steatite and car- 
 bonise. The presence of finely divided carbon has 
 a great effect in determining the decomposition of 
 acetylene itself, so that a rapid growth of carbon 
 takes place at the burner, and no ordinary cleaning 
 of the deposited carbon from the exterior will ever 
 make the nipple fit for constant use again, because 
 the carbon in the pores has a strong catalytic action 
 on the acetylene, and causes carbon to again deposit. 
 It will be found with experience that the prevention 
 of smoking in a burner will be overcome quite as 
 much by attention to the temperature in the genera- 
 tor as in the burner itself, and where a generator 
 is in use which gives overheating, a well-arranged 
 scrubbing apparatus that would get rid of the benzene 
 
 498 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 from the gas would be found a distinct advantage in 
 stopping burner troubles. 
 
 Of the impurities present in the acetylene, some, 
 such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and traces of air, 
 are perfectly harmless, and in the small quantities 
 formed, when the gas has been generated in any but 
 the worst forms of generators, do not in any noticeable 
 manner affect its illuminating power. 
 
 On the other hand, phosphuretted hydrogen, sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, ammonia, and hydrocarbon 
 vapours should be as far as possible removed, as 
 they either form deleterious products of combustion, 
 or act on the fittings and burner-tips. 
 
 Of these impurities, the only one that offers any 
 real difficulty in removal is the phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen, and several methods have been proposed and 
 utilised for its elimination. 
 
 It is obvious that for small house installations of 
 acetylene lighting, which constitute so large a pro- 
 portion of its field of utility, it is necessary to have 
 the purifier as simple as possible, and to utilise only 
 one form of purifying material, as otherwise the pro- 
 cess would become too complicated for the ordinary 
 householder to care to undertake it. Moreover, it is 
 necessary that the purifying material employed, whilst 
 removing or at any rate reducing the impurities to a 
 harmless limit, should be cheap, and not itself liable 
 to act upon the acetylene or generate other products 
 that might cause trouble in the purifier, or further 
 contaminate the gas. 
 
 Beyond washing the acetylene by allowing it to 
 bubble through water, no attempt at consistent puri- 
 fication was made until 1896, when Pictet proposed 
 to purify the gas before using it for liquefaction by 
 pressure. In order to do this, he proposed to pass it 
 through a concentrated solution of calcium chloride 
 and then through sulphuric acid, both being kept 
 
 499 
 
 Impurities 
 that need 
 
 not be 
 removed 
 
 Injurious 
 
 impurities 
 
 Necessary 
 conditions 
 
 to be 
 
 fulfilled by 
 a purifying 
 
 agent 
 
 Plctet's 
 purification 
 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Drawbacks 
 to the 
 process 
 
 Purification 
 
 by Potash 
 
 and 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Acid 
 Mercuric 
 Chloride 
 
 as a 
 
 purifying 
 agent 
 
 Substances 
 commerci- 
 ally avail- 
 able for the 
 purification 
 of crude 
 Acetylene 
 
 at a low temperature ( 20 to 40 C.) ; after this, 
 the gas passed through a washer containing a solu- 
 tion of lead salts to eliminate sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 and was finally dried by passing over solid calcium 
 chloride. 
 
 It is manifest that such a method would be costly 
 and utterly unfitted for working on a small scale, 
 whilst it is very problematical whether the purifica- 
 tion effected would be sufficient to rid the gas of 
 phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Willgerodt l suggested purifying acetylene by first 
 removing sulphuretted hydrogen by passing the gas 
 through a solution of potassium hydrate and then 
 absorbing the phosphuretted hydrogen with bromine 
 water. This method could not be used on any Lut a 
 laboratory scale, and the same may be said of the 
 process suggested by Berge and Reyschler, 2 who pro- 
 posed to remove the sulphuretted hydrogen and phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen by passing the gas through an 
 acid solution of mercuric chloride. 
 
 As the necessity for purification became more and 
 more apparent, many experiments were made to pro- 
 vide some material, the price of which should make 
 its use commercially possible, and which should elimi- 
 nate the impurities at one operation, and at the pre- 
 sent time there are three substances recognised as 
 fulfilling these conditions : 
 
 1. Bleaching powder. 
 
 2. Acid solutions of copper or iron salts. 
 
 3. Acidulated solution of chromic acid. 
 
 The use of bleaching powder for the purification of 
 acetylene was first proposed and patented by Smith 
 of Aberdeen, 3 and later was advocated by Lunge and 
 Cedecreutz, 4 who point out that bleaching powder can 
 be employed for this purpose on account of its cheap- 
 
 1 Berl. Ber., 28, 2,102. 3 Eng. Pat. 24,414 (1896). 
 
 2 Bull. Soc. Chem., 3, 17, 218. 4 Zeit.f. ang. Chem. (1897), 654. 
 
 500 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 ness, and say, u It can be used as a solution or thin 
 liquor through which the acetylene is permitted to 
 pass. It is more convenient, however, to use bleaching 
 powder in the solid form in the presence of sufficient 
 moisture to secure a good working. According to 
 experiments, the best way is to form the bleaching 
 powder into lumps with a small quantity of water, so 
 that the gas can pass through readily : the pulverised 
 powder offers too much resistance, and also causes dust 
 to rise. It would be better to arrange behind the 
 vessel holding the bleaching powder another contain- 
 ing lime, which would catch anything brought through 
 from the bleaching powder. 
 
 On the other hand, the bleaching powder must not 
 contain so much moisture as to become pasty, and 
 thus prevent the gas from penetrating. When the 
 acetylene is too moist it can be cooled, the condensed 
 moisture removed, and thus almost dry gas obtained. 
 
 / t/O 
 
 Of course, a chemical drier, such as concentrated 
 sulphuric acid, of gravity 1-6 to 1*7, is better. This 
 drier, or one less concentrated, can also be used to 
 remove the ammonia, or other acids can be used in 
 its place for the same purpose. 
 
 By using more vessels, they can be replaced when 
 exhausted, others put in their place, and the calcium 
 phosphate and sulphate removed." 
 
 Bleaching powder, or, as it is often commercially 
 called, chloride of lime, is made by passing chlorine 
 over carefully slaked lime containing about 25 per 
 cent, of its weight of water, every precaution being 
 taken during the action of the chlorine on the lime 
 not to allow any rise of temperature. This material, 
 when properly made, contains about 36 to 37 per cent, 
 of available chlorine, i.e. chlorine which can again 
 be set free ; and this material is largely utilised for 
 bleaching purposes owing to the fact that as it under- 
 goes slow decomposition, the chlorine evolved from it 
 
 501 
 
 Bleaching 
 
 powder as a 
 
 purifier 
 
 Condition in 
 which the 
 bleaching 
 
 powder 
 
 should be 
 
 used 
 
 Preparation 
 
 and action 
 
 of bleaching 
 
 powder 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of 
 bleaching 
 powder on 
 
 the 
 impurities 
 
 in the 
 Acetylene 
 
 Ahrens' 
 experiments 
 
 with 
 
 bleaching 
 
 powder as a 
 
 purifier 
 
 unites with the hydrogen of the moisture present and 
 liberates oxygen, which combines with any oxidisable 
 substances with which it is in contact. 
 
 The action of bleaching powder in purifying the 
 acetylene is purely an oxidation process, as the phos- 
 phuretted and sulphuretted hydrogens, being more 
 readily attacked than the acetylene, are oxidised to 
 phosphoric acid and sulphuric acid, whilst the acety- 
 lene is unaffected. 
 
 In practice, the bleaching powder is generally mixed 
 with some inert substance, to expose a larger surface 
 to the gas, sawdust being frequently used for this 
 purpose on a large scale, whilst some makers of puri- 
 fying material use small proportions of bodies that 
 have little or no specific action to mix with the 
 bleaching powder and to give it a distinctive colour. 
 The material used by Thorn and Hoddle in their puri- 
 fier consists of bleaching powder with a little oxide of 
 iron ; whilst Wolff's purifying material is bleaching 
 powder with a little lead chromate. 
 
 Ahrens 1 has studied the action of bleaching powder, 
 and mixtures containing it, on crude acetylene, and 
 states its advantages and disadvantages as follows : 
 
 " To enable the bleaching powder to act better, it 
 was slightly moistened and mixed with sawdust so as 
 to obtain a larger surface. It was found, however, 
 that lumps of varying size had been formed through 
 which the gas did not penetrate, as it naturally passed 
 round them through the loose layers, thus the puri- 
 fying material was apparently exhausted, when in 
 reality large quantities of the bleaching powder were 
 unused ; moreover, the purified gas had to pass through 
 a drying apparatus containing in this instance calcium 
 carbide, a substance often used for this purpose. The 
 result was a dry gas, but one rendered impure by the 
 acetylene set free in the drying process. Calcium 
 1 Zeit. Calc. Acet., 3, 81. 
 502 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMEBCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 carbide, therefore, was not a good drying material, and 
 could not remove any traces of chlorine from the gas. 
 It was therefore thought best to use the bleaching 
 powder in a finely divided condition, and to employ 
 lime as the drying agent. This method was found to 
 be good. Wolff, having recognised this, prepares the 
 bleaching powder as a uniform yellow powder, the 
 yellow being due to the addition of lead chromate, 
 which is added to facilitate the powdering, and merely 
 acts as a diluting material. On treatment with water, 
 a green solution is obtained, which shows that a 
 chromic salt is present, but the quantity is so small 
 that its action in purifying may be neglected. The 
 oxidation value of Wolff's bleaching powder is high. 
 My experiments show that with acetylene passing at 
 the rate of 25 litres per hour, one kilogramme purifies 
 18,000 litres of the gas completely from all sulphur 
 and phosphorus compounds. Sixteen litres of gas were 
 allowed to pass through a 10-bulb tube filled with 
 pure sodium hypobromide, and then several times 
 through a 5 per cent, potassium permanganate solu- 
 tion. By these means nearly all the sulphur and 
 phosphorus compounds would have been oxidised, but 
 in no case could any sulphuric or phosphoric acid be 
 found. 
 
 " Wolff has published a statement in Kraft und 
 Licht, 1892, No. 32, that the gas purified by his bleach- 
 ing powder has an odour of chlorine. It is difficult to 
 see why the gas should possess a bad odour. Chlorine 
 compounds of acetylene have a sweet smell, similar to 
 that of purified acetylene, and the conclusion must be 
 drawn that other hydrocarbons, whose presence has 
 been found in several generators, may yield, with 
 chlorine from the bleaching powder, compounds having 
 such an odour. In my generator, however, in which 
 carbide falls into water, I have never observed it. 
 The gas, after passing through the bleaching powder, 
 
 503 
 
 Condition of 
 
 the 
 
 bleaching 
 powder used 
 
 Purifying 
 power of 
 Wolff's 
 mixture 
 
 Smell of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 purified by 
 
 Wolff's 
 
 mixture 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Presence of 
 
 Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 
 Necessity 
 
 of passing 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 purified by 
 
 bleaching 
 
 powder 
 
 through 
 
 Lime 
 
 Ahrens 
 investigates 
 the cause of 
 
 free 
 Chlorine in 
 
 purified 
 Acetylene 
 
 always had a sweet ethereal smell. The gas, however, 
 is not yet pure, as, if it is passed through a blood 
 solution, this latter shows the carbon monoxide spec- 
 trum. If potassium permanganate be used for oxi- 
 dation of the gas, as mentioned above, it may be 
 employed for the quantitative determination of the 
 chlorine. That pure acetylene was acted on by bleach- 
 ing powder was shown by several experiments. Pure 
 acetylene, i.e. containing no sulphur, phosphorus, or 
 chlorine, was allowed to pass through a Wolff's tower, 
 and then through permanganate solution, and a con- 
 siderable quantity of chlorine was found. In other 
 experiments, however, the bleaching powder tower 
 was followed by one containing lime, and then the 
 gas passed through the permanganate solution. In 
 this case the quantity of chlorine was much less, 
 though always considerable, the tests being made with 
 the greatest care. 
 
 " By passing acetylene through Wolff's purifying 
 substance it is, therefore, totally freed from phosphur- 
 etted hydrogen and all organic sulphur and phos- 
 phorus compounds, but carbon monoxide and organic 
 chloride compounds are formed which will accompany 
 the gas. That such organic chlorine compounds are 
 formed in the bleaching powder was proved by treat- 
 ing the exhausted material with ether and subsequent 
 evaporation, but the quantity found was not great." 
 
 Later, Ahrens l investigated the cause of the free 
 chlorine found in the acetylene purified by this pro- 
 cess, and also the sudden rise in the temperature of 
 the mass which is occasionally noticed when damp 
 bleaching powder is mixed with sawdust. 
 
 " I have already shown that acetylene purified by 
 bleaching powder retains the smell of chlorine, and 
 that certain chlorine compounds are formed, but this 
 does not affect the flame and the burners, though my 
 
 1 Zeit. Cole. Acet., 3, 173. 
 504 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 own experience is that the edge of the flame is some- 
 what changed. On the other hand, it is known that 
 in many cases, by using bleaching powder as a puri- 
 fying material, a very strong odour of chlorine was 
 noticed. The town lighting of Vesprezen had to be 
 stopped for some time because the odour of chlorine 
 was so strong in the houses that the people could not 
 stay in them. Another trouble was also experienced 
 several times : the bleaching powder heated suddenly, 
 and lost its purifying power at once. I have made 
 researches on this point with the following results : 
 
 u At first I believed that a reaction between acety- 
 lene and chlorine took place, which might happen 
 with a strong bleaching powder, though often having 
 used the material of the best quality I had never 
 observed any rise in temperature. I therefore tried 
 to start the reaction by slowly heating the bleaching 
 powder as high as 100. It seemed that some acety- 
 lene was absorbed, the flame becoming smaller and 
 smaller, but without being extinguished, no sudden 
 reaction, however, taking place. 
 
 " I then tried bleaching powder mixture as it is 
 employed in practice. I used a strong fresh sample 
 mixed with sawdust and moistened with water. The 
 ratio of these three was changed in different ways, 
 and it was noticed that when using a certain amount 
 of water, a rise in temperature took place reaching as 
 high as 130 C. This heating does not appear directly 
 the mixture is prepared, but only after a certain time, 
 depending upon the ratio of the mixture. It is accom- 
 panied by the evolution of water vapour and chlorine. 
 Both heating and evolution of water vapour and 
 chlorine have the same cause, and do not at all depend 
 on acetylene." 
 
 This explanation will also show why the bleaching 
 powder method of purification does not always yield 
 good results. I have always stated that the bleaching 
 
 505 
 
 Troubles 
 
 with 
 purification 
 
 by 
 
 bleaching 
 powder 
 
 Action of 
 bleaching 
 powder on 
 Acetylene 
 
 Rise of 
 
 temperature 
 observed 
 
 with 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 sawdust and 
 
 bleaching 
 
 powder 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 powder gives very high purification results. If the 
 bleaching powder be weak owing to storage these 
 phenomena do not occur. 
 
 The following table gives the results with mixtures 
 of bleaching powder 34 per cent. and sawdust with 
 water. 
 
 Mixing BO gr. of bleaching powder with 12'5 cc. of 
 water, the temperature rises 11 to 12, and goes down 
 after a short time. 5 gr. sawdust and 4 cc. of water 
 were then added, and after seven minutes, no rise of 
 temperature being observed, 5 gr. sawdust and a little 
 water were again added, then after ten minutes the 
 temperature rose to 125, and the mixture began to 
 froth. 
 
 In order to show that heating was caused by the 
 reaction of sawdust on bleaching powder, a strong 
 cold solution of bleaching powder was mixed with 
 sawdust, and after a short time the temperature rose 
 to 95. 
 
 The Other experiments with pure cellulose and a bleach- 
 
 powder solution gave almost no rise of tempera- 
 
 action of ture. It is therefore almost certain that the lignine 
 the Lignine substances of the sawdust react with bleaching 
 in the powder with evolution of heat. 
 
 sawdust * 
 
 It therefore follows for practical purposes that the 
 bleaching powder must be mixed with very much 
 sawdust or very little water. The best way is to 
 avoid the sawdust and to mix with kieselguhr, coke 
 powder, brick powder, lead chromate Wolff's mixture 
 or other materials." 
 
 Alleged Some observers have stated that the highly ex- 
 
 rj^e plosive chloride of nitrogen is liable to be formed 
 
 of Nitrogen when bleaching powder is used as a purifying agent, 
 
 owing to the ammonia present in the crude acetylene 
 
 reacting with chlorine from the bleaching powder. It 
 
 seems highly improbable that this should occur, and 
 
 the author has never been able to detect any trace of 
 
 506 
 
IMPUBITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 60 
 
 pi ^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 |.s. 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 1 
 
 fe ^ 
 
 la 
 
 ||l 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 m^ 
 
 I b 
 
 OJ 
 
 ! 
 
 ll'i 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 grg- 
 
 gr. 
 
 cc. 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 After 56 minutes, 5 cc. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 water are added owing to 
 
 30 
 
 20 10 
 
 69 
 
 50, 
 
 decrease of temperature ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 temp, decreases to 61'5 and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rises in 17 minutes to 118. 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 120 
 
 4J 
 
 After 3 minutes water vapour 
 begins to be evolved. 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 117 
 
 7 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 66 
 
 15 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 125 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 After 3 minutes, strong evo- 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 123 
 
 6 
 
 lution of steam, the mix- 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 ture frothing. 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 115 
 
 8 ! 
 
 After 1 minute strong evolu- 
 tion of steam. 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 116 
 
 4 ( 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 106 
 
 2 
 
 After 1 minute the mass boils. 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 46 
 126 
 
 12 ( 
 
 1 I 
 
 Amount at which no reaction 
 takes place in a not quite 
 homogeneous mixture. 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 130 
 
 7 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 125 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 The rise from 21 to 37 
 
 20 
 
 7'5 
 
 5 
 
 39 
 
 ] 
 
 takes place when mixing 
 bleaching powder with 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 water. 
 
 20 
 
 7'5 
 
 8 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 
 20 
 
 7-5 
 
 10 
 
 128 
 
 B| 
 
 Boiling and frothing of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 mass. 
 
 20 
 
 7-5 
 
 15 
 
 127 
 
 
 Frothing of mass, filling 
 beaker. 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 6 
 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 10 
 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 125 
 
 4 
 
 Violent frothing. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( 
 
 After 4 minutes the mass be- 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 116 
 
 Q\ 
 
 gins to froth so that it 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 overflows the beaker. 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 110 
 
 8 
 
 After 6 minutes, the same. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 76 
 
 5J 
 
 Some evolution of steam and 
 a little chlorine. 
 
 7-5 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 The beaker is bedewed. 
 
 7-5 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 76 
 
 5 
 
 
 7-5 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 79 
 
 2 
 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 64 
 
 7 
 
 The beaker is bedewed. 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 results 
 
 507 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Stagnant 
 gas from 
 purifier 
 
 burning 
 
 this action taking place, but it can be rendered abso- 
 lutely impossible by the use of an acid washer to 
 abstract all ammonia from the gas before the purifier 
 is reached. 
 
 One of the great drawbacks to this method of puri- 
 fication is that in warm weather, on first lighting 
 tiie S as in tne evening, there is a slight smell of 
 hydrochloric acid, as the gas that has stood for prob- 
 ably twenty-four hours in the purifier is consumed. 
 
 This slight trouble can readily be got over by 
 passing the gas through a layer of lime after it 
 leaves the purifier. 
 
 There is no doubt as to the purifying power of the 
 material, and the following table of results, obtained 
 with Wolff's mixture of bleaching powder and lead 
 chroma te, shows that when using ordinary carbide, 
 1 kilo of the mixture will purify 21 cubic metres 742 
 cubic feet of acetylene : 
 
 PURIFIER FILLED WITH 8'5 KG. OF MATERIAL. 
 
 July 7th, 1899. 
 Installation for 100 lights. 
 
 Practical 
 results as to 
 
 the 
 
 purifying 
 
 power of 
 
 Wolff's 
 
 mixture 
 
 Date. 
 
 Gas passing 
 through 
 Purifier. 
 
 Before Purification. 
 Per cent. 
 
 After Purification. 
 Per cent. 
 
 July 11 . . 
 
 cb. rn. 
 14 
 
 c. ft. 
 
 494 
 
 H 2 S. 
 0-015 
 
 PH S . 
 0-059 
 
 H 2 S. 
 
 o-oo 
 
 PH 3 . 
 
 o-oo 
 
 14 . . 
 
 26 
 
 918 
 
 0-005 
 
 0-044 
 
 o-oo 
 
 o-oo 
 
 19 . . 
 
 43 
 
 1,518 
 
 o-oi 
 
 0-05 
 
 o-oo 
 
 o-oo 
 
 22 . . 
 
 54-5 
 
 1,924 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-071 
 
 o-oo 
 
 0-004 
 
 26 . . 
 
 67-5 
 
 2,384 
 
 0-005 
 
 0-031 
 
 o-oo 
 
 o-oo 
 
 Aug. 1 . . 
 
 79-5 
 
 2,706 
 
 0-0032 
 
 0-147 
 
 o-oo 
 
 o-ooi 
 
 14 . . 
 
 110 
 
 3,883 
 
 0-0044 
 
 0-158 
 
 o-oo 
 
 0-0013 
 
 19 . . 
 
 129 
 
 4,554 
 
 0-0052 
 
 0-048 
 
 o-oo 
 
 o-oo 
 
 22 . . 
 
 138 
 
 4,871 
 
 0-067 
 
 0-051 
 
 0-0008 
 
 o-ooi 
 
 29 . . 
 
 162 
 
 5,719 
 
 0-0056 
 
 0-052 
 
 o-ooi 
 
 0-0013 
 
 Sept. 1 . . 
 
 175 
 
 6,177 
 
 0-0092 
 
 0-059 
 
 0-0013 
 
 0-0015 
 
 4 . . 
 
 182 
 
 6,415 
 
 0-0064 
 
 0-057 
 
 0-0018 
 
 0-002 
 
 8'5 kg. material purified 182 cb. m. 6,415 c. ft. 
 1 ? 21 ,, 742 
 
 508 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 A new purifying material which owes its action to 
 the presence of bleaching powder has lately been in- 
 troduced by the Gold und Silber Scheide Anstalt of 
 Frankfort, under the name of u Puratylene," and 
 consists of a granulated mixture of lime and bleach- 
 ing powder, this form of the material being very 
 convenient, and offering but little resistance in the 
 purifiers. 
 
 During the last few years a large number of cases 
 have occurred of spontaneous firing and explosion when 
 air has been admitted to bleaching powder purifiers 
 which have been in use for some time. On several 
 occasions, in large installations, on opening the box 
 purifier in order to renew the material, a " flare " has 
 occurred, whilst in other cases in which small puri- 
 fiers containing bleaching powder have been used, 
 and have been disconnected and left for some time, 
 as acetylene has diffused out and air has diffused 
 in, an explosion, often of a serious character, has 
 taken place. 
 
 It was at first supposed that these explosions were 
 due to the formation of chloride of nitrogen ; but this 
 theory is untenable, as, in the conditions under which 
 they have occurred, it has been made amply manifest 
 that air is necessary for the action. It is well known 
 that free chlorine will bring about the explosion of a 
 mixture of acetylene and air, and it is manifest that 
 in a purifier containing partly decomposed bleaching 
 powder and acetylene, introduction of air with its 
 contained trace of carbon dioxide might lead to the 
 liberation of chlorine, and so bring about an explo- 
 sion, whilst it is also possible that the liberation of 
 hypochlorous acid by moisture and carbon dioxide 
 might lead to the same result. At any rate, these 
 explosions make it amply clear that bleaching powder 
 should only be used as a purifying agent with the 
 greatest precaution. 
 
 509 
 
 " Pura- 
 tylene " 
 
 Spontaneous 
 
 ignition and 
 
 explosion 
 
 with 
 
 bleaching 
 
 powder 
 
 purifiers 
 
 Conditions 
 
 under which 
 
 explosion 
 
 has taken 
 
 place 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Purification The second method by which purification can be 
 solutions ot brought about is by passing the crude gas through 
 
 so ^ u ^ ons f copper or iron salts, and Goettig 1 
 used for this purpose an acidulated solution of copper 
 sulphate mixed with some other substances not men- 
 tioned, whilst Frank 2 uses a hydrochloric acid solution 
 of cuprous chloride, and this method is now very 
 widely adopted. 
 
 The action Frank 3 describes its action as follows: "This 
 Acidulated method of purification removes the ammonia, sulphu- 
 chio^ide^n re ^ted hydrogen, and phosphuretted hydrogen in one 
 purification operation. The purified acetylene has not the char- 
 acteristic odour of the crude acetylene, nor does it 
 form explosive compounds in contact with copper, 
 because the absence of the impurities prevents their 
 formation. This method is based on the fact that 
 these impurities are especially removed by solutions 
 of the salts of those metals which form several 
 oxides. To purify the acetylene it is bubbled through 
 several washbottles containing a hydrochloric acid 
 solution of cuprous chloride of definite strength. The 
 ammonia is neutralised by the acid. The sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen and other sulphur compounds, such 
 as polymercaptides, are transformed into cuprous sul- 
 phide, and the phosphuretted hydrogen is partly 
 absorbed and partly precipitated as copper phos- 
 phide. Our experiments showed that one volume of 
 this solution purified 12,000 to 14,000 volumes of 
 acetylene. The gas escaping from the wash-bottles 
 only needs washing with water to be nearly quite 
 pure. The odour is then aromatic, and the gas con- 
 tains traces of aldehydes. Whether these were de- 
 rived from an oxidation of the acetylene could not be 
 proved. 
 
 " The hydrochloric acid cuprous chloride solution is 
 
 1 Jour. f. Gasbel, 59, 206. 2 Ger. Pat. 94490. 
 
 3 Jour.f. Gasbel, 41, 615. 
 
 510 
 
IMPUEITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 somewhat discoloured, and may be regenerated in the 
 easiest way by boiling whilst air is passed through it, 
 when it is again ready for use. The same effect is 
 also produced with mercury and iron salts." 
 
 In order to render this method of purification more 
 convenient, Frank impregnates kieselguhr with his 
 solution, the solid being easier to handle and giving 
 less resistance in the purifier. It is also claimed for 
 it that it can be regenerated after it is exhausted by 
 seiving and exposure to air. This, however, is not so, 
 though the breaking up of the material exposes fresh 
 surfaces, and gives a slight renewal of the purifying 
 power, but in practice this should not be reckoned 
 upon. 
 
 The objections which have been urged against 
 Frank's system are that owing to the acid nature of 
 the mass, ordinary metal containers cannot be em- 
 ployed, and also that if the acid became neutralised 
 by ammonia or lime dust, the explosive copper acety- 
 lene might be formed. Frank replied to these ob- 
 jections, 1 and also gave further figures as to the 
 efficiency of the process as follows : " Kieselguhr im- 
 pregnated with the hydrochloric acid solution of 
 cuprous chloride purifies as well as the solution itself, 
 and has the advantage of only slightly decreasing the 
 gas pressure. The material is specially fit for small 
 apparatus, its volume in comparison to the surface 
 being small, and it can also be used for town lighting 
 installations, though on a large scale I should always 
 prefer to bubble the gas through a solution, as less 
 attention is required than with the kieselguhr. With 
 the solution the regeneration is carried out as follows : 
 The exhausted liquor is filtered, copper sulphide re- 
 mains on the filter, the filtrate is boiled and air drawn 
 through it. By boiling, the phosphuretted hydrogen 
 escapes, and with a definite strength of solution does 
 
 1 Zeit. Calc. Acet., 2, 298. 
 511 
 
 Regenera- 
 tion of the 
 purifying 
 solution 
 
 Kieselguhr 
 
 impreg- 
 nated with 
 
 the 
 
 solution 
 acts as a 
 purifier 
 
 Objections 
 raised to 
 Franks' 
 purifier 
 
 Franks' 
 answers to 
 
 the 
 objections 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Advantages 
 
 over 
 
 bleaching 
 powder 
 
 Vessels for 
 containing 
 
 the 
 purifying 
 
 material 
 
 Cost of 
 purification 
 
 not form copper phosphide, but only an unstable com- 
 pound of it with cuprous chloride. After having 
 added a little copper, and brought it to the original 
 volume with hydrochloric acid, the solution is again 
 ready for use. 
 
 " The kieselguhr material is merely exposed to the 
 air for regeneration. The purifiers now made are of 
 such a size as to work from 3 to 6 months, and as the 
 material does not change by keeping, it can easily 
 be replaced by new owing to its cheapness. This is 
 a great advantage when compared with bleaching 
 powder, which loses chlorine even in closed vessels. 
 
 " Wolff is of opinion that metal vessels could not 
 be used for the acid solution or solid material, but 
 this is a mistake. In chemical industries we have 
 had, in a great many manufactures, enamelled iron 
 vessels which have been in use for many years. 
 Enamelled cylinders, perforated or not, could also be 
 used, placed in metallic outer casings. These would 
 have the advantage of being easily taken out, cleaned, 
 and recharged. The formation of copper- acetylene is 
 impossible on account of the amount of hydrochloric 
 acid in comparison to the copper, so high an amount 
 of ammonia being allowed for in the gas that the 
 solution is exhausted before neutralisation occurs. 
 The cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid does not 
 affect the acetylene itself. 
 
 " The time during which the purifying material 
 could be used has been practically proved in Germany, 
 America, and Switzerland on a commercial scale. 
 
 " With 1 kg. of ferric chloride solution or solid 
 material, 7 to 10 cb. m. of acetylene were purified ; with 
 1 kgr. cuprous chloride solution, 18 to 25 cb. m. The 
 copper method is better than the iron one. If the 
 price is Qd. per kgr. for this material, the purification 
 of the acetylene set free from 1 kgr. carbide is one- 
 sixteenth to one-fifth of a penny. The possibility 
 
 512 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 of regeneration is not calculated in these figures, 
 though this surely will be done when generating 
 and purifying acetylene on a large scale. 
 
 " When illuminating houses and cottages with 20 
 to 30 burners, with a consumption per hour of 20 
 litres, in use for 6 hours a day, a purifier must be 
 used containing 12 to 15 kgr. of the material. It 
 has been stated that this quantity has been found 
 sufficient for three to four months. 
 
 "The results of my practical researches are as 
 follows : 1 kgr. of the material purifies 20 to 25 cb. m. 
 of acetylene from all noxious substances. The 
 acetylene is not acted upon by the material. The 
 purified gas has a pleasant odour. The exhaustion 
 of the purifying material will be detected by the 
 appearance of the flame and the generation of noxious 
 products of combustion, but the formation of copper- 
 acetylene is not possible. The material acts regularly 
 till exhausted, and does not change when kept.'' 
 
 The third method of purification consists in passing 
 the crude acetylene through solutions of chromic acid 
 containing sulphuric or acetic acid. This process, 
 which is patented by Ullmann, is undoubtedly a good 
 one, and is thus described by Ahrens. 1 Ullmann's 
 purifying material consists of an acidulated solution 
 of chromic acid. For big central stations the solution 
 is found best, for single generators, kieselguhr im- 
 pregnated with this solution is used. This purifying 
 process destroys and eliminates in one operation phos- 
 phuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia. 
 The light yellow mass when used changes colour, and 
 is converted into a dirty green. The exhausted mass 
 exposed to air reverts to yellow, and therefore can 
 be regenerated. The action of the chromic acid 
 depends on oxidation processes, the yellow chromic 
 acid being gradually converted into a chromic salt. 
 
 Weight of 
 
 material 
 
 that should 
 
 be used 
 
 Conclusions 
 
 Ullmann's 
 purification 
 
 by 
 
 Acidulated 
 
 Chromic 
 
 Acid 
 
 The action 
 
 of 
 
 Acidulated 
 
 Chromic 
 
 Acid in 
 
 purification 
 
 1 Zeit. Cole. Acet., 3, 81. 
 513 
 
 33 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Results of 
 
 Ullmann's 
 
 purification 
 
 Wachs' 
 experiments 
 
 on 
 
 Ullmann's 
 process 
 
 Results 
 obtained 
 
 Purification 
 effected 
 
 Ullmann's material gives good results. It eliminates 
 all impurities except small traces of organic sulphur 
 compounds, the presence of which could be several 
 times found by the means stated above. Pure acety- 
 lene passed through a tower filled with the substance 
 was not changed, no carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, 
 aldehydes or acids being formed. Absorption of acety- 
 lene does not occur. Berge's reagent showed an opal- 
 escence after 2,800 litres have passed over 1 kgr. 
 
 Wachs l in Bunte's laboratory made some researches 
 on Ullmann's process for purification. Two towers, 
 49 cm. high, were filled with pieces of pumice stone 
 impregnated with a solution of crystallised chromic 
 acid dissolved in twice its weight of 50 per cent, 
 acetic acid. In the lower part of the towers the 
 liquid stood 2 cm. from the inlet of gas tubing. After 
 these two purifiers a third tower was connected con- 
 taining lime and sawdust in order to remove acetic 
 acid vapours. First it was noticed that acetylene at 
 a rate of 29 litres per hour after passing the apparatus 
 had entirely lost its penetrating odour. Using Berge 
 and Reyschler's reagent (10 parts of mercuric chloride, 
 20 parts of 30 per cent, hydrochloric acid, and 80 
 parts of water), it was not rendered turbid after the 
 gas had passed at the above rate for an hour. A 
 flame, consuming 29 litres per hour in a room of 26 
 cb. m. capacity, did not produce the slightest haze, 
 nor did the air affect the respiratory organs. 
 
 Quantitative tests were then made, Lunge's method 
 being employed. The unpurified gas for 11 '29 litres 
 of acetylene gave 0-0205 gr. magnesium pyrophos- 
 phate. In a sample of the gas taken behind the 
 purifiers 8' 18 litres acetylene gave not a trace of 
 ammonium magnesium phosphate nor a yellow pre- 
 cipitate with ammonium molybdate. Working as 
 
 1 Jour.f. Gasbd, 42, 198; Zeit. Calc, Acet., 2, 413. 
 514 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 indicated by Ullmann, the results obtained therefore 
 are very good. 
 
 Another experiment was made. The rate of gas 
 was increased beyond the limits allowed. A burner 
 consuming 119 litres per hour was used, and after 
 working 1J hours a slight haze was observed in the 
 26 cb. m. room. 14 litres of the gas passing both 
 purifiers at a rate of 128*23 litres per hour were 
 aspirated and tested, but only a small amount of 
 phosphorus was found. 
 
 In order to test the influence of chromic acid on 
 the light emitted, the gas was tested photometrically, 
 before and after purification. The test was in both 
 cases the same. The gas passed the purifiers at a 
 rate of 18'59 litres per hour. It was found O57 litres 
 per Hefner unpurified, O58 litre per Hefner purified. 
 To ascertain the quantity of chromic acid used, 812 
 litres were passed through chromic acid of known 
 strength. The chromic acid was used in a Geissler 
 absorption apparatus, the test lasted 552 hours, the 
 gas bubbling very slowly. The gas was tested with 
 sodium hypochlorite between 511 litres and 523 litres, 
 and between 662 and 675 litres, but no phosphuretted 
 hydrogen was found. 812 litres of acetylene used 
 4'04 gr. of chromic acid for purification. 1 cb. m., 
 therefore, requires 5*5 gr. chromic acid. 100 kgr. of 
 chromic acid costs 72s., the purification of 1 cb. m. 
 therefore costs O'Ood. With 1 kgr. of calcium carbide, 
 yielding 300 litres of acetylene costing 5c?., 1 cb. m 
 therefore costs Is. 4d. ; the cost of the chromic acid 
 would therefore be '33 per cent, of the price of the 
 gas. 
 
 Ullmann and Miss Goldberg l made an interesting 
 series of determinations of the purifying power of 
 the acidulated chromic acid as compared with the 
 power of the acidulated metallic salts. They say, 
 1 Jour.f. Gasbel, 52, 374. 
 515 
 
 Influence of 
 the rate of 
 flow on the 
 purification 
 
 Amount and 
 
 cost of 
 
 material 
 
 used in 
 
 purification 
 
 Experi- 
 ments made 
 to contrast 
 
 the 
 
 purifying 
 power of 
 
ACETYLENE 
 Franks' and u In order to make the different tests comparable, it 
 
 Ullmann's T T . 
 
 systems was necessary to nave a homogeneous crude material. 
 We did not try this by calcium carbide, but made 
 a large quantity of acetylene and used it for the 
 different tests. We had two gasholders, one of 150 
 litres and the other of 30 litres capacity, the latter 
 graduated in 50 cc. Both holders were filled with 
 brine saturated with acetylene. 
 
 " In the big holder the gas was mixed by com- 
 pression, and stood for 24 hours, being then allowed 
 to pass into the smaller one, so that 15 to 20 litres 
 were used for each test. This gas was allowed to 
 pass through two ten-bulb tubes, each filled with 
 75 cc. of 3 per cent, solution ; these solutions were 
 acidified with dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporated 
 to 100 cc., ammonia being then added, and the phos- 
 phoric acid precipitated with magnesium chloride, the 
 sulphur in the filtrate being precipitated with barium 
 chloride. 
 
 Analysis of " I. Analysis of the original commercial acetylene : 
 
 Acetylene ^^ litres of acetylene contain : 
 
 used I. II. 
 
 Phosphorus ... O154 ... O153 grams. 
 Sulphur ... 0-065 ... 0'067 
 
 a. Action of Commercial Acetylene on Ferric Chloride. 
 
 action*!* " ^0 gr. of ferric chloride were dissolved in 100 cc. 
 
 Acidulated of a 10 per cent, hydrochloric acid, and the liquid ob- 
 
 cnioride tained impregnated with 100 gr. of kieselguhr. The 
 
 yellow mass was sifted and placed in a tower 20 cm. 
 
 high and 4- 7 cm. diameter. After the tower was 
 
 filled with acetylene it was connected to the gasholder 
 
 and the ten-bulb tubes, and the analysis made as above 
 
 mentioned. 
 
 " 100 litres of acetylene contained 0-151 gr. phos- 
 phorus and 0*065 gr. sulphur. 
 
 "These results show that ferric chloride has no 
 purifying effect on commercial acetylene, and does 
 
 516 
 
IMPUBITIES OF COMMERCIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 not diminish the quantity of sulphur or phosphorus. 
 All the sulphur was present as so-called organic sul- 
 phur, no sulphuretted hydrogen being there. We in- 
 tended using large q uantities of the purifying material, 
 and allowing the gas to pass extremely slowly in 
 order to get the best conditions, but we know very 
 well that such conditions would never be attained in 
 practice. We, however, succeeded in completely prov- 
 ing the total inactivity of certain metallic salts. 
 
 b. Action of Chromic Acid on Commercial Acetylene. 
 
 " The ferric chloride was taken out and the chromic Purifying 
 acid material, as previously published (Acet., W. & J., Acidulated 
 
 1899, 28 ; Jour. f. Gasbel, 1899, 199) by one of us, was 
 introduced, the experiment being repeated as before. 
 
 " 100 litres of acetylene contained 0*000 gr. phos- 
 phorus and 0-002 gr. sulphur. 
 
 " These figures show that the chromic acid material 
 completely eliminates the phosphuretted hydrogen, 
 whilst only about 3 per cent, of the total sulphur re- 
 main in the gas. The analysis of the acetylene used 
 gave the following figures : 
 
 " 100 litres of acetylene contained 0-137 gr. phos- 
 phorus and 0-016 gr. sulphur. 
 
 c. Action of Cuprous Chloride on Commercial Acety- 
 
 lene. 
 
 " The cuprous chloride solution was prepared after Purifying 
 the formula of Prank, which is the same as Caro 
 (Acet., W. & J., 1899, 9) published. 100 cc. of this 
 solution were impregnated with 100 gr. of kieselguhr, 
 the tower filled with it, and the experiment made as 
 before. 
 
 " 100 litres of acetylene contained 0*000 gr. phos- 
 phorus and 0-015 gr. sulphur. 
 
 " These figures prove that cuprous chloride destroys 
 and eliminates all the phosphuretted hydrogen, whilst 
 it is without any action on organic sulphur com- 
 
 517 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Purifying 
 action of 
 Chromic 
 Sulphate 
 
 Goettig's 
 experiments 
 
 on the 
 action of 
 Alkaline 
 Chlorides 
 
 in 
 purification 
 
 pounds. These results prove the correctness of our 
 opinion (Acet., W. & J., 1899, 29), contrary to the 
 statement of Caro (Acet., W. & J., 1899, 19). They 
 further prove that Berge's reagent is far more sensi- 
 tive than silver nitrate. 
 
 d. Action of Chromic Sulphate on Commercial Acety- 
 lene. 
 
 " Quantitative tests have already shown that, as was 
 to be expected, chromic sulphate had no purifying 
 action on commercial acetylene. The quantitative 
 analysis gave the following figures : 
 
 " 100 litres of acetylene contained 0*139 gr. phos- 
 phorus and 0-015 gr. sulphur. 
 
 a Comparing these figures with those of the acety- 
 lene used, it must be clear that chromic sulphate does 
 not purify acetylene. 
 
 " These researches, based on quantitative tests, show 
 that ferric and chromic salts are without any action, 
 that cuprous chloride acts very well bat not com- 
 pletely, and that chromic acid has a complete purify- 
 ing action on acetylene." 
 
 It has been stated that acidulated chromic acid 
 oxidises some of the acetylene, with formation of car- 
 bon monoxide ; but with the strength of solution used 
 by Ullmann this is not so. 
 
 Goettig 1 has found that the action of metallic 
 salts in purifying acetylene can be considerably in- 
 creased by the addition of alkaline chlorides in defi- 
 nite proportions. In describing his experiments he 
 says : 
 
 " The following methods have been in use hitherto 
 for purifying acetylene gas : 1. Frank uses solutions 
 of acid metallic salts. 2. Lunge and Cedercreutz, 
 bleaching powder. 3. Willgerodt, bromine. 4. Berge 
 and Reyschler employ mercuric chloride. 5. Pictet, 
 
 1 BerL Ber., 32, ii. p. 1879. 
 B18 
 
IMPURITIES OF COMMEECIAL ACETYLENE 
 
 saline solutions and acids at a temperature below 
 10 C. 6. Ullmann, chromic acid in acetic or sulphuric 
 acid solution. In order to avoid the formation of 
 explosive metallo-acetylene compounds, an excess of 
 acid is necessary in nearly all these methods. The 
 author has now found that the acid can be advan- 
 tageously replaced by potassium or sodium chloride 
 solutions, provided that they be mixed in certain 
 definite proportions. 
 
 " a. 100 gr. of ferric nitrate, 10 gr. of copper 
 sulphate, 10 gr. mercuric nitrate, 20 gr. of 
 nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-2), and 1,000 gr. of water 
 were mixed. 
 
 ^ b. The same solution was made, with the addition 
 of 40 per cent, of a potassium chloride solution 
 containing 20 per cent, of potassium chloride. 
 u 50 cc. of each of these two solutions were placed 
 in two wash bottles, crude acetylene being then 
 passed through them into 20 cc. of a solution contain- 
 ing mercuric chloride and hydrochloric acid (sp.gr. 1-2), 
 until a faint turbidity appeared. This occurred : 
 
 " 1. In four experiments, when solution a was used 
 after passing through (1) 600, (2) 650, (3) 550, (4) 690 
 cc. of crude acetylene. 
 
 "2. Four experiments, solution b (1) 2,400, (2) 
 2,500, (3) 2,700, (4) 2,800 cc. of the same gas. 
 
 " Similar experiments were carried out without the 
 use of nitric acid. 
 
 " c. Solution a without nitric acid. 
 " d. Solution a with potassium chloride. 
 " Results : 
 
 " c. (1) 1,050 cc., (2) 1,520 cc., (3) 1,250 cc., (4) 
 
 1,420 cc. 
 " d. (1) 5,725 cc., (2) 6,200 cc., (3) 5,200 cc., (4) 
 
 5,650 cc. 
 
 " It is evident from these figures, which are of course 
 only of approximate accuracy, that the addition of 
 
 519 
 
 Acids 
 replaceable 
 
 by 
 
 Alkaline 
 Chlorides 
 
 in 
 
 purifying 
 solutions 
 
 Solutions 
 employed 
 by Goettig 
 
 Results 
 obtained 
 
 Goettig's 
 conclusions 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Practical 
 results 
 
 Stern 
 suggests 
 organic 
 solvents 
 
 Exley's 
 
 purifying 
 
 slabs 
 
 Limit of 
 
 purification 
 
 necessary 
 
 in practice 
 
 potassium chloride in place of acids to the above 
 metallic salts solution increases very considerably the 
 capacity for decomposing phosphuretted hydrogen, at 
 the same time preventing the formation of explosive 
 mercuro-acetylene compounds." 
 
 A wordy warfare has raged upon the Continent 
 amongst those interested in the three main types of 
 purification, but when properly employed there is but 
 little to choose between them, Frank's liquid purifi- 
 cation showing perhaps the best results on a large 
 scale, whilst for small installations either of the three 
 give equally good results. 
 
 Stern has patented the use of organic solvents, such 
 as paraffin oil, acetic acid, alcohol, or benzene for com- 
 pleting the purification of acetylene, and paraffin is 
 also used in the purifier sold with the " Sunbeam " 
 apparatus. 
 
 Messrs. Exley & Co. make a purifier in which the 
 gas has to pass through a plate or plates of porous 
 earthenware. The action of such a filter is of course 
 one of mechanical scrubbing, but they are effective in 
 keeping back products of polymerisation limedust and 
 excess of suspended moisture. By saturating these 
 plates with solutions such as Frank's or Ullmann's, 
 they can be made to give efficient purification for a 
 short period, but the pores soon begin to choke and to 
 offer resistance to the passage of the gas. 
 
 In considering the subject of purification, it must 
 be clearly borne in mind that chemical perfection is 
 not the thing commercially needed. All that it is 
 necessary to do is to reduce the impurities below the 
 limits at which the products of combustion cease to 
 become injurious to health or property, and if the 
 phosphuretted hydrogen is reduced to O01 per cent., 
 and the sulphur compounds to the same limit, the 
 troubles incidental to impure acetylene practically 
 disappear 
 
 520 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 i 
 
 THE GENERATION OF LIGHT AND 
 POWER FROM ACETYLENE. 
 
 N concluding his celebrated paper, in which he first illuminating 
 recounted the discovery and properties of acety- 
 
 lene, Edmund Davy said : " From the brilliancy with 
 which the new gas burns in contact with the atmo- 
 sphere, it is admirably adapted for the purposes of 
 artificial light if it can be procured at a cheap rate," 
 a prophecy which, although sixty years have been 
 taken in its fulfilment, has yet been amply verified. 
 
 It was in the autumn of 1894 that the author first 
 received a supply of American carbide, and in report- 
 ing on this material and on the acetylene generated 
 from it, in November of that year wrote: " The 
 gas when mixed with an equal quantity of air can 
 be burnt with a No. 4 Bray burner, and the illu- 
 minating power of the mixture would be equal to 
 65-7 candles per 5 cubic feet of gas consumed, which 
 would give the acetylene an illuminating value of 
 131-4 candles per 5 cubic feet. The presence of an 
 inert gas, such as the nitrogen in the air, is well 
 known to exercise such a cooling power on the flame 
 as to seriously reduce its illuminating value, and I 
 find that if the acetylene be burnt by itself at a suit- 
 able burner, it develops no less than 230 candles per 
 5 cubic feet of gas consumed." 
 
 Further experiments made during December, 1894, 
 with carefully purified gas yielded a slightly higher 
 
 521 
 
 Acetylene 
 b flrst 
 
 Early 
 
 tions of its 
 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 5 cubic feet 
 
 of gas 
 consumed 
 
 The illumi- 
 nating value 
 of a gas 
 
 Methods for 
 attaining 
 complete 
 
 combustion 
 
 The effect 
 of pressure 
 
 on the 
 
 combustion 
 
 of a gas 
 
 result, and in the paper read before the Society of 
 Arts in January, 1895, the author gave the illuminat- 
 ing power of the gas when burnt under the best con- 
 ditions as being 240 candles. 
 
 A considerable amount of vagueness exists as to 
 what is meant by the illuminating value of a gas, and 
 the only assumption which can be arrived at is that it 
 is the highest illuminating result which can be pro- 
 duced from the gas without the aid of regeneration or 
 artificial air supply other than that created by the 
 name itself. 
 
 The proper combustion of any hydrocarbon gas, 
 however rich, can be effected by supplying the flame 
 with exactly the amount of air necessary to prevent 
 smoking, and it is under these conditions that the 
 highest illuminating result possible with the par- 
 ticular burner is obtained. 
 
 With flat flames the ratio between the air supplied 
 and the gas consumed is governed by two factors (a) 
 the thickness of the flame ; (6) the pressure under 
 which the gas issues from the burner. 
 
 When a gas issues from a burner under pressure, 
 the uprush of the escaping gas mechanically draws in 
 air, so that when consuming a poor coal gas in a flat 
 flame the pressure has to be kept down, or too much 
 air would be drawn in, which would consume the 
 hydrocarbons too rapidly, and so seriously affect the 
 amount of light emitted. As the gas increases in illu- 
 minating value, more and more air is required for 
 proper combustion, and this can be obtained by in- 
 creasing the pressure at the burner. 
 
 Experience has shown that with ordinary sized flat 
 flame burners seven-tenths of an inch in pressure 
 gives practically the best results with coal gas of the 
 quality supplied in London, and up to a certain limit 
 the same flat flame burner can be used for richer gases 
 by increasing the pressure. When this limit is reached 
 
 522 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 a thinner sheet of flame has to be employed, i.e. a 
 smaller burner used, low initial pressure resorted to, 
 and then by increasing pressure this can be made to 
 consume gases of increasing value, until the pressure 
 reaches a point at which the flame becomes distorted, 
 when a still smaller burner has to be taken. By such 
 means as these even acetylene, with its enormously 
 high illuminating value, can be satisfactorily con- 
 sumed, whilst by thickening the flame and reducing 
 the pressure to the point at which the uprush almost 
 ceases to cause a mingling of air with the flame, and 
 leaves the supplying of the oxygen to diffusion, even 
 a poor gas can be made to develop its illuminating 
 power. 
 
 On consuming acetylene from a 000 union jet burner 
 at all ordinary pressures a smoky flame is obtained, 
 but on increasing the pressure to four inches a mag- 
 nificent flame results, free from smoke, and developing 
 an illuminating value of 240 candles per 5 cubic feet 
 of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have been 
 obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value 
 under these conditions. 
 
 By far the most interesting, and at the same time 
 important, chapter in the history of flame, however, 
 is the consideration of the causes which lead to the 
 luminosity of those flames upon which we depend for 
 most of our domestic lighting ; and these causes offer 
 so beautiful a field for both physical and chemical 
 research that they have attracted the attention of 
 many observers, and form no inconsiderable addition 
 to the chemical history of the century. In the year 
 1816, whilst engaged upon those celebrated researches 
 which culminated in the discovery of the miner's 
 safety lamp, Sir Humphry Davy noticed certain facts 
 which led him to work out and propound his theory 
 of the causes which led to luminosity in flame a 
 theory which is generally stated as being that the 
 
 523 
 
 Different 
 
 pressures 
 
 needed with 
 
 different 
 
 gases, when 
 
 burnt from 
 
 the same 
 
 burner 
 
 How the 
 
 illuminating 
 value of 
 
 Acetylene is 
 obtained 
 
 The 
 
 luminosity 
 of flame 
 
 The 
 researches 
 
 of Sir 
 Humphry 
 
 Davy 
 on flame 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Sir Edward 
 
 Frankland's 
 
 " dense 
 
 vapour " 
 
 theory 
 
 Stein's 
 
 defence of 
 
 Davy's 
 
 theory 
 
 The 
 researches 
 
 of Soret 
 and Burch 
 
 presence of solid particles in the flame is essential to 
 its luminosity. This theory remained unquestioned 
 until 1868, when the late Sir E. Fraiikland, in his cele- 
 brated communication to the Royal Society, showed 
 that although solid incandescent matter in a flame 
 renders it luminous, luminosity is also in many cases 
 produced when the flame contains very dense vapours 
 at a sufficiently high temperature, and also that a 
 non-luminous flame may be rendered luminous by in- 
 creasing the pressure of the atmosphere around it. 
 
 This gave rise to a storm of criticism, and the next 
 few years drew forth a rich crop of papers on the 
 subject. Professor Frankland not only showed that 
 flames might be luminous without containing solid 
 particles, but advanced the theory that the luminosity 
 in the flame of a burning gaseous hydrocarbon was 
 due to dense hydrocarbon vapours, and pointed out 
 that the soot deposited on any cool substance held in 
 such a flame contained hydrogen. To this W. Stein 
 replied, showing that the deposited soot contained less 
 than 1 per cent, of hydrogen, which was therefore 
 probably only occluded by the carbon ; and also that, 
 if it had been present as a vapour in the flame, it 
 ought, on being heated to the same temperature as 
 the flame, to become once more volatile, which it un- 
 doubtedly does not. In the year 1874 Soret attempted 
 to show that the cause of luminosity in flame really 
 does depend upon the presence of solid particles by 
 focussing the sun's rays upon a luminous flame and 
 examining the reflected light by means of a Nicol 
 prism ; and rather later Burch pursued the same line 
 of research, but employed the spectroscope for his 
 examination of the reflected light. Their results 
 point unmistakably to the presence of solid particles, 
 and at the present time there can be but little doubt 
 that, as far as the flames of candles, oil, and coal gas 
 are concerned, Sir Humphry Davy's theory is the 
 
 524 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 correct one. Indeed, although it may seem that in 
 some points Davy went a little too far in his theory, 
 it is almost certain that in his own mind he applied 
 his theory more especially to the flames of our ordinary 
 illuminants, as in his original memoir he speaks of 
 " common names," and distinctly says that "when in 
 flames pure gaseous matter is burnt, the light is ex- 
 tremely feeble," and again, "the intensity of the light 
 of flames depends principally upon the production arid 
 ignition of solid matter." 
 
 Whilst this war of solid particles versus dense 
 vapours was raging, Hilgard, Landolt, Blochmann, 
 and Heumann were trying to trace the chemical 
 actions taking place in various flames, and the causes 
 which led to the loss of luminosity when air was 
 mixed with coal gas before combustion in the Bunsen 
 burner. Heumami added the further proof to the 
 " solid particle " theory of luminosity, in pointing out 
 that all flames that owe their luminosity to incan- 
 descent solid matter give definite shadows, while those 
 in which luminosity is due to dense vapours give 
 none ; and that candle, oil, and gas flames all cause 
 well-defined shadows. 
 
 Dewar and Liveing, in their paper "On the Origin 
 of the Hydrocarbon Flame Spectrum," 1 say, when 
 speaking of the flame of cyanogen and acetylene, 
 " Both of these compounds decompose with evolution 
 of heat. In fact they are explosive compounds, and 
 the latent energy in the respective bodies is so great 
 that if kinetic in the separated constituents it would 
 raise the temperature between 3,000 and 4,000. The 
 flames of cyanogen and acetylene are peculiar in re- 
 spect that the temperature of individual decomposing 
 molecules is not dependent entirely upon the tempera- 
 ture generated by the combustion, which is a function 
 of the tension of dissociation of the oxidized products, 
 1 Proc. Chem. Soc. 1882, 34, 427. 
 525 
 
 Davy's 
 
 theory now 
 
 generally 
 
 accepted 
 
 The 
 
 researches 
 
 of Hilgard, 
 
 Landolt, 
 
 Blochmann. 
 
 and 
 Heumann 
 
 Dewar and 
 
 Liveing on 
 
 the flames 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 and 
 Cyanogen 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carbonic acid and water. We have no means of de- 
 6ning with any accuracy the temperature which the 
 particles of such a name may reach. We know, how- 
 ever, that the mean temperature of the flames of 
 carbonic oxide and hydrogen lies between 2,000 and 
 3,000, and if to this be added that which can be 
 reached independently by the mere decomposition of 
 cyanogen or acetylene, then we may safely infer that 
 the temperature of individual molecules of carbon, 
 nitrogen, and hydrogen in the respective flames of 
 cyanogen and acetylene may reach a temperature of 
 from 6,000 to 7,000. 
 
 They point " A previous estimate of the temperature of the 
 nurtion'of P os itive pole in the electric arc made by one of us 
 
 Acetylene gave something like the same value. 
 
 The formation of acetylene in ordinary combustion 
 
 gives points seem s to be the agent through which a very high 
 
 of high local j j 7, 
 
 temperature local temperature is produced. 
 
 Guequen at- M. Gruequen 1 pointed out that it was very probable 
 tributes tne .,, ,..,., j , . , i 
 
 luminosity that luminosity in hydrocarbon flames is due exclu- 
 
 f sively to the production of rays furnished by the 
 flames to molecules of gas highly heated by chemical changes, 
 
 that it must be b rne in mind that fclie heat " 
 
 sitions mg from exterior sources would not suffice, whatever 
 its power. He also drew attention to the fact that 
 luminous combustion is caused by bodies which are 
 endothermic, and from which heat is liberated during 
 decomposition. 
 
 Lewes shows In a paper read before the Chemical Society in 
 
 luminous 1892, 2 the author showed that in the inner non- 
 
 hydrocar- luminous zone of a flame the hydrocarbons originally 
 
 Acetylene present in the gas, consisting of ethylene, butylene, 
 
 . benzene, methane, and ethane, became converted, by 
 
 before lunn- > ^ ' J ' / 
 
 nosity com- the baking action of the walls of flame between which 
 they had to pass, into acetylene, and that at the 
 
 1 Compt. Eendu du Societe Technique de V Industrie du 
 1884, 142. 2 Trans. Chem. Soc., 1892, 61, 322. 
 
 526 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 moment when luminosity commenced over 80 per 
 cent, of the total unsaturated hydrocarbons present 
 consisted of this compound. 
 
 The presence of acetylene at the point where lumi- 
 nosity commenced naturally suggested that it was in 
 some way due to actions in which the acetylene played 
 the principal part either that it split up into carbon 
 and hydrogen under the influence of heat, and so 
 supplied the flame with the solid particles necessary, 
 according to Sir Humphry Davy's theory of the cause 
 of luminosity, or else that by its polymerisation it 
 formed the dense vapours required by Dr. E. Frank- 
 land's more recent hypothesis. 
 
 In order to elucidate this point, the author carried 
 out a long series of experiments upon the action of 
 heat upon flowing ethylene and other hydrocarbons, 
 which formed the subject of communications to the 
 Royal Society in 1893 l and 1895, 2 in which he showed 
 that, whilst flowing through a heated area the 
 temperature of which was between 600 and 1,000 C. 
 ethylene decomposed according to the equation, 
 
 and that the acetylene then polymerised into a large 
 number of more complex hydrocarbons, amongst which 
 benzene and naphthalene were conspicuous, whilst at 
 temperatures above 1,200 C. no polymerisation took 
 place, the acetylene formed from the ethylene decom- 
 posing at once into carbon and hydrogen, whilst the 
 methane, which up to this temperature had been but 
 little affected, decomposed into, 
 
 and this fresh supply of acetylene at once broke up 
 into carbon and hydrogen, so that at temperatures 
 above 1,200 C. the complete action may be looked 
 upon as being, 
 
 The part 
 
 played by 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 in the flame 
 
 Lewes' 
 experiments 
 on the action 
 of heat on 
 flowing hy- 
 drocarbons 
 
 Proc. Roy. Soc., 55, 90. 2 Ibid., 57, 394. 
 
 527 
 
 The forma- 
 tion of 
 Acetylene 
 and its de- 
 composition 
 to carbon 
 and hydro- 
 gen 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The facts 
 upon which 
 the Acety- 
 lene theory 
 of lumi- 
 nosity is 
 based 
 
 Pictet on the 
 
 luminosity 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 flames 
 
 The cndo- 
 
 thermic 
 
 nature of the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 molecule 
 
 These results have an important bearing upon the 
 cause of the luminosity in the flame, as it is manifest 
 that, if the temperature of the luminous zone is above 
 1,200 C., the light emitted must be due to incandes- 
 cent particles of carbon, and not to incandescent 
 hydrocarbon vapours. 
 
 A further series of experiments led to the enuncia- 
 tion of the acetylene theory of luminosity l already 
 alluded to (p. 116), which is based upon the facts 
 that, 
 
 1. The largest proportion of the unsaturated 
 hydrocarbons present in a gas flame are con- 
 verted into acetylene before luminosity com- 
 mences. 
 
 2. Acetylene develops luminosity when heated 
 to a temperature at which it decomposes, the 
 conditions under which this takes place render- 
 ing the presence of atmospheric oxygen im- 
 possible. 
 
 3. The temperature necessary to decompose 
 acetylene with luminosity is insufficient to 
 raise carbon to the point at which it emits 
 light. 
 
 4. In luminous hydrocarbon flames of suffi- 
 ciently high temperature the luminosity varies 
 directly with the amount of acetylene present 
 at the point where luminosity commences. 
 
 In 1896 Pictet, 2 unaware apparently of the work 
 which had been done on the subject, published the 
 following explanation of the high luminosity of acety- 
 lene in his pamphlet, L' Acetylene, son passe son 
 present son avenir : 
 
 " Acetylene is formed, as has been seen, by an endo- 
 thermic reaction. The hydrogen and carbon united in 
 a molecule of acetylene contain a vast amount of 
 energy supplied to them at the moment of their com- 
 
 1 Proc. Boy. Soc., 57, 450. 2 Geneva, 1896. 
 
 B28 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 bination. This amounts to more than 2,700 calories 
 per kg. of acetylene. At the dissociation of the mole- 
 cule of acetylene this energy is liberated, and distri- 
 butes itself equally between the hydrogen and carbon. 
 
 " These two bodies are formed in their gaseous 
 state in the molecule of acetylene ; they are then in 
 the most favourable condition for absorbing this that 
 is to say, for using it without changing the gaseous 
 state of the carbon. 
 
 " In the voltaic arc the carbon absorbs a considerable 
 quantity of heat in passing from a fused to a volatilised 
 condition. These changes in the carbon take place 
 when the temperature in the electric arc reaches 3,500, 
 as has been demonstrated by M. Moissan. This is the 
 maximum temperature of the arc, corresponding to 
 the volatilising point of the carbon under atmospheric 
 pressure. 
 
 " In the combustion of acetylene, on the contrary, The tem- 
 the molecule of carbon, separating from the gaseous t^e^arbon 
 hydrogen, receives all the energy enclosed therein, separating 
 and the temperature rises to 4,500 or~4,800 a height Acetylene 
 unique in the annals of chemistry, this being the molecules 
 explanation of the light-giving power of acetylene." 
 
 Smitheiis 1 has . strongly opposed the "Acetylene smitheiis 
 Theory of Luminosity " mainly .on the grounds that on the 
 
 ..'' Acetylene 
 
 there is no evidence of more than a trace of acetylene theory of 
 at any point within an ordinary luminous flame, the ] 
 acetylene that is formed being so diluted with other 
 gases that there is no reason for supposing that it is 
 of primary importance in the emission of light ; also 
 that there is no evidence of any local condition of 
 temperature within the flame such as would point to 
 the decomposition of acetylene with the evolution of 
 much heat, and that the phenomena of luminous 
 hydrocarbon flames can be adequately explained with- 
 out the acetylene theory. 
 
 1 Chem. Soc. Jour., 67, 1,050. 
 
 529 34 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The light Be the cause of luminosity what it may, there is 
 Acetylene no doubt as to the wonderful illuminating power of 
 the acetylene flame ; and, as before stated, it is possible 
 to burn it in a flat flame burner in such a way as to 
 develop light from it in the ratio of 240 candle power 
 per 5 c. ft. of acetylene produced. 
 
 This figure is the one quoted by most manufacturers 
 of acetylene apparatus, who argue from it that acety- 
 lene is fifteen times as valuable in illuminating power, 
 volume for volume, as London coal gas. 
 The fallacy Such a comparison is, however, absolutely mislead- 
 
 of the usual . . . , -^ , 
 
 commercial ing, as in contrasting the value of acstylene with coal 
 comparisons g ag one mus t always bear in mind that the illuminating 
 power of the London gas is determined by consuming 
 it at the rate of 5 c. ft. per hour in the London argand, 
 whilst in practice any power from 8 to 90 candles can 
 be obtained from this volume, according to the form of 
 burner in which it is consumed. Although small flat 
 flame burners only emit from 1 to 2 candles per cubic 
 foot of gas consumed, good incandescent mantles will 
 yield about 18 candles per cubic foot, and certainly 
 17 on the average ; and as incandescent lighting is 
 rapidly displacing other methods of burning gas and 
 as this tendency will be enormously increased when 
 the lapsing of the Welsbach monopoly reduces the price 
 of the mantles to the figure now charged in Germany 
 it is evident that no calculation is fair that does not 
 include this as a factor. 
 Limit of size Moreover, a very short experience shows that burners 
 
 in burners . J 
 
 using consuming 1 c. ft. of acetylene per hour are the largest 
 that can be practically used for domestic purposes, and 
 that, taking such burners all round, 32 candles per 
 cubic foot is a fair average of the light developed by 
 them, although out of a big batch of burners you 
 occasionally find a few which will go as high as 36 or 
 even 40 candles per foot. The influence which the 
 size of the burner and the rate of consumption have 
 
 530 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 upon the illuminating power of 16-candle London coal 
 gas is well-known, and is shown in the following- 
 table : 
 
 Flat flaine burner. 
 
 No. 7 . 
 
 ,, 6 '. 
 
 5 . 
 
 . * . 
 
 3 . 
 
 * 2 . 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 Candles per cubic foot. 
 . 2-44 
 . 2-15 
 . 1-87 
 . 1-74 
 . 1-63 
 . 1-22 
 . 0-85 
 0-59 
 
 and as the consumption of acetylene is regulated by 
 exactly the same factors as act in the case of coal gas, 
 it is evident that the smaller the burner and consump- 
 tion the lower will be the candle power per foot of 
 acetylene ; and in practice with a one-half cubic foot 
 burner 24 candles per cubic foot is a good result. 
 
 Taking a series of burners of the Naphey type, 
 obtained from Falk, Stadlemann & Co., the following- 
 results were obtained : 
 
 Number of 
 
 Pressure 
 
 Gas consumed l Light 
 
 Candles 
 
 burner. 
 
 inches. 
 
 cubic feet. 
 
 candles. 
 
 per foot. 
 
 6 
 
 2-0 
 
 155 
 
 0-7938 
 
 5-3 
 
 8 
 
 2-0 
 
 27 
 
 3-2 11-6 
 
 15 
 
 2-0 
 
 40 
 
 8-0 
 
 20-0 
 
 25 
 
 2-0 
 
 65 
 
 17-0 26-6 
 
 30 
 
 2-0 
 
 70 23-0 32-85 
 
 42 2-0 
 
 1-00 34-0 34-0 
 
 Influence 
 
 of the size 
 
 of the burner 
 
 on the light 
 
 obtained 
 
 from coal 
 
 Influence of 
 the size of 
 the burner 
 on the light 
 
 obtained 
 from 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 From these considerations it is evident that the only 
 fair way to contrast the light obtainable from coal 
 gas and from acetylene, unless it is distinctly stated 
 that mantle-lighting is excluded, is to take the in- 
 candescent burner on the one hand, and the 1 c. ft. 
 flat flame on the other, when it is seen that, instead of 
 being fifteen times the value of coal gas as an illu- 
 minant, acetylene has only about twice its power. 
 
 531 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Early forms 
 
 of burners 
 
 used for 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 When acetylene was first introduced, the smoky 
 character of the flame led to its being burnt, in 
 America, mixed with an equal volume of air, whilst 
 later the author attempted to burn it alone at Bray 
 nipples of the character used for rich oil gas, which 
 gave very fine results when pressures of 3 to 4 inches 
 were employed. In order to do away with the neces- 
 sity for this somewhat high pressure, the author had 
 cubic foot burners made, in which the union jet holes 
 in the steatite tip were made very fine, and at a more 
 obtuse angle than in the burner designed for oil gas, 
 
 Lewes 
 burner 
 
 Bray 
 burners 
 
 FIG. 177. 
 
 this causing a greater insuck of air into the flame 
 and a corresponding improvement in the combustion. 
 These were mounted in manganese steel, instead of in 
 brass, the idea existing at that period that copper 
 alloys should not be used in the construction of acety- 
 lene fittings. 
 
 These burners, Fig. 177, proved the most successful 
 of any made up to that time, and were not only used 
 in England, but were also supplied to Hempel in 
 Berlin, who sold them under his own name. 
 
 Early in 1895 Bray made specially small burner tips 
 for use with acetylene, Fig. 178, and both these nipples 
 answered extremely well for a time, developing 30 to 
 36 candles per cubic foot of gas ; but they both had 
 
 532 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the same weakness, and after a few hundred hours 
 began to smoke, and as a smoking acetylene flame 
 covers everything in a room with a thick deposit of 
 soot in a very short space of time, such burners were 
 
 The smoking 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 burners 
 
 FIG. 178. 
 
 manifestly not fitted for the work they had to per- 
 form. 
 
 The trouble generally commenced with a filiform 
 growth of carbon appearing at the nipple (Fig. 179), 
 which quickly distorted the flame, and caused a cloud 
 of soot flakes to descend. If the burner was cleaned 
 and relighted, the trouble commenced again in an 
 hour or two, and the only thing to be done was to 
 replace the nipple by a new one. 
 
 If the nipple had been burning some time, and was 
 then removed and broken, it was found to be car- 
 bonised for some depth into the material, showing that 
 a liquid hydrocarbon had soaked into the material, 
 and had been there split up by the heat, with depo- 
 sition of carbon. 
 
 533 
 
 Carbon 
 growths on 
 the burner 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The cause 
 and the at- 
 tempts at 
 prevention 
 
 Early 
 
 French 
 
 burners 
 
 Bullier's 
 burners 
 
 The generally accepted idea was that the heat of 
 the nipple polymerised some acetylene to benzene, and 
 this, forming a drop, did the mischief, consequently 
 efforts to keep the burner cool were looked upon as a 
 likely direction in which to search for success. Ex- 
 periments have lately been made by Bullier in this 
 direction, and he finds a very considerable gain in 
 illuminating power is ob- 
 tained when the head of the 
 burner is kept cool by a 
 small water jacket. 
 
 "Whilst these troubles were 
 going on in England, in 
 France single jets made of 
 glass were first employed, 
 and then Bullier in 1895 
 introduced the idea of mix- 
 ing air with the acetylene 
 at the burner tip, and in so 
 doing gave the inception of 
 the host of burners of this 
 type which at present exist 
 and which have proved the 
 most successful for the con- 
 sumption of the gas. 
 
 The burners constructed 
 by Bullier were made both 
 for flat flames and argands. 
 
 In the flat flame nipples (Fig. 180), the gas passed 
 from the delivery pips through two narrow apertures, 
 a a, to the nozzle, the uprush of the acetylene drawing 
 in air through the two lateral tubes, & &, these tubes 
 slanting upwards, and joining the acetylene orifices 
 at a point immediately below the burner top. In this 
 form of burner the air mixed with the acetylene just 
 before its combustion, but in his argand burner (Fig. 
 181) the acetylene aperture had a cap, c c, fitted above 
 
 534 
 
 FIG. 179. 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 it, at the apex of which was an opening wider than 
 the acetylene aperture, and above this cap the acety- 
 lene burnt. 
 
 The cap being fixed a short distance above the The im . 
 acetylene iet, and being open at the bottom, formed portance 01 
 
 i i i -i j-^i - 1-1 theBullier 
 
 a channel on each side of the jet, up which air was patents as 
 dragged by the uprush of the acetylene, and although 
 some air would mix with the acetylene, the larger 
 portion undoubtedly formed a layer or envelope which 
 prevented actual contact between the acetylene and 
 
 form of 
 burners 
 
 t,b 
 
 FIG. 180. 
 
 FIG. 181. 
 
 the heated apex of the burner, and, although Bullier's 
 burners were never a commercial success, they form 
 a serious anticipation of the more modern develop- 
 ments. Bullier also introduced a small burner of the 
 Bunsen type, in which the acetylene entering a wider 
 tube through an injector at the bottom drew in the 
 air needed for its incomplete combustion through 
 lateral air-holes. 
 
 Later in 1895 Holliday constructed a burner which 
 was practically a small Bunsen bottom with a slit 
 nipple at which the mixture of acetylene and air, 
 
 535 
 
 Holliday 
 burner 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 formed and mixed in the tube below, burned with a 
 flat flame, which from the low pressure at which the 
 mixture was burnt was very susceptible to draughts, 
 and gave an illuminating value of 20 to 25 candles 
 per cubic foot of acetylene consumed. In November, 
 1895, Gearing took out a patent in which the 
 acetylene was mixed with air immediately before 
 combustion, whilst Cruveillier also made a burner of 
 
 FIG. 182. 
 
 this type in which the lower portion consisted of an 
 injector jet for the acetylene, surmounted by a series 
 of air-mixing cones of the same construction as those 
 used by Bandsept in his Bunsen for incandescent 
 mantles, the mixed air and acetylene being consumed 
 from a big flat flame burner. 
 
 Burners of this type, but drawing in air from under 
 a cap instead of at a side hole, have been lately re- 
 introduced (Fig. 182), but the results obtained with 
 them are no better than with double jet burners. 
 
 536 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Double jet 
 
 flat flame 
 
 burners 
 
 It was at this period that the troubles connected The burner 
 with the consumption of acetylene looked as if they r S ' 
 were likely to raise insurmountable difficulties in in- 
 troducing this beautiful illuminant ; the union jet 
 and slit flat flame nipples smoked after they had been 
 in use for some time, the single glass jets gave but 
 poor illuminating value, whilst such burners as the 
 Bullier and Holliday had hardly passed the experi- 
 mental stage. 
 
 At the end of 1895 and early in 1896 Ragot, 
 Risener, Luchaire, and others introduced the idea of 
 making two tubes, leading from the base of the burner 
 curve towards each other in such a way that the 
 two jets of flame should impinge upon each other at 
 some little distance from the nozzles and mutually splay 
 each other out into a flat flame, in this way form- 
 ing a " union jet " in which the base of the flat flame 
 was at a distance from the issuing point of the acety- 
 lene into the air. 
 
 This arrangement showed a marked improvement 
 upon the earlier forms of burner, as more air was 
 sucked into the flame, and the nozzles from which 
 the acetylene issued were not subjected to the same 
 degree of heat as in the ordinary flat flame burners, 
 with the result that nearly 30 candles per foot of 
 acetylene was obtained as the illuminating value, 
 whilst the troubles incidental to smoking became 
 much less. 
 
 Later in 1896 Billwiller introduced a burner (Figs. 
 183, 184), in which Bullier's principle of enveloping 
 the flame with air was wedded to the double jet just 
 referred to. In this burner two steatite arms rising 
 from a common base at right angles led the acetylene 
 to two small orifices exactly opposite each other and 
 giving the double jet. Immediately above the gas 
 orifice a small platinum plate was fixed at a distance 
 of about 0*5 mm. from the steatite, with a hole in it 
 
 537 
 
 The Bill- 
 willer 
 burner 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 rather larger than the orifice in the steatite just 
 The prin- below. The acetylene issuing from the hole in the 
 theism- steatite rushed through the hole in the platinum 
 
 wilier 
 burner 
 
 FIG. 183. 
 
 above and drew air in under the platinum plate. 
 The air so drawn in flowed to the confines of the 
 rapidly travelling stream of acetylene and passed 
 upwards around it, so pre- 
 venting contact between 
 the edge of the hole in the 
 platinum and the acetylene, 
 whilst the metal being part 
 of a collar of platinum 
 fixed round each steatite 
 arm, and being a good con- 
 ductor of heat, prevented 
 such heating as would lead 
 to the deposition of carbon 
 from the gas. 
 
 These burners, sold un- 
 der the name of the Basle 
 burner, gave excellent re- 
 sults, and a series of them, 
 tested by the author when 
 they were first introduced into England, gave the 
 following photometric readings: 
 
 538 
 
 FIG. 184. 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The photo- 
 
 Number of 
 
 Gas consumed 
 
 Pressure in 
 
 Total light 
 
 Candles per c. 
 
 metric 
 
 burner. 
 
 in c. ft. 
 
 inches of water. 
 
 in candles. 
 
 ft. of gas. 
 
 results 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 obtained 
 
 1 
 
 0-35 
 
 2-25 
 
 4-2 
 
 12-0 
 
 
 2 
 
 0-625 
 
 2-25 
 
 19-0 
 
 30-4 
 
 
 3 
 
 0-75 
 
 3-0 
 
 24-0 32-0 
 
 
 4 
 
 0-90 
 
 3-0 
 
 32-0 35-5 
 
 
 5 
 
 1-00 3-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 
 6 
 
 1-00 3-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 
 The author has tested these burners from time to time 
 and has usually found the one foot burners give a 
 duty of from 35 to 40 candles. 
 
 Very little, if any, alteration has taken place in 
 their manufacture, some obtained from Schwarz of 
 Nurnberg late in 1899 giving : 
 
 Number of 
 
 Gas consumed, 
 
 Pressure, 
 
 Total light, 
 
 Candles per 
 
 burner. 
 
 c. ft. 
 
 inches. 
 
 candles. 
 
 c.ft. 
 
 1 
 
 0-5 
 
 2-0 
 
 7-0 
 
 14.0 
 
 2 
 
 0-75 
 
 2-0 
 
 24-0 
 
 32-0 
 
 3 
 
 0-75 
 
 2-0 
 
 28-0 
 
 37-3 
 
 4 
 
 1-2 
 
 3-0 
 
 48-0 40-0 
 
 5 
 
 2-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 76-0 
 
 38-0 
 
 In 1897 Dolan in America made a burner on ex- The Doian 
 actly the same principle as the Billwiller burner, r bilrner y 
 though of slightly different construction. It consists 
 of a metal base, the upright from 
 which forks into two arms which, 
 near their extremities, are bent in- 
 wards at right angles. These arms 
 carry steatite or " lava " tips con- The Naphey 
 structed as shown in Fig. 185. The 
 tips are bored with a fine hole from 
 the interior to the base of the mush- 
 room head, where its diameter is more 
 than doubled, whilst four small lateral 
 air tubes are bored at regular intervals 
 539 
 
 FIG. 185. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 from the base of the head to the broad aperture 
 of the nipple, with the result that the now of acety- 
 lene from the narrow into the wider tube sucks air 
 in through the side-tubes and surrounds the ascending 
 
 FIG. 186. 
 
 gas with an envelope which prevents its contact with 
 the heated tip. These burners, which are more 
 usually known as the tl Naphey " burners, gave very 
 
 FIG. 187. 
 
 good results, and have been more widely adopted than 
 the Billwiller burners that preceded them, partly be- 
 cause they did away with the expense of the pla- 
 tinum, were cheaper to make, and were less liable to 
 
 540 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 break. A table of the results obtained with this 
 burner is given on page 531. 
 
 These tips are very largely manufactured on the variation of 
 Continent, both the American and English supply the form of 
 coming from Niirnberg. The form of mounting, how- 
 ever, is considerably varied in order to suit the taste 
 of the user or to give the burner a new name. A 
 very popular form consists of the arms being made as 
 
 mounting 
 
 FIG. 188. 
 
 a portion of a circle, this modification doing away 
 with the friction and check to the now of the gas due 
 to the sharp bend in the original pattern, whilst these 
 again are made up in groups of two or three burners 
 where greater illumination is required, as shown in 
 Figs. 188 and 189. 
 
 This alteration in the shape of the bearing arms has 
 no appreciable effect upon the light emitted by the 
 burner, but in a large installation might make a 
 slight difference in the pressure required to give the 
 best results. 
 
 Another common mounting for the Naphey tips is 
 shown in Fig. 190, in which the arms of the burner 
 form a semi-circle ending in small chambers into 
 which the tips are fixed. The small expansion 
 chamber so formed behind each tip is by no means 
 
 541 
 
 Composite 
 
 Napheys 
 
 Other forms 
 
 of Naphey 
 
 burner 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 189. 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 a drawback, and these burners generally give a very 
 steady, well-shaped flame. 
 
 A burner bearing a strong likeness to the class 
 using Naphey tips is one sold in France and by the 
 Ideal Company in England, in which the same shaped 
 tip is used, but instead of the lateral air-holes, two 
 saw cuts are made at right angles across the -tip, 
 dividing it into quadrants down to the base of the 
 
 French 
 quadrant 
 tip burner 
 
 FIG. 191. 
 
 head, and through these slits the gas, issuing from 
 the narrow to the broad central tube, sucks the neces- 
 sary amount of air. The photometric results given 
 by this burner are as follows : 
 
 Number of Pressure, Gas consumed, Total light, Candles per 
 
 burner. inches. - c. ft. candles. c. ft. 
 
 1 2-5 0-35 4-0 11-4 
 
 2 2-5 0-55 15-0 27'27 
 
 3 2-5 0-80 28-0 35'0 
 
 The great drawback to all the Naphey tip burners 
 is that the heat from the flame causes a slight and Naphey 
 gradual warping of the metal mounting, with the burner 
 
 543 
 
 Photometric 
 results 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Attempts to 
 
 overcome 
 
 the trouble 
 
 of warping 
 
 result that the jets after a time become slightly 
 thrown out of their true position, which at once dis- 
 torts the flame and causes it to throw up smoky points. 
 This trouble is not found with burners having stea- 
 tite or composition arms, as these, being pressed or cut, 
 do not warp with the heat, and attempts have been 
 made to obviate this trouble by mounting the Naphey 
 tips at the requisite angle on a bar of steatite, as 
 
 Develop- 
 ments of the 
 Billwiller 
 class of 
 burners 
 
 FIG. 192. 
 
 shown in Fig. 192 ; the results given, however, are 
 not as high as with the ordinary form. 
 
 The burners most largely used on the Continent are 
 the Napheys and developments of the Billwiller burner, 
 in which the platinum plate is done away with, and 
 other devices for supplying the necessary air adopted. 
 
 In the burner shown in Fig. 193, the steatite arms 
 have the same form as in the Billwiller burner, but 
 the air is sucked in through three lateral holes bored 
 at right angles to the gas supply, and discharging 
 into it just before combustion. 
 
 544 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG, 193. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Photometric 
 results 
 
 Steatite 
 
 Billwillcr 
 
 burner 
 
 This burner gives very good results, the following 
 table giving determinations made with a series : 
 
 Number of 
 burner. 
 
 Gas consumed, 
 c. ft. 
 
 Pressure in 
 inches. 
 
 Total light, 
 candles. 
 
 Candles per 
 c. ft. 
 
 1 
 
 0-35 
 
 2 
 
 6-0 
 
 17'2 
 
 li 
 
 0-40 
 
 2 
 
 10-0 
 
 25-0 
 
 2 
 
 0-55 
 
 2 
 
 20-0 
 
 36-3 
 
 3 
 
 0-70 
 
 2 
 
 25-0 
 
 35-7 
 
 4 
 
 0-80 2 
 
 34-0 
 
 42-5 
 
 5 
 
 1-0 
 
 2 
 
 40-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 Another excellent burner of this class is shown in 
 Fig. 194, and is simply the original Billwiller burner 
 with the platinum plate replaced by one made in 
 steatite or composition. The results obtained with it 
 were : 
 
 Number of 
 burner. 
 
 Gas consumed, 
 c. ft. 
 
 Pressure in 
 inches. 
 
 Total light, 
 candles. 
 
 Candles per 
 c. ft. 
 
 1 
 
 0-4 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-8 
 
 7-0 
 
 14 
 
 0-5 
 
 2 
 
 12-0 
 
 24-0 
 
 2 
 
 0-6 
 
 2 
 
 20-0 
 
 33-0 
 
 3 
 
 0-75 
 
 2 
 
 30-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 4 
 
 0-8 
 
 2 
 
 30-0 
 
 37-5 
 
 5 
 
 1-0 
 
 2 
 
 36-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 Other 
 burners 
 of the Bill- 
 willer type 
 
 Photometric 
 results 
 
 A representative of this class of burner, in which 
 the air is drawn through a saw-cut by the issuing 
 gas, is shown in Fig. 195, and the photometric results 
 obtained with it were : 
 
 Number nF 
 
 Gfis. pmisnmprl 
 
 
 TW.nl lio-lif 
 
 
 Number of 
 burner. 
 
 Gas consumed, 
 c. ft. 
 
 Pressure in 
 inches. 
 
 Total light, 
 candles. 
 
 Candles per 
 c. ft. 
 
 1 
 
 0-3 
 
 2 
 
 5'6 
 
 18-6 
 
 li 
 
 0-3 
 
 2 
 
 7-0 
 
 23-3 
 
 2 
 
 0-5 
 
 2 
 
 18-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 3 
 
 0-75 
 
 2 30-0 
 
 40-0 
 
 4 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-5 
 
 36-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 5 
 
 0-9 
 
 2-5 
 
 34-0 
 
 37-7 
 
 546 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The author is perfectly aware that these tests are 
 in many cases far lower than the results claimed, but 
 they represent the results obtained with the burners 
 as they exist on the market, and are published in 
 order to emphasize the fact that in using burners 
 consuming O5 c. ft. and under, the light-giving power 
 
 The false 
 
 small a 
 burner 
 
 FIG. 195. 
 
 of the acetylene is being wasted to a very large ex- 
 tent, and that the most economical burners to use are 
 those consuming 0*75 to 1*0 c. ft. of gas per hour. 
 
 Moreover, the difficulties of manufacture with the 
 smaller sizes are so great that uniformity is rarely 
 attained, and the results are most variable. 
 
 In 1896 Schulke introduced a burner in which a 
 cluster of small tubes rose from a common base, the 
 tubes being capped by a nozzle of slightly larger 
 diameter (Fig. 196). These burners gave a cluster of 
 single jets, round which a brisk draught of air was 
 created by the use of a chimney, and when, later, the 
 efficiency of the union of two streams of acetylene 
 was realized, a new and very pretty form of burner 
 was devised by Schulke, and sold by the Hera Com- 
 pany, in which the tubes were forked and bent in- 
 wards to cause the jets to impinge upon each other 
 and give a flat flame, whilst the cap had a slight cut 
 
 547 
 
 Schulke 
 burners 
 
 The Hera 
 burners 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 in its side to allow of the insuck of air by the acety- 
 lene. 
 
 FIG. 196. 
 
 composite These double jets could then be made up in clusters 
 Hera Q f severa j pa i rs a s shown in Figs. 198 and 199, and 
 
 Durners J- < 
 
 FIG. 197. 
 
 gave a very pleasing effect and a duty of about 33 
 candles per cubic foot of gas. 
 
 The Mush- A class of acetylene burner, which can certainly 
 room " } ay no c } a i m to elegance of construction, consists of a 
 
 union jet J ' .. . 7 
 
 burners big steatite or composition mushroom head, il ig. 
 
 548 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 with two holes bored near the upper edge and giving 
 the jets which splay themselves out into the flat 
 flame. 
 
 FIG. 198. 
 
 In the large burners of this type the top is only 
 slightly hollowed out, but in the smaller sizes a deep this type of 
 dimple is formed in the centre of the burner-top (Fig. burner 
 
 FIG. 199. 
 
 201). In a modification of this burner the cavity at 
 the top of the burner is replaced by a clear way to 
 suppl} T air to the base of the flame, whilst the large 
 sizes are arranged for use with a chimney to still 
 further increase the supply of air to the flame. 
 
 549 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 200. 
 
 FIG. 201. 
 
 550 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Tho duty given by these burners shows no gain 
 over that obtained by the Bilhviller type ; no ad- 
 
 FIG. 202. 
 
 mixture of air before burning takes place, and the 
 appearance of the burner is decidedly clumsy. 
 
 There are also burners of this kind in which, as 
 well as a central air-way, there is a thin steatite 
 plate with openings in it above the exit holes for the 
 acetylene in order to surround the jets with air, as in 
 the case of the Billwiller (Fig. 203). In the smaller 
 sizes of this kind of burner the upper steatite rim is 
 cut away, to give freer access of air to the base of 
 the flame. 
 
 A large number of single and multiple jet burners 
 are made, both with and without air supply, remind- 
 ing one of the early days of the coal gas industry, 
 when Murdoch's " cockspur " and "cockscomb" 
 burners paved the way for the introduction of the- 
 u bats wing " and Neilson's " union jet " burners. 
 
 The jet burner in its simplest form consists of a 
 steatite tip pierced at its apex and yielding a single 
 acetylene jet. These burners are largely used in 
 English acetylene cycle lamps, and yield a miserable 
 duty, giving about 6 candles for the consumption of 
 0*4 cubic foot of acetylene per hour. 
 
 551 
 
 Same type 
 
 of burner 
 
 with air 
 
 supply to 
 
 jets 
 
 Single and 
 
 multiple jet 
 
 burners 
 
 Single jet 
 
 burners for 
 
 bicycle 
 
 lamps 
 
 Photometric 
 results 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 
 
 FIG. 203. 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 205. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Multiple jet 
 burners 
 
 Multiple jet 
 
 burners for 
 
 decorative 
 
 work 
 
 A double jet burner of the same type is shown in 
 Fig. 206, whilst Fig. 207 gives a cluster composed 
 of four such jets. 
 
 For decorative work cluster burners of this kind 
 are made to give very charming effects, a cluster of 
 jets such as given by the nipple shown in Fig. 208 
 appearing to great advantage when mounted in a 
 flower-shaped glass shade, in spite of the low duty 
 of the burner. With this class of burner the average 
 
 Aerated 
 
 multiple jet 
 
 burners 
 
 Cockscomb 
 burner 
 
 FIG. 207. 
 
 result obtained is 16 candles per cubic foot of acety- 
 lene consumed. 
 
 With larger clusters the burners are sometimes 
 made more like an argand, with air-way down the 
 centre and a double top, to allow air to be drawn in 
 with the jet of acetylene (Fig. 209). This at once 
 raises the duty from 16 to about 27 candles per cubic 
 foot of acetylene consumed. 
 
 A very charming effect is produced by the small 
 " cockscomb " burners made on the Schulke principle, 
 Fig. 210, in which a row of small jets, so close to- 
 
 554 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 FIG. 208. 
 
 FIG. 209. 
 
 555 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 gether as to almost allow the flames to coalesce, are 
 bored in a steatite tip, the acetylene drawing in air 
 through small side holes on its passage to the tip. 
 
 Simple 
 
 " Slit " 
 
 fiatflame 
 
 burner 
 
 EIG. 210. 
 
 There are various types of burner tips, based on 
 both the batswing and union jet patterns. One of 
 the best forms of the slit burner has the tip formed 
 of a steatite ridge, in the centre of which a small 
 slit is cut, whilst of the union jet nipples the ones 
 
 FIG. 211. 
 
 556 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 most used for cycle lamps in Germany have the top 
 of the burner brought up to a sharp ridge, in the 
 upper edge of which are the two little union jet 
 holes that give the flame, whilst at the base of the 
 flame two fairly broad holes lead through to the base 
 of the head and conduct air upwards to the bottom of 
 the flame, so as to burn away any carbon deposit 
 which may form at the mouth of the burner. 
 
 These burners give a duty of 28 to 30 candles per 
 cubic foot of gas consumed, but are very liable to 
 
 German 
 
 union jet 
 
 burners 
 
 Air supply 
 below the 
 base of the 
 
 flame 
 
 FIG. 212. 
 
 smoke ; indeed, the principle of surrounding the jet of 
 acetylene with an envelope of air gives practically the 
 only class of burner in which this trouble is to any 
 great extent lessened. 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the early Bray Modification 
 tips gave very satisfactory results, their drawback burner for 
 being that they never lasted more than a few hundred 
 hours without smoking. Some nipples are now made 
 in which it is attempted to obviate this trouble by 
 making a small boss in the centre of the burner 
 
 557 
 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Latest form 
 
 of flat flame 
 
 burner 
 
 tip which carries the union jets, instead of a flat top 
 for the union jet to start from, and so increasing 
 slightly the distance between the base of the flame 
 and the body of the tip. 
 
 One of the latest forms, Fig. 214, produced consists 
 of a slit burner, above the nipple of which is an arch 
 of steatite carrying a slit of greater dimensions, so that 
 as the sheet of acetylene flows upwards from the 
 original slit of the nipple, it draws in with it through 
 
 The 
 
 American 
 
 " Wonder " 
 
 burners 
 
 FiG. -213. 
 
 the upper slit an envelope of air. A burner of this 
 character, tested by the author, consumed 2J cubic 
 feet of acetylene per hour at a pressure of 4| inches, 
 and gave an illuminating value of 115 candles, or 46 
 candles per cubic foot. 
 
 A burner of much the same type as the Billwiller 
 class is at present enjoying considerable popularity in 
 America under the name of the " Stewart " or u Ep- 
 worth Wonder" burner (Fig. 215). It consists of two 
 circular heads fitted to a steatite or composition base, 
 
 558 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the jets from which coalesce forming the flat flame. 
 The novelty consists of a deep circular groove cut in 
 
 FIG, 214. 
 
 the top of the heads, down which the air that sur- 
 rounds the jet is drawn. 
 
 FIG. 215. 
 
 Tests made with this burner gave the following 
 results : 
 
 559 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Results ob- 
 tained with 
 "Wonder" 
 burners 
 
 Gas con sum od, 
 cubic feet. 
 0-7 
 0-8 
 1-1 
 2-0 
 
 Pressure, 
 inches. 
 
 
 2-0 
 3-0 
 4-0 
 
 Total light, 
 candles. 
 
 16-5 
 
 22-0 
 38-0 
 64-0 
 
 Candles per 
 cubic foot. 
 
 23'5 
 
 27-5 
 
 34-5 
 
 32-0 
 
 A double flame burner, Fig. 216, with two jets in 
 each head gave : 
 
 Gas consumed, 
 cubic feet. 
 
 1-6 
 
 Pressure, 
 
 inches. 
 
 3-0 
 
 Total light, 
 candles. 
 
 60 
 
 Candles per 
 
 cubic foot. 
 
 37-5 
 
 FIG. 216. 
 
 The 
 
 American 
 " Ideal " 
 burner 
 
 Another American burner, known locally as the 
 " Ideal," Fig. 217, consists of a double jet mushroom 
 top tube with a series of air-holes drilled from the base 
 into a cavity below the spot where the two jets meet. 
 
 Results obtained with this burner were : 
 
 Gas consume J. 
 cubic feer. 
 
 0-75 . 
 I'l 
 
 n 
 
 Pressure, 
 inches. 
 
 2-0 
 2-5 
 3-0 
 
 Total light, 
 
 candles. 
 
 22-0 
 
 34-0 
 
 40*0 
 
 Candles per 
 
 cubic foot. 
 
 29-33 
 
 30-09 
 
 36-36 
 
 560 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Many attempts have been made to construct good Acetylene 
 argand burners for acetylene, but they have mostly 
 
 FIG. 217. 
 
 been failures, perhaps the most successful being the 
 argand shown in Fig. 218, in which a 20-hole steatite 
 
 FIG. 218. 
 
 561 
 
 36 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Atmo- 
 spheric 
 
 Acetylene 
 burners 
 
 for incan- 
 descent 
 mantles 
 
 Heat of the 
 
 flame of the 
 
 atmospheric 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 burner 
 
 Le Chate- 
 lier's calcu- 
 lations of 
 the tem- 
 perature 
 of the flame 
 
 The diffi- 
 culties 
 found in 
 making an 
 Acetylene 
 Bunsen 
 
 argaiid has a slit round it immediately below the 
 apex through which air is drawn in with the flame, 
 but the duty obtained per cubic foot of acetylene con- 
 sumed is only the same as can be got with a flat flame 
 burner of the Billwiller type. 
 
 The incandescent mantle has brought about such a 
 revolution in coal gas lighting that it is not surprising 
 that attempts should have been made to adapt acety- 
 lene for this purpose, and the first thing which had to 
 be done when taking steps in this direction was to 
 construct an atmospheric burner which would satis- 
 factorily consume the gas. 
 
 One would expect that acetylene, when consumed 
 in an atmospheric burner, would give an excessively 
 hot flame, not only on account of its composition, but 
 also on account of its endothermic character. Le 
 Chatelier calculates that the temperature of a non- 
 luminous acetylene flame will range from 2,100 to 
 2,420 C., the temperature varying with the ratio of 
 acetylene to air as shown in the following calcula- 
 tions : 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 Acetylene. Air. 
 
 7'4 . . 92-6 
 
 12-9 . . 871 
 17-37 82-63 
 
 2,420 
 2,260 
 2,100 
 
 In order to make a Bunsen burner for acetylene the 
 tube has to be extremely narrow, and it is even then 
 found to be very liable to flash back, whilst it needs a 
 high pressure in order to bring about satisfactory com- 
 bustion of the gas with an absolutely non-luminous 
 flame. One of the chief difficulties which have to be 
 overcome is due to the range over which mixtures of 
 acetylene and air are explosive. This lies between 
 the limits of 3 per cent, and 82 per cent, of acetylene, 
 and it must also be remembered that the velocity of 
 the explosion of acetylene when mixed with air is 
 greater than with a mixture of air and coal gas, and 
 
 562 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 the propagation of the explosive wave down the 
 burner tube cannot be satisfactorily stopped by the 
 ordinary device of using wire gauze, on account of the 
 low igniting point of acetylene and air mixtures. If 
 high pressures are used so that the rate of flow shall 
 be greater than the velocity of propagation down- 
 wards, more air is sucked in by the uprush of the gas, 
 and the velocity of the explosion is again increased. 
 
 The best results have been obtained by taking a 
 Bunsen burner, in which a constriction in the air tube 
 creates a high velocity at that point, which, on the 
 principle of the Smithell's flame separator, prevents 
 the propagation downwards. 
 
 Le Chatelier has shown that the rate of propagation 
 of an explosive mixture of air and acetylene depends 
 upon the diameter of the tube through which the 
 wave is being propagated, and he has worked out the 
 limits between which the explosive wave would pass 
 through tubes of certain diameters. 
 
 Diameter of Tube. 
 
 Explosion. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Lower Limit, 
 Per cent. Acetylene. 
 
 Upper Limit, 
 Per cent. Acetylene. 
 
 1-57 
 
 2-9 
 
 64 
 
 1-18 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 0-79 
 
 3-5 
 
 55 
 
 0-24 
 
 4-0 
 
 40 
 
 0-16 
 
 4-5 
 
 25 
 
 0-08 
 
 5-0 
 
 15 
 
 0-03 
 
 7-7 
 
 10 
 
 0'02 
 
 o-o 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that in a tube 0*02 inch or *5 m. 
 in diameter you have the propagation of the explosive 
 wave ceasing. 
 
 These investigations have been used as a basis upon 
 which to construct acetylene burners for heating 
 purposes, and burners have been made by the Allege- 
 
 563 
 
 Velocity of 
 explosion of 
 
 the mixture 
 
 in the 
 burner tube 
 
 The method 
 
 by which 
 
 the best 
 
 results are 
 
 obtained 
 
 Diameter of 
 tubes that 
 will stop 
 the ex- 
 plosive wave 
 
 Construc- 
 tion of the 
 existing 
 burners for 
 incandes- 
 cent mantles 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Results ob- 
 tained with 
 
 mantles 
 
 Importance 
 of complete 
 purification 
 of the gas 
 when used 
 for heat- 
 ing mantles 
 or platinum 
 vessels 
 
 meine Carbid und Acetyleii Gras Company of Berlin, 
 in which, by means of constricted tubes, satisfactory 
 consumption is ensured. It is found that the diameter 
 of the tube at the constriction must be in a definite 
 proportion to the particular mixture of air and acety- 
 lene consumed, as the more air employed the greater 
 must be the constriction in the strangulated portion 
 of the tube. Such burners have a flame which is 
 very valuable for heating purposes, and gives a very 
 intense temperature. 
 
 With a large Bunsen made for incandescent mantle 
 lighting by the above firm, and employing a large 
 sized Welsbach mantle, the author has obtained 448 
 candles for a consumption of 4'6 cubic feet of acetylene 
 per hour, a duty of 96 candles per foot, whilst with a 
 smaller acetylene Bunsen used by the Turr Acetylene 
 Company 90 candles per foot were obtained, so that 
 it may be roughly stated that acetylene will yield 
 rather more than double the amount of light when 
 used with the incandescent mantle that it will when 
 burnt by itself under the best possible conditions. 
 
 It must be clearly borne in mind, however, that in 
 all probability the life of the mantle would be very 
 seriously shortened by the temperature to which it is 
 exposed, whilst the tendency that acetylene Bunsens 
 have of firing back with a sharp explosion also ex- 
 poses the mantle to a far greater risk than is the case 
 with coal gas. 
 
 Should any great progress ever be made with incan- 
 descent lighting by means of acetylene, it will be 
 found that very careful purification of the gas is an 
 absolute necessity, as any trace of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen in the acetylene will cause the formation on 
 the surface of the mantle of phosphates of the earths 
 employed, which, being readily fusible, bring the life 
 of the mantle to an abrupt termination. This point 
 is also well to remember in connection with atmo- 
 
 564 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 spheric acetylene burners made for heating purposes. 
 The author knows of several cases in which attempts 
 have been made to utilise acetylene for work in private 
 chemical laboratories where coal gas is not available, 
 and platinum vessels heated in the acetylene flame 
 are rapidly destroyed owing to the phosphorous com- 
 pounds in the original gas. 
 
 Domestic illumination is so important a factor in 
 most of our households that it might be expected 
 that a fairly general knowledge would exist as to the 
 principles upon which efficient illumination depends, 
 and yet there are few subjects upon which cruder and 
 more erroneous ideas are to be found, not only amongst 
 the general public, but even amongst many who are 
 supposed to have made a special study of the questions 
 involved. 
 
 When, about the middle of this century, the Legis- 
 lature began to attempt to safeguard the consumers 
 of coal gas, it was done by prescribing a certain 
 standard of illuminating value to the gas, this being 
 determined by the photometric methods then in vogue. 
 This value was called the illuminating power of the 
 gas, and up to a few years ago was looked upon by 
 most people as expressing the amount of illumination 
 to be obtained under ordinary circumstances from the 
 gas. 
 
 This assumption, however, is far from correct, and 
 has given rise to a chaotic bemuddlement in the 
 theory and practice of illumination. 
 
 During the past five years it has been gradually 
 realised by many that illuminating power and illu- 
 minating effect mean two totally different things, and 
 this apparent anomaly depends upon several distinct 
 factors. In the first place, illuminating power, or 
 illuminating value, is merely a technical method of 
 expressing the ratio of light emitted by the com- 
 bustion of a certain sample of gas as compared with 
 
 565 
 
 Illuminat- 
 ing power 
 
 niuminat- 
 
 nating 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 What is 
 
 meant by 
 
 illuminating 
 
 power 
 
 Superiority 
 of distri- 
 buted over 
 concen- 
 trated 
 centres of 
 light 
 
 The im- 
 portance of 
 avoiding 
 strong 
 contrasts 
 
 The draw- 
 back of 
 
 small and 
 intense 
 
 the light of the standard employed, and has but little 
 to do with the effect produced when the gas is con- 
 sumed under conditions differing from those under 
 which it was tested. 
 
 Indeed, where the consumer has taken the trouble 
 to find out what is meant by the statement that he is 
 supplied with a 16 candle power gas, he learns that it 
 means that, when the gas is burnt at the rate of 5 
 cubic feet an hour in the London argand, it emits a 
 light equal to 16 candles, each consuming the sperm at 
 the rate of 120 grains per hour. He assumes, therefore, 
 that by burning his gas at the rate of B cubic feet an 
 hour in the London argand, he gets the same illumin- 
 ating effect in his room as if he had utilised the 16 
 sperm candles. 
 
 Observation, however, would soon convince him 
 that this is not by any means the case, and that if he 
 distributes his 16 sperm candles judiciously in his 
 room, the illuminating effect produced is far superior 
 to the London argand emitting the same amount of 
 light from a gas bracket in the centre of the room ; 
 and this simple instance strikes the keynote of the 
 difference existing between illuminating power and 
 illuminating effect. 
 
 In the one case you have 16 centres of light, each 
 illuminating a certain portion of the room, and none 
 of them sufficiently intense to form a contrast with 
 the others ; whilst with the argand, emitting its 
 16 candles of light from one small cylinder of flame, 
 you have an area of brightness in the centre of the 
 room which throws the surrounding portions into 
 comparative darkness, although they may be illu- 
 minated to an extent which, without the brilliant 
 contrast, would appear sufficient and satisfactory. 
 
 The greater the intensity of the flame, i.e. the 
 smaller and therefore brighter the surface from which 
 the light is emitted, the more difficult does it becomes 
 
 666 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 to avoid such contrast, and the wonderful intensity of 
 the acetylene flame, which makes it so valuable an 
 illuminant, also gives rise to the necessity for careful 
 treatment as regards distribution in order to obtain 
 the best illuminating effect. 
 
 In considering the illuminating power of acetylene, 
 it must also be borne in mind that the photometer only 
 measures the relative intensity of the direct rays 
 emitted by the flame, every precaution being taken 
 to shut off reflected light ; whilst in the lighting of a 
 room the light reflected from the walls and ceiling 
 plays a very important part, and the amount of light 
 reflected by the object on which it falls will also vary 
 with the angle at which the rays strike the object. 
 
 The result of this is that, although the values re- 
 corded by the photometer give a ratio of value for 
 the direct rays falling in the same horizontal plane as 
 the source of light, they tell us nothing as to the 
 combined value of the direct and diffused light cast 
 upon our book or any working surface, which, as a 
 rule, will be at angles varying from 45 to 90 below 
 the flame. 
 
 The direct rays are those which, radiated from the 
 luminous source, fall directly on the object illuminated, 
 whilst diffused light consists of those rays which have 
 been reflected from one or more surfaces, or which 
 have been refracted by passage through media of 
 varying density ; and as photometry only deals with 
 the primary source of illumination, and that, as a rule, 
 only on the horizontal plane, it is absurd to suppose 
 that such recorded illuminating results can have any 
 value as indications of the illuminating effect arrived 
 at in practice. 
 
 In an ordinary dwelling-room the gas lights are, 
 with very few exceptions, so arranged as to be above 
 the line of sight, and so avoid irritating the eye ; and 
 a moment's observation will convince any one that the 
 
 567 
 
 sources of 
 light 
 
 Illuminat- 
 ing power 
 
 only ex- 
 presses the 
 value ol the 
 horizontal 
 rays 
 
 Reasons for 
 the recorded 
 
 illuminating 
 
 value not 
 being a true 
 index of the 
 result ob- 
 tained 
 
 The light 
 yielded at 
 angles be- 
 low the 
 horizontal 
 the impor- 
 tant factor 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 illumination shed upon our book or writing is derived 
 from a source at from 40 to 90 above it, and it 
 is manifestly the illumination given by the burner 
 between these angles which is the important factor in 
 domestic lighting. 
 
 ILLUMINATING VALUE OF COAL-GAS AND ACETYLENE AT 
 
 ANGLES BELOW THE HORIZONTAL, IN TERMS OP CANDLES 
 
 PER CUBIC FOOT. 
 
 tained with 
 various 
 burners at Coal gas. 
 lights below 
 the 
 
 Acetylene 
 1 foot 
 (Billwiller 
 burner). 
 
 horizontal 
 
 
 Angle. 
 
 London 
 Argand. 
 
 Union jet 
 No. 5 No. 7 
 
 Batswing 
 No. 5 No. 7 
 
 Incandes- 
 cent. 
 
 
 Horiz. 
 
 3-2 
 
 1-67 2-09 
 
 1-90 2-43 
 
 16-6 
 
 40-0 
 
 10 
 
 3-19 
 
 1-67 2-08 
 
 1-84 2-42 
 
 16-6 
 
 40-0 
 
 20 
 
 3-07 
 
 1-55 2-03 
 
 1-73 2-38 
 
 16-1 
 
 40-0 
 
 30 
 
 2-72 
 
 1-45 1-88 
 
 1-61 2-25 
 
 11-1 
 
 38-0 
 
 40 
 
 2-38 
 
 1-40 1-64 
 
 1-47 2-18 
 
 8-8 
 
 38-0 
 
 45 
 
 2-18 
 
 1-30 1-50 
 
 1-38 2-12 
 
 8-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 50 
 
 2-12 
 
 1-27 1-50 
 
 1-38 2-05 
 
 6-6 
 
 36-0 
 
 60 
 
 1-20 
 
 1-23 1-50 
 
 1-30 2-07 
 
 2-0 
 
 30-0 
 
 70 
 
 unreadable 
 
 1-23 1-37 
 
 1-23 2-00 
 
 unreadable 
 
 26-0 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 0-76 1-25 
 
 0-76 1-75 
 
 
 20-0 
 
 90 
 
 ?j 
 
 0-30 0-87 
 
 0-76 1-37 
 
 5) 
 
 5-0 
 
 The advan- 
 tage of flat 
 flame over 
 argand 
 burners 
 
 On now turning to the table showing the results 
 given by various burners at angles from the hori- 
 zontal down to 90, the inferiority of the standard 
 London argand at once becomes apparent, as at an 
 angle of 60 it is surpassed in illuminating value by 
 even the small flat flame burner, and the rule of thumb 
 practice, which has made the flat flame burner the 
 popular method of illumination, is fully justified ; 
 whilst when we come to high power lights, such as 
 the incandescent and the acetylene flame, we find that 
 the flat flame acetylene burner shows a very marked 
 superiority over its incandescent rival at all the work- 
 ing angles. 
 
 668 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Reflection of light from the walls and ceiling of a 
 room plays an important part in adding to the illu- 
 minating effect ; and whilst with an illuminant of 
 low intensity, such as coal-gas, this is only a small 
 amount, with a flame of high intensity the increase in 
 illuminating effect becomes very great in the down- 
 ward direction, owing to reflection from the white 
 ceiling. 
 
 This is one of the chief causes also of the discrep- 
 ancies existing between illuminating power and 
 illuminating effect ; but other factors less easy to deal 
 with are : the difference in effect caused by the varia- 
 tion in the size of the source of light ; the effect of 
 distribution and intensity of the source of light on the 
 visual organs, and the reflecting power of the sur- 
 rounding objects. 
 
 The size of the source of light has an important 
 influence on the illuminating effect. Tf a large flat 
 coal-gas flame and a small acetylene flame of the same 
 illuminating power be placed at equal distances from 
 a rod, and the shadows of the rod be then received on 
 a white screen placed at some distance from the rod, 
 the shadow due to the large flame will be seen to have 
 soft undefined edges, whilst the shadow from the small 
 flame will be sharp and hard ; so that, although in 
 each case the depth of shadow may be equal, the one 
 will be far less striking to the eye than the other, and 
 this causes the illuminating effect of the large flame 
 to be better than that given by the small flame. 
 Another important point is that the larger the surface 
 from which a given amount of light is being emitted, 
 the less will be its intensity for any given area, and the 
 less the deadening and irritating effect upon the optic 
 nerve. 
 
 The smaller and more intense the light-emitting 
 source, the greater will be the contrast between the 
 highly-illuminated area immediately surrounding it 
 
 569 
 
 The im- 
 portance of 
 reflection in 
 illuminating 
 effect 
 
 The causes 
 which lead 
 to the dis- 
 crepancies 
 
 between 
 
 illuminating 
 
 power and 
 
 effect 
 
 The influ- 
 ence of the 
 size of the 
 source of 
 light upon 
 
 the sha- 
 dows formed 
 by it 
 
 The effect 
 
 of intensity 
 
 in making 
 
 contrasts 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The use of 
 globes in 
 
 aiding dis- 
 tribution 
 
 and saving 
 the eyes 
 
 Diffusion 
 globes 
 
 and the less well-illuminated portions of the room at a 
 greater distance from the source of light, which to the 
 eye. fatigued by the intensity of the central illumina- 
 tion, appears almost in darkness. 
 
 Illuminating effect not being due to any one factor 
 acting alone, but the combined effect of at least four, 
 one or more of which vary with the particular environ- 
 ment as well as with the source of light, can only be 
 measured where it is produced, and no calculations can 
 give even an approximation as to the result. 
 
 In order to as far as possible counteract the injury 
 and discomfort caused to the eye by intense centres of 
 illumination, it becomes necessary to use globes to 
 obtain a better distribution of the light and at the 
 same time a protection to the eye ; but in gaining this 
 advantage a considerable sacrifice is generally made in 
 light. For ordinary purposes ground glass, opal, or 
 frosted globes are used, whilst in many houses these 
 globes are made in pink-tinted glass to as far as possible 
 neutralise the ghastly effect which the Welsbach light 
 gives to the complexion. With all such globes the loss 
 of illumination is considerable, and the diffusion of the 
 light far from satisfactory ; but a diffusion globe has 
 been introduced based on an entirely different principle, 
 and which, with our present tendency towards small 
 centres of high intensity, becomes simply invalu- 
 able. 
 
 These globes, designed by Psarondatri and Blondel, 
 and introduced under the name of Holophane globes, 
 give us the power not only of correcting the irregular 
 distribution of light, and bringing the maxima of rays 
 down to the working angles, but also make the surface 
 of the globe the light-distributing medium, and so 
 avoiding fatigue to the eye. 
 
 In order to do this the globe is made of clear glass, 
 so moulded that the exterior consists of horizontal 
 lines of prismatic form running round the globe, 
 
 570 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 whilst the interior is covered by vertical lines of prisms 
 running from the top to the bottom. 
 
 If the globe had only the horizontal prisms round 
 it, the source of light in the centre of the globe would 
 appear as a vertical band of light, as is seen in the 
 Fredureau globe ; whilst if the vertical prisms only 
 were present, the light would be drawn into a hori- 
 zontal band in the same plane as the mantle, but the 
 combination of the two draws the light evenly over 
 the whole surface of the globe. 
 
 The horizontal prisms are so moulded as to deflect 
 downwards the excess of light otherwise escaping up- 
 wards, thus giving an increase in illuminating power 
 over the working angles, whilst the large surface of 
 emission makes the light pleasant instead of irritating 
 to the eye. 
 
 In order to ascertain how these globes compared 
 with those most generally used, a long series of tests 
 was made on the radial photometer as to the absolute 
 gain or loss in direct illumination afforded by their 
 use. 
 
 In making these experiments, five observations were 
 taken with the unshaded flame, then ten with the 
 shade that was under trial, and immediately after five 
 more with the unshaded burner, so that for each globe 
 a separate set of ten observations with the unshaded, 
 as well as the shaded light were obtained, and the 
 percentage loss or gain calculated from the average 
 results. Observations having in this way been made 
 for the angles below the horizontal, the results indicate 
 the absolute gain or loss due to the shade or globe at 
 that angle. It would be unnecessary and, indeed, 
 confusing to give the enormous mass of figures ob- 
 tained in this .way, and the following table gives a 
 summary of the mean loss or gain in light due to the 
 globes used at angles between the horizontal and 45 
 below it. 
 
 571 
 
 The con- 
 struction of 
 diffusion 
 globes 
 
 Compari- 
 
 sonsbetween 
 
 various 
 
 globes 
 
 Methods of 
 
 experiment 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The results not only show the great gain which is 
 obtained by the use of the Holophane globes, but also 
 bring out in the clearest possible way the serious loss 
 of light involved by the use of pink-tinted globes and 
 shades. 
 
 PERCENTAGE G-AIN OR Loss OF LIGHT 
 
 FROM THE HORIZONTAL TO 45 BELOW, DUE TO USING 
 
 VARIOUS GLOBES. 
 
 Summary of 
 
 the results 
 
 obtained 
 
 Action of 
 the Holo- 
 phane 
 globes 
 
 Advantages 
 
 gained by 
 
 the use of 
 
 diffusion 
 
 globes 
 
 The action 
 
 of opal and 
 
 ground glass 
 
 globes on 
 
 the light 
 
 Globe. 
 
 Holophane tulip shape . 
 Holophane conical 
 Holophane conical, pink 
 White opal globe . 
 Ground glass globe . 
 Frosted glass tulip 
 Frosted glass pink 
 Pink opal globe 
 
 Percentage gain or loss in light. 
 . gain of 12'3 per cent. 
 .. 13-1 
 
 I'l 
 
 loss of 7*5 ,, 
 ., 12-4 
 
 ., 11-2 
 
 23-2 
 
 CM.1 
 
 s* Ott -L 
 
 It must not be supposed for one moment that these 
 figures impute a power of creating light to the Holo- 
 phane globes. If the light emitted in every direction 
 be taken, a small total loss would be found due to the 
 absorption of some light by the glass, but the angles 
 at which the upper prisms are set deflect downwards 
 some of the rays which otherwise would be expended 
 on the cornices. 
 
 The more uniform distribution of light taking place 
 from a far larger surface than the original source does 
 away with sharp shadows and the glaring contrast 
 between the source of high intensity and the objects 
 illuminated by it. 
 
 Interesting experiments have been made by several 
 observers, which seem to show that if the diffused 
 light thrown by opal and ground glass shades be 
 measured as well as the direct illumination, the loss 
 of light due to them is not as great as. used to be sup- 
 posed ; and Scott deduces from his experiments the 
 fact that clear glass globes cut off 6 per cent, of total 
 light, whilst flash coated globes are responsible for a 
 
 572 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 loss of 11 per cent., figures which agree very well with 
 those in the above table. In other words, in order to 
 gain any true idea of illuminating effect you must 
 take the light emitted over all the working angles and 
 not in the horizontal plane. 
 
 Observation shows us that as long as the atmosphere 
 is sufficiently clear to enable us to see the sun or moon 
 apparently white, but little difference can be noticed 
 in the penetrating power of our outdoor illuminants ; 
 but as soon as the sun or moon begins to show a 
 yellow or reddish tint, we immediately begin to notice 
 that the arc light or the Welsbach incandescent 
 mantle begin to fade far more rapidly than the 
 acetylene or ordinary gas lights, and that even in the 
 thickest fog the gas flame, oil lamp, or even candle, 
 seem able to battle more successfully with the atmos- 
 pheric conditions than their more pretentious rivals. 
 
 Although this is perfectly clear to the eye, as far as 
 the author knows, no attempt has been made to ascer- 
 tain the ratio of the percentage of light so absorbed 
 amongst our ordinary illuminants themselves, although 
 Professor Tyndall's beautiful work on lighthouse illu- 
 minants shows clearly the differences which exist in 
 this respect between the electric light and the light 
 due to gaseous flames. 
 
 The explanation of the yellowish-red appearance 
 seen during a fog is that it is caused by the nitration 
 of the light rays through the minute particles of 
 which the fog largely consists ; and the same effect is 
 produced when the sun is seen through smoke. The 
 colours in the spectrum are produced by variations in 
 the wave lengths, the difference from crest to crest of 
 the red rays being large as compared with the wave 
 lengths which give the blue-violet end of the spect- 
 rum ; and the gradual decrease in the distance be- 
 tween the crests is found to take place from the red 
 rays down to the ultra-violet, and when the bundle of 
 
 573 
 
 The effect of 
 fog, mist, or 
 
 smoke in 
 the air upon 
 
 illuminants" 
 
 The expla- 
 nation 
 given of the 
 yellowish- 
 red effect 
 produced by 
 fog or 
 smoke 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The fil- 
 tration of 
 the waves 
 of light by 
 the particles 
 in the air 
 
 Experi- 
 mental 
 method of 
 
 showing 
 this result 
 
 Attempts to 
 determine 
 the pene- 
 trative 
 power of 
 various 
 illuminants 
 
 mixed rays which we call white light comes to pene- 
 trate the finely divided mass of particles contained 
 in the atmosphere during foggy weather, the small 
 and rapid waves of the blue and violet become 
 checked and absorbed, whilst the waves of greater 
 amplitude are able to find their way through the 
 obstructions, the result being that the light which 
 reaches our eye, being bereft of a large proportion at 
 any rate of the blue and violet rays, has a preponder- 
 ance of the light from the other end of the spectrum, 
 and therefore appears red or orange, according to the 
 thickness of the layer through which it has passed. 
 
 A very beautiful way of showing this is to cause 
 the horizontal rays from an electric lantern to pass 
 through a cell containing a dilute solution of sodium 
 hyposulphite, when a white disc is formed on the 
 screen. On now adding some hydrochloric acid to the 
 hyposulphite, a gradual separation of particles of sul- 
 phur takes place, and forms a cloud in the liquid, and 
 this behaving in the same way as the solid particles 
 suspended in the fog, the disc of white light is seen to 
 go through the changes of colour so familiar to Lon- 
 doners during the fall of the year. 
 
 The author has attempted to utilise a modification 
 of this experiment in order to determine the power of 
 penetrating fog which our illuminants possess, and to 
 do so constructed a glass cell 18 inches deep by 18 
 inches wide by 3 inches thick. It was filled with a 
 solution containing O1075 grammes of sodium hypo- 
 sulphite to the litre. The illuminating power of the 
 light source to be tested was first read on the photo- 
 meter in the ordinary way, and the cell containing 
 the clear liquid was then interposed halfway between 
 the source of light and the screen, and a second read- 
 ing was then taken, the difference between the two 
 giving the light cut off by the cell and the liquid 
 which it contained. *05 grammes of hydrochloric acid 
 
 574 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 per litre was then added to the liquid, and the solution 
 was allowed to stand until the fine haze of sulphur 
 particles which separated from the hyposulphite had 
 finished forming, experiments showing that this took 
 some time, but that, owing to the extremely fine state 
 of division of the particles, the haze would remain 
 constant, when once formed, over a very long period. 
 When the haze had completely formed, another read- 
 ing was taken, and from the three figures so obtained, 
 it was possible to deduce the amount of light absorp- 
 tion due to the haze in the liquid as apart from the 
 absorption of the cell and the liquid which it contained. 
 Working in this way with the greatest possible 
 care, it was found that considerably less light was 
 absorbed from the yellow coal-gas flame than from the 
 whiter acetylene . flame, whilst the absorption of the 
 greenish-blue Welsbach mantle was very great in- 
 deed, as is shown by the following table : 
 
 PERCENTAGE Loss OF LIGHT FROM VARIOUS ILLUMIN- 
 
 ANTS IN PASSING THROUGH ARTIFICIAL FOG 
 
 SOLUTION. 
 
 Coal gas flames 
 Oil gas flames . 
 Acetylene flames 
 Welsbach mantle 
 Electric arc 
 
 11-1 
 11-5 
 14-7 
 
 20-8 
 26-2 
 
 which means the acetylene suffers to the extent of 32 
 per cent, and the Welsbach burner loses 87'3 per cent, 
 more of its light-giving power than the coal-gas flame. 
 As soon as the possibility of burning acetylene alone 
 had been recognised, the pure whiteness of the flame 
 at once suggested that the light emitted must be 
 closely akin to sunlight in the proportion of the 
 various coloured rays of the spectrum. Munsterberg 
 has published the following table, in which the pro- 
 portion of each colour that is present in the spectrum 
 of the various lights used for artificial illumination 
 
 575 
 
 Methods of 
 
 experiment 
 
 Loss of light 
 
 in passage 
 
 through an 
 
 opalescent 
 
 solution 
 
 The charac- 
 ter of the 
 light emit- 
 ted by 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 is contrasted with the amount in sunlight taken as 
 unity. 
 
 Table con- 
 trasting the 
 character- 
 istics of 
 various 
 illuminants 
 
 Erdmann's 
 researches 
 
 on the 
 
 character of 
 
 the light 
 
 from the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 flame 
 
 Acetylene 
 as a stand- 
 ard of light 
 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 Coal gas. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 
 Colour 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 spectrum. 
 
 Arc. 
 
 Incan- 
 descent. 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Wels- 
 bach. 
 
 Alone. 
 
 With 
 air. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Red. . 
 
 2-09 
 
 1-48 
 
 4-07 
 
 0-37 
 
 1-83 
 
 1-03 
 
 1 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 0-90 
 
 1-02 
 
 1-02 
 
 1 
 
 Green . 
 
 0-99 
 
 0-62 
 
 0-47 
 
 4-30 
 
 0-76 
 
 0-71 
 
 1 
 
 Blue. . 
 
 0-87 
 
 0-91 
 
 1-27 
 
 0-74 
 
 1-94 
 
 1-46 
 
 1 
 
 Violet . 
 
 1-03 
 
 017 
 
 0-15 
 
 0-83 
 
 1-07 
 
 1-07 
 
 1 
 
 From this it is evident that the light yielded by 
 acetylene not only more nearly approaches sunlight 
 in the proportion of the rays of different wave length, 
 but is even richer than sunlight in those blue and 
 violet rays which are so essential to the chemical 
 action of light. 
 
 Erdmann has done much work on the character of 
 the light emitted by the acetylene flame. Comparing 
 the flame of acetylene from a small union jet burner 
 with holes for the ingress of air, consuming O25 cubic 
 foot per hour under a pressure of 28-10ths, with the 
 flame of an Elster's porcelain argand burner con- 
 suming coal gas under a constant pressure of 3-10ths, 
 he found that the coal gas flame was relatively de- 
 ficient in the rays of medium wave length. It is 
 these rays which make it possible to differentiate pre- 
 cisely between shades of colour. The Welsbach light 
 more nearly resembles the acetylene light in this 
 respect, but it exhibits a preponderance of violet rays 
 which disturb the eyes. The acetylene light is an 
 excellent substitute for daylight in spectro-photometric 
 researches. Owing to the inconstancy of daylight, the 
 Hefner light had commonly been used as a standard 
 light in such researches, although it was deeply 
 yellowish-brown in colour. Erdmann points out that 
 
 576 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 experiment 
 
 Violle and Fery had already proposed that acetylene 
 should be used as a standard light, and Fery had 
 made a number of observations on the effect of varia- 
 tions in the height of the acetylene flame on the 
 light emitted, and Erdmann also comes to the con- 
 clusion that acetylene would furnish an excellent 
 standard of light. As a standard burner for use in 
 photometry, he employed simply a thermometer tube, 
 cut off smoothly at the end, about 6 inches in length, Erdmann's 
 and nearly O02 inch 0-5 mm. in diameter inter- methods of 
 nally. The flame was maintained at a constant 
 height, say, O8 inch 20 mm. and in the first place 
 the light was carefully compared with a Hefner lamp. 
 Such a standard burner consumed only about 0*14 c. ft. 
 of acetylene per hour, but it was essential that the 
 acetylene consumed should be produced, without the 
 prevalence of high temperature, from as nearly as pos- 
 sible pure carbide. In the experiments, carbide from 
 the Bitterfeld works was used, which yielded acetylene 
 almost wholly free from phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Erdmann compared the light from coal-gas with 
 that from such acetylene burnt in two small burners, 
 and with the Hefner unit, and taking the acetylene 
 flame and the Hefner light as the unit in turn, he 
 obtained the following values for the radiation at 
 various parts of the spectrum : 
 
 Value when Acetylene =1*00. 
 
 Value when Hefner light=l'00. 
 
 
 
 Coal gas. 
 
 
 Coal gas. 
 
 Colour. 
 
 Hefner 
 Light. 
 
 Argand. 
 
 Incan- 
 descent. 
 
 Acety- 
 lene. 
 
 Argand. 
 
 Incan- 
 descent. 
 
 Bed. . . 
 
 1-45 
 
 1-34 
 
 1-03 
 
 0-69 
 
 0-92 
 
 0-71 
 
 Orange . 
 
 1-22 
 
 1-13 
 
 I'OO 
 
 0-82 
 
 0-93 
 
 0-82 
 
 Yellow . 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 1-00 
 
 Green . 
 
 0-87 
 
 0-93 
 
 0-86 
 
 1-15 
 
 1-07 
 
 0-99 
 
 Blue . . 
 
 0-72 
 
 1-27 
 
 0-92 
 
 1-38 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-27 
 
 Violet . . 
 
 0-77 
 
 1-35 
 
 1-73 
 
 1-30 
 
 1-75 
 
 2-25 
 
 Results 
 obtained 
 
 577 
 
 37 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Erdmann, in concluding, expresses the hope that 
 physicists would discard the objectionable Hefner lamp 
 in favour of an acetylene standard burner in their 
 ordinary photometrical work. 
 
 Hartman on I n America Hartman has studied the light and 
 
 properties colour properties of the acetylene flame and the flame 
 
 given by mixtures of acetylene and hydrogen, and 
 
 flames comes to the conclusion that the acetylene-hydrogen 
 
 flame is richer in the short wave lengths than the 
 
 flame of acetylene alone, and he, like Erdmann, is 
 
 struck by the advantages offered by acetylene as a 
 
 standard for the measurement of light. 
 
 This is not to be wondered at when the unsatis- 
 factory condition of our present standards is con- 
 sidered. 
 
 standards of The candle has been recognised as the legal standard 
 ever since its introduction by Bouguer as a unit of 
 light, but the results which are obtained from it in 
 practice do not in any way attain the scientific ac- 
 curacy which ought to prevail, and whilst the standard 
 does not yield accurate results, it is of little avail to 
 try and obtain perfection in the remaining portions 
 of the apparatus used for testing the quality of light. 
 Wax candles were first enacted to be employed for gas- 
 testing in 1850, before which date there had been no 
 definition as to what candles were to be used, but in 
 The stan- 1866 these gave way to sperm candles of six to the 
 1 pound and burning 120 grains of sperm each per hour, 
 and the light yielded by these candles was a little 
 more than that obtained from the previous wax 
 candles fourteen sperm candles being equal to six- 
 teen wax ones. Pure spermaceti, owing to its crystal- 
 line character and consequent brittleness, could not be 
 used alone in practice, and accordingly the sperm was 
 mixed with 4 to 5 per cent, of beeswax, and great care 
 has to be taken to get the quality of the sperm and 
 the proportion of the mixture uniform. The wick is, 
 
 B78 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 however, the weakest point ; a slight variation in the 
 roughness or texture of the material, in the pre- 
 liminary treatment of the fibre, or the twist of the 
 thread, or the tension during plating, causes great 
 alterations in the light emitted by the candle. 
 
 All the various committees that have been ap- imperfec- 
 
 pointed to consider the question of a reliable standard 
 
 of light have unanimously come to the conclusion unit 
 that the sperm candle cannot in any way be regarded 
 as an accurate standard. Nevertheless, the candle 
 holds its own as the legal unit of light, owing largely 
 to its convenience and the difficulty of providing an- 
 other standard which shall be as handy to use and 
 which will be more reliable under ordinary circum- 
 stances. 
 
 To obviate the inaccuracies of the sperm candle, many Attempts to 
 attempts have been made from time to time by the grea^e^uni- 
 Gas Referees to ensure more uniform results. The f rmity of 
 candle was first of all to be lighted at least ten the stan- 
 minutes before the test was made, at the expiration dard candle 
 of which time the wick was to have a glowing tip at 
 the end of a slight bend, as, when this condition is 
 attained, the candle will be burning at its normal 
 rate. Later on it was prescribed that all testings 
 were to be rejected in which the consumption of the 
 sperm was more than 126 or less than 114 grains per 
 hour. In 1889 the relative positions of the candles 
 and their wicks were clearly defined, and the observer 
 was further directed to employ a fresh candle for each 
 test; whilst in September, 1894, minute regulations 
 for securing as far as possible uniformity in standard 
 candles by attention to the material and treatment of 
 the wicks and sperm, were added to the Gras Referees' 
 instructions, and all the candles issued for official 
 gas-testing in London are at present examined and 
 certified for use by them. 
 
 In spite of all these precautions, however, the candle 
 
 579 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Keate's 
 lamp 
 
 The Carcel 
 
 The Hefner 
 
 Alteneck 
 
 unit 
 
 Viollc Plati- 
 num stan- 
 dard 
 
 The 
 
 Methvcn 
 Screen 
 
 still remains an unsatisfactory standard, and, in con- 
 sequence, many other forms of standard have from 
 time to time been suggested, amongst which may be 
 mentioned Keate's lamp, introduced in 1869, which 
 was practically a modified form of the "Moderator" 
 lamp. This lamp, when burning sperm oil at the rate 
 of 925 grains per hour with a 2-inch flame, yielded 
 a light equal to 16 candles. This lamp was modified 
 by Sugg, who added to it what was practically a 
 Methven slot, and it then gave more constant results 
 than had been obtained from candles, but its general 
 performances were not good enough to warrant its 
 adoption. The French standard of light is the Carcel 
 lamp, dating from 1800, which burns refined colza at 
 the rate of 42 grammes per hour, the light given 
 equalling 9*5 English candles. The standard due to 
 Hefner Alteneck consists of a lamp burning the 
 vapour of amyl acetate, the wick being contained in 
 a round tube of German silver 8 mm. in diameter and 
 25 mm. high, and regulated so as to produce a flame 
 40 mm. high. This lamp ought to yield a light equal 
 to one candle, but Dibdin found that the flame had to 
 be increased in height in order to equal the light 
 emitted by the Methven screen per candle. The red 
 or yellowish-brown colour of the flame, which renders 
 the task of comparing the light to be tested a difficult 
 one, is the great drawback to this standard. Another 
 standard was suggested by Violle, but its impractica- 
 bility rendered its use impossible, as he proposed to 
 employ the light emitted by one square centimetre of 
 platinum at the point of fusion. 
 
 The Methven screen, first introduced in 1878, is one 
 of the more convenient forms of standard that has 
 been proposed, and is largely used at the present day 
 in gas-works. It consists of an upright metallic plate, 
 fixed in front of a London argand. This plate has an 
 opening which is covered by a slotted silver plate, the 
 
 580 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The Har- 
 court pen- 
 
 tane one 
 candle unit 
 
 opening of which is of such size that an amount of 
 light equal to that afforded by two average standard 
 sperm candles is allowed to pass through when the 
 gas flame is three inches in height. It is only within 
 certain limits that it is possible to get a constant 
 light from a small portion of a gas flame, and although 
 these limits are well within the illuminating value of 
 the London gas supply, it is better to obtain greater 
 constancy by using an aperture of smaller area and 
 carburetting the gas with pentane. 
 
 The standard proposed by Vernon Harcourt in 1887, 
 and described at the British Association meeting in 
 that year, was an entirely new departure. The 
 burner consists of a brass tube 4 inches in length 
 and 1 in diameter, the upper end being closed by a 
 brass plug half an inch thick, in the centre of which 
 is a round hole one quarter of an inch in diameter. 
 A glass cylinder 6 inches by 2 inches surrounds the 
 tube, the top of which is level with the top of the 
 burner. At a height of 62'5 mm. above the burner is 
 stretched a piece of platinum wire 2 to 3 inches long 
 and about O6 mm. thick. The gas to be consumed 
 in this burner is passed through a small meter, which 
 registers one-sixth of a cubic foot at each revolution, 
 and then through a governor which regulates the 
 supply to half a cubic foot an hour. The height of 
 the flame is so adjusted that it appears to touch the 
 platinum wire, but not to pass it, the platinum being 
 fixed directly above the flame and extending half an 
 inch on either side of it. 
 
 A special gas is used in this burner, and it is made 
 by mixing in a gasholder air and liquid pentane in the 
 proportion of 1 cubic foot of air and 3 cubic inches of 
 pentane. The pentane is obtained from light petro- Pentane and 
 leum, which is distilled at 60, 55, and twice at 50 C., its 
 and has to answer to the test of only faintly colour- 
 ing one-twentieth its own bulk of fuming sulphuric 
 
 581 
 
 Method of 
 using the 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 acid on agitation with it for five minutes. The 
 density of the liquid must be between 0-62 and O63 
 at 62 F. ; the liquid must volatilise at ordinary tem- 
 peratures without leaving any residue when the 
 tension of its vapour is not less than 7*5 inches of 
 mercury. Its vapour density as compared with air 
 must not be less than 2-47 or greater than 2*53. 
 
 Drawbacks ^ke C ^ G ^ drawbacks to this standard are that the 
 
 to the personal equation of the observer affects this unit of 
 
 light to a considerable extent, it being difficult for 
 
 two observers to fix the name at the same height, 
 
 whilst the flame is also affected by vibrations and 
 
 draughts. 
 
 Advisability After all the endeavours to obtain a standard burner 
 
 of a higher which shall emit a constant light of small intensity, 
 
 standard ,-, ... ,, . . -in , 
 
 the opinion is generally gaining ground that it is 
 preferable to employ a standard light which shall 
 nearly approximate to that yielded by the flame 
 The Dibdin un( lergoing comparison. Dibdin devised, to meet this 
 ten-candle requirement, a ten-candle pentane argand, which 
 consumes gas carburetted with pentane, or a mixture 
 of pentane vapour and air similar to that employed 
 in the Harcourt unit. The argand burner is of special 
 construction, giving a very full-bodied flame, the top 
 of which is cut off by a screen, exposing a fixed 
 height of flame. This burner, from the constancy of 
 the results obtained by its use, its ease of manipula- 
 tion, and the small extent to which it is affected by 
 external causes, is the standard recommended by the 
 Photometric Committee of 1891 to 1894 ; but its 
 adoption in place of candles has not been effected, 
 and in the testing of London coal gas the candle is 
 now being replaced by a ten-candle pentane standard 
 Harcourt introduced by Harcourt, in which air saturated with 
 b ^>e"ntane le P en ^ane vapour descends by gravity to a steatite ring 
 vapour burner. The flame is drawn into definite form, and 
 the top of it hidden from view by a long brass 
 
 582 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 chimney above the burner. This chimney is sur- 
 rounded by a larger brass tube, through which hot 
 air rises, and descending by another tube supplies air 
 to the centre of the steatite ring. The upright carry- 
 ing the burner has its tripod base fitted with levelling 
 screws, and at the top bears a metal bracket on which 
 is fixed the vessel containing the pentane, and from 
 which the air, saturated with the vapour, descends 
 by a rubber tube to the burner, the rate of flow being 
 regulated by a stopcock. The lower end of the chim- 
 ney should be 47 mm. above the top of the steatite 
 burner, and is fitted with a small mica window, 
 through which the height of the flame can be ob- 
 served for regulation. The tip of the flame should 
 be about half-way between the bottom of the mica 
 window and the crossbar. 
 
 No matter how accurately standardised, or how 
 uniform in action such standards may be, they are 
 unfitted for anything but testing flames giving the 
 same quality of light as they do themselves, whilst the 
 fact that the so-called " pentane " is simply a distillate 
 rich in that hydrocarbon renders the reproduction of 
 the standard less certain than if a definite compound 
 like acetylene were employed. 
 
 Violle 1 made a standard burner in which acetylene, 
 under a pressure of O3 m. 12 inches escaped from 
 a small conical jet into an atmospheric burner, and 
 the mixture of acetylene and air was then consumed 
 at a flat flame nozzle, and gave about 100 candles for 
 a consumption of 58 litres (2*05 c. ft.). Only a portion 
 of the flame was used, the remainder being screened 
 off, and Violle found that the light differed but little 
 from that emitted by his platinum standard unit. 
 
 Fery 2 also proposed using acetylene as a photo- 
 metric standard. In order to do this, he burnt a jet of 
 
 1 Compt. Rend., 122, 79. 
 
 2 Compt. Bend., 126, 1,192. 
 
 583 
 
 Drawbacks 
 to the use 
 
 of such mix- 
 tures as a 
 standard 
 unit 
 
 Violle 
 Acetylene 
 standard 
 
 Fery's 
 Acetylene 
 standard 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Ratio be- 
 tween the 
 
 height of an 
 Acetylene 
 
 jet and the 
 
 light 
 emitted 
 
 Advantages 
 of Acetylene 
 as an Inter- 
 national unit 
 of light 
 
 acetylene at the end of a piece of capillary thermometer 
 tube, the bore of which was O5 mm. in diameter, and 
 experimentally determined the ratio between the light 
 emitted and the height of the flame, which he gives 
 in the following table : 
 
 Height of jet. 
 
 
 Intensity. 
 
 Consumption of 
 gas per hour. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Observed. 
 
 Calculated. 
 
 Error. 
 
 millimetres. 
 
 inches. 
 
 litres, cubic feet. 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 1-15 0-04 
 
 0-056 
 
 o-ooo 
 
 +0-056 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 2-02 0-07 
 
 0-325 
 
 0-318 
 
 +0-007 
 
 15 
 
 57 
 
 2-80 0-09 
 
 0-670 
 
 0-669 
 
 +0-001 
 
 20 
 
 76 
 
 3-52 012 
 
 1-020 
 
 1-020 
 
 o-ooo 
 
 25 
 
 95 
 
 4-28 015 
 
 1-380 
 
 1-372 
 
 + 0-008 
 
 30 
 
 1-14 
 
 5-00 0-18 
 
 1-660 
 
 1-724 
 
 -0-064 
 
 35 
 
 1-33 
 
 6-00 0-21 
 
 1-910 
 
 2-076 
 
 -0-166 
 
 Acetylene as 
 
 a standard 
 
 for plate 
 
 testing in 
 
 photography 
 
 These figures he obtained by testing the jet of vary- 
 ing height against a jet of constant height taken as 
 unity, and concludes that between the limits of 10 
 and 25 mm. the intensity is proportional to the height 
 of the flame. 
 
 The author has found that such traces of air as are 
 present in the gas when prepared with ordinary care 
 do not affect the light emitted by the acetylene jet, 
 and that by screening off the top and bottom portions 
 of a jet burning from a standard nipple by far the 
 best photometric standard obtainable can be produced. 
 An international unit based on such a process would 
 go far to remove the confusion created by such various 
 standards as the candle, Carcel, Hefner lamp, and 
 pentane units. 
 
 The characteristics of the light yielded by acetylene 
 being so nearly akin to daylight, it would also prove 
 a valuable standard for plate testing in photographic 
 work, and also as a source of light in taking and 
 printing photographs. 
 
 584 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 As has been pointed out, the smaller and more 
 intense a source of light becomes, the harder and 
 blacker will be the shadows thrown by it ; and as the 
 light of the electric arc is chiefly emitted by the small 
 crater in the negative carbon, a considerable amount 
 of light has to be wasted when using it for photo- 
 graphic purposes in securing sufficient diffusion to 
 prevent harshness in the result. 
 
 This trouble is far less with acetylene, as the flame 
 has a considerable area ; and as the light necessary for 
 a short exposure has to be obtained from several small 
 flames, these can readily be so arranged and screened 
 as to give most excellent results. 
 
 The value of acetylene in photographic work is now 
 universally recognised, and Walmsley has determined 
 its relative value as compared with the ordinary 
 sources of light by determining the time needed to 
 fully expose carefully prepared plates, with the fol- 
 lowing results : 
 
 Direct sunlight 
 
 Acetylene, 1 c. ft. burner . 
 Diffused daylight, reflected from mirror 
 Incandescent mantle .... 
 Coal gas } 
 
 Oil gas V 
 
 Oil lamp j 
 
 Vidal has, on the other hand, experimented with 
 the acetylene light for photographic purposes, and has 
 compared its value with that of a candle taken as 
 unity. 
 
 Candle 1 
 
 Coal gas 12 
 
 Welsbach mantle ..... 44 
 Acetylene flame 150 
 
 It is manifest, however, that unless the exact con- 
 ditions of the experiment are stated, but little is to be 
 learnt from it save that acetylene is distinctly better 
 than the Welsbach mantle for photographic work. 
 
 585 
 
 Advantages 
 of Acetylene 
 over Elec- 
 tric Light 
 for photo- 
 graphic 
 purposes 
 
 seconds. 
 
 
 1 
 
 Value of 
 
 3 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 
 as compared 
 
 12 
 
 with other 
 
 24 
 
 sources of 
 
 
 light for 
 
 240 
 
 photo- 
 graphic 
 
 
 work 
 
 Vidal's 
 results 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Practical In practice it has been found that the best condi- 
 for the use tions for taking photographs by acetylene light is to 
 of Acetylene have two stands, one carrying a cluster of 15 burners 
 at a height of 6 or 7 feet from the ground. A re- 
 flector of glazed white paper stretched on a screen 
 is placed behind this in such a way as to reflect the 
 light towards the object to be photographed, whilst in 
 order to properly diffuse the light a screen of thin 
 transparent tissue paper is placed between the light 
 and the object. A second cluster of 5 burners is 
 arranged in the same way on the opposite side of the 
 sitter, and excellent results are obtained with an ex- 
 posure of 10 to 12 seconds. 
 
 More rapid results are obtainable by using clusters 
 of burners with metallic reflectors, but the results are 
 not so artistic owing to too great a concentration. 
 
 The cost would not be by any means prohibitive. 
 The present price of carbide is 20 a ton ; but sup- 
 posing it to be retailed at 56, this would be Qd. per 
 lb., which of good quality would yield in any decent 
 generator enough gas to keep the 20 one cubic foot 
 burners going for 15 minutes, and would mean about 
 a halfpenny for each negative taken. 
 
 Acetylene For copying and printing also acetylene should 
 
 and printing prove a boon. It is almost too brilliant and actinic 
 
 for bromide paper, but ordinary gelatino-chloride 
 
 paper can readily be printed by it. With an average 
 
 negative of a yellow colour, an exposure of 1| hours 
 
 gives a fully printed result when placed at about 
 
 6 inches from the flame ; but, of course, the time can 
 
 be considerably shortened by slightly printing and 
 
 then developing by any of the recognised methods. 
 
 Acetylene Acetylene is also to a certain extent used for projec- 
 
 >r projec- ^ Qn wor k . ^^ ft is not so well suited for this, as, in 
 
 tion work ' ^ 1 > 
 
 common with multiple wick oil lamps and incandes- 
 cent mantles, the flame offers too large a surface of 
 illumination. 
 
 586 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Molteni has attempted to determine the projection 
 value of various illuminants by a photometric process 
 in the following way. The measurements were made 
 with an ordinary lantern, the stage of which carried 
 an opaque card in which was cut an aperture O7 cm. 
 square, and the distance of the lantern from the screen 
 was such that each side of the square on the screen 
 measured 1 metre. 
 
 The screen was replaced by a disc of paper, the 
 opposite side being illuminated by a standard lamp 
 burning 42 grammes of oil per hour. The distance of 
 this lamp was varied in order that equality of illumina- 
 tion might be obtained on the screen, and the photo- 
 metric values of the light were determined by the 
 distance of this lamp. 
 
 Multiple wick lamp TOO 
 
 Incandescent gas, No. 2 burner, no reflector TOO 
 
 Acetylene 1 burner, no reflector . . . TOO 
 
 2 . , 1-70 
 
 3 ... 3-20 
 
 4 ... 4-10 
 
 5 ... 4-50 
 Limelight, alcohol and oxygen . . . 5'80 
 
 oxyhydrogen .... 16'60 
 
 etho-oxygen . . . .18*50 
 
 Electric incandescent, 32 candle power . 0'68 
 
 50 ,, vertical 0'93 
 
 11 11 " 11 11 
 
 Electric focus, 100 candle-power . 
 arc lamp, 7 amperes 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 horizontal 0'93 
 3-82 
 
 . 39-03 
 . 75-61 
 . 86-50 
 . 117-61 
 160-80 
 
 Molteni's 
 
 experiments 
 
 on the value 
 
 of various 
 
 sources of 
 
 light for 
 
 projection 
 
 Method of 
 experiment 
 
 Results 
 
 The researches of Dr. Grrehant have shown us that, The sanitary 
 when burning with a smokeless flame, no carbon mon- 
 oxide can be detected in the products emitted by the 
 combustion of acetylene, and its sanitary position will 
 therefore be denned by the amount of oxygen ab- 
 
 587 
 
 an illumi- 
 nant 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 stracted from the air and carbon dioxide produced as 
 compared with other illuminants. 
 
 Taking the average-sized room, which would be 
 well lighted by an illumination equal to 64 standard 
 candles, we find that this amount of light from various 
 illuminants would have the following effect on the 
 atmosphere : 
 
 
 
 
 Products of combustion . 
 
 
 
 O d 
 
 
 
 Illuminant. 
 
 from air. 
 
 Water Carbon 
 
 
 
 
 vapour. 
 
 dioxide. 
 
 
 
 c. ft. 
 
 c. ft. 
 
 c. ft. 
 
 The effect of 
 
 Sperm candles 
 
 38-5 
 
 26-2 
 
 43-6 
 
 various 
 
 Paraffin oil . 
 
 24-9 
 
 14-0 
 
 39-8 
 
 illuminants 
 
 London gas Batswing 
 
 261 
 
 29-4 
 
 19-2 
 
 on the air of 
 
 Argand . 
 
 23-0 
 
 25-6 
 
 17-0 
 
 a dwelling- 
 
 Regenerative. 
 
 10-6 
 
 8-3 
 
 5-2 
 
 room 
 
 ,, Incandescent. 
 
 3-1 
 
 4-6 
 
 1-8 
 
 
 Acetylene .... 
 
 5-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 Heating 
 
 effect of the 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 flame 
 
 So that light for light it fouls the air less than any of 
 our ordinary illuminants, with the exception of the 
 incandescent gas-burner. 
 
 In comparing the heating effect of various illu- 
 minants on the air of a room, it is necessary to deter- 
 mine the calorific value of the combustion of a cubic 
 foot of the illuminating gas employed ; and it is mani- 
 fest from theoretical considerations that a highly 
 endothermic compound like acetylene must have a far 
 higher heating power than ordinary coal gas. The 
 mean of a number of experiments made in Juncker's 
 calorimeter gave as the thermal value of the ordinary 
 London coal gas supply IBS calories, whilst under the 
 same conditions acetylene yielded 320. 
 
 The theoretical amount of heat emitted by the corn- 
 bastion of a cubic foot of acetylene is 349*08 calories, 
 but this would only be given by the absolutely pure 
 and dried gas, and the experimental number deter- 
 
 588 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 mined in the calorimeter represents more truly the 
 heating power of the moist gas under ordinary exist- 
 ing conditions. 
 
 Taking now the case in which a room is lit up with Heating 
 a power equal to 64 candles, we find that if we call the of various 
 heating effect produced by an incandescent mantle "n^^air^f 
 giving this amount of illumination 100, then a room 
 
 RATIO OF HEAT EMITTED TO YIELD A LIGHT OF 
 64 CANDLES. 
 
 Incandescent mantle 100 
 
 Acetylene 115 
 
 London Argands 571 
 
 Flat flame burners 914 
 
 so that for all practical purposes the heating effect on 
 the air by acetylene illumination is the same as with 
 mantles. 
 
 When one comes to compare the cost of acetylene comparison 
 and coal gas, one is struck by the boldness of the ^ f j^etyiene 
 statements made by its advocates as a rival to the well- and coal 
 established coal gas industry. At the present time 
 the wholesale price of carbide is 20 a ton, but I 
 believe that to fill large cash orders it can be obtained 
 at 16 at Foyers, which would mean at least 20 a 
 ton at the works where it is to be decomposed and the 
 gas distributed. The decomposition of carbide is not 
 a costly operation, but at least 10 per cent, would have 
 to be added to the price of the carbide for handling, 
 water, repairs, interest on plant, purification, etc., and 
 this would bring the price of the acetylene to 2 per 
 1,000 in the holder. Coal gas, when made on the 
 scale common in our big cities, costs, however, about 
 Is. 2d. per 1,000 in the holder, and about 100 per cent. causes 
 has to added to this to cover charges of distribution 
 and profit. The power of doing this is dependent on 
 the amount of gas sold, and whilst the South Metro- 
 politan can make a fair profit on gas at 2s. 3d. per 
 
 589 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 1,000, there are many small country works that cannot 
 pay a dividend with gas at three times the price. 
 With acetylene the smallness of the output would 
 necessitate a heavy charge over cost price, and an 
 installation of acetylene even in a fair- sized town 
 would not be likely to pay its way with a less charge 
 than 3 per 1,000. 
 
 Looked at from this point of view, it is at once 
 manifest how absurd it is to talk of acetylene as a 
 possible rival of coal gas, and the sooner this is 
 realised the better will it be for the future of this 
 brilliant illuminant. 
 
 Abroad, where coal gas is dear, it is possible, by 
 taking the price of acetylene in the holder, and com- 
 paring it with distributed coal gas, to make acetylene 
 out to be light for light as cheap as the latter when 
 consumed in a flat flame burner ; but even this method 
 of calculation breaks down before the high light 
 emissivity of the incandescent mantle. 
 
 The true It is in those districts where no coal gas exists that 
 
 Acet lene ^ e true field for acetylene is to be found, and here 
 lighting its ease of generation and the beauty of its light 
 makes it a pleasant companion after the greasy dim- 
 ness of the candle, or the smell of the oil lamp. 
 
 In view of the exaggerated statements made by 
 company promoters and other interested persons, the 
 author has felt so strongly the necessity of great care 
 in stating the facts of the case as regards the re- 
 lative value of acetylene as compared with other 
 illuminants, that he has been several times accused of 
 doing the new illuminant injustice. 
 
 The value of There is no doubt that the small amount of pollution 
 
 the hygienic to air due to the combustion of purified acetylene, 
 
 "question* anc ^ tne comparatively small amount of heat given off 
 
 per unit of light emitted, make acetylene a most 
 
 valuable illuminant ; and an article appeared in the 
 
 Engineer of March 31st, 1899, which is so able, and 
 
 590 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 states the case for acetylene so clearly and fairly, 
 that the author felt constrained to reproduce portions 
 of it. 
 
 Speaking of the real value of acetylene as an il- The basis of 
 luminant, the writer says : " The hydrocarbon is ^b^tween* 
 capable (a) of manufacture in a central factory to Acetylene 
 
 . . and othei 
 
 supply a village or small town where local conditions niuminants 
 
 would cause coal gas to be too expensive, or (&) of 
 
 generation in isolated country houses, etc., for their 
 
 own illumination. It therefore becomes a possible 
 
 competitor with (a) inferior say 14 candle coal 
 
 gas, (6) more frequently with paraffin oil ; and the 
 
 trial between them will be conducted on two issues : 
 
 (a) the relative expense, (6) the relative hygienic 
 
 value. 
 
 To make the necessary comparisons certain data The price oi 
 must be fixed. These are as follows : Calcium carbide 
 costs 20 per ton, yields 5 c. ft. of acetylene per lb., 
 the value of which for material alone is 1 15s. 9d. 
 per 1,000 c. ft. Take case A, where water, labour, 
 interest, depreciation, etc., have to be paid for. The 
 holder price of the gas, as agreed by Lewes, Fowler, and 
 other authorities, is 2 per 1,000. If it were to be 
 distributed and sold at a reasonable profit, the charge 
 should be approximately 4 per 1,000. In case B, 
 as will be argued later, with a medium-sized middle- 
 class house, burning between 10,000 and 12,000 ft. per 
 annum, the cost to the occupier should be nearly 
 2 3s. per 1 ,000. Coal gas is burnt in one of two ways, 
 in the old flat flame burner or with the mantle. The 
 former yields about 2 candles per foot when the gas is 
 of 16 candle power ; but in such country places where 
 it might possibly be attacked by acetylene, it would 
 certainly not be enriched, and would therefore be of 14 
 candle power ; but this small difference may be over- 
 looked. With the mantle it gives 17 candles per 
 foot. The illuminating power of ordinary petroleum 
 
 591 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 has been recorded by many observers, and the figures 
 
 differ widely ; as a fair average it may be taken that 
 
 one gallon of oil yields 1,400 candle hours in a large 
 
 duplex lamp, 700 candle hours in a small one. The 
 
 price is known to everybody. The highest duty that 
 
 can safely be ascribed to acetylene for any length of 
 
 time is 32 candles per ft. in a 1-ft. burner. Collating 
 
 Comparison these results Table I. is arrived at, which .represents 
 
 of Acetylene ^ ne quantities of coal gas and petroleum which are 
 
 i coal equivalent as illuminants. and the prices at which they 
 
 lamps would have to be sold to render them pecuniarily 
 
 equal to acetylene made from carbide at 20 a ton. 
 
 TABLE I. COMPARATIVE PECUNIARY VALUE OF 
 DIFFERENT ILLUMINANTS. 
 
 Cost of 
 Carbide 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Coal Gas. 
 
 Paraffin. 
 
 1 
 
 01 . 
 
 _j a 
 ft o i =3 _^ 
 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 tf 
 
 | m 
 
 "^ ftc ^ 
 
 y, C "o "5 ^ 
 O ^ ^ M ^ * fl 
 
 73 g 
 
 '43 
 
 
 rS o 
 
 
 I'a'd 
 
 '3 2 ^ - 
 
 ll '3 'gl 
 
 3.2^ 
 
 s 
 
 r?" 1 *~*"^ >*"? 
 
 
 
 
 ^' cL 
 
 Nn ""^ C^ ^ bT 1 
 
 QH (M bC 
 
 o 
 
 ^ | p 
 
 
 H C3 
 
 H 
 
 H fl 
 
 H 
 
 20 
 
 80s. 
 
 1,000 
 
 luminous 
 
 16,000 
 
 5s. 
 
 small 46 
 
 Is. M. 
 
 
 
 
 mantle 
 
 1,880 
 
 42s. 6d. 
 
 large 23 
 
 3s. 6t?. 
 
 20 
 
 43s. 
 
 1,000 
 
 luminous 
 
 16,000 
 
 2s. 8d. 
 
 small 46 
 
 lid. 
 
 
 
 
 mantle 
 
 1,880 
 
 22s. 10c?. 
 
 large 23 
 
 1.9. IQd. 
 
 15 
 
 60s. 
 
 1,000 
 
 luminous 16,000 
 
 3s, 9^. 
 
 small 46 
 
 1.9. 4cZ. 
 
 
 
 
 mantle 
 
 1,880 
 
 31s. lOd. 
 
 large 23 
 
 2s. 7d. 
 
 15 
 
 34s. 
 
 1,000 
 
 luminous 
 
 16,000 
 
 2s. Id. 
 
 small 46 
 
 9c?. 
 
 
 
 
 mantle 
 
 1,880 
 
 18s. Id. 
 
 large 23 
 
 Is. 6^. 
 
 In his recent course of Cantor lectures, Lewes has 
 stated the total manufacturing cost of calcium carbide 
 as being 7 to 8 per ton, which points to a possible 
 future selling price of about 15 per ton. In order 
 to see how matters would stand if ever this reduction 
 should take place, the table also includes the values 
 of acetylene from 15 carbide ; but it must be dis- 
 tinctly remembered that all these figures in Table I. 
 
 592 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 refer simply to relative costs, and have nothing what- 
 ever to do with the hygienic value of acetylene. 
 
 Now it is perfectly clear from an examination of 
 these results that if people make use of the Welsbach 
 mantle, acetylene cannot under any circumstances 
 at present it may almost be added, or in the future 
 compete with coal gas as an economical illuminating 
 agent, for the difference of two or three candles per 
 5 c. ft. between London and country gas when burnt 
 in a luminous name does not affect the efficiency of 
 the incandescent light. If, on the contrary, people 
 persist in retaining their batswings and fishtails, 
 home-made acetylene will be cheaper than coal gas 
 in many country places, and even if it be supplied 
 by a company will be equal to the price charged 
 for the latter in most villages. At present prices, 
 acetylene in either form is far more costly than 
 paraffin if the oil be burnt in good duplex or argand 
 lamps ; but in the small lamps employed in less im- 
 portant situations the two illuminants are almost 
 equal in price, assuming that the gas is made on the 
 premises. 
 
 All gaseous and liquid illuminants are alike in one 
 respect to obtain the maximum efficiency from them 
 they must be consumed in the largest burners possible. 
 The incandescent gas light cannot be turned down, 
 and there is no practical method of producing a small 
 name just powerful enough for halls and lobbies. 
 Paraffin, coal gas, and acetylene can be consumed in 
 as small burners as may be desired, but at a vastly 
 increased cost per unit of light. Now, to illuminate 
 a house properly, a certain number of flames are 
 required as well as a definite amount of candle power 
 per hour. If all the light were to be employed in one 
 apartment, x candle hours of paraffin, of gas, and of 
 acetylene would be all equally useful, and therefore the 
 comparison is properly made as is done in Table I. 
 
 693 38 
 
 Impossi- 
 bility of 
 Acetylene 
 competing 
 with coal 
 
 gas as 
 consumed in 
 the incan- 
 descent 
 mantle 
 
 Conditions 
 
 for 
 
 maximum 
 efficiency 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Difficulties 
 
 in the way 
 
 of making 
 
 a fair 
 
 comparison 
 
 Factors that 
 
 must be 
 taken into 
 considera- 
 tion 
 
 The 
 
 conditions 
 
 existing in 
 
 an ordinary 
 
 country 
 
 house 
 
 by calculating the cost of each x. But it does not 
 follow that each x can be divided into a dozen or so 
 different portions without affecting the accuracy of 
 the calculation. Thus, 27 cubic feet of acetylene 
 could be burnt per hour in 27 I -ft. burners, yielding 
 918 candles, or in one hundred 0'27-ft. burners, yielding 
 only 320 candles ; and a similar state of affairs exists 
 with coal gas and paraffin. A difficulty at once crops 
 up in considering the cost of acetylene as a substitute 
 for oil or unenriched coal gas ; as for obvious reasons 
 the same number of flames should be retained, and 
 the same quantity of light produced ; yet if both 
 points be attended to simultaneously, acetylene is 
 treated very unfairly, because much of it must be 
 burnt under the worst conditions as regards economy. 
 If the number of flames be kept constant as must 
 evidently be done in practice and each flame be the 
 best of its kind, acetylene lights the whole house 
 more brilliantly than oil, and the paraffin is treated 
 unjustly by being represented as an inferior illumi- 
 nant. In fact, it is scarcely feasible to keep both 
 factors unaltered with a due regard to efficiency ; and 
 as the degree of light is less important than the 
 illumination of each particular room and passage, 
 an allowance must be made when contrasting the 
 increased cost of acetylene for the greater brilliancy 
 of the several apartments and the whole abode. 
 
 In order to ascertain with somewhat greater ac- 
 curacy the exact monetary effect of supplanting an 
 installation of petroleum lamps by an acetylene 
 generator located in an outhouse, the state of affairs 
 existing in a typical middle-class country residence 
 may be examined. In such a house the bedrooms 
 are lighted by candles, and would remain so ; lamps 
 are used on the ground-floors, i.e. the sitting-rooms, 
 halls, passages, kitchen, and " usual offices." With 
 a population of six or eight, ten lamps are required 
 
 594 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 nightly ; the household retires about 11 p.m., and 
 
 needs 1,800 x 10 burner hours per year the hours 
 
 between dusk and 11 p.m. are 1,821 per annum. 
 
 Half the lamps, say, are large, yielding, as before 
 
 mentioned, 1,400 candle hours per gallon ; the other 
 
 half are small, burning half as much oil per hour, Light given 
 
 and yielding 700 candle hours per gallon. " The mean ^"gJSEJJ 8 
 
 output of light is accordingly 1,167 candle hours per of oil 
 
 gallon. The average annual consumption of oil in 
 
 such a house is 184-5 gallons. The number of candles 
 
 produced per year is, therefore, 184*5 x 1,167 = 215,250, 
 
 or 119*6 per hour. To obtain the same amount of 
 
 light, neglecting the number of flames, would require 
 
 215,250 
 g2 x 5 1,345 Ibs. of calcium carbide, and would cost 
 
 12 ; the corresponding expense for the petroleum at 
 8d. would be 6 5s. ; at 10d., 7 14s. To deal with 
 the ten flames themselves requires a digression. 
 Acetylene can be burnt in various-sized jets of the 
 Naphey type, the duty for three of which may be 
 quoted (Lewes) : 
 
 TABLE II. ILLUMINATING POWER OF ACETYLENE. 
 
 Number of Gas consumed. Light in Candles per 
 
 burner. c. ft. candles. c. ft 
 
 15 0-40 8-0 20-0 
 
 25 0-65 17-0 26-6 
 
 40 1-00 34-0 34-0 
 
 The last of these is elsewhere given by Lewes as The loss of 
 only yielding 32 candles per foot, and the lower value using 
 
 is adopted throughout this article. In the dwelling Ac * yl ne 
 rooms of course the largest burners will be used, but 
 in the hall, etc., alight of 8 candles would be sufficient. 
 It is next to impossible so to arrange these jets that 
 the ten shall together emit 120 candles per hour. 
 Two of No. 40 and eight of No. 15 would yield 128 
 candles, but perhaps the best method is either 
 scheme 1 two of No. 40, two of No. 25, and 6 of No. 
 15 = 5*7 c. ft., and 146 candles per hour altogether, or, 
 
 595 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Capital ex- 
 penditure in 
 the rival 
 
 as half the paraffin lamps are large and half small 
 scheme 2 five of No. 40, and five of No. 15 = 7O ft. 
 and 200 candles per hour. 
 
 The capital outlay on the petroleum installation 
 will be 12 lamps two or three in reserve are always 
 installations wan ted say 5 ; storage vessel, fillers, etc., 2 ; total 
 7. The capital expenditure on acetylene will be : 
 generator with purifier affixed, say 15 ; piping 
 ground floor of house with connection to shed, 10 ; 
 ten gas brackets, 5; total 30. Scheme 1 would 
 require per year 10,260 c. ft. of acetylene = 2,052 Ibs. 
 carbide = 18 7s.; Scheme 2, 12,600 c. ft. of gas = 2,520 
 Ibs. of carbide = 22 10s. at 20 a ton. If calcium 
 carbide should fall to 15, scheme 1 would cost 13 
 15s. 3d. ; scheme 2, 16 17s. 6^., for material alone. 
 The annual expenditure with paraffin is thus : 
 
 Comparison 
 of cost of 
 
 oil and 
 Acetylene 
 
 installation 
 
 184-5 gallons .... 
 10 per cent, depreciation on 7 
 5 per cent, interest on 7 
 Wicks and chimneys . 
 
 8d. per gallon. IQd. per gallon. 
 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 .648 7 13 9 
 
 . 14 14 
 
 .070 070 
 
 050 050 
 
 7 10 8 
 120 
 
 8 19 9 
 
 Candles per hour 
 The annual expenditure with acetylene is : 
 
 Calcium carbide . 
 
 10 per cent, depreciation on 15 
 
 5 per cent, interest on 30 . 
 
 Purifying material, say 
 
 10 new burners 
 
 Candles per hour 
 Cost per 1,000 c. ft. . 
 
 120 
 
 20 carbide. 
 Scheme 1. 
 s. d. 
 . 18 7 
 
 20 carbide. 
 Scheme 2. 
 s. d. 
 22 10 
 
 . 1 10 
 
 1 10 
 
 . 1 10 
 
 1 10 
 
 .050 
 
 050 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 22 2 
 
 -:_- 
 
 . 146 
 43s. Id. 
 
 26 5 
 
 200 
 
 41.9. 
 
 Pounds of carbide decomposed per 24 
 hours, mean 
 
 maximum 
 
 596 
 
 5-6 
 7'5 
 
 7-0 
 10-0 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Were the carbide procurable at 15 per ton. Compara- 
 tive labour 
 scheme 1 would cost 17 10s. 3d., or 34s. 2d. per 1,000 
 
 c. ft. ; scheme 2, 20 2s. 6d., or 33s. 9d. per 1,000. 
 Labour and carriage have been omitted on both sides, 
 and should approximately balance one another. The 
 trouble of cleaning lamps would be greater than 
 charging a generator, the carriage of carbide from the 
 nearest station heavier than that of the petroleum 
 casks. Water has not been charged, for the country- 
 man does not have to ask counsel's opinion as to what 
 is a " domestic use " each time he handles his pump. 
 
 Thus far the three illuminants have been compared 
 with one another simply on the lines of their relative 
 efficiency and expense. But there are other matters 
 which go to make up the suitability of any substance 
 or operation for employment in a dwelling-house 
 simplicity, elegance, and hygienic qualities. It is 
 usually assumed by manufacturers and others, that 
 the average member of the public will estimate the 
 value of any new claimant for his favour chiefly on a 
 monetary basis, and the said manufacturer drafts his 
 advertisements and arguments to meet this supposed 
 position. We may take leave to doubt the accuracy 
 of this notion. The ordinary male householder 
 certainly places simplicity first ; his wife perhaps 
 ranks decorativeness before everything else. Seeing 
 that the u average man " is a purely mathematical 
 abstraction, and is never met with in real life, it is 
 difficult to prophesy what he would do should he ever 
 appear in the flesh ; but there is absolutely no ques- importance 
 tion of what he ought to do and would do if he were considera- 
 properly instructed. By far the most important 
 criterion for judging the domestic value of any new 
 process is the effect it shall have on the health of its 
 employers ; simplicity, elegance, and cost are all 
 relatively quite insignificant, and their position one 
 against the other may be determined by each indi- 
 
 597 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 "*-' 
 vidual for himself. As regards trouble, the luminous 
 
 gas flame is manifestly the best, acetylene, incandes- 
 cent gas, and paraffin are all roughly equal ; in 
 elegance, the gas mantle is probably worst, the others 
 about equal. Expense has already been dealt with. 
 
 The effect The proper method of comparing acetylene with 
 hydro- ^ s rivals is to ascertain the effect each light produces 
 
 carbons on on the atmosphere of a room, to see which illuminant 
 approaches nearest to the ideally perfect electric light 
 in its absolute harmlessness to health. Combustion of 
 a carbonaceous material without a flue leads to four 
 separate results on the surrounding air : abstraction 
 of oxygen, evolution of moisture, of carbonic acid and 
 production of heat. Each of these is unpleasant and 
 more or less objectionable, and either may be made the 
 basis for comparison. Table III. records the relative 
 effect on the atmosphere of an un ventilated apartment 
 during the production of a uniform quantity of light 
 for the same period of time, taking acetylene as the 
 unit in all cases. The figures are recalculated from 
 data given by Lewes, with the exception of the heat 
 of petroleum. This being unmentioned by the Cantor 
 lecturer has been deduced from a series of papers in 
 the Journal filr Gasbeleuchtung , vol. xxxiv., by E. 
 Data for the Cramer, who gave the heat production of paraffin in 
 of thTefKjct comparison with the argand gas . burner ; and as 
 
 of Acetylene Lewes has quoted the relationship between the 
 lamps on the argand and the acetylene, it is merely a matter of 
 arithmetic, assuming the two varieties of coal gas to 
 be fairly similar in composition, to interpolate the oil 
 figures. Unfortunately, Lewes has not stated what 
 kind of lamp his results were obtained from ; whereas 
 Cramer represents the duplex or large circular paraffin 
 burner to be three times as powerful as the small. 
 Other observers have generally made the relative 
 efficiency about 2 to 1, as indicated in the first part of 
 this article, and perhaps Cramer has rather exagger- 
 
 598 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 ated the difference, or employed abnormally bad 
 small lamps. 
 
 TABLE III. COMPARATIVE HYGIENIC EFFECT OF ILLU- 
 
 MINANTS PER UNIT OF LlGHT. 
 
 
 Carbonic 
 acid 
 evolved. 
 
 Moisture 
 evolved. 
 
 Oxygen 
 removed. 
 
 Heat 
 produced. 
 
 Acetylene .... 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Gas, flat flame 
 
 480 
 
 1,470 
 
 520 
 
 795 
 
 Gas, mantle 
 
 45 
 
 230 i 62 
 
 87 
 
 Petroleum, small lampl 
 large lamp / 
 
 995 
 
 700 498 
 
 (738 
 \246 
 
 It has already been pointed out that there may be 
 some difficulty in replacing an existing installation 
 of gas or oil lamps in a country house without in- 
 creasing the total luminous effect, unless the occupier 
 is content to burn much of the acetylene most waste- 
 fully. Eecalculating Table III. to suit the second 
 scheme previously suggested, Table IV. is arrived at, 
 
 TABLE IV. GENERAL EFFECT OF VARIOUS 
 ILLUMINANTS PER FLAME. 
 
 Material used. 
 
 Cost 
 per 
 
 UUlt. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 flames. 
 
 Candle.- 
 per 
 hour. 
 
 Cost per 
 annum. 
 
 Carbonic 
 acid 
 evolved. 
 
 Heat 
 pro- 
 duced. 
 
 
 s.d. 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 Acetylene, home- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 made 
 
 430 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 26 5 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Acetylene, home- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 made 
 
 340 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 20 2 6 
 
 100 100 
 
 Acetylene, sup- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 plied 
 
 800 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 50 8 0* 
 
 100 100 
 
 Acetylene, sup- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 plied 
 
 600 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 37 16 0* 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Petroleum . 
 
 08 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 7 10 8 
 
 597 
 
 295t 
 
 Petroleum . 
 
 010 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 8 19 9 
 
 597 
 
 295 
 
 Gas, flat flame . 
 
 X 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 5 4 Ox* 
 
 288 
 
 477 
 
 Incandescent 
 
 X 
 
 10 
 
 150 
 
 3 7 5x* 
 
 34 65 
 
 For material only. 
 
 t Mean of Cramer's figures. 
 599 
 
 Results 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 which shows the general result of adopting a system 
 of ten acetylene lights, giving 200 candles in place of 
 ten oil lamps, emitting 120 candles per hour, while 
 ten l um i nous g as names which would not be suffi- 
 gas flames cient burning 6 c. ft. per hour, at 2 candles a foot, 
 and ten incandescent burners at f ft. and 15 candles 
 per hour, are also included, x in the latter case being 
 the price in shillings charged per 1,000 ft. for the coal 
 gas supplied. 
 
 Therefore the employment of a scheme of acetylene 
 lighting best suited to the requirements of the typi- 
 cal country house taken for illustration throughout 
 this article, in place of a battery of five large and five 
 small paraffin lamps, carbide at 20 a ton, petroleum 
 at 8d. or Wd. per gallon, would lead to the following 
 results : 
 
 Balance of 
 loss and 
 u gain 
 
 Increase in light . 
 Increase in cost 
 Decrease in carbonic acid 
 Decrease in heat 
 
 . 67 per cent. 
 192-242 
 
 . 83 
 . 66 
 
 If now to arrive at the hygienic effect of an illu- 
 minant the output of carbonic acid is averaged with 
 that of heat, and if for the moment the absurd propo- 
 sition be accepted that money is of equal importance 
 with health, acetylene, which reduces the former to 
 one-sixth and the latter to one- third mean \ of 
 their present proportions, increasing the luminosity 
 by two-thirds, is shown plainly enough to be worth 
 4x-J = six times as much as paraffin; whereas, at 
 the present market price, it only costs three or three 
 and a half times as much. But when it is remem- 
 bered that efficient ventilation is almost impossible in 
 conclusions ordinary houses ; that much discomfort is caused by 
 dwelling in rooms with too little oxygen, too much 
 carbonic acid, the upper layers of air hot and "stuffy"; 
 that constant respiration of vitiated air makes for 
 imperfect oxygenation of the blood, headache, dys- 
 
 600 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 pepsia, and permanent injury to the human system 
 in a word, that the value of good health is far above 
 rubies, the absurdity of this method of comparison 
 is obvious to all ; and it is manifest that for domestic 
 illumination acetylene is superior infinitely superior, 
 it might be said to everything except the incandes- 
 cent electric light and the Welsbach gas mantle. 
 From this standpoint the comparative values of acety- 
 lene, coal gas, and paraffin are independent of any 
 fluctuations in the price of the several raw materials, 
 standing only to be revised if ever new methods of 
 burning either illuminant shall vary the amount of 
 deleterious carbonic acid and other noxious products 
 emitted per unit of light. And from this sanitary 
 standpoint, primarily, if not alone, should acetylene 
 be judged by all householders who have at heart the 
 health and well-being of themselves and their fami- 
 lies." 
 
 Carbide will probably some day become an impor- 
 tant factor in the transmission of power, as a cubic 
 foot of solid carbide would weigh 62-26 kilos or 137 
 Ibs., and if of commercial purity would yield 685 c. ft. 
 of acetylene, and have a thermal value of nearly 
 232,215 calories. 
 
 In practice, however, the weight of carbide which 
 can be got into a cubic foot space is dependent on the 
 size to which the material is broken, and with the 
 ordinary commercial carbide a fair average would be 
 80 Ibs. per cubic foot, yielding 400 cubic feet of acety- 
 lene gas, with a thermal value of 139,600 calories. It 
 is at once manifest that solid carbide is as economical 
 a method of transporting acetylene as if liquid acety- 
 lene were employed, as the liquid will only yield about 
 400 times its own volume of gas, and the carbide has 
 the advantage of being practically safe in transit. 
 
 There are several investigators at present working 
 on the utilisation of acetylene for gas motors, but 
 
 601 
 
 Superiority 
 
 of Acetylene 
 
 from the 
 
 hygienic 
 
 standpoint 
 
 Carbide as a 
 
 transmitter 
 of power 
 
 The storage 
 value of 
 Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Troubles to there are many difficulties to be overcome before this 
 
 in the use of is successfully accomplished, as the deposition of car- 
 
 atTmottve ^ on wnen tne a ^ r SU PP^7 ^ s insufficient, and the 
 
 power violence of the explosion, are troublesome factors to 
 
 deal with. 
 
 Most of the experiments made on the use of acety- 
 lene for power have been of an unsatisfactory char- 
 acter, either from the gas engine employed not being 
 suited to the gas, or from the recorded data being 
 insufficient to base any definite conclusions on. 
 
 The pressure and explosive efficiency of mixtures 
 of acetylene with air have been determined by Gro- 
 ver. 1 
 Grover's The experiments were carried out in the following 
 
 experiments c A i i ,- , i 
 
 way : "A known volume of acetylene gas was ad- 
 mitted to a cylinder, and time allowed for its diffusion 
 with the air therein. The mixture was ignited by 
 electricity, and the pressure developed was measured 
 by means of a Crosby indicator, the pencil of which 
 worked upon a drum revolving at a known speed. 
 In this way the proportions of acetylene and air, the 
 time taken to complete the inflammation, and the pres- 
 sures developed were observed. The products of 
 combustion were analysed and the original mixtures 
 checked. When any discrepancy was found, the 
 quality of the original mixture was determined from 
 the analysis of its products. 
 
 For compressing the mixtures before ignition a 
 Westinghouse air pump was used. 
 Explosion at The first series of experiments consisted in exploding 
 
 atmospheric 
 
 pressures mixtures of acetylene and air at atmospheric pressure. 
 The temperature before ignition was observed after 
 the gases had diffused for ten minutes. Mixtures 
 ranging from 18 volumes of air to 1 of gas, and 4 of 
 air to 1 of gas, were exploded. No weaker mixture 
 than 18 to 1 could be fired at atmospheric pressure. 
 
 1 Pamphlet published by Jowett & Sowry, Leeds, 1898. 
 602 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 The superior limit was not obtained by experiment, 
 but it is known that mixtures of 14 of air to 1 of gas 
 will explode at atmospheric pressure, and that by 
 heating pure acetylene when compressed to two 
 atmospheres it explodes without air. The pressures 
 obtained are given in Table I. With weak mixtures 
 
 TABLE No. I. MIXTURES OF ACETYLENE AND AIR 
 
 EXPLODED AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES. 
 
 Initial temperature, 32 F. 
 
 Proportion of air to gas. 
 
 Maximum pressure 
 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 
 Efficiency per cent. 
 
 IS to I 
 
 54 
 
 47 
 
 15 to 1 
 
 74 
 
 53 
 
 14 to 1 
 
 83 
 
 56 
 
 13 to 1 
 
 83 
 
 53 
 
 12 to 1 
 
 89 
 
 54 
 
 11 to 1 
 
 95 
 
 58 
 
 lOtol 
 
 103 
 
 64 
 
 9 to 1 
 
 108 
 
 68 
 
 8 to 1 
 
 111 
 
 71 
 
 7 to 1 
 
 112 
 
 73 
 
 Gtol 
 
 106 
 
 71 
 
 5 to 1 
 
 102 
 
 70 
 
 4 to 1 
 
 101 
 
 71 
 
 of acetylene and air, the pressure was more than 
 three times as great as with the same mixtures of 
 coal gas and air. But with stronger mixtures of 
 acetylene the increase of pressure was less than twice 
 as great. In making such comparisons of the two 
 gases, it must be remembered that coal gas requires 
 5-7 volumes of air to 1 of gas, whereas acetylene re- 
 quires 12-5 volumes of air to convey the necessary 
 oxygen for its complete combustion." This fact 
 causes a wide difference if the results be contrasted 
 by curves. 
 
 " Not less remarkable than the increase of pressure 
 is the reduction of time for the complete inflammation 
 
 603 
 
 Tables of the 
 efficiency 
 obtained 
 
 Pressure 
 as compared 
 with mix- 
 tures of 
 coal gas and 
 air 
 
 Rapidity of 
 explosion 
 with mix- 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 tures of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and air 
 
 Discrepan- 
 cies in the 
 
 experi- 
 mental re- 
 sults and 
 
 their ex- 
 planation 
 
 of the gases. Thus it was found that inflammation 
 was complete with acetylene mixtures in from Ol to 
 O18 of a second, whereas with coal gas the times 
 observed for the same mixtures were O5 to 0-25 of a 
 second. 15 to 1 is the weakest mixture of coal gas 
 that can be exploded at atmospheric pressure, but 
 with acetylene the limit is 18 to 1. The maximum 
 pressure recorded was with a mixture of 7 to 1. 
 Subsequent experiments with the mixtures at more 
 than 1 atmosphere showed that the true mixture 
 to give a maximum pressure is nearer 11 to 1. Sub- 
 sequent experiments with the mixtures fired at more 
 than one atmosphere gave discordant results, and 
 led the author to suspect that the true proportions 
 of air and gas were not always identical with the 
 proportions as measured by the apparatus. In the 
 last series of experiments, where the discrepancies 
 were most marked, the products of each combustion 
 were analysed, and it was found that the true mix- 
 tures calculated from the products of combustion were 
 weaker than the supposed mixtures. It was at first 
 thought that the escape of the gases from the cylinder 
 during the time allowed for their diffusion at the 
 higher initial pressures was the cause of this dis- 
 crepancy. That this was not the sole cause was 
 shown by an analysis of the gas from the holder after 
 it had been drawn from the acetylene generator. The 
 acetylene, which was supposed to be pure, was found 
 to contain from 6 to 20 per cent, of incombustible gas 
 chiefly air. The greater proportion of air was found 
 in the generator immediately after charging it, but as 
 the gas was drawn off the proportion of air gradually 
 diminished. In no instance is it likely that pure 
 acetylene gas is delivered from a small generator be- 
 cause of the inevitable secretion of air, and the dif- 
 fusion of the gas with it during its expulsion. This 
 is not detrimental when the generator is used for 
 
 604 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 lighting purposes, but care should be exercised in 
 order to avoid ignition of an explosive mixture just 
 after charging. The errors possible in the mixtures in 
 the explosion cylinder, due to the air in the generator, 
 may be estimated as follows : 
 
 Let x equal supposed volume of air in the explosion 
 cylinder when the volume of gas is supposed to equal 
 1. Then the supposed ratio of air to gas is represented 
 by x/1. 
 
 Let \Jy equal actual volume of air in gasholder per 
 1 volume of gas and air. 
 
 Then the true ratio of air to gas in the explosion 
 
 /y I 
 
 cylinder equals - 
 true volume of air 
 
 reduces 
 
 Now when 1/0 = 1/5 = 20 per cent. 
 
 ; - f - . 
 true volume of gas 
 
 of air in generator, true volume of gas to air in ex- 
 plosion cylinder becomes 1 -25# + 0-25. 
 
 So 1/0 = 1/10=10 per cent, becomes l-loj + 0-1 
 1/^ = 1/20 = 5 1-05^ + 0-05 
 
 1/0 = 1/40 = 2| 1-025^ + 0-03 
 
 The second series of experiments was made with the 
 mixtures compressed to 15 Ibs. per square inch above 
 atmospheric pressure before ignition took place. In 
 each of these experiments the weights of gas used were 
 twice as great as in the first series. The gas required 
 for each combustion was first measured at atmospheric 
 pressure, and then driven over into the cylinder. All 
 cocks were then closed, and compressed air was passed 
 into the cylinder until the pressure gauge showed 15 
 Ibs. The mixture was then stirred, and allowed to 
 stand for ten minutes before ignition was attempted. 
 It was found impossible to keep the pressure at exactly 
 15 Ibs. owing to slight leakages past the valves in 
 connection with the apparatus, but in all cases the 
 pressure and temperature just before ignition were 
 recorded and allowed for in making the reductions. 
 
 605 
 
 Admixture 
 of air with 
 the gas dur- 
 ing genera- 
 tion 
 
 Estimation 
 of errors 
 due to im- 
 pure 
 Acetylene 
 
 Experi- 
 ments at 
 two atmo- 
 spheres 
 pressure 
 
 Methods of 
 experiment 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Pressure 
 results 
 
 Results ob- 
 tained 
 
 As the ratio of the gas increased, its leakage prepon- 
 derated over that of the air, because the undiffused 
 gas in the cylinder occupied the region near the in- 
 dicator cock, as well as that near the inlet cock. The 
 loss of pressure was never more than 2 Ibs., and cannot 
 seriously prejudice the results. The maximum pres- 
 
 TABLE No. II. MIXTUEES OP ACETYLENE AND AIR 
 
 EXPLODED AT TwO ATMOSPHERES. 
 
 Initial temperature, 32 F. 
 
 Air to Gas. 
 
 Maximum pressure. 
 
 21tol 
 
 121 
 
 20 to 1 
 
 127 
 
 19 to 1 
 
 115 
 
 18 to 1 
 
 138 
 
 17tol 
 
 129 
 
 16 to 1 
 
 143 
 
 15 to 1 . 
 
 171 
 
 14 to 1 
 
 159 
 
 13tol 
 
 170 
 
 12tol 
 
 168 
 
 11 tol 
 
 177 
 
 lOtol 
 
 166 
 
 9 tol 
 
 196 
 
 8 to 1 
 
 179 
 
 sure recorded was with a 9 to 1 mixture, and the 
 time of inflammation was O02 of a second. The 
 weakest mixture that could be fired was 21 to 1 as 
 measured by the gasholder, and without corrections 
 for air in the generator. Supposing there to be 10 
 per cent, of air in the gasholder, the true mixture 
 would have been 23- 1 to 1. It is not likely that 
 there was so much air in the gasholder. 
 
 Four mixtures of coal gas in the proportions of 8 to 
 1 and 11 to 1 were fired at the same initial pressure ; 
 the maximum pressure of the acetylene explosions was 
 found to be from 1-5 to 2' 7, as great as with the cor- 
 responding mixtures of coal gas. 
 
 606 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 In the third series of experiments the mixtures 
 were fired at 30 Ibs. per square inch above atmo- 
 spheric pressure. The strongest mixture fired was 11*7 
 to 1 and the weakest 30 to 1. It is probable that 
 higher pressures would have been recorded with 
 stronger mixtures, but it was inadvisable to experi- 
 ment further in this direction, as the margin of safety 
 of the explosion cylinder was nearing a safe limit. 
 Moreover, it will ultimately be shown that the most 
 economical mixture to use is not in the neighbourhood 
 of 12 to 1, but very much weaker. 
 
 TABLE No. III. MIXTURES OF ACETYLENE AND AIR 
 
 EXPLODED AT THREE ATMOSPHERES. 
 
 Initial temperature, 32 F. 
 
 Expert- 
 
 Air to Gas. 
 
 Maximum pressure. 
 
 Efficiency percent. 
 
 30tol 
 
 146 
 
 48 
 
 22 to 1 
 
 197 
 
 62 
 
 21 tol 
 
 207 
 
 64 
 
 19-6 to 1 
 
 211 
 
 61 
 
 17-5 to 1 
 
 246 
 
 64 
 
 16-9 to 1 
 
 236 
 
 63 
 
 161 to 1 
 
 259 
 
 62 
 
 14-7 to 1 
 
 261 
 
 58 
 
 12-3 to 1 
 
 308 
 
 57 
 
 12-1 to 1 
 
 307 
 
 57 
 
 11-7 to 1 325 
 
 57 
 
 spheres 
 pressure 
 
 Efficiency 
 at three 
 
 atmo- 
 spheres ini- 
 tial pres- 
 sure 
 
 with 
 
 In this series the trouble due to leakage was accen- Troubles 
 
 to be 
 
 tuated, and sometimes the pressure dropped 3 to 4 Ibs. contended 
 per square inch during the time the gases were stand- 
 ing for diffusion. Having regard, however, to the fact 
 that in all cases the products of combustion were 
 analysed, and the results plotted according to the 
 presence of air indicated by the analysis, it is probable 
 that a higher degree of accuracy was secured in these 
 experiments than in the former. 
 
 607 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Analysis of products of combustion of mixtures of 
 acetylene and air at three atmospheres. 
 
 Analyses of 
 the pro- 
 ducts of 
 
 combustion 
 
 Results 
 
 Time taken 
 during ex- 
 plosion 
 
 Calculation 
 of the tem- 
 peratures 
 produced 
 
 Mixtures. 
 
 Constituents by volume per cent. 
 
 
 Air- 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Carbon 
 dioxide. 
 
 Carbon 
 monoxide. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Totals. 
 
 11-7 to 1 
 
 13-0 
 
 3-2 
 
 o-o 
 
 79-0 
 
 6-5 
 
 101-7 
 
 12-3 to 1 
 
 15-1 
 
 o-o 
 
 o-o 
 
 78-0 
 
 8-2 
 
 101-3 
 
 14-5 to 1 
 
 12-4 
 
 o-o 
 
 2-5 
 
 78-9 0-2 
 
 100-0 
 
 16 to 1 
 
 11-8 
 
 o-o 
 
 4-2 
 
 79-0 
 
 5-9 
 
 100-9 
 
 17-5 to 1 
 
 10-0 
 
 o-o 
 
 5-1 
 
 79-6 
 
 5-0 
 
 99-7 
 
 21 to 1 
 
 8-6 
 
 o-o 
 
 8-1 
 
 78-9 
 
 4-3 
 
 99-9 
 
 22 to 1 
 
 9-0 
 
 o-o 
 
 8-6 
 
 79-0 
 
 4-5 
 
 101-1 
 
 30 tol 
 
 6-8 
 
 o-o 
 
 12-0 
 
 78-5 
 
 3-4 
 
 100-7 
 
 352 Ibs. per square inch, was the highest pressure 
 recorded with an 11-7 to 1 mixture fired at three atmo- 
 spheres. The lower limit, namely 30 to 1, gave a 
 pressure of 180 Ibs. per square inch. To produce such 
 a pressure with coal gas a mixture of 9 to 1 was 
 needed. 
 
 The time to attain to complete inflammation of the 
 gases was found to be from y^j- for strong mixtures 
 to y^ of a second for the weakest mixture. It must 
 be noted here that the times recorded by the indicator 
 include a considerable error due to the inertia of the 
 piston and other moving parts of the indicator ; and, 
 further, that the shorter the time recorded, the greater 
 will be the error due to these causes. 
 
 From the diagrams obtained during the explosion 
 of the mixtures the temperatures of the products of 
 combustion can be calculated, on the assumption that 
 the laws of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac are true for these 
 high temperatures and pressures. M. Berthelot, writing 
 on this subject, says, " The laws of Mariotte and Gay- 
 Lussac are hardly applicable in the case of enormous 
 pressures such as those observed in the combustion of 
 powder. With greatly compressed gases the pressure 
 
 608 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 varies with the temperature much more rapidly than 
 would follow from these laws : it approaches the rate 
 observed by physicists in the study of vapours. For a 
 given temperature the pressure is therefore generally 
 higher than that which would be given by calculating 
 according to the ordinary laws of gases. This tends 
 to compensate in the calculation of pressures the con- 
 trary influences exercised by the variation in the 
 specific heats. 
 
 The theoretical temperature, on the assumption that Method of 
 no heat is transferred to the walls of the cylinder 
 during inflammation of the gases, can be calculated 
 in the following way : The calorific value of acetylene 
 is 1,504 B.T.U.'s per cubic foot at 32 F. when the 
 water formed by its combustion is not condensed. 
 The weight of the mixtures and the true volumes of 
 air and acetylene are determined from the products of 
 combustion. It remains, then, to find the specific heat 
 of the products. There is some difficulty in this 
 because of the inaccurate knowledge of the specific 
 heats of gases at high temperatures. Thus the specific 
 heat of steam at 3,600 F. a temperature reached in 
 the experiments has been given by Mallard and Le 
 Chatelier as 0*68, that of carbonic acid as 0*308, and 
 nitrogen 0'205. The specific heat of oxygen and 
 carbonic acid are nearly the same at low temperatures, 
 and it has here been further assumed that the specific 
 heat of oxygen at high temperatures is the same as 
 carbonic acid. Even if this assumption be incorrect, 
 the error in the specific heat of the mixtures experi- 
 mented on is insignificant, because the proportion 
 of oxygen present in the products is very small in 
 comparison to the nitrogen the chief constituent in 
 determining the specific heat. 
 
 The phenomena of dissociation have an important 
 bearing on the question of efficiency as calculated 
 from these experiments. The dissociation of gases at 
 
 609 39 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Cr stin's 
 
 Results 
 
 high temperatures limits the maximum pressure ; con- 
 sequently the higher the temperature the nearer do we 
 arrive to the limit, and the greater is the interference 
 due to dissociation. On the other hand, where the 
 mixture is rich in gas the time for its inflammation is 
 short. This would tend to increase the efficiency, 
 whereas the influence of dissociation tends to diminish 
 the efficiency." 
 
 Crastin has made some experiments on the effici- 
 ency of acetylene as a motive power. The tests were 
 carried out in a small Otto cycle engine, the revolu- 
 tions being kept at 275 per minute. The ignition 
 tube was heated from a separate supply, and was kept 
 at the same temperature for both gases. The same 
 quantity of each gas was used, namely 382 cubic 
 inches, and they were both at the same pressure. 
 
 The following are the particulars of the tests : 
 
 Diameter of cylinder 
 Area of cylinder 
 Stroke of piston 
 Displacement by piston 
 Clearance for firing chamber . 
 Contents of firing chamber . 
 Compression .... 
 Firing charges per minute 
 Revolutions per minute . 
 
 ACETYLENE GAS. 
 Acetylene gas per minute 
 Air supplied per minute . 
 Proportion of air to gas . 
 Hourly consumption of gas . 
 Pressure of gas as delivered to 
 engine 
 
 COAL GAS. 
 
 Amount of coal gas per minute 
 Air supplied per minute 
 Proportion of air to gas 
 Hourly consumption of gas . 
 Pressure of gas as delivered to 
 engine ...... 
 
 610 
 
 1*5 inches. 
 
 1-767 inches. 
 
 2" 5 inches. 
 
 4-417 cubic inches. 
 
 1-0 inch. 
 
 1-767 cubic inches. 
 
 20 pounds. 
 
 137-5. 
 
 275. 
 
 15'916 cubic inches. 
 591-490 
 87-16 to 1. 
 0*552 cubic feet. 
 
 0'6 inch. 
 
 47'75 cubic inches. 
 559-65 
 11-72 to 1. 
 1-658 cubic feet. 
 
 0-3 inch. 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 From these results Crastin arrives at the conclusion 
 that the efficiency of acetylene gas is three times 
 greater than that of coal gas, but it must be observed 
 that the volume of air used was far greater than one 
 would expect to give the most effective working. 
 
 Neuberg has pointed out that in the testing of a 
 gas engine the following points must be considered : 
 
 1. Testings of the value of the combustible ma- 
 terial. 
 
 2. Tests of the work and other data afforded by 
 the gas engine itself. 
 
 The heating power of the gas which is to be used 
 as the motive power must first be ascertained, and 
 this is best determined by the Junker calorimeter, the 
 lower or " practical " result being taken for the calcu- 
 lation. This lower figure is taken because on account 
 of the high temperature of the exhaust the water in 
 the products of combustion cannot be condensed, but 
 escapes as steam. The percentage of water must then 
 be taken, and of the air and gas, and the quantity of 
 water formed by the combustion must be calculated 
 from chemical formulas. The specific gravity of the 
 gas must also be noted, using the Lux gas balance or 
 the Bunsen apparatus. This concludes the first part 
 of the test. 
 
 The time during which the tests with the gas 
 engine are made is divided into intervals, say of five 
 minutes. When a constant temperature has been ob- 
 tained, readings must be taken every five minutes 
 of 
 
 1. The revolutions, as measured with a speed indi- 
 cator. 
 
 2. The work done by the engine, using a Crosby 
 indicator. 
 
 3. The quantity of gas consumed per interval is 
 read off by a standard meter, the temperature and 
 pressure of the gas being noted. 
 
 611 
 
 tests with 
 Acetylene 
 
 Necessary 
 data to note 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 4. The quantity of air consumed per interval, to- 
 gether with the temperature and degree of exhaustion, 
 must be noted. 
 
 5. The barometric readings must be taken. 
 
 6. The consumption of cold water per interval, 
 and the temperature of the water at its entrance and 
 exit. 
 
 7. The power given by the motor in brake horse 
 power. 
 
 8. The waste gases of the exhaust must be 
 analysed. 
 
 The series of experiments is complete when the 
 above tests have been taken 12 times, i.e. for an hour. 
 Varying mixtures of gas and air should be used in 
 separate experiments to form any idea of the capabili- 
 ties of the engine. 
 
 As a result of many experiments, it may be stated 
 that a Deutzer 6 H.P. gas-motor gave 28 per cent, 
 efficiency ; a Koerting 4 H.P. spirit-motor 25'5 per 
 cent., whilst Krupp's petroleum Diesel motor gives 34 
 per cent. 
 
 Tests with j n an en gi ne made by Cuinat, the following tests 
 and with were made to contrast the relative efficiency of coal 
 gas and acetylene. 
 
 Tests were first made with coal gas to fix the con- 
 sumption of gas per H.P. hour, and the results obtained 
 were : 
 
 Amount of Total consump tion .... 1,380 litres. 
 
 Half pressure, 3 H.P. ... 876 
 Full 6 . 516 
 
 The average pressure amounted to six atmospheres, 
 the maximum being 17 atmospheres and the final 3*2 
 atmospheres. 
 
 The proportion of the mixture of acetylene to air 
 used in the next experiments was fixed after trial at 
 1 to 20. The air valve required re-adjustment to give 
 regular explosions. 
 
 612 
 
THE COMBUSTION OF ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene consumed per H.P. hour at 80 mm. pres- 
 sure 
 
 Total consumption 
 Half pressure 
 Full 
 
 470 litres. 
 302 
 175 
 
 Material. 
 
 Unit. 
 
 Heating power, 
 kg. calories. 
 
 Unit. 
 
 Price per 
 H.P. hour. 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 cb. m. 12,161 
 
 126'1 
 
 23-7 
 
 Benzene 
 
 kg. 
 
 9,950 
 
 50-0 
 
 11-4 
 
 Spirit, 96 % 
 
 kg. 
 
 6,470 
 
 43-3 
 
 15-4 
 
 Oil, best 
 
 kg. 
 
 12,650 
 
 26-9 
 
 4-83 
 
 American oil 
 
 kg. 
 
 8,790 
 
 23-9 
 
 6-18 
 
 Russian oil 
 
 kg. 
 
 6,025 
 
 22-55 
 
 8-45 
 
 Amount of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 per H.P. 
 
 hour 
 
 1'8 atmosphere greater pressure occurred than in the 
 case of coal gas, due, according to Cuinat, to the higher 
 temperature in the cylinder. The acetylene explosion 
 was much heavier. The maximum pressure was 29 
 atmospheres, the final pressure being one atmosphere 
 less than with coal gas. The consumption of water is 
 rather larger with acetylene. 
 
 Neuberg gives the following table of the relative 
 prices, etc., of the various sources of power : 
 
 Neuberg's 
 table of the 
 cost per H.P. 
 
 hour with 
 various sub- 
 stances 
 
 but it must be borne in mind that these are German 
 prices, and would in no way represent the figures ob- 
 tained in a country where good oil could be cheaply 
 obtained. 
 
 In Germany acetylene motors are made by several 
 firms, and Fig. 219 shows a type sold by the Allege- 
 meine Carbid und Acetylen Gesellschaf t, which in the 
 illustration is working a small pump. 
 
 Where expense is not an object, or where the use 
 of steam is inconvenient, the use of acetylene for 
 small engines should prove a success. Besides the 
 form of engine mentioned above, there are several 
 others which give satisfactory results, whilst in 
 
 613 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 some forms a novelty is introduced by making the 
 ignition of the mixture dependent on a spark from 
 
 FIG. 219. ACETYLENE ENGINE WORKING PUMP. 
 
 a small induction apparatus driven by the engine 
 itself. 
 
 614 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 THE UTILISATION OF DILUTED 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 THE trouble of consuming acetylene without 
 smoking in the early days of its inception 
 caused Dickerson and Suckert to attempt the com- 
 bustion of acetylene diluted with air, and in 1894 it 
 was in this way that the gas was consumed. But it 
 was soon found that the cooling action of the nitro- 
 gen led to a considerable decrease in the illuminating 
 power of the acetylene, although it enabled the 
 acetylene to be burnt at a much larger burner, and 
 so increased the illuminating effect. 
 
 Experiments were made in America by Allan and 
 Morehead to find the illuminating value of such a 
 mixture, and also to determine the best proportions 
 in which to mix the two gases. Their results are 
 embodied in the two tables on the following page. 
 
 The first table gives the result as obtained with an 
 ordinary standard Bray 00000 tip, such as is ordi- 
 narily used in the consumption of pure, or approxi- 
 mately pure, acetylene. The results obtained show 
 conclusively that an admixture of air with acetylene, 
 for any purpose whatever, is, in small quantities, 
 exceedingly inefficient, and in large quantities quite 
 out of the question where this form of burner is to 
 be employed. 
 
 615 
 
 The diffi- 
 culty of 
 
 properly 
 burning 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 American 
 
 experiments 
 
 on the 
 
 candle 
 
 power of 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 air and 
 Acetylene 
 
Results ob- 
 tained with 
 small Bray 
 union jet- 
 burner 
 
 Results ob- 
 tained with 
 Bray slit 
 burner 
 
 CANDLE POWER OF ACETYLENE AND AIR MIXTURES. 
 
 Observations taken with Bray standard 00000 tip, con- 
 suming 1 cubic foot per hour. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of Air. 
 
 Per cent. 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Differ- 
 ence. 
 
 Observed 
 Candle 
 Power. 
 
 Candle 
 Power of 
 mixture. 
 
 Differ- 
 ence. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of Light. 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 48 
 
 240 
 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 45-5 
 
 228 
 
 12 
 
 95 
 
 3-5 
 
 96-5 
 
 2-5 
 
 38-71 
 
 193-55 
 
 34-45 
 
 80-64 
 
 5-5 
 
 94-5 
 
 2 
 
 36-75 
 
 183-75 
 
 9-80 
 
 76-56 
 
 6 
 
 94 
 
 5 
 
 36-63 
 
 183-15 
 
 60 
 
 76-39 
 
 9-5 
 
 90-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 33-76 
 
 168-80 
 
 14-35 
 
 70-33 
 
 15-0 
 
 85 
 
 5-5 
 
 29-14 
 
 145-70 
 
 23-10 
 
 60-70 
 
 17-5 
 
 82-5 
 
 2-5 
 
 27-21 
 
 136-05 
 
 9-65 
 
 56-68 
 
 20-5 
 
 79-5 
 
 3 
 
 22-97 
 
 114-85 
 
 21-20 
 
 48-27 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 2-5 
 
 20-81 
 
 104-05 
 
 10-80 
 
 43-35 
 
 26 
 
 74 
 
 3 
 
 18-23 
 
 91-15 
 
 12-90 
 
 37-97 
 
 29 
 
 71 
 
 3 
 
 16-47 
 
 82-35 
 
 8-80 
 
 34-31 
 
 32 
 
 68 
 
 3 
 
 13-27 
 
 66-35 
 
 16-00 
 
 27-64 
 
 34 
 
 66 
 
 2 
 
 11-28 
 
 56-40 
 
 9-95 
 
 23-50 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 6 
 
 6-92 
 
 34-60 
 
 21-80 
 
 14-41 
 
 46 
 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 3-4 
 
 17-45 
 
 17-15 
 
 7-27 
 
 51-5 
 
 48-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 1-3 
 
 6-60 
 
 10-85 
 
 2-75 
 
 59 
 
 41 
 
 7-5 
 
 6 
 
 3-00 
 
 3-60 
 
 1-25 
 
 67-5 
 
 32-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 Starting-point of luminosity. 
 
 78-5 
 
 21-5 
 
 11 
 
 Supports colourless flame. 
 
 85-5 
 
 14-5 
 
 7 
 
 Just 
 
 supports flame. 
 
 89 
 
 11 
 
 3-5 
 
 Will 
 
 not burn. 
 
 Observation taken with Bray special slit high and low 
 pressure tips. 
 
 a 
 PP 
 
 - 
 
 "o 
 "c -< 
 
 11 
 
 il 
 
 if 
 
 0-. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 IM 
 O 43 1 .-O 
 
 s ' -a 
 
 "2 ** 
 
 4^ aJ 
 
 s 
 
 83 
 
 S-S 
 
 *o "ft 
 
 
 .|| 
 
 fel: 
 
 !i) s| 
 
 Is 
 
 1 
 
 JS 
 
 3 
 
 " S 
 tf 
 
 o 
 
 in 
 
 
 gS , ^o 
 
 1 
 
 2 l.p. 1 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 2-5 
 
 41-59 3 
 
 83-18 
 
 34-65 
 
 65-35 60 
 
 5-35 
 
 2 h.p. 2 
 
 56 
 
 44 
 
 1-8 
 
 34-78 
 
 96-60 
 
 37-62 
 
 62-37 56 
 
 3-75 
 
 31.p. 
 
 56-25 
 
 43-75 
 
 3 
 
 55-85 
 
 92-64 
 
 38-60 
 
 61-40 56-25 
 
 5-15 
 
 3 h.p 
 
 56-25 
 
 43-75 
 
 2 
 
 38-11 
 
 95-27 
 
 39-69 
 
 60-30 56-25 
 
 4-06 
 
 4 l.p. 
 
 56 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 71-66 
 
 89-57 
 
 37-32 
 
 62-68 56 
 
 6-68 
 
 4 h.p. 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 3 
 
 48-61 
 
 81-01 
 
 33-75 
 
 66-25 57 
 
 9-25 
 
 7 l.p. 
 
 56 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 96-98 
 
 96-98 
 
 40-40 
 
 59-60 56 
 
 3-60 
 
 3 l.p. 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 66-67 
 
 111-11 
 
 46-29 
 
 53-71 50 
 
 3-71 
 
 3 l.p. 
 
 54-25 
 
 35-75 
 
 3 
 
 28-44 
 
 47-40 
 
 19-75 
 
 80-25 64-2516-00 
 
 3 l.p. 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 3 
 
 71-87 
 
 119-78 
 
 49-90 
 
 50-10 40 
 
 10-10 
 
 3 l.p. 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 3 
 
 58-27 
 
 97-11 
 
 40-46 
 
 59-54 55 
 
 4-54 
 
 3 l.p. 
 
 50-6 
 
 49-4 
 
 3 
 
 66-10 
 
 110-16 
 
 45-90 
 
 55-10 50-6 
 
 3-50 
 
 1 Low pressure. * High pressure. 3 Candle power of flame. 
 
 616 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 The second table gives the results as obtained with 
 a Bray special slit burner. These burners were not 
 constructed especially for acetylene, but were made 
 for ordinary gas, and are used in photometric work, 
 and for purposes where a high efficiency is desired, 
 and the cost of the tip is immaterial. Any slit burner 
 which is ordinarily used for city gas will burn the 
 mixtures referred to in the table successfully and 
 efficiently. As will be seen, the results obtained with 
 these burners were very materially different from 
 those obtained with the Bray 00000. With the slit 
 union a mixture of acetylene and air, containing 
 66 per cent, or more of acetylene, causes smoking at 
 the burner, and a mixture having 24 per cent, or less 
 of acetylene will support only a non-luminous name. 
 The largest light and the highest efficiency is ob- 
 tained with a mixture containing 52 per cent, of 
 acetylene to 48 per cent, of air. A variation of 5 per 
 cent, either above or below this figure, or a change to 
 other burners having a larger or smaller capacity or 
 rate of consumption, does not affect the efficiency to 
 more than about 3 per cent. With this mixture a 
 consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour can be main- 
 tained through a single burner, giving a single flame 
 of 96*98 candle power, with a net loss of only 3-6 per 
 cent, in the theoretical candle power of the pure gas. 
 
 At the time these experiments were made it was 
 thought that the use of a mixture containing 50 per 
 cent, of acetylene with an equal quantity of air was 
 perfectly safe from explosion, but, as will have been 
 seen from the experiments of Grerdes and others, a 
 very serious risk was incurred, it becoming merely a 
 question of the breadth of the delivery tubes and the 
 rate of flow of the gas whether an explosive wave was 
 propagated back to the mixing machine or not. It 
 was on account of the danger of this that this pro- 
 cess of burning it in America was abandoned. 
 
 617 
 
 Conclusions 
 arrived at 
 
 Danger of 
 using mix- 
 tures of 
 Acetylene 
 and air 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Attempts to 
 
 utilise such 
 
 mixtures for 
 
 village 
 
 lighting 
 
 Bullier 
 
 suggests 
 
 diluting 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 with other 
 
 gases 
 
 The result 
 
 of diluting 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 with Water 
 
 Gas 
 
 Love's 
 
 experiments 
 on the candle 
 
 power of 
 
 mixtures of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 and Water 
 
 Gas 
 
 The idea has, however, cropped up from time to 
 time, and in Europe as well as America has been to 
 a certain extent used on a practical scale. Within 
 the last few months the village of Hunmanby in 
 Yorkshire was partly lighted by " electroid gas," 
 which consisted of a mixture of one-third acetylene 
 and two- thirds air ; but the danger of such a supply, 
 in view of the experiments made by Gerdes (page 127), 
 was so great that the Home Office has issued an order 
 prohibiting the use of such mixtures, whilst in 
 America they are also forbidden under the fire in- 
 surance regulations. 
 
 The danger of diluting acetylene with air being so 
 manifest, attempts have from time to time been made 
 to dilute it with other gaseous material. In 1895 
 Bullier took out a patent for improvements in 
 carburetting air and gas, in which he claims the use 
 of acetylene for enriching water gas ; whilst having 
 then apparently found that acetylene was useless for 
 this purpose, he, later on in the same year, took out 
 a second patent for diluting it with nitrogen. 
 
 In America, where carburetted water gas forms so 
 large a factor in the illuminating gas supply, attempts 
 were made at an early date to use acetylene instead 
 of oil gas for endowing the non-luminous water gas 
 with illuminating power ; but it was at once found 
 that this could not be economically done, as the mix- 
 ture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide acted so fatally 
 on the illuminating power of the acetylene that the 
 cost of the mixture would have been prohibitive. 
 
 Dr. Love made a series of experiments on the en- 
 richment of " blue," or uncarburetted water gas, by 
 acetylene, and also on a poor carburetted water gas, 
 with the following photometric results : 
 
 618 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 ACETYLENE AND UNCAEBURETTED WATER G-AS LOVE. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 
 
 
 Illuminating value 
 of the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for 1 per cent. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Water Gas. 
 
 14-3 
 
 85-7 
 
 1-14 
 
 0079 
 
 18-3 
 
 81-7 
 
 11-65 
 
 633 
 
 19-0 
 
 81-0 
 
 12-44 
 
 654 
 
 20-3 
 
 79-7 
 
 15-47 
 
 762 
 
 21-1 
 
 78-9 
 
 18-68 
 
 883 
 
 23-5 
 
 76-5 
 
 24-90 
 
 1-059 
 
 24-6 
 
 75-4 
 
 29-45 
 
 1-194 
 
 27-8 
 
 72-2 
 
 40-87 
 
 1-468 
 
 38-0 
 
 62-0 
 
 73-96 
 
 1-946 
 
 Enrichment 
 of Carbu- 
 retted Water 
 Gas 
 
 ACETYLENE WITH CARBURETTED WATER GAS -LovE. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Water Gas 
 Carburetted. 
 
 illuminating power j^nriciiinenc vaiue or 
 of tbe mixture. Acety lene for 1 per cent. 
 
 4-5 
 
 95-5 
 
 22-69 
 
 2-17 
 
 9-4 
 
 91-6 
 
 29-54 
 
 2-04 
 
 11-2 
 
 88-8 35-05 
 
 2-05 
 
 15-0 
 
 85-0 
 
 42-19 
 
 2-03 
 
 21-4 
 
 78-6 
 
 52-61 
 
 1-95 
 
 Illuminating value of carburetted water gas, 13*5 candles. 
 
 These results show that whilst a non-luminous water 
 gas would require the admixture of 24 per cent, of 
 acetylene to yield a gas of the average illuminating 
 power supplied in America, with a carburetted water 
 gas the acetylene develops nearly its theoretical 
 enrichment value. 
 
 When acetylene was first introduced into England 
 the gas manufacturers of the country were searching 
 for something which should replace cannel coal the 
 price of which at that time had risen to a prohibitive 
 point as an enricher of poor coal gas, and the author 
 
 619 
 
 The en- 
 richment of 
 Coal Gas by 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 made an exhaustive series of experiments to see how 
 far acetylene would answer for this purpose. 
 
 In order to ascertain the enrichment value of acety- 
 lene, coal gas, which had been stored in a holder for 
 some time, and which had an illuminating value of 12 
 candles for 5 cubic feet, was employed. This gas from 
 long standing might be considered to have deposited 
 all condensible vapours, and was employed in order 
 to prevent any question of vapour tension interfering 
 with the results. 
 
 In determining the illuminating value of mixtures of 
 
 mixing in coal gas and enrichers, too little, attention is, as a rale, 
 
 *iicninent~ P a ^ ^ severa l very important points, chief amongst 
 
 values which are that the mixture shall be as nearly perfect 
 
 as possible, and free from any stratification, and 
 
 secondly, that the exact percentage of the enriching 
 
 gas supposed to be present is really there, this latter 
 
 being an especially important point when gases even 
 
 slightly soluble in water are being used. 
 
 ^following I* 1 tne following experiments, the method employed 
 experiments w as to use a 5 cubic foot holder, the water of which 
 was fairly saturated with hydrocarbons, and to run 
 the 12 candle coal gas and the acetylene into this 
 already roughly mixed, by passing them pro rata into 
 a washbottle from which they travelled on together 
 into the holder ; thus, in making a mixture which was 
 to contain 10 per cent, of acetylene, with 90 per cent, 
 of coal gas, the flow of gas and acetylene into the 
 washbottle was so arranged that 4J cubic feet of coal 
 gas were passed through the bottle, entering it by one 
 tube, whilst ^ a cubic foot of acetylene passed in 
 through the second tube. 
 
 The mixture when made was allowed to stand over 
 
 fi cation in night in order to allow diffusion to perfect the mixture, 
 
 and a long series of experiments shows that this 
 
 effectually prevented any stratification of the gases, 
 
 the acetylene, however, being slightly soluble in water, 
 
 620 
 
mixture 
 
 UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 the lower portion of the mixture in contact with the 
 water would occasionally contain a trace less acetylene 
 than the portion near the top of the holder, and to 
 overcome this trouble the mixture was analysed as it 
 left the burner at the commencement of the experi- 
 ments, whilst a second analysis was taken also from 
 the burner at the conclusion of the experiments, the 
 mean of these two analyses giving the composition of 
 the mixture dealt with. 
 
 In taking the illuminating power Dibdin's 10 standard 
 candle pentane argand was used as the standard, and ing the 
 the mixture was burned in the London argand with a illuminating 
 3-inch flame. The rate of now having been noted, the 
 illuminating power was calculated to a consumption 
 of 5 cubic feet, whilst the illuminating value was also 
 determined in a set of Bray's union jet burners, the 
 richer mixtures being burnt in the sized burners which 
 gave a slightly smoky name at ordinary pressures, the 
 pressure being then increased until the flame ceased 
 to smoke, whilst in each case the pressure at which the 
 test was made was noted. 
 
 With illuminating values up to 20 candles, the 
 London argand gave the best results, but above that, 
 as might be expected, the flat flame burners developed 
 the highest illuminating power; indeed, a limit was 
 soon reached at which it was impossible to use a 3-inch 
 flame in the argand. 
 
 In every case the highest illuminating value record- 
 ed each being a mean of 10 readings was taken as 
 the illuminating power of the mixture. An example 
 of one test will suffice to make this method of deter- 
 mination clear, and although the method is laborious, 
 it is the only one which can be relied upon to yield 
 results of any value. 
 
 Burners 
 
 mixture 
 
 621 
 
ACETYLENE 
 ANALYSIS OF THE MIXTURE. 
 
 
 Commencement 
 of test. 
 
 End of test. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Acetylene . . 
 Coal gas . . . 
 
 17-0 
 83-0 
 
 16-5 
 
 83-5 
 
 16-75 
 83-25 
 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-00 
 
 Example of 
 
 method em- 
 ployed to 
 determine 
 illuminating 
 value 
 
 Burner used. 
 
 Illuminating power 
 per 5 cubic feet. 
 
 Pressure. 
 Inches. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 London Argand 
 
 26-2 
 
 3/10 
 
 
 Flat flame 
 
 
 
 
 No. 9 Bray 
 
 Smokes 
 
 8/10 
 
 
 No. 9 
 
 32-7 
 
 12/10 
 
 No. 8 
 
 32-8 
 
 12/10 Shows a ten- 
 
 
 
 dency to smoke 
 
 No. 7 
 
 34-3 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 No. 6 
 
 36-1 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 No. 5 
 
 34-5 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 34-5 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 34-7 
 
 9/10 
 
 
 No. 4 
 
 34-3 
 
 6/10 
 
 
 No. 3 
 
 34-1 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 No. 2 
 
 32-3 
 
 12/10 
 
 
 Therefore a No. 6 Bray, with a pressure of 12/10, 
 gives the value of mixture 36*1. 
 
 36-1-13 
 
 16-75 
 
 = 1-36 enrichment value. 
 
 Working in this way the following values were 
 obtained : 
 
 622 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 Percentage composition 
 of mixture. 
 
 Illuminating value. 
 
 Enrichment 
 value of 1 per 
 cent in candles. 
 
 Enrichment 
 value of 
 Acetylene 
 for Coal Gas 
 
 ' Coal gas. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Coal gas. 
 
 Mixture. 
 
 
 
 99-1 0-9 
 
 13 
 
 13-9 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 97-9 
 
 2-1 
 
 15 
 
 15-1 
 
 1-00 
 
 
 96-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 13 
 
 17-3 
 
 1-07 
 
 
 95-2 
 
 4-8 
 
 13 
 
 18-4 
 
 1-12 
 
 
 91-0 9-0 
 
 13 
 
 23-5 
 
 1-16 
 
 
 89-5 10-5 
 
 13 
 
 25-3 
 
 1-17 
 
 
 85-0 15-0 
 
 13 
 
 33-0 
 
 1-33 
 
 
 83-25 
 
 16-75 
 
 13 
 
 36-1 
 
 1-36 
 
 
 66-9 
 
 33-1 
 
 18 
 
 60-5 
 
 1-43 
 
 
 55-5 
 
 44-5 
 
 13 
 
 76-7 
 
 1-43 
 
 
 16-7 
 
 83-3 
 
 13 
 
 175-2 
 
 1-94 
 
 
 oo-o 
 
 100-0 
 
 
 240-0 
 
 2-40 
 
 
 Showing that for small enrichments of illuminating 
 value acetylene has an enrichment value of only a little 
 over 1 candle for each per cent, of acetylene added, so 
 that with oil at a reasonable price, it could not compete 
 with oil gas for this purpose. 
 
 The author was much impressed by the fact that 
 the enrichment value of the acetylene when mixed 
 with the coal gas, although only about half as great 
 as would be expected on theoretical grounds, yet was 
 enormously higher than when the acetylene was 
 diluted with hydrogen, and a research was made to 
 ascertain the illuminating value obtained from the 
 acetylene when it was diluted with the various gases 
 which could be employed for this purpose. 
 
 In making these experiments, all the precautions 
 employed in determining the enrichment value of 
 acetylene with coal gas were observed, and the figures 
 given in the following tables were arrived at in the 
 same way. 
 
 Enrichment 
 researches 
 
 623 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ACETYLENE AND HYDROGEN. 
 
 The enrich- 
 ment value 
 of Acetylene 
 for Hydro- 
 gen 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Illuminating value of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for 1 
 per cent. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 8-3 
 
 91-7 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 16-3 
 
 83-7 
 
 18-2 
 
 I'll 
 
 25-7 
 
 74-3 
 
 37-0 
 
 1-44 
 
 26-6 
 
 73-4 
 
 40-0 
 
 1-50 
 
 37-7 
 
 62-3 
 
 621 
 
 1-65 
 
 52-7 
 
 47-3 
 
 92-0 
 
 1-74 
 
 78-7 
 
 21-3 
 
 153-4 
 
 1-94 
 
 87-0 
 
 13-0 
 
 177-5 
 
 2-04 
 
 100-0 
 
 o-o 
 
 240-0 
 
 2-40 
 
 ACETYLENE AND CARBON MONOXIDE. 
 
 Enrichment 
 value of 
 Acetylene 
 
 for Carbon 
 Monoxide 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Illuminating value of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for 1 
 per cent. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Carbon 
 monoxide. 
 
 14-3 
 
 85-7 
 
 nil 
 
 nil 
 
 18-3 
 
 81-7 
 
 8-0 
 
 0-43 
 
 26-0 
 
 74-0 
 
 28-1 
 
 1-08 
 
 7-2 
 
 62-8 
 
 51-8 
 
 1-39 
 
 46-3 
 
 53-7 
 
 74-4 
 
 1-60 
 
 63-3 
 
 36-7 
 
 109-6 
 
 1-75 
 
 79-3 
 
 20-7 
 
 146-5 
 
 1-84 
 
 90-0 
 
 10-0 
 
 187-0 
 
 2-05 
 
 100-0 
 
 o-o 
 
 240-0 
 
 2-40 
 
 ACETYLENE AND CARBON DIOXIDE. 
 
 Enrichment 
 
 value of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 for Carbon 
 
 Dioxide 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Illuminating value of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for I 
 per cent. 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Carbon 
 dioxide. 
 
 26 
 
 74-0 
 
 2-8 
 
 010 
 
 32 68-0 
 
 9-4 
 
 0-20 
 
 45-1 54-9 
 
 27-2 
 
 0-60 
 
 46-0 
 
 54-0 
 
 28-4 
 
 0-61 
 
 60-6 
 
 39-4 
 
 64-1 
 
 1-05 
 
 79-2 20-8 
 
 110-8 
 
 1-39 
 
 100-0 
 
 o-o 
 
 240-0 
 
 2-40 
 
 624 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 ACETYLENE AND 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Illuminating value of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for 1 
 per cent. 
 
 1 
 Acetylene. Nitrogen. 
 
 1 
 
 4-0 96-0 
 
 Will not burn 
 
 nil 
 
 13-7 86-3 
 
 Not measurable 
 
 nil 
 
 28-5 71-5 
 
 19-5 
 
 0-68 
 
 38-7 61-3 
 
 39-0 
 
 1-00 
 
 46-0 54-0 
 
 58-0 
 
 1-26 
 
 63-0 37-0 
 
 98-3 
 
 1-56 
 
 74-9 28-1 
 
 131-1 
 
 1-75 
 
 100-0 0-0 
 
 1 
 
 240-0 
 
 2-04 f 
 
 Enrichment 
 
 value of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 for Nitrogen 
 
 ACETYLENE AND METHANE. 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Illuminating value of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Enrichment value of 
 Acetylene for 1 
 per cent. 
 
 Enncnment 
 value of 
 Acetylene 
 for Methane 
 
 Acetylene. 
 
 Methane. 
 
 7-2 
 
 92-8 15-6 
 
 2-16 
 
 
 15-4 
 
 84-6 
 
 29-5 
 
 1-91 
 
 
 18-0 
 
 82-0 38-0 
 
 2-11 
 
 
 25-4 
 
 74-6 54-0 
 
 2-12 
 
 
 311 
 
 68-9 
 
 64-5 
 
 2-07 
 
 
 36-3 
 
 63-7 
 
 76-0 
 
 2-09 
 
 
 44-5 
 
 55-5 
 
 94-0 
 
 2-11 
 
 
 50-0 
 
 50-0 
 
 104-5 
 
 2-09 
 
 
 55-3 
 
 44-7 
 
 114-0 
 
 2-06 
 
 
 61-5 
 
 38-5 
 
 130-0 
 
 2-11 
 
 
 It is evident from these experiments that methane 
 is the only diluent capable of developing the wonderful 
 illuminating value of acetylene when it is utilised for 
 enrichment, and they also show that it is to the 
 presence of methane in the poor coal gas and car- 
 buretted water gas that the enrichment caused by 
 small additions of acetylene is due. 
 
 625 40 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Percy In 1884 Percy Frankland 1 made a research upon 
 
 researches the influence of the various gases which constitute 
 on the effect coa j g as U p On the illuminating value of ethylene, the 
 
 of diluents * J ? 
 
 on niumin- presence of which was then considered to be the cause 
 ^ the luminosity of coal gas. The results which he 
 obtained are summarised in the following tables. 
 
 COMBUSTIBLE DILUENTS. 
 
 Action of 
 
 combustible 
 
 diluents 
 
 Diluents. 
 
 Percentage of 
 etbylene. 
 
 Percentage of 
 diluents. 
 
 Candle power per 
 5 c. ft. per hour. 
 
 
 77-55 
 
 22-45 
 
 54-58 
 
 
 68-39 
 
 31-61 
 
 49-37 
 
 
 53-58 
 
 46-42 
 
 39-21 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 35-47 
 
 64-53 
 
 30-85 
 
 
 26-08 
 
 73-92 
 
 22-84 
 
 
 13-37 
 
 86-63 
 
 6-73 
 
 
 10-0 
 
 90-0 
 
 o-oo 
 
 
 81-65 
 
 18-35 
 
 55-27 
 
 
 57-75 
 
 32-25 
 
 47-73 
 
 Carbon 
 monoxide 
 
 46-30 
 37-94 
 
 28-73 
 
 53-70 
 62-06 
 71-27 
 
 33-09 
 26-52 
 13-16 
 
 
 23-89 
 
 76-11 
 
 6-56 
 
 
 20-0 
 
 80-0 
 
 o-oo 
 
 
 85-67 
 
 14-53 
 
 57-91 
 
 
 69-09 
 
 30-91 
 
 47-88 
 
 Methane 
 
 57-74 
 35-90 
 
 42-26 
 64-10 
 
 40-42 
 33-17 
 
 
 13-00 
 
 87-00 
 
 19-35 
 
 
 7-87 
 
 92-13 
 
 17-59 
 
 Chem. Soc. Journ., xlv. 30, 227. 
 
 626 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 NON-COMBUSTIBLE DlLUENTS. 
 
 Diluent. 
 
 Percentage of 
 ethylene. 
 
 Percentage of 
 diluent. 
 
 Candle power per 
 5 c. ft. of gas. 
 
 
 93-68 
 
 6-32 
 
 55-52 
 
 
 90-59 
 
 9-41 
 
 51-81 
 
 
 89-03 
 
 10-97 
 
 49-98 
 
 
 81-73 
 
 18-27 
 
 42-81 
 
 Carbon dioxide 
 
 70-75 
 
 29-25 
 
 33-23 
 
 
 64-14 
 
 35-85 
 
 26-52 
 
 
 52-94 
 
 47-06 
 
 14-72 
 
 
 45-61 
 
 54-39 
 
 7-49 
 
 
 40-0 
 
 60-0 
 
 o-oo 
 
 
 84-69 
 
 15-31 
 
 51-96 
 
 
 71-12 
 
 28-88 
 
 39-58 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 59-93 
 47-08 
 
 40-07 
 59-92 
 
 29-64 
 20-81 
 
 
 36-24 
 
 63-76 
 
 11-82 
 
 
 28-81 
 
 71-19 
 
 7-20 
 
 
 82-57 
 
 17-43 
 
 70-93 
 
 
 80-67 
 
 19-3 : 
 
 72-53 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 75-51 
 
 24-49 
 
 74-19 
 
 
 68-50 
 
 31-50 
 
 71-17 
 
 
 60-69 
 
 39-31 
 
 explosion 
 
 
 79-68 
 
 20-32 
 
 54-45 
 
 
 67-15 
 
 32-85 
 
 45-84 
 
 
 55-92 
 
 44-08 
 
 37-16 
 
 Air 
 
 42-69 
 
 57-31 
 
 26-78 
 
 
 33-91 
 
 66-09 
 
 16-22 
 
 
 22-31 
 
 77-69 
 
 0-61 
 
 
 13-31 
 
 86-69 
 
 explosion 
 
 Effect of non- 
 combustible 
 diluents on 
 the illumin- 
 ating 
 power of 
 Ethylene 
 
 On comparing these results with those obtained 
 with acetylene, it will be at once seen that they are obtained by 
 similar in character, and that for small quantities of 
 the enricher it is methane, and methane only, that 
 brings out the illuminating value. 
 
 Experiments made by the author also clearly show 
 that even when methane is diluted with other com- 
 bustible diluents, such as hydrogen or carbon 
 
 627 
 
 diluting 
 Acetylene 
 
 and 
 Ethylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Action of 
 Methane 
 
 Flame 
 temperature 
 
 and its 
 importance 
 
 Heat evolved 
 
 by burning 
 
 combustible 
 
 diluents 
 
 monoxide, until there is only 30 per cent, to 40 per 
 cent, of it present, it is still capable of developing 
 considerable illuminating value for enrichers mixed 
 with it, so that although 12 per cent, of acetylene 
 mingled with a mixture of 50 per cent, of hydrogen 
 and 50 per cent, of carbon monoxide only gives 1 
 candle of light, the same quantity with a mixture of 
 33 per cent, hydrogen, 33 per cent, carbon monoxide, 
 and 33 per cent, methane yields over 30 candles. 
 
 The action of diluents on gases of high illuminating 
 power is a subject not only of great practical im- 
 portance, but also of great theoretical interest. 
 
 There is not the least doubt that the temperature of 
 a flame plays a most important part in governing the 
 luminosity of the carbon particles, the incandescence 
 of which gives it the power of emitting light, and at 
 first sight the higher thermal value of methane as 
 compared with equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon 
 monoxide appears an ample explanation of the fact 
 that it is so far their superior in developing the 
 illuminating power of small percentages of enriching 
 gas. 
 
 The researches of Favre and Silbermann show that 
 the combustion of one molecule volume of each of 
 these three combustible diluents yields the following 
 thermal results : 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Carbon monoxide 
 Methane 
 
 68-942 thermal units. 
 67-284 
 
 209-008 
 
 So that the total heat generated by a methane flame 
 might be imagined to be three times as great as of a 
 flame of either hydrogen or carbon monoxide con- 
 suming the same volume of gas in the same period. 
 Experiment, however, shows that if equal volumes 
 of these three gases be consumed in the same burner, 
 the size of the flame produced is very different. In 
 order to determine this they were each burnt at the 
 
 628 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 rate of 5 cubic feet per hour from the same argand 
 burner, so that the height of the flame should give 
 the ratio of flame area. 
 
 Height of flame given by the combustion of equal 
 volumes of 
 
 mm. inches. 
 
 Hydrogen . .25 TO 
 
 Carbon monoxide . . . .56 2'25 
 Methane . . 107 4'25 
 
 The flames so produced were, however, so different 
 in shape, owing to the argand flame not being a true 
 cylinder, that another experiment was then made to 
 see the rate of flow necessary to give a 3-inch flame 
 in the London argand, the pressure in each case being 
 equal : 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 Carbon monoxide 
 Methane 
 
 9'5 c. ft. per hour. 
 
 7-3 
 
 3-0 
 
 Cinder these conditions the flame surface was the 
 same in each case, and if the thermal value of equal 
 volumes be multiplied by the respective consumption 
 of gas, it should give an idea of the relative ratio of 
 temperature existing in the flame : 
 
 Hydrogen 
 Carbon monoxide 
 Methane 
 
 68,924 x 9-5 = 654,778 
 
 67,284 x 7-3 = 491,173 
 
 209,008 x 3 = 627,024 
 
 Height of 
 flame given 
 by the com- 
 bustion of 
 equal vol- 
 umes of 
 combustible 
 diluents 
 
 Rate of flow 
 needed to 
 give equal 
 
 sized flames 
 
 So that if it were the temperature of the flame alone 
 that governed the luminosity of mixtures of an en- 
 richer with these diluents, one would expect methane 
 and hydrogen to give practically the same result when 
 used in this way, whilst carbon monoxide would 
 always give very inferior results. 
 
 When methane is burnt at the end of an open tube 
 or in a flat flame burner, it is practically non-luminous, 
 but when consumed in a London argand, in which the 
 flame is at a higher temperature, at the rate of 5 cubic 
 feet per hour, it becomes slightly luminous, and emits 
 
 629 
 
 Probable 
 ratio of 
 
 develop- 
 ment of heat 
 in the flames 
 
 The com- 
 bustion of 
 Methane and 
 
 its illumi- 
 nating value 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 between 5 and 6 candle-power, whilst if the flame be 
 raised to a still higher temperature in a regenerative 
 burner, the candle-power is still further increased. 
 Gas withdrawn from the flame shows that the lumi- 
 nosity is due to the formation of acetylene by the 
 baking action of the flame walls on the methane in 
 the non-luminous zone. 
 cause of the If n0 w a mixture of pure hydrogen and 10 per cent. 
 
 lossoflumi- - 1 . J & .1.1 
 
 nosity with of acetylene be burned in an argand or other burner, 
 
 a non 'l um i nous flame is obtained, and if gas be with- 
 drawn from the flame at the point where luminosity 
 commences in an ordinary flame, no trace of acetylene 
 can be detected, showing that it has all been consumed 
 in the lower part of the flame without decomposition 
 of the acetylene molecule, whilst on increasing the 
 percentage of acetylene in the mixture until it can be 
 detected at this point in the flame, luminosity at once 
 appears. 
 
 cause of the This makes the cause of the superiority of methane 
 
 of Methane over hydrogen as a diluent fairly clear, as it evidently 
 
 as a diluent ac ^ s j n protecting and probably reinforcing the acety- 
 
 lene molecules in their passage through the non- 
 
 luminous zone of the flame, until the temperature is 
 
 sufficient to cause their sudden decomposition with 
 
 evolution of light. 
 
 Tem- The luminous decomposition of acetylene requires a 
 
 needed to hig ner and higher temperature to bring it about the 
 bring about greater the dilution, and as far as it has been possible 
 
 the luminous , ., . , ,. . , -. 
 
 decompo- to carry the experimental results, pure acetylene de- 
 sition of composes with evolution of light at 780 C., whilst 
 
 Acetylene at r . ,., . . . 
 
 various de- each increase of 10 per cent, in dilution raises the ne- 
 diiution cessary temperature by 100 C., Fig. 220, so that a flame 
 from a mixture containing 80 per cent, of hydrogen 
 and 20 per cent, of acetylene only attains the neces- 
 sary temperature over 1,600 C. near the top of the 
 flame, and the non-luminous zone is in consequence 
 very large, whilst the temperature necessary to bring 
 
 630 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 about this action with pure acetylene is only 780 C., 
 so that the non-luminous zone nearly disappears. It 
 must also be remembered that owing to the changes 
 due to heat in the non-luminous zone, and combustion 
 without decomposition, and therefore without emission 
 of light, the original acetylene present in the gaseous 
 mixture supplied to the burner is reduced to about 
 one-tenth of its volume before luminosity is reached. 
 
 FIG. 220. 
 
 At the present time the only direction in which 
 diluted acetylene has achieved a marked success is in 
 the utilisation of mixtures of acetylene with oil gas for 
 railway carriage lighting, and it is estimated by the 
 best authorities that in Germany alone over 7,000 tons 
 of carbide will be required during 1900 for the genera- 
 tion of the gas for this purpose. 
 
 Before it was realized that there was any danger 
 in using undiluted acetylene compressed in cylinders 
 for railway lighting, experiments were made with it 
 for this purpose on one of the chief northern lines, a 
 composite coach being lighted by it with magnificent 
 effect, two one-foot burners being employed in the 
 
 631 
 
 The utili- 
 sation of 
 
 Acetylene 
 diluted with 
 
 oil gas for 
 railway 
 carriage 
 lighting 
 
 Compressed 
 Acetylene 
 
 for railway 
 carriage 
 lighting 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 compartments and one half-foot burner in the lava- 
 tories. 
 American These experiments were at once discontinued when 
 
 experiments * . , 
 
 on the use the result of compression on the propagation 01 ex- 
 plosion in acetylene became known ; but recent experi- 
 ments in America have led to its being introduced 
 there on the Great Northern Railway line, and after 
 running a sleeping car for some months, with cylin- 
 ders of the Pintsch type containing acetylene com- 
 pressed at 150 pounds, it is decided to equip several 
 entire trains with the light. The system used is due 
 to Lipschutz and Toltz, who construct the cylinders 
 and high-pressure pipes in such a way that in case 
 of a car catching fire the seams fuse at 260 C. 
 (500 F.), and the pressure is relieved long before the 
 detonating point of the gas is reached. The lamps 
 are specially made to take their air supply from 
 without, and to get rid of the hot products of com- 
 bustion without heating the gas supply. 
 
 Attempts There is a wide field for undiluted acetylene for 
 
 to introduce . 
 
 automatic this purpose when once the danger of compression is 
 for "tTrriage success f u Hy gt over, as a cylinder of acetylene would 
 lighting last three times as long as one of oil gas, and give a 
 far better illumination. Many attempts have been 
 made to fit railway carriages, trams, etc., with small 
 automatic generators, and experiments are still being 
 vigorously pushed in this direction ; but the constant 
 attention required, and the trouble of frequent clean- 
 ing and recharging, lead those best able to judge to 
 the conviction that such a system is very unlikely to 
 prove successful. 
 
 It was in 1896 that, mixtures of acetylene with oil 
 on the gas having been suggested for this purpose, Gerdes, 
 Ll gers ?" 1 " tne cn ^ engineer to Messrs. Pintsch, of Berlin, made 
 
 Acetylene a most thorough investigation of the dangers alleged 
 purpose 
 
 to exist in connection with its use, and to determine 
 
 under what conditions it could be safely employed, 
 
 632 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 and his results were communicated to the Berlin In- 
 stitute of Mechanical Engineers on December 1, 1896. 
 
 In the first part of his paper he dealt with the 
 formation of explosive compounds by the union of 
 acetylene with copper and its alloys, and also with the 
 temperature developed during the generation of the 
 gas, and then gives the results of his experiments on 
 cylinders of compressed acetylene and mixtures of oil 
 gas and acetylene in order to ascertain if explosion 
 could be induced under conditions that might possibly 
 occur in railway-carriage lighting. 
 
 He says : " As already stated, acetylene gas decom- 
 poses into its constituent elements, hydrogen and carbon, 
 at a temperature of 780 C., and the development of 
 heat per gramme molecule of acetylene amounts to 
 26 grammes of 47-77 calories. If the specific heat of 
 carbon is taken at a very high temperature, as O46, 
 and of hydrogen at a constant volume, as 24, the tem- 
 perature of decomposition of acetylene will be 
 
 47-770 
 
 , = 3,016 C. 
 
 2 2-4 + 24 /. 0-46 
 
 The specific heat of carbon varies, as is well known, 
 according to the temperature, but the figures assumed 
 are approximately correct. From the above calculated 
 temperature of decomposition, the increase of tension 
 may be calculated at 12O5 atmospheres absolutely, 
 presuming the gas to have had an initial pressure of 
 one atmosphere, and a pressure of 132-55 atmospheres 
 if the gas was under an absolute initial pressure of 11 
 atmospheres. 
 
 This calculation makes no claim to absolute ac- 
 curacy, such calculation being hardly possible, because 
 absolutely correct figures relative to the specific heat 
 particularly of carbon cannot be obtained. Another 
 presumption in the above calculation is that the whole 
 quantity of acetylene is decomposed instantaneously. 
 
 633 
 
 Possible 
 
 tem- 
 peratures 
 
 and 
 
 pressures 
 developed 
 
 by the 
 decompo- 
 sition of 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ascertain 
 how far 
 
 these calcu- 
 
 lations were 
 b practi l c t e by 
 
 compressed 
 
 Acetylene in 
 
 soldered re- 
 ceivers can 
 be made to 
 
 explode 
 
 explosion 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 lighting 
 
 The firm of Messrs. Pintsch has made a number of 
 experiments in order to find out how far these calcula- 
 tions are correct in practice, and what dangers are 
 
 * ' 
 
 involved in the employment of acetylene for lighting 
 railway passenger carriages. 
 
 In the first place, a soft-soldered receiver, such as 
 generally employed by the Prussian State and other 
 railways, was filled with acetylene compressed to six 
 atmospheres and heated on a wood fire. The result 
 was that the recipient became leaky at 200 C. or 
 thereabout, the melting point of the tin and lead 
 alloy, the tin melted, and the acetylene escaped at the 
 leaks and burnt in the ordinary manner. 
 
 -^> therefore, receivers of this kind are employed, 
 the use of pure acetylene would not be accompanied 
 
 , , " ,-, -, 
 
 by any danger; subsequently, however, it was proved 
 
 fa^ ace tylene will explode in receivers of this kind if 
 . J -.1 
 
 a pipe connected to the receiver is heated to the tem- 
 perature necessary for the decomposition of acetylene. 
 
 A brazed cylinder was then filled to six atmospheres 
 and placed on a fire, so that the seams and cocks were 
 n k i n contact with the flames. This receiver ex- 
 ploded with a tremendous report, and was blown to 
 pieces, as shown in Pig. 221. Another experiment 
 was then made with regard to the propagation of the 
 decomposition of acetylene through pipe systems. A 
 receiver was filled to six atmospheres with acetylene 
 and provided with a pipe of 5 metres interior dia- 
 meter, and 2 metres in length. At a point about a 
 metre and a half from the receiver the pipe was 
 heated by means of a water gas flame, and as soon 
 as the pipe began to get red hot, the recipient 
 exploded, being blown entirely to pieces. 
 
 Under these circumstances the employment of pure 
 acetylene gas for illuminating purposes, especially for 
 railway cars, in which case the gas must necessarily be 
 employed under pressure, appeared too dangerous. In 
 
 634 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 order, however, to render the high illuminating power 
 
 of acetylene employable for this purpose, the firm 
 
 decided to make a number of experiments in order to 
 
 find means for reducing or entirely obviating the 
 
 above-mentioned danger, and these experiments showed 
 
 that acetylene when not compressed will decompose, 
 
 but that the explosion caused thereby is not nearly so composition 
 
 violent as when the gas is compressed. 
 
 Effect of 
 
 pressure on 
 
 the de- 
 
 FIG. 221. 
 
 Thus the above-mentioned- calculation would only 
 be correct for highly-compressed acetylene, whilst at 
 low pressure, apparently owing to slow decomposition 
 and simultaneous cooling during the reaction, the 
 tension after the reaction is considerably less than 
 would appear from these calculations. If acetylene 
 and oil gas are mixed and the specific heat of oil gas 
 assumed as 0*4 and its specific weight as O75, and 
 that of acetylene taken as O91, in a mixture of 30 
 
 635 
 
 Possible 
 
 tem- 
 peratures 
 and pres- 
 sures de- 
 veloped by 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 plosion "of v l urnes f acetylene and 70 volumes of oil gas a rise 
 mixtures of of temperature of 
 
 oil gas and 
 Acetylene 47 '7 70 
 
 2 2-4 + 24 0-46 + ^ ' 7 26 0-4 - 1,330 
 
 U'i/-L * o 
 
 will take place, from which it will be seen that an 
 initial pressure of 7 atmospheres absolute would pro- 
 duce an increase of pressure, taking the initial tem- 
 
 perature at 0, of pt. ? 73 ^ 30 : 1 = 41 atm. 
 
 This calculation is not absolutely accurate, because 
 each gas is differently constituted and has conse- 
 quently a different specific weight; the formula is 
 only cited in order to show what steps should be taken 
 for reducing the danger or rendering the gas entirely 
 harmless. As will be readily understood, the final 
 tension is considerably reduced if the acetylene is 
 mixed with oil or other gas, because the heat generated 
 by the decomposition of acetylene has to serve to heat 
 In duution f the other gas also. The temperature must conse- 
 quently be lower than in the case of acetylene alone, 
 because the heat generated is divided between the two 
 gases. 
 Practical The practical experiments in this respect, which 
 
 experiments . J . ^ . ^ ' 
 
 were in part carried out in the presence of Director 
 Borck, of the State Railway Management, of Berlin, 
 are shown by the tables, and prove sufficiently for 
 practical purposes that the employment of a mixture 
 of 30 per cent, acetylene and 70 per cent, oil gas or 
 coal gas for railway carriage lighting involves no 
 danger whatever, because the increase of temperature 
 will never be sufficient to burst the receiver. These 
 receivers will stand a much higher pressure than that 
 caused by the decomposition of a 30 per cent, mixture 
 of acetylene, even under the most unfavourable cir- 
 cumstances. This, as previously remarked, is due to 
 
 636 
 
FIG. 222. EXPERIMENT 1. See Table, page 642. 
 
 FIG. 223. EXPERIMENTS 20, 21 AND 24. See Table, page 643. 
 
 637 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Behaviour of 
 mixtures of 
 equal vol- 
 umes of 
 Acetylene 
 and oil gas 
 
 Approxi- 
 mate tem- 
 perature 
 necessary to 
 cause ex- 
 plosion 
 
 Pressures 
 caused by 
 
 the de- 
 composition 
 of 30 percent. 
 
 Acetylene 
 with oil gas 
 
 Perfect 
 safety of a 
 mixture of 
 
 the fact that the heat generated by the decomposition 
 of the mixture is considerably less than in the case of 
 pure acetylene. 
 
 If a receiver is filled with a mixture of 50 per cent, 
 acetylene and 50 per cent, oil gas, and connected to a 
 | inch pipe, also filled with the mixture, and the pipe 
 is then heated, experiments have shown that even 
 when the pipe has been heated to a very high tem- 
 perature the mixture in the receiver will not explode, 
 and can only be caused to explode by heat in the re- 
 ceiver itself. In this case it would be perfectly safe 
 to employ soft-soldered recipients. It was unfortu- 
 nately impossible to determine at what temperature 
 the explosion took place in this case, but to judge from 
 the colour of the glowing pieces bright cherry red 
 it may be inferred that the temperature was about 
 1,000 C. Lewes states that the temperature at which 
 acetylene with 50 per cent, hydrogen decomposes is 
 about 1,250 C. In any case the temperature was 
 considerably higher than that at which pure acetylene 
 exploded. 
 
 As is seen from the tables of the trials, the increase 
 of pressures due to the decomposition of a mixture 
 containing 20 to 30 per cent, acetylene is insignificant, 
 and much less in practice than shown by the calcula- 
 tions. 
 
 The same increase of pressure which takes place on 
 the decomposition of acetylene would also occur on heat- 
 ing almost any other kind of gas, such, for instance, as 
 oil gas, or even air, but in the latter cases it would not 
 take place so rapidly, because the whole volume of gas 
 is not capable of absorbing the heat from outside as 
 quickly as the heat generated within the volume of 
 gas owing to the decomposition of the acetylene mole- 
 cules. 
 
 This shows that if a mixture of acetylene and oil 
 gas is employed and the percentage of the former does 
 
 638 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 not exceed 30 per cent, no danger whatsoever can be 30 P er cent- 
 incurred in connection with railway trains, because in wi th oi^gas 
 this case an explosion cannot be transmitted to the 
 receivers by the pipe system. If in order to produce 
 or cause the decomposition of the acetylene in a mix- 
 ture of this kind it is necessary to heat the receiver to 
 1,000 C. as has been shown, it may be safely asserted 
 
 FIG. 224. EXPERIMENTS 27 31 AND 32. See Table, page 644. 
 
 that a point is attained at which the mixture of acety- 
 lene and oil gas involves no greater danger than the 
 employment of oil gas alone or of compressed air. At 
 a temperature of 1,000 C. the initial tension of the 
 volume of gas or air contained in the receiver will Behaviour of 
 
 . . . . cylinders of 
 
 have risen several times higher than the initial pres- the corn- 
 sure in. consequence of the heating of the gases in the ^re^imder 
 receiver ; according to whether the latter has been the influence 
 heated over a large or small fire, and the gases are 
 
 639 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Comparison 
 
 of the 
 
 behaviour of 
 
 the mixture 
 
 and of air 
 
 under the 
 
 same 
 conditions 
 
 Pressures to 
 
 which the 
 
 cylinders 
 
 are tested 
 
 Effect of 
 pressure on 
 explosion in 
 small pipes 
 
 Effect of rate 
 of flow on 
 
 entirely or only partially heated. Then, again, the 
 gas receiver, if it became red hot at any point, would 
 burst, and the gas would escape at the fracture before 
 the acetylene would have time to decompose, because 
 the temperature would not have reached a sufficient 
 height to effect the decomposition. Experiments have 
 shown this assumption to be correct. 
 
 The tables show that a receiver filled with 80 per 
 cent, oil gas and 20 per cent, acetylene, at a pressure 
 of seven atmospheres, burst on the tension being 
 slowly increased to 16 atmospheres. This tension 
 would correspond to an average increase of heat of 
 350 C. 
 
 A receiver filled with air to a pressure of 11 atmo- 
 spheres burst on the tension having been slowly in- 
 creased to 18 atmospheres. Both the above-mentioned 
 receivers were heated over a fire throughout their 
 whole length. 
 
 These receivers, when tested, have to stand a pres- 
 sure of 40 to 50 atmospheres, so that they had evidently 
 been heated at some points to such an extent as to 
 deteriorate the material to the above-mentioned de- 
 gree. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the joints of an ordinary car- 
 riage receiver would have been melted and the gas 
 have escaped long before the above-mentioned mean 
 temperature of 350 C. would have been attained. 
 
 In connection with the experiments as to the explosive 
 power, it is singular that the explosion in small pipes 
 of 25 to 30 mm. diameter, the gas not being com- 
 pressed, is not so violent as in connection with larger . 
 receivers and compressed gas. Berthelot seems to 
 have had the same experience, since he states that the 
 higher the tension is the shorter will be the duration 
 of the reaction in comparison with a lower tension 
 (see page 85). 
 
 If acetylene gas at ordinary burning pressure is 
 640 
 

 ._ 
 
 641 
 
 41 
 

 | 
 
 || 
 
 2 ?S 
 
 ^ fH 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 || 
 
 o> ^^ ij &ja 
 
 PH 0^ S ' rt 
 
 |s 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 ^ 1 "S 
 
 r^ ^^ 
 
 "i 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ' 
 
 fl *l 
 
 S d) ^ 
 
 +i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 CD * 
 
 
 rC3 H^XJ fl 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 3 
 
 ^1 
 
 sis 
 
 t O 
 
 |a1 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 -*3 S >>i 
 
 ^ ^^ 
 
 '-2 ^ 
 
 g.S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 liSl 
 
 ^ J 
 
 S'S' ) '2 
 
 "^^ "1 
 
 I s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "g 
 
 C^ 1 rt ^ 
 
 A'l'g'^ 
 
 H fl_) fH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cl O 
 
 i i r ^ 4^ 
 
 H r^H ^H <D 
 
 g^'S 
 
 4^> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 H 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a ta . 
 
 -"3 o c 
 
 ^. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sill 
 
 _ c5 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 9 
 
 3 ;g 'O : 
 
 : ' ' 
 
 1 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 G^l 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 CO 
 
 *^f 
 
 
 *|S| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a|l c . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D t>a 03 O 
 
 p t fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 xO 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 X 
 
 lag"! 
 
 r5 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 CN 
 
 CM 
 
 gl^ft 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pn O) 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 00 
 
 r2 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 |gS 
 
 
 <M 
 
 qq 
 
 qp 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 CNI 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 (30 
 
 
 W ^'o^^ 
 
 do 
 
 t> 
 
 
 t> 
 
 L^ 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CM 
 
 rH 
 
 ll 
 
 o5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 a 
 
 f> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -u 
 
 d 
 
 ! 
 
 d 
 
 ^d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 .6 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Hi 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 n3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 n3 
 
 rd 
 
 T! 
 
 
 1 U 
 
 ^ 
 
 If 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6C 
 
 6? 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 'Sill 
 
 
 heated 
 flame. 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 q 
 s 
 
 S * 
 
 
 " . 05 ad 
 
 
 OH^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ ^ o3 
 
 d 
 
 id g -^ ^ 
 
 <-J 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 O 
 
 n 
 
 'o ^cfl 
 
 
 "o * j" ^ 
 
 T3 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 2 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 T3 
 
 T3 
 
 -d 
 
 *o 
 
 fe TJ 
 
 
 S-H S "1 
 
 
 cS -g 
 
 T3 ^ 
 
 S b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 ll 
 
 
 ^ ^ | 
 
 
 . ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kind of Receiver 
 Employed. 
 
 Brazed Gas receiver. 
 Length =1000 mm. 
 Diam. =360 mm. 
 Contents=101-8 lit. 
 
 Soft soldered and 
 rivetted receiver. 
 Length =1800 mm. 
 Diam. =420 mm. 
 Contents =249-3 lit. 
 
 Brazed Gas receiver. 
 Length =800 mm. 
 Diam. =420 mm. 
 Contents =110-8 lit. 
 
 Steel Flask. 
 Contents =15-85 lit. 
 
 Steel Flask. 
 Contents =15-85 lit. 
 
 |d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 ^ 
 
 d 
 
 ^c 
 
 l-s 
 
 TH 
 
 <M 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 LO 
 
 CD 
 
 i> 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 TH 
 T-H 
 
 CM 
 
 rH 
 
 H* 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ W 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 642 
 

 
 | 
 
 6^7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 CO r-J 
 
 C3 <D 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 H ^ *^ ^ S 
 
 
 
 
 ^ fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *o-?Vlli 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JH 
 
 II 
 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 
 
 Pressure in 5 min.=2 
 
 10 =3 
 20 =3 
 23 =fl 
 then rapid rise to '^ 
 spheres and decrease 
 mospheres (absolute p 
 
 
 
 Pn 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 nd 
 
 I 
 
 X 
 H 
 
 Burst and burned till 
 consumed (Fig. 223 
 
 f 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 Te o 
 > 
 
 On heating the | in. 
 decomposition tooi 
 
 Exploded (Fig. 223). 
 
 S>>0 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s3 
 S.s-s 
 
 oo 13 h CD 
 
 Ssl^ 
 
 S r" 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 $ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 08 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 all. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "** S fl 
 
 g >;5 o 
 
 p^ d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 flp 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ill 
 
 o . 2 
 
 f^ ^i O CQ 
 
 p 01 
 
 CN r-i 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 cp 
 
 <N 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 do 
 
 H 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o5 
 
 o5 
 
 
 
 o5 
 
 ^ OD 
 
 Q) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H . 
 
 ^H . 
 
 
 
 H . 
 
 III 
 
 ||i 
 
 | 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 & & 
 
 1> 50 
 
 "S ^_ 
 O JJH 
 
 ^o 
 
 d 
 -a 
 
 ^ CW 
 
 || 
 
 Is" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $s 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 o o 
 
 OB 
 
 FH 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
 * 9 
 
 cS 
 
 c ^ 
 
 S 
 
 ce 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jo* S 
 
 r^ S 
 
 g 
 
 'a. ^ ^ 
 
 ^ G 
 
 s 
 
 be 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 ll 
 
 s 
 
 ^ -*3 
 
 > "S o5 
 
 S" ^ I 
 
 1* 
 
 1 
 
 ^ eS 
 
 d 
 
 Q 
 
 -2 
 
 d 
 
 6 
 
 -r ^ 
 
 ajT- 
 
 S* 1 " 5 
 
 w ^ >^ 
 
 OJ-l-5 
 
 w 
 
 nQ ^ 
 
 73 
 
 "5 
 
 
 n3 
 
 ""& 
 
 ^ 
 
 ee 
 
 ei 
 
 O) ** ^ "S 
 
 m tS 
 
 o 
 
 ^ cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o3 ^ 
 
 PH ^ 
 
 rC "5 ns' 1 " 
 
 ^fc 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 ts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "ft^ 
 
 . _g 
 
 'S*S 
 
 ^ " io 
 
 ft| 
 
 1 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'ei^ 
 
 0) ^ 
 
 'c**^ 
 
 s^^ 
 
 wH- 
 
 o 
 
 lilj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It 
 
 sSSgi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H II || || Q. 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 c> 
 
 If 
 
 oj 1? 
 
 
 na 
 
 
 r e 
 
 rC r- 
 
 T) 
 
 nd 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 s w 
 
 ^ ?JD S -2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 3 c rt <-* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) -^ O *3 
 h^ Q O 'fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =il 
 
 CO 
 
 d 
 
 21 
 
 o 
 t i 
 
 CO 
 
 i < 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 Si 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 643 
 
Remarks. 
 
 ircular pieces of metal torn 
 out on heating the f in. pipe. 
 No decomposition took p lace. 
 
 o explosion. 
 
 
 
 ieces of plate 200 mm. in 
 diameter torn out. At the 
 part heated the metal was 
 reduced by stretching from 
 a thickness of 3 mm. to 1 mm. 
 
 uigecl out at the point heated, 
 and gas burned out at frac- 
 ture at said point (Fig. 225). 
 
 eceiver burst by a gradual 
 explosion, and was deform- 
 ed, no parts being blown out. 
 
 ulge at the part heated, with 
 short longitudinal cracks 
 
 (Fig. 224). 
 
 I 
 
 .& 
 
 eceiver remained apparently 
 uninjured. 
 
 alged out and gas burned out 
 
 (Fig. 225). 
 
 Cfi 
 
 O) 
 
 .fj 
 
 Pn 
 O 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ : pq 
 
 pq 
 
 
 
 pq 
 
 s 
 
 
 i t i g . 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 a -2 -a .5 
 
 
 | 
 
 CO 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 | 
 
 i>- 
 
 
 
 <N 
 
 rj 
 
 T | 
 
 qjJS'p- 
 
 o 
 
 !DO 
 
 3 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "= ft'S 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2; js 
 
 
 0^--. OJ 
 
 & a 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rS OC 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 I 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 00 
 
 T-l 
 
 'S 00 aj 
 
 B S S 
 
 S 
 
 3 d, oC? 
 
 lO 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 o 
 
 c* 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 cq 
 
 >0 
 
 rH 
 
 9 
 
 ofi 2 
 
 ^ i^ 
 
 t> 
 
 
 **" 
 
 l> 
 
 *~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 L ^ 
 
 
 
 t> 
 
 rH 
 i 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03' 
 
 03 . 
 
 03 
 
 o3 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 r^ ^ * 
 
 
 fl tf5 
 
 C o5 
 
 H C/5 
 
 fl cn 
 
 
 " ^ 
 
 rt 03 
 
 
 fl O5 
 
 H C/} 
 
 
 54-1 "t^ ^ 
 
 03 c^ 
 
 0^> c^ 
 
 
 <D c^ 
 
 Q} o3 
 
 03 c3 
 
 r-"* r K 
 
 r2 * 
 
 03 o3 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 o3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ g 
 
 7,0 
 
 "PjO 
 
 7,0 
 
 7,0 
 
 7,0 
 
 7,0 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 7.O 
 
 7,0 
 
 7,0 
 
 '^ 
 
 Proportioi 
 ture, pen 
 iu volu 
 
 03 rz! 
 
 1 
 
 ^0 
 
 O 00 
 
 if 
 
 S 10 
 
 i| 
 
 O CO 
 
 |o 
 
 of 8 
 
 co rz) 
 
 P 
 
 08 
 
 Til 
 
 03 77n 
 % 
 
 -4-3 ( 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 .1^1 
 
 j?s' 
 
 eg . 
 
 
 
 rHS 
 
 g^ 
 
 *i 
 
 
 
 
 03 jH 
 
 K" 
 
 
 be 
 
 _fi 
 
 M ^ 03 
 
 ii* 
 
 
 
 || 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 si 
 
 
 cS 
 
 ccH 1 ^ ^ ^^ 
 
 O) " ' V 03 " ' ^ 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 CD /-T* 
 
 03 ' r ~ i 
 
 Q 
 
 Q 
 
 6 
 
 03 rg 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 0) ^ rQ "S 
 
 4n 05 rCj 3 
 (,3 CO . C3 
 
 
 
 ^ t>s 
 
 *| 
 
 TJ 
 
 r S 
 
 T! 
 
 ^ >i 
 
 r 73 
 
 CM 
 
 i-C ^ " ' * 
 
 p bC 1 &C 
 
 
 
 r^ _O 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ~2 
 
 
 O 
 
 -P "^ tn 
 
 
 > rH 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 > ?H 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 43 ^ "Jj bJD 
 
 a^ 
 
 s^s 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 rH 03 
 
 
 
 
 0) OJ 
 
 
 60 
 
 I*" 2 
 
 .9 * 
 
 s 1 
 
 
 
 H| 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 ctf 
 
 
 
 S S -gl 
 
 
 
 s s-^ 
 
 
 s 'sS 
 
 S S.ti 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .S 
 
 
 0) 
 
 > 
 
 S 3'^ 
 
 
 
 rH S 03 
 
 
 oio ^ ^ 
 
 S S 1 " 
 
 
 
 ^6 
 
 oi o 
 
 
 If 
 
 03^8^: * 
 
 > ^ i 1 Ci n, 
 
 'S II II H & 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Iff! 
 
 6 
 
 CD iH rjl CO 
 03 II II H 
 
 1 H 7 if 
 
 6 
 
 ^0 
 
 |s 
 
 'o> cc 
 
 s* 
 
 c 
 
 o 5- 
 
 ^ a 
 
 nd 
 
 n 
 
 rS " 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 > 
 
 nfl 
 
 TJ 
 
 S I 
 
 Ml 
 
 n~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ S 
 
 
 
 I/) ^^ PH 
 
 
 t/) ^^ ^ 
 
 c*Vj *"^ ^ 
 
 
 
 OH C3 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ca K 
 
 
 M 
 
 s r 
 
 
 
 O fl C "S 
 
 
 O c 
 
 fl c 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 O 03 
 
 
 
 ^pa-i 
 
 
 
 3i56 
 
 
 ^5o 
 
 Si56 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 EH 
 
 
 o'Sti 
 
 s g 
 
 (M 
 
 00 
 CM 
 
 % 
 
 S 55 8 
 
 8 
 
 5g 
 
 >o 
 
 CO 
 
 M 
 CO 
 
 o ^ i* 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^w ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 644 
 
JM 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I i,s. 
 3 HI! 
 
 3 *^ ^ 5 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 <X) 
 
 - 
 .h 
 
 g 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 l'- 
 
 p 
 
 1 1 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 g 
 
 c 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 P 
 
 f 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 n^ 
 
 ? AH OS 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^ r[o d 
 
 Ns 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 CO 
 
 op 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 ~ 
 
 O 
 35 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 71 
 
 
 
 cp 
 
 9 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 X, 
 
 C 
 
 f 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 
 S" 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 JN ^ ^ FH O 
 
 >>^J ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G^l 
 
 V 
 
 ' ' 
 
 VI 
 
 * 
 
 ' 
 
 WJ 
 
 * * 
 
 vIZ-' 
 
 GIJ 
 
 lO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Ho 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 li 
 
 5* "S -^ 2 
 
 o . S 
 
 GG 
 
 7' 
 
 
 
 TH 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 (N 
 
 71 
 
 P 
 
 71 
 
 (N 
 
 P 
 
 71 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 33 
 
 P 
 
 
 -- 
 
 T-i 
 
 -T 
 
 CO 
 
 cp 
 
 5 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 x 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 3 !* 
 
 > Js 
 
 a 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ I 
 
 "> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) O ** i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 -8 
 
 -8 
 
 c 
 
 T3 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 _C 
 
 O 
 
 4 
 
 _c 
 
 _c 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 C 
 tJ 
 
 ~ 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 ~ 
 
 4 
 
 -8 
 
 4 
 
 _c 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 -r 
 
 -8 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s ** B 
 
 ^ to 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 c^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 f 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 *"* 
 
 c 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 8 
 
 _o 
 
 c 
 
 'O 
 
 _ 
 
 -i 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 _c 
 
 
 
 -z 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 -8 
 
 r8 
 
 ^ 
 
 'd 
 
 -8 
 
 
 fH b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <B ~* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^ c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 Je9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ a a -s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <o 
 
 4> J3 Cj i-^H 
 
 S H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tfo 5 
 
 j II II II 
 
 o 
 
 ~ 
 
 _c 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 -r 
 
 z_ 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 % 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 -8 
 
 _c 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 _2 
 
 6 
 
 
 _c 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 5 G^S fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-l < 
 
 ill 
 
 S 
 
 $ 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 -* 
 
 1-1 
 ^ 
 
 71 
 XT 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 fe 
 
 S 
 
 - 
 
 iO 
 
 8 
 
 645 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 li *y slowly passed through an open glass tube, and the 
 composition latter heated to the temperature of decomposition, the 
 acetylene will . be observed to give a black deposit or 
 to polymerise at the heated point according to the 
 temperature, without, however, exploding. This is 
 apparently due to the fact that the gas following 
 keeps the place cool to a certain extent. 
 
 If, on the other hand, a closed tube be employed and 
 heated to 780, sudden decomposition, accompanied by 
 sudden increase in pressure, will take place. 
 
 considera- The question now to be considered is : How can 
 
 the best acetylene be most advantageously employed for illu- 
 
 C under nS m ^ nat i n g railway carriages with a view to the greatest 
 
 which to use possible safety, and due regard being had to the pre- 
 
 fo/carriage sen ^ prices of gas and acetylene ? 
 
 lighting Table II. gives the photometric values of a series of 
 
 mixtures of acetylene and oil gas, containing various 
 
 percentages of acetylene, which would recommend 
 
 themselves to consideration in connection with the 
 
 above question. The table also contains various pro- 
 
 portions of acetylene and coal gas mixtures. 
 
 Tem- The employment of a mixture of acetylene and air 
 
 perature of . _ _% <7 . , . . . , 
 
 ignition of is precluded, because such mixture involves greater 
 
 Danger ^^ an would be incurred by the employment of 
 Acetylene pure acetylene, the temperature of ignition of acety- 
 lene mixed with 35 per cent, of air being, according to 
 Le Chatelier, 480 in a large room. 
 Hi s n A mixture of acetylene with oil gas particularly 
 
 enrichment .... i- -n t ^ n 
 
 value of of an inferior quality as will be seen from the table, 
 " shows an enormous increase in the illuminating power, 
 which is increased to about three times the original 
 power. The table shows the amount to which the 
 illuminating power is increased in connection with 
 each sort of burner separately, as no standard figures 
 could be arrived at. Thus, for instance, a small burner 
 is less advantageous for a lighter gas than a large one, 
 whilst a large burner cannot be employed at all for a 
 
 646 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 heavy gas. The photometric tests were intentionally 
 conducted with the classes of burners now generally in 
 use for lighting railway carriages, no special burners 
 being employed. Each burner was adjusted to pro- 
 duce a full flame without considering the pressure at 
 which the gas burned, and without taking into con- 
 sideration the question as to whether the size of the 
 flame was the most advantageous possible with regard 
 to the consumption of gas and the illuminating power. 
 
 It will be further seen from the table that the 
 admixture of a greater percentage of acetylene does 
 not show a proportionately favourable increase of illu- 
 minating power. In view of the fact that it is just 
 the inferior sort of oil gas which would be improved 
 first of all, the inferior kind now very commonly used, 
 and that a mixture of this gas with 20 per cent, of 
 acetylene burnt through a No. 40, the burner now 
 most in use on the railway systems will increase the 
 lighting power to three times its present value, it 
 will be acknowledged that such an increase of light- 
 ing power will represent a tremendous progress in 
 railway carriage lighting. 
 
 Pure coal gas cannot be photometrically measured 
 in the small oil gas burner, because it burns through 
 these burners with a blue flame ; but on mixing 30 
 per cent, of acetylene with the coal gas a considerable 
 increase in the illuminating power of the flame was 
 attained through various oil gas burners, further par- 
 ticulars of which are shown at end, Table II. This table 
 shows further that a mixture of 30 per cent, of acety- 
 lene and 70 per cent, of coal gas showed an illuminat- 
 ing power equal to that of oil gas when burnt alone. 
 
 If, therefore, the railways employ a mixture of coal 
 gas and acetylene, they would be able to attain a light 
 about equal to oil gas lights in a very simple manner 
 by merely putting up an acetylene generator and 
 suitable means for compressing gas at such points 
 
 647 
 
 Description 
 of the 
 
 photometric 
 methods 
 employed 
 
 The most 
 
 economical 
 
 mixtures 
 
 to use 
 
 The use of 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 diluted with 
 
 coal gas for 
 
 railway 
 
 carriage 
 
 lighting 
 
oB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion of the 
 light power of 
 mixture, to that 
 of pure gas oil. 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 CN 05 TH TH 
 
 Cp O5 O5 
 
 TH CO CO CO 
 
 SO CM 
 O O5 
 
 cb 10 ib 
 
 lb CO CM CO 
 
 O ^ ^ 0} 
 
 $ 
 
 rH 
 
 TH 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 fc 
 
 be p^ ^ ~ 
 
 t> 
 
 l> 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 (M 
 
 (M 
 
 TH 
 
 TH 
 
 lip 
 
 4 o 
 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 ^ __ 
 
 , 
 
 ,__ 
 
 ^_ , 
 
 ^_ t 
 
 rt 
 2 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I| S 
 
 CM CO 
 TH 05 CO 
 
 8iH CM O 
 CO 05 TH 
 
 o t>co 
 
 THTHCO 
 
 SS5? 
 
 O iH iH 
 
 TH :o i>- 
 
 SSog 
 
 Sl 
 
 CO O5 CM CO 
 CM 00 b- CO 
 
 Ifa 
 
 TH CO TH 
 
 T-\ 
 
 TH 
 
 CM CO TH 
 
 TH CO (M (M 
 
 TH TH (M 
 
 CM CM TH TH 
 
 TH TH CM 
 
 CM -rH TH TH 
 
 j o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jl 
 
 O5 CO 
 CO 00 (M 
 CO CO CO 
 
 Tt 
 
 CO?I>TH 
 TH (N CO CO 
 
 1;- CO l~ 
 
 :p t> cp cp 
 
 COCOO.O 
 
 1I S 
 
 CM lO (M (M 
 
 l^ O O lO 
 
 TH CM TH 
 
 O5 lO CO 
 
 CM 
 
 lO CD TH lO 
 00 TH 05 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g^-SoO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 p, o 
 
 1 P 00 O5 
 CO TH CO 
 
 O5 1 PCO O 
 ^.HCOCD 
 
 t2 ob co 
 
 rH 
 
 oo Scb 
 
 CM CM CO f^ 
 
 CO 
 
 O5 CO CM 
 
 05 CM ^P 1 ? 
 
 fin 
 
 TH O 00 
 COCO CM 
 
 TH TH lO lO 
 (M TH TH OJ 
 
 S8S 
 
 iH CO vO lO 
 (M TH TH (M 
 
 CMiOlO 
 ^i CC CO 
 
 ^SS8 
 
 33 
 
 TH CO lO CO 
 CM TH TH 05 
 
 a 
 
 311 
 
 SS .s 
 
 8I 
 
 3838 
 
 8I 
 
 lO C> C> <^> 
 
 TH co TH CD 
 
 3 
 
 iCO OO 
 iH CO TH CD 
 
 Kind of 
 Burner. 
 
 jtj 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 Ordinary Oil 
 Gas Burner. 
 
 Bray Burner. 
 
 Ordinary Oil 
 Gas Burner. 
 
 Bray Burner. 
 
 Ordinary Oil 
 Gas Burner. 
 
 1 
 
 PQ 
 
 Ordinary Oil 
 Gas Burner. 
 
 
 
 s . 
 
 cB 
 
 o> 
 
 3 
 
 <z> 
 fl 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Jl 
 
 2 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 I 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 r3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 / H 
 
 
 . 
 
 49 
 
 . 
 
 ^3 
 
 . 
 
 
 S 
 
 jH 
 
 S | 
 
 a 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 A 
 
 8^ 
 
 & 
 
 B, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 B, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 TH 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 8 
 
 648 
 
M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion of the 
 light power of 
 mixture, to that 
 of pure gas oil. 
 
 X CO TH 
 CD CM iO 
 CO ifo t> 
 
 TH O5 CO' "* 
 r^ iO CM p 
 CO TP CO CO 
 
 O rH O 
 
 TH 00 CO 
 
 I- CO lO CO 
 
 corn coco 
 
 m 
 
 T^ * 
 
 
 |l! 
 
 co 
 
 rfi 
 
 TH 
 
 s 
 
 TH 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ! i 
 
 do ib co CM CM 
 
 M Sfrt ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ , ^ 
 
 x . 
 
 ^^, 
 
 _c__^ 
 
 ,~*~x 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 O ti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Urtg 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GO I> Ot> 00 iO 
 
 IK s 
 
 l^Olrf 
 CM TH GO 
 
 ^s^^ 
 
 i-H rH rH 
 
 G5 t> O !>. 
 
 GO CO rfl CM 
 
 38 
 
 ??l 1 
 
 O5 CO -* CO CO 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 
 
 S" S 
 
 THrHTH 
 
 
 ^THTH 
 
 THTHTHTH 
 
 ooo 
 
 o o 
 
 Oi iO O t^ CO 
 
 JSJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ iO CO CM CM 
 
 Candle 
 Power. 
 
 TH CM iO 
 
 CMiOOiip 
 O CO TH l-^ 
 TH TH CM T}1 
 
 ip qa qq 
 
 X CO TH iO 
 
 cb CM cc 
 
 TH TH 00 
 
 COCM 1 
 
 I||s 
 
 sic . 
 
 
 iO 
 
 
 
 
 
 l>- . iO CO 
 
 c "- 1 
 
 (X^ ^^ 
 
 
 (-O ^^ ^-j 
 
 iO 
 
 CO iO i-^ 
 
 (*Ts *^ 1 1 
 
 1 CO ^ QD 1 
 
 
 CO iO r}i 
 
 TH TH CO CO 
 
 CD iO CM 
 
 o ?a co o 
 
 o co 10 
 
 S TH | | 
 
 iO I 1 I iO 
 
 % S 2^ 
 
 00 
 
 CM CO 
 
 CO rji 
 
 01 
 
 rH !> 
 
 Ol 
 
 CO L CO ^"^ T-H 
 
 ^s- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _! 
 
 (*, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 go 
 
 Jpl 
 
 S99 
 
 ?3 TH TH CO 
 
 %%% 
 
 ssss 
 
 COCO 00 
 
 ss 1 1 
 
 s^sas 
 
 i 
 
 8I 
 
 100 oo 
 
 TH CO Ttl CO 
 
 si 
 
 ,8.8 
 
 8 
 
 3838 
 
 S8 .8 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 . 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 o * 
 
 s| 
 
 
 r-J 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 ig 
 
 fl 
 
 cep 
 
 PQ 
 
 *ffl 
 
 PQ 
 
 03 PQ 
 
 ^w 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 rS 
 
 ^ 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 I s 
 
 | 
 
 ?| 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 o> 
 
 
 
 a) 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 2 rj 
 
 
 tt 
 
 o 
 
 fl5 
 
 (-H 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 o5 
 
 O r^J 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 P! 
 
 <D 
 
 3 1* 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 <j 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 o ^ 
 
 
 : 
 
 ^ 
 
 _^J 
 
 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 C 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 (JJ p< 
 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 
 
 s s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 b 
 
 ^ 
 
 _! 
 
 
 r-j 
 
 rH ^, 
 
 
 S 
 
 H ri 
 
 & 
 
 ft 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 p. p t 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 g S 
 
 649 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Method of 
 
 making the 
 mixtures 
 
 Present 
 
 railway 
 
 lamps and 
 
 fittings 
 available 
 
 for 
 
 Acetylene 
 mixtures 
 
 The 
 
 propagation 
 of explosion 
 
 in pure 
 Acetylene 
 
 under 
 practical 
 conditions 
 
 of town 
 distribution 
 
 The intro- 
 duction of 
 mixtures of 
 oil gas and 
 Acetylene 
 into Eng- 
 land 
 
 where coal gas is now to be had, thus forming a 
 charging station for the railway carriages. 
 
 The mixture of acetylene with oil or coal gas is 
 effected by coupling two gas meters in the desired re- 
 lative proportions, feeding the gases separately to each 
 meter, and combining the systems at the rear of the 
 meters where the combined gas is drawn off by pumps. 
 In order to prevent the vibration from the pumps 
 being communicated to the gas-meters, a concussion 
 box is inserted in the system, as in the case of gas 
 motors. 
 
 Lamps, regulators, and in fact all the fittings now 
 applied in connection with the lighting of railway 
 carriages may remain unaltered. 
 
 Attempts have been made to determine by experi- 
 ment to what extent acetylene gas works, connected 
 up by pipe systems to private houses, would be liable 
 to explosion by fire caused in any one of the houses to 
 which the works are connected, or in the event of the 
 pipe system being accidentally heated to the tempera- 
 ture necessary for causing decomposition of the gas. 
 In order to ascertain this a gasholder was filled with 
 acetylene, and the gas blown out through a one-inch 
 pipe. The gasholder was again filled with pure acety- 
 lene, and the pipe leading to it heated to a temperature 
 exceeding that at which acetylene decomposes, at a 
 distance of one and a half metres from the gasholder, 
 the pipe being heated to white heat, without, however, 
 causing the propagation of the decomposition to the 
 holder. 
 
 In consequence of the great Continental success 
 of the admixture of 20 per cent, acetylene with oil 
 gas, application was lodged at the Home Office, by 
 Mr. F. Gr. Worth, to sanction such a mixture in 
 England under the ordinary railway carriage cylinder 
 pressure of 10 atmospheres. The safety of the mix- 
 ture, and of mixtures considerably richer in acetylene, 
 
 650 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 was completely established by a series of tests carried 
 out in the presence of the Home Office officials, and 
 in consequence, by an order of the Secretary of State, 
 dated March 28th, 1898, a mixture of oil gas with 
 20 per cent, of acetylene is allowed to be used at a 
 pressure not exceeding 150 Ib. on the square inch. 
 
 In order to determine the increase in illuminating 
 power given by various percentages of acetylene in 
 oil gas, and whether the mixture could be employed 
 with economy, the following experiments were in- 
 stituted by the author. Oil gas containing 20 per 
 cent, of acetylene was compressed into a cylinder 
 under a pressure of 10 atmospheres, some of the 
 orginal oil gas being also compressed in a second 
 cylinder to the same pressure. Both cylinders were 
 then blown off to 5 -8 atmospheres, and the illu- 
 minating power of each was taken under identical 
 conditions. The burner used was a " 40 litre " one, 
 and the results were as follows : 
 
 Photometric 
 experiments 
 on the value 
 of mixtures 
 of oil gas and 
 Acetylene in 
 England 
 
 Illuminating Value. 
 Pressure. Gas Consumption. Oil Gas. Oil Gas and Acetylene. 
 
 5-8 1 cub. ft. 7-4 15-6 
 
 Results 
 
 An analysis of the gas showed that the mixture 
 contained 22 per cent, of acetylene, although but 
 20 per cent, was originally added, the increase being 
 due to the loss of some of the oil gas, in which, under 
 pressure, some of the vapours of benzene and toluene 
 condense to the liquid state. Working from these 
 figures it will be seen that the addition of 22 per 
 cent, of acetylene caused an increase of illuminating 
 power of 110 per cent., or 100 per cent, with 20 per 
 cent, of acetylene. 
 
 651 
 
Composition 
 
 of the mixed 
 
 gases 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 ANALYSIS or MIXTURE OF OIL GAS AND ACETYLENE. 
 
 Hydrogen .... 
 Saturated hydrocarbons . 
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons 
 Carbon dioxide . 
 Carbon monoxide 
 Nitrogen .... 
 Oxygen .... 
 
 22-0 
 
 11-6 
 
 40-9 
 
 22-5 
 
 0-5 
 
 O'O 
 
 2-0 
 
 0-5 
 
 100-0 
 
 Conditions 
 of lighting 
 
 The value of original oil gas and the mixture of oil gas 
 with acetylene were next determined, photometrically, 
 in an ordinary railway carriage lamp, at angles below 
 the horizontal, on the Dibdin radial photometer. 
 
 An ordinary railway carriage is from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 
 in a railway 9 in. in width, and 8 ft. from door to door, whilst the 
 flame is as a rule about 7 ft. from the floor, the seats 
 being from 15 in. to 17 in. in height, which would 
 bring the paper or book one was trying to read as 
 nearly as possible 3 ft. from the floor. This gives an 
 angle of from 45 to 55 as the important one for the 
 rays which are to be utilised. 
 
 OIL GAS. 
 
 Illuminating 
 value of oil 
 
 gas at 
 angles be- 
 low the 
 horizontal 
 
 Angle. 
 
 Pressure. 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Candles. 
 
 Candles 
 per cub. ft. 
 
 Horizontal 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 7'4 
 
 3'7 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-2 
 
 4-1 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-2 
 
 4-1 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-2 
 
 4-1 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 7'6 
 
 3-8 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 7-8 
 
 3-9 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 Average candles per cub. ft., 3'9. 
 652 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 OlL GrAS AND ACETYLENE. 
 
 
 
 Illuminating 
 
 Gas. 
 
 n ,, Candles 
 Cand.es. per C ub. ft. 
 
 value of 
 mixed oil 
 
 
 
 
 gas and 
 
 2-0 
 
 17-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 Acetylene at 
 angles be- 
 
 
 
 17-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 low the 
 
 
 
 17-5 
 
 8-75 
 
 horizontal 
 
 
 
 18-0 
 
 9-0 
 
 
 
 
 170 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 
 
 17-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 
 
 17-0 
 
 8-5 
 
 
 
 
 16-5 
 
 8-25 
 
 
 
 
 16-5 
 
 8-25 
 
 
 Average candles per cub. ft., 8'5 ; 
 
 showing that the addition of 22 per cent, of acetylene 
 increases the illuminating power of the oil gas by 
 over 110 per cent, at all angles. 
 
 These figures show therefore that the addition of 
 the 20 per cent, of acetylene doubles the illuminating 
 value of the oil gas. 
 
 With regard to cost, as we have before seen, acety- 
 lene, at the present price of carbide, will cost about 
 1 185. to 2 per 1,000 on the holder, and 200 cub. ft. 
 will accordingly cost 7s. Sd. The compressed oil gas 
 costs from 6s. to 12s. per 1,000. "With oil gas at 8s. 
 per 1,000, 800 cub. ft. will cost 6s. 5d., so that the 
 total cost of 1,000 cub. ft. of the enriched gas will 
 be 14s. Id. ; but as the illuminating value of the 
 mixture is double that of the plain oil gas, there is an 
 economy of Is. lid. per 1,000. As the oil gas is 
 dearer, the saving will be greater, and vice versa, 
 so that with cheap oil gas the addition of acetylene 
 would not pay. With oil gas at 6s. 6d. per 1,000 
 there is practically no difference ; but the advantages 
 accruing from the use of acetylene would make the 
 mixture more desirable than the plain gas. Amongst 
 the advantages are these that the cylinders would 
 last for double the length of time they would with 
 
 653 
 
 The eco- 
 
 of oil gas 
 
 and 
 Acetylene 
 
 The advan- 
 tages of 
 using en- 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 riched oil 
 gas for car- 
 riage light- 
 ing 
 
 Necessity for 
 
 enrichment 
 
 with coal 
 
 gas 
 
 Methods of 
 
 enrichment 
 
 employed 
 
 with coal 
 
 gas 
 
 the oil gas with the same charge, and there would not 
 be so much formation of liquid hydrocarbons, due 
 to compression, with consequent revaporizing when 
 the pressure is reduced, thus causing inequality in the 
 illuminating power. 
 
 There are other fields, however, where, in the future, 
 diluted acetylene may play an important part. 
 
 In large towns like London, where the Gras Com- 
 panies have to supply a gas of specific illuminating 
 power, and where the gas is continually subjected to 
 photometric tests at stations spread over the whole area 
 supplied, any deficiency in the lighting power of the gas 
 being visited with rigorously enforced penalties, enrich- 
 ment in some form or other becomes a practical neces- 
 sity. In London the gas has to have an illuminating 
 power of 16 candles, and in order to ensure this over 
 the enormous area supplied, the gas must be sent out 
 from the works testing up to 17 to 17*5 candles. 
 With sea-borne Durham coals of the character largely 
 used in the Metropolis for gas-making, the illuminat- 
 ing value of the gas will be about 15 candles, but as 
 the Act which governs the gas supply of London 
 enforces the illuminating value of 16 candles, whilst 
 in many other towns the standard is still higher, the 
 gas manager has to enrich the gas by from 1J to 2 
 candles before he can with safety send it out for dis- 
 tribution. This enrichment may be done in several 
 ways 
 
 1. By the admixture of a certain percentage of cannel coal 
 
 with the original coal. 
 
 2. By carburetting the coal gas with the vapours of 
 
 volatile hydrocarbons. 
 
 3. By oil gas. 
 
 4. By mixing the coal gas with carburetted water gas. 
 
 And it is evident that if acetylene could be produced 
 at a reasonablej3ost, the ease of its production, and 
 freedom from all risk of condensation, taken in con- 
 
 654 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 junction with its wonderful illuminating power, would 
 make it the enricher par excellence of the future. 
 
 In many localities, however, the grade of coals 
 required for making the coal gas is very dear, with 
 the result that the price of the coal gas is almost 
 prohibitive ; and if in such places some other diluent 
 than coal gas could be found for acetylene, it would 
 at once command a large and lucrative field of opera- 
 tion. 
 
 This is even more the case on the Continent than 
 in England, and many hundreds of small towns and 
 villages, which are at present without a gas supply, 
 offer a boundless field for any system which will yield 
 an ordinary illuminating gas for distribution at a 
 reasonable price, the utilisation of pure acetylene 
 being limited and hampered by its cost. Many sug- 
 gestions have been made and experiments tried in 
 order to ascertain how best to dilute the acetylene, 
 whilst at the same time keeping the illuminating 
 value up to that of ,a rich coal gas ; but they have 
 all failed, from the causes enumerated in the earlier 
 part of this chapter. 
 
 It is clearly shown by the experiments on enrich- 
 ment, given on pages 624, 625, that in order to develop 
 the illuminating value of the acetvlene in gaseous 
 
 . . . \ J 
 
 mixtures, it is absolutely necessary to have present a 
 certain percentage of methane in the diluting gas, and 
 the author has always felt that if such a gas could 
 be rapidly and cheaply made it would open up a wide 
 field of utility for the acetylene. 
 
 If superheated steam be injected into a mass of 
 incandescent carbon, the mixture of carbon monoxide 
 and hydrogen, known as water gas, is produced. 
 This is useless as a diluent for acetylene, as it requires 
 the addition of a large percentage before any lumi- 
 nosity is developed ; but if tar, crude oil, or any other 
 form of cheap hydrocarbon be steam-injected into the 
 
 655 
 
 A great field 
 
 The neces- 
 
 f certain 
 proportion 
 
 of methane 
 
 any diiut- 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Method for 
 making a 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 fuel a few inches below its surface, the water gas 
 produced forms a skin round the hydrocarbon spray 
 and protects it from complete decomposition into 
 carbon and hydrogen, large volumes of methane, the 
 most stable of the compounds of hydrogen and carbon, 
 being produced. 
 
 The gas so generated consists of a mixture of carbon 
 monoxide, hydrogen, and methane, with small quan- 
 tities of impurities, the following analysis giving 
 an idea of its composition : 
 
 Composition 
 of the dilut- 
 ing gas 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Carbon monoxide 
 
 Methane and other hydrocarbons 
 
 Carbon dioxide, etc. . 
 
 518 
 
 14-2 
 
 81-4 
 
 2-6 
 
 100-0 
 
 and extended working with a plant capable of making 
 200,000 cub. ft. a day showed that the gas could be 
 made at a cost of 8d. per 1,000 on this scale. A large 
 company, making their own carbide, could make an 
 initial profit of over 4 a ton by taking concessions 
 for the lighting of small towns and debiting the 
 works with the carbide at 12 per ton. 
 
 Acetylene A ton of good carbide yields 11,000 cub. ft. of acety- 
 for diluting j ene so that it costs, say, 25s. per 1,000 when labour 
 
 by such a ' i . 11 I, 
 
 gas and charges on plant are allowed for. 
 
 The diluting gas has an initial illuminating power 
 of 8 to 10 candles per 5 cub. ft., and the addition of 
 6 to 7 per cent, of acetylene to it brings it up to a 
 good 18 candle gas, splendidly adapted for burning 
 alone in flat flames or argands, for cooking or for 
 incandescent mantles, and having nearly the same 
 specific gravity, rate of flow through mains, etc., as 
 coal gas, and being perfectly permanent, showing no 
 condensation or loss of illuminating power in cold 
 weather. 
 
 656 
 
UTILISATION OF DILUTED ACETYLENE 
 
 . s. d. 
 200,000 cub. ft. of diluting gas, at Sd. per 
 
 1,000, costs 6 13 4 
 
 13,000 cub. ft. of acetylene, at 25s. per 1,000, 
 
 costs . 16 5 
 
 22 18 4 
 
 213,000 cub. ft. of 18-candle gas costs 22 18s. 4cL 
 or 1,000 costs 2s. 2d. in the holder. Allowing IQd. a 
 1,000 for distribution and capital charges, this gas 
 could be sold at 4s. a 1,000, leaving a profit of Is. 
 per 1,000. 
 
 In the experiments on which these figures are based 
 the fuel employed in the generator was poor gas coke 
 at Ws. per ton and crude oil at %d. per gallon, and it 
 was found that a 10- to 12-candle power gas made on 
 the same scale cost 9Jd. to W^d. per 1,000, yielding 
 a proportionately higher illuminating power when 
 enriched by the same quantity of acetylene. "Where 
 anthracite is cheap, as in the South Wales district, 
 this would be found far better than coke. 
 
 Taking the English Gas Companies 
 
 31 Companies charge less than 2s. Qd. per 1000 c. ft. for gas. 
 
 The eco- 
 nomic con- 
 ditions of 
 such a gas 
 supply 
 
 104 
 
 331 
 
 381 
 
 326 
 
 139 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 from 2s. Qd. to 2.9. lid. 
 
 3s. Qd. to 3s. lid. 
 
 4s. Qd. to 4s. lie?. 
 
 5s. Qd. to 5s. lid. 
 
 6s. Qd. to 6s. lid 
 
 Is. Qd. to Is. lid. 
 
 8s. Qd. to 8s. lid. 
 over 10s. 
 
 The charges 
 for Coal gas 
 in England 
 
 So that even amongst existent Companies there is 
 ample scope for some such process, should the produc- 
 tion of carbide reach an output that left a surplus 
 over the demand. 
 
 Carbide of aluminium is decomposed by warm water 
 with evolution of methane, whilst under the same 
 circumstances carbide of manganese yields a mixture 
 of methane and hydrogen ; and in 1896 the author 
 
 657 42 
 
 The 
 
 generation 
 of diluted 
 acetylene 
 
 from mixed 
 carbides 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 proposed the use of carbide of calcium, mixed with 
 carbide of aluminium or carbide of manganese, to 
 generate diluted acetylene in ordinary generators, the 
 heat evolved by the decomposition of the calcium 
 carbide decomposing the others. He also pointed out 
 that by mixing black oxide of manganese and excess 
 of carbon with the carbide material in the electric 
 furnace a saving of electrical energy could be obtained 
 and a mixed carbide produced, which, by evolving 
 diluted acetylene, would do away with the trouble of 
 smoking at the burner. 
 
 D tneiime f ^k e introduction * acetylene installations on a 
 residue trom large scale at once brings into prominence the trouble 
 ^ dealing w ^^ the ^ me residue from the generator. 
 At first it was hoped that this would prove valuable 
 as a manure ; but in practice it has been found that 
 in the condition of semi-sludge in which it leaves the 
 generator the water present contains some acetylene 
 in solution, and this has an injurious effect on plant 
 life, whilst, as it holds excess of water for a consider- 
 able time, its weight adds to the expense of cartage. 
 The best way to treat it, where space is available, 
 is to leave it on the ground until air-dried and 
 weathered, after which it can be used on clay soil 
 with advantage. In installations in small country 
 houses where cesspool drainage is used it can be put 
 direct into the cesspit, upon which it has a sweetening 
 influence, and renders the deposit, when judiciously 
 used, of manurial value. 
 
 installations 
 
 658 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL FOR 
 
 CARBIDE MANUFACTURE 
 AND OF CARBIDE AND ACETYLENE 
 
 AS our knowledge of the importance of using pure 
 material in the manufacture of calcium carbide 
 has increased, the necessity for definite know- 
 ledge as to the composition of the material, and the 
 importance of constant analyses of the ingredients 
 employed, and of the carbide produced, has been more 
 and more realised. 
 
 In a well-arranged carbide factory, not only should 
 every fresh consignment of lime and coke be analysed, 
 but the carbide before packing should be sorted and 
 blended with the same care that is bestowed on a 
 modern prism powder. Hardly any works produce 
 a uniform quality of carbide. In running furnaces, 
 the run or tapped carbide, and the ingot removed from 
 the furnace when it has become too choked to run, 
 vary considerably in their gas-yielding properties ; 
 whilst with ingot furnaces several grades of carbide 
 are formed, varying from the 99 per cent, carbide in 
 the centre of the ingot to the 30 per cent, crust near 
 the exterior ; and unless proper blending is resorted to 
 in order to give a constant quality for distribution, 
 discontent is soon manifested by the consumer, who 
 does not fail to notice that on several occasions a 
 charge of carbide in his generator nearly fills the 
 
 659 
 
 Importance 
 
 of chemical 
 
 analysis in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 manu- 
 facture 
 
 Varying 
 qualities of 
 
 Carbide 
 produced, 
 
 and 
 
 importance 
 of proper 
 blending 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Causes 
 tending to 
 the use of 
 
 inferior 
 material in 
 
 Carbide 
 
 making 
 
 Analysis of 
 coke 
 
 Taking a 
 
 sample for 
 
 analysis 
 
 Determina - 
 
 tlons 
 required 
 
 holder with gas, whilst on another day the same 
 quantity of material barely gives half the yield. 
 
 Before purification was introduced, the carbide 
 maker, knowing that directly , the phosphuretted 
 hydrogen in the gas rose above 0*1 per cent, a haze 
 would be formed in any small ill- ventilated rooms in 
 which the gas was burnt, felt the importance of pure 
 material in order to keep below this limit ; but now 
 that the blame can be passed on to there being no 
 purifier used, or to its being ineffective, there is the 
 risk that in view of the increasing difficulty of ob- 
 taining good carbonaceous material for the carbide 
 manufacture, and the high price of good lime in some 
 localities, the precautions may be relaxed. 
 
 In describing the analytical processes that may be 
 used by those interested in carbide and acetylene, it 
 will be well to commence with the crude materials. 
 
 THE ANALYSIS OF COKE OR COAL. 
 
 Sampling. The whole value of the analysis as repre- 
 senting the average quality of a consignment depends 
 upon this operation, and during the unloading of the 
 barge or truck, pieces should be taken at frequent 
 intervals from the mass; these can then be roughly 
 broken down and mixed, portions being again taken 
 from every part of the mixture. These portions are 
 finely ground, and the powder spread in a layer on 
 clean glazed paper, and about 300 grams taken from 
 various parts of the spread-out mass with a spatula, 
 and placed in a well -ground stoppered bottle, carefully 
 labelled to denote origin and date of arrival. 
 
 It is best to sieve the powdered coke through a 
 wire sieve of small mesh, about 90 to the inch, and 
 take only the portion which passes through for the 
 analysis. 
 
 In the coke analysis for carbide manufacture, the 
 following may be estimated water (moisture), ash, 
 
 660 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 sulphur, phosphorus, carbon. In the ash, silicic acid 
 and magnesia may also be determined. 
 
 Should an analysis of an anthracite or coal which 
 it is proposed to coke for carbide manufacture be de- 
 sired, in addition to the above estimations, the amount 
 of volatile matter should also be determined. 
 
 Determination of moisture. About 2 or 3 grams of 
 the finely powdered coke are heated in a weighing 
 tube in an air bath, first at 110 C. for one or two 
 hours, and then at 200 C. till the weight is constant. 
 The difference gives the amount of moisture contained 
 in the coke. 
 
 Generally it is most convenient to carry out the 
 operation in a platinum crucible, since the same 
 sample may afterwards be used for the determination 
 of the ash. 
 
 In the case of coal, the air bath should not be 
 heated above a temperature of 105 C. and the crucible 
 and contents must be weighed at intervals, since after 
 a time an increase of weight is often found. The 
 lowest result must always be taken for calculating 
 the loss due to moisture. 
 
 Determination of volatile and combustible matter in 
 coal. Place the crucible and dried coal over the 
 bunsen flame and raise it to a bright red heat, care 
 being taken that the crucible lid fits. After heating 
 in this way for three minutes, transfer to the blow- 
 pipe and heat strongly for the same period, not 
 allowing the crucible and contents to cool between 
 the heatings. Cool in desiccator and weigh. 
 
 Various methods have been proposed for this esti- 
 mation, but on the whole the above gives the best 
 results. It cannot, however, be regarded as giving 
 more than an approximation of the coke yield which 
 may be expected in any type of oven. Under the 
 same treatment, moreover, different estimations made 
 with the same sample of coal often vary somewhat ; 
 
 661 
 
 The 
 
 estimation 
 of moisture 
 ( ) in coke 
 
 ( 6 ) in coal 
 
 Estimation 
 of the 
 volatile 
 matter only 
 approxi- 
 mate 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Determina- 
 tion of ash 
 
 Calculation 
 of results 
 
 therefore it is advisable in important cases to make 
 more than one estimation. 
 
 Determination of the ash. The dried coke, from the 
 estimation of moisture, or the coal after treatment 
 for volatile matter, is heated directly over the bunsen 
 flame, in the platinum crucible with the lid removed, 
 until the carbon is completely burnt away. The 
 action is accelerated by placing the crucible well on 
 its side, and from time to time giving it a gentle turn 
 so that a fresh surface may be exposed. After cooling 
 and weighing, add a small quantity of alcohol, when 
 any unburnt carbon will float. Should indication be 
 given that the combustion has not been complete, 
 evaporate the alcohol and again ignite. 
 
 Example. Moisture, volatile matter and fixed car- 
 bon, and ash of coal. 
 
 Moisture. Platinum crucible and coal . 43'8156 gr. 
 cover . 41-8561 
 
 Coal . . T-9595 
 Weight of crucible at intervals 
 43-7758 
 43-7743 
 43-7723 
 43-7747 
 
 Crucible and coal 
 Lowest weight of crucible and coal 
 
 Moisture 
 
 43-8156 
 43-7723 
 
 0-0433 
 
 ,, . ^ 0-0433 x 100 o 
 
 Moisture per cent. - - = 2*20 per cent. 
 
 1-9595 
 
 Volatile matter. 
 
 Platinum crucible and dry coal 
 , coke 
 
 43-7723 
 43-6073 
 
 Volatile matter per cent. 
 
 0-1650 x 100 
 
 1-9595 
 or 100 parts of coal lose 8'42 + 2'20 = 10'62; 
 
 then 100 - 10'62 = 89'38 = coke yield. 
 
 0-1650 
 8"42 per cent. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Crucible, cover, and ash 
 and cover . 
 
 Ash per cent 
 
 .0-2059 x 100 
 1-9595 
 662 
 
 . 42-0620 
 . 41-8561 
 
 0-2059 
 = 10"50 per cent. 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATEEIAL 
 
 Determination of total sulphur. One gram of the 
 very finely powdered coke is mixed with one gram of 
 magnesia and 0'5 gram of sodium carbonate in a 
 platinum crucible with a glass rod. The crucible is 
 heated for an hour so that only the bottom is red hot. 
 After the coke is burnt the residue is of a brownish 
 colour. This is put into a beaker with water, and 
 bromine water added until the liquid becomes yellow. 
 It is then boiled until the yellow colour disappears, 
 and filtered. The bromine must be free from sulphur. 
 The filtrate is made acid with hydrochloric acid, and 
 whilst boiling is precipitated with hot barium chloride 
 solution, the precipitate so obtained being then 
 washed and ignited. 
 
 The amount of sulphur is calculated from the 
 barium sulphate obtained. 
 
 BaS0 4 : S 
 233 : 32 = BaSO 4 found : x 
 
 32 x BaS0 4 found 
 
 x = - 
 
 233 
 
 x = 0-1373 x BaS0 4 found 
 P = quantity of coke used. 
 P : 0-1373 x BaSO 4 found = 100 : x 
 x = 13-73 xBaS0 4 found = ^ 
 
 Example 
 
 Quantity of coke taken = T1720 gr. 
 BaSO 4 found = O'OGIO gr. 
 
 Estimation 
 of Sulphur 
 
 of 
 
 x 
 
 13-73 x 0-0610 
 1-172 
 
 = 0'715 per cent, sulphur. 
 
 Calculation 
 
 of the 
 
 percentage 
 
 of Sulphur 
 
 from the 
 
 weight of 
 
 Barium 
 
 Sulphate 
 
 in the coke 
 or coal 
 
 Determination of phosphorus. The phosphorus is best Estimation 
 estimated in the ash. A sufficient quantity, say 
 10 grams of coke, is first incinerated in a platinum 
 crucible, and the ash obtained heated for five to eight 
 hours with hydrochloric acid on the water bath, and 
 finally evaporated to dryness. A fresh quantity of 
 hydrochloric acid is added to the residue, and then 
 water, and after heating the mixture is filtered. The 
 
 663 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 filtrate is evaporated with excess of nitric acid to 
 convert everything present to nitrates, it is evaporated 
 to dryness, more nitric acid and water added, and the 
 solution is precipitated with ammonium molybdate, 
 prepared by dissolving 30 grams of the salt in 200 
 c.c. of water with the addition of 200 grams of nitric 
 acid, sp. gr. 1'2. The ammonium molybdate must 
 always be in large excess. This liquid in the presence 
 of small quantities of phosphoric acid turns yellow 
 without precipitation, and to ensure the complete 
 reaction, the solution is kept on the sand bath for 
 at least four hours, or it may be allowed to stand in 
 a warm place during the night. A small quantity 
 of the liquid should be removed by a pipette, ammo- 
 nium molybdate added and the liquid warmed, to 
 ensure that all phosphorus has been precipitated. De- 
 Treatment cant the clear liquid through a small filter, disturbing 
 Molybdate tne precipitate as little as possible. "Wash well by 
 precipitate decantation with a solution of 1 volume of ammonium 
 molybdate to 4 volumes of water. Continue until the 
 washings give no precipitate with excess of ammonia. 
 Precipita- Dissolve the precipitate in the beaker with a small 
 Phosphate quantity of ammonia, and pass through filter paper, 
 by Magnesia washing thoroughly. Add hydrochloric acid until 
 the precipitate which forms only disappears slowly, 
 then reprecipitate, in the cold, with magnesia mixture, 
 prepared by dissolving 101 grams magnesium chloride 
 (crystals) and 200 grams ammonium chloride in 800 
 c.c. of water, and adding 200 c.c. ammonia sp. grav. '880. 
 After standing for some time, add a fair bulk of am- 
 monia. To ensure completion the precipitate has to 
 stand for four to five hours. It is then filtered and 
 thoroughly washed with dilute ammonia, prepared by 
 mixing 1 volume of ammonia (sp. gr. 0'96) with 3 
 volumes of water. The washing is finished when the 
 filtrate gives no precipitate with silver nitrate after 
 making acid with nitric acid. The precipitate is 
 
 664 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATEEIAL 
 
 dried and gently heated in a platinum or porcelain 
 crucible, after having burnt the filter paper. The 
 cover of the crucible is put on and the heating con- 
 tinued slowly and gently. When the decomposition 
 is finished the precipitate is strongly heated, first 
 without and then with the cover on. The magnesium 
 ammonium phosphate is changed into magnesium 
 pyrophosphate with evolution of ammonia and water. 
 Should the precipitate after ignition be dark in 
 colour, just moisten with strong nitric acid, drive off 
 the acid, and again ignite. 
 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 : 2P Calculation 
 
 222 : 62 = Mg 2 P 2 7 found : x resuHs 
 
 x = O2793 x Mg 2 P 2 O 7 grs. phosphorus 
 P = quantity of coke 
 P : 0-2793 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found = 100 : x 
 x = 27'93 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found = per ^ phosphorus . 
 
 Example 
 
 Quantity of coke taken = 12'557 gr. 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 found = 0-024 gr. 
 
 = . 053 per centi phosphorus. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE ASH. 
 
 Estimation of Silica. About 1 gram of the ash is Estimation 
 heated on the water bath wibh strong hydrochloric 
 acid and evaporated nearly to dry ness. This is re- 
 peated three times. The residue is dissolved in hydro- 
 chloric acid, some water added, and filtered. The 
 precipitate is well washed with boiling water, and 
 ignited on the platinum crucible and weighed. 
 
 P = quantity of ash 
 P : SiO 2 found = 100 : x 
 x = 10 x Si0 2 found 
 
 Example 
 
 Amount of ash = 1-2236 
 Si0 2 found = 0'5926 
 
 KQ-Ofj 
 
 & = 48-43 per cent. Si0 2 
 665 
 
ACETYLENE 
 Estimation Determination of iron and alumina. The filtrate 
 
 of Iron and , . .- . 
 
 Alumina in irom the silicic acid is precipitated with ammonia, 
 the ash dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and reprecipitated. 
 The precipitate contains iron hydroxide, aluminium 
 hydroxide, and phosphoric acid, united with iron or 
 alumina. The precipitate is filtered and well washed 
 with boiling water, the filtrate being reserved for 
 the estimation of magnesium. The precipitate is 
 placed with the paper in a platinum crucible, dried, 
 incinerated, ignited, and weighed. The weight re- 
 presents the sum of the oxides of iron and alumina 
 and the phosphates. The weight of phosphorus being 
 known in the coke may be calculated as P 2 5 in the 
 ash. 
 
 Dctormina- The iron is determined by titration. The precipi- 
 by titration kate i g dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the solution 
 of ferric and aluminium chloride filtered. The filter 
 generally retains a small amount of silicic acid, which 
 is well washed, dried, ignited, and weighed, the weight 
 being added to the amount previously obtained. The 
 filtrate is made up to 100 c.c. by dilution, and a defi- 
 nite quantity of it, say 20 c.c., is taken in a flask, a 
 piece of pure zinc is added, and meanwhile a current 
 of carbon dioxide is passed through in order to prevent 
 the action of atmospheric oxygen on the solution. 
 The nascent hydrogen reduces the iron to ferrous 
 chloride ; a few grams of manganous sulphate are 
 added to prevent the action of the permanganic acid 
 on the hydrochloric acid when titrating with potassium 
 permanganate. The permanganate solution contains 
 0*00316 gram of potassium permanganate to 1 c.c., 
 and 1 c.c. of this corresponds to 0-0056 gram of iron. 
 The permanganate solution is added to the iron solu- 
 tion from a burette till pink. The amount of iron, 
 when a = the number of c.c. of permanganate solution, 
 0*0056 x a. As 20 c.c. or a fifth were taken, the total 
 amount of iron will be 
 
 666 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 0-0056 x a x 5 = 0'028a 
 or the total amount of Fe 2 3 = 0'028a x 1-4286. 
 
 The weight of the precipitate of iron oxide, alu- 
 minium oxide, and phosphates = R ; the weight of 
 the phosphorus calculated on P 2 5 = A. 
 
 E, = A + 0-028 a x 1-4286 + X 
 
 X = E - A - 0-028 a x 1-4286 = gr. A1 2 O 3 . 
 
 Example. It was found that the ash gave 0-024 
 gram Mg 2 P 2 7 , and this multiplied by 0-6396 = the 
 quantity of P 2 5 = 0-024 x 0-63756 - 0-0153 gram 
 PA = A. 
 
 The quantity of Fe 2 O 3 was found, a = 3'77 c.c. 
 Fe 2 3 = 0-028 x 3'77 x 1-4286 = O1509 Fe 2 3 
 R = 0-3076 
 
 X = 0-3076 - 0-0153 - 0-1509 
 X = A1 2 3 = 0-1414 
 
 The quantity of ash was 1-2236. 
 
 1-2236 
 1-2236 
 
 0-1509 = 100 
 0-1414 = 100 
 
 x. x = % Fe 2 3 = 12-33. 
 x. x = % A1 2 3 - 11-56. 
 
 Manganese. If this is present, estimate the silica, 
 iron and aluminium oxides, etc., as above, then take 
 a fresh portion of the ash, treat as before to remove 
 silica, nearly neutralise the solution with sodium car- 
 bonate, . add excess of sodium acetate, or ammonium 
 acetate, and boil for a short time. The iron and 
 alumina will precipitate as basic acetates ; filter off, 
 and to the solution add bromine water and then am- 
 monia, heat for a short time, filter, and wash. Ignite 
 the precipitate strongly with free access of air, and 
 weigh. The precipitate, after strongly heating, is 
 Mn 3 4 . 
 
 Calcium Oxide. The filtrate from the iron and 
 alumina, or from the manganese if present, is raised 
 to nearly the boiling point, and excess of hot am- 
 monium oxalate added. Boil for a short time, and 
 allow to stand for some hours. Filter and thoroughly 
 
 667 
 
 Calculation 
 of the 
 results 
 
 Example of 
 method of 
 calculation 
 
 Estimation 
 
 of 
 
 Manganese 
 in the ash 
 
 Estimation 
 of Lime 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 wash with hot water. Heat the precipitate over the 
 bunsen flame for some minutes, and finally over the 
 blowpipe till the weight is constant. Weigh as CaO. 
 The quantity of lime present is obviously of no 
 consequence to the carbide maker, but as it must 
 always be removed before estimating the magnesia, it 
 is little trouble to make the estimation. 
 
 CaO found x 100 
 ^Weight of ash ~ ^ a ^ cium oxl de per cent, in ash. 
 
 Estimation Magnesia. Evaporate the filtrate from the lime 
 a estimation nearly to dryness, moisten with hydro- 
 chloric acid, and then take to complete dryness. 
 Ignite in a platinum dish, in small quantities at a 
 time, to drive off any large quantity of ammonium 
 chloride, and also to render any silica, which fre- 
 quently dissolves from the glass in the alkaline solu- 
 tions, insoluble. Moisten the residue with hydrochloric 
 acid, add hot water and run through a small filter. 
 Add ammonia till alkaline, and then sodium phosphate. 
 Ammonium magnesium phosphate is obtained. Treat 
 as in the estimation of phosphorus. 
 
 Calculation Mg 2 P 2 O 7 : 2MgO 
 
 of the 222 : 80 = Mg 2 P 2 7 found : X 
 
 X = O3604 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found 
 P : 0-3604 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found = 100 : X 
 
 v ^ nr ^ ^ i. 36 '4 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found. 
 
 X=per cent. MgO in the ash & p - 
 
 Example 
 
 Weight of ash used^O'8256 gr. 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 found=0-0078 gr. 
 
 36*04 x '0078 
 
 =0-34= per cent, of MgO. 
 
 ANALYSIS or THE LIME OR LIMESTONE. 
 
 Analysis of The most important estimations are phosphorus, 
 t Limewtone r su lp nur ? an d magnesia, and, to a smaller extent, 
 used in alumina, since these are the substances concerned in 
 the production of phosphorus compounds, sulphur 
 
 668 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 compounds, and ammonia in the gas generated from 
 the carbide. 
 
 In preparing the lime for analysis, every care must 
 be taken that it is exposed to the air for the shortest 
 possible time, owing to the avidity with which water 
 and carbon dioxide are absorbed. Small quantities 
 must therefore be pounded at a time, and then quickly 
 transferred to a dry, well-stoppered bottle. The por- 
 tion for analysis should be sieved through the same 
 sized gauze as used for coke. 
 
 Loss on ignition. Consists of moisture and carbon LOSS on 
 dioxide. 
 
 The amount for analysis and for this estimation 
 should be weighed out at the same time. About one 
 gram of limestone, or 0*5 gram of lime, should be 
 weighed into a tared platinum crucible from the 
 weighing bottle. The crucible is then heated over the 
 bunsen flame, and finally by the blowpipe till the 
 weight is constant. 
 
 Loss in weight x 100 
 Weight of sample = Loss on ^ nitlon ^ cent ' 
 
 GENERAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 Silica. Weigh about 2 -5 grams of lime or 5 grams Estimation 
 of limestone from the weighing bottle into a fair-sized 
 porcelain dish, nearly cover with a clock glass, and 
 add water. After a short time in the case of lime, or 
 immediately with limestone, add a quantity of strong 
 hydrochloric acid. When the action ceases, wash any 
 drops of liquid that may have "spurted" on to the 
 clock glass into the dish, and evaporate to dryness on 
 the water bath. 
 
 Transfer the dish to a metal vessel which serves as 
 an air bath, and heat until no moisture is deposited on 
 a cool clock glass when placed over the dish. It is 
 better to heat in this way than directly by the flame, 
 and a convenient air bath can be arranged by sus- 
 
 669 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 pending the dish with a wire support inside a hemi- 
 spherical metal bath, so that the sides of the bath are 
 practically equidistant from the sides of the dish. 
 
 Moisten the residue with strong hydrochloric acid, 
 add hot water, filter and wash thoroughly, allowing 
 the filtrate and washings to run into a 250 c.c. flask. 
 Dry the filter, ignite, and weigh as usual. 
 
 Weight of Si0 2 xlOO 
 Weight of sample =P er cent ' Sl * 
 
 Example 
 
 Weight of lime used = 2-3216 
 Si0 2 found =00241 
 
 0-0241 x 100 
 
 = 1*03 per cent. SiO 2 . 
 
 Estimation Iron and Alumina. Cool the contents of the 250 c.c. 
 
 flask ' and make U P the volume to 25 c - c - Pipette off 
 50 c.c. for the analysis. Add ammonium chloride and 
 ammonia in excess to the hot solution. Allow the 
 precipitate to subside, and wash twice by decantation. 
 Set aside the filtrate and washings. Dissolve the pre- 
 cipitate in a little warm hydrochloric acid, one part 
 acid to one part water, and precipitate again by am- 
 monia. Wash by decantation and, finally, wash on 
 filter till washings give no precipitate with silver 
 nitrate. 
 
 Dry the precipitate and heat to low redness in a 
 platinum crucible. 
 
 Weight of ppt.x 100x5 cent> Qf iron and aluminium 
 
 Weight of sample oxides. 
 
 Example 
 
 50 c.c. of solution used. 250 c.c. contained 2-3216 grams. 
 Weight of iron and aluminium oxides found=0"0025 gr. 
 
 0-0025x100x5 41-- 
 
 o.Qoifl -- =0*53 per cent, of iron and aluminium oxides. 
 
 If much phosphate be present the same method 
 may be employed as with the iron and alumina in 
 coke ash. 
 
 670 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 Lime and Magnesia. Proceed exactly as for analysis Estimation 
 of coke ash. For very accurate analysis, it is neces- 
 sary to redissolve the calcium oxalate precipitate and 
 reprecipitate the lime, but with small quantities of 
 magnesium this is seldom required. It must be 
 remembered in calculating the results that only one- 
 fifth of the sample is being used in the analysis. 
 
 CaO found x 100 x 5 
 
 _ PaO npr rfmf Calculation 
 
 " 
 
 _ 
 Weight of sample " for the Lime 
 
 Example- Magntsla 
 
 CaO. 50 c.c. of solution used. 
 
 CaO found =0-4391 gr. 
 0-4391x100x5 
 
 2-3216 -- =94*56 per cent, of CaO. 
 
 MgO. 50 c.c. of solution used. 
 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 found =0-0152 gr. 
 0-0152 x 0-3604* x 100 X5 =1 . 18 ^ ^ of MgQ 
 
 222 62 or 2 P 
 
 Sulphur. Heat 100 c.c. of the solution to boiling, Estimation 
 and add a boiling solution of barium chloride. Con- of tne 
 
 , .,. r i IP i AH Sulphur in 
 
 tinue boiling for nail an nour. Allow any precipi- 
 tate to settle, decant liquid, and thoroughly wash the 
 precipitate till the washings are free from chlorides. 
 Dry, ignite, and weigh as BaS0 4 . 
 
 Since 250 c.c. are from the weight of lime taken, the 
 weight of BaS0 4 from 100 c.c. must be multiplied by 
 2-5. 
 
 BaS0 4 =S0 3 
 233 =80 SO 
 
 _ 
 BaSO 4 
 
 _ 
 
 ~ 
 
 BajO i foundxO-3434xlOOx2-5 = cent 
 Weight of sample 
 
 Example 
 
 100 c.c. solution used. 
 
 BaS0 4 found = 0'0348 gr. 
 
 0-0348x0-3434x100x2-5 
 
 -= 0*128 per cent. SO B . 
 
 671 
 
Estimation 
 
 of the 
 
 Phosphates 
 in the Lime 
 
 Calculation 
 of the 
 result 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 Phosphorus. About 12 to 15 grams of the lime 
 or limestone should be taken and treated for the 
 removal of silica as above. With this large amount 
 it is necessary to carefully break up lumps with a rod 
 during the drying by hot air. Filter off the silica and 
 evaporate the nitrate with strong nitric acid until 
 nearly dry, to remove the hydrochloric acid and con- 
 vert everything into nitrates. Dilute and precipitate 
 with ammonium molybdate as in the coke analysis, 
 afterwards estimating as magnesium pyrophosphate. 
 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 =P 2 5 
 222 =142 or 
 
 _, 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 - 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 found x 0-6396 xlQQ_ n 
 
 -- TFr T~T - r - - 1 -- per Cent. JrV/5 
 
 Weight of sample 
 
 Example 
 
 Weight of lime taken = 9'6990 gr. 
 Mg 2 P 2 O 7 found = 0-0068 gr. 
 00068x0-6396x100 
 
 ~~ 9-6990 " =0-048 per cent, of P 2 5 . 
 
 The estima- 
 tion of the 
 gas-yielding 
 power of 
 Calcium 
 Carbide 
 
 Loss due to 
 
 moisture in 
 
 the air 
 
 ANALYSIS OF CALCIUM CARBIDE. 
 
 Many processes have been devised for the estima- 
 tion of the yield of acetylene from a given sample of 
 carbide. Theoretically, pure carbide should give 348-9 
 litres of acetylene per kilo at C. and 760 mm., corre- 
 sponding to 5'8 cubic feet per pound ; but even if the 
 carbide were absolutely pure, these figures would 
 never be practically reached owing to the fact that 
 it is impossible to prevent some carbide, even though 
 the amount be small, being decomposed by the water 
 vapour in the atmosphere before the carbide is put 
 into the generator. The commercial carbide is often 
 packed in big lumps, which have to be broken before 
 being used, and during this operation there is always 
 a certain amount of decomposition. 
 
 Breaking the carbide to a certain size is absolutely 
 
 672 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 necessary in order to get a good average sample for 
 analysis. The finer the carbide is broken the greater 
 will be the loss of acetylene set free on generation, 
 due to two causes : (a) the longer time required for 
 breaking, and (6) the greater surface exposed to the 
 action of the damp air. 
 
 The effect of breaking on the yield of calcium 
 carbide was found by Perrodil l to be per 1 kgr. : 
 
 Lumps as received from the works . 310 litres 
 
 Granulated 290 
 
 Powdered 200 
 
 The quantity of acetylene evolved from a given 
 weight also depends partly on the apparatus used. In 
 dripping generators there will be a certain loss owing 
 to polymerisation, due to the rising temperature. In. 
 generators where the carbide is allowed to drop into 
 water, a certain amount of gas will be dissolved by 
 the water. This error may to a certain extent be 
 obviated by using lime water saturated with acetylene 
 for the decomposition, and if the decomposition takes 
 place in a relatively large volume of saturated lime 
 water, and is effected very slowly, then the figures 
 obtained may approximate closely to theory, because 
 the temperature does not rise much. If the tempera- 
 ture rises even 10 to 20 C., the volume of acetylene 
 obtained may be greater than the amount generated 
 from the carbide, owing to some being driven out of 
 solution in the water. 
 
 The influence of the generators on the yield was 
 tested, the figures obtained being: 
 
 1. Test of j T ield by weighing dripping apparatus, slowly drip- 
 ping brine 
 
 1 kgr. carbide = 307'5 : 306'4 : 307' 1 litres. 
 
 2. Carbide into lime water saturated with acetylene by 
 
 Effect of 
 breaking 
 
 down 
 
 Carbide on 
 
 the yield of 
 
 gas 
 
 Loss due to 
 heating in 
 
 the 
 generator 
 
 Influence of 
 
 mode of 
 generation 
 
 on the 
 
 volume of 
 
 the gas 
 
 1 Rev. Tech. Acet. 2, 182. 
 673 
 
 43 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Influence oi 
 
 the 
 
 crystalline 
 character oi 
 
 the 
 
 Carbide on 
 
 heating 
 
 during 
 
 generation 
 
 The 
 
 importance 
 
 of proper 
 
 sampling in 
 
 taking 
 specimens 
 for analysis 
 
 measuring the volume. 60 gr, of carbide in 500 c.c. of saturated 
 lime water 
 
 1 kgr. carbide = 310'6 1. : 306 1. : 308 1. 
 
 3. Dripping apparatus by measuring the volume, quickly 
 running the water in, so that a great increase in temperature 
 takes place, and products of polymerisation are formed 
 
 1 kgr. carbide = 295 1. : 279 1. : 283 1. 
 
 These figures show that the two first methods give 
 nearly the same results, when in the dripping 
 apparatus brine is used and the temperature does not 
 rise high enough to form polymerisation products. 
 When using water, however, and working quickly, 
 the yield is much less. 
 
 The character of the carbide also affects this to a 
 considerable extent, a pure ingot carbide in large 
 crystals decomposing more quickly and evolving 
 higher temperatures than the dense grey carbide. 
 
 Sampling the carbide. On examination, carbide 
 will usually be found to vary considerably in appear- 
 ance, and in taking the sample great attention must 
 be paid to obtaining a fair average. Further, it is 
 often then very difficult to get a result which is even 
 fairly accurate if only sufficient is broken up for the 
 test. At least 250 grams should be reduced to about 
 the size of hazel nuts and well mixed, and from the 
 bulk the required quantity for the estimation is 
 taken. 
 
 The following case illustrates the importance of 
 these precautions. 
 
 (a) Sample of carbide obtained by choosing apparently repre- 
 sentative pieces, breaking only sufficient for analysis. 
 
 (6) The same carbide, only a large quantity broken, and then 
 the sample taken from the reduced mass. 
 
 Carbide taken. Gas yield Calculated percentage 
 
 per kilo. of pure carbide, 
 
 (a) 49-82 gr. 179 litres 51'34 
 
 (6) 55-44 271 77'80 
 
 The first method proposed for the estimation of the 
 
 674 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 yield of gas from calcium carbide is due to Perrodil 
 and Sertier, 1 who devised an apparatus which, 
 although useless for accurate scientific tests, can be 
 used in many cases to obtain a rough estimation for 
 the volume of gas obtainable from a given sample. 
 It consists of an ordinary drip generator, from which 
 the gas generated from a known quantity of calcium 
 carbide is led through a tube containing cotton wool 
 to retain dust, condensed water vapour, polymerisation 
 products, etc., and is then led into a graduated holder. 
 Perrodil claims that with this apparatus it is possible 
 to test, not only the volume of acetylene generated 
 from a given sample of carbide, but also the residue 
 left after decomposition and the photometric value of 
 the gas. 
 
 In the apparatus used by him, the height of the gas- 
 holder bell was 30 cm., and with a holder of this size, 
 the error in reading the volume may amount to 
 roughly one-thirtieth of a volume ; so that with a com- 
 mercial carbide yielding 300 litres per kilo, an error 
 of 10 litres might occur, whilst this is added to by 
 any errors in the weighing out of the carbide. 
 
 In estimations of this kind corrections for the 
 temperature of the gas in the holder and for the 
 pressure should be employed, and the process could 
 only be used for rough estimations. 
 
 In 1897 Lunge and Cederkreutz 2 made an apparatus 
 in which a generator of the kind shown in Fig. 12, 
 p. 60, is employed in which carbide is allowed to drop 
 into water, or a dripping apparatus can be used, 
 and the gas evolved is measured in a graduated 
 holder. In the first case the test can be made in a 
 very short time. The generator is filled with brine, 
 the carbide is weighed, placed in the receiver, which 
 is connected by a rubber tube to the decomposing 
 
 1 Rev. Tech. Acet. 2, 181 ; Zeitsch. f. Gale, und Acet. 1, 163. 
 
 2 Zeitsch. f. Anorg. Chem., 1897, 654. 
 
 675 
 
 Method 
 proposed by 
 Perrodil and 
 
 Sertier 
 
 Possible 
 
 error of the 
 
 process 
 
 Method 
 
 adopted by 
 
 Lunge and 
 
 Cederkreutz 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 flask ; in order to prevent the carbide dropping in too 
 large quantities into the generating flask, the rubber 
 tube should be fitted with a suitable pinch cock. 
 When the acetylene is collected over brine, the vapour 
 tension may be disregarded for commercial purposes. 
 
 With this apparatus greater quantities of carbide 
 can be tested at once, say 50 grams. When the water 
 is added drop by drop, the generation may be stopped 
 when the holder is full and the gas burnt, when the 
 reaction may be started afresh. 
 
 In this way the error is diminished. Instead of an 
 
 Ad of a the 8C error of 10 litres > ii: is reduced to -in so that it is 
 process possible to reduce the error on 1 kgr. to 2 litres. 
 
 Atmospheric temperature and pressure should be 
 corrected for, and also for the temperature of the gas 
 where a drip generator is used ; and it must also be 
 borne in mind that during the burning off of the 
 acetylene, the evolution of gas does not cease entirely. 
 This method, however, is of practical use in many 
 cases for rough estimations. 
 
 In 1897 Fuchs and Schiff 1 pointed out the diffi- 
 
 n r h> eS ed cu lti es of collecting acetylene over water, and recom- 
 
 by Fuchs mended covering the water in the collecting holder 
 
 ai for S the ft w ith a layer of olive oil in order to separate it from 
 
 estimation the former. Their observations show that 100 volumes 
 
 ofga* of olive oil absorb 48 volumes of acetylene, whilst 
 
 water absorbs its own volume. For testing the yield 
 
 of acetylene set free from calcium carbide, they use 
 
 the following method : 
 
 A three-necked Woulffe's bottle is fitted with corks 
 carrying a thermometer, dripping funnel, and outlet 
 tube respectively, and the bottom of the bottle is 
 covered with asbestos to prevent its cracking from 
 any sudden rise of temperature. A gas jar of 15 litres 
 capacity is filled with water covered by a layer of 
 olive oil, and is closed by a cork fitted with a syphon 
 
 1 Chem. Zeit. 21, 875. 
 676 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 leading to a second measuring receiver, and a tube 
 with stopcock leading to the outlet of the Woulffe's 
 bottle. The syphon having been filled with water by Apparatus 
 
 J * & J employed 
 
 blowing down the inlet tube, the stopcock is closed 
 and the generating bottle connected on. 30 to 40 grams 
 of carbide are weighed by difference in a closed tube, 
 and are thrown into the bottle. The initial tempera- 
 ture is then noted, and the dripping funnel is filled 
 with 200 c.c. of water, and the tap opened so that the 
 water drops very slowly on to the carbide, whilst at 
 the same time the stopcock in the connecting tube is 
 opened. As the gas passes into the gas jar, the water 
 is displaced and passes through the syphon into the 
 measuring vessel, and from the volume so obtained 
 the yield of acetylene can be calculated. It is claimed 
 that when properly used, the apparatus gives very 
 concordant results. 
 
 Five tests of two samples of carbide from Neu- Results 
 
 ., . / obtained 
 
 hausen gave the following figures : 
 
 1 kgr. 281-3 290-5 
 
 285-6 mean * 2951 
 
 287-2 286-8 litres. 298'6 
 
 289-5 299-8 
 
 290-3 303-9 
 
 mean 
 297'6 litres. 
 
 So far the methods employed were all dependent 
 upon measuring directly the volume of acetylene set 
 free from a definite quantity of carbide, and it is 
 manifest that this is open to many objections. It 
 was Bamberger, in 1898, 1 who first proposed to 
 determine the yield of acetylene gravimetrically, a 
 process which is not only more accurate than the 
 previous ones, but also more simple and easy in 
 working. 
 
 In order to do this he employed the apparatus Bamberger's 
 shown in Fig. 226, which consists of a two-necked estimating 
 Woulffe's bottle fitted with a calcium chloride tube 
 1 Zeit.f. Cole, und Acet. 1, 210. 
 
 677 
 
 metrically 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Method ot 
 conducting 
 
 the 
 estimation 
 
 and a dripping funnel, which, before the experiment, 
 is filled with a solution of salt. The weight of the 
 bottle thus fitted is first taken, and then about 50 to 
 60 grams of the calcium carbide which is to be tested 
 are put in the bottle and the weight once more taken, 
 the increase in weight giving the amount of carbide 
 added. For weighing this apparatus a balance turning 
 with OOl gram with 800 grams may be used, the final 
 
 results being very ac- 
 curate. The weighed 
 apparatus is ready 
 for the analysis. The 
 tap is opened so that 
 five to six drops fall 
 per minute ; the car- 
 bide is decomposed 
 slowly, and the gas 
 set free is dried by 
 the calcium chloride. 
 Later on the brine 
 may be allowed to 
 drip more quickly. 
 With careful work- 
 ing, only the lower 
 part of the generator 
 will be heated, and 
 FIG. 226. BAMBERGER'S APPARATUS. not a trace of water 
 
 vapour escapes. 
 
 After three to four hours half of the brine taken has 
 passed in, and the carbide is nearly all decomposed. 
 The tap is opened, and the remainder of the brine 
 allowed to flow in. The bottle is shaken, and air 
 aspirated through the generator for displacement of 
 acetylene by air. When the apparatus has acquired 
 its original temperature it is weighed, the difference 
 in weight giving the weight of acetylene set free. 
 By a simple calculation, the amount of pure carbide 
 
 678 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 and the yield of acetylene per kgr. are obtained. One 
 kgr. of pure carbide evolves 40-625 per cent, of acety- 
 lene, or the yield for 1 kgr. is 348-9 litres at C. and 
 760 mm. 
 
 The error due to weighing the apparatus in the 
 first place full of air and afterwards full of acetylene, 
 would probably not be greater than the experimental 
 error combined with error in sampling the carbide. 
 Thus if the apparatus have a capacity of 1 litre it 
 will probably be less 
 
 1 litre of air = 1'293 gr. 
 
 1 litre of acetylene = ri68 gr. 
 
 0'125 gr. difference. 
 
 Assuming a carbide yields 300 litres per kilo, the 50 
 grams yield 17-520 grams acetylene. This would be 
 reduced by 0*125 if the apparatus were weighed full 
 of acetylene after the determination, or 17-520 0-125 
 = 17-395 grams acetylene. 
 
 17*395 grams acetylene would then give the yield 
 per kilo as 297-58 litres, or an error of 242 litres per 
 kilo. 
 
 The calculation of the yield of acetylene and the 
 percentage of pure carbide may be made as follows : 
 
 Probable 
 extent of 
 
 error 
 involved 
 
 Apparatus + carbide 
 Apparatus 
 
 Weight of carbide . 
 
 624-89 
 575-99 
 
 48-90 
 
 Calculation 
 of yield of 
 
 gas and 
 
 percentage 
 
 of Carbide 
 
 from results 
 
 obtained 
 
 Weight of apparatus after experiment . 607*38 
 
 Weight of acetylene 
 
 48-90 : 17-51=100 : x 
 17-51 
 
 624-89 
 607-38 
 
 17-51 
 
 cc=JL!g-=35-8 per cent, of acetylene. 
 
 35*8 per cent, of acetylene = 88 per cent, pure carbide, 
 and this corresponds to 
 
 1 kgr. = 307 litres. 
 679 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Ratio 
 
 between 
 
 volume of 
 
 gas yielded 
 
 and 
 
 percentage 
 of true 
 Carbide 
 
 The time needed for such a test depends on the quan- 
 tity of carbide used. 
 
 The following table shows the relation between the 
 volume of gas yielded by calcium carbide in litres per 
 kilo and the percentage of true calcium carbide con- 
 tained in the commercial material, the volume being 
 calculated at C. and 760 mm. barometric pressure. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 pure carbide 
 
 Litres per 
 kgr. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Percentage of 
 acetylene. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 100 348-9 
 
 3-5 
 
 40-625 
 
 0-40 
 
 99 345-4 3-5 
 
 40-22 
 
 0-41 
 
 98 341-9 3-5 
 
 39-81 
 
 0-41 
 
 97 338-4 3-5 
 
 39-40 
 
 0-40 
 
 96 334-9 3-4 
 
 39-00 
 
 0-41 
 
 95 331-5 3-5 
 
 38-59 
 
 0-40 
 
 94 328-0 3-5 
 
 38-19 
 
 0-41 
 
 93 324-5 3-5 
 
 37-78 
 
 0-41 
 
 92 321-0 3-5 
 
 37-37 
 
 0-40 
 
 91 317-5 3-5 
 
 36-97 
 
 0-41 
 
 90 314-0 3-5 
 
 36-56 
 
 0-41 
 
 89 310-5 3-5 
 
 36-15 
 
 0-41 
 
 88 307-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 35-74 
 
 0-41 
 
 87 
 
 303-5 3-5 
 
 35-33 
 
 0-41 
 
 86 
 
 300-0 3-5 
 
 34-92 
 
 0-40 
 
 85 
 
 296-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 34-52 
 
 0-41 
 
 84 
 
 293-0 3-5 
 
 34-11 
 
 0-41 
 
 83 
 
 289-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 33-70 
 
 0-41 
 
 82 
 
 286-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 33-29 
 
 041 
 
 81 
 
 282-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 32-88 
 
 0-41 
 
 80 
 
 279-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 32-47 
 
 0-41 
 
 79 
 
 275-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 32-06 
 
 0-41 
 
 78 
 
 272-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 31-65 
 
 0-41 
 
 77 
 
 268-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 31-24 
 
 0-41 
 
 76 
 
 265-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 30-83 
 
 0-41 
 
 75 
 
 261-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 30-42 
 
 0-41 
 
 74 
 
 258-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 30-01 
 
 0'41 
 
 73 
 
 254-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 29-60 
 
 0-41 
 
 72 
 
 251-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 29-19 
 
 0-41 
 
 71 
 
 247-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 28-37 
 
 0-41 
 
 70 
 
 244-0 
 
 3-5 
 
 2837 
 
 0-41 
 
 If the yield in litres per kilo be divided by 63, it 
 gives approximately the result in cubic feet per 
 pound. 
 
 680 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 Bamberger's apparatus may also be connected 
 directly to a measuring cylinder or gasholder, Fig. gravimetric 
 227, so that the results obtained by weight may be 
 checked by direct measurement. 
 
 As shown in Chapter IX., acetylene, when made 
 from calcium carbide, nearly always contains traces of 
 phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen, together 
 with small quantities of ammonia and air, the latter 
 
 volume of 
 gas 
 
 FIG. 227. 
 
 being accidently introduced in generation or collec- 
 tion of the sample of gas for analysis. 
 
 Qualitatively the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen Qualitative 
 in crude acetylene is readily demonstrated by passing ^m^mitie^ 6 
 the gas through a solution of lead acetate, when a in Acetylene 
 black precipitate of lead sulphide soon forms ; whilst if, 
 after freeing the gas from sulphuretted hydrogen in 
 this way, it is then passed through a solution of silver 
 nitrate, the presence of phosphuretted hydrogen is 
 shown by the formation of a yellow precipitate of 
 
 681 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 double phosphide and nitrate of silver, which turns 
 black owing to its decomposition into silver phosphide. 
 This reaction is very sensitive, but even more delicate 
 is the test devised by Berge and Beyschler, 1 who use 
 a solution of mercuric chloride in hydrochloric acid, 
 which gives a white amorphous precipitate on contact 
 with phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 The presence of ammonia can readily be shown by 
 passing the acetylene through a dilute solution of red 
 litmus, which is rapidly turned blue. 
 
 QUANTITATIVE METHODS FOR THE ESTIMATION OF 
 PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 
 Estimation The first method used for the quantitative determi- 
 ^itromine** na ^ on f phosphuretted hydrogen was its oxidation 
 water by means of bromine water into phosphoric acid. 2 
 The phosphuretted, and, at the same time, the sul- 
 phuretted, hydrogen, 'are decomposed and oxidised to 
 phosphoric and sulphuric acid. This reagent not only 
 acts upon these impurities, but also on acetylene it- 
 self, so that a large amount of bromine is necessary, 
 the fumes evolved being a decided drawback to the 
 process. 
 
 The apparatus needed for this test consists of a 
 dripping generator and an absorption vessel for the 
 action of bromine on the acetylene set free. When 
 the action is finished, the bromine water is poured 
 into a beaker, and the absorption vessel well washed 
 with water to remove all traces of the bromine, the 
 wash water being added to the original liquid. The 
 solution is gently heated in order to volatilise the 
 excess of bromine, and ammonia is added in slight 
 excess. The phosphoric acid having been transformed 
 by the ammonia into ammonium phosphate, (NH 4 ) 3 P0 4 , 
 
 1 Bull. Soc. Chem. 3, 7, 218. 
 
 2 Willgerodt, Berl. Ber. 29, 2,107 (1895). 
 
 682 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATEEIAL 
 
 is precipitated by the magnesia mixture as ammonium 
 magnesium phosphate. 
 
 + MgCl 2 =MgNH 4 P0 4 + 2 NH 4 C1 
 
 The precipitation is effected at ordinary tempera- 
 ture, and the washing is carried out as directed under 
 the estimation of phosphorus in coke, the precipitate 
 in each case being ammonium magnesium phosphate. 
 
 The magnesia mixture is prepared by dissolving 101 
 grams of crystallised magnesium chloride, 200 grams 
 of ammonium chloride in 800 c.c. of water, and adding 
 200 c.c. ammonia sp. grav. '880. 
 
 The large amount of bromine needed for the oxida- 
 tion of phosphuretted hydrogen, if the acetylene has 
 to pass through the bromine water, may be reduced 
 by burning the acetylene and passing the products of 
 combustion through an absorbing solution, such as 
 dilute ammonia, and precipitating this with the mag- 
 nesia solution. This method, however, is always liable 
 to error, as when the acetylene evolved is first col- 
 lected in a holder over water or brine there is a cer- 
 tain amount of phosphuretted hydrogen absorbed, and 
 this may introduce a serious error, owing to the small 
 percentage of phosphuretted hydrogen present, and it 
 is practically impossible to decompose the calcium 
 carbide in a dripping apparatus and then burn the gas 
 directly, as it is very difficult to obtain a constant 
 flame which will not smoke. 
 
 Lunge and Cererkreutz * proposed oxidising the 
 phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen by means 
 of a sodium hypochlorite solution. It was known the 
 chloride of lime oxidises phosphuretted hydrogen easily 
 and completely, whilst solutions of hypochlorites are 
 without any action on acetylene at ordinary tempera- 
 tures. Chloride of lime is not suitable for analytical 
 
 Precipita- 
 tion of the 
 Phosphate 
 
 Estimation 
 
 of the 
 
 Phosphorus 
 Pentoxide 
 
 in the 
 
 products of 
 combustion 
 
 The 
 
 estimation 
 of Phos- 
 phuretted 
 and Sul- 
 phuretted 
 Hydrogen 
 by Sodium 
 Hypo- 
 chlorite 
 
 Zeitsch.f. Anorg. Chem., 1897, 654. 
 683 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Method of 
 carrying out 
 
 purposes, but a solution of sodium hypochlorite 
 answers admirably. 
 
 The apparatus used consists of a flask with dripping 
 funnel and an absorption tube. It is preferable to 
 combine the test for yield of gas with the analysis, as 
 Bamberger does, and to use the latter apparatus with 
 a series of absorption bulbs (Fig. 228). 
 
 The carbide is weighed in Bamberger's generator 
 and connected with the absorption bulbs containing 
 
 FIG. 228. 
 
 nearly 75 c.c. of a 2 to 3 per cent, solution of sodium 
 hypochlorite. The tap of the dripping funnel is 
 
 the deter- 
 mination at 
 same time 
 
 is estima-^ s ]ightly opened, and the brine drips very slowly on 
 of gas to the carbide. The acetylene set free passes through 
 the calcium chloride tube to retain any water, and 
 bubbles through the hypochlorite. When the car- 
 bide is all decomposed some air is aspirated through 
 the apparatus, and the generator weighed again, the 
 difference in weight giving a means of calculating the 
 yield of acetylene. The hypochlorite solution is poured 
 
 684 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 into a beaker and the absorption tube well rinsed out 
 with water, this wash water being added to the 
 original. The solution contains all the phosphorus as 
 sodium phosphate and the sulphur as sodium sulphate. 
 The phosphate is then precipitated with magnesia 
 mixture, and the precipitate of ammonium magnesium 
 phosphate filtered, washed, ignited, and weighed as 
 before. From the amount of magnesium pyrophos- 
 phate obtained the quantity of phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen can be calculated. 
 
 According to experiments it is not necessary to 
 destroy the hypochlorite first ; the solution may be 
 precipitated directly, but ammonium chloride should be 
 added before the magnesia mixture, otherwise a floccu- 
 lent precipitate will be produced, probably Mg (H0) 2 . 
 
 The filtrate contains all the sulphur as sulphate of 
 sodium, and should be collected for this determina- 
 tion. 
 
 The calculation- of results for phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen or phosphorus in acetylene may be made as 
 follows : 
 
 Precipita- 
 tion of the 
 Phosphate 
 
 Calculation 
 
 of the 
 
 results 
 
 obtained 
 
 Since Mg 2 P 2 7 : 2 PH 3 
 
 222 : 68=Mg 2 P 2 7 found : x. 
 x=gr. PH 3 = 0-3063 xMg 2 P 2 O 7 found in acetylene set free. 
 
 V= volume of acetylene in c.c. 
 V : 0-3063 xMg 2 P 2 O 7 found =1,000 : x. 
 * = gr. PH 3 in 1,000 c . c . = 306-3 x Mg 2 P 2 O 7 found 
 
 V 
 1 gr. PH 3 = 654-5 c.c. at C. and 760 mm. ; 
 
 hence the volume of PH 3 =Q-3063 x Mg 2 P 2 O 7 found x 654*5 c.c. 
 or =200-46 x Mg 2 P 2 O 7 found c.c. 
 
 V volume of acetylene evolved in c.c. 
 1 gr. acetylene =855*65 c.c. 
 1 litre hydrogen =0'0899 c.c. 
 
 V : 200-46 xMg 2 P 2 O 7 found =100 : x. 
 x = er cent. 
 
 685 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Example 
 
 Calculation 
 
 as grains 
 
 per cubic 
 
 metre 
 
 Volumetric 
 
 estimation 
 
 of Phos- 
 
 phurcttcd 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Volume of acetylene evolved = 16, 100 c.c. 
 Magnesium pyrophosphate Mg 2 P 2 O 7 =0'1060 gr. 
 200-46 xO-1060 
 
 x= 
 
 16,100 
 
 This calculation is to be used for all other methods 
 for the estimation of phosphuretted hydrogen, if 
 finally weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate. 
 
 Owing to the fact that all the phosphorus present 
 in the acetylene does not exist as phosphuretted hy- 
 drogen, it is better to estimate the total phosphorus 
 as phosphorus and not as phosphuretted hydrogen, and 
 at the present time the amount is generally given per 
 cubic metre, so that the amended calculation will 
 be:- 
 
 Mg 2 P 2 7 : P 2 
 
 222 : 62=Mg 2 P 2 7 found : x. 
 cc=0'2793xMg 2 P 2 O 7 found gr. phosphorus. 
 
 V = volume of acetylene in litres. 
 V : 0-2793 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found= 1,000 : x. 
 
 2,793 x Mg 2 P 2 7 found , , 1 " i, 
 
 x=- &2 i =gr. phosphorus in 1 cb. m. 
 
 VOLUMETRIC TEST FOR PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 
 
 Hempel and Karl 1 have published a volumetric 
 method which consists of taking 1 c.c. of a copper 
 sulphate solution, prepared by dissolving 15'6 grams of 
 crystallised copper sulphate in 100 c.c. of water and 
 adding 5 c.c. of dilute sulphuric acid 1 vol. of acid 
 to 4 vols. of water. The phosphuretted hydrogen is 
 decomposed by this solution, copper phosphide is 
 formed, and hydrogen set free. 
 
 For the estimation of the phosphuretted hydrogen, 
 
 the commercial carbide is decomposed by dropping it 
 
 into water, the gas collected free from sulphuretted 
 
 hydrogen and ammonia in a burette over mercury, 
 
 and then allowed to pass into an absorption pipette 
 
 1 Zeitsch.f. Cole, und Acet. 1, 182, 190. 
 
 686 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 containing 3 c.c. of the copper sulphate solution, which 
 has first been saturated with acetylene. After shaking 
 for three minutes the gas is measured, and the authors 
 say that the fourth part of the difference in volume re- 
 presents the volume of phosphuretted hydrogen. It 
 may be mentioned that the gas cannot be collected in 
 a holder before testing, because the phosphuretted hy- 
 drogen is decomposed by light and water, and it must 
 not stand long over mercury for the same reason. 
 Example- 
 Acetylene used, 97'5 c.c. 
 Difference on volume after absorption, 1*1 c.c. 
 
 1^=0-28 c.c. PH 3 . 
 
 4 
 
 97-5 : 0-28=100 : x. 
 
 x^J^L^ 0-280 per cent. PH 3 
 9T*5 
 
 When the acetylene contains, as at present, only 
 O01 to 0-06 per cent, of phosphuretted hydrogen, this 
 method must be used very carefully, the copper solu- 
 tion especially must be saturated with acetylene at a 
 given temperature or else serious errors may occur, 
 and in many cases the results are not so reliable as 
 when estimated by sodium hypochlorite or hypo- 
 bromite. 
 
 Determination of Sulphuretted Hydrogen or Total Determma- 
 Sulphur. As before stated, the gas evolved by the ^s^phur 6 
 decomposition of commercial carbide always contains compounds 
 a certain amount of sulphuretted hydrogen. But 
 there are also other organic sulphur compounds in the 
 gas which will also produce sulphur dioxide when 
 burnt with the acetylene. Lunge and Cederkreutz * 
 found that after passing the gas through lead acetate 
 solution, though the gas was entirely free from sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, when bubbled through sodium 
 hypochlorite solution, sulphate of sodium was always 
 
 1 Zeitsch. /. Anorg. Chem., 1897, 654. 
 687 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 found, a fact also observed by Moissan and Caro. The 
 method for the estimation of the phosphuretted hy- 
 drogen by means of sodium hypochlorite solution 
 gives therefore a process for the estimation of the 
 total sulphur in the commercial acetylene. 
 
 Precipita- The filtrate from the magnesium ammonium phos- 
 [ the phate is slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid and 
 
 Barium heated to boiling, hot barium chloride solution being 
 then added in slight excess, and the liquid boiled for 
 half an hour. The precipitate of barium sulphate is 
 allowed to settle, filtered, and well washed with boil- 
 ing water. The precipitate is ignited in a porcelain 
 crucible. If the analysis is to be very accurate, the 
 precipitate after ignition may be again treated with 
 hydrochloric acid, which dissolves small traces of barium 
 chloride held by the barium sulphate, and which can- 
 not be removed by washing with boiling water. The 
 hydrochloric acid is diluted with water and filtered on 
 a small filter, so that the greater part of the precipitate 
 remains in the crucible. The filter is added to the 
 original precipitate in the crucible, and thorough ly 
 dried on the water bath. The filter is then burnt and 
 the precipitate ignited for half an hour. 
 Calculation The total sulphur is generally calculated as sul- 
 
 of results pniire tted hydrogen. 
 
 BaS0 4 : H 2 S 
 
 238 : 34=BaSO 4 found : x. 
 x = gr. H 2 S=0-1459xBaS0 4 found in the acetylene set free. 
 
 V= volume of acetylene. 
 V : 0-1459xBaS0 4 found=l,000 : x. 
 
 * = gr. H 2 S in 1,000 c.c. = 145 - 9 * 
 
 1 gr. H 2 S at 0C. and 760 mm.-=654'5. 1 litre hydrogen = 
 
 0-0899 gr. 
 Hence the volume of H 2 S=0 1459 x BaS0 4 found x 654'5. 
 
 = 95'49xBaS0 4 found. 
 V : 95-49 xBaS0 4 found =100 : x. 
 
 *=vol. per cent, of H 2 S= 9 ^ 9xB * SO * fomid . 
 688 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATEEIAL 
 
 Example 
 
 V = acetylene evolved = 18,400 c.c 
 BaS0 4 found =01348 gr. 
 
 9,549x0-1348 n/Y7 , , 
 
 x= ' , - =0'07 vo1 - P er cent - 
 
 It is better however to calculate the sulphur as Calculation 
 sulphur and not as sulphuretted hydrogen, as it does Juipimr per 
 not all exist as sulphuretted hydrogen in the gas, and cubic metre 
 it is now the general practice to express the results in 
 cubic metres instead of per cent. 
 
 BaS0 4 : S 
 
 233 : 32 =BaS0 4 found : x. 
 x=gr. sulphur = 01373 xBaS0 4 found. 
 
 V= volume of acetylene in litres. 
 
 V : 0-1373 xBaS0 4 found =1,000 : x. 
 
 x=gr. sulphur in cb. m . = 137-3x BaSO 4 found. 
 
 (See Tables on pages 690, 691.) 
 
 ESTIMATION OF AMMONIA. 
 
 The estimation of ammonia is done by titration by Estimation 
 means of decinormal solution of sulphuric acid. For 
 this purpose two solutions are prepared, one con- 
 taining 
 
 4-9 grams sulphuric acid in 1 litre, or O0049 gram in 
 1 c.c. ; 
 the other one containing 
 
 1'7 grams of ammonia in 1 litre, or 0*0017 gram in 1 c.c. 
 1 c.c. of the first solution exactly neutralises 1 c.c. of 
 the second. 
 
 The acetylene set free is allowed to bubble through 
 a definite quantity of this decinormal sulphuric acid, 
 50 c.c. being introduced with a pipette into an absorp- 
 tion tube as used for the phosphuretted hydrogen test . 
 When the whole of the acetylene has passed, all the 
 ammonia has been absorbed and changed into sulphate 
 or hydrosulphate of ammonia. This solution is 
 
 689 44 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Table for 
 
 the'con- 
 version of 
 percentage 
 results into 
 grams per 
 cubic metre 
 
 TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF VOLUME PER CENT. INTO 
 GRAMS OF PHOSPHORUS OR SULPHUR PER CUBIC METRE 
 
 (POLIS). 
 
 Volume per cent, of 
 
 Phosphuretted Hydro- 
 
 gen or Sulphuretted 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 gr. Phosphorus 
 per 1 cb. m. 
 
 gr. Sulphur 
 per 1 cb. m. 
 
 o-oio 
 
 0-140 
 
 0-145 
 
 0-011 
 
 0-154 
 
 01595 
 
 0-012 
 
 0-168 
 
 0-1740 
 
 0-013 
 
 0-182 
 
 0-1885 
 
 0-014 
 
 0-196 
 
 0-2030 
 
 0-015 
 
 0-210 
 
 0-2175 
 
 0-016 
 
 0-224 
 
 0-2320 
 
 0-017 
 
 0-238 
 
 0-2465 
 
 0-018 
 
 0-252 
 
 0-2610 
 
 0-019 
 
 0-266 
 
 0-2755 
 
 0-020 
 
 0-280 
 
 0-2900 
 
 0-021 
 
 0-294 
 
 0-3045 
 
 0-022 
 
 0-308 
 
 0-3190 
 
 0-023 
 
 0-322 
 
 0-3335 
 
 0-024 
 
 0-336 
 
 0-3480 
 
 0-025 
 
 0-350 
 
 0-3625 
 
 0-026 
 
 0-364 
 
 0-3770 
 
 0-027 
 
 0-378 
 
 0-3915 
 
 0-028 
 
 0-392 
 
 0-4060 
 
 0-029 
 
 0-406 
 
 0-4205 
 
 0-030 
 
 0-420 
 
 0-4350 
 
 0-031 
 
 0-434 
 
 0-4495 
 
 0-032 
 
 0-448 
 
 0-4640 
 
 0-033 
 
 0-462 
 
 0-4785 
 
 0-034 
 
 0-476 
 
 0-4930 
 
 0-035 
 
 0-490 
 
 0-5075 
 
 0-036 
 
 0-504 
 
 0-5220 
 
 0-037 
 
 0-518 
 
 0-5365 
 
 0-038 
 
 0-532 
 
 0-5510 
 
 0-039 
 
 0-546 
 
 0-5655 
 
 0-040 
 
 0-560 
 
 0-5800 
 
 0-041 
 
 0-574 
 
 0-5954 
 
 0-042 
 
 0-588 
 
 0-6090 
 
 0-043 
 
 0-602 
 
 0-6235 
 
 0-044 
 
 0-616 
 
 0-6380 
 
 0-045 
 
 0-630 
 
 0-6525 
 
 0-046 
 
 0-644 
 
 0-6670 
 
 0-047 
 
 0-658 
 
 0-6815 
 
 0-048 
 
 0-672 
 
 0-6960 
 
 0-049 
 
 0-686 
 
 0-7105 
 
 0-050 
 
 0-700 
 
 0-7250 
 
 0-051 
 
 0-714 
 
 0-7395 
 
 0-052 
 
 0-728 
 
 0-7540 
 
 690 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 Volume per cent, of 
 Phosphuretted Hydro- gr. Phosphorus gr. Sulphur 
 gen or Sulphuretted ~ per 1 cb. m. per 1 cb. m. 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 0-053 
 
 0-742 
 
 0-7685 
 
 0-054 
 
 0-756 
 
 0-7830 
 
 0-055 
 
 0-770 
 
 0-7975 
 
 0-056 
 
 0-784 
 
 0-8120 
 
 0-057 
 
 0-798 
 
 0-8265 
 
 0-058 
 
 0-812 
 
 0-8410 
 
 0-059 
 
 0-826 
 
 0-8555 
 
 0-060 
 
 0-840 
 
 0-8700 
 
 0-061 
 
 0-854 
 
 0-8845 
 
 0-062 
 
 0-868 
 
 0-8990 
 
 0-063 
 
 0-882 
 
 0-9135 
 
 0-064 
 
 0-896 
 
 0-9280 
 
 0-065 
 
 0-910 
 
 0-9425 
 
 0-066 
 
 0-924 
 
 0-9570 
 
 0-067 
 
 0-938 
 
 0-9715 
 
 0-068 
 
 0-952 
 
 0-9860 
 
 0-069 
 
 0-966 
 
 10005 
 
 0-070 
 
 0-980 
 
 1-0150 
 
 0-071 
 
 0-994 
 
 1-0295 
 
 0-072 
 
 1-008 
 
 1-0440 
 
 0-073 
 
 1-022 
 
 1-0585 
 
 0-074 
 
 1-036 
 
 1-0730 
 
 0-075 
 
 1-050 
 
 1-0875 
 
 0-076 
 
 1-064 
 
 1-1020 
 
 0-077 
 
 1-078 
 
 1-1165 
 
 0-078 
 
 1-092 
 
 1-1310 
 
 0-079 
 
 1-106 
 
 1-1455 
 
 0-080 
 
 1-120 
 
 1-1600 
 
 0-081 
 
 1-134 
 
 1-1745 
 
 0-082 
 
 1-148 
 
 1-1890 
 
 0-083 
 
 1-162 
 
 1-2035 
 
 0-084 
 
 1-176 
 
 1-2180 
 
 0-085 
 
 1-190 
 
 1-2325 
 
 0-086 
 
 1-204 
 
 1-2470 
 
 0-087 
 
 1-218 
 
 1-2615 
 
 0-088 
 
 1-232 
 
 1-2760 
 
 0-089 
 
 1-246 
 
 1-2905 
 
 0-090 
 
 1-260 
 
 1-3050 
 
 0-091 
 
 1-274 
 
 1-3195 
 
 0-092 
 
 1-288 
 
 1-3340 
 
 0093 
 
 1-302 
 
 1-3485 
 
 0-094 
 
 1-316 
 
 1-3630 
 
 0-095 
 
 1-330 
 
 1-3775 
 
 0-096 
 
 1-344 
 
 1-3920 
 
 0-097 
 
 1-358 
 
 1-4065 
 
 0-098 
 
 1-372 
 
 1-4210 
 
 OO99 
 
 1-386 
 
 1-4355 
 
 o-ioo 
 
 1-400 
 
 1-4500 
 
 691 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 poured into a beaker, and the washings from the 
 absorption tube added. A few drops of litmus or 
 other indicator are added, and the red solution titrated 
 with the decinormal ammonia till it turns blue. 
 
 Taking the number of c.c. of acid used as=A, 
 V = volume of acetylene liberated, 
 
 V: (50- A) 0-0017=1,000: a;. 
 x =gr. of ammonia in 1 litre of acetylene =^ ~^. '- - . 
 
 1 gr. ammonia at C. and 760 mm.=l,306'8 c.c., hence the vol. 
 
 of ammonia (50 - A) O'OOIT x 1,306-3 c.c. = (50 - A) 2-22 c.c. 
 
 V : (50 -A) 2-22-100 :x. 
 
 cc vol. per cent, of ammonia =^ ~ ' 
 
 Example 
 
 No. of c.c. of decinormal solution needed to neutralise the 
 50 c.c. of decinormal sulphuric acid after absorption of 
 ammonia, A=36'9. 
 
 V=vol. of acetylene at C. and 760 mm. = 17,200 c.c. 
 . ..(50 - 
 
 ammona> 
 
 BEHAVIOUR OF ACETYLENE WITH VARIOUS REAGENTS. 
 
 Qualitative Phillips 1 has studied the effect of various reagents 
 r Acetylene 1 n po n acetylene, and the results he obtained may be 
 summarised as follows : 
 
 Palladium chloride. Red brown ppt. ; no reduction ; 
 
 very sensitive. 
 Platinum chloride. Unchanged both in the cold and 
 
 at 100 C. 
 Gold chloride. Sudden reduction of black or blue- 
 
 black gold, which differs markedly from the 
 
 red-brown precipitated gold. 
 Gold chloride and potassium hydrate. No reaction 
 
 when cold ; traces of reaction at 100 C. 
 Silver nitrate. White ppt. ; very sensitive. 
 Ammoniacal silver nitrate. White gelatinous ppt. ; a 
 
 10 per cent, solution turns solid like starch. 
 
 1 Zeitsch.f. Anorg. Chem. 6, 240. 
 692 
 
THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL 
 
 Indium tetrachloride. Unchanged when cold ; re- 
 duced after a week or when boiled. 
 
 Potassium rhutenate. Very little reduction. 
 
 Ceric sulphate. Slowly discoloured. 
 
 Potassium permanganate. Turns brown suddenly. 
 
 Potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. Sud- 
 denly bleached. 
 
 Solid potassium permanganate and sulphuric acid. 
 Slow evolution of carbon dioxide. 
 
 Potassium chromate and sulphuric acid. Unchanged 
 when cold and at 100 C. 
 
 Osmium tetroxide. Sudden black metallic ppt. 
 
 Copper sulphate with and without ammonia. Un- 
 changed. 
 
 Ferric chloride. Slowly reduced to ferrous chloride. 
 
 Calcium hypobromide. Slow evolution of carbon 
 dioxide. 
 
 Hydrogen peroxide and calcium hydroxide. Un- 
 changed. 
 
 Potassium bismuthate. Unchanged. 
 
 Potassium ferricyanide. Unchanged. 
 
 Iodine in potassium iodide. Unchanged. 
 
 Ammoniacal cuprous chloride. Red ppt. 
 
 Chromic sulphate. Unchanged. 
 
 Mercuric chloride. White ppt. ; very sensitive. 
 
 Iodine pentoxide. Reduced at 90 C. with formation 
 of iodine and carbon monoxide. 
 
 For all scientific and practical purposes, the best and 
 most sensitive reagent is ammoniacal cuprous chloride. 
 Berthelot in 1860 showed that one two-hundredth of 
 a milligram could be detected. When a few bubbles 
 of acetylene are passed through water and a little 
 ammoniacal cuprous chloride are added, the character- 
 istic red copper-acetylene is at once formed. 
 
 The precipitates obtained from silver nitrate or from 
 ammoniacal silver nitrate are very sensitive as reac- 
 
 693 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 tions, but not as characteristic as the copper reaction. 
 Chavastelon 1 uses this reaction for quantitative esti- 
 mation of acetylene. 
 
 C 2 H 2 + 3AgN0 3 = Ag 2 C 2 ' AgN0 3 + 2HN0 3 
 
 He makes this reaction in B/aoult's absorption eudio- 
 meter, and estimates the acetylene by re-titration 
 of the nitric acid formed ; thus one molecule of 
 acetylene corresponds to two molecules of nitric acid. 
 
 1 Compt. Rend. 124, 1,364. 
 
 694 
 
Part III 
 
 LEGAL ENACTMENTS OF VARIOUS 
 COUNTRIES 
 
 PATENTS AND APPENDIX 
 
 695 
 
LEGISLATION RELATING TO CALCIC CAB- 
 BICE AND ACETYLENE 
 
 GKEAT BKITAIN. 
 
 EARLY in 1897, an Order in Council was issued placing carbide 
 of calcium under the Petroleum Acts, not with any intention 
 of hampering the industry, but with the object of bringing 
 before the notice of the public that in the use of the new 
 illuminant acetylene and in the employment of carbide of 
 calcium, from which it is evolved, reasonable precautions 
 would have to be taken. This action of the Home Department 
 cannot be too strongly commended, and if it seems to some that 
 it may have retarded the development of the industry, it must 
 also be borne in mind that the injury of persons by avoidable 
 accidents would have retarded it still more, and it is satisfac- 
 tory to note that in this country we have not had to deplore 
 such accidents as have occurred in Paris and Berlin, and also 
 in the United States. It is true that these accidents were 
 chiefly due to the storage of liquefied acetylene in cylinders 
 under very high pressures, the use of which is prohibited in 
 this country, still, but for legislation, similar accidents would 
 probably have occurred here. 
 
 The public hearing of these accidents through the Press, 
 could not of course be expected to distinguish between liquid 
 acetylene, stored at a pressure of 700 Ibs. to the square inch, 
 and gaseous acetylene, at low pressures, which, with ordinary 
 care, can be quite safely generated in properly constructed 
 apparatus. 
 
 By an Order in Council issued in November, 1897, acetylene 
 gas, when liquid or when highly compressed, was very pro- 
 perly brought under the Explosives Acts, but with the proviso 
 that if it could be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary 
 of State that acetylene in any form or condition was not ex- 
 plosive, an exemption might be granted. 
 
 Exemption was subsequently granted for certain admixtures 
 of acetylene and oil gas on the initiative of the Acetylene 
 Illuminating Company. 
 
 697 
 
 Legislation 
 
 Order in 
 
 Council, 
 
 November, 
 
 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The following Orders in Council and Order of the Secretary 
 of State have been issued dealing with carbide of calcium and 
 acetylene : 
 
 PETKOLEUM ACT, 1871. 
 
 CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 
 
 Order in Council of 2Qth February, 1897 : Published in the 
 " London Gazette " of 2nd March, 1897. 
 
 At the Court at Windsor, the 26th day of February, 1897. 
 Present: The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. 
 Whereas it is provided by the Petroleum Act, 1871, that Her 
 Majesty may, from time to time, make, revoke, and vary Orders 
 in Council directing that the said Act or any part thereof shall 
 apply to any substance, and that the said Act or the part 
 thereof specified in any such Order shall, during the continu- 
 ance of the Order, apply to such substance, and shall be con- 
 strued and have effect as if such substance had been included 
 in the definition of Petroleum to which that Act applies, sub- 
 ject to the following qualifications : 
 
 1. The quality of any substance to which this Act is 
 
 directed by Order in Council to apply which may be 
 kept without a license, shall be such quantity only as 
 is specified in that behalf in such Order, or if no such 
 quantity is specified no quantity may be kept without 
 a license. 
 
 2. The label on the vessel containing such substance shall 
 
 be such as may be specified in that behalf in the Order. 
 
 And whereas the Petroleum Act, 1879, and the Petroleum 
 
 (Hawkers) Act, 1881, are to be construed as one with the 
 
 Petroleum Act of 1871, and may, together with such Act, be 
 
 cited as the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881. 
 
 And whereas Carbide of Calcium presents dangers similar to 
 those presented by Petroleum. 
 
 Calcium Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-mentioned provisions 
 Carbide of the Petroleum Act, 1871, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with 
 the advice of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that 
 A^ct " * the undermentioned parts of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, 
 shall apply to the said substance, Carbide of Calcium, in the 
 same manner as if the said substance were Petroleum to which 
 the Acts apply, viz. : 
 
 The whole of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, except r 
 (a) So much of Section 6 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as 
 specifies the nature of the label to be on the vessel, in 
 lieu of which the label shall be as hereinafter provided. 
 698 
 
LEQAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 (6) So much of Section 7 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as 
 relates to the exemption from such Section of small 
 quantities under certain specified conditions, and no 
 quantity of Carbide of Calcium may be kept except in 
 pursuance of such license as in the said Section 7 is 
 provided. 
 
 (c) So much of Section 11 of the Petroleum Act, 1871, as 
 
 relates to the testing of samples taken by an Officer of 
 the Local Authority under the powers conferred by 
 such Section. 
 
 (d) So much of the Petroleum Act, 1879, as relates to the 
 testing of Petroleum. 
 
 (e) So much of the Petroleum Act, 1881, as relates to the 
 
 Hawking of Petroleum. 
 
 The label on the vessel containing the said Carbide of Calcium 
 shall bear in conspicuous characters the words "Carbide of 
 Calcium," " Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the following 
 caution : " The contents of this package are liable if brought 
 into contact with moisture to give off a highly inflammable 
 gas," and with the addition : 
 
 (a] In the case of a vessel kept, of the name and address of 
 
 the consignee or owner. 
 (6) In the case of a vessel sent or conveyed, of the name 
 
 and address of the sender, 
 (c) In the case of a vessel sold or exposed for sale, of the 
 
 name and address of the vendor. 
 
 This Order shall come into effect on the 1st of April, 1897. 
 
 C. L. PEEL. 
 
 At the Court at Windsor, the 7th day of July, 1897. Present : 
 
 The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. 
 Whereas it is expedient to exempt small quantities of Carbide 
 of Calcium, when kept under certain conditions, from the opera- 
 tion of the Order in Council of the 26th February, 1897, in 
 virtue of which certain parts of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 
 1881, are applied to Carbide of Calcium in the same manner as 
 if the said substance were Petroleum, to which the Act applies. 
 Now, therefore, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with the 
 advice of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that not- 
 withstanding anything to the contrary in the said Order in 
 Council, the quantity of Carbide of Calcium which may be kept 
 with or without a license shall be as follows : 
 
 (a) Where it is kept in separate substantial hermeti- 
 cally closed metal vessels containing not more than 
 
 lib 51bs. 
 
 (&) Where it is kept otherwise .... None 
 699 
 
 Exemption 
 for small 
 quantities 
 of carbide 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 and the said Order in Council shall be deemed to be amended 
 accordingly. 
 
 (Signed) C. L. PEEL. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES ACT, 1875. 
 
 Explosives 
 Act, 1875, 
 
 Liquid 
 Acetylene 
 
 Order re 
 Acetylene 
 when liquid 
 or com- 
 pressed 
 
 ACETYLENE LIQUID OR COMPRESSED. 
 
 Order in Council the 2Qth day of November, 1897. 
 At the Court of Windsor, the 26th day of November, 1897. 
 Present : The Queen's Most Excellent Majesty in Council. 
 
 Whereas by Section 104 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is 
 enacted that Her Majesty may by Order in Council, declare 
 that any substance which appears to Her Majesty to be specially 
 dangerous to life or property by reason either of its explosive 
 properties, or of any process in the manufacture thereof being 
 liable to explosion, shall be deemed to be an explosive within 
 the meaning of the said Act, and the provisions of the said Act 
 (subject to such exceptions, limitations, and restrictions as may 
 be specified in the Order) shall accordingly extend to any such 
 substance in like manner as if it were included in the term 
 explosive in the said Act. 
 
 And whereas Acetylene when liquid or subject to a certain 
 degree of compression is specially dangerous to life or property 
 by reason of its explosive properties. 
 
 Now, therefore, Her Majesty is pleased by and with the advice 
 of Her Privy Council to order and declare, and be it ordered 
 and declared as follows : 
 
 Acetylene when liquid or when subject to a pressure above 
 that of the atmosphere capable of supporting a column 
 of water exceeding one hundred inches in height and 
 whether or not in admixture with other substances, shall 
 be deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the 
 said Act, subject to the following exception : that if it 
 be shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary of State 
 that Acetylene, declared to be explosive by this Order 
 when in admixture with any substance, or in any form 
 or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties the 
 Secretary of State may by Order exempt such Acetylene 
 from being deemed to be an explosive within the said 
 Act. 
 
 And whereas by Section 43 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it 
 is provided that Her Majesty from time to time by Order in 
 Council, may prohibit, either absolutely or except in pursuance 
 
 700 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 of a license of the Secretary of State under the said Act, or may 
 subject to conditions or restrictions the manufacture, keeping, 
 importation from any place out of the United Kingdom, con- 
 veyance, and sale, or any of them, of any explosive which is 
 of so dangerous a character that in the judgment of Her 
 Majesty it is expedient for the public safety to make such 
 Order. 
 
 And whereas it is in the judgment of Her Majesty expedient 
 for the public safety that Acetylene, when an explosive within 
 the meaning of this Order, shall be prohibited. 
 
 Now, therefore, in pursuance of the above-mentioned pro- 
 vision of this Act, Her Majesty is pleased, by and with the 
 advice of Her Privy Council, to order and prescribe that Acety- 
 lene declared to be an explosive by this Order shall be pro- 
 hibited from being manufactured, imported, kept, conveyed, or 
 sold. 
 
 C. L. PEEL. 
 
 ORDER OF SECRETARY OF STATE, No. 5. Compressed 
 
 Acetylene 
 mixed with 
 
 Explosives Act, 1875 (38 Viet. c. 17). Oil-gas 
 
 Order of Secretary of State relating to Compressed Acetylene 
 in admixture tvith Oil-gas. 
 
 Whereas by an Order in Council, dated 26th November, 1897, 
 made under Section 104 of the Explosives Act, 1875, it is de- 
 clared that Acetylene when liquid or when subject to a certain 
 degree of compression shall be deemed to be an explosive by the 
 said Order when in admixture with any substance, or in any 
 form or condition, is not possessed of explosive properties, the 
 Secretary of State may by Order exempt such Acetylene from 
 being deemed to be an explosive within the meaning of the 
 said Act. 
 
 And whereas it has been shown to the satisfaction of the 
 Secretary of State that Acetylene when in admixture with a 
 gas manufactured from mineral oil (hereinafter referred to as 
 Oil-gas) in certain proportions and not compressed beyond a 
 certain pressure is not possessed of explosive properties. 
 
 Now, therefore, in exercise of the powers aforesaid, I, one of 
 Her Majesty's Principal Secretaries of State, hereby order as 
 follows : 
 
 701 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene in admixture with. Oil-gas in a proportion not 
 exceeding twenty parts by volume of Acetylene in every 
 one hundred parts of the mixture, when subjected to a 
 pressure not exceeding one hundred and fifty pounds to 
 the square inch, shall not be deemed to be an explosive 
 within the meaning of the said Act. 
 
 Provided that the Acetylene and Oil-gas shall be mixed 
 together in a chamber or vessel before the gases are sub- 
 jected to compression. 
 
 (Signed) M. W. EIDLEY. 
 Whitehall, 
 
 28th March, 1898. 
 
 ABSTRACT OF THE PETROLEUM ACTS, 
 
 1871 TO 1881. 
 Abstract of 
 the Petro- As applied to the Storage and Carriage of Carbide of Calcium 
 
 by an Order in Counc tt of 26th February, 1897. 
 Prepared by the Acetylene Illuminating Company, manufac- 
 turers of Carbide of Calcium, for the use of Local Authorities 
 and others, and reprinted by permission of the Company. 
 
 Act, 1871. An Act for the safe-keeping of Petroleum and other 
 substances of a like nature, August 21st, 1871 (34 & 35 
 Viet. c. 105). 
 
 Sections 1 and 2 deal with the title of the Act and the inter- 
 pretation of certain terms, such as " Borough," "Harbour 
 Authority," " Court of Summary Jurisdiction," etc. 
 
 Section 3 gives the definition of Petroleum and application 
 of the Act thereto when tested in the manner set forth. It is 
 partly repealed by the Act of 1879. 
 
 NOTE. The Order in Council gives no definition of Carbide 
 of Calcium, nor are any rules laid down as to the method of 
 testing. But it is proposed only to grant licenses to keep 
 " commercially " pure Carbide of Calcium i.e. which contains 
 no impurities liable to generate phosphoretted or siliciuretted 
 hydrogen so as to render the gas evolved liable to ignite spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 Section 4 deals with bye-laws as to carriage by ship. 
 
 Section 5 requires notice to be given to Harbour Authorities 
 by owner or master of the carrying ship. 
 
 NOTE. Any contravention of bye-laws in force, or omission 
 to give notice, entails heavy penalties. 
 
 Section 6 deals with the label to be affixed to vessels contain- 
 ing Petroleum, and as modified for Carbide of Calcium now 
 reads as follows : 
 
 702 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 Where any Carbide of Calcium, to which this Act applies, 
 (a) Is kept at any place, except during the seven days 
 
 next after it has been imported; or 
 (6) Is sent or conveyed by land or water between any 
 
 two places in the United Kingdom; or 
 (c) Is sold or exposed for sale ; 
 
 the label on the vessel containing the said Carbide of Calcium 
 shall bear in conspicuous characters the words " Carbide of 
 Calcium," " Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the following 
 caution : " The contents of this package are liable if brought 
 into contact with moisture to give off a highly inflammable 
 gas," and with the addition 
 
 (a) In the case of a vessel kept, of the name and address 
 
 of the consignee or owner; 
 (6) In the case of a vessel sent or conveyed, of the name 
 
 and address of the sender ; 
 (c) In the case of a vessel sold or exposed for sale, the 
 
 name and address of the vendor. 
 
 All Carbide of Calcium to which this Act applies which is 
 kept, sent, conveyed, sold, or exposed for sale, in contravention 
 of this section, shall, together with the vessel containing the 
 same, be forfeited, and in addition thereto the person keeping, 
 sending, or exposing for sale the same shall for each offence be 
 liable to a penalty not exceeding Five Pounds. 
 
 Section 7 has been modified, and now stipulates that no Car- 
 bide of Calcium shall be kept except in pursuance of a license 
 given by Local Authorities. All Carbide of Calcium kept in 
 contravention of this section shall together with the vessel 
 containing the same be forfeited, and in addition thereto the 
 occupier of the place in which such Carbide is so kept shall be 
 liable to a penalty not exceeding Twenty Pounds a day for each 
 day during which such Carbide is so kept. 
 
 Section 8 gives the definition of Local Authorities. This 
 definition has been modified, and we are informed that the 
 Local Authorities under these Acts as altered by the Local 
 Government (England and Wales) Act, 1888 (51 and 52 Viet, 
 cap. 41), and the Local Government Act, 1894 (55 and 57 Viet, 
 cap. 73), are now as follows : 
 
 (A) In any harbour within the 
 jurisdiction of a harbour au- 
 thority (whether or not situ- 
 ated within the jurisdiction 
 of any other local authority). 
 
 (B) In the following districts, except so much as is part of 
 a harbour. 
 
 703 
 
 Labelling 
 packages of 
 Calcic Car- 
 bide 
 
 The Harbour Authority. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 r Corporation of City of 
 (a) In the City of London. j London. 
 
 (6) In the Metropolis (outside j London County Counci , 
 the City of London). J 
 
 (c) In any borough in Eng- ^ 
 
 land, Wales, Scotland, or I Town Council. 
 Ireland. J 
 
 (d) In any place in Ireland ^ 
 
 within the jurisdiction of I The Trustees or Improve- 
 any Trustees or Improve- j ment Commissioners, 
 ment Commissioners. J 
 
 (e) In any place in Scotland , 
 within the jurisdiction of j 
 
 Police Commissioners or I The Police Commis- 
 Trustees exercising func- f sioners or Trustees, 
 tions of Police Commis- 
 sioners. ' 
 
 (f) In any place where there 
 is no Local Authority, as 
 before defined: 
 
 The District Council. 
 
 (2) In Ireland. { The Ju Q stices in Pett ^ 
 
 I Sessions. 
 
 {County Justices sitting 
 as Judges in the Jus- 
 tice of Peace Court. 
 
 Section 9 deals with the mode of granting licenses, and reads 
 as follows : 
 
 Granting " Licenses in pursuance of this Act shall be valid if signed 
 
 Licenses fry i wo or more of the persons constituting the Local Authority, 
 or executed in any other way in which other licenses, if any, 
 granted by such Authority are executed. Licenses may be 
 granted for a limited time, and may be subject to renewal or 
 not in such a manner as the Local Authority think neces- 
 sary." 
 
 " There may be annexed to any such license such conditions 
 as to the mode of storage, the nature and situation of the 
 premises in which, and the nature of the goods with which 
 Carbide of Calcium to which this Act applies is to be stored, 
 the faculties for the testing of such Carbide of Calcium from 
 
 704 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 time to time, the mode of carrying such Carbide of Calcium 
 within the district of the Licensing Authority, and generally 
 as to the safe keeping of such Carbide of Calcium as may 
 seem expedient to the Local Authority." 
 
 " Any licensee violating any of the conditions of his license 
 shall be deemed to be an unlicensed person. There may be 
 charged in respect of each license granted in pursuance of 
 this Act such sum, not exceeding five shillings, as the Local 
 Authorities may think fit to charge." 
 
 Section 10 sets out the remedy in case of refusal of license 
 and reads thus : 
 
 "If on any application for a license under this Act the 
 Local Authority refuse the license, or grant the same only on 
 conditions with ivhich the applicant is dissatisfied, the Local 
 Authority shall, if required by the applicant, deliver to him 
 in writing under the hand or hands of one or more of the 
 persons constituting the Local Authority, a certificate of the 
 grounds on ivhich they refused the license or annexed con- 
 ditions to the grant thereof.' 1 ' 1 
 
 " The applicant within ten days from the time of the de- 
 livery of the certificate may transmit the same to a Secretary 
 of State if the application is for a license in England or Scot- 
 land, and to the Lord Lieutenant if the application is for a 
 license in Ireland, together with a memorial, praying that 
 notwithstanding such refusal the license may be granted, 
 or that the conditions may not be imposed, or may be altered 
 or modified in such manner and to such extent as may be set 
 forth in such memorial." 
 
 " It shall be lawful for the Secretary of State, or the Lord 
 Lieutenant, if he thinks fit on consideration of such memorial 
 and certificate, and if he thinks it necessary or desirable after 
 due enquiry and a report by such person as he may appoint 
 for that purpose to grant the license paid for, either abso- 
 lutely or with such conditions as he thinks fit, or to alter or 
 modify the conditions imposed by the Local Authority ; and 
 the license so granted, or altered and modified, as the case 
 may be, when certified under the hand of a Secretary of State 
 or the Lord Lieutenant, shall be to all intents as valid as if 
 granted by the Local Authority." 
 
 Section 11. Relates to the testing of samples of Petroleum 
 by officer or local authority, and is now modified (see foot note 
 after Section 3 herein), but any officer authorized by the Local 
 Authority may purchase any Carbide of Calcium from any 
 dealer in it, or may on producing a copy of his appointment 
 purporting to be certified by the clerk or some member of the 
 Local Authority, or producing some other sufficient authority 
 
 705 45 
 
 Refusal of 
 License 
 
 Taking 
 Samples 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 require the dealer to show him every or any place and all or 
 any of the vessels in which any Carbide of Calcium in his 
 possession is kept, and to give him samples of such Carbide of 
 Calcium on payment of the value of such samples. 
 
 Section 12. Sets out the penalty for obstructing the officer or 
 refusing information, and reads as follows : 
 
 " Any dealer who refuses to show to any officer authorized by 
 the Local Authority every or any place or all or any of the 
 vessels in which Carbide of Calcium in his possession is 
 kept, or to give him such assistance as he may require for 
 examining the same, or to give to such officer samples of 
 such Carbide of Calcium on payment of the value of such 
 samples, or who wilfully obstructs the Local Authority 
 or any officer of the Local Authority in the execution of 
 this Act shall incur a penalty not exceeding Twenty 
 Pounds" 
 
 Section 13. Authorizes search for Carbide of Calcium if any 
 court of summary jurisdiction is satisfied by information on 
 oath that Carbide of Calcium is being kept, sent, conveyed, or 
 exposed for sale within the jurisdiction of such court in con- 
 travention of the Act. Any Carbide of Calcium so found is 
 liable to be forfeited, and any person obstructing the search or 
 authorizing obstruction is liable to a penalty not exceeding 
 Twenty Pounds in addition to forfeiture of the goods. 
 
 Section 14. By this section Her Majesty may from time to 
 time make, revoke, and vary Orders in Council, directing this 
 Act or any part thereof to apply to any substance other than 
 PetroleLim. 
 
 NOTE. It is under this section that the Order in Council 
 applying the Petroleum Acts to Carbide of Calcium came into 
 effect. 
 
 Section 15. Deals with mode of recovery of penalties, etc. 
 
 Section 16. Is a reservation Clause for maintaining previous 
 powers with respect to inflammable substances. 
 
 Section 17. Repeals certain Acts. 
 
 Section 18, and last, states the duration of the Act. (This 
 was extended by the Petroleum Act of 1879, and continues in 
 force until otherwise directed by Parliament.) 
 
 An Act to continue and amend the Petroleum Act, 1871, llth 
 August, 1879 (42 and 43 Viet. c. 47). 
 
 With the exception of Section 4 continuing in force the 
 Petroleum Act of 1871, until otherwise directed by Parliament 
 the whole of this Act practically refers to the testing of 
 
 706 
 
LEG-AL ENACTMENTS 
 
 Petroleum, and is therefore excepted from the Order in Council 
 dealing with Carbide of Calcium. 
 
 An Act to regulate the hawking of Petroleum, and other sub- 
 stances of a like nature, 27th August, 1871. 
 
 This Act is construed as one with the Petroleum Acts, 1871 
 and 1879, and together with those Acts is cited as the Petroleum 
 Acts, 1871 to 1881. So far, however, as Carbide of Calcium is 
 concerned, this Act of 1881 is in totality excepted from the 
 Order in Council. 
 
 By an Order in Council held 7th July, 1897, it has been pre- 
 scribed that 5 Ibs. of Carbide of Calcium may be kept without a 
 license, provided it be kept in separate substantial hermetically 
 closed metal vessels containing not more than 1 Ib. each. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES ACTS. 
 
 It would serve no useful purpose to give an abstract of the 
 Explosives Acts, as these only apply to liquid Acetylene stored 
 at a pressure of 600 to 700 Ibs. to the square inch, and to acety- 
 lene when subject to a pressure above that of the atmosphere 
 capable of supporting a column of water exceeding 100 inches 
 in height equal to 3'6 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 Any apparatus for generating acetylene in which this latter 
 pressure is exceeded would be prohibited under the Act. In 
 most generators the pressure does not even approach 100 inches 
 of water pressure. 
 
 Explosives 
 Acts 
 
 PETEOLEUM ACT AND LOCAL AUTHOEITIES. 
 
 The whole of the Petroleum Acts apply to Carbide of Calcium 
 in the same manner as if the said substance were petroleum, 
 except as shown in the foregoing abstract. 
 
 Probably, Local Authorties will be guided in some measure 
 by the interpretation given to the Order in Council by the 
 London County Council, and the Corporation of London, as 
 these authorities have had the advantage of the assistance of 
 the Home Office and of competent scientists in framing regu- 
 lations and suggestions. 
 
 A copy of the abstracts issued by the London County Council, 
 and the Corporation of London, with a copy of their forms of 
 application and copy of their forms of license is appended hereto, 
 but it will be observed that the abstracts have no legal validity, 
 and it is optional to all Local Authorities to modify the sug- 
 gestions made in any manner they think desirable. 
 
 707 
 
 Petroleum 
 Act and 
 Local Autho- 
 rities 
 
ACETYLENE 
 CITY OF LONDON. 
 
 Cityof PETEOLEUM ACTS, 1871 TO 1881. 
 
 London ORDER IN COUNCIL, 26'fn FEBRUARY, 1897. 
 
 Acte'lST'l'to Tke L Cal Government (England and Wales) Act, 1888. 
 1881 - 
 
 CARBIDE OF CALCIUM LICENSE. 
 
 Carbide PURSUANT to the provisions of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, 
 
 License and the Order in Council , dated the 26th February, 1897? the Mayor 
 
 and Commonalty and Citizens of the City of London (hereinafter 
 
 called the Corporation) being the Local Authority for the said 
 
 City, DO HEREBY grant License to .............................. of ...... 
 
 ..................... for the period of 12 calendar months from the ...... 
 
 ............ to keep ........................ of Carbide of Calcium, to which 
 
 the Acts and such Order in Council apply, and as denned in the 
 said Acts and Order in Council, on the premises situate at ...... 
 
 ............... in the Parish of ..................... and within the City 
 
 of London, subject to the conditions following, that is to 
 say : 
 
 Conditions ! ^ ne Carbide of Calcium to be kept only for use on the 
 for storing premises, and not for sale. 
 
 2. That the Carbide of Calcium, except when actually being 
 used in generating Acetylene Gas, be kept only in strong metal 
 vessels, so constructed as to exclude water and atmospheric 
 moisture. 
 
 3. That the vessel or vessels containing the Carbide of Calcium 
 be kept in the place of storage approved of by the City Sur- 
 veyor ; that such place of storage be exclusively appropriated to 
 the purpose ; and that the building within which it is comprised 
 be not a dwelling-house, or inhabited. 
 
 4. That the place of storage aforesaid be in all respects kept 
 and maintained in the same condition that it was in when in- 
 spected by an authorized officer of the Corporation last before 
 the granting of this License. 
 
 5. That not more than 112 Ibs. of Carbide of Calcium be kept 
 in any one vessel, and that only one vessel be opened at one 
 time. 
 
 6. That every storage vessel of a greater capacity than 2 Ibs. 
 be secured with a lock or be kept in a locked receptacle so as to 
 prevent unauthorized persons having access to the contents. 
 
 7. That when a locked receptacle is provided for the storage 
 of the vessels containing the Carbide of Calcium, no other sub- 
 stance shall be deposited or kept in such receptacles. 
 
 708 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 8. That the Carbide of Calcium shall be kept only in the 
 metal vessels which have been approved of by the City 
 Surveyor. 
 
 All these several matters to be at all times kept in good order 
 and repair, and rendered secure and perfect. 
 
 9. That every storage vessel containing Carbide of Calcium 
 bear a label with the words u Carbide of Calcium," " Dangerous, 
 if not kept dry," in conspicuous characters thereon, and with the 
 following caution : " The contents of this package are liable, if 
 brought into contact with moisture, to give off a highly inflam- 
 mable gas." 
 
 10. That Carbide of Calcium be only conveyed to or from the 
 licensed premises in closed vessels. 
 
 11. That the vessels containing Carbide of Calcium be only 
 opened upon the licensed premises at or immediately adjoining 
 the place of storage, and for the time necessary for removing 
 the Carbide of Calcium, or for the re-filling of the vessels, and 
 that, during such removal or re-filling, every reasonable pre- 
 caution be adopted for preventing moisture being brought into 
 contact therewith, as well as for guarding against the risk of 
 ignition of any gas which may be liberated. 
 
 12. That the apparatus for generating and storing the gas Generating 
 yielded by Carbide of Calcium be placed in a well-ventilated Apparatus 
 outbuilding, and that no artificial light, capable of igniting in- 
 flammable gas, be taken into or near the building used for- this 
 
 purpose. 
 
 13. That escape of gas from the apparatus be carefully guarded 
 against, and provision made against the occurrence of undue 
 pressure by the employment of a safety valve connected with a 
 pipe discharging into the open air. The apparatus also to be 
 furnished with a pressure gauge. 
 
 14. That satisfactory provision be made against dangerous 
 development of heat. 
 
 15. That any residue of Carbide of Calcium be at once mixed 
 with at least ten times its bulk of water on being removed from 
 the generator. 
 
 16. That no person be entrusted with the charge of a gas- 
 generating apparatus until he has been properly instructed in 
 its management. 
 
 17. That all Carbide of Calcium received upon the premises 
 be at once taken to the place of storage, and that Carbide of 
 Calcium taken from the place of storage for delivery or other- 
 wise be at once removed from the premises. 
 
 18. That the Licensee do take effectual precautions for pre- 
 
 709 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Storage, 
 
 Carriage 
 
 and Sale of 
 
 Carbide 
 
 venting unauthorized persons and all persons under the age of 
 15 years from obtaining access to the place of storage. 
 
 19. That due precaution be at all times taken for the pre- 
 vention of accident from fire. 
 
 20. That every authorized officer of the Corporation be at all 
 times allowed free access to the premises of the Licensee for the 
 purpose of ascertaining if the above conditions are properly 
 observed, and of obtaining samples of Carbide of Calcium, at the 
 cost of the Corporation, for the purpose of being tested ; and 
 that the Licensee do, by himself or his representatives, give any 
 assistance for that purpose which such officer may require. 
 
 21. Nothing in this License is to absolve the Licensee from 
 liability to observe and carry out the special requirements and 
 provisions contained in the said Acts and Order in Council, and 
 any breach of the above conditions shall operate as a forfeiture 
 of the License. 
 
 By Order of the Corporation, 
 
 GUILDHALL, LONDON, 
 
 Town Clerk. 
 
 189 
 
 This License is not transferable, and alone operates from the 
 day on which it is taken up by the Licensee. 
 
 The attention of the Licensee is specially directed to the 
 following extract from Section 9 of the Petroleum Act, 1871 : 
 
 " Any Licensee violating any of the conditions of his 
 license shall be deemed to be an unlicensed person." 
 
 N.B. Should it be desired to renew this License, an application 
 for such purpose must be sent to the Town Clerk, Guild- 
 hall, not later than 
 
 CITY OF LONDON. 
 PETEOLEUM ACTS. 
 
 Keeping, Selling, and Conveying 
 CARBIDE OF CALCIUM. 
 
 By an Order in Council, dated 26th February, 1897, it is 
 directed that the Petroleum Act, 1871 (34 and 35 Viet. c. 105), 
 shall apply to Carbide of Calcium. This material can, there- 
 fore, only be legally kept under a License granted by the Local 
 Authority, even in the smallest quantities, and whether for sale 
 or for private use. 
 
 710 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 The Local Authority for the City of London is the Corpora- 
 tion, and application should accordingly be forthwith made to 
 the Town Clerk, Guildhall, E.G., by all those who are keeping 
 or desire to keep Carbide of Calcium within the City. 
 
 A printed Form of Application will be supplied. 
 
 Ever3>- application should be accompanied by a Statement 
 setting forth : (a) The maximum quantitj r proposed to be kept ; 
 (6) Whether it is to be kept for sale or for use ; (c) The proposed 
 place and method of storage. 
 
 In granting Licenses the Corporation will, as far as possible, 
 be guided by the following principles : 
 
 1. Strong metal vessels, so constructed and closed as to ex- 
 clude water and atmospheric moisture, should be used for keep- 
 ing Carbide of Calcium, and these vessels should only be opened 
 during such time as is necessary for the removal of the required 
 portion of their contents or for refilling. The maximum con- 
 tents should not exceed 112 Ibs. Copper should not be used in 
 the construction of the vessels. 
 
 2. Every storage vessel of a greater capacity than 2 Ibs. 
 should be secured with a lock or be kept in a locked receptacle, 
 so as to prevent unauthorized persons having access to the 
 contents. 
 
 3. Storage vessels should not be kept in dwelling-houses, but 
 the keeping by holders of Licenses of small quantities in shops, 
 dwellings or workshops, for sale or use, will be permitted under 
 suitable conditions. 
 
 4. The Carbide of Calcium must be pure in a commercial 
 sense, i.e. it must contain no impurities liable to generate 
 phosphoretted or siliciuretted hydrogen, so as to render the gas 
 evolved liable to ignite spontaneously. 
 
 5. Apparatus for generating and storing the gas (acetylene) 
 yielded by Carbide of Calcium should be placed in a well- venti- 
 lated outbuilding, and no artificial light capable of igniting in- 
 flammable gas should be taken into or near the building used 
 for this purpose. An exception to this will be made in the case 
 of portable apparatus taking a charge not exceeding 2 Ibs. of 
 Carbide. 
 
 6. The apparatus used for generating and holding the gas 
 should be so constructed and used as to guard against the 
 special risks attaching to the production of acetylene from 
 Carbide of Calcium. Therefore : (a) Copper should not be 
 used in the construction of the apparatus; (6) The apparatus 
 should be of adequate strength ; (c) Escape of gas from the 
 apparatus should be carefully guarded against, and provision 
 should be made against the occurrence of undue pressure by the 
 employment of a safety-valve connected with a pipe discharging 
 
 711 
 
 Storage ot 
 Carbide 
 
 Apparatus 
 
 for 
 
 generating 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 into the open air. The apparatus should also be furnished with 
 a pressure-gauge ; (d) Satisfactory provision should be made 
 against dangerous development of heat ; (e) The residue of Car- 
 bide should be mixed with at least ten times its bulk of water 
 on being removed from the generator; (/) No person should 
 have charge of an apparatus until he has been properly in- 
 structed in its management. 
 
 7. When Carbide of Calcium is : (a) Kept at any place ; or 
 (b)' Sold or exposed for sale, the vessel containing it shall bear 
 a label stating in conspicuous characters the words " Carbide of 
 Calcium," " Dangerous, if not kept dry," and the following 
 caution : " The contents of this package are liable, if brought 
 into contact with moisture, to give off a highly inflammable 
 gas," and, in addition, the name and address of the owner or 
 vendor. Where the Carbide of Calcium is (c) Sent or conveyed, 
 the vessel containing it must bear a similar label, except that 
 in this case the name and address of the sender is to be substi- 
 tuted. The License may prescribe the conditions under which 
 the Carbide of Calcium is to be conveyed to or from licensed 
 premises. 
 
 8. A charge of Five Shillings will be made in respect of each 
 License. 
 
 9. Any dealer who refuses to show to any Officer, authorized 
 by the Corporation, every or any place or all or any of the 
 vessels in which Carbide of Calcium in his possession is kept, or 
 to give him such assistance as he may require for examining the 
 same, or to give to such Officer samples of such Carbide of Cal- 
 cium, on payment of the value of such samples, or who wilfully 
 obstructs the Corporation, or any Officer of the Corporation, in 
 the execution of these Acts and the order made thereunder, is 
 liable to a penalty not exceeding Twenty Pounds. 
 
 A License is not transferable. It is granted for One Year 
 only, and Applications for Renewal must be made prior to its 
 expiry. 
 
 By order of the Corporation, 
 
 JOHN B. MONCKTON, 
 
 Town Clerk. 
 
 NOTE. This Memorandum does not preclude the Corpora- 
 tion from imposing any further conditions in any particular 
 case, and is intended only for the guidance of Applicants for 
 Licenses. 
 
 GUILDHALL, April, 1897. 
 
 712 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. 
 
 Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, and Order in Council, dated 
 26th February, 1897. 
 
 London 
 County 
 Council 
 Carbide 
 License 
 
 CARBIDE OF CALCIUM LICENSE. 
 Eeg. No ....... 
 
 Pursuant to the provisions of the Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 
 1881, and of the Order in Council, dated 26th February, 1897, 
 the London County Council doth hereby at the request of ......... 
 
 ............................................ grant License to ..................... 
 
 for the period of twelve calendar months from the .................. 
 
 ....................................... to keep .................................... of 
 
 Carbide of Calcium on the premises ................. ... ................. 
 
 in the parish of ................................................... and within 
 
 the jurisdiction of the said Council, subject to the conditions 
 following, that is to say 
 
 That Carbide of Calcium which contains impurities liable to 
 generate phosphoretted or siliciuretted hydrogen so as to render 
 the gas evolved liable to ignite spontaneously, be not kept 
 under this license. 
 
 That Carbide of Calcium be kept only in .............................. 
 
 Conditions 
 for Storage 
 
 That Carbide of Calcium, excepting when being actually used 
 in generating Acetylene Gas, be kept only in strong metal 
 vessels so constructed and closed as to prevent the admission of 
 water or atmospheric moisture. 
 
 That every such vessel when containing Carbide of Calcium 
 bear a label, stating in conspicuous characters the words, "Car- 
 bide of Calcium," " Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the 
 following caution : u The contents of this package are liable 
 if brought into contact with moisture to give off a highly in- 
 flammable gas," and also the name and address of the owner 
 or vendor. 
 
 That only one vessel containing Carbide of Calcium be opened 
 at one time, and then only for the time necessary for the 
 removal of any required quantity of Carbide, or for the refilling 
 of the vessel. 
 
 That not more than 112 Ibs. of Carbide of Calcium be kept in 
 any one vessel. 
 
 That any quantity of Carbide of Calcium exceeding 2 Ibs. in 
 
 713 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 weight be only kept in a vessel or vessels securely locked, unless 
 such vessel or vessels are in a locked receptacle. 
 
 That fire, or any such artificial light as would ignite inflam- 
 mable gas, be not taken into or near the building or place 
 where Carbide of Calcium is kept or used in quantities exceed- 
 ing 2 Ibs. 
 
 That any residue of Carbide of Calcium on being removed 
 from a gas-making apparatus be at once mixed with at least 
 ten times its bulk of water. 
 
 That any apparatus containing Carbide of Calcium be only 
 entrusted to the charge of a person properly instructed in its 
 management. 
 
 That Carbide of Calcium be sent or conveyed only in strong 
 metal vessels so constructed and closed as to prevent the ad- 
 mission of water or atmospheric moisture, and bearing a label 
 stating in conspicuous characters the words, " Carbide of Cal- 
 cium," " Dangerous if not kept dry," and with the following 
 caution : " The contents of this package are liable if brought 
 into contact with moisture, to give off a highly inflammable 
 gas," and also the name and address of the sender. 
 
 That every authorized Officer of the Council be at all times 
 allowed free access to the premises of the Licensee, for the pur- 
 pose of ascertaining if the above conditions are properly ob- 
 served ; and that the Licensee do, by himself or his representa- 
 tives, give any assistance for that purpose which such Officer 
 may require. 
 
 By Order of the Council. 
 
 Clerk of the Council. 
 Spring-gardens, S.W. 
 
 Section 9 of the Petroleum Act, 1871. which applies to Carbide 
 of Calcium, provides that any " Licensee violating any of the 
 conditions of his License shall .be deemed to be an unlicensed 
 person" 
 
 THIS LICENSE IS NOT TRANSFERABLE. 
 
 Eeceived the sum of Five Shillings in respect of the above 
 License (Provisional Receipt No. ). 
 
 0:5:0 
 
 Countersigned, 
 
 Cashier. 
 
 for the Comptroller. 
 714 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. Application 
 
 form for 
 License 
 
 PUBLIC CONTROL DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Petroleum Acts, 1871 to 1881, and Order in Council, dated 2Qth 
 February, 1897. 
 
 Eeg. No. 
 
 Application to the London County Council for a License to 
 keep Carbide of Calcium. 
 
 This application should be fully filled up in accordance with 
 the following instructions, and forwarded to the Chief Officer of 
 the Public Control Department, London County Council, 21, 
 Whitehall Place, S.W., with a P.O. or Cheque for 5s., payable to 
 order of the London County Council and crossed. This fee will 
 be retained if the license be granted, or returned to the applicant 
 if the license be refused. 
 
 State Christian name and Surname 
 of the Applicant. 
 
 If a Firm, the names of each 
 Member in full. If a Company, 
 the name of the Company and its 
 Secretary. 
 
 State situation of the premises for 
 which the license is required. 
 
 State quantity desired. 
 
 State if the Carbide will be kept and 
 sold unopened in the vessels in which 
 it is received, and if not, what will be 
 done with it. 
 
 State in what vessels the Carbide will 
 be kept, capacity of vessels, how closed 
 against moisture, and of what material 
 constructed. 
 
 State (a) in what part of the premises 
 the Carbide is to be kept ; (6) the con- 
 struction of the store ; (c) if the store 
 is used for other purposes, and if so 
 what. 
 
 715 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 State if the Carbide is to be used for 
 the manufacture of Acetylene Gas, and 
 if so, state 
 
 (a) The make and capacity of the 
 
 generator. 
 
 (b) Particulars as to the building in 
 
 which it will be placed, if de- 
 tached from other buildings, 
 and if used for other purposes. 
 
 (c) How you propose to dispose of 
 
 the residue. 
 
 (d) If the machine will be in the sole 
 
 charge of a person properly 
 instructed in its management. 
 
 Signature of Applicant. 
 
 Trade 
 
 Postal Address 
 
 Date... 
 
 MIXTURES OF ACETYLENE WITH AIR 
 OR OXYGEN. 
 
 It has now been prescribed by a Home Office Order that 
 the use of acetylene in admixture with air or oxygen be pro- 
 hibited, except where such admixture takes place in the 
 burner at which it is to be consumed. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 In America the regulation of the acetylene industry is dealt 
 with by the Fire Insurance Companies, advised by the Com- 
 mittee on Fire Protection Engineering, and in February, 1899, 
 this body issued the following report : 
 
 ACETYLENE GAS. 
 
 The rapid development of the manufacture of acetylene gas 
 machines has resulted in a greater demand upon the time and 
 attention of the Bureau in this direction during the half-year 
 than that exercised by any other department of the work. It can- 
 not yet be absolutely determined whether lighting by acetylene 
 gas is to be a commercial success. The simplicity of the primary 
 principle involved in its manufacture has led many persons 
 ignorant of common gas practice to construct machines for this 
 purpose, many of which indicate a total lack of appreciation of 
 the explosive qualities of the gas, as well as limited mechanical 
 knowledge. 
 
 716 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 The gas exhibits dangerous explosive qualities within certain 
 limits of air saturation, and many devices of reasonable me- 
 chanical merit have required reconstruction to obviate air 
 mixtures of this character. Excessive and dangerous heating 
 follows the application of small quantities of water to a large 
 bulk of carbide, which is a very general defect in many types 
 of machines. 
 
 Up to the present date we have examined the machines of 
 one hundred and twenty-three different manufacturers. Fifty- 
 seven of this number have been finally approved for use. Many 
 of the machines now listed as of satisfactory construction have 
 been practically rebuilt under our direction, certain of the same 
 requiring one, two and three re-examinations, before being con- 
 sidered suitable for use inside buildings. 
 
 Tests will be continued along the lines already followed and 
 results promulgated as heretofore by publishing lists of approved 
 and unapproved machines, regularly furnished to subscribers. 
 
 The Committee on Lighting, Heating and Patents of the 
 National Board of Fire Underwriters, after consultation with 
 our own and other experts, has promulgated certain funda- 
 mental requirements governing the construction and installa- 
 tion of acetylene gas generators which we recommend for your 
 adoption as follows; the same being, as far as they go, in 
 accordance with our past practice in this subject, and very 
 useful in bringing about uniformity of action among the 
 different organizations interested. 
 
 Supplementing these, we have furnished all the underwriting 
 organizations in the country with lists of acetylene devices which 
 we have found critically defective, asking their co-operation in 
 securing the necessary improvements. This action on our part 
 has been very favourably received, assurances of active co- 
 operation being returned to us and in some instances approvals 
 previously issued being withdrawn until the machines criticised 
 should be reconstructed in accordance with our established 
 standards of safety. 
 
 And later in the year the National Board issued the following 
 rules : 
 
 "The following rules governing the Construction and Installa- 
 tion of Acetylene Gas Machines and the storage of Calcium 
 Carbide are adopted as standard, and should be observed in all 
 cases. 
 
 Generators must receive approval before installation. 
 
 Liquid Acetylene. The use of liquid acetylene or gas 
 generated therefrom is absolutely prohibited. 
 
 717 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 National Board Rides Governing Construction of Acetylene 
 Generators. 
 
 1. Must be made of iron or steel, and in a manner and of 
 material to insure stability and durability. 
 
 2. Must have sufficient carbide capacity to supply the full 
 number of burners during the maximum lighting period. 
 
 NOTE. This rule removes the necessity of recharging at im- 
 proper hours. Burners almost invariably consume more gas 
 than their rated capacity, and carbide is not of staple purity ; 
 therefore there should be an assurance of sufficient quantity to 
 last as long as light is needed. Another important feature is 
 that in some establishments burners are called upon for a much 
 longer period of lighting than in others, which requires a 
 generator of greater gas-producing capacity. 
 
 3. Must be uniform and automatically regulated in its action, 
 producing gas only as immediate consumption demands, and so 
 designed that gas is generated without excessive heating at all 
 stages of the process. 
 
 NOTE. This rule is necessary, because the presence of ex- 
 cessive heat tends to change the chemical character of the gas, 
 and may even cause its ignition. 
 
 4. Apparatus not requiring pressure regulators must be so 
 arranged that the gas pressure cannot exceed thirty tenths 
 inches water column (three inches). 
 
 5. Must be provided with an escape pipe, which will operate 
 in case of the over-production of gas, and also an attachment 
 acting as an escape or relief in case of abnormal pressure in the 
 machine, and which will carry such excess gas through an 
 escape pipe of at least three-quarter inch internal diameter to a 
 suitable point outside of building, discharging at least twelve 
 feet above ground level, and provided with an approved hood. 
 
 NOTE. Both the above safety vents may be connected with 
 the same escape pipe. 
 
 6 Apparatus requiring pressure regulator must be so arranged 
 that the gas pressure cannot exceed three pounds to the square 
 inch. Such apparatus must be provided with additional safety 
 blow-off attachment located between the pressure regulator and 
 the service pipes and discharging to the outer air, the same as 
 provided for in Rule 5. 
 
 NOTE. This is intended to prevent the possibility of undue 
 pressure of gas in the service pipe by failure of the pressure 
 regulator. 
 
 7. Must be so arranged that when being charged the back 
 flow of gas from the holder will be automatical ty prevented, or 
 so arranged that it is impossible to charge the apparatus with- 
 
 718 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 out first closing the supply pipe to holder, or to other generating 
 chambers, if any. 
 
 NOTE. This is intended to prevent the dangerous escape of 
 gas. 
 
 8. Must be so arranged as to contain the minimum amount of 
 air when first started or recharged, and no device or attachment 
 facilitating or permitting mixture of air with the gas, prior to 
 consumption, except at the burners, shall be allowed. 
 
 NOTE. Owing to the explosive properties of acetylene mixed 
 with air, machines should be so designed that such mixtures 
 are impossible. 
 
 9. No valves or pet-cocks opening into the room from gas- 
 holding part or parts, the draining of which will allow an 
 escape of gas, shall be permitted, and the condensation from all 
 parts of the apparatus must be automatically removed without 
 the use of valves or mechanical working parts. 
 
 NOTE. Such valves and pet-cocks are not essential ; their 
 presence increases the possibility of leakage. The automatic 
 removal of condensation from the apparatus is essential to the 
 safe working of the machine. 
 
 10. The water supply to generator must be so arranged that 
 gas will be generated long enough in advance of the exhaustion 
 of the supply already in the gas-holder to allow of the using of 
 all lights without exhausting such supply. 
 
 NOTE. This provides for the continuous working of the 
 apparatus under all conditions of water feed and carbide charge, 
 and it obviates the extinction of lights through intermittent 
 action of the machine. 
 
 11. No carbide chamber of over twenty-five pounds capacity 
 shall be allowed in any machine where water is introduced in 
 small quantities, or where the contact of water with carbide is 
 intermittent. % 
 
 NOTE. This tends to reduce the danger of overheating, and 
 provides for the division of the carbide charges in machines of 
 these types of large capacity. 
 
 12. Generator must be connected with the gas-holder in such 
 manner that it will, at all times, give open connection either to 
 the gas-holder or to the blow-off pipe into the outer air. 
 
 NOTE. This prevents dangerous pressure within or the 
 escape of gas from generating chamber. 
 
 13. Must be so designed that the residuum will not clog or 
 affect the working of the machine, and can conveniently be 
 handled and removed. 
 
 14. Covers to generators must be provided, with secure fasten- 
 ings to hold them properly in place, and those relying on a water- 
 seal must be submerged in at least twelve inches of water. 
 
 719 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Water-seal chambers, for covers depending on a water-seal, 
 must be one and a half inches wide and fifteen inches deep, 
 excepting those depending upon the filling of the seal chambers 
 for the generation of gas, where nine inches will be sufficient. 
 
 15. Holder must be of sufficient capacity to contain all gas 
 generated after all lights have been extinguished. 
 
 NOTE. If the holder is too small, and blows off frequently 
 after lights are extinguished, there is a waste of gas. This 
 may suggest improper working of the apparatus, and encourage 
 tampering. 
 
 16. The bell portion must be provided with a substantial 
 guide to its upward movement, centre guide preferred, and a 
 stop acting about one inch above the blow-off point. 
 
 NOTE. This tends to insure the proper action of the bell, and 
 decreases the liability of escaping gas. 
 
 17. A space of at least three-quarters of an inch must be 
 allowed between the sides of the tank and the bell. 
 
 18. All water-seals must be so arranged that the water level 
 may be readily seen and maintained. 
 
 19. Gas-holders constructed upon the gasometer principle 
 must be so arranged that when the gas bell is filled to its maxi- 
 mum, its lip, or lower edge, shall at all times be submerged in 
 at least nine inches of water. 
 
 20. The supply of water to the generator for generating pur- 
 poses shall not be taken from the water-seal of any gas-holder 
 constructed on the gasometer principle. 
 
 NOTE. This provides for the retention of the proper level of 
 water in the generator. 
 
 21. The apparatus shall be capable of withstanding fire from 
 outside causes without falling apart or allowing the escape of 
 gas in volume. 
 
 NOTE. This prevents the use of joints in the apparatus rely- 
 ing entirely upon solder. 
 
 22. Gauge glasses, the breakage of which would allow escape 
 of gas, shall not be permitted. 
 
 23. Where purifiers are installed, they must conform to the 
 general rules for the construction of other apparatus, and allow 
 the free passage of gas. 
 
 24. The use of mercury seals is prohibited. 
 
 NOTE. Mercury has been found unreliable as a seal in acety- 
 lene apparatus. 
 
 25. Construction must be such that liquid seals shall not be- 
 come thickened by the deposit of lime or other foreign matter. 
 
 26. Apparatus must be constructed so that accidental syphon- 
 ing of the water is impossible. 
 
 27. Flexible tubing, swing joints, packed unions, springs, 
 
 720 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 chains, pulleys, stuffing boxes, and lead or fusible piping must 
 not be used on apparatus, except where the failure of the part 
 will not vitally affect the working or the safety of the machine. 
 
 28. There shall be plainly marked on each machine the maxi- 
 mum number of lights it is designed to supply and the amount 
 of carbide necessary for a single charge. 
 
 The above rules are general, and are intended to provide only 
 against the more hazardous defects usually noted in apparatus 
 of this kind. The rules do not cover details of construction 
 nor the proper proportioning of parts. These points are often 
 only developed in the examination required before approval. 
 
 Rules Governing the Installation of Acetylene Generators. 
 
 It is desirable that all acetylene generators shall be installed 
 outside of insured buildings. (See Specifications, rule 15.) 
 But special permission may be granted to install generators in- 
 side buildings where they are installed in conformity with the 
 following rules, and approved by an authorized representative. 
 
 1. Generators must be placed on substantial foundations and 
 set perfectly level. Where practicable, the foundations shall be 
 of brick, stone, concrete, or iron. If necessarily of wood, they 
 shall be extra heavy, in a dry place, and open to the circulation 
 of air. The foundations must be such that unequal strain is 
 not placed on the generator or connections. 
 
 NOTE. The ordinary board platform commonly used is not 
 satisfactory. Wooden foundations should be of heavy planking, 
 joists or timbers arranged so that the air will circulate around 
 them, and so as to form a firm base. Wood should not be used 
 in the construction of the machine, or to support the several parts. 
 
 2. Generators must be placed where water in the same will 
 not freeze. Where they are not intended for use throughout 
 the entire year, all water and gas must be removed at the end 
 of the season. 
 
 NOTE. It is usually necessary to take the bell portion of the 
 holder out, so as to allow all gas to escape. This should never 
 be done in the presence of artificial light or open fire of any kind. 
 
 3. Generators to be placed preferably in a large, well -ventilated 
 room. In no case must they be placed in closets or small rooms 
 where artificial light is necessary. If enclosed, the enclosure 
 should be of slatted partitions, permitting the free circulation 
 of air. Rooms must have sufficient height to permit the free 
 and full upward movement of the gasholder or moving parts. 
 
 4. Generators to be placed where they can be easily adjusted 
 and operating mechanism readily seen without artificial light, 
 and in no case should they be placed so that their proper action 
 can be easily interfered with by children or careless persons. 
 
 721 46 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Where possible, generators must be placed so as to be well 
 lighted from windows. 
 
 5. Generators should be placed at the greatest distance prac- 
 ticable from direct fire heat and artificial light. In no case 
 should they be nearer than 15 feet to direct fire heat, and in no 
 case must they be nearer than ten (10) feet to any gas jet, lamp, 
 lantern, or other source of artificial light. 
 
 6. Each generator must be provided with an escape or relief 
 pipe of at least three-quarter inch internal diameter. This pipe 
 must be substantially installed, without traps, and so that any 
 condensation will drain back to the generator. It must be 
 carried to a suitable point outside the building, and terminate 
 in an approved hood located at least 12 feet above ground and 
 remote from windows. 
 
 7. The connection from generator to service pipes must be 
 made so that any possible moisture in the pipes will drain back 
 to the generator. Pet-cocks for draining are not permitted. 
 
 NOTE. A valve and by-pass connection should be provided 
 from the service pipe to the blow-off for removing the gas from 
 the holder in case it should be necessary to do so. 
 
 8. The schedule of pipe sizes for piping from generator to 
 burners should conform to that commonly used for ordinary 
 gas, but in no case should the feeders be smaller than three- 
 eighths of an inch. The following schedule is advocated : 
 
 I inch pipe, 26 feet, three burners. 
 
 inch pipe, 30 feet, six burners. 
 
 | inch pipe, 50 feet, twenty burners. 
 
 1 inch pipe, 70 feet, thirty-five burners. 
 1J inch pipe, 100 feet, sixty burners. 
 
 1 inch pipe, 150 feet, one hundred burners. 
 
 2 inch pipe, 200 feet, two hundred burners. 
 2J inch pipe, 300 feet, three hundred burners. 
 
 3 inch pipe, 450 feet, four hundred and fifty burners. 
 3| inch pipe, 500 feet, six hundred burners. 
 
 4 inch pipe, 600 feet, seven hundred and fifty burners. 
 The piping must be thoroughly tested, both before and after 
 
 burners have been installed. Piping should not show loss in 
 excess of two inches within twelve hours when subjected to 
 pressure equal to fifteen inches of mercury. 
 
 9. Generators must be installed by persons experienced in the 
 installation of acetylene apparatus. Each installation to be 
 inspected by an authorized representative before the permit is 
 granted. 
 
 10. Generators must be of sufficient capacity to furnish gas 
 continuously for all lights supplied and for the maximum 
 lighting period. They must be capable of supplying gas con- 
 tinuously for at least five hours, and for all burners attached. 
 
 722 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 NOTE. Owing to the fact that most of the generators ex- 
 amined are found to be overrated and poorly proportioned for 
 the service expected of them, great care should be taken to pro- 
 vide a machine large enough for all conditions of service, and 
 so that recharging at night can be avoided. The following 
 ratings will usual ly be found advisable : 
 
 (a) Tor dwellings and where machines are always used 
 intermittently, a generator rated to supply all of the 
 burners attached should be used. 
 
 (6) For stores, opera houses, day run factories, and similar 
 service, the generator should have a capacity of from 
 30 to 50 per cent, in excess of the total capacity of the 
 burners. 
 
 (c) For saloons, all night or continued service, generators 
 having an excess capacity of from 1 to 200 per cent, 
 over total capacity of burners are almost always neces- 
 sary. 
 
 A small generator should never be installed to supply a large 
 number of lights, even though it seems probable that only a few 
 lights will be used at a time. An overworked generator adds 
 to the cost of acetylene. 
 
 11. Carbide charges must be sufficient to furnish gas for all 
 burners during the maximum lighting period. In determining 
 charges, the carbide to be estimated as containing 4| cubic feet 
 to the lb., and the burners as consuming at least 25 per cent, 
 overrated burning capacity. 
 
 NOTE. Some manufacturers prefer to increase the carbide 
 charge in order to supply the rated number of lights for a 
 longer period than five hours. In such cases the generators 
 must be cleaned and recharged at regular stated intervals 
 regardless of the number of lights actually burned. 
 
 12. Burners consuming one-half of a cubic foot per hour 
 are considered standard in rating generators. Those having 
 a greater or less capacity will decrease or increase the number 
 of burners allowable in proportion. 
 
 NOTE. Burners usually consume from 25 to 100 per cent, 
 more gas than their rated capacity, depending largely on 
 pressure. The one-half foot burner (so-called) is usually used 
 with best economy. 
 
 13. Burning pressures should be from twenty to twenty-five 
 tenths inches water column for best econ9my. The piping 
 should be such that uniform pressure is furnished to all burners 
 without over-weighting the gasholder. (See Eule 8.) 
 
 14. Portable acetylene apparatus for temporary, occasional, 
 scientific, educational or experimental exhibitions may be per- 
 
 723 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 mitted, providing it does not contain more than 3 Ibs. of calcium 
 carbide, and providing it complies with rules of installation. 
 15. Specifications for Outside Generator House. 
 
 (a} In closely built-up districts, outside generator house to 
 be of brick, fireproof, and located at least 10 feet away 
 from other buildings. Where the generator house does 
 not open into or toward the building, it may be placed 
 close to it, providing the separation of 10 feet be 
 clearly impossible. In outlying districts where the 
 generator house can be located 25 feet away from other 
 buildings, it need not be of fireproof construction. 
 
 (b) Dimensions to be confined to the requirements of the 
 
 apparatus, allowing convenient room for recharging 
 and inspection of parts ; floor to be located at least 
 12 inches above grade. 
 
 (c) To be heated by steam, hot water, or hot air, care being 
 
 taken to insure against freezing in the most severe 
 weather. To be without artificial light, and to be pro- 
 vided with a hooded ventilator in roof, which can be 
 opened and closed from the inside. 
 
 (d) To be used exclusively for the apparatus or storage of 
 calcium carbide, when not in conflict with other rules, 
 and to be kept under lock and key, so as to prevent 
 molestation. 
 
 Rules for the Storage of Calcium Carbide. 
 
 1. Calcium carbide in quantities not to exceed 600 Ibs. when 
 contained in approved packages, holding not more than 100 Ibs. 
 each, must be stored outside of insured property in : 
 
 (a) A waterproof structure or receptacle having the bottom 
 raised at least 4 inches above ground and located at 
 least ten feet from any building ; or : 
 
 (&) A magazine constructed of not less than No. 12 gauge 
 iron, the bottom to be fastened to sides by 1 inch 
 angle iron, the upper edge to be reinforced by a band of 
 iron, the whole to be waterproof and raised at least 
 4 inches above the ground, and located preferably away 
 from, windows; or: 
 
 (c) A fire and waterproof brick vault opening away from the 
 
 building, with floor raised at least 4 inches above grade. 
 
 In all cases the enclosure or receptacle to be used exclusively 
 
 for this purpose to be without artificial light, and kept under 
 
 lock and key. 
 
 2. Calcium carbide in approved metal cans, holding not more 
 than 2 Ibs. each, may be permitted inside insured buildings 
 
 724 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 when contained in an enclosed magazine or holder constructed 
 in accordance with the following specifications : 
 
 (a) The holder for these cans must be constructed of gal- 
 vanized iron not less than No. 18 American gauge, and 
 must have all seams lapped, rivetted, and soldered both 
 inside and out, so as to protect edges and rivets from 
 rust, and form thoroughly watertight joints. 
 (6) The holder to be constructed so that the bottom will be 
 raised at least 6 inches from the floor by means of 
 ventilated rims. These rims to be reinforced where 
 they come in contact with the floor by heavy iron 
 bands, and flared so that they will be at least 6 inches 
 larger at the base than at the top. 
 
 (c) The holder must be closed at the top with a cover de- 
 
 signed to form a water-tight joint by means of a single 
 clamp, and all removable parts must be attached to the 
 holder proper by chains or other approved method. 
 
 (d) The dimensions of these holders must be so proportioned 
 that not more than 100 pounds of carbide, in metal 
 packages not exceeding 2 pounds each, can be placed 
 in any one holder. 
 
 (e) Each holder must be kept above the grade of the street, 
 
 and plainly marked in letters at least 2 inches in 
 height, " CALCIUM CARBIDE KEEP DRY." The cover 
 must be marked, "KEEP CLOSED." 
 
 (f) Packages containing not more than 2 Ibs. each must be 
 
 made of metal. Joints not to rely on solder, and cans 
 to be thoroughly watertight. 
 
 (</) Packages containing not more than 100 Ibs. must be made 
 
 of metal. Seams must be lock- jointed and soldered. 
 
 The can must be provided with a screwed top, or its 
 
 equivalent, must be watertight, of sufficient strength 
 
 to insure handling without rupture, must be wood or 
 
 iron jacketed and conspicuously marked, "CALCIUM 
 
 CARBIDE DANGEROUS IF NOT KEPT DRY." 
 
 3. Where calcium carbide is stored in large quantities it must 
 
 be stored above grade, and in a building especially constructed 
 
 and used exclusively for this purpose. 
 
 Frame buildings for the storage of calcium carbide to be 
 thoroughly dry, waterproof, well ventilated, without artificial 
 light or heat, and located at least 100 feet from any other 
 building. 
 
 Fireproof buildings for the storage of calcium carbide to be 
 thoroughly fireproof, thoroughly dry, waterproof, well venti- 
 lated, without artificial light or heat, and located at least 
 50 feet from any other building. 
 
 725 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 German GERMAN REGULATIONS FOR THE 
 
 regulations MANUFACTURE AND USE OF ACETYLENE. 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Regulations 
 
 for 
 
 Acetylene 
 works 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 Decree of the Prussian Home Office. 
 
 The manufacture of Acetylene Gas is considered as a chemical 
 manufacture similar to those mentioned in 16 of the Law of 
 Industry, and is therefore subject to the same regulations. 
 
 Conditions for the Establishment of Acetylene Factories. 
 
 1. Acetylene must be generated and compressed in another 
 building than that in which it is liquefied. 
 
 If a pressure of more than eight atmospheres is required for 
 the compression of the gas the work must be done in a separate 
 room. 
 
 2. No places in which acetylene is manufactured, compressed, 
 or liquefied are allowed to be under rooms in which people are 
 living, or to be connected directly with the same ; they must be 
 well lighted and ventilated, and the use of steam or hot water 
 for heating the rooms is obligatory. The doors must open out- 
 wards. 
 
 3. The places in which acetylene is made, compressed, or 
 liquefied must only be lighted by lamps which are outside and 
 well protected from any communication with the room, or by 
 electric lamps with double bulbs. Switches and fuses must not 
 be in the same room. 
 
 4. In order to protect the carbide from moisture, it must be 
 kept in water-tight vessels, and only as much as is wanted at 
 the time should be taken out. The vessels must be stored in 
 dry, well-lighted, and well-ventilated places : cellars must not 
 be used to keep them in. 
 
 5. The grinding of the carbide must be effected with every 
 precaution against the formation of dust. The workmen must 
 be supplied with respirators and spectacles. 
 
 6. Acetylene gasholders must be erected in the open, or in 
 another place than that in which the generators stand, this 
 place being kept well ventilated. 
 
 7. Every acetylene gasholder must be provided with a water 
 manometer, by which one can at any time gauge the extent of 
 the pressure. 
 
 8. In order to remove any impurities phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen, arseniuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, 
 etc. a good washer must be put between the generator and 
 holder. 
 
 726 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 9. The compression of acetylene under a pressure of more than 
 ten atmospheres must only be effected in the cold. 
 
 10. When the acetylene has been liquefied, the condenser must 
 be disconnected the moment the compression is over. 
 
 11. Those parts of the engines, pipes, and general fittings 
 which come in contact with the acetylene must not be made of 
 copper or have sharp edges. An alloy of copper is, however, 
 permissible for fittings, cocks, and other apparatus in which 
 there is no more than one atmosphere pressure. 
 
 12. The water which has been used may only be thrown into 
 public rivers after having been purified and its volume increased 
 five times. 
 
 Conditions for the Manufacture of Acetylene for Private and 
 Domestic Purposes. 
 
 1. Any one desirous of making acetylene on a smaller scale Regulations 
 than is done in factories should notify it to the head officials at 
 
 the principal police station not later than the first time the 
 generator is in use. 
 
 2. Acetylene may not be generated in or underneath places in 
 which people are living, neither may it be made or stored in 
 cellars. 
 
 The place where the gas is generated must, be separated by a 
 fireproof wall or clear space from places in which people are 
 living ; the roof under which the generator is erected must be 
 lightly built. 
 
 3. Such places must be well lighted, large, and well ventilated, 
 must only be heated by steam or hot-water pipes, and must not 
 be entered with a lamp. The doors must open outwards. 
 
 Neither the ventilating pipes of these places nor of the gene- 
 rator itself must end in a chimney, but should be led out above 
 the roof. 
 
 4. The apparatus for the generation and storage of the gas 
 must be so made as to prevent the creation of a pressure of 
 more than one atmosphere. 
 
 5. No part of the generating apparatus, gasholder, or pipes 
 must be made of copper. 
 
 6. Quantities of more than 10 kg. (22 Ibs.) of calcium or other 
 carbide may be stored only in dry, well-lighted, and well- 
 ventilated places packed in water-tight vessels. Their storage 
 is forbidden in cellars. The vessels must bear the inscription, 
 " Carbide: dangerous if not kept dry." 
 
 7. The vessels in which liquefied acetylene is to be kept must 
 be marked with white paint and bear the inscription, " Lique- 
 fied acetylene inflammable," besides giving the nett weight and 
 
 727 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 capacity expressed in litres. They must also have been tested 
 under a pressure of 250 atmospheres. 
 
 8. The proportion of the quantity of acetylene in a bottle to 
 its capacity must not be more than 1 kg. (2*2 Ibs.) to 3 litres. 
 
 9. Cylinders for compressed acetylene must be marked with 
 the inscription, "Acetylene inflammable," besides giving the 
 highest pressure allowed. They must have been tested under 
 a pressure twice as great as the one allowed. 
 
 10. The vessels filled with liquefied or compressed acetylene 
 must be protected from the sun's rays and the heat from stoves. 
 
 11. Liquefied and compressed acetylene must only be put in 
 vessels of which no part consists of copper or its alloys. 
 
 12. Paragraphs 1, 2, and 3 do not apply to portable acetylene 
 lamps nor to those lamps in which the burner is directly con- 
 nected with the generating apparatus. 
 
 To those who, at the publication of these police regulations, 
 are, with the consent or knowledge of the local police authori- 
 ties, already working acetylene-generating apparatus, a term 
 of twelve months, beginning on the day that these regulations 
 come into force, can be granted to comply within that time with 
 the rules given in 2 and the first part of 3. 
 Exceptions The above regulations do not apply to 
 
 (a) Installations for the manufacture of gas worked on a large 
 scale, and for which, according to 16 of the General Industrial 
 Law, a special license is required. 
 
 (6) Scientific Government Institutes, in so far as acetylene 
 is made and used by them for the purposes of teaching and 
 study. 
 
 13. Infringements of these regulations, unless thereby any 
 heavier punishment be incurred according to any law already 
 in existence, shall be punishable by a fine of not more than 
 60 marks (3), and any one unable to pay such a fine shall be 
 committed to prison. 
 
 14. The above police regulations come into force on the day 
 of their publication, and at the same time the police regulations 
 of December 19th, 1896, will be cancelled. 
 
 Berlin BERLIN. 
 
 Notification Notification. In reference to the regulations given above, be 
 
 of Nov. 25th, it known to the public that installations for the manufacture 
 
 of acetylene, in so far as they are worked on a large scale, are 
 
 to be considered as being " chemical factories," as mentioned in 
 
 16 of the Imperial Industrial Law. 
 
 Liquefied acetylene is to be considered as an " explosive sub- 
 stance," as mentioned in the Law for criminal use of explosive 
 substances endangering the public safety, dated June 9th, 1884. 
 
 728 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 To those persons who, according to the police regulations of 
 December 19th of last year, 1896, have received permission to 
 manufacture acetylene, a term of twelve months from the day 
 upon which the above regulations come into force can be granted, 
 to comply within that time with the rules given in 1, 2 and 
 3 of the above regulations. Applications must be made without 
 delay to the office of the Director of Police. 
 
 BERLIN, November 2bth, 1897. 
 
 The above regulations have been brought into force by the 
 authorities of the following Prussian states : 
 
 Town. 
 
 Date of regulation. 
 
 No. 
 
 Date of publication. 
 
 Aachen .... 
 Arnsberg .... 
 Aurich 
 Breslau .... 
 Bromberg. . . . 
 Danzig 
 Dusseldorf . . . 
 Erfurt 
 
 Nov. 15, 1897 
 Jan. 25, 1898 
 Jan. 17, 1898 
 Dec. 17, 1897 
 Dec. 10,1897 
 Feb. 28, 1898 
 Dec. 14, 1897 
 Jan 24, 1898 
 
 49 
 5 
 3 
 52 
 50 
 10 
 50 
 4 
 
 Nov. 18, 1897 
 Jan. 29, 1898 
 Jan. 21, 1898 
 Dec. 25, 1897 
 Dec. 16, 1897 
 Mar. 5, 1898 
 1897 
 Jan 29 1898 
 
 Frankfurt . . . 
 Gumbinnen . . . 
 Hanover .... 
 Hildesheim . . . 
 Kassel 
 Koblenz .... 
 Koln . . . 
 
 Dec. 18, 1897 
 Dec. 2, 1897 
 Dec. 27. 1897 
 Dec. 4', 1897 
 Dec. 24, 1897 
 Dec. 16,1897 
 Dec. 15, 1897 
 
 49 
 54 
 50 
 52 
 57 
 51 
 
 1897 
 Dec. 12, 1897 
 Dec. 10, 1897 
 Dec. 29, 1897 
 Dec. 23, 1897 
 Dec. 22, 1897 
 
 Konigsburg . . . 
 Koslin 
 
 Nov. 20, 1897 
 Jan. 22 1898 
 
 48 
 4 
 
 Dec. 2, 1897 
 Jan 27 1898 
 
 Liegnitz .... 
 Luneburg. . . . 
 Magdeburg . . . 
 Marienwerder . . 
 Merseburg . . . 
 Minden .... 
 Munster .... 
 Oppeln 
 Osnabruck . 
 Posen 
 
 Dec. 4, 1897 
 Dec. 21, 1897 
 Jan. 11, 1898 
 Dec. 13, 1897 
 Dec. 14, 1897 
 Jan. 3, 1898 
 Dec. 18, 1897 
 Jan. 3, 1898 
 Nov. 24, 1897 
 Jan. 7, 1898 
 
 51 
 
 4 
 51 
 51 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 48 
 3 
 
 Dec. 18, 1897 
 
 Jan. 22, 1898 
 Dec. 22, 1897 
 Dec. 8, 1897 
 1898 
 Jan. 6, 1898 
 Jan. 7, 1898 
 Nov. 26, 1897 
 Jan 18, 1898 
 
 Potsdam, Berlin . 
 Potsdam .... 
 Schleswig . . . 
 Sigmaringen . . 
 Stade 
 Stettin 
 
 Nov. 25, 1897 
 Dec. 10, 1897 
 Dec. 13,1897 
 Dec. 27, 1897 
 Jan. 12, 1898 
 Jan 11, 1898 
 
 49 
 51 
 58 
 1 
 3 
 2 
 
 Dec. 3, 1897 
 Dec. 12, 1897 
 Dec. 18, 1897 
 Jan. 7, 1898 
 Jan. 21, 1898 
 Jan 14 1898 
 
 Stralsund. . . . 
 Trier 
 Wiesbaden . . . 
 
 Dec. 22, 1897 
 Dec. 4, 1897 
 Jan. 8, 1898 
 
 2 
 52 
 49 
 
 Jan. 14, 1898 
 Dec. 30, 1897 
 Dec. 9, 1897 
 
 Prussian 
 
 States in 
 
 which these 
 
 regulations 
 
 are in force 
 
 729 
 
Saxony 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Munich 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 SAXONY. 
 
 Decree of the Home Office, dated from Dresden 
 February 28th, 1898. 
 
 With the addition of the paragraph given below, which is 
 affixed to % 2 of the conditions for the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private and domestic purposes, the regulations 
 for Saxony are, ivord for word, the same as those for Prussia, 
 which have been already quoted. 
 
 The applications, which are to be made in small towns at the 
 Mayor's Office, or at the Mayor's or Magistrate's Office in 
 villages, must be returned within three days, and any protests 
 against installations must also be lodged. If there are none, 
 the applications must be signed and delivered to the appointed 
 official. 
 
 The Mayor and members of the Town Council must consult 
 Factory Inspectors to convince themselves that the installations 
 are erected in accordance with the rules laid down for them. 
 
 BAVARIA. 
 
 By decree of the Minister, dated June 16th, 1897, the regula- 
 tions for the prevention of danger arising from the manufacture 
 and use of acetylene will be drawn up for the time being by the 
 local police authorities. 
 
 The regulations made by the authorities of Munich, June 18th, 
 1898, have been communicated to all the Royal Governments, 
 etc., in order that other police authorities may use them as a 
 guide in the event of their requiring regulations for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 MUNICH. 
 Local Police Regulations for the City of Munich. 
 
 The Magistrate of Munich hereby gives, in accordance with 
 368, No. 8, and 2, No. 14 of the Imperial Penal Code, the 
 local police regulations mentioned hereafter. 
 
 1. Private installations for the manufacture of calcium 
 carbide and the generation of acetylene under a pressure of 
 more than half an atmosphere are not allowed within the City 
 of Munich. 
 
 The storage and use of acetylene under a pressure of more 
 than half an atmosphere, as well as liquefied acetylene, is for- 
 bidden. 
 
 The factories are called herein " Chemical factories," as men- 
 tioned in 16 of the Imperial Industrial Law, and are 
 therefore subject to that paragraph. 
 
 730 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 2. Any one desirous of erecting and working a factory for Munich 
 making and using calcium carbide, or of erecting an acetylene 
 generator, either permanently or for a short period, or want- 
 ing to deal in calcium carbide, apparatus for generating 
 acetylene, or in acetylene gas lamps, should previously 
 
 notify his intention to the Magistrate, in order that the 
 fire insurance inspector may see that the measures for protec- 
 tion against fire have been taken, and all instructions given by 
 the inspector must be carried out. If such a factory, installa- 
 tion, or business is transferred to another person, notice thereof 
 must be duly given. 
 
 3. With installations for lighting with acetylene, a minute 
 description of the whole installation, with plans and also the 
 rules for working the same, confirmed and signed by the person 
 erecting the installation, should be sent in with the notification 
 mentioned in 2. 
 
 They cannot be worked before a written license has been 
 granted by the Magistrate of the City of Munich. 
 
 4. Calcium carbide may only be kept in well-closed vessels 
 of a capacity of not more than 50 kg. (110 Ibs.), which 
 must be thoroughly protected against damp, and stored in 
 quantities not greater than 300 kg. (660 Ibs.), and only such 
 quantities as are required for immediate use should be taken 
 out of these vessels. 
 
 The vessels must bear the clear, legible inscription, " Carbide, 
 dangerous if not kept dry." It is not permissible to make or 
 keep acetylene, if a quantity of more than 1 kg. (2*2 Ibs.) is 
 used at a time, in places in, or underneath, houses in which 
 people are living, or in cellars. 
 
 The places in which the gas is generated must either be at a 
 distance of 10 metres (11 yards) from dwelling places, or separ- 
 ated from them by a fire-proof wall. 
 
 Acetylene holders must be erected in the open air or in a well- 
 ventilated place separated from the generator. Every gas- 
 holder must be provided with a water manometer, by which the 
 pressure within can be seen at any time. 
 
 For removing any impurities phosphuretted hydrogen, 
 arseniuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, ammonia, etc. 
 a good washer should be put between the generator and 
 holder. 
 
 The places in which acetylene is made must be well lighted 
 and ventilated, and should not be used for any other purpose. 
 They must be heated by steam or hot water, and the ventilating 
 pipes of these places, as well as those of the generators, must 
 not end in a chimney, but be led above the roof if the places 
 in which acetylene is used are built close to other buildings. 
 
 731 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Munich 
 (cont.) 
 
 The doors must open outwards. The rooms must only be 
 lighted from the outside by well guarded lights, or by electric 
 lamps with double bulbs. Switches and fuses must also be 
 outside. These places are only to be entered with electric safety 
 lamps. 
 
 5. The apparatus for generating and storing acetylene must 
 be provided with safety appliances, which would prevent a 
 pressure of more than half an atmosphere being reached. 
 
 Those parts of the engines, pipes, and other parts of the in- 
 stallation which come into contact with the acetylene must not 
 consist of copper or have sharp edges. The use of alloys 
 of copper with other metals is, however, permissible in 
 fittings, cocks, and such apparatus in which the pressure does 
 not exceed half an atmosphere. 
 
 Only qualified persons, who understand the construction of the 
 apparatus, as well as the properties of the gas, and the process 
 of generation, and who are thoroughly trustworthy, are allowed 
 to look after and use the same. 
 
 6. The above regulations also apply to scientific institutes, 
 except 1 and 2, 
 
 If in such institutes acetylene is stored and used, it must 
 be kept in steel vessels, made according to the rules for the 
 conveyance of acetylene on the German railways, and not 
 more than 5 kg. (11 Ibs.) should be kept. 
 
 7. Any infringement of the. above rules will be punishable by 
 a fine of not more than 60 marks (3), or the offenders com- 
 mitted for a period not exceeding 14 days. 
 
 MUNICH, February 28th, 1898. 
 
 THE MAGISTRATE OF THE CITY OF MUNICH, 
 
 Mayor von Borscht. 
 
 Nurnberg NURNBERG. 
 
 Decree of the Magistrate of Nurnberg. 
 
 Notification. Local police regulations for the manufacture 
 and use of calcium carbide and acetylene for private and do- 
 mestic purposes. 
 
 In accordance with 366, No. 18, 368, No. 8, of the Imperial 
 Criminal Law, and Article 2, 94, 101, section 2, No. 2, 105, of the 
 Bavarian Penal Code, the magistrate of the town of Nurnberg 
 issues the following notification in consequence of a Royal 
 Decree of the Government of Mittelfranken Home Office, of 
 June llth, 1898, No. 13,910, giving legal power to the under- 
 mentioned local police regulations from the day of their pub- 
 lication : 
 
 1. Any one desirous of making acetylene for private use, of 
 
 732 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 using it or calcium carbide, of erecting an acetylene generator Nurnberg 
 except table lamps or lamps for carriages or cycles for tem- 
 porary or permanent use, or proposing to deal in calcium carbide 
 or apparatus for the generation of acetylene, must notify his 
 intention to the magistrate and send in the plans and -descrip- 
 tions relating to it, and do everything imposed upon him by 
 the magistrate in due time and without refusal, for the sake 
 of safety and prevention of fire, and for the sake of health and 
 cleanliness. 
 
 Such notification should be renewed if there is change of 
 proprietorship. 
 
 Installations for decomposing calcium carbide under a pres- 
 sure of more than one atmosphere, either for trade purposes 
 or for acetylene gas, are forbidden. 
 
 The manufacture and use of calcium carbide and acetylene 
 are subject to the rules of section 16. etc., of the Imperial In- 
 dustrial Law. 
 
 Acetylene must not be kept or used in vessels under a 
 pressure of more than half an atmosphere. 
 
 Apparatus for acetylene, with the exception of acetylene 
 lamps, may only be worked after having been tested by the 
 expert appointed for that purpose by the local police authority, 
 and found to be in good order. Upon every apparatus a cer- 
 tificate must be fixed where it will be plainly visible, so that 
 there can be no doubt as to its having been tested in accordance 
 with the law. 
 
 Every one selling calcium carbide as well as acetylene 
 apparatus must give a description of the calcium carbide 
 apparatus or lamp. 
 
 2. A license should be obtained from the magistrate before 
 installations of acetylene gas light are worked. 
 
 3. Calcium carbide and other carbides which are attacked 
 by water must only be kept in hermetically sealed vessels made 
 of sheet iron or stoneware, and stored in light, dry, and well 
 ventilated places. A special license must be taken out for 
 storing them in cellars. 
 
 The vessels must bear the legible inscription " Carbide , 
 dangerous if not kept dry." 
 
 Quantities of more than 60 kg. (132 Ibs.) must be stored in 
 rooms specially built of non-combustible materials and which 
 are water-tight. They must be at a distance of 10 metres (11 
 yards) from inhabited houses. 
 
 A special license has to be obtained from the police authori- 
 ties for storing quantities of more than 300 kg. (660 Ibs.). 
 
 4. The grinding of carbide is forbidden to those not making 
 a profession of the manufacture of acetylene. 
 
 733 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Nurnberg 5. A special license must be obtained for manufacturing 
 (cont.) and storing acetylene in or under dwelling houses or work- 
 shops. 
 
 6. The places in which acetylene is made must be light, 
 fire- proof, and well ventilated, they must be heated only by 
 steam or hot water pipes and must not be entered with a light, 
 neither are they to be used for any other purposes ; smoking is 
 forbidden within the said premises. 
 
 The doors must open outwards. 
 
 7. The apparatus for making and storing acetylene must be 
 so made as to prevent the creation of a pressure of more than 
 half an atmosphere either in the holder or the pipes. 
 
 Safety appliances for the prevention of high pressures arising 
 in the apparatus must not be provided with cocks. 
 
 8. Those parts of the apparatus which come into contact 
 with the acetylene, as well as gasholders, pipes and similar 
 fittings, must not be made of gold, silver, copper, mercury or 
 any other material which may cause the formation of ex- 
 plosive compounds. 
 
 9. The safety valves of the acetylene generator and the 
 ventilating pipes of the rooms in which the generation of gas 
 is carried on must not end in chimneys but be led up into the 
 "open air. 
 
 10. Apparatus working with a quantity of more than 1 kg. 
 (2 - 2 Ibs.) at a time must be erected at a distance of 10 metres 
 (11 yards) from inhabited houses. 
 
 In such cases gasholders must be in another room than the 
 one in which the generating apparatus is placed, and be situated 
 10 metres from inhabited houses, which room should fulfil the 
 requirements of 6 and be used only for gas generation, and no 
 persons, except those required for working the apparatus, should 
 be allowed there. The gasholder may also be erected in the 
 open air. 
 
 The generators, even though very small, should be so 
 separated if the gasholders contain more than 350 litres. 
 
 11. The safety apparatus must always be kept in proper 
 working order. 
 
 Those persons who attend to and work the apparatus must 
 be qualified for the task. 
 
 12. No residue from the acetylene gas making process, or 
 other fluids containing acetylene, may be thrown or led into 
 the water main or the canals of the town. They must be 
 taken to some place indicated by the magistrate. The spent 
 lime should be put in vessels hermetically sealed and provided 
 with a safety valve, and be taken to the specified place. 
 
 13. The magistrate reserves the right to make more regula- 
 
 734 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 tions and to legislate for scientific purposes with regard to 
 special circumstances. 
 
 THE MAGISTRATE, DR. v. SCHAK, w. s. BECKH. 
 No. 48,380, 1, Fischer. 
 
 WURTTENBERG. Wurtten- 
 
 Decree of the Eoyal Wurttenberg Home Office. 
 
 Be it hereby decreed in accordance with 368, No. 8, Imperial 
 Penal Code, and with reference to 22 of the royal decree re- 
 garding fire inspection, December 21st, 1876 Official Gazette, 
 p. 513, as follows, 
 
 1. Any one desirous of making and using acetylene must give 
 notice thereof to the police authorities not later than the first 
 time the gas generating apparatus is in use. 
 
 In places of more than 10,000 inhabitants such notice should 
 be sent to the local police authority, in all others to the Chief 
 Magistrate. 
 
 2. It is forbidden to generate or store acetylene in or under 
 inhabited places, neither may it be stored in cellars. Rooms 
 wherein gas is generated should be separated from dwelling- 
 houses by a fireproof wall or an open space. The apparatus 
 for generating and keeping acetylene may only be erected in 
 places having a light roof, except when the apparatus is only 
 small and the gasholder contains not more than cubic metre, 
 the capacity of the room being at least 25 cubic metres. 
 
 3. The places in which acetylene is generated and stored 
 must be light, large, and well ventilated, and be heated only 
 by hot water or gas pipes, and must not be entered with a light. 
 The doors must open outwards. 
 
 Neither the ventilating pipes of the room, nor of the gener- 
 ator, must end in a chimney, but must be led into the open air, 
 so that they cannot possibly escape into other rooms. 
 
 4. The apparatus for the generation and storage of acetylene 
 must be so made as to prevent the creation of a pressure of 
 more than half an atmosphere. 
 
 5. No parts of the generating apparatus, holders, or pipes, 
 may be made of copper. 
 
 6. Only qualified persons, understanding the construction and 
 working of the apparatus, must be entrusted with the same. 
 
 7. Calcium and other carbides in quantities of more than 10 
 kg. (22 Ibs.) may only be kept in dry, light, and well ventilated 
 rooms. Their storage is forbidden in cellars. The vessels 
 must bear the inscription " Carbide, dangerous if not kept dry." 
 
 8. The vessels in which liquefied acetylene is to be kept must 
 be painted white, and bear the inscription " Liquefied acety- 
 
 735 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Wurtten- lene, inflammable," besides giving the net weight and capacity 
 berg (cont. ) j n litres. They must also have been tested under a pressure of 
 250 atmospheres. 
 
 9. In filling cylinders, the proportion must not exceed 1 kg. 
 of acetylene to 3 litres capacity. 
 
 10. The cylinders for condensed acetylene must be marked 
 with the inscription " Acetylene, dangerous," besides giving the 
 highest pressure allowed. They must have been tested under a 
 pressure twice as great as the one allowed. 
 
 11. The bottles filled with liquefied or condensed acetylene 
 must be protected from the sun's rays and the heat from stoves. 
 
 12. Liquefied or condensed acetylene must only be put in 
 bottles of which no parts consist of copper or its alloys. 
 
 13. Those who at the publica'tion of this decree already have 
 acetylene gas generating apparatus, must notify this within 
 four weeks to the police authorities 1, 2, when they will 
 be allowed the term of one year from the date of the publica- 
 tion of this decree to comply with the rules of 2 and of the 
 first part of 3. 
 
 14. The rules of 1-3 and 13 do not apply to portable acety- 
 lene lamps, or those the burner of which is connected directly 
 with the generating apparatus. 
 
 The above rules do not apply to : 
 
 (a) Such installations for making acetylene for which, 
 according to 16 of the General Industrial Law, a special 
 license has to be obtained. 
 
 (6) Scientific Government Institutes, in so far as they make 
 and use acetylene for the purpose of teaching and study. 
 
 STUTTGART, September 30th, 1898. 
 
 w. s. PISCHEK. 
 
 Baden 
 
 BADEN. 
 
 Decree relating to the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 
 With the exception of 14, which is here omitted, the decree 
 for Baden, dated from Carlsruhe, January 8th, 1898, cor- 
 responds word for word with the regulations for the manufac- 
 ture and use of acetylene for private and domestic purposes 
 already quoted as being in force in Prussia. 
 
 Hessen 
 Darmstadt 
 
 HESSEN DARMSTADT. 
 
 Decree relating to the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 In consequence of Art. 290 of the Police Regulations, as well 
 as 2 of the Law of October 30th, 1851, relating to the installa- 
 
 736 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 tion and working of gasworks, and the position of gasometers, 
 be it hereby decreed as follows : 
 
 The decree, with the addition of a notification to the effect 
 that the regulations come into force on the date of their issue, 
 February 22nd, 1898, is word for word the same as respecting 
 the manufacture and use of acetylene for private and domestic 
 purposes in Prussia. 
 
 OLDENBURG. 
 
 Publication of the Home Office re the manufacture and 
 use of acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 OLDENBURG, February 1th, 1898. 
 
 In virtue of Act 9, 6, of the Law of December 5th, 1868, on 
 the organisation of a Home Office and some subordinate De- 
 partments, be it hereby decreed with the authority of the 
 Government of the Duchy of Oldenburg : 
 
 The Oldenburg decree is identical with the Prussian one 
 already quoted for the manufacture and use of acetylene for 
 private and domestic use, to which is added a notification that 
 the regulations come into force on the day of their issue, 
 February 1th, 1898. 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAR. 
 
 Laws relating to the manufacture, storage, and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 Considering the danger connected with the manufacture, stor- 
 age and use of acetylene, and in virtue of 1, No. 2, of the Law of 
 January 7th, 1854, page 17 of the Official Gazette, be it hereby 
 decreed as follows : 
 
 This decree is also without exception, word for word, the 
 same as that of Prussia, so need not be quoted. It bears the 
 date January 14th, 1898. 
 
 COBURG GOTHA. 
 
 Laws relating to the manufacture, storage, and use of 
 
 acetylene for private purposes, 
 
 January 17, 1898. 
 
 By order of His Eoyal Highness, be it hereby decreed as 
 follows : 
 
 This decree, with the omission of parts A and B of 12, 
 and the addition of a notification as to the date on which 
 the regulations come into force (January llth, 1898), is identical 
 with that of Prussia. 
 
 737 47 
 
 Hesse- 
 Darmstadt 
 (cont.) 
 
 Oldenberg 
 
 Saxe- 
 Weimar 
 
 Coburg 
 Gotha 
 
Saxe- 
 Meiningcn 
 
 ACETYLENE 
 
 SAXE-MEININGEN 
 
 Decree relating to the manufacture and use of acetylene, from 
 
 the Ducal Minister, Department for Interior Affairs, 
 
 March 29th, 189a 
 
 In consideration of the danger connected with the manufac- 
 ture and use of acetylene, which of late has become more 
 frequent, we find sufficient reason to make the following 
 regulations : 
 
 Word for word the same as the original Prussian decree. 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 ANIIALT. 
 
 Police Regulations relating to the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 In virtue of 23 of the Law for the Police, July 1st, 1864, 
 No. 31 of the collection of the Laws of Anhalt, be it hereby 
 decreed as follows : 
 
 Identical ivith the Prussian decree, dated from Anhalt, 
 February Wth, 1898. 
 
 ALTENBURG. 
 
 Decree of the Ducal Government Home Office, relating to the 
 
 manufacture and use of acetylene for private purposes, 
 
 January 26th, 1898. 
 
 By the Ducal Home Office, be it hereby decreed for the manu- 
 facture and use of acetylene for private purposes throughout 
 the whole of the Duchy, as follows : 
 
 This decree, dated from Altenburg, January 2Qth, 1898, is 
 identical with the original Prussian decree, except for the 
 following note which has been added at the end of the 
 Regulations : 
 
 In reference to the above Police Regulations, be it hereby 
 made known to the public that installations for making- 
 acetylene gas, in so far as they are worked on factory lines, are 
 considered to be " chemical manufactures," as designated in 16 
 of the Imperial Industrial Law, and are therefore subject to 
 the rules given therein. 
 
 Liquefied acetylene, being an explosive material which can 
 be used for explosions, is considered to be " explosive material " 
 in the sense of the Law of June 9th, 1884, against criminal use 
 of explosive materials, causing thereby danger to the public. 
 
 738 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. 
 
 Police Regulations relating to the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 In virtue of 3 of the Law of December 6th, 1892, giving the 
 panalties for infringements of the Police Regulations, be it 
 hereby decreed for the whole of the kingdom, as follows : 
 
 Here follows a copy of the Prussian decree, dated from 
 Schivarzburg-Rudolstadt, January Ylth, 1898. 
 
 SCHWARZBURG-SONDERHAUSEN. 
 
 Ministerial decree relating to the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 By order of His Royal Highness, dated March 29th, 1854, 
 Collection of Laws, page 134, be it hereby decreed re the 
 manufacture and use of acetylene in our kingdom, as 
 follows : 
 
 The Prussian decree is used verbatim, dated from Schwarz- 
 burg-Sonderhausen, January 2Qnd, 1898. 
 
 SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE. 
 
 Police regulations for the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 In virtue of 5 of the Police Law of May 22nd, 1892, be it 
 hereby decreed that the following are the Police Regulations for 
 the whole kingdom : 
 
 Another copy of the Prussian decree, coming into force March 
 2nd, 1898. 
 
 LIPPE-DETMOLD. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene for 
 private purposes. 
 
 With the Royal consent the following police regulations are 
 hereby published : 
 
 Another copy of the Prussian decree, dated from Lippe- 
 Detmold, February 12th, 1898. 
 
 REUSS-SCHLEIZ-GERA-LOHENSTEIN-EBERSDORF. 
 
 Ministerial decree for the manufacture and use of acetylene 
 for private purposes, March 31st, 1898. 
 
 Here follows the Prussian decree, to which is added the 
 following note: 
 
 The above regulations, by which the ministerial decree of 
 July 22nd on the same subject is annulled, Official Gazette, 
 p. 257, come into force on the day of their publication, March 
 31st, 1898. 
 
 739 
 
 Schwarz- 
 
 burg- 
 Rudolstadt 
 
 Schwarz. 
 
 burg- 
 Sonder- 
 
 hausen 
 
 Schaum- 
 burg-Lippe 
 
 Lippe- 
 
 Dctmold 
 
 Rcuss- 
 Schleiz- 
 
 Gcra- 
 
 Lohenstein- 
 Ebersdorf 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hamburg HAMBURG. 
 
 Referring to the publications of January 8th, 1897, Official 
 Gazette, p. 29; April 2nd, 1898; Official Gazette, p. 265; and 
 April 6th, 1898, Official Gazette, p. 327, notice is hereby given to 
 the public that in order to prevent any danger, a license for 
 storing calcium carbide and making acetylene gas for private 
 purposes may only be obtained under the following conditions, 
 unless any others be provided for special cases : 
 
 I. Storage of calcium carbide. 
 
 1. Calcium carbide must only be kept in water-tight metal 
 vessels, which are fireproof and kept in dry, light, and well 
 ventilated rooms. Their storage in cellars is forbidden. 
 
 2. The vessels must bear the inscription, " Carbide, dangerous 
 if not kept dry." 
 
 The storehouses must be built of non-combustible material, 
 and must be separated from inhabited dwellings by a fireproof 
 wall or an open space. The roofs of these places must be very 
 light. 
 
 Combustible materials must not be stored in these houses. 
 
 3. They must be heated by steam or hot water pipes, and it is 
 forbidden to enter them with a light, a lighted cigar, or any- 
 thing of a similar character. If electric lamps with double 
 bulbs are used they must be outside the storage rooms, as must 
 also any switches or fuses. 
 
 The doors must open outwards and must be fireproof. 
 
 4. The above rules must be hung up in the storage rooms in 
 such a position as to be easily seen. 
 
 II. Manufacture of acetylene for private purposes. 
 
 1. Acetylene must not be generated or kept, neither must 
 calcium carbide be kept in or underneath, places in which 
 people are living, nor in cellars. Such places must be separated 
 from houses inhabited either permanently or for some period of 
 the day or night only, by a fireproof wall or an open space. 
 
 2. These places must be built of non-combustible material, 
 must be light, large, and well ventilated, and must be heated 
 only by steam or hot water pipes. It is forbidden to enter 
 them with a light, a lighted cigar, and anything of a similar 
 description. 
 
 Artificial lights may only be used if well protected, lamps 
 and electric incandescent lamps with double bulbs being placed 
 outside the storage rooms, as are also the switches and fuses. 
 The doors must open outwards and be fireproof, besides which 
 the roofs must be light. 
 
 No other combustible material may be stored in these rooms. 
 
 740 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 The ventilating pipes of the rooms must not end in or near 
 chimneys. 
 
 3. The apparatus for making and storing acetylene must be 
 so made as to prevent the creation of a pressure greater than 
 one and a tenth atmosphere in the apparatus, pipes, or gas- 
 holders (see 3 of the publication dated January 8th, 1897 ; also 
 April 2nd, 1898, and April 5th, 1898). 
 
 No part of the generating apparatus, gasholders, or pipes 
 must consist of copper. For fittings and cocks, however, the 
 use of copper alloy is permissible. Tubes may be used for 
 connecting various parts of an apparatus. 
 
 4. The gas pipes must be laid by gasfitters, according to the 
 regulations for gasfitters of 1879, and they must be gas-tight 
 up to 35 cm. water pressure. A certificate thereof must be 
 produced. 
 
 5. The calcium carbide must only be kept in water-tight and 
 fireproof metal vessels. 
 
 The vessels must bear the inscription, " Carbide, dangerous if 
 not kept dry." 
 
 The carbide must only be taken out of the vessels in such 
 quantities as are required for immediate use. 
 
 6. The above regulations, as well as the rules for using and 
 handling the apparatus, making and using calcium carbide, and 
 also for the prevention of danger and explosions, etc., must be 
 hung up in the workrooms so as to be plainly visible. 
 
 HAMBURG, November 3rd, 1898. 
 
 BREMEN. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acet3^1ene for 
 private purposes, January 9th, 1898. 
 
 The magistrates decree as follows : 
 
 Here follows another repetition of the Prussian decree, to 
 which are added the two following notes : 
 
 15. The regulations of February 13th, 1897, for acetylene gas 
 and calcium carbide are hereby cancelled. 
 
 Resolved at the meeting of the Senate of Bremen, held on 
 January 7th, and published on the 9th, 1898. 
 
 LUBECK. 
 
 Regulations relating to the manufacture and use of acetylene 
 for private purposes. 
 
 By an order of the Senate the Police Magistrate hereby gives 
 notice : 
 
 The first eleven paragraphs correspond to those of the 
 Prussian decree, the three last being as follows : 
 
 741 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 (cont.) 
 
 Bremen 
 
 Lubeck 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Lubeck ^" ^ * s ^bidden to use portable acetylene gas lamps. 
 
 (cont.i 13. The above regulations do not apply to installations in 
 
 factories for making acetylene, for which according to 16 of 
 the General Industrial Law, a special license is required. 
 
 14. Infringements of these regulations, unless thereby any 
 heavier punishment be incurred under any other existing law, 
 shall be punishable by a fine of not more than 60 marks (3), 
 and any one unable to pay such a fine will be committed 
 accordingly. 
 LUBECK, January 18M, 1898. 
 
 HEAD OFFICE OF THE POLICE. 
 
 Alsace ALSACE. 
 
 County Police Eegulations. 
 
 In virtue of Art. 2, No. 9, of the third part of the decree of 
 December 22nd, 1789, re the Provisional Meetings and the 
 Meeting of the Administrative Corporation, and in virtue of 3 
 of the law of 1803, of the Division of the Country and the 
 Administration, I hereby decree the following : 
 
 1. Anyone desiring to erect an acetylene generating apparatus, 
 except it be done for purposes of trade, when 16 of the General 
 Industrial Law has to be complied with, must give immediate 
 notice thereof to the local police authorities. 
 
 2. Such installation may be worked only after it has been 
 inspected by the Industrial Inspectors and a written permission 
 has been obtained from the local police authorities. 
 
 STRASSBURG, November 3rd, 1897. 
 
 THE COUNTY MAGISTRATE 
 v. FREYBERG. 
 
 Austria AUSTRIA. 
 
 Decree of July 19th, 1898, Z 3352. 
 
 The rules fixed by the decree of June 15th, 1897, Z 22112, are 
 in future to be as follows : 
 
 1. The gas pipes must have been tested for leakage as required 
 by the gas regulations before use. Only iron and lead may 
 be used for them. It is permissible, however, to employ gutta- 
 percha tubes for connecting lamps which can be moved, for gas 
 stoves, etc. ; but there must be a cock to shut the gas off from 
 the tube, there being no such cock at the lamp, gas stove, etc. 
 Lead pipes must only be used where they cannot be damaged, 
 and they must be fully exposed. 
 
 2. There must be permanent ventilation in the storage rooms 
 for calcium carbide. 
 
 3. The residue left in the apparatus by the gas generation 
 
 742 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 process, in which small quantities of water drop or fall on to Austria 
 the calciura carbide, may be thrown into the water closet after 
 its volume has been increased five times unless there be a canal 
 with running water close at hand. The residue from fixed 
 house apparatus for lighting dwellings and smaller houses must 
 only be thrown into the water closet after its volume has been 
 increased ten times, unless, as in the former case, there be a 
 canal with running water close at hand. 
 
 If there be no such canal with a sufficient flow of water, the 
 residues from the apparatus must be thrown into a cesspool or 
 disposed of in some harmless way. 
 
 In the case of residues from apparatus for lighting large 
 buildings, factories, or blocks of buildings, also for towns and 
 large villages, water-tight pits with covers to fit must be built. 
 Their contents must be taken to an open tract of land, and can 
 also be used for making mortar or lime. Residue of prepared 
 calcium carbide, which has been used for making cartridges 
 and which is not like sludge, being a dry, hard material, can be 
 treated as dust. 
 
 4. The storage rooms in the basement must only be entered 
 with a safety lamp. 
 
 5. Water must be run continually through the generating 
 apparatus, and in exceptional cases a fresh supply of water may 
 be introduced by filling it afterwards. 
 
 6. The water seal in the gasholder must be provided with a 
 proportionate quantity of salt. For apparatus exposed to 
 change of temperature the seal must be covered with oil or 
 glycerine. 
 
 7. Every apparatus must be set out with an exact description 
 of its parts and of the management and use thereof. 
 
 This description must be framed and glazed and put up in the 
 room with the apparatus. It must also contain particulars for 
 the information of the public about the use and properties of 
 calcium carbide and acetylene, in order that attention may be 
 drawn to the dangers connected with the handling thereof. 
 
 8. All lamps from which the gas is shut off by cocks must 
 have been tested by a qualified person as to their freedom from 
 leakage. 
 
 9. Calcium carbide must be kept in closed, soldered tin vessels 
 in a dry place, with as much ventilation as possible. Only 
 those who thoroughly understand calcium carbide and its 
 treatment are allowed to enter these rooms. 
 
 10. It is forbidden either to make or use liquefied acetylene. 
 
 11. Acet3dene must not be stored under a pressure of more 
 than 1 atmospheres. 
 
 12. It is forbidden to heat acetylene to more than 100 C. 
 
 743 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 13. The use of metals like copper and silver is forbidden, the 
 acetylene combining with them to form explosive compounds. 
 
 14. It is forbidden to store any explosive materials either in 
 the generating or storage rooms used for calcium carbide. 
 
 SWITZERLAND, CANTON APPBNSELL, a. Eh, 
 
 Eegulations for erecting and working apparatus for acetylene 
 
 lighting. 
 
 In reference to and in order to execute the regulations given 
 under i. 47 ff. of the Insurance Law, the Government lias 
 decreed to-day, November 9th, 1897 : 
 
 1. Installations for lighting with acetylene, and for keeping 
 calcium carbide, must only be erected or worked with the 
 sanction of the Insurance Committee, and after notice thereof 
 has been given to the local committee for fire inspection. 
 
 Applications for such a license must be in writing, and sent 
 to the Insurance Committee with a description and plan of the 
 place where the installation is to be erected, together with a 
 description of the apparatus. 
 
 2. The use of liquefied acetylene, acetylene mixed with air, 
 and portable lamps connected with generators, is forbidden. 
 
 3. The rooms in which calcium carbide is kept and acetylene 
 made must be separated from each other ; they must be so 
 built that either can be shut off and must be fireproof. The 
 walls and doors, at least, must be made with mortar or gypsum. 
 They must be light, protected against the cold, and provided 
 with good ventilation. 
 
 These rooms must not be used for other purposes, and must 
 not be entered with a light, which must be indicated by a 
 notice affixed to the entrance of the same so as to be clearly 
 visible. 
 
 4. The stock of calcium carbide must not exceed 50 kg. 
 (110 Ibs.) except in special cases, when an authorisation from 
 the President of the Insurance Committee is required. It must 
 be kept in hermetically sealed and water-tight vessels. 
 
 5. The apparatus for generating and storing the gas must be 
 built of sufficient strength for automatic regulation, and be 
 provided with a manometer if designed for a higher pressure 
 than that required to force the gas through the system of pipes 
 and to produce a sufficient light. 
 
 The highest pressure allowed is six atmospheres. 
 
 6. The use of pure copper in the apparatus is forbidden. 
 
 7. Only reliable and qualified persons must use and attend to 
 the apparatus. 
 
 744 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 The apparatus must be cleaned and filled with carbide during 
 the daytime only. 
 
 8. The license can be withdrawn at any time, and no 
 damages paid if the holder thereof does not comply with these 
 conditions, or if his neighbours lay claim to it on account of 
 the danger arising from the working of such installations. 
 
 9. The Insurance Committee is entitled to send experts at 
 any time to look over the installation, or to go and see it them- 
 selves. 
 
 10. Infringements of the above will be punishable according 
 to the penal code. 
 
 11. These regulations come into force at once. 
 
 BASLE. Switzerland 
 
 Basle 
 
 Eegulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene gas. 
 
 The authorities of the Canton Basle, considering the danger 
 of calcium carbide and acetylene, and supplementary to 16 of 
 the Law for Building Inspectors of March 22nd, 1882, and 1 
 and 2 of the Law for Inflammable Materials and their Industry 
 of May 8th, 1878, hereby decree the following regulations : 
 
 1. For every installation and working apparatus either for 
 making calcium carbide or for manufacturing and using acety- 
 lene gas, a license from the Building Inspector has to be 
 obtained. 
 
 For this purpose a written application, drawn up in accord- 
 ance with 16 of the Law for Building Inspectors of March 
 22nd, 1882, must be sent in, in which a plan of the installation 
 and system to be used must be carefully described. 
 
 It must be accompanied by 
 
 (a) A plan giving the situation of the ground where the 
 installation is to be erected, signed by the Eecorder. 
 
 (6) Plans, i.e., sketches and drawings, of the rooms and 
 stories where the installation is to be erected. On the 
 same a careful drawing of the apparatus, ventilation, 
 etc., must be given. 
 
 (c) Drawings of such parts of the generating apparatus and 
 gasholders as are deemed necessary, in virtue of 6 of 
 these regulations, and as regards their being subject to 
 examination by building experts. 
 
 1. The gasholders wijl be subject to the Law for Boilers of 
 March 20th, 1880. 
 
 2. Before giving a license, the Building Inspectors must make 
 an inspection and get a report from the Fire Inspectors, mem- 
 bers of the Fire Brigade Committee. 
 
 3. Each license is valid only for the application and plan 
 
 745 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland given therein. If the building is transferred to other hands, 
 Basle (cont ) ^ e new proprietor must have the license transferred to him. 
 
 The license expires when another building is to be used for 
 the same installation. 
 
 If, in consequence of erecting an installation by license, con- 
 siderable nuisance should arise, the Building Inspectors are 
 entitled to order that the necessary measures be taken and to 
 see that they are executed or to withdraw the license entirely. 
 The Government cannot be held responsible, however, for any 
 claim for damages. 
 
 4. The use of liquefied acetylene is forbidden until further 
 notice. 
 
 5. The use of portable lamps in connection with gas genera- 
 tors is forbidden. 
 
 6. Gasholders, in which the result of atmospheric pressure 
 and cubic contents is more than one atmosphere, are subject to 
 the Law for Boilers, 1880, 20- 26 as regards their construc- 
 tion and inspection. 
 
 7. Amongst dwelling houses it is forbidden to store more 
 than 50 kg. (110 Ibs.) of calcium carbide, which must be kept 
 in solid iron, air- and water-tight vessels. 
 
 Quantities of more than 50 kg. must be kept only in rooms 
 adapted for such storage, such rooms not being situated in 
 inhabited quarters. 
 
 8. The manufacture of acetylene must only take place in 
 rooms which are fireproof, and in which there is plenty of day- 
 light ; they must be dry, easily accessible, and provided with 
 good ventilation. The ventilator must be constructed to supply 
 a continuous draught of fresh air, and the impure air must be 
 led through large pipes of such height that no nuisance is 
 caused thereby to the neighbourhood. 
 
 It is forbidden to enter these rooms with a light, and a notice 
 to this effect must be put up at the entrance, where it will be 
 clearly visible. 
 
 9. The pressure in the gas generating apparatus and the 
 pipes must not exceed six atmospheres. 
 
 The apparatus must be provided with a manometer and 
 governor, and the pressure regulated automatically. 
 
 10. It is forbidden to use copper in constructing the appara- 
 tus, copper alloy, however, being admissible. 
 
 11. Only such persons as are trustworth}^, who understand 
 the construction of the apparatus, and who know the properties 
 of the gas, are allowed to attend to and use the apparatus. 
 
 12. On every apparatus there must be an inscription, which is 
 clearly visible, forbidding people to touch the apparatus unless 
 they understand its working. 
 
 746 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 13. In giving a license the Building Inspectors are not 
 responsible for any damages arising through the execution of 
 the same or the working of the installation, the proprietor, or 
 his representative, alone being held responsible. 
 
 14. Any infringement of these regulations, or of the instruc- 
 tions of the Building Inspector given in connection with the 
 above, will be punished in virtue of 114, 116, 118, and 120 
 of the Penal Police Law. 
 
 BASLE, May 11, 1898. 
 For the Government, 
 
 President, Dr. PAUL SPEISER. 
 Secretary, Dr. A. WACHERNAGEL. 
 
 Switzerland 
 Basle icont. 
 
 BASLE DISTRICT. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 September 27th, 1897. 
 
 The authorities of the Canton of Basle district, considering 
 the manufacture and use of acetylene gas as having an explosive 
 character, will only grant licenses if special precautions are 
 taken, and decree hereby, in virtue of 6 of the Tire Insurance 
 Law of March 16th, 1868, and of 67 and 84 of the General 
 law of the Trade Industry of December 10th, 1855, the follow- 
 ing regulations : 
 
 1. A license must be taken out for storing calcium carbide, 
 and for working acetylene gas apparatus and using this gas. 
 It will be granted after an examination by an expert of the 
 Financial Committee. 
 
 2. Calcium carbide must be stored and manufactured only in 
 rooms which are fireproof, and lighted by daylight, and are 
 also dry and well ventilated. It is forbidden to enter them 
 with a light. 
 
 The quantity of calcium carbide kept in store must not exceed 
 50 kg. (110 Ibs.). 
 
 3. Portable lamps with a gas generating chamber must not 
 be used. It is also forbidden to use liquefied acetylene. 
 
 4. The pressure in the gas generating vessels and pipes must 
 not exceed six atmospheres. The apparatus must be regulated 
 automatically, and be provided with a manometer. 
 
 The use of pure copper in the construction of the apparatus is 
 forbidden, but copper alloy may be used for the purpose. 
 
 5. Only such persons as understand the construction of the 
 apparatus, and know the properties of the gas, should attend to 
 or use the apparatus. 
 
 On every apparatus there must be a visible inscription for- 
 
 747 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Basle dis- 
 trict 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ritzerland bidding people who do not understand the working thereof 
 Basle dis- fc o touch it. 
 
 6. The Finance Committee must from time to time have all 
 the existing installations inspected. 
 
 The experts are paid by the Fire Inspectors' Department of 
 the Canton. 
 
 7. Infringements of these regulations are punishable with a 
 fine of from 5 to 100 francs (4), any one offending a second time 
 against any regulation will be punished twice as heavily, the 
 fine going to the Fire Inspectors' Department. 
 
 The rules of 107, 115, and 168 of the Penal Code remain in 
 force, and so does 37 of the Fire Insurance Law. 
 
 8. If any installation has not been erected according to the 
 above, an order for its removal can be granted, and, if required, 
 such installation can be removed at the expense of the owner 
 in a legal manner. 
 
 9. The above notice comes into force on the day of its publica- 
 tion in the Official Gazette. 
 
 Given on September 27th, 1897, at Liestal. 
 For the Government, 
 
 President, DR. STRAUMANN. 
 Secretary, KAUMULLER. 
 
 Switzerland CANTON BERN. 
 
 Bern 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 
 April 14th, 1897. 
 
 The Government of the Canton Bern, considering the danger 
 arising from the careless manufacture of acetylene by persons 
 either negligent or unfitted for the work, as well as the nuisance 
 to the neighbourhood and the damage done to public health, in 
 execution of 2 and 14, No. 2, letter a, and No. 3, letters g and 
 /*, of the Industrial Law of November 7th, 1849 ; and 110, last 
 sentence of the Fire Law of February, 1st, 1897 ; and for sup- 
 plementing 1, letter &, of the regulations of May 27th, 1859 ; 
 in consequence of the proposition made by the Chief Committee 
 of the Home Department, hereby decrees : 
 
 1. For erecting an installation for the manufacture of acety- 
 lene for purposes of trade or private use, a notification must 
 be made as required in 24 if. of the above mentioned Industrial 
 Law, and a license approving the plan for building and erecting 
 the installation must be obtained. It is forbidden to have any 
 installation without such a license. 
 
 2. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene, unless permission 
 be given at some future date. 
 
 3. There must be two separate rooms, one for storing the 
 
 748 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 carbide and one for making the acetylene ; they must be fire- Switzerland 
 proof, sufficiently lighted with daylight, dry, and well venti- Bern (cont.) 
 lated. 
 
 4. It is forbidden to use the rooms for other purposes, or to 
 enter them with a light. The apparatus must be regulated 
 automatically, and have a manometer attached to it should 
 there be a pressure of more than two atmospheres in the vessels 
 or pipes. The pressure must not exceed six atmospheres. 
 
 The use of portable acetylene gas lamps, having the gas gene- 
 rated in a chamber connected therewith, is forbidden. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to keep more than 50kg. (110 Ibs.) of cal- 
 cium carbide in stock, and it must be stored in air- and water- 
 tight vessels. 
 
 7. It is forbidden to use pure copper in the construction of 
 the apparatus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 
 8. The apparatus must be cleaned and filled with carbide and 
 water in daylight only. 
 
 9. Only trustworthy persons, understanding the construction 
 of the apparatus, and knowing the properties of the gas and 
 carbide, should attend to and use the apparatus. 
 
 10. Every apparatus must bear an inscription, which should 
 be clearly visible, forbidding persons to touch the machine 
 unless having a right to do so. 
 
 11. These regulations do not apply to scientific Government 
 Institutes, in so far as they use acetylene for the purposes of 
 teaching and study. 
 
 12. Anyone infringing the above regulations will be subject 
 to the penalty given in 95 of the Industrial Law of November 
 7th, 1849. 
 
 13. The license can be cancelled at any time without notice 
 if the holder should not fulfil the conditions attached thereto, 
 or if any important claim be brought in for danger by the 
 working of the installation, or nuisance to the neighbourhood. 
 
 14. The above regulations come into force at once. They 
 must be recorded in the Collection of Laws. 
 
 Bern, April 14M, 1897. 
 
 CANTON ST. GALLEN. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Publication of Police Regulations for the manufacture and st. Gallon 
 use of acetylene. 
 
 As it has been found that efforts have been made to introduce 
 acetylene light into the Canton of Gallen, and that, notwith- 
 standing what is said in the prospectus of the Factories and 
 Limited Liability Companies, acetylene is injurious to health 
 and is inflammable ; for both these reasons it is the imperative 
 
 749 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland faty o f t ne authorities to take proper measures for the pre- 
 St. Gallon vention of accidents. The Government, taking as its basis the 
 advice of experts, has given authority to the Department, re- 
 serving to itself rights of alteration in view of further experi- 
 ence to be obtained on this subject, to make the provisional 
 regulations given below. 
 
 1. For the present it is forbidden to use compressed acetj^lene 
 in steel or iron cylinders, or acetylene lamps, the gas of which 
 is generated in a chamber connected with the lamp. 
 
 2. The material for making the gas, calcium carbide, must be 
 stored in a closed dry room in hermetically sealed and water- 
 tight vessels. It is forbidden to enter the store-room with a 
 light. 
 
 3. The generator and gasholder must be erected in a place 
 separated from the main building, and every such place must 
 be well closed and ventilated. 
 
 4. It is forbidden to put the material for generating the gas 
 into the apparatus by the aid of any artificial light. 
 
 5. The apparatus must only be used by trustworthy persons 
 who understand its construction and know the properties of the 
 gas, and the material used in its generation. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to use metallic copper in the construction of 
 the apparatus generators, gasholders, pipes, and burners. 
 
 7. Notice must be given to the Financial Department, through 
 the local fire police authorities, before a new installation can be 
 worked, and a license applied for at the said Department. 
 
 ST. GALLEN, January bth, 1897. 
 
 The Financial Department, 
 
 Senator KEEL. 
 
 ACETYLENE GAS. In the publication of January 5th, 1897, 
 re police regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene 
 gas see Official Gazette, 1897, No. 1, s. II. the use of com- 
 pressed acetylene gas in metal or iron cylinders is forbidden 
 until further notice. After reference to the applications sent 
 in, however, we find sufficient reason to declare that the ex- 
 pression "compressed gas" comprises only such acetylene as 
 has been condensed to liquefaction, and for which at least a 
 pressure of 21'5 atmospheres is required if subsequently cooled 
 down to C. This rule should be clearer, and must therefore 
 be changed as follows : 
 
 "It is forbidden to use compressed liquefied acetylene gas." 
 
 ST. GALLEN, January 25th, 1897. 
 
 For the Financial Department, 
 
 Senator KEEL. 
 750 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 Police Regulations for storing calcium carbide for acetylene Switzerland 
 lighting. St. Gallen 
 
 (cont.) 
 
 In connection with our publication of January 5th and 25th, 
 1897, of police regulations for the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene gas Official Gazette, 1897, Vol. I., pages 11 and 74 
 we hereby decree, in acsordance with the wishes of the Govern- 
 ment, the following regulations for the storage of calcium 
 carbide : 
 
 1. A license must be obtained from the local fire police 
 authorities for storing quantities of more than 100 kg. (220 Ibs.) 
 of calcium carbide. 
 
 2. It must be kept only in closed dry rooms, and in hermeti- 
 cally sealed and water-tight vessels. 
 
 3. Quantities of up to 500 kg. of calcium carbide must be 
 stored in fireproof rooms built in compliance with the require- 
 ments of 9 of the regulations for the Canton, re the traffic of 
 petroleum and other inflammable liquids, of October 6th, 1893. 
 Collection of Laws, new set, Vol. VI., No. 74, page 406. 
 
 4. For storing larger quantities of calcium carbide a room 
 must be built at a distance of at least 60 m. 66 yards from 
 the nearest building, and must be erected in compliance with 
 the rules given in 6 of the regulations mentioned above. 
 
 ST. GALLEN, November 26A, 1897. 
 
 For the Financial Department, 
 
 Senator KEEL. 
 
 CANTON LUCERNE. Switzerland 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene gas. 
 September, 1898. 
 
 The Government of the Canton Lucerne, in reference to the 
 report and proposition made by the Military and Police Depart- 
 ments, decrees : 
 
 1. A license must be obtained from the Police Department 
 for every installation erected for the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene. Such a license is held to be in force only for the 
 places for which it has been obtained. A license must also be 
 obtained for installations already existing. 
 
 Applicants must pay the fee due for the license and the cost 
 of the inspection. 
 
 2. The calcium carbide must be stored, and acetylene made, 
 in detached fireproof rooms, which must be dry, well ventilated, 
 and closed, besides being lighted by daylight. 
 
 3. The calcium carbide must be pure, and contain only the 
 smallest quantities of calcium phosphide. 
 
 751 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland 4. The stock of calcium carbide must not exceed 100 kg. 
 Lucerne (220 Ibs.), and must be kept in hermetically sealed, water-tight 
 (cont.) vessels. 
 
 5. The use of portable acetylene lamps connected with a 
 generating chamber is forbidden until further notice. 
 
 6. The use of liquefied acetylene, or acetylene mixed with air, 
 is also forbidden until further notice if the air is mixed with 
 the acetylene in the holder and not in the burners. 
 
 7. The pressure in the generator and pipes must not exceed 
 six atmospheres. The apparatus must be regulated automati- 
 cally and have a manometer attached. 
 
 8. It is forbidden to use pure copper for the construction of 
 the apparatus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 
 9. Only trustworthy persons, who understand the construc- 
 tion of the apparatus and the properties of the gas and the 
 material for making it, must work or attend to the apparatus. 
 
 10. Each apparatus should bear a notice in some visible place 
 forbidding any one not understanding the machine to touch it. 
 
 11. Infringements of these regulations will be punished 
 according to the Penal Police Code. 
 
 12. These regulations come into force at once. The original 
 copy must be placed in the Government Archives, and be pub- 
 lished in the Official Gazette of the Canton, and printed in the 
 Collection of Government Regulations. 
 
 LUCERNE, September 9th, 1898. 
 
 For the Government, 
 U. HEGI. 
 Clerk, M. SCHNYDER. 
 
 Switzerland CANTON NEUCHATEL. 
 
 Original Translation. Decree re the use of acetylene gas, 
 May 14th, 1897. The Cabinet of the Republic and the Canton 
 Neuchatel. 
 
 In consideration of the Regulations of April 6th, 1897, for the 
 manufacture and use of acetylene gas, and the Resolutions of 
 the International Conference at Bern of March 24th, for the 
 consideration of measures for the prevention of, and protection 
 against, danger ; also the report handed in by the Deputy of the 
 Department of Internal Affairs, and the special regulations 
 mentioned above for the prevention of accidents incurred by 
 the storage and careless treatment of the material used for the 
 manufacture of the gas and the use of apparatus, the safety of 
 which is not guaranteed, hereby decrees 
 
 1. All persons about to have installations erected in their 
 
 752 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 workshops, stores, rooms, or any other places, must previously Switzerland 
 obtain a license from the Department of Internal Affairs. Neuchatel 
 
 2. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene. (cent.) 
 
 3. The use of portable acetylene lamps is also forbidden. 
 
 4. Only apparatus with a gasholder and an automatic regu- 
 lator for the pressure arising in the generation of the gas are 
 allowed. 
 
 5. The use of apparatus made of pure copper is forbidden. 
 
 6. The pressure arising in public installations, as well as in 
 those of public halls, must not be greater than 1| atmospheres. 
 
 7. This pressure can be increased to six atmospheres in the 
 case of industrial concerns. 
 
 8. Calcium carbide must be stored in detached rooms contain- 
 ing no gas pipes. 
 
 9. It is forbidden to store a larger quantity than 60 kg. (132 
 Ibs.). The calcium carbide must be stored in tins containing 
 not more than 20 kg. (44 Ibs.), and their entire contents must 
 be used. 
 
 10. A visible notice must be put up at the entrance of these 
 storage or generating rooms, forbidding any unauthorised person 
 to enter. 
 
 11. Only trustworthy persons who understand calcium car- 
 bide, the gas generating process and the apparatus, and havo 
 been taught the properties of the material to be treated, are to 
 be entrusted with the apparatus. 
 
 12. Each infringement of the regulations will be punished 
 with a fine of from 20 to 100 francs (4), and should anybody 
 be killed or seriously injured, or a fire be caused, Art. 256, 299, 
 300, and 321 of the Penal Code will apply thereto. 
 
 13. The carrying out of these regulations belongs to the 
 Home Department. They will be published in the Official 
 Gazette and added to the Collection of Laws. 
 
 NEUCHATEL, May \Uh, 1897. 
 
 For the Government, 
 
 President, CLERK. 
 Secretary, Fr. SOGUEL. 
 
 CANTON NIEDERWALDEN. Switzerland 
 
 Regulations for the use and manufacture of acetylene : 
 
 1. For every installation for storing calcium carbide, as well 
 as for each working apparatus for the generation and use of 
 acetylene, a license must be obtained from the Government, 
 which will be granted only after inspection by an expert. 
 
 2. Until further notice it is forbidden to use liquefied acety- 
 lene. 
 
 753 48 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 3. It is forbidden to use portable lamps which are connected 
 Switzerland . r 
 
 with a gas generating chamber. 
 
 Nieder- 
 walden 
 
 (cont. i 
 
 4. Calcium carbide must be stored in places other than those 
 in which acetylene is made ; these places must be fireproof, 
 lighted by daylight, dry, and well ventilated. It is forbidden 
 to enter them with a light. 
 
 5. The stock of carbide must not be larger than 50 kg. (110 
 Ibs.). 
 
 6. The pressure in the generator and pipes must not exceed 
 six atmospheres. The apparatus must be automatically regu- 
 lated and provided with a pressure gauge. 
 
 7. Pure copper must not be used in the construction of tho 
 apparatus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 
 8. Only trustworthy persons who understand the construction 
 and properties of the gas, and the generating material, are to* 
 be entrusted with the apparatus. 
 
 9. On every apparatus a visible notice must be fixed for- 
 bidding any one not understanding the machine to touch it. 
 
 10. Infringements of these regulations apart from any civil 
 consequences will be punished with a fine of from 5 to 100 
 francs (4), and a stop can be put to the working of the ap- 
 paratus until the above regulations have been complied 
 with. 
 
 11. The carrying out of these regulations, which come into 
 force at once, lies in the hands of the Government. 
 
 Resolved by the House. 
 
 STANS, July 26th, 1897. Tor the House, 
 
 F. BUSINGER. F. NlDERBERGER, Clerk. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Schaft- 
 hausen 
 
 CANTON SCHAFFHAUSEN 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 November llth, 1898 
 
 1. For every installation for storing calcium carbide, as well 
 as for each working apparatus for the manufacture and use of 
 acetylene, a license must be obtained from the Government, 
 which will be granted only after investigation by an expert. 
 
 The applications for such licenses must be sent to the Town 
 Council, accompanied by a plan of the construction, a map of 
 the place, and a description of the apparatus, as well as the re- 
 port of a previous examination by the police inspector. 
 
 2. The use of liquefied acetylene, of acetylene mixed with air, 
 and of portable lamps with a generating chamber attached to 
 them, is forbidden. 
 
 3. The calcium carbide must not be kept in the rooms in 
 which acetylene is generated. These rooms must be separated 
 
 754 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 Schaft- 
 hausen 
 (cont.) 
 
 from each other, be well closed, fireproof, lighted by daylight, Switzerland 
 drjr, protected against cold, and well ventilated. 
 
 The use of these rooms for any other purposes is forbidden, 
 and they must not be entered with a light, which fact must be 
 indicated by a notice fixed at the entrance in such a way as to 
 be plainly visible. 
 
 4. The stock of calcium carbide must be kept in hermeti- 
 cally sealed water-tight vessels, and must not exceed 100 kg. 
 (220 Ibs.), except in special cases, when a license has to be ob- 
 tained from the Town Council. 
 
 5. The apparatus for storing and generating the gas must be 
 sufficiently strong, automatically regulated, and provided with 
 a pressure gauge if made for a higher pressure than that re- 
 quired to distribute the gas through the system of pipes and to 
 give a certain light. The pressure must not exceed six atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to use pure copper for the construction of 
 the apparatus. 
 
 7. Only trustworthy persons, who understand the construc- 
 tion of the apparatus, are to be entrusted with it. 
 
 8. On every apparatus a visible notice must be fixed, for- 
 bidding anyone who does not understand the apparatus to touch 
 it. 
 
 9. Every license is held to be in force only for the locality 
 mentioned in the application. 
 
 10. The installation may be inspected at any time, and the 
 proprietor thereof is bound to obey the instructions given by 
 the officials appointed for such inspections. 
 
 11. Scientific institutes using acetylene for purposes of 
 teaching or study are exempted from some of the above regu- 
 lations. 
 
 12. Infringements of these regulations, unless coming under 
 the Penal Law, will be punishable with a fine of from 5 to 100 
 francs, or the withdrawal of the license. 
 
 13. These regulations come into force at once. 
 SCHAFFHAUSEN, November llto, 1898. 
 
 President, J. HELLER. 
 Clerk, H. WOLF. 
 
 CANTON TESSIN. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 March 15th, 1898. 
 
 The Government of the Republic and the Canton Tessin de- 
 crees 
 
 In reference to the law of May 5th, 1875, for inflammable and 
 
 755 
 
 Switzerland 
 Tessin 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland explosive materials, and the Public Health Law, which regard 
 Tessin the manufacture of acetylene as a dangerous industry, when 
 those employed in the manufacture thereof are not controlled 
 by certain regulations, or lack experience, therefore according 
 to the proposition made by the directors of the Hygienic 
 Department 
 
 1. It is forbidden to erect in this Canton any installation for 
 generating acetylene either for trading purposes or for the 
 private use of the owner unless an application has been sent in 
 in accordance with 3 of the law of May 5th, 1875, and a 
 license obtained beforehand direct from the Government. 
 
 Such a license will only be granted after the Director of the 
 Hygienic Laboratory of the Canton has investigated the matter 
 and sent in his report thereon. 
 
 2. The application must be sent to the Mayor of the city or 
 town in which the installation is to be erected. 
 
 The Mayor shall ask the Director of the Laboratory to attend 
 to the matter and to give a declaration that such examination 
 has taken place. 
 
 The rooms must be examined as well as the apparatus. 
 
 The cost thereof must be borne by the owner of the apparatus. 
 
 3. It is forbidden to use compressed acetylene in iron or steel 
 cylinders, portable lamps having a generating chamber attached 
 to them, and lighting apparatus in which the acetylene is mixed 
 with air. 
 
 The apparatus for generating and storing the acetylene must 
 be strong, provided with automatic regulation, and, should the 
 pressure in the pipes and holders exceed two atmospheres, be 
 furnished with a pressure gauge. 
 
 The pressure must not exceed six atmospheres. 
 
 4. It is forbidden to use pure copper for constructing the ap- 
 paratus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 
 5. The rooms in which acetylene is manufactured must be 
 separated from those in which the acetylene is stored. They 
 must have large windows and be fireproof. 
 
 These rooms must not be used for any other purposes, nor be 
 entered with a light or matches. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to store more than 100 kg. (220 Ibs.) of 
 calcium carbide, and it must be kept in hermetically-sealed 
 vessels. 
 
 7. The apparatus must be cleansed and filled in broad da3 T - 
 light. 
 
 8. Only experienced persons are to be entrusted with instal- 
 lations for generating acetylene gas. 
 
 A notice forbidding any other person to touch the apparatus 
 must be fixed thereon. 
 
 756 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 These installations are erected under the supervision of the Switzerland 
 Director of the Hygienic Laboratory of the Canton. Tessin 
 
 9. The above regulations do not apply to apparatus in scieii- (cont.) 
 tific institutes for teaching purposes. 
 
 10. Infringements of the above regulations will be punish- 
 able according to 13, 14, 15, and 16 of the Law of May 5th, 
 1875. 
 
 11. The license for an installation for generating acetylene 
 can be withdrawn if the conditions notified therein are not 
 complied with, or should weighty objections be raised against 
 it. 
 
 12. The above decree shall be printed in the Record of 
 Laws, and come into force at once. 
 
 The Government, 
 
 President, CURTI. 
 Secretary, CASELLA. 
 BELLINSONA, March Itth, 1898. 
 
 Notice relating to the special license for the installation 
 of apparatus for generating acetylene gas. 
 
 The Directors of the Public Health Department of the Republic 
 and the Canton Tessin to the Hon. Magistrate. 
 
 In reference to the regulations given by the Government on 
 March 15th, 1898, for the manufacture and use of acetylene, the 
 above-mentioned Directors consider it necessary to request the 
 Hon. Magistrates to observe the regulations comprised in the 
 above more strictly. 
 
 They are especially reminded of their duty to prevent any 
 installation of apparatus for generating acetylene being erected 
 and used without a Government license having been applied 
 for, or the rooms in which the apparatus is erected not being 
 built in accordance with the regulations. 
 
 As it is further possible that in some cases apparatus for 
 generating acetylene have been erected without complying 
 with the conditions enacted in the regulations, the Hon. Magis- 
 trates are requested to prosecute inquiries as to whether all 
 these apparatus have Government licenses, and to take the 
 necessary steps in accordance with the Law with regard to such 
 persons as have not obtained them. 
 
 We would also remind the officials that it is their duty to 
 make frequent inspections in order to protect the Public Health, 
 these installations according to 8 of the Eegulations of March 
 15th, 1898, being subject to the supervision of the Director of 
 the Hygienic Laboratory. 
 
 CASELLA. 
 
 BELLINZONA, December 14^, 1899. 
 
 757 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland Bill to be laid before the Council of the Canton for approval 
 
 Unter- o f same, January Itth, 1899. 
 
 walden 
 
 CANTON UNTERWALDEN OB DEM WALD. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene gas. 
 The Government of the Canton Unterwalden ob dem Wald, 
 considering the dangerous character of calcium carbide and 
 acetylene gas, decrees hereby, supplementary to the Fire 
 Police Regulations of November 15th, 1852, and of April 
 23rd, 1879 : 
 
 1. Tor every installation for storing calcium carbide, and 
 apparatus for generating and using acetylene, a license must 
 be obtained from the Government. 
 
 This license is held to be in force only in the place for which 
 it has been obtained. 
 
 A license must also be obtained for existing installations. 
 
 For this purpose a written application must be sent to the 
 Police Department, giving an exact description of the proposed 
 installation and the system to be used therein. 
 
 This application must be accompanied by maps and a plan of 
 the place in which the installation is to be erected, as well as 
 sketches of the details of the apparatus, and the ventilating 
 arrangements. 
 
 2. Every application for erecting an installation for acetylene 
 must be examined and attested by an expert with regard to its 
 construction. 
 
 The cost of such examination and certificate must be borne 
 by the applicant. 
 
 3. Every new tenant of a place in which there is an acetylene 
 installation must have the license transferred to him, and made 
 out in his name. 
 
 Should the tenant desire to use the same installation in 
 another place, a fresh license must be obtained. 
 
 If, in consequence of erecting an installation by license, 
 nuisance of any kind is complained of, the Government is 
 authorised to order its removal, and even to entirely withdraw 
 the license without any liability as to damages. 
 
 4. The use of portable lamps connected with a gas-generating 
 chamber, as well as of liquefied acetylene, is forbidden until 
 further notice. 
 
 5. Gasholders in which the pressure in atmospheres and 
 capacity in square metres is more than 1 kg. (2*2 Ibs.) are subject 
 to the regulations of March 20th, 1880, for boilers 20 to 26 
 of the Regulations of the Council of the Swiss Union as 
 regards their construction and inspection. 
 
 6. Calcium carbide must not be stored, nor acetylene gener- 
 
 758 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 ated, in or under rooms in which people are living, nor in Switzerland 
 cellars, but only in fireproof rooms separated from each other Unter- 
 and lighted only by daylight, dry, well ventilated, and covered 
 by a light roof. 
 
 It is forbidden to enter them with a light, which fact must 
 be announced by a notice at the entrance. 
 
 7. The stock of calcium carbide in places near to other build- 
 ings must not be larger than 50 kg. (110 Ibs.). 
 
 It must be kept in iron, hermetically-sealed, and watertight 
 vessels. 
 
 Quantities of more than 50 kg. must only be stored in proper 
 places erected far from other buildings. 
 
 8. The pressure in the generating vessels and pipes must not 
 exceed six atmospheres. 
 
 The apparatus must be provided with a pressure gauge giving 
 the maximum, and the pressure must be automatically regu- 
 lated so as to prevent the occurrence of a pressure greater than 
 that stated as the maximum. 
 
 9. It is forbidden to use pure copper for the construction of 
 the apparatus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 
 10. Only reliable persons, who understand the construction of 
 the apparatus and properties of the gas and raw material, are 
 to be entrusted therewith. 
 
 11. To every apparatus a visible notice must be fixed, for- 
 bidding any one who does not understand the apparatus to 
 touch it. 
 
 12. In granting a license the Government does not take any 
 responsibility for damages arising through the erection or 
 working of an installation, the owner, or his representative, 
 being held solely responsible. 
 
 13. The local authorities of each town have to see to the 
 carrying out of these regulations, and for this purpose they 
 must order the frequent examination of the installations. 
 
 14. Infringements of these regulations, or of the special 
 decrees given by the Government in connection with the above, 
 will be punishable according to 25 and 122 of the Police 
 Penal Code. 
 
 15. These regulations come into force at once. They will be 
 published in the Official Gazette and added to the Collection 
 of Laws. 
 
 CANTON WALLIS. Switzerland 
 
 Wallis 
 
 Regulations of August 20th, 1897, for the manufacture, sale, 
 
 and use of acetylene. 
 
 On the proposition of the Judicial and Police Department, the 
 Government of the Canton of Wallis decrees : 
 
 759 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 1. Every one desirous of erecting an installation must take 
 
 (cont.) out a li cense at the Judicial and Police Departments. 
 
 2. The use of liquefied acetylene is forbidden. 
 
 3. The rooms used for storing calcium carbide and the 
 manufacture of acetylene must be fire-proof, sufficiently lighted, 
 dry, and well ventilated. 
 
 4. The apparatus for generating and storing the gas must 
 be so constructed as to avoid a pressure of more than two 
 atmospheres in the generator, gasholders, and pipes. The 
 pressure can be raised to ten atmospheres for trading purposes. 
 
 The apparatus must be provided with an automatically- 
 regulated pressure gauge. 
 
 5. The rooms in which acetylene is manufactured for trading- 
 purposes must be at a distance of 200 metres (220 yards) from 
 other buildings. 
 
 6. Calcium carbide kept in stock for the same purpose must 
 be kept in perfectly dry rooms. 
 
 7. It is forbidden to use pure copper in the construction of 
 the apparatus. 
 
 8. The apparatus for acetylene light, whether used tem- 
 porarily or permanently, must be so constructed that the 
 pressure therein cannot become greater than during the process 
 of manufacture one to two atmospheres. 
 
 9. Infringements of these regulations will be punished with 
 a fine of 10 to 100 francs, to be fixed by the Judicial and Police 
 Department ; whilst the right of appeal to the Government is 
 reserved, and all damages have to be paid. 
 
 Resolved at the Council at Sion, August 20th, 1897, to be 
 published in the communities of the Canton on Sunday, 
 September 5th. 
 
 President, DUCRBY. 
 
 Lord Chancellor, CH. ROTEN. 
 
 Switzerland CANTON ZuG. 
 
 Regulations for the manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 
 The Government of the Canton Zug hereby decrees, sup- 
 plementary to the rules of the Fire Police Regulations of 
 July 7th, 1862, and in compliance with the Conference held for 
 all the Cantons on March 24th, 1897 : 
 
 1. For every installation for storing calcium carbide, and for 
 working the apparatus for making and using acetylene, the 
 permission of the Government, given on the report of the 
 expert who investigated the matter, must be obtained. 
 
 2. The Government reserves the right to make exceptions 
 according to circumstances; otherwise the rules of the Con- 
 
 760 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 ferenceof all the Cantons of March 24th, 1897, held at Bern, 
 
 , . . . Switzerland 
 
 are here applicable. 
 
 The rules read as follows : 
 
 It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene until further 
 
 notice. It is also forbidden to use portable lamps with 
 
 gas-generating chambers attached. 
 Calcium carbide must be stored in different rooms to those 
 
 in which acetylene is generated; all such rooms to be 
 
 fireproof, sufficiently lighted by daylight, dry and well 
 
 ventilated. 
 The stock of calcium carbide must not exceed 50 kg. 
 
 (110 Ibs.). 
 The pressure in the generator and pipes must not exceed 
 
 six atmospheres. The apparatus must have an automatic 
 
 governor and pressure gauge. 
 It is forbidden to use copper in the construction of the 
 
 apparatus, copper alloy, however, being permissible. 
 Only reliable persons, who understand the construction of 
 
 the apparatus and the properties of the gas and material, 
 
 are allowed to use and attend to the apparatus. 
 On every apparatus a notice must be fixed, forbidding any 
 
 other person to touch it. 
 
 3. Infringements of the above regulations will be punished 
 with a fine of not more than 100 francs (4), unless it be a penal 
 case. 
 
 4. Notice of any infringement must be sent in writing to the 
 local police station. The police must send a report of an 
 inquiry to the Government, who will then order a magistrate 
 to attend to the matter. 
 
 5. These regulations come into force on the day of their 
 publication in the Official Gazette. 
 
 ZUG, May 19M, 1897. A. WEBER. 
 
 For the Government Clerk, A. KEYSER. 
 
 CANTON ZURICH. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Eegulations for the installation and working of acetylene Zurich 
 apparatus, November 18th, 1897. 
 
 1. For the installation and working of acetylene apparatus, 
 and the installation for storing calcium carbide, permission 
 must be obtained by application to the local police, when a 
 written license will be given by permission of the Directors of 
 the Police of the Canton. It depends upon the result of an ex- 
 amination by experts whether or no a license is granted. 
 
 The application for such licenses must be in writing and 
 
 761 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ( cont. ) 
 
 Switzerland sent to the local police authorities, accompanied by a descrip- 
 Zurich tion and plan of the place where the apparatus is to be erected. 
 The authorities after examining such applications, and making 
 all remarks thereon that they may think fit, must send them 
 to the Directors of the Police. 
 
 2. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene, or acetylene 
 mixed with air ; also portable lamps with gas-generation 
 chambers attached. 
 
 3. The rooms for storing calcium carbide must be separated 
 from those in which acetylene is generated. All these rooms 
 must be well closed, fireproof, sufficiently lighted by daylight, 
 dry, protected from cold, and well ventilated. 
 
 It is forbidden to use these rooms for other purposes or to en- 
 ter them with a light, a visible notice whereof must be fixed at 
 the entrance. 
 
 4. Any stock of calcium carbide must be stored in hermeti- 
 cally sealed and water-tight vessels, and, except under special 
 circumstances, it must not exceed 100 kg. (220 Ibs.). 
 
 5. The apparatus for generating and storing the gas must be 
 sufficiently strong and automatically regulated, should be made 
 for a higher pressure than that required for distributing the 
 gas through the system of pipes, and must also be provided 
 with a pressure gauge. 
 
 The pressure must not exceed six atmospheres. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to use pure copper for constructing the ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 7. Only trustworthy and qualified persons are to be entrusted 
 with the use and care of the apparatus. 
 
 8. Every license is held to be in force only for the place 
 mentioned therein. 
 
 9. Licensed acetylene gas installations are subject to inspec- 
 tions, which can be made at any time, and the owners thereof 
 are bound to carry out the instructions given by the officials. 
 
 10. Scientific institutes using acetylene gas for the purpose of 
 teaching and study are exempted from some of the above regu- 
 lations. 
 
 11. Infringements of these regulations, unless any section 
 of the Penal Code is applicable, will be punishable by the 
 withdrawal of the license, and a fine, according to the Police 
 Law. 
 
 12. These publications come into force after they have been 
 published in the Official Gazette. 
 
 ZURICH, November, 1897. 
 
 For the Government Clerk, STUSSI. 
 
 762 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 purposes, 01 
 be 
 
 FRENCH REGULATIONS. 
 
 PREFECTURE OF POLICE. 
 
 Instructions relating to the use, for lighting 
 acetylene gas, and precautions to 
 taken in its employment. 
 
 1. In order that the use of acetylene may present no danger, 
 it is necessary that the burner allow no gas to escape. A cock 
 shall be fitted at the extremity of the piping, or beyond the 
 region affected by the manufacture of the acetylene. The end 
 of the pipe line shall be stopped by a cap and closed with a 
 cock. At the point of distribution a pressure regulator, or any 
 other arrangement to prevent abrupt variations of the pressure, 
 would offer advantages from the point of view of public 
 safety. 
 
 2. All places in which acetylene is used must be carefully 
 ventilated, even when the gas is not in immediate use ; that is 
 to say, each room must be provided with openings communi- 
 cating directly with the open air, by which the gas may escape 
 in case of leakage or non-combustion. These openings, two in 
 number, should be placed as far as possible opposite each other, 
 one immediately below the ceiling, the other level with the 
 floor. 
 
 All cupboards and confined spaces containing burners, or in- 
 tersected by pipes, should be ventilated by two openings of at 
 least half a decimetre square, these openings to be placed, 
 one in the upper, the other in the lower portion of the space to 
 be ventilated, and in cases where direct communication with 
 the open air is impossible the measurement of these openings 
 to be enlarged to a decimetre square. 
 
 Without these precautions the gas is likely to accumulate in 
 such confined spaces and occasion serious accidents. 
 
 3. All supply pipes and other apparatus used in the distribu- 
 tion and consumption of the gas to be visible, with the excep- 
 tion of such parts as traverse ceilings, floors, walls, wainscots, 
 partitions, cupboards, or other empty spaces. Every time the 
 pipes are thus hidden from view they shall be enveloped in a 
 continuous shield either of iron, brass, or copper, this shield to 
 be open at both ends and extend at least a centimetre beyond 
 the face of the wall, partition, or flooring, etc., in which it is 
 embedded. The internal diameter of the shield shall be at least 
 a centimetre greater than the pipe which it envelops. 
 
 763 
 
 France 
 
 Use of 
 Acetylene 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 France Should a pipe follow a sharp bend in the wall, partition, 
 
 i cent.) ceiling, or floor, the shield shall be completed by a cap assuring 
 the ventilation of the space between the pipe and its shield. 
 
 All supply and distribution pipes shall be made in a high 
 quality of metal other than zinc, and be perfectly adjusted. 
 
 Should the acetylene be produced or consumed under a pres- 
 sure of above T50 m. of water, the use of copper or its alloys 
 in any part of the pipes shall be prohibited. 
 
 4. Every burner shall be furnished with a tap, the plug of 
 which shall be arranged in such a way as to prevent its being 
 pushed out, evon with a violent effort. A wedge shall be so 
 placed as to arrest the plug when the tap is turned off. 
 
 These taps shall be from time to time well greased, in order 
 to facilitate the service and avoid oxidation. In lighting, the 
 principal tap must first be turned, and then a light applied to 
 each burner the moment its own tap is turned, in order to avoid 
 any escape of the gas. 
 
 In putting out the gas, first each burner shall be turned off, 
 then the principal tap, which shall always be placed at the 
 point of entrance of the gas into the premises to be lighted by 
 it. In closing this cock when no more gas is required one is 
 always safe from accident. 
 
 5. Should a smell of gas indicate an escape, all doors and 
 windows shall at once be opened and the taps closed. 
 
 Never use a light when trying to locate a leakage. 
 
 If either by accident or carelessness an escape shall have 
 become lighted, close the main cock in order to extinguish it. 
 In case of accident the Commissioner of Police shall be imme- 
 diately notified thereof. 
 
 6. It sometimes happens that, owing to the sloping position 
 of the pipes, water accumulates at their base and prevents for a 
 moment the passage of the gas, during which time the flame is 
 extinguished. The gas then escapes unburnt and may cause an 
 explosion. To prevent this danger every such place shall be 
 provided with an arrangement for removing the water. 
 
 Drawn up and adopted on the report of M. H. Beinel, at the 
 meeting held on December 24th, 1897. 
 
 Secretary, DRUJON. 
 President, DR. BOUCHARDAT. 
 
 The manufacture of gaseous acetylene for private 
 use. General conditions of authorisation. 
 
 Private ! ^ ne apparatus used in the manufacture of the gas shall 
 
 installations be placed in a well-ventilated building specially designed for 
 the purpose, the door of which shall be kept locked. 
 
 764 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 All apparatus for exhibition in shop windows shall be en- France 
 closed in glass cases, ventilated top and bottom, and closed on 
 the side next the shop. 
 
 2. All operations connected with the charging and emptying 
 of the apparatus shall be conducted by daylight, and no one 
 shall be allowed to enter the building containing the apparatus 
 with a light. 
 
 3. Indiarubber tubing between the generator, holder, or 
 supply pipes is absolutely prohibited. 
 
 4. In no portion of the apparatus shall the water pressure 
 exceed T50 metres. 
 
 5. All necessary precautions shall be taken to prevent the 
 freezing of the water in the apparatus during the winter. 
 
 6. The holder shall be fitted with a safety tube communi- 
 cating with the open air. 
 
 7. The products yielded by the decomposition of the carbide 
 shall be thrown into an open vessel, and submitted to ten times 
 their own volume of water, before being emptied into the 
 sewer. 
 
 Any residue required for further use shall be kept under 
 water for several days. 
 
 8. The calcium carbide shall be placed in an hermetically- 
 sealed tin and kept in a dry place. 
 
 9. In the apparatus and use of acetylene gas the instruc- 
 tions of the Hygienic Council of December 24th, 1897, shall be 
 complied with. 
 
 The first French Eegulations now in force. 
 
 The principal conditions for manufacturing acetylene gas : 
 
 1. The apparatus must never be erected in a cellar. 
 
 2. It must be put up in the open, or in a well-ventilated 
 room, separated from places in which explosive material is 
 made. These places must have windows opening on to a large 
 space and not on to any small court. 
 
 3. It is forbidden to throw the liquid residue, or any portion 
 left over from the calcium carbide, down a drain until it has 
 been mixed with ten times its own volume of water. 
 
 4. It is forbidden to use indiarubber tubes to connect the 
 generator with the gasholder, or the latter with the pipes. 
 
 5. The pressure in the apparatus generator, gasholders, and 
 pipes must nowhere exceed 50 cm. of water, i.e. 0'05 kg. real 
 pressure, to be measured with a water manometer. 
 
 PARIS, March 6th, 1897. 
 
 765 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Belgium BELGIUM. 
 
 Royal decree supplementary to tlie regulations for the 
 manufacture and use of acetylene. 
 
 Leopold II., King of Belgium, considering that the manu- 
 facture of acetylene, the storage of liquefied or compressed ga. f j, 
 the depots for calcium carbide and other carbides which in 
 combination with water produce acetylene, are not entered on 
 the list of dangerous and unhealthy materials (see the Royal 
 decree of January 29th, 1863, and December 27th, 1863. and the 
 list of dangerous and unhealthy materials which was added to 
 the Royal decree of May 31st, 1887) : nor the report of the 
 General Office for the Transactions of Work, whose duty it is to 
 guard against dangerous, unhealthy, or badly arranged matters : 
 nor the Report of the High Council for the Public Health : nor 
 that of the Royal University in Belgium re the nuisance and 
 danger arising from the generation of acetylene for the work- 
 men and the public safety : therefore, in reference to the dangers 
 caused by the use of liquefied or compressed acetylene, and by 
 the storage of calcium and other carbides, which, when mixed 
 with water form explosive mixtures, and the nuisance and 
 dangers arising therefrom, we have resolved, in accordance 
 with the proposition made by our Ministers of Industry and 
 Labour, to issue the following decree : 
 
 1. The factories wherein acetylene is manufactured, the 
 stores of liquefied acetylene, or those in which acetylene com- 
 pressed at more than 1 atmospheres pressure is kept, the 
 stores of calcium and other carbides, are to be considered as 
 dangerous as well as injurious to the public health. 
 
 They will be put on the list of the Royal decree of May 31st, 
 1887. under the followir.; headings : 
 
 Description. Class. 
 
 Non-compressed acetylene, or IA. Substances and residues 
 
 acetylene compressed at more having a disagreeable smell; 
 
 than 1^ atmospheres pressure, the danger of poisoning people; 
 
 the manufacture thereof, ex- the danger of explosion by the 
 
 cept such gas as is generated setting on fire of a substance 
 
 in portable lamps. mixed with air; danger of fire. 
 
 Liquefied acetylene, or acety- 1 A. Substances and residues 
 
 lene compressed at more than having a disagreeable smell ; 
 
 1 atmospheres pressure, the the danger of poisoning; the 
 
 manufacture thereof. danger of explosion. 
 
 Liquefied acetylene, or acety- 1 A. The danger of explosion, 
 lene compressed at more than 
 1 atmospheres, stores thereof. 
 
 766 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 Description. Class. Belgium 
 
 Calcium, or other carbides IB. Disagreeable smell; (cont.) 
 which, when combined with danger of explosion, 
 water, produce acetylene, of at 
 least 50 kg. in stock. 
 
 2. Our Minister for Industry and Labour is ordered to execute 
 these regulations. 
 Given at OSTEND, August 15ft, 1898. 
 
 For His Majesty KING LEOPOLD. 
 Minister for Industry and Labour, A. NYSSENS. 
 
 NORWAY. Norway 
 
 Law for the storage and sale of calcium carbide, and also for 
 the manufacture and use of acetylene gas. 
 
 1. Calcium carbide must be stored or sold only in accordance 
 with the regulations given for the safety of the public by Royal 
 Decree, or by order of His Majesty. The manufacture and use 
 of acetylene is subject to the same regulations. 
 
 2. Liquefied acetylene can only be manufactured, stored, sold, 
 and used after a special license has been obtained from the 
 King or an official representing him. 
 
 3. Infringements of this law, or the regulations given in 
 accordance therewith, if no heavier punishment be incurred 
 under any already existing law, are punishable with a fine. 
 The punishment will be fixed in accordance with the rules for 
 police court cases. 
 
 4. This law comes into force at once. 
 Given at STOCKHOLM, December Wth, 1898. 
 
 OSCAR. 
 O. BLEHR. 
 LEHMANN. 
 
 Regulations for the storage and sale of calcium carbide and the 
 
 use of acetylene gas, etc., given by Royal Decree, 
 
 December 10th, 1898. 
 
 1. Calcium carbide must be stored only in strong watertight 
 metal vessels, and in dry, light, and well-ventilated rooms. No 
 vessel must contain more than 50 kg. It is forbidden to store 
 larger quantities than 10 kg. in dwelling houses or cellars. The 
 vessels must bear a clear inscription, " Calcium Carbide." 
 
 2. Calcium carbide must not be stored or sold until notice 
 thereof has been given to the police. 
 
 3. Quantities of more than 1 kg. of calcium carbide must not 
 be stored in vessels other than those mentioned above. 
 
 4. It is forbidden to erect or work an installation for making 
 
 767 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Norway 
 (cont.) 
 
 Denmark 
 Copenhagen 
 
 acetylene before a license has been obtained from the police. 
 The installation can only be renewed by permission of the 
 police. Before this is given the police are entitled to demand 
 the report of an expert re the installation. 
 
 5. The gas must be generated in a place which is separated 
 from any other building by a wall built according to the regu- 
 lations given by law (see the law for the building trade in 
 the towns of this country, except Christiana, Bergen, and Dron- 
 theim, July 27th, 1896, 49), or by an open space of at least 
 5 sq. metres. The generating apparatus must be erected in a 
 room with a lightly-built roof. 
 
 Small apparatus, if not charged with more than 10 kg. of 
 calcium carbide, may be erected in dwelling places by per- 
 mission of the police. 
 
 6. Eooms in which acetylene is made must be light, large, 
 and well ventilated. Within such rooms only electric lamps 
 may be used and no stove may be employed. The ventilating 
 pipes of the rooms and of the generator must not pass through 
 nor end in a chimney ; the pipes of the generator must be led to 
 the top of the roof of the building. This is not necessary, how- 
 ever, for the small apparatus mentioned in 5. 
 
 7. The apparatus for generating and storing acetylene must 
 be so constructed that the pressure shall not exceed one at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 8. No part of the generating apparatus, gasholders, or pipes 
 may consist of copper. 
 
 9. Portable acetylene lamps, and those the burner of which is 
 connected directly with the generating apparatus, are forbidden. 
 
 10. These regulations come into force at once. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 Resolution of the Council. 
 
 The Magistrate of Copenhagen hereby publishes the following 
 decree, in reference to the publication by the Judicial Depart- 
 ment of May 28th, 1897, which declares that the installation of 
 acetylene gas works and similar factories now in the course of 
 construction, together with the systems thereof, are subject to 
 such regulations as the Magistrate of Copenhagen deems neces- 
 sary for the prevention of danger from explosions and damage 
 by fire : 
 
 1. Before an installation for the manufacture of acetylene is 
 erected, drawings and two descriptions of it must be sent to the 
 Magistrate, and an assurance must be obtained that there is no 
 objection to the execution thereof according to the drawings 
 sent in, or in such manner as they have been altered at the 
 request of the Magistrate. 
 
 768 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 In giving such a declaration, it will be taken into consider- Denmark 
 ation what the building in which the installation is to be 
 erected is used for ; whether these buildings, although they are . 
 not to be let, are being used by a small or a large number of 
 people, or whether they are close to such buildings. 
 
 It is forbidden to erect an acetylene installation in private 
 houses. The rooms where the gas is generated or stored, or 
 calcium carbide is stored, must be light and well ventilated, 
 and must not be directly connected with dwelling places, i.e. 
 places in which people stay the night. This rule does not apply 
 to rooms protected by night watchmen, or in which work is 
 carried on during the night. 
 
 2. A written notice must be sent to the Director of the Light- 
 ing Department before an installation is erected, and after the 
 above-mentioned declaration has been obtained. 
 
 The testing and trial of the different parts of the installation, 
 and the material to be used therein, as well as the pressure 
 test, will be made under his direction after the installation is 
 completed. Such materials as are considered not strong enough 
 to last must be replaced by those of better quality. The neces- 
 sary connections must be fixed and arrangements made for 
 attaching pumps and manometer, so that the apparatus can be 
 examined at any time without much delay. 
 
 3. The installation having once been erected cannot be 
 altered, nor may the pipes be renewed until the Director of the 
 Lighting Department has received a notice thereof that the 
 trial required may be made. 
 
 The permission of the Magistrate must also be obtained if the 
 works are to be enlarged or extended in any way. 
 
 4. The Director or Inspectors of the Lighting Department are 
 allowed to enter the works at any time to ascertain that every- 
 thing is in proper order. Any apparatus not in order will be 
 stopped. 
 
 Once a year, or more often if deemed necessary, a pressure test 
 must be applied. 
 
 5. As a mixture of air and acetylene is very explosive, the 
 greatest care must be taken in using the gas. Only such 
 persons as understand it thoroughly must generate and use it. 
 Children and persons under 18 years of age must not assist in 
 any work. 
 
 6. Any necessary cleaning must be done during the daytime, 
 and care must be taken that during this period there is no fire 
 or light in the rooms. As sometimes there is a danger of 
 poisoning, two men at least must be employed in cleaning the 
 apparatus. When the generators are cleaned, the residues must 
 be thrown into a special holder and be mixed with ten times 
 
 769 49 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Denmark their own volume of water before being thrown away or poured 
 (cent.) down a drain. 
 
 7. All the apparatus, pipes, etc., must be kept clean, all taps 
 not required to be open must be turned off, and all joints and 
 packings of the pipes must be tight, any defects being repaired 
 at once. The ventilator must be tested daily to ensure its being 
 in working order. As often as necessary it must be taken to 
 pieces and lubricated with graphite. 
 
 In the case of an escape of gas no naked light must be used, 
 but a safety lamp of an approved pattern must be kept ready in 
 an adjoining room. 
 
 8. If the apparatus has not been used for 48 hours, the gas 
 must be allowed to escape from the holder into the open air, and 
 the acetylene may only be used after the holder has been filled 
 again. The same rule applies after the apparatus has been 
 cleaned, when it is filled with fresh calcium carbide or when 
 newly erected, and some time must elapse before the gas is used. 
 
 9. Before leaving the work rooms the attendant must look 
 round carefully to see that all taps are turned off properly and 
 that everything is safe. 
 
 It is forbidden to smoke in rooms where acetylene gas is 
 generated. 
 
 10. If acetylene is under a pressure of more than 12 inches of 
 water, the holder must previously have been tested under a 
 pressure five times as great as that under which the acetylene 
 is used. 
 
 A washer must be inserted between the gasholder and the 
 pipes, and the latter, which must be gastight under a pressure of 
 5 feet, must be provided with a safety valve constructed so as to 
 call attention when the pressure reaches 12 inches of water. 
 A special pipe leading to the open air must provide an outlet 
 for the gas at a place where no danger of explosion can arise 
 therefrom. 
 
 11. Copper must not be used for any part of the apparatus 
 with which acetylene comes in contact. It is forbidden to 
 connect the lamps and pipes with indiarubber tubes or tubes of 
 similar material. 
 
 12. Calcium carbide must only be stored in watertight vessels 
 and kept in dry places. 
 
 13. Liquefied acetylene and portable acetylene generators, in- 
 cluding those lamps in which the gas is generated, must only 
 be used in the open air. This rule also applies to the filling 
 and cleaning of apparatus. On the whole the same precautions 
 must be taken as in the case of acetylene gas works. 
 
 An exception to these rules may be made if the acetylene is 
 used for scientific purposes by persons who it may be taken for 
 
 770 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 granted are fully qualified to know the danger they run in the Denmark 
 use of such apparatus. (cont.) 
 
 14. Any one refusing to comply with the above rules, the ' 
 Director of the Lighting Department is entitled to stop the 
 working of the installation, and an action will be brought 
 against such persons according to 40 of the law of May 25th, 
 1868, for the Fire Engineers at Copenhagen. 
 
 15. All expenses arising from the testing of installations and 
 the inspection of the same, etc., must be paid by the proprietor 
 as per statement approved of by the Magistrate. 
 
 16. A copy of these regulations must be put up in the works. 
 
 17. The laboratories and similar scientific institutions of the 
 Government are exempted from these regulations. 
 
 18. The Magistrate reserves the right of altering or adding to 
 these regulations if such be deemed necessary. 
 
 Signed by the Burgomaster and given under the seal of the 
 town, 
 
 OLLGAARD MOLLER. 
 COPENHAGEN, July 25^, 1897. 
 
 On February 22nd, 1896, the Royal Danish Judicial Depart- 
 ment passed the following resolution : 
 
 Notification of additional Regulations to 23 of the Public 
 
 Health Regulations for Copenhagen, as approved by the 
 
 Judicial Department. 
 
 In conformity with the Law of March 28th, 1868, on " Alter- 
 ations of the Law with regard to the present condition of Public 
 Health Regulations of January 12th, 1858," we hereby confirm 
 the Additional Regulations to 23 of the Public Health Regu- 
 lations for Copenhagen, sanctioned by the Judicial Department, 
 July 15th, 1886. 
 
 With the exception of the pipes of the gas works of the town, 
 it is forbidden to erect installations or lay pipes in dwelling 
 houses without the permission of the Public Health Committee, 
 unless that part of the house where the installation is to be 
 erected, or the pipes are to be laid, is separated by a solid fire- 
 proof wall, in which even iron doors are forbidden, from the 
 inhabited part. 
 
 Dwelling houses are considered as such when people sleep in 
 them at night. This rule does not apply to buildings protected 
 by night watchmen, or those in which work is carried on 
 during the night. 
 
 771 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Roumania ROUMANIA. 
 
 We have resolved and hereby decree 
 
 1. Calcium carbide stores and factories for the manufacture of 
 acetylene must be regarded as industrial establishments of the 
 third class, and may only be built on the outskirts of a town or 
 village and be separated from any neighbouring farm. 
 
 2. In densely-populated quarters in small villages calcium 
 carbide may only be stored in quantities of not more than 
 15 kg. in solid iron hermetically-sealed vessels, which are kept 
 in well-ventilated and lighted rooms. 
 
 3. For every installation of acetylene it is necessary to apply 
 in writing for the permission of the Burgomaster of a town 
 and the Prefect of a village, such application being accom- 
 panied by a map of the situation of the house and a plan of 
 the apparatus and the ventilating system. The Burgomaster 
 or Prefect will ask the Local Committee for Public Health 
 for their approval of the application and plans, and give notice 
 to the Minister of every license which has been granted. 
 
 4. For the removal of an installation a new license must 
 be obtained in the manner indicated above. 
 
 5. If in a house with such an installation any danger should 
 arise to the health of the inhabitants, the local authorities 
 can withdraw the license. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene. 
 
 7. It is also forbidden to use portable lamps to which gene- 
 rating chambers are attached. 
 
 8. The pressure in the gas apparatus must not exceed 3 to 
 5 atmospheres. 
 
 9. The apparatus must be provided with a manometer, and 
 the pressure must be automatically regulated. 
 
 10. It is forbidden to use copper in the construction of the 
 apparatus. 
 
 11. Only such persons as understand the apparatus are 
 allowed to use and attend to it. 
 
 12. To every apparatus a visible notice must be fixed, for- 
 bidding any one who does not understand the machine to 
 touch it. 
 
 13. Acetylene gas apparatus must be kept only in light, dry, 
 well-ventilated fire-proof rooms. It is forbidden to enter these 
 rooms with a light. 
 
 14. Our Home Secretary will see that these regulations are 
 carried out. 
 
 Given at Pelesch Castle, July 16, 1897. 
 
 CAROL. 
 
 Home Secretary M. PHEREKYDE. 
 772 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 RUSSIA AND FINLAND. R !^ si , a 
 
 Finland 
 
 In Russia and Finland no regulations have at present been 
 made, the Chief of Police at Lodz alone having drawn up some 
 regulations. 
 
 ITALY. Italy 
 
 The Government has been engaged for some months in 
 drawing up regulations, but they have not as yet been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 TURKEY. Turkey 
 
 There are no regulations in Turkey. 
 
 SPAIN. Spain 
 
 Except the Articles of some Fire Insurance Companies, there 
 are no regulations for acetylene. 
 
 SWEDEN. Sweden 
 
 No regulations have as yet been made. The Articles of the 
 Fire Insurance Companies give rules for the use of acetylene. 
 
 DENMARK. Denmark 
 
 No regulations have been given up to the present either by Copenhagen 
 the Police or the Government. The authorities do not approve 
 of acetylene, and much depends upon the Mayor of the town. 
 
 PORTUGAL. Portugal 
 
 No regulations have as yet been made for the manufacture 
 and use of acetylene. 
 
 GREECE. Greece 
 
 At present there are no special regulations for the use of 
 acetylene and calcium carbide. 
 
 HUNGARY. Hungary 
 
 There are no laws or police regulations for acetylene light- 
 ing, but drafts are being prepared. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. Netherlands 
 
 Neither the Government nor the Town Councils have made 
 any regulations. The manufacture of acetylene is subject to 
 the so-called "Hindrance Law of the Town," and thus a 
 license must be obtained from the Town Council. The Fire 
 Insurance Companies do not allow the use of acetylene light- 
 ing in factories. 
 
 LUXEMBURG. Luxemburg 
 
 The Government will soon publish regulations for the use 
 of acetylene. For the time being, however, acetylene plant 
 may be erected anywhere outside dwelling places. 
 
 773 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Regulations 
 
 for 
 
 employers 
 and works 
 
 managers 
 
 Trade 
 regulations 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS DRAWN 
 UP BY THE GERMAN SOCIETY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, FOR THE 
 MANUFACTURE, USE, AND LIQUEFACTION OF ACETYLENE. 
 
 A. Regulations for Employers and Managers. 
 
 1. Acetylene must be manufactured in buildings other than 
 those in which it is condensed, should the pressure be as high 
 as 8 atmospheres. Otherwise the building must be separated 
 from other houses. 
 
 2. The rooms in which acetylene gas is made, condensed, or 
 liquefied must be light and well ventilated ; they must only be 
 heated by steam or hot water pipes, and the doors must open 
 outwards. 
 
 3. The rooms for the generation, condensation, and lique- 
 faction of acetylene must be lighted only by safety lamps 
 placed outside these rooms. In case of emergency it is per- 
 mitted to enter these rooms with safety lamps which have 
 been inspected just before being used. 
 
 4. Carbide must be stored in well-closed vessels to protect 
 it against damp, and only as much as is wanted for immediate 
 use must be taken out of them. The vessels must be stored 
 in dry, well-ventilated rooms. 
 
 5. In grinding carbide, precautions must be taken to prevent 
 any dust being formed. During the operation the men must 
 be provided with respirators and spectacles. 
 
 6. The gasholder must be erected in the open, or in a well- 
 ventilated room separated from that in which the gas is 
 generated. 
 
 7. A water manometer must be attached to the gasholder, by 
 which the pressure is visibly registered. 
 
 8. A good washer must be put between the generator and 
 holder, by which impurities phosphuretted hydrogen, sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, ammonia, etc. will be removed. 
 
 9. Acetylene must not be made by gradually adding water to 
 the calcium carbide, but by gradually adding the calcium 
 carbide to the water. The quantity of water must always be 
 largely in excess of the quantity of calcium carbide. 
 
 10. The condensation of acetylene at a pressure of more than 
 10 atmospheres must be carried out in a cold room. 
 
 11. The condenser must be disconnected directly the acetylene 
 is sufficiently compressed. 
 
 12. The vessels used for transporting the liquefied acetylene 
 must be painted white and labelled ; they must have been tested 
 under a pressure of 250 atmospheres. 
 
 These vessels must not be filled in a proportion of more than 
 1 kg. acetylene to 3 litres capacity, the regulations of the 
 
 774 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 German Railway Companies forbidding the traffic of vessels 
 otherwise filled. 
 
 The weight before and after filling must be carefully noted. 
 
 13. The vessels filled with liquefied acetylene must be pro- 
 tected from heat. 
 
 14. No vessels or parts of the apparatus which come into 
 contact with liquefied acetylene may consist of copper or its 
 alloys. No ventilators or any parts of the apparatus which 
 come into contact with the acetylene may have sharp edges. 
 
 B. Regulations for Workmen. 
 
 15. It is forbidden to enter the rooms in which acetylene is 
 made, condensed, or liquefied, with a light, or to strike a match, 
 or to use any lighting material whatever. 
 
 Safety lamps must always be examined before they are used. 
 It is forbidden to open the lamps in these rooms. 
 
 16. When the carbide is ground, measures must be taken to 
 prevent the formation of dust. The operators must use the 
 respirators and spectacles provided for them. 
 
 17. It is forbidden to add water to calcium carbide, and it 
 may be thrown into water only in such small quantities as 
 always to have a large excess of water. 
 
 18. In condensing and liquefying acetylene, care must be 
 taken that there is no rise in the temperature. 
 
 19. The condenser must be disconnected directly the acetylene 
 has been liquefied. 
 
 20. Only such vessels must be used for compressed acetylene 
 as are indicated above. 
 
 21. In filling the vessels attention must be paid to the fact 
 that they are not filled in a larger proportion than 1 kg. of 
 acetylene to 3 litres capacity. 
 
 22. The weight of the vessels must be carefully taken before 
 and after filling. 
 
 23. The filled vessels must be carefiilly protected against the 
 sun's rays and against other sources of heat. 
 
 24. The vessels must be opened so that the acetylene only 
 escapes gradually. 
 
 Regulations 
 
 for 
 workmen 
 
 Trade 
 regulations 
 
 775 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Fire FIRE INSURANCE REGULATIONS. 
 
 Insurance 
 regulations 
 
 GERMANY. 
 Germany 
 
 Regulations of the German private Fire Insurance Com- 
 panies for the prevention of accidents. 
 
 (a) For districts which have police regulations. 
 
 An insurance policy will not be granted unless the following 
 conditions are complied with, as well as those of the police 
 regulations : 
 
 1. The gasholder must be provided with an apparatus by 
 means of which the after-generation of the gas can escape as 
 soon as the holder is filled. 
 
 2. The gasholder and generator must not in any case be 
 erected in outhouses or stables unless they are separated from 
 the adjoining places by a solid fireproof wall. The excess of 
 gas mentioned in 1 must be led into the open air. 
 
 3. The rooms in which the apparatus is erected must not be 
 used for storing combustible material ; they must be kept 
 locked, and no one must be allowed to enter unless they under- 
 stand the apparatus. Smoking must not be allowed therein. 
 
 4. The manufacture, storage, and use of liquefied, compressed 
 acetylene is forbidden. 
 
 (6) For districts which have no police regulations. 
 
 1. The gasholder must be provided with an apparatus by 
 means of which the after-generation of the gas may escape as 
 soon as the holder is full. 
 
 2. The generator and gasholder must in no case be erected in 
 outhouses or stables, unless they are separated from the adjoin- 
 ing places by a solid fireproof wall. The excess of gas men- 
 tioned in 1 must be led into the open air. 
 
 3. The room in which the apparatus is erected must not be 
 used for storing combustible materials. It must be kept locked, 
 and no one must be allowed to enter unless they understand the 
 apparatus. Smoking is not allowed therein. 
 
 4. The manufacture, storage, and use of liquefied, compressed 
 acetylene is forbidden. 
 
 5. Acetylene must not be generated or stored in or underneath 
 places which are inhabited, nor must it be kept in cellars. The 
 room in which acetylene is generated must be separated 
 from dwelling places by a fireproof wall or an open space. 
 The generator must be erected only under a lightly-built roof. 
 
 776 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 6. These rooms must be light, large, and well ventilated, and 
 
 T isuran 
 ( cont. ) 
 
 heated only with steam or hot water. The door must open ' 
 
 outwards. 
 
 The ventilating pipes of the rooms and generator must not 
 end in a chimney, but be led out above the roof. 
 
 7. The apparatus for generating and storing acetylene must be 
 so made as to prevent the formation of more than one atmos- 
 phere pressure therein. 
 
 8. No parts of the generating apparatus, gasholders, or pipes 
 may consist of copper. 
 
 9. Quantities of more than 10 kg. must only be kept in water- 
 tight vessels, and be stored in dry, light, and well-ventilated 
 rooms. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. Switzerland 
 
 Special regulations of the Bale Insurance Company for the 
 prevention of damage by fire through the installation 
 and use of apparatus for generating acetylene. 
 
 1. In places in which a license must be obtained from the 
 local authorities for erecting the apparatus for generating 
 acetylene gas, application must be made for the same; and 
 besides the rules entailed thereby the following have also to be 
 complied with : 
 
 2. It is forbidden to manufacture, store, or use liquefied, com- 
 pressed acetylene. 
 
 3. Portable acetylene lamps must not be used. 
 
 4. The generator and gasholder must be erected in an empty 
 room, which must be lighted by daylight, dry, protected against 
 frost, and well ventilated. With the exception of electric 
 lights, the use of any artificial illuminant is forbidden. 
 
 5. The calcium carbide must be kept in tightly-closed metal 
 vessels, and in a dry room, which is separated from that in 
 which the generating apparatus is kept. The stock must not 
 exceed 100 kg. 
 
 6. The pressure in the apparatus must not exceed I'l atmos- 
 pheres. 
 
 7. The gasholder must be provided with an apparatus by 
 means of which the surplus gas generated may escape into the 
 open air directly the holder is full. 
 
 8. When the lights are turned out, the tap between the gas- 
 holder and pipes must be turned off. 
 
 9. Any residues of calcium carbide from the gas must be 
 taken out of the generator only when dry, and must be kept in 
 the same way as calcium carbide. 
 
 10. Only trustworthy persons, understanding the apparatus 
 
 777 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Fire and the properties of the gas and the materials used in its 
 
 Insurance manufacture, must look after and attend thereto. 
 
 11. To every apparatus a visible notice must be fixed, for- 
 bidding any other person to touch it. 
 
 France FRANCE. 
 
 Fire Insurance Regulations of the Syndicate of the French 
 Fire Insurance Companies. 
 
 I. Acetylene light installations. 
 
 A. Open spaces lighted by acetylene, with generating 
 apparatus and store for calcium carbide erected in a separate 
 place. Dated March 31st, 1897. 
 
 The following regulations have been made for acetylene 
 lighting on the resolutions of the Syndicate, October 5th and 
 December 7th, 1896, and January llth, 1897. 
 
 For acetylene lighting, except liquefied acetylene, no extra 
 premium will be charged when the generating apparatus 
 generator and gasholder and the stock of carbide are put 
 outside the insured building, or the building in which the 
 insured objects are. 
 
 The danger of gas explosions can be insured against with the 
 same extra premium as in the case of coal gas Tariff of simple 
 dangers in factories and theatres but besides this an extra 
 premium of 0*05 per 1,000 francs must be charged for dwelling 
 houses, owing to the danger of such houses, regardless of the 
 danger to those who rent the houses and to the neighbours 
 close at hand. 
 
 B. As soon as the apparatus, generator, and gasholder have 
 been taken into the insured buildings, or the buildings in 
 which objects are insured, the danger is thereby increased, and 
 the insured parties will be obliged to give a written notice 
 besides paying the extra premium at once. 
 
 For insurance against the danger of acetylene explosion, an 
 extra premium must be paid as above. To either kinds of 
 insurance the following rules apply : 
 
 1. The apparatus, generator, and gasholder must be erected in 
 a well- ventilated room, lighted by daylight. They must not be 
 put up in cellars or basements, nor in badly-ventilated rooms. 
 
 2. Calcium carbide must always be stored in watertight 
 metal vessels. 
 
 3. Liquefied acetylene must never be used. 
 
 4. The following clause must be added to the policies : 
 This insurance policy does not make the Company liable for 
 
 damages caused by fire through an explosion caused by non-com- 
 
 778 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 pliance with the rules given by the authorities, or by the use 
 of portable or fixed lamps in the rooms with attached generators. 
 
 No charge will be made for the use of portable lamps, except 
 those that are filled with liquefied acetylene. 
 
 Coal gas and acetylene may only be used together after the 
 above extra premium has been paid. 
 
 The regulations for open places also appty to acetylene light- 
 ing as being dangerous. 
 
 II. Calcium carbide. May 31st, 1897. 
 
 Calcium carbide kept in iron, steel, or other metal vessels will 
 be regarded as a dangerous material, and be classed under the 
 Simple Dangers, page 26 of the Tariff. 
 
 This decree modifies but does not cancel the decree of Decem- 
 ber 14th, 1896, No. 1169, which relates to the general stores and 
 public stores, and forbids the storage of calcium carbide amongst 
 other materials. That decree remains in force. 
 
 Fire 
 Insurance 
 
 France 
 (cont.) 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Regulations of the Committee of the Foreign Fire Insurance 
 Companies in Belgium. Original translation. 
 
 In accordance with the general police regulations, acetylene 
 lighting cannot be installed in rooms insured against fire with- 
 out previous notice. This notice must be sent to the Fire 
 Insurance Company. 
 
 After the notice has been approved, insurance against fire can 
 be obtained after the acetylene installation has been erected, 
 subject to the following conditions : 
 
 1. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene or portable acety- 
 lene lamps. 
 
 2. The generator or gasholder must only be put up in a place 
 separated from the insured part, or the place where the insured 
 objects are. 
 
 The calcium carbide with which the apparatus is filled must 
 be kept in well-closed, water-tight vessels, which must not be 
 stored in the insured rooms. 
 
 3. An extra premium of 0'30 per cent, will be charged for any 
 objects, furniture, or immovables which have been insured 
 against fire. 
 
 The police will not interfere if such extra premium has been 
 paid, and if the above conditions are fulfilled. 
 
 The damage, even without a fire, which can be caused by an 
 acetylene explosion, can also be insured against in the same 
 policy bv payment of a second extra premium of 30 per cent. 
 
 779 
 
 Belgium 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Fire SWEDEN. 
 
 Insurance 
 
 Sweden Swedish Tariff Union. Conditions for insuring acetylene 
 factories in which carbide, usually called calcium carbide, 
 is the raw material, and for places in which this raw 
 material is stored. 
 
 1. No insurance of acetylene installations, or places in which 
 they are used, will be accepted unless they have been examined 
 by an expert. To this end, sketches, plans, and an accurate 
 description of the apparatus, and of the manner in which it 
 is to be worked, must be sent to the office of the Tariff Union. 
 
 No model of any installation will be acknowledged unless it 
 has been examined and watched for a period of thirty days by 
 an expert. 
 
 2. The installation, which consists of a generator and gas- 
 holder, must be of solid construction and gastight. Copper must 
 not be used. 
 
 3. The installation must be properly erected, either in a 
 separate room, or in a light, well-ventilated one, approved of by 
 the Tariff Union. 
 
 4. The capacity of an installation erected in a dwelling house 
 mast not exceed three cubic metres, nor must a larger quantity 
 of carbide then 15 kg. of carbide be used therein. 
 
 5. Installations must be filled or cleaned only by daylight, or 
 by a light external to the room. 
 
 6. The rooms must be so ventilated that the escaping gas is 
 carried out into the open. No chimney must be used for such 
 ventilation. 
 
 7. When the generator is being filled, the pipes leading to 
 the gasholder must be shut off. 
 
 8. The calcium carbide used in the installation must be as 
 pure as possible, and the acetylene generated must not contain 
 more than O'Ol per cent, of phosphuretted hydrogen. The car- 
 bide must evolve at least 250 litres of gas per kg. 
 
 9. The carbide must be kept in strong iron vessels, with over- 
 lapping covers, or in wooden boxes lined with metal, soldered 
 down. 
 
 Such vessels and boxes must bear the inscription " Carbide," 
 in order to indicate to the public the dangerous character of 
 their contents if not kept dry. 
 
 10. In the building or room in which the installation is 
 erected there must not be kept more carbide than is required to 
 fill the apparatus, except such quantity as is already in the 
 apparatus. 
 
 11. For storing the carbide the regulations for the storing of 
 inflammable oil, first class, and the restrictions as to the quantity 
 
 780 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 which may be stored, apply ; 1 kg. of carbide being considered 
 equivalent to 1 litre of inflammable liquids. 
 
 12. Arrangements must be made in a room or building for the 
 necessaiy water supply. 
 
 13. Every part, both internal and external, of the installation 
 must be easily accessible. 
 
 14. Generators, gasholders, and water tanks must not be 
 separated by a wall, unless they are in separate rooms. They 
 must be connected by large pipes, with as few bends as possible, 
 and must not be connected by indiarubber tubes. These pipes 
 must have a cock for withdrawal of any condensed liquid. 
 
 15. The highest pressure in any part of the installation must 
 not exceed 100 cm. water pressure. 
 
 16. If the flow of gas between the gasholder and generator is 
 automatically regulated, they must be separated from each 
 other by a certain distance. 
 
 17. The generator must be so constructed as to hold ten times 
 more water than carbide. The cross section of the holder must 
 be twice as great as the cross section of the carbide at the point 
 where the latter comes into contact with the water. Where 
 the connections between the generator and holder are fixed, 
 these proportions must be doubled. 
 
 18. The cross section of the vessels, baskets, or nets in which 
 the carbide is lowered into the water must not exceed 15 cm. 
 diameter. 
 
 19. The gas in the holder must be separated from the water 
 by a layer of at least 5 mm. of pure fat oil not mineral oil. If 
 the room is not sufficiently protected against frost, the water 
 must be boiled and then saturated with salt. 
 
 20. Gas pipes must not be made of copper, copper alloy, or 
 indiarubber ; but ventilators, cocks, and burners may be made 
 of copper alloy. 
 
 21. The generator and holder must be provided with safety 
 valves which work automatically as soon as the pressure therein 
 exceeds 100 cm. water. 
 
 22. The residue of the apparatus must be thrown into a vessel 
 filled with water, and be stirred from time to time before being 
 emptied. 
 
 23. Only trustworthy persons who understand the work 
 must be entrusted with it. 
 
 24. Acetylene apparatus are considered as vessels of inflam- 
 mable liquid of the first class : thus the total volume of gas in 
 the generator and holder is taken as the basis for working out 
 the charge. 
 
 25. It is forbidden to manufacture, store, or use liquefied 
 acetylene. 
 
 781 
 
 Fire 
 Insurance 
 
 Sweden 
 (cont.) 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Firc SPAIN. 
 
 Regulations for the Spanish Fire Insurance Companies. 
 Spain 
 
 Instructions with regard to acetylene : 
 
 For acetylene gas lighting, except when obtained from lique- 
 fied acetylene, no extra premium is charged if the apparatus, 
 generator and gasholder, and the stock of carbide are outside the 
 insured building, or the building in which the objects insured are. 
 If the acetylene apparatus, generator and gasholder, are 
 within the insured buildings, or within the buildings which 
 contain insured objects, the person insured must give notice at 
 once, and the premium will be increased as follows : 
 
 5 Centesimo for dwelling houses. 
 35 ,, furniture and similar goods. 
 
 30 stores and workshops. 
 
 30 ,, factories and factory workshops, and 
 
 halls for public entertainments. 
 
 These extra premiums are only added on account of the dan- 
 ger of fire. For insuring against acetylene explosions another 
 similar premium will be charged. 
 
 To this class of insurance the following conditions apply : 
 
 1. The generator and gasholder must stand in a light, well- 
 ventilated room, in which there must be openings covered with 
 iron gauze. The apparatus must not be erected in a cellar or 
 basement. 
 
 2. The stock of calcium carbide must be kept in metal 
 vessels and be protected against damp. 
 
 3. It is forbidden to use liquefied acetylene. 
 
 4. The following clause must appear in the policy : " The 
 person insured binds himself to pay all damages in the event of 
 an accident, and to comply in every respect with the regulations 
 made by the authorities for the consumption of acetylene. The 
 USQ of portable lights is forbidden in the rooms in which the 
 acetylene apparatus is erected. In default thereof the policy is 
 void." 
 
 Calcium carbide factories 
 
 Working with coke or coal, the stock 
 
 of carbide at a distance of 10 metres 
 
 from the factory .... 4 per cent. 2/4 
 Working with charcoal, and having 
 
 the stock of carbide at 10 metres 
 
 from the factory .... 5 per cent. 2/11 
 Working with any coal, and having 
 
 the stock at a distance of 10 metres 6 per cent. 3/6 
 The stock of carbide at f buildings 3 per cent. 1/9 
 
 a distance of 10 met- j 
 
 res from the factory ^carbide store 5 per cent. 2/11 
 782 
 
LEQAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 AMERICA (See page 716). 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 The rules of the Fire Insurance Companies resemble those of 
 the Union of the German Private Insurance Companies, being 
 based upon the same principles, and requiring a strict obedience 
 to the police regulations. 
 
 One of the principal Austrian Insurance Companies in Vienna 
 charges a premium of 5 per cent, for insurance against danger 
 arising from acetylene. In HUNGARY it is the same. 
 
 EUSSIA. 
 
 The Insurance Companies in Russia and Finland do not 
 charge anything for acetylene installations. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Generally the English Insurance Companies are acting upon 
 the same principles as the German Companies. Some of them 
 charge no extra premium, and others have endeavoured, but 
 without success, to raise their premium in the case of the acety- 
 lene apparatus being erected in the insured building. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 The Insurance Companies generally object strongly to the 
 introduction of acetylene, and do not allow its use in factories. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 The Insurance Companies generally make it a condition that 
 the building in which the apparatus is erected shall be a de- 
 tached one, and at a distance of at least 10 metres from other 
 buildings. They do not demand an extra premium, but refuse 
 to insure the building in which the apparatus is. 
 
 Fire 
 Insurance 
 
 America 
 
 Austria 
 
 and 
 Hungary 
 
 Russia and 
 Finland 
 
 England 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Denmark 
 
 783 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Traffic GERMAN TRAFFIC REGULATIONS. 
 
 regulations 
 
 Regulations for the conveyance of calcium carbide and 
 liquefied acetylene by Railway Companies. 
 
 CALCIUM CARBIDE. 
 
 B. No. XLIX of the traffic regulations for the Railway Com- 
 panies of Germany. 
 
 Traffic by Railway. Calcium carbide must be packed in air- 
 tight iron vessels. No other material may be packed in the 
 same vessels. Postal delivery. According to 11 of the postal 
 regulations of December 18th, 1874, the following are not 
 allowed to be sent by post : " Objects or substances, the delivery 
 of which is dangerous when rubbed, pressed, or by the acci- 
 dental admission of air into the parcel, easily inflammable 
 materials, and objectionable liquids. 
 
 It is forbidden to send calcium carbide and acetylene by post. 
 (Decision of the Imperial Postal Department.) 
 
 Transport by Sea. The steamship companies do not convey 
 calcium carbide in the passenger boats, and only a limited quan- 
 tity in the cargo vessels. They require it to be packed in strong 
 tins put in wooden boxes. 
 
 River Transport. Companies for conveying goods by river 
 steamers require calcium carbide to be packed in various ways. 
 Some accept calcium carbide packed in strong tins, others re- 
 quire it to be packed in tin-lined boxes strong enough for the 
 voyage, whilst other Companies will not take it at all. 
 
 LIQUEFIED ACETYLENE. 
 
 The rules for the transport of liquefied acetylene are nearly 
 the same for all the Railway Companies as for liquid carbonic 
 acid; the duty on liquefied acetylene is almost without ex- 
 ception the same as for carbonic acid in all the different states 
 of the German Empire. As the trade of liquefied acetylene is 
 not important, and as it is too insignificant for the acetylene 
 industry, only some of the German rules for the transport 
 thereof are given below. 
 
 Section B No. 44 of the traffic regulations for the Railway 
 Companies of Germany. 
 
 784 
 
LEGAL ENACTMENTS 
 
 The rules given hereafter for liquefied carbonic acid apply Traffic 
 also to liquefied acetylene, but the following are also added : regulations 
 
 To be added to 1. No part of the gasholder must consist of 
 copper or copper alloy. The valve must be of steel. 
 
 To be added to 2. The holders must have been tested under 
 a pressure of 250 atmospheres, and they must not be filled in a 
 proportion larger than 1 kg. of liquid acetylene to 3 litres 
 capacity. 
 
 XLIV. Liquefied gases carbonic acid, nitrogen, ammonia,* 
 chlorine, sulphuric anhydride,* and phosgene are subject to the 
 following rules : 
 
 (The gases marked * are subject to rules which are omitted as 
 not applying to acetylene.) 
 
 1. These chemicals may only be sent out in cast iron or steel 
 bottles. The vessels must (a) be tested every three years for car- 
 bonic acid, nitrogen, and ammonia under the pressure given in 
 2, and the vessels must stand the test without any alteration 
 of form and be guaranteed perfectly gastight ; (&) bear the 
 inscription officially prescribed, giving the weight of the vessel 
 when empty, and also with the cap fitted on ; also the weight of 
 the quantity which may be put in the vessel expressed in kg. 
 according to 2, and also the date of the last test. This 
 inscription must be put on in such a place that it can easily 
 be seen. 
 
 C. 1. The valve caps must be of the same metal as the vessel, 
 and be fixed strongly to the valve. 
 
 2. The vessels must be provided with some arrangement for 
 preventing unauthorised persons opening the valve. 
 
 3. If the vessels are packed tightly in cases, it is not neces- 
 sary to put caps over the valve. 
 
 4. The highest pressure to be used for testing the vessels, 
 and the largest quantities allowed to be put in a vessel are, 
 for carbonic acid and nitrogen, 250 atmospheres, and 1 kg. 
 liquid for 1'34 litres capacity. For instance, a vessel of a 
 capacity of 13*40 litres must not contain more than 10 kg. of 
 nitrogen or liquid carbonic acid. 
 
 5. Great care must be taken not to drop the vessels full of 
 liquid gases. They must be protected against the sun's rays 
 and the heat of stoves. 
 
 6. They must be delivered in covered carts, or in specially- 
 built carriages covered with wood. 
 
 786 50 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Customs 
 tariff 
 
 Germany 
 Belgium 
 
 Bulgaria 
 Denmark 
 
 Finland . 
 
 France . 
 
 Greece . 
 Great Britain 
 Italy 
 
 Luxemburg . 
 The Netherlands 
 Norway 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Portugal . 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia . 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Servia . 
 
 Turkey . 
 
 Japan 
 
 Dutch East Indies . 
 
 Persia 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 Chili 
 
 CUSTOMS TARIFF. 
 
 CALCIUM CAEBIDE. 
 
 Import and export 
 
 No. 53 of the Customs Regulations. 
 " Chemical substance " . 
 
 No. 53 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Chemical products .... 
 No. 115 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Chemical materials and products. 
 
 100kg 
 
 No. 282 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Chemical products are not mentioned 
 
 No. 59 of the Customs Regulations. 
 Chemical substances not specially 
 mentioned. 100 kg. (with packing, 
 12ilire) 
 
 Belongs to the German Toll Union . 
 
 No. 331 of the Toll Union Regula- 
 tions. Chemical products not 
 specially mentioned. 100 kg. 
 
 No. 148 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 No. 148 of the Customs Regulations. 
 Chemical products not specially 
 mentioned 
 
 No. 112 of the Customs Regulations. 
 Chemical products which are not 
 specially mentioned. Per pood, 16 
 kg 
 
 No. 284. Chemical technical products 
 
 not particularly specified . 
 No. 15 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Chemical and other products not 
 
 mentioned. 100 kg. 
 No. 241 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Calcium carbide. 100 kg. 
 All sorts of merchandise . 
 No. B a 4 of the Customs Regulations 
 All sorts of merchandise . 
 
 No. 328 of the Customs Regulations. 
 Chemical products not specified 
 
 786 
 
 free from duty. 
 
 14 % of value. 
 10 
 
 18*80 Fin. mark. 
 
 5 % of value, 
 duty free. 
 
 > j 
 
 10 lire = 8s. 4d. 
 duty free. 
 
 10 guilders, 
 duty free. 
 
 2 '25 paper rou- 
 ble. 
 
 15 % of value. 
 
 8 francs. 
 
 10 peseta=jd. 
 8 % of value. 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
Canada . 
 Mexico . 
 
 Egypt . 
 The Cape 
 South African Republic 
 
 CUSTOMS TARIFF 
 
 No. 147 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Chemical products . . . . 25 % of value. 
 No. 704 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Calcium carbide .... duty free. 
 All sorts of merchandise . . . 8 % of value. 
 
 Customs 
 tariff 
 ( cont. ) 
 
 ACETYLENE APPARATUS Duty on 
 
 made of steel and cast iron, painted and with fittings of other apparatus 
 metals and alloys. 
 
 Germany . . Export free. No. 6 e 3B of the Toll 
 
 Tariff. Goods made of tin plate and 
 
 cast iron. Per 100 kg. . . . 24 marks. 
 Belgium . . . No. 33 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines, mechanical apparatus, 
 
 tools. 100kg 4francs=3s.2i<Z. 
 
 Bulgaria . . Factory apparatus . . . . 8 % of value. 
 Denmark . . No. 174 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Perlb 3s. 
 
 Finland . . .No. 231 b 1 of the Customs Regula- 
 tions. 100 kg 1470 F. marks. 
 
 France . . No. 525 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Mechanical apparatus. 100 kg. . 10 francs. 
 Greece . . . No. 252 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Apparatus for industrial use. . . duty free. 
 
 Great Britain ,, 
 
 Italy . . . No. 240 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Apparatus not specified. 100 kg. . 10 lire=8s. 
 Luxemburg . . Belongs to the Toll Union . . . duty free. 
 The Netherlands . Hardware ...... 
 
 Norway . . . No. 341 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Apparatus for industrial use . . 10 % duty free. 
 Austria-Hungary . No. 286 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines and apparatus of ordinary 
 
 metals 12 guilders. 
 
 Portugal . . No. 372 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Apparatus of any kind up to 50 kg., 
 
 60 reis ; 50 to 100 kg., 50 reis ; 100 
 
 to 500 kg., 40 reis 500 to 1,000kg., 
 
 30 reis ; 1,000 kg. and more . . 20 reis. 
 Roumania . . No. 503 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines and apparatus of cast or 
 
 hammered iron, with other metals 
 
 for fittings. Per 100 kg. . . 12 lei. 
 Russia . . . No. 167 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines and apparatus of cast or 
 
 hammered iron, with fittings of 
 
 other metals. Per pood, 16 kg. . 1'40 gold rouble. 
 Sweden . . . No. 369 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 100 kronen 10 kr. 
 
 787 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Duty on 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 apparatus 
 
 ( cont. ) 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Servia 
 
 Spain 
 
 Turkey . 
 Japan 
 
 China . 
 Siam 
 
 Persia . 
 
 Egypt . 
 The Cape 
 
 No. 250 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 100 kg. apparatus for generating 
 
 acetylene. 100 kg 
 
 No. 278 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines for industrial purposes 
 No. 268 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines not specially mentioned. 
 
 100kg 
 
 All sorts of goods .... 
 No. 17 of the Regulations of the 
 
 Union. Engines not specified 
 
 Engines 
 
 All sorts of goods .... 
 
 . No. 95 of the Apparatus Regulations. 
 
 Gas lighting apparatus . 
 South African Re- 
 public Transvaal 
 
 Argentine Republic Gas light apparatus .... 
 Brazil . . . No. 929 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines and apparatus . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Mexico . . . No. 802 of the Customs Regulations. 
 
 Engines and apparatus for industrial 
 
 purposes. Per kg. brutto 
 
 4 francs, 
 duty free. 
 
 20 pesetas. 
 8 % of value. 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 duty free. 
 
 12 \ % of value, 
 duty free. 
 
 15 % of value, 
 duty free. 
 
 05 peseta. 
 
 788 
 
ACETYLENE PATENTS. 
 
 I. PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 AND LAMPS. 
 
 Lamp for Burning Acetylene. 
 
 An iron or steel cylinder lamp in which cartridges of carbide 
 coated with gelatine, glue, or soluble varnish are decomposed Harrogate 
 by dropping them into water. The gas is allowed to accumu- 221SH 
 
 late under pressure in the reservoir of the lamp. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 An automatic generator in which water is allowed to drop Gearing, E. 
 upon the carbide. When the pressure of gas within the gene- 
 rator reaches a certain point, a collapsible vessel attached to the Dec^S, 1894 
 top of the generator rises and cuts off the supply of water. 
 
 Generating Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Within a vessel adapted to hold water there dips a second 
 smaller vessel open at the bottom and closed at the top, the 
 annular space between being open to the main vessel. Within 
 the inner vessel there is suspended a carbide supporter or carrier, 
 perforated and in the form of an inverted cone. The vessels 
 are charged with water to a level above the bottom of the car- 
 bide carrier and acetylene is generated, but as the pressure of 
 gas increases it depresses the water level within the inner vessel 
 until it is out of contact with the carbide. Thus the generation 
 of gas only proceeds when the pressure of gas within the gene- 
 rator is below a certain limit. 
 
 Apparatus for Producing and Liquefying Acetylene. 
 Liquefies the gas by its own pressure. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 An automatic generator in which water is sprayed over the 
 carbide. The generator consists of an outer part resembling 
 a gasholder, which is sealed by water contained within an 
 annular receptacle. The surface of the water is preferably 
 covered with oil to prevent evaporation. The carbide is placed 
 within a perforated basket, and above it is fitted a sprayer. 
 
 789 
 
 Morrison, 
 D. B. 
 
 Hartlepool 
 2437 
 
 Ffb. 4. 1805 
 
 Dickerson 
 
 and 
 
 Suckert 
 New York 
 
 5780 
 Mar. 19, 1895 
 
 Gearing, E. 
 Harrogate 
 
 07 1 1 
 Apr. 2, 1895 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 The gas is led into a gasholder, which, when nearly filled, 
 automatically cuts off the supply of water to the generator. 
 
 Acetylene. Gas Lamp. 
 
 Rossbach, The supply of water to the carbide is regulated automatically 
 
 by the pressure of the gas. The water for the decomposition of 
 
 the carbide is partly distributed in fine particles over the carbide 
 
 Juii. 17, 1895 by the aid of wicks, which draw water from the lower part of 
 
 the reservoir. 
 
 Producing Acetylene Gas. 
 
 An automatic generator in which carbide falls upon a per- 
 forated plate below the level of the water. The waste lime is 
 collected in a tray at the bottom of the generator, and is drawn 
 out through the water by means of a chain and raising tackle. 
 
 Dickerson, 
 
 E. N. 
 New York 
 
 11848 
 Jim. 18, 1895 
 
 Dickerson, 
 
 E. N. 
 New York 
 
 11848ft 
 .lun. 18, 1895 
 
 Exley, J. H. 
 
 Hudders- 
 
 field 
 
 12341 
 Jim. 26, 1895 
 
 Supplying Acetylene Gas. 
 
 It is claimed that by a certain arrangement of reducing valve, 
 expansion coil, gasholder, and safety valve, practical combus- 
 tion of liquefied acetylene is for the first time rendered possible. 
 
 Generating Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Two vertical generators are fixed to the side of a receiver, 
 which in turn is connected with a water cistern placed imme- 
 diately above it. The cistern is connected to the receiver by 
 a pipe extending below the minimum working level of the 
 water in the receiver. The generators are connected to the 
 receivers by a water passage and a gas passage, and are fitted 
 at the bottom with discharge taps. Wire or perforated metal 
 cages to hold the carbide are placed in each generator. 
 
 Gas-producing Lamps. 
 
 Three forms of acetylene lamp. No. 1 is charged by turning 
 the lamp upside down, the carbide and water being placed in 
 their respective receptacles. When the lamp is turned over to 
 its normal condition the water runs out of its receptacle and 
 comes in contact with the carbide. Nos. 2 and 3 are charged 
 from the top. The carbide is placed on a perforated shelf, which 
 is fitted over a false bottom provided with a central aperture in 
 the generator. The water is added 'until it nearly reaches the 
 perforated plate, and then a slight shake of the lamp starts the 
 generation of gas. 
 
 Production of Heating and Illuminating Gas. 
 
 Thorp and A floating bell rendered buoyant by air-tight chambers is 
 
 Manchester sus P en( ied in a tank of water. In the bell is fitted a perforated 
 
 12356 shelf at some distance from the bottom, while the top is finished 
 
 Jim. 26, 1895 with a gas-tight hopper through which the carbide can be 
 
 790 
 
 Thorp and 
 
 Marsh 
 Manchester 
 
 12355 
 Jim. 26, 1895 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 inserted. The bottom of the chamber is preferably concave, 
 and is provided with a small pipe or aperture to admit the 
 water. In one form of apparatus without the floating bell the 
 gas production is started by simply adding water to the con- 
 taining tank, and in a second form by lowering the bell until 
 the carbide comes in contact with the water. 
 
 An Automatic Apparatus. 
 
 Water falls upon the carbide, and the gas produced from it Gabe, H. 
 passes into a holder. The cocks leading to the holder and to Copenhagen 
 the water supply are so arranged that they are automatically 
 regulated by the pressure of gas within the generator. 
 
 Production and Utilisation of Acetylene. 
 
 Generator No. 1 is for producing acetylene at all pressures, Ducretet, E. 
 No. 2 is a low pressure apparatus, and No. 3 is a portable 
 acetylene lamp. The carbide is placed in perforated cylinders, Le ^JJg* L> 
 which have sufficient space left around them when placed in 16502 
 position to allow the water to act freely upon the carbide. Sep. 8. 1895 
 The water is passed from an upper reservoir to the lower re- 
 ceptacle, in which the carbide cylinder is placed, and thus rises 
 around the carbide. For the lamp, provision is made when de- 
 sired for an accumulator for regulating the pressure of the gas 
 and for a dessicating chamber. 
 
 Generator for Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 This invention is to secure a full pressure immediately the Campe, R. 
 lamp is lighted, and to stop generation of acetylene as soon as Berlin 
 the light is extinguished. Sep*6U.895 
 
 Decomposing Carbide of Calcium. 
 
 Two forms of generator. In one the holders containing the Gabe, H. 
 calcium carbide are lowered into the water, in the other the Copenhagen 
 water rises around the carbide. The charge holders are perfo- 28 189." 
 rated to admit the water to the carbide, which is packed in 
 layers alternated with discs of waterproof material, so that only 
 the immersed portions of the charge will be saturated. For the 
 second form a condenser with a filter is employed between the 
 holder and the generator. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Generating Lamp. 
 
 Automatic acetylene lamp. An upper vessel containing water Kaestner, C. 
 is attached to a lower one containing carbide. The water per- 
 colates through a felt filter before coming in contact with the 
 carbide. Oct. y 181).~ 
 
 791 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generating and Regulating the Consumption of Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Bayicy, J. C. This apparatus in its most simple form consists of an in- 
 ournc- verted cylinder having its upper end either closed or made to 
 1977 open and its lower end open, the plates forming the bottom 
 
 Oct. 21, 1895 having their lower edges serrated or perforated. Near the top 
 are placed one or more perforated trays to cany the carbide. 
 The vessel is placed, open end downwards, in a tank of water. 
 Trom the interior of the inner vessel a pipe communicates direct 
 with the burners. When the gas in the generator accumulates 
 under pressure the water is driven away from the carbide, and 
 further generation should cease until the consumption of the 
 gas allows the water to return to the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Exlcy , J. H. A modification of the apparatus described in a former patent. 
 An automatic valve is introduced in the gas passage between 
 the generator and the holder, adapted to close when a certain 
 
 Oct. 30, 1895 quantity of gas is contained in the holder, and prevent further 
 generation of gas by at once expelling the water from the gene- 
 rator. 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Two generators connected to an overhead cistern are each 
 provided with a loose perforated carbide holder so arranged as 
 
 Atkinson, 
 J. E. 
 
 to be easily placed within or withdrawn from the generator 
 Oct. 80, 1895 through a door in the side. The pipe from the cistern to the 
 generator bifurcates, and is fitted with a two way cock, so that 
 the supply can be turned into either of the two branches. 
 Each branch is controlled by a regulating cock operated by the 
 rising and falling of the gasholder-bell. 
 
 Exley, J. H. 
 Hudders- 
 
 field 
 
 20727 
 Nov. 2, 1895 
 
 Trouve, G. 
 Paris 
 
 23521 
 Dec. 7, 1895 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Another modification with the object of bringing automati- 
 cally the second generator into operation as soon as the carbide 
 in the first is exhausted. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A generator of acetylene gas comprising a stoppered vessel, 
 apertured at the bottom, immersed in water, and enclosing a 
 suspended wire cage containing carbide crystals arranged in 
 superposed layers separated by glass discs, so as to cause the 
 successive immersion of the layers and ensure a uniform pro- 
 duction of gas. The apparatus may be combined with a gas- 
 holder for the storage of the gas from one or more generators. 
 The inventor also proposes a combination in a portable lamp for 
 
 792 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 burning acetylene, of means of generating the acetylene, and 
 of two concentric and connected tubes, one for conveying the 
 gas to the burner, and the other being adapted to siphon off the 
 water condensed in the gas tube. 
 
 A Prepayment System. 
 
 In order to effect distribution of the gas on prepayment of a 
 certain coin, mechanism is arranged to deliver a measured 
 quantity of water to the generator, only just sufficient to pro- 
 duce the required quantity of gas from the carbide. In this 
 generator water from an overhead tank flows through a spray- 
 ing rose on to the carbide. The gas generated passes through * 
 a condenser and finally enters a gasholder. 
 
 Synnock, W. 
 
 and 
 
 Gosling, G. 
 
 Peckham, 
 
 London 
 
 24088 
 
 Acetylene Gas Generator. 
 
 This apparatus consists of a double tank so formed as to leave 
 a space between the chambers designed to contain water under 
 pressure, which is forced in by a suitable pump arranged upon 
 the outside of the tank or chamber. Within the inner cham- 
 ber is provided any suitable number of cells, each designed to 
 contain carbide and calcium oxide or stone lime, the latter being 
 inserted to prevent smoking. Around and over the cells is a pipe 
 connected with the outer tank containing water under pressure, 
 so that the water may be admitted to one, two, or all the cells 
 as required. This is effected by opening a valve or cock corre- 
 sponding with the cell required. 
 
 Warn, 
 W.W.R. 
 
 and 
 
 King, L. F. 
 Poole 
 
 75 
 Jan. 1, 189H 
 
 Generating, Storing, and Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 This apparatus in its simplest form consists of a vessel inside Bayley, J. C. 
 which a float is inserted through an opening in the top which 
 can be closed air-tight. The float is composed of two concentric 
 cylinders, the inner of which has an end which closes it. The Jan. 6, 189H 
 outer cylinder extends some distance above the top of the inner 
 float so as to form a receptacle for the carbide, and between the 
 two cylinders a small annular space is left which is filled with 
 a ring of some textile material. The whole of the float is free 
 to rise and fall between vertical guides, and it is borne by the 
 weight of the water. Upon one side of the top of the vessel is 
 placed a water tank, so arranged with a ball cock and an over- 
 flow pipe that a uniform level is maintained. Upon the other 
 side of the top of the vessel is arranged a container for lime or 
 other purifying agent. A frame or grating is arranged inside 
 the vessel underneath the float by which it can be lifted to the 
 top of the vessel. 
 
 793 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Luis, C. G. 
 London 
 
 1382 
 Jan. 18, 189ti 
 
 Production of Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Roabach The carbide is contained in an open tray placed in a chamber 
 
 Ronssct F. through which passes the water supply pipe, the latter being so 
 
 Templenof enlarged as to form a small condensing chamber along that 
 
 Jan 16 18W P ort i n directly above the carbide. The water is allowed to 
 
 flow in unregulated quantity upon the carbide, and produces 
 
 within the generator a pressure exceeding that normally required 
 
 for the development of the gas flame. The excessive pressure 
 
 forces the water back along the supply pipe and thus stops the 
 
 further supply. The heat in the generator is now so great that 
 
 part of the water is converted into steam, which, however, con- 
 
 denses in the enlarged water supply pipe and in a short time 
 
 overflows from this pipe and falls upon the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is divided by a horizontal partition into two 
 chambers, the upper containing water and the lower carbide. 
 The lower chamber is provided with charging apertures and 
 with an outlet for removing waste residues. A pipe leading 
 from the carbide chamber to a point above the surface of the 
 water in the upper chamber is provided for carrying off the gas 
 generated. The automatic generation of gas is effected by a 
 floating valve comprising a hollow metal ball with a conical 
 projection. The ball is furnished with a small tube extending 
 downwards, open at both ends, and so arranged that when the 
 ball is in the lowest position the lower end of the tube is nearly 
 in contact with the partition. Curved bands are fixed to the 
 partition to prevent the ball from rising too high in the water. 
 The accumulation of pressure in the apparatus automatically 
 closes the valve, stops the supply of water to the lower chamber 
 and thus prevents further generation of gas. 
 
 Acetylene Generator and Container. 
 
 This generator consists of two cylinders suitable for holding- 
 water, with an inverted cylinder inside, each connected by a U 
 shaped tube passing from the top. of No. 1 cylinder, which acts 
 as the generator, through the bottom of each to the top of No. 2 
 cylinder, which acts as the gas container. Carbide is placed in 
 a perforated holder suspended from the top of the inverted 
 cylinder in No. 1. Both outer cylinders being filled with water 
 and the stopcocks turned on, the gas will be generated in No. 1 
 as soon as the inverted cylinder sinks sufficiently to allow the 
 carbide to reach the water. 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 Two generators are provided but are used alternately, so that 
 W j 1 ii e one j s WO rking the other can be cleaned out and recharged. 
 
 794 
 
 Thorn, F. S. 
 
 and 
 
 Hoddle, C. 
 London 
 
 3142 
 Feb. 12. IS! Mi 
 
 Pym, E. P. 
 and Gore, J. 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 The charge of carbide is placed in baskets and water is allowed Clerkenwell 
 to flow over them. The gas generated passes to a storage reser- ^^ ' ^ ^896 
 voir, whence it passes to a second chamber, the top of which is a 
 flexible diaphragm having fixed to its centre a weight sliding 
 upon a guide pin. This second chamber is so constructed that 
 the gas issues from it at a uniform pressure. 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 Claims " the employment of acetylene in liquid or vapour Til 
 form, under pressure, for use as a lighting agent in lamps of 
 velocipedes, cycles, and other like structures." Fel>. 28, 1896 
 
 Ragot, G. 
 Belgium 
 
 5279 
 Mar. 6, 1896 
 
 Production and Use of Acetylene. 
 
 An automatic generator consisting of two cylindrical reser- 
 voirs connected at the top with one another but shut off from 
 one another, when desired, by cocks. The carbide is placed in 
 these reservoirs and water is admitted from an upper tank by a 
 bifurcated tube. The upper part of this tube is funnel shaped 
 with a bulb below the funnel and a bend in which a little mer- 
 cury is placed in order to prevent contact between the carbide 
 and water vapour after the supply of water has been automati- 
 cally cut off. 
 
 A burner consisting of two nozzles converging towards each 
 other at a suitable angle is also claimed. As the gas jets 
 encounter each other they are splayed out producing a flat 
 flame. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Eelates to the use of carbide in portable apparatus, such as 
 bicycle lamps. Alcohol is mixed with the water employed to 
 decompose the carbide in order to retard the process of decomposi- 
 tion. One part of methyl alcohol to nine parts of water is the 
 mixture recommended. 
 
 Automatic Generator. 
 
 An acetylene generator in which the carbide is suspended in Farnsworth 
 a cage attached to a piston and fitting into an annular tube 
 which passes through the top of gasholder, a screw cap and 
 stuffing box closes the top of annular tube, and the piston carry- 
 ing the carbide cage passes through it. A charge of carbide is 
 placed in the cage, lowered into the tube, the cap is screwed up, 
 and on pushing down the piston the carbide comes in contact 
 with the water, acetylene is generated and the holder rises, 
 drawing the carbide out of the water. As the gas is used, the 
 holder descends and the carbide again coming in contact with 
 the water gives off more acetylene. 
 
 795 
 
 Turney, E. T. 
 Chicago 
 
 5375 
 Mar. 10. 1896 
 
 Minneapolis 
 
 5624 
 Mar. 12. 1896 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Holliday, T. This apparatus consists of one or more generators and a dis- 
 
 Hudders- placement holder, the generators being placed on a level with or 
 
 below the holder. The vessel which contains the carbide per- 
 
 Mar. 16, 1896 mits water to enter at a lower, and the gas to be withdrawn at 
 
 a higher, level than the level of the carbide therein. The gas- 
 
 holder is one in which the acetylene is allowed to displace the 
 
 water, which is thereby forced to a higher level and can re-enter 
 
 the holder as gas is withdrawn from it. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 Appleby, E. This generator consists of a steel or iron cylinder in which 
 
 H *H F is placed, and is fitted at the bottom with a cock for 
 
 London withdrawing the waste lime and water. The generator is con- 
 5976 nected to a gasholder, the bell of which is bolted down so that it 
 IS cannot be lifted by the buoyancy of the gas. The tank of the 
 gasholder is of sufficient depth to contain above the submerged 
 bell all the water displaced from the bell when filled with 
 acetylene. For the purpose of regulating the water supply to 
 the carbide in the generator a ball float is placed in the holder 
 tank above the bell. As the water in the bell is displaced by 
 acetylene it rises in the tank and by means of the ball float cuts 
 off the supply of water to the carbide. The gas is drawn off by 
 a pipe from the dome of the bell passing through and above the 
 water in the tank. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Webb, G. This invention relates to the automatic generation of acetylene 
 lI1 Lomlon ^ v means ^ a head of water contained in a central partition 
 5905 gasholder acting upon carbide when the gas in the holder falls 
 
 Mar. 17. 1896 below a certain pressure. 
 
 Generating, Storing, and Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Storage of the gas in contact with water is avoided. The gas as 
 
 ttouth produced passes into a closed expansible and collapsible chamber 
 
 6789 contained in the storage cylinder or vessel, and the cistern into 
 
 > which the water is forced is mounted so that it can be raised or 
 
 lowered as the water in it increases or decreases, and thus the 
 
 head of water is kept constant. In some cases the storage cylin- 
 
 der is provided with a plain slab which floats on the top of the 
 
 water, and, extending practically over the whole surface of the 
 
 water, largely prevents the gas coming in contact with it. The 
 
 generator is provided with a double valve operated by a single 
 
 handle so as to admit and shut off water to and from and 
 
 empty the generator and provide for the passage of the gas 
 
 produced as and when required. 
 
 796 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE G-ENEEATOES 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 This apparatus consists in a combination of two vessels, one Cerckel, A. 
 containing carbide, the other water. The vessels communicate 
 with each other at their lower portion by means of a pipe pro- -y [ar 97 1^90 
 vided with cocks for allowing liquid, etc., to pass from one 
 vessel to the other and to be forced back. The first vessel 
 is provided at its lower portion with a floating valve open- 
 ing on the passage of the liquid and again closing when 
 the liquid is forced back, thus preventing the escape of gas to 
 the second reservoir. Communicating with the first vessel is a 
 gas holder or pressure regulating reservoir provided with a gas 
 outlet tube, the generator being furnished with a regulating 
 arrangement automatically working a valve or cock on the pipe 
 between the first generator and the gasholder for the purpose of 
 governing the admission of gas into the holder, and to thus 
 obtain a perfectly even flame at the burner. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 An automatic generator in which water from an upper reser- Clarke, W. C. 
 voir falls upon the carbide. Two cylindrical generators are New York 
 connected by pipes to two water tanks placed some distance . ,' ./''tutu- 
 above them. Between the tanks and the generators are placed 
 valves, and the generators are connected at the side with a gas- 
 holder. The rising and falling of the holder automatically 
 works the valves through which the water from the tanks falls 
 upon the carbide, and thus the make of gas is automatically 
 regulated by the rate at which the gas is withdrawn from the 
 holder. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A slight modification of the foregoing. The generators are Clarke, W.C. 
 placed one on each side of the holder instead of both on one side. New York 
 
 7242 
 Generating Acetylene. Apr. 2, 189(> 
 
 This generator contains a series of superimposed trays in Blakeley, 
 which the carbide is placed. Water is admitted at the bottom J. F. 
 of the generator, and as it rises comes in contact with the car- 
 bide in the trays by suitable pipe connections attached to each 
 tier of trays. The gas passes to a storage holder, and when this AI ay 7, 189G 
 is full the pressure in the governor fixed to the top of the 
 generator increases and, raising the bell of the governor, 
 gradually cuts off the water supply. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 This apparatus embodies a generating chamber in which the Morley 
 carbide is placed, a water supply having its head above the level Acetylene 
 of the carbide, and a pipe leading from the water supply to the 
 
 797 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Wheeling, chamber having outlets above the carbide in the chamber. 
 
 101%' Water is allowed to issue from these outlets, and as the pressure 
 
 May 12, 189G ^ S as i n the generator increases the water is gradually forced 
 
 back, diminishing the supply of water to the carbide and finally 
 
 stopping it altogether when the pressure becomes sufficiently 
 
 great. 
 
 Portable Lamp. 
 
 Goodwin, R. On two sides of a lamp standard are fitted vertical cylin- 
 ders with suitable caps and connections for the admission 
 
 May 15, 1S9G . an( l control of fluids and gases. One cylinder, constructed of 
 metal, contains water, and is fitted with a rack and pinion 
 movement, intended to be wound up by a key. The water is 
 forced by the pressure of a spring from this vessel into the other 
 cylinder, which contains a carbide cartridge, and which is of 
 glass with metal caps, and is provided with an internal wire 
 gauze envelope for the carbide. The acetylene generated passes 
 to a gas reservoir at the base of the standard, and from thence 
 passes upward to the burner. By using a cartridge of mixed 
 carbide and suitable carbonate, and using water acidulated 
 with sulphuric acid, a mixture of acetylene with carbonic acid 
 may be employed. 
 
 Webb, G. 
 
 and Kelly, J. 
 
 London 
 
 10725 
 May 18, 189G 
 
 Moreau, G. 
 
 and 
 Poulties, A. 
 
 Paris 
 
 11581 
 May 27, 1890 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The patentees claim the use of a chamber or gasholder carry- 
 ing a vessel containing carbide fitted with a central tube, the 
 chamber or holder being in connection by a valve operated by a 
 weighted lever with a collapsible bag containing water and 
 provided with a weight for the purpose of forcing some of the 
 water into contact with the carbide, so as to generate gas when 
 the pressure of the latter has been reduced. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Lighting. 
 
 This claims the use of mixtures of gas rich in carbon with 
 combustible gases or gaseous mixtures, and more particularly 
 the mixture of acetylene with hydrogen giving a nonfuliginous 
 flame which produces great light. The installation comprises 
 two distinct gasholders, one to contain hydrogen produced " by 
 the customary process," and the other acetylene. The gases 
 reach the burners simultaneously through branch pipes, where 
 they form two converging jets producing a butterfly flame. 
 Two meters may be used for preparing a mixture of acetylene 
 and hydrogen, which may be stored in a single holder. There is 
 also claimed an expanding burner with two convergent pipes 
 through one of which acetylene is delivered and through the 
 other a gas such as hydrogen is blown into the acetylene flame, 
 
 798 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 and therebjr corrects and regulates it, the mixing not being able 
 to take place before combustion. 
 
 Production and Storage of Acetylene. 
 
 This apparatus consists of two receivers one above the other, ciausolles.E. 
 the upper containing water, the lower carbide. They communi- Barcelona 
 cate with each other by a tube fitted with a cock or valve, 
 which may be opened or closed according to the rise or fall of 
 the bell of a gasholder. 
 
 99 
 
 Bauwer- 
 
 aerts, 
 
 E.F.J.C. 
 
 Brussels 
 
 L1708 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two vertical cylindrical reservoirs enamelled internally com- 
 municate with each other at the top and bottom. In one is 
 placed a pail or bucket with longitudinal grooves along its 
 external surface to allow the water to pass into the bucket and 
 come in contact with the carbide it contains. The second Mu\ 
 reservoir contains the water for the decomposition of the carbide. 
 On opening the cock on the lower connection between the reser- 
 voirs the water runs into the carbide vessel and the gas escapes 
 through the water reservoir. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generator and holder placed side by side. The generator is 
 a receiver open at the top and containing water. Above the 
 water level is placed a perforated basket containing the carbide. 
 A bell-shaped cover descending to the bottom of the generator 
 is loaded to form with the water a hydraulic seal. From the 
 upper part of the carbide vessel a pipe communicates with a 
 tube rising in the holder to nearly the level of the water, and 
 around this latter tube another tube fixed to the bell of the 
 holder slides. 
 
 Two generating chambers are employed alternately. The Deroy, H. A. 
 carbide is placed in perforated baskets in layers separated by 
 layers of an inert substance such as gravel, slag, etc. A parti- 
 tion divides the basket vertically, so that the separated layers 
 are acted upon in immediate succession. A purifier filled with 
 wood fibre coke or other material is used to dry the gas. 
 
 Fourchotte, 
 
 M. C. A. 
 
 Paris 
 
 12047 
 
 Paris 
 
 Juii. 9. 1890 
 
 Automatically Generating and Distributing Acetylene. 
 Water is caused to pass under constant pressure through a 
 series of generators containing carbide in such a manner as to 
 
 Tobler, A. 
 Garonne 
 
 bring the generators successively into action, and arrangement j un 9 
 is made to regulate the pressure of gas and to effect its distribu- 
 tion to the burners. An excess of water is provided which " by 
 absorbing the caloric developed in the generators prevents the 
 temperature rising therein." 
 
 799 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Gibbs, R. R. 
 
 Egremont 
 
 12788 
 
 Tun. 10, 1890 
 
 Atkinson, 
 
 chere, J. M. 
 Liverpool 
 
 18147 
 .Jim. 15, 1890 
 
 Bowers, A. F. 
 Paris 
 
 13511 
 
 .Jim. 18, 1890 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 A tank with counterbalanced gasholder has a central pipe 
 rising from the bottom of the tank, another pipe surrounding it 
 and acting as a guide. The tank is filled with water to a con- 
 venient height and a thick layer of oil is poured on it. The 
 carbide is fed into the holder by a device on the top. 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 A gasholder and water tank with generators for the carbide 
 r " separately connected to the water tank by an air vessel and 
 non-return valve. The generator has a perforated conical top 
 through which the water passes, the quantity being regulated 
 by the rise and fall of the water in the bell. A seal is attached 
 to act as the holder descends to permit of the removal of the 
 waste material. 
 
 Generation and Storage of Acetylene. 
 
 The essential features are a regulating chamber into which 
 the extremities of the water supply pipes of each of the 
 generators project to varying depths, so that as the water level 
 rises owing to pressure of gas the next generator can be set in 
 action. A return by-pass pipe from the carbide holder to the 
 water reservoir so that on excessive pressure being attained 
 even after the water supply is cut off the remaining water is 
 returned to the top of the water reservoir. 
 
 Producing Acetylene Gas. 
 
 A fixed gasholder has a generator on either side, the supply 
 of water being taken from the gasholder. The connecting tube 
 of one generator is fixed at a lower level than that of the other, 
 so that the carbide in one is exhausted before the other is 
 attacked. The production of gas is continuous, as the waste 
 carbide can be removed from the one holder whilst the other is 
 working. 
 
 Production and Combustion of Acetylene. 
 This apparatus is composed of a generator consisting of a 
 water vessel in which is a bell closed at the top and provided 
 with a tap through which the gas is withdrawn for consump- 
 tion. The upward movement of the bell is limited by stops. 
 Inside the bell are claws forming supports for the removable 
 basket containing the carbide. The bell is lowered till the 
 carbide reaches the water, when the generation of gas raises the 
 bell and removes the carbide from the water, the operation 
 being repeated as the gas is consumed. A weighted receiver is 
 used to obtain a more uniform pressure. The burner consists 
 
 800 
 
 Ackermann, 
 F. P. J. 
 
 Marseilles 
 
 14278 
 Jim. 27, 1890 
 
 Schulke, 
 A. H. J. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 14929 
 .July 0, 1890 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 of a number of small tubes issuing from a chamber placed at 
 such a distance apart as to admit of free access of air between 
 them. A chimney may be used to increase the supply of air. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is provided with a cover having a hydraulic LaCompanie 
 joint, and formed by a bell held in position by a pivoted bar. Continen- 
 The carbide receiver is divided into a number of compartments *^g e ^rlle 
 communicating with each other in such a manner that the gaz acety- 
 water overflows from one to the next. The gas is washed by lene, Paris 
 passing it through the water in the holder, whence it passes lc 
 through a purifier divided into two compartments, the lower ' 
 containing pieces of pumice stone, or similar material, soaked 
 in a saturated solution of copper sulphate or other suitable salt 
 for the removal of phosphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A water tank is divided into three compartments by two Haviland, 
 horizontal partitions, the upper being filled with water and the 
 
 lower forming the gasholder. Between the two, or at the same ' B * 
 
 level outside the tank, is a small tank enclosed at top and Burch.'w! H. 
 bottom. Water is allowed to drop on to the carbide through a Bourne- 
 wick and perforated cylinder, the surplus gas enters the gas 
 and water tank, and forcing back the water from the pipe j u j v 
 supplying water to the generator prevents further generation 
 of gas. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 Inside the generator is a perforated metal holder resting on Whalley, D. 
 
 brackets some distance from the bottom and containing the 5 ackin S J. 
 ,.,_., , , , , . . . Blackburn 
 
 carbide. The cover of the generator being placed in position 15654 
 
 the water supply tap is opened, and as the gas is generated it July 15, 1896 
 passes into a holder. 
 
 Generating, Storing, and Cooling Acetylene. 
 The carbide holders are in the form of trays which can be Thorn, F. S. 
 
 hermetically closed in a cylindrical or other holder in con- Hoddle C. 
 ,. .,, , ,, m , , . ,T , . , Camberwell 
 
 nection with a gasholder. The trays are divided in such a 15962 
 
 manner that the water overflows from one to the next. The July 18. 1896 
 gas pipe acts as a condenser by passing through the water 
 supply pipe to a cooling chamber provided with an outlet for 
 the gas and a drain cock. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 A generator attached to a gasholder so arranged that as the Boter, A. 
 bell of the gasholder sinks it operates certain mechanical ^^'IQQ^ 
 devices and causes parcels of carbide to be pushed upon an July 23, 1896 
 inclined board and fall into water. 
 
 801 51 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Schemidt, A. 
 
 Kauffman, O. 
 
 Paris 
 
 16432 
 July 24, 1896 
 
 Alexandra, 
 F., Paris 
 
 16728 
 Julv 28. 1896 
 
 FitzGibbon, 
 
 L. T. 
 London 
 
 17038 
 July 31, 1896 
 
 Clarke, W. C. 
 New York 
 
 17450 
 
 Aug. 7, 1896 
 
 Clarke, W. C. 
 New York 
 
 17451 
 Aug. 7, 1896 
 
 Dufficld, M. 
 Slough 
 
 17646 
 Aug. 10. 1896 
 
 Production and Purification of Acetylene. 
 Carbide is added in small quantities to a large quantity of 
 water. The generator is a flanged cylinder, the cover of which 
 is secured loy bolts, and attached to it is a slide and hopper into 
 which the carbide is fed. The carbide falls upon a grid im- 
 mediately below, which is fixed just below the level of the water 
 in the generator. The carbide is kept agitated by a metal brush, 
 so as to cause the lime to fall through the" grid. A stirrer is 
 arranged in the generator to agitate the water and prevent 
 deposition of waste material. The gas is passed through a 
 suitable acid solution to remove ammonia, a neutral solution of 
 lead acetate to remove sulphuretted hydrogen, and an acid solu- 
 tion of copper sulphate to remove phosphuretted hydrogen, and, 
 lastly, through a solution of caustic soda to remove any acid 
 vapours. The gas then passes into a holder, and after being- 
 dried by passing over calcium chloride is pumped and liquefied. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a porous vessel surrounded by 
 absorbent material saturated with water. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is made into balls or tablets by admixture with 
 stearic acid, paraffin, and the like, and then coated with a sub- 
 stance such as a silicate. A gasholder is used with a device for 
 intermittently distributing water to the carbide. The carbide 
 holder immersed in water is divided into two compartments, 
 the lower being perforated and the upper containing the 
 carbide holder. The pressure of gas regulates the water 
 supply. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Water falls on carbide from an upper vessel, the bottom of 
 which is fitted with a valve normally closed and watertight, 
 but opened by a rod projecting through the cover of the genera- 
 tor, thus allowing the water to attack the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene- supplied Street Lamp. 
 
 A generator is attached to a street lamp. The generator is 
 provided at each end with a movable cover, the upper being 
 fitted with a device for piercing the waterproof carbide cart- 
 ridges used. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A divided generator without valves is employed. The water 
 supply is governed by the rise and fall of a gasholder. The 
 water supply is connected with the generator with a syphon 
 
 802 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 pipe fitted with a tap. Each generating chamber is fitted with 
 a number of perforated vessels for holding the carbide. An 
 escape pipe is provided for any excess of gas. 
 
 Production of Acetylene and Carbonic Acid Gas. 
 
 A combination of a vessel for containing the carbide mixed Goodwin, R. 
 with lime, chalk, or marble, a vessel from which acidulated Dublin 
 water is supplied- in regulated quantities, and a vessel divided Vuu . '^ J89( . 
 into three compartments by perforated partitions, the upper con- 
 taining sulphate of copper, the centre wire filling for mixing 
 the gases, the lowest serving to collect separated impurities. 
 
 Generating and Liquefying Acetylene. 
 
 A process for liquefying acetylene, without the use of great Fraser, A. C. 
 
 pressure and high temperature. Means are provided for pre- New York 
 
 venting the accumulation of excessive pressure by the generated in i 
 
 gas, for preventing the generation of gas at a high tempera- C]f F e i. 21 
 
 ture, and for mechanically increasing the pressure to lique- 1896 
 faction. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Granulated carbide is automatically distributed in the Grenier, O. 
 generator. Glass windows are fitted in the bell of the holder to and 
 
 enable inspection of the carbide and the level of the water to be 
 
 Lyons 
 made. 179 04 
 
 Purification of Acetylene. Au g- 12 > 1896 
 
 The generator is provided with a jacket, through which flows Pictet, R. P. 
 a current of water, and within the generator is a refrigerating Geneva 
 
 worm 18208 
 
 WOlIIl. _. ^ f 
 
 Aug. 17,189<) 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The apparatus consists of a water reservoir surmounted by a chivert D. H 
 bell, and of a vessel containing granulated carbide, the fall of Neuilly 
 which into the water is regulated by the bell, which operates a 
 feed valve in the carbide container. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 When the bell of the holder is in its lowest position, water Voigt, G. 
 from a reservoir trickles on to the carbide. The gas is cooled Berlin 
 by passage through a worm, and flows into the holder, which 
 rises and cuts oft" the water. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 This apparatus is designed for subjecting the carbide pro- F U u er H F 
 gressively to the action of the liquid, a reserve of carbide being Chicago 
 used to dry the gas. The carbide is supplied in small quantities 
 to avoid compacting the mass and causing it to swell, thus pre- Sf ^' ' 
 venting the free passage of the generated acetylene through it. 
 
 803 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Gaskell, The generator is separated from the gas chamber by a 
 
 G^bb W R^R water sea l> an ^ i s so designed as to admit of re-charging with- 
 
 Livcrpooi ou * escape of acetylene while the holder is in use. The car- 
 
 20074 bide is withdrawn from the water by the ascent of the bell and 
 
 Sep. 10, li D immersed again on its descent. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Chesnay, E. Modification of a previous patent. The generator is a cylin- 
 1 l drical vessel, in the top of which the carbide holder is supported, 
 
 L 
 
 Dijon water being in the lower portion. To the lower part of the 
 
 20090 generator is attached by a flexible tube a vessel of water which 
 
 Fl 1 rf is raised or lowere( i by the rise or fall of the holder. When the 
 
 1890 vessel is raised water rises to the carbide. On the surface of 
 
 the water in the generator is a layer of oil, forming a hermetic 
 
 seal when the apparatus is at rest. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Chesnay, E. A modification of the foregoing. Instead of the movable 
 L water vessel, a fixed vessel containing water is provided, which 
 
 Dijon * s connected to the generator by a pipe at its lower end. Inside 
 20254 this vessel is a displacement cylinder, which may be either 
 Sep. 12, 1890 so iid or hollow. The movement of the bell causes this cylinder 
 1896 '' * r * se or ^ a ^' tmis causing the water to attack or leave the 
 carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Trost, R. Two forms of table lamp generator, in which water drips up- 
 ld on carbide. In one form the water flows from an upper reservoir 
 Sep. 15 1890 into a syphon pipe, composed in its upper portion of metal, and 
 its lower V-shaped portion of india-rubber. In the water reser- 
 voir is a float, which by means of a bent wire is connected with 
 the plug which regulates the water discharge from the syphon 
 tube. The supply of water to the carbide is automatically re- 
 gulated by the pressure within the gas reservoir. In another 
 form an inflexible syphon pipe is employed, and this pipe opens 
 into a water reservoir, which is connected with the outside air, 
 and also with an hermetically closed water reservoir. No float 
 is employed, but as in the first form the accumulation of pres- 
 sure to a certain point prevents the further discharge of water 
 over the carbide. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Gastine This apparatus consists of two parts : one, the generators to 
 St J> the number of two or more, used alternately ; the other a regu- 
 ^20529 6S l a * r which acts automatically on the generator controlling the 
 Sep. 16, 189(3 evolution of gas. 
 
 804 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Tablets of carbide are automatically dropped into water by Douthcr, J.A. 
 means of a mechanical arrangement actuated by the rise and Boston, 
 fall of a holder to which the generator is connected. ^20599 
 
 Sep. 17, 1896 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Lumps of carbide are fed on to a grating immersed in water pintsch. J. 
 
 and placed in the lower part of a cylindrical generator. The Berlin 
 
 carbide is fed through a shoot. The level of the water in the ^ 2 i7i89fi 
 generator is controlled by a hydraulic sealed overflow. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 The generator containing a perforated carbide basket is Commuci, 
 attached to the side of a fixed holder containing two worms. v> T - San 
 Two tubes controlled by a single tap place the upper and lower ^itSy 1 " 
 parts of the holder in communication. Water from the tubes 20694 
 flows on to the carbide, when the gas drives the water from one Sep. 18, 1896 
 coil and enters the upper part of the holder, whilst it prevents 
 the further contact of water to the carbide. A float in the upper 
 part of the holder, connected to an electric alarm, indicates when 
 the water is at the lowest point. 
 
 Acetylene Manufacture. 
 
 Carbide is placed in a tube holder attached to the top of a Sardi, V. 
 gasholder bell, and the gas is generated by the fall of the Turin 
 bell. A blow-off is provided for excess of gas, and an exit 
 
 i t ii> i Otvp -- 1- 5 l.Ocn* 
 
 tube for removal of waste lime. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 The generating vessels are supported in an inclined position Kay, A. 
 by means of standards, and connected to condensing vessels Doune, N. C. 
 
 fitted above them at a similar angle. From the condensers the , 
 
 ., , ,, Sep. 26, 1896 
 
 gas passes to the holder. 
 
 Water is admitted very gradually to the carbide, and when 
 one generator is exhausted, water is admitted to the second. 
 When the holder rises to a certain height, the water supply is 
 automatically cut off. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a perforated basket in a generator Ron, S. 
 fixed at the side of the holder. The water is supplied from the Warsaw 
 holder tank, and the rise and fall of the bell alternately dips 
 and withdraws the carbide from the water. An air cylinder is 
 fitted in the bell for the purpose of mixing air with the 
 acetylene. 
 
 805 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Barker, A. H. 
 London 
 
 21698 
 
 Sep. 30, 181)6 
 
 Chesnay, E. 
 
 and 
 
 Pillion, L. 
 Dijon 
 
 21758 
 
 Oct. 1, 1896 
 
 01. Apr. 1, 
 
 1896 
 
 Maddock, 
 E. H. and 
 Jones, W. 
 Liverpool 
 
 22359 
 
 Oct. 8, 1896 
 
 FitzGibbon, 
 
 L. J. 
 London 
 
 22.526 
 Oct. .10, 1896 
 
 Morton 
 
 Brown, E. A. 
 
 and 
 
 Maundrcll, 
 
 F. 
 Woodstock 
 
 22628 
 Oct. 12, 1896 
 
 Smith, A. G. 
 Aberdeen 
 
 22646 
 Oct. 13, 1896 
 
 Generator for Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is provided in the upper part with a carbide 
 holder, to which water is supplied from a cistern at a higher 
 level. The generation of gas is controlled by the movement of 
 a gasholder placed above. To prevent admixture with air on 
 charging, a device is used by which a small quantity of acety- 
 lene is generated in the carbide holder before it is connected 
 with the holder. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Round the upper part of the holder tank is an annular recep- 
 tacle, so arranged as to balance the weight of the holder, to 
 which it is connected by chains passing over pulleys. This 
 receptacle communicates with a vertical cylindrical generator 
 by means of a rubber pipe at the lower end, and another rubber 
 pipe leads from the top to the top of the holder. Another pipe 
 leads from the top of generator to top of holder for the passage 
 of the gas. The movement of the bell regulates the supply of 
 water to the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generators and Holders. 
 
 An annular exterior chamber is fitted round the gasholder 
 tank, and is divided by partitions into several compartments, in 
 each of which is a carbide holder. The external chamber is 
 filled with water till the lower part of the holders is just 
 covered. From each compartment a pipe fitted with a valve to 
 prevent back rush of gas is led to the gasholder. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Blocks of carbide are formed by mixing granulated carbide 
 with paraffin. The generator is a cylindrical vessel fitted at 
 the top with an outlet tap, and at the side with a feed tube, 
 which rises above the top of the generator. Water is poured in 
 up to three-fourths of the height of the generator, well above 
 the inlet of the feed tube, and carbide is dropped in through 
 this tube. The gas escapes into a holder. 
 
 Producing and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Thirty-one claims. A generator which can be shaken to free 
 the carbide from lime, a condenser located in the water tank 
 of gasholder, and an automatic arrangement for regulating the 
 water supply. 
 
 Generator, Purifier, and Holder. 
 
 The generator consists of an outer vessel to contain water, in 
 which a movable bell is immersed. The carbide holder is a 
 perforated tube having two projecting arms, and is suspended 
 
 806 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 within the gas bell. Inside the bell is an arrangement of wire 
 which furnishes guides for the arms on the carbide holder, 
 which is slipped between the guides, then given a quarter turn, 
 and allowed to rest on ledges provided by the wire arrangement. 
 A condensing pipe passes from the bell through the water tank 
 to a chamber at the bottom of the generator. After leaving the 
 condensing chamber the gas passes through a vertical tubular 
 purifier, filled with broken pumice, which is situated at the side 
 of the water tank. The rise of the gas bell draws the carbide 
 from contact with the water, and its descent through with- 
 drawal of gas renews the contact. 
 
 Generator for Cycle Lamps, etc. 
 
 Generator consists of an outer cylinder with a slip-on lid 
 (pierced with a minute hole), to which is attached an inner 
 bottomless cylinder of less diameter. In the inner tube is fixed 
 a carbide container. The container consists of discs fixed on 
 wires of suitable thickness, or it may be a perforated tube held 
 in position by a wire. The container is held up in the cylinder 
 by a bayonet-fixing at the bottom, or by other means. Com- 
 munication between the inner and outer cylinders is effected by 
 means of a pipe terminating in a stop-cock upon the cover of 
 the outer cylinder. When generation of acetylene proceeds 
 more rapidly than is required, the gas pressure accumulates 
 within the generator, ard forces back the water from contact 
 with the carbide. 
 
 Smith, J. S. 
 
 and 
 Smith, A. G. 
 
 22B47 
 Oct. 13, 18W 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 The water supply to the carbide is regulated by a float in a 
 water reservoir above the gasholder. The float is connected 
 to the holder by a rod, and is so arranged that the water flows 
 
 Becherel, 
 
 C. F. J. B. 
 
 Paris 
 
 on to the carbide when the holder sinks, but is cut off again Q 201896 
 when it rises. 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 An improvement on the foregoing. A generator or number of 
 generators for containing calcium carbide, and which can be 
 brought into operation successively. A vessel for containing 
 
 Becherel, 
 
 C. F. J. B. 
 
 Paris 
 
 the water supply, regulated by a float or floats. An extensible Q ct ~ 
 gasholder either of the ordinary form or in the form of 
 bellows. 
 
 Producing and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Improvements on a previous patent. The generator is con- 
 structed entirely of metal, the stopper for closing the mouth of 23591 
 the bell being dispensed with, whilst the carbide cage is sup- Oct. 23, 189 
 ported by a stand instead of being suspended. 
 
 807 
 
 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Producing and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Trouve, G. Further improvements. A novel condensing arrangement. 
 Paris The addition of a syphon to the generator, to prevent loss of 
 
 Production and Treatment of Acetylene. 
 
 Oving. H. E. Acetylene is generated by dropping water on carbide from an 
 Rotterdam overhead funnel. The gas passes through a condensing coil in 
 
 Get '^^ISOii *k e k 1( ler tank * the t)e11 ' from wllicl1 Jt passe 3 to an apparatus 
 for admixing air with it. This consists of a shaft carrying two 
 or more drums of sheet zinc, partly dipping into water and pro- 
 vided with helical blades. A nozzle enters each drum in front 
 of the first blade, one serving to admit acetylene and the other 
 air, the whole being covered with a metal drum. The mixed 
 gases pass to a tank after traversing a purifier and drying 
 chamber. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 Colberg, H. Granulated carbide is placed in a receiver with a conical base, 
 
 which is provided with a valve, and which is connected with the 
 Oct. 26, 1896 bell of the holder. The movement of this bell opens and closes 
 
 the valve, causing carbide to drop into water or causing the 
 
 supply to stop. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Mackenzie, Two generators placed beneath a gasholder. Each generator 
 consists of a water tank, in the centre of which is the carbide 
 holder, over which is fitted a double cased vessel, the lower end 
 
 Oct. 26. 1896 of which dips into water tank, forming a water seal between it 
 and the carbide cage. From this tank a pipe leads to the carbide 
 cage. The movement of the gasholder regulates the water 
 supply. 
 
 Production and Combustion of Acetylene. 
 
 Turr, R. Two concentric vessels (the inner closed, the exterior open), 
 
 filled with water, and a carbide cage. The water is covered 
 Oct,~30,' 1896. with a layer of toluol or petroleum. The supply of water is 
 controlled by the pressure in the apparatus. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Smitn, A. J. The generator is fitted to the side of a displacement gas- 
 
 S ^bSdeen i ' holder tte "PP 61 " P &ri of wllicl1 k ^^^ with water ; the lower 
 
 24414 contains gas. Water is brought to the carbide by a U tube. 
 
 Nov. 2, I&KS The gas passes through a purifier to the holder forcing the 
 
 water back from the carbide till the pressure is removed. 
 
 808 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 The essential parts are a vessel filled with water, a gas- 
 holder or bell immersed in the water vessel, and two carbide 
 holders. The water supply for the carbide is taken from the 
 water in the tank and is automatically regulated. 
 
 Acetylene-producing Lamps. 
 
 A lamp consisting of a water receptacle communicating with 
 the carbide holder by a syphon tube. The longer arm of the 
 syphon is much wider than the shorter and is curved in- 
 wards. At a certain distance above the bottom of the syphon 
 is a small hole, whilst the longer arm is carried through the 
 gas way in the centre of the water vessel. At the top of the 
 gas way there is a recess into which the burner is screwed. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Water is admitted from the gasholder tank on to carbide 
 contained in inclined holder in a fine stream or spray. The 
 gas passes through condensers through a back pressure valve 
 into the gasholder. The water supply is controlled by the 
 movements of the gasholder by means of a floating ball or disc 
 connected with a weighted valve lever, which is actuated by a 
 rod fixed in the bell. 
 
 Rescncr, P. 
 
 and 
 
 Luchaire, H. 
 Paris 
 
 24440 
 
 Nov. 2, 1896 
 
 Cl. June 8, 
 
 1896 
 
 Hanotier, V. 
 
 and 
 
 Hostelet, G. 
 Belgium 
 
 24558 
 Nov. 3, 1896 
 
 Kay, A. 
 
 ' B * 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Five different forms of apparatus. Powdered carbide is fed 
 into water, the supply being governed by a gas meter fitted to 
 the delivery pipe of the gasholder. 
 
 Acetylene-producing and Storing Apparatus. 
 
 A carbide hopper communicates with a water vessel by 
 means of an inclined tube. The water vessel is connected to a 
 gasholder by a flexible pipe. An archimedean screw operated 
 by a small motor is fixed in the tube connected in the carbide 
 hopper and water vessel, the motor being controlled by the 
 movements of the gas bell. 
 
 Producing Acetylene Gas. 
 
 In the centre of the dome of a gasholder bell is a cylindrical 
 box of conical shape closed at the top and having a conical 
 opening closed by a valve at the bottom. The valve is fixed 
 to a rod with a weighted base. As the bell descends the rod 
 strikes the bottom of the holder tank, thus admitting some 
 carbide, the valve being closed as the bell rises. 
 
 809 
 
 Bablon, J. 
 Paris 
 
 25224 
 
 Nov. 10, 1896 
 
 Chcsnay, E. 
 
 and 
 
 Pillion, L. 
 Dijon 
 
 25236 
 
 Nov. 10, 189H 
 
 Cl. May 9, 
 
 1896 
 
 Fournier, A. 
 Paris 
 
 25488 
 Nov. 12, 1896. 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Vaughan- 
 
 Sherrin. J. 
 
 London 
 
 26897 
 Nov. 26, 1896 
 
 Gillett, S. 
 
 Forest, G. 
 
 Bocandc, J. 
 
 Paris 
 
 27085 
 Nov. 28, 1896 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Several generators connected with a gasholder. As the bell 
 sinks a signal is made and another carbide vessel put in action 
 by opening its tap to the water vessel. 
 
 Acetylene Gas-lighting Apparatus. 
 
 A generator containing a carbide holder on to which the 
 water is allowed to fall drop by drop. The gas is led into a 
 water-filled reservoir, whence it drives the water into a higher 
 reservoir through a plunger tube, so that the height of the 
 water above the outlet is caused to decrease, thus diminishing 
 the rate of flow of the water. 
 
 Hargreaves, 
 
 A. 
 Paris 
 
 27191 
 
 Nov. 30, 1896 
 
 Meyer, G. 
 Zurich 
 
 27212 
 
 Nov. 30, 1896 
 
 Gossart, E. 
 Chevallier, 
 
 H. 
 Bordeaux 
 
 27574 
 
 Dec. 3, 1896 
 
 01. May 5. 
 
 1896 
 
 Hanotier, V. 
 
 Hostelet, G. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 27697 
 Dec. 4, 1896 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 A regulated quantity of water is fed through a sieve hopper 
 arranged in a body of water in a closed vessel to a revolving 
 tray a short distance below the water. The bottom of the 
 generator is conical, and the waste lime is removed, a similar 
 quantity of fresh water taking its place. The carbide is 
 mechanically fed into the apparatus. The gas is led through 
 purifiers containing respectively sawdust or fibre soaked in 
 dilute sulphuric acid, trays of finely divided oxide of iron, 
 layers of crushed copper sulphate and moist sawdust, and finally 
 dried over carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A gasholder with an automatic water feed to supply to the 
 generator a measured quantity of water when the volume of 
 gas in the holder sinks below a certain limit. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Three forms of lamp. Water falls drop by drop from the 
 upper part of the lamp on to carbide stored in the lower portion, 
 passing through several bent capillary tubes which serve as 
 safety valves. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Water from an overhead supply falls through holes in a bulb 
 on to a conical screen, whence it is uniformly distributed over 
 the carbide. In case of excessive generation of gas the supply 
 of water is stopped. The gas is passed over brown haematite, 
 and cooled by traversing the tube passing through the water 
 reservoir ; then it is bubbled through more water and passed 
 over quicklime. 
 
 810 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEBATOKS 
 
 Acetylene Generator, Purifier, and Container. 
 A screwed rod carrying at its base carbide holders passes 
 through the top of a gasholder. The rod is screwed down till 
 the carbide touches the water. The purifier is placed below the 
 gasholder and contains mixtures such as lime and charcoal. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A water reservoir is provided with an overflow, a dis- 
 charging pipe and an outlet for the gas, and a safety tube. The 
 carbide container is inserted in the top of the reservoir, and 
 contains a lateral orifice for inserting the carbide, and a 
 regulator in the form of flexible bellows actuating a distribut- 
 ing valve, which is kept closed by the pressure of the gas and 
 drops slightly when the pressure falls, allowing more carbide to 
 fall into the water. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide cage is placed in the bell of the gasholder, coming 
 in contact with the water as the holder descends. A purifier of 
 iron sulphate is used. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Improvements on a previous patent. A small movable bell 
 of rectangular shape is placed between the large bell and its 
 containing tank, and connected to the large bell by a chain 
 passing over pulleys, so that it rises when the bell descends 
 and vice versa. It acts as a regulator. The water runs on to 
 the carbide at a rate regulated by the consumption of gas and 
 controlled by the rectangular vessel. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two gasholders are used, the first receiving the gas from the 
 generator, whilst the second is used for service distribution. 
 The carbide holder is attached to the first gasholder tank. An 
 electric alarm is used to call attention for recharging. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 This invention is to shorten the time of contact between the 
 water and carbide, to prevent back rush of air into the 
 apparatus, to maintain free communication between the holder 
 and the generator, and to divide the carbide up so as to prevent 
 too violent action. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A reservoir provided with the means of maintaining a con- 
 stant water level is used, the lower part of it communicating 
 with another reservoir, the upper part of which is open to the 
 
 811 
 
 Fowler, T. R. 
 Liverpool 
 
 28206 
 Dec. 10, 18% 
 
 Gerard, L. 
 Paris 
 
 29188 
 Dec. 19. 
 
 Richard- 
 Lagerie, E. 
 
 Roubaix 
 29168 
 
 Dec. 19, 18% 
 
 Resener, P. 
 
 Luchaire, H. 
 
 Paris 
 
 Dec. 21, 18% 
 
 Reynolds, D. 
 
 Winnebago, 
 
 U. S. A. 
 
 29342 
 
 Dec, 21, 1898 
 
 Quelle, E. 
 Paris 
 
 29500 
 Dec. 22, 1896 
 
 Mace, P. 
 
 295% 
 Dec. 23. 1896 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Spence, H. K. 
 Bevcridgc, 
 
 A. 
 Kirkaldy 
 
 29554 
 Dec. 23, 1896 
 
 Darguc, 
 W. H. 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 29768 
 
 air. Above the first reservoir, is placed the carbide holder, the 
 conical lower part of which is fitted with a valve mounted on a 
 rod, at the bottom of which is a float. With diminution of 
 pressure the water in the reservoir rises, carrying with it the 
 float and opening the valve, thus admitting more carbide to the 
 water. 
 
 Generators. 
 
 A casing to contain two carbide holders is fitted below a gas- 
 holder, a space for water being left between, around, and below 
 them. On the top of the casing are valves for admitting water, 
 which are actuated by the movements of the bell. When one 
 generator is exhausted the second is automatically brought into 
 action. 
 
 Producing and Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 A generator containing a number of shelves to hold the car- 
 bide is fixed in a water jacket at the side of the gasholder, the 
 water supply being taken from the tank. The movement of 
 
 Dec. 28 1896 the bell regulates the water supply. 
 
 Resener, P. 
 Paris 
 
 30037 
 Doc. 30, 1896 
 
 Schum- 
 acher, J. 
 Chicago 
 
 30131 
 Dec, 31, 1896 
 
 Trendel, F. 
 
 Micke, J. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 139 
 Jan. 2, 1897 
 
 Zimmerman, 
 J. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 328 
 Jan. 5. 1897 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A generator is fitted at the bottom with a screw which can 
 be turned by a crank, the whole being placed at the top of a 
 closed water reservoir. Carbide falls into the water on turning 
 the crank. A purifying apparatus is used. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generating chamber to contain the carbide and having a 
 water inlet. Means for introducing a regulated quantity of 
 water. Means to separate the lime from the carbide so as to arrest 
 when necessary the generation of the gas, and means for keep- 
 ing the water and carbide apart when the carbide and residue 
 are separated. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide in a porous form is presented to the water in such a 
 manner that it always offers to the water a large free surface of 
 contact with but slight depth. The contact takes place from 
 the bottom and gradually rises. 
 
 Producing and Burning Acetylene. 
 
 Water is admitted to the carbide automatically. A vessel is 
 provided with a liquid-holding chamber, a generating and a 
 gas-retaining chamber. Means are also provided for the auto- 
 matic admittance of water to the generating chamber. An 
 automatic pressure regulator on a pipe connected with the 
 
 812 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 generator and gas chamber is employed, located in the retaining 
 chamber. Means are also provided for regulating the diaphragm 
 of the pressure-governor to any desired tension. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is revolved in a cage while water is projected on 
 to it, so the waste lime falls away from it. The cage is made 
 to revolve by clockwork. The supply of water is governed by 
 the movement of the bell of the gasholder. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Two concentric cylinders communicate at their base, the inner 
 being surmounted by a carbide receptacle with a valve closing 
 the bottom, which is opened or closed by a float connected with 
 the rod of the valve. Carbide is allowed to fall into water in 
 the inner cylinder, when the gas drives the water from the 
 inner cylinder and the falling float closes the valve of the car- 
 bide supply. With diminution of pressure the water flows 
 back, the float rises, and more carbide is allowed to fall. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A generator is attached to the side of a displacement gas- 
 holder, the upper part of generator being connected with the 
 service pipe, whilst a pipe below the level of the carbide leads 
 to the top of the holder. The gas is passed through a condensing 
 coil in the water tank. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 An intermittent or continuous working apparatus. The 
 supply of water to the carbide is regulated by syphons. A 
 water compartment in the centre of the generator washes and 
 cools the gas. The gas bell controls the supply of water to the 
 carbide. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 Automatic evolution of acetylene at constant pressure is 
 claimed. Two vessels, one for carbide the other for water, are 
 used, being connected with an intermediate chamber. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A square shaped gasholder is used, the tank having extended 
 sides at the top to hold any surplus water. The outer wall of 
 the gas bell is perforated at the lower end to allow of free circu- 
 lation of water between bell and tank. Centrally supported 
 within the bell by a flanged head is a circular generating cham- 
 ber, in which the carbide is placed in cages. The generation of 
 gas withdraws the carbide from the water, owing to the rising 
 
 813 
 
 Lebrun, G. 
 
 Cornaillc, F. 
 
 Paris 
 
 512 
 Jan. 7, 1897 
 
 Tedc. L. 
 Angers 
 
 658 
 Jan. 9. 1897 
 
 Holliday, T. 
 
 Hudders 
 field 
 
 885 
 Jan. 12, 1897 
 
 Daix, V. 
 Paris 
 
 911 
 Jan. 13, 1897 
 
 Des Essards, 
 E. H. 
 Paris 
 
 1153 
 Jan. 15, 1897 
 
 Moss, R. J. 
 
 Abingdon 
 
 1254 
 Jan. 18. 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Fuller, H. F. 
 Chicago 
 
 1440 
 Jan. 19. 1897 
 
 Clarke, H. B. 
 Chicago 
 
 1421 
 Jan. 19. 1897 
 
 Sterza, A. 
 
 M ant ova 
 
 1549 
 
 .Jan. 20,189, 
 
 Gobron, A. 
 Paris 
 
 1784 
 Jan. 22, 1897 
 
 Thorp, T. 
 Marsh, T. G. 
 Manchester 
 
 1929 
 J an. 2;"), 1897 
 
 Scott, A. M. 
 
 Woodstock, 
 
 Canada 
 
 1952 
 Jan. 25, 1897 
 
 of the bell, and as tlie gas is consumed the carbide again dips 
 into the water with the fall of the bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is supported in successive layers. A condenser 
 and cooler, in the character of a scrubber, are provided. Special 
 attention is paid to the arrangement of the charging manhole to 
 prevent leakage. 
 
 Cycle and similar Lamps. 
 
 The carbide chamber is at the bottom of the lamp, and is 
 separated from the water chamber above it by a diaphragm with 
 a passage through it. The water in the water chamber is per- 
 mitted to pass through a valve to the carbide chamber when the 
 gas pressure falls below a certain point, and when the pressure 
 rises above this point the valve closes and the water supply is 
 cut off. In one form the valve is actuated by a spring pressing 
 upwardly to close it when the gas pressure is high, and the 
 weight of water in the water chamber to open it when the gas 
 pressure falls. In another form of lamp a piston is worked 
 against a spring to control the position of the valve. 
 
 Acetylene Furnace. 
 
 A device for mixing acetylene with air for heating purposes. 
 The gas is passed through several wire and asbestos cloths 
 placed inside two concentric vessels. 
 
 Generating and Burning Acetylene. 
 
 The water is supplied automatically, according to consumption 
 of gas. The pressure is regulated by a safety valve, the excess 
 of gas passing to a supplementary burner. The burner tap is 
 connected with the water feed, so that the tap must be opened 
 before water can attack the carbide. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 By the movement of a gasholder carbide is automatically fed 
 into water,- the rise of the holder stopping the supply of 
 carbide. The gas is taken through the carbide hopper, there 
 being dried. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two generators are fixed at the side of a gasholder, and con- 
 tain a water sprinkler over a tray for carbide, the bottom of tray 
 sloping towards a hydraulically sealed pipe. The gas passes 
 through a condensing coil to the holder. The bell of the holder 
 picks up a weight on reaching a certain height ; pressure 
 accumulates, and causes the driving back of the water supply 
 from the carbide. 
 
 814 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Colophony and caustic lime are subjected to the action of 
 water or acidulated water, and the produced gas mixed with the 
 gas evolved by the action of water upon a mixture of carbide 
 and magnesium carbonate. The addition of magnesium car- Jan. 26. 1897 
 bonate is to render the flame more luminous. 
 
 Piatti, A. 
 and Co> 
 
 2129 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The generator containing a large charge of carbide is provided Carter, R. F. 
 with an agitator to remove the lime. Means are provided for 
 the automatic admission of a certain quantity of water when 
 the supply of gas falls too low. Jan. 28. 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The production of gas is automatically regulated according to De Sales, G. 
 the consumption. Two holders are used, connected with each 
 other by a non-return valve. 
 
 j an " 2 g "1397 
 
 Generator and Condenser. 
 
 A modification of a previous patent. A chamber is attached 
 to the floating gas vessel, sealed by water at the lower end, and 
 by a suitable cover at the top. An annular container is also 
 used for holding any overflow of water displaced by the work- 
 ing of the apparatus. 
 
 Bean, H. R. 
 Ringwood, 
 
 London 
 
 2428 
 -Tan. '29. 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A water reservoir is placed over the generating chamber, so 
 that the water cannot freeze owing to the heat of the action, the 
 steam being condensed upon the under side of the tank. The 
 water vessel and generator are connected by a capillary regu- 
 lator, so that the pressure of gas in the holder governs the water 
 supply. 
 
 Villejean, 
 
 2554 
 -Jan. 30 189 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Crushed carbide is fed into water from a holder fixed to the Mace, P. 
 
 top of a gas bell, the feed being regulated by two cones actuated Gerard, L. 
 by the movement of the bell, the fall of the carbide being 
 
 divided into two successive periods. p eb 
 
 Portable Lamp. 
 
 A small generator for a table or bracket lamp, consisting of Dennis, W. H. 
 
 an upright standard, with two tanks arranged thereon, con- Minneapolis, 
 nected by a passage. One tank contains water, the lower part 
 
 of the other the carbide. Feb. 4, 1897 
 
 815 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Wigham, 
 J. R. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 4125 
 Feb. 16, 1897 
 
 Producing Artificial Light. 
 
 Acetylene generator for lighthouses. Within a cylindrical 
 water tank is a cylindrical receptacle with openings in its bot- 
 tom edge and a horizontal perforated partition half-way up for 
 the carbide. Surrounding the inner receptacle is an inverted 
 funnel, having holes around its lower edge and a suitable valve 
 and gas outlet. 
 
 Gossart, E. 
 
 Chevallier, 
 
 H. 
 
 Fampoux 
 
 4424 
 Feb. 18, 1897 
 
 Lacroix, 
 
 P. M. 
 Toulouse 
 
 4761 
 Feb. 22, 1897 
 
 Smith, F. H. 
 Dunblane 
 
 4790 
 Feb. 23, 1897 
 
 Producing and Burning Acetylene. 
 
 Improvements on a previous patent. The carbide is attacked 
 by drops of water from above, and by the moisture in the 
 evolved gas from below. The water drops fall on a cone which 
 distributes them to the carbide. Under the lower end of the 
 escape pipe is a cone for distributing the condensed water to the 
 carbide. The water from the capillary tubes falls on a cone to 
 the carbide at the bottom. The water receiver is closed at the 
 top by metallic gauze. The walls of the generator are coated 
 internally with black cloth or felt, to prevent condensation of 
 water vapour. The carbide container is surrounded by an air 
 jacket. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 In the generator carbide is placed in a series of baskets. 
 Water is supplied from an overhead tank, the generator being 
 connected with a fixed gasholder. The pressure of gas regulates 
 the supply of water. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 Two chambers, water in top, carbide in bottom. Water 
 chamber contains coiled pipe through which gas passes on its 
 way from carbide chamber to burner. A small tube conveys 
 water from the water reservoir to the carbide chamber. A 
 valve, from which the water drops upon the carbide, is fitted 
 over the mouth of this tube, and as the pressure of gas increases, 
 the valve closes and stops the water passage. As the pressure 
 is relieved the valve again opens. 
 
 Franco 
 Carlos, B. 
 Barcelona 
 
 5236 
 Feb. 26, 1897 
 
 Generating and Burning Acetylene. 
 
 Claims the separation of water needed for the decomposi- 
 tion into two reservoirs connected by a tube ; the entrance of 
 moisture to the carbide by utilising some absorbent substance ; 
 the mode of drying, condensing, and enriching the gas ; a fixed 
 or portable gasogene, in which the water comes in contact with 
 the carbide, after passing through a porous partition. 
 
 816 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Upon the rise of pressure within the gasholder, the water is Baldwin, G. 
 automatically cut off, and upon further rise of pressure all free 
 water round the carbide is discharged. The apparatus consists 
 of a combined water tank and gasholder, a generator, a dis- Mar. 1, 1807 
 placement cistern, suitable valves controlled by a float within 
 the water tank for closing the water supply pipe, and a water 
 pipe fitted with non-return valve between the generator and 
 water tank. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 An outer water vessel, an inner gasholder, a perforated car- Bean, H. R. 
 bide holder, and a receptacle for waste lime. The charging Ringwood, 
 chamber is placed in the centre of the gasholder, and fixed to Loifdon 
 the top of it. 5756 
 
 Mar. 1, 1897 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A carbide holder divided vertically into several compartments, Alexandre, 
 which only communicate with one another at the upper end, so 
 that water will act on each successively. The water is drawn 
 from the gasholder tank, and the amount regulated by the Mar. 5 1897 
 movement of the bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The supply of water to the carbide is automatically regulated Strode, W.W. 
 in proportion to the gas consumption ; the supply also can be Wnite G 
 automatically increased during the exhaustion of gas from the 
 holder. The thickness of the gasholder wall is so graduated Mar. 13, 1807 
 that the amount of water displaced as the gas leaves the holder, 
 owing to the falling of the holder, bears any desired ratio to 
 the amount of gas withdrawn, the sides of the holder being 
 tapered, so that the displacement of water by the holder when 
 full is not sufficient to generate any gas, a greater proportion of 
 water being supplied as the holder falls. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Steam instead of water is used for the decomposition of the Pereire, G. 
 carbide. Eegular evolution of gas at a low temperature is Sorel, E. 
 claimed. * 
 
 Generators. Mar - 17 ' 18i ' 7 
 
 An apparatus for preventing the escape of gas during the Lyons, T. 
 operation of charging. A tank or cistern has a bell free to rise and J. 
 and fall, having a hole at the top, through which is passed * 
 a cylindrical vessel, inside which is a perforated carbide holder. 
 The apparatus is in duplicate. Mar 18 1897 
 
 817 52 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Gesellschaft 
 
 fur 
 
 Acetylen 
 
 Gaslicl.it 
 
 Bale 
 
 7744 
 
 Mar. 25, 1897 
 
 Ferracciii, F. 
 Italy 
 
 7782 
 Mar. 25, 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generator with movable bottom, provided with safety valve 
 and pressure gauge, surrounded by a cooling vessel, a gasholder, 
 and a water vessel. A five- way cock is provided in the water 
 supply pipe to the generator. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A gasholder is supported on a tripod, and a generator is 
 clamped to the bottom of the gasholder, and connected with 
 the tripod. The generator contains four small movable baskets, 
 each with a central tube suitably perforated, so that water de- 
 scending from a funnel on the top basket first moistens the 
 carbide in the lowest basket. The space within the gasholder 
 bell is nearly filled by an impermeable drum attached to its 
 crown, and serving as a float. The acetylene evolved causes 
 the float to rise, and when the bottom of the float has reached 
 the level of the water in an external basin, the supply of water 
 to the generator is automatically cut off. 
 
 Generators. 
 
 Portable generators. A gas-tight vessel to contain water, 
 
 M ncliester nav i n g a hollow base containing a flexible collapsed chamber 
 
 7918 communicating with the vessel, and a perforated carbide holder 
 
 Mar- 27, 1897 loosely fitted into the vessel. The excess of water is forced by 
 
 pressure into the rubber chamber, thus stopping the evolution 
 
 of gas. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 Smith, F. H. The water supply to the carbide can be stopped without the 
 use of a valve. An upright cylinder is divided horizontally, the 
 
 Mar. 27, 1891 
 
 upper part forming the water reservoir, the lower the generator. 
 The upper chamber is divided into two portions ; a pipe from 
 one leads to the bottom of the lower. Leading to the carbide 
 chamber from this is a pipe slotted in the upper part. Water 
 rises to the height of this slot and then passes to the carbide 
 chamber. The gas is led off to a holder. After a certain pres- 
 sure the gas forces the water from the lower chamber into the 
 upper, till the water level is below the slot. 
 
 Generators. 
 Kitchen, The water is led lo the carbide by means of a wick-tube 
 
 J. G. A. passing from a lower vessel and fitted with a feeding wheel. 
 Manchester , , _ . 1 . , _ . _ _ . . , ! 
 
 8270 Granulated carbide is preferably used, and as it is decomposed 
 
 Mar. bl, 1897 it is pressed by a springed plate on to a grating, when the lime 
 is separated from the carbide, and the gas produced is forced 
 through the remaining carbide. 
 
 818 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Manufacturing Acetylene. 
 
 An automatic arrangement, consisting of a hopper supplying 
 granulated carbide, a device for regulating the supply of carbide, 
 a gasholder, a generator containing water, and a purifier. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Two generators are used, the second being automatically 
 brought into action on exhaustion of the first. They are 
 mounted one on each side of a gasholder, in the upper part of 
 which is a condensing coil for the gas. The pressure of gas 
 automatically regulates the supply of water. Any number of 
 generators may be coupled together by pipes leading from the 
 top of the first to the bottom of the next, and so on. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A base plate carrying four carbide holders, and capable of 
 revolving. Water from an overhead pipe falls on the carbide in 
 one receptacle, and on exhaustion the plate is swung round to 
 bring the next holder under the water supply. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A receiver divided into two compartments, the inner forming 
 the generator supplied with water by a side U tube. Within 
 this compartment is a float, carrying a conical carbide holder 
 with a grid base. The outer compartment, with a gas bell, 
 forms the gasholder. The bell slides with slight friction upon 
 a central vertical carbide shoot, and the bell, in rising, actuates 
 a weight in connection with the carbide hopper, carbide dropping 
 into water as the holder sinks, and the supply being cut off as 
 the holder rises. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is automatically fed into a vessel containing 
 water from a distributing drum divided internally into several 
 compartments with movable bottoms. Each charge of carbide 
 falls through a funnel on to a trap which opens at the proper 
 time to allow the charge to fall into the water. The movement 
 of the gas bell regulates the supply of carbide. 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 The upper chamber contains carbide, the lower vessel contains 
 water. The carbide chamber has a hinged gas-tight lid, and an 
 orifice at its base. Upon one side of the carbide chamber is a 
 groove into which is fixed a rack, and the groove is sufficiently 
 wide to permit a pinion to travel up and down. The pinion is 
 mounted upon a spindle, which can be rotated by turning a 
 milled head. By this arrangement the carbide vessel may be 
 
 819 
 
 Cousin, H. 
 Paris 
 
 Apr. 3, 1897 
 
 Exley, J. H. 
 
 Hudders- 
 
 field 
 
 8551 
 Apr. 3, 18 ( J7 
 
 Kerr, J. G. 
 
 Fry, C. 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Falls 
 
 85)80 
 Apr. 8. 18! 7 
 
 Barthcz, 
 
 A. H. 
 
 Algiers 
 
 9294 
 
 Apr. 18, 1897 
 
 Kcsselring, 
 
 U. 
 
 St. Imier 
 9714 
 
 Apr. 15. 18!7 
 
 Kitchen, 
 
 J. G. A. 
 
 Manchester 
 
 9763 
 Apr. 17, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hutton, 
 
 E. K. and W. 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 0857 
 Apr. 20, 1897 
 
 Crastin, C. 
 
 and 
 
 Baldwin, G. 
 London 
 
 9928 
 Apr. 20, 1897 
 
 Morency, 
 D. C. 
 
 Quebec 
 
 10186 
 Apr. 23, 1897 
 
 raised or lowered. The water vessel contains a piece of sponge 
 or other absorbent material saturated with water. To generate 
 gas the carbide chamber is lowered until its bottom orifice is in 
 contact with the wet sponge. To stop generation the chamber 
 is raised. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A cylindrical generator composed of two parts screwed to- 
 gether and divided by a horizontal plate into upper and lower 
 chambers. The upper chamber is filled with water, and the 
 lower chamber has a screwed socket on its bottom, within 
 which is fitted a perforated holder for carbide. A tube conveys 
 water from the upper chamber to the lower, the pipe being pro- 
 vided outside with a cock for regulating the flow of water. 
 From the lower chamber a tube is carried through the water in 
 the upper chamber, and the gas is conveyed from this tube to 
 the lamp by a flexible tube. The water chamber is provided 
 with a safety blow-off tube. 
 
 Acetylene Generator for Lamps. 
 
 In a suitable water reservoir a number of generator chambers 
 adapted to be hermetically closed are placed. These chambers 
 receive perforated pots charged with carbide, and are provided 
 with openings to provide communication with the reservoir. 
 The openings are closed by valves adapted to be independently 
 operated to permit of admitting water into them in succession. 
 The upper part of the reservoir serves as a gas storage space, to 
 which each generating chamber is connected by a pipe fitted 
 with a non-return valve. This gas space has an upward exten- 
 sion forming a pedestal for a lamp and containing an extensible 
 bellows, which is collapsed when no gas is in the apparatus, 
 and which expands and drives out the air from the space above 
 it into the atmosphere, when gas is generated. Similar bellows 
 may be arranged in each generating chamber to displace the 
 air. If the gas pressure becomes excessive, the gas which con- 
 tinues to be generated can escape into a supplemental chamber 
 by the displacement of water. The carbide pots are placed on 
 flexible seat ings around openings in communication with a 
 waste-water tray. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a vessel contained in a tank covered 
 by a bell made gastight by a hydraulic seal. An inner wall in 
 the bell prevents the water coming in contact with the carbide. 
 Attached to the carbide holder is a gasholder containing brine 
 or solution of calcic chloride or oil or molasses. Water is 
 
 820 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 supplied to the carbide from the gasholder tank, and the supply 
 is cut off automatically by pressure of gas. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is placed within and in connection with a 
 moving gas bell, so that the carbide is immersed as the bell 
 sinks, but rises out from the water as the holder rises. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Portable acetylene lamps, with special reference to the regu- 
 lation of the water supply to the carbide and the escape of gas 
 from the generator, also for keeping the generator cool without 
 cooling the evolved gas. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Water is admitted to the first of a series of carbide trays, and 
 when the carbide is exhausted the water overflows to the next 
 container, and so on. Provision is made for re-charging the 
 rest whilst the last container is in use. 
 
 Deutsche 
 
 Acetylen 
 
 Gesellschaft 
 
 Berlin 
 
 10199 
 Apr. 23, 1897 
 
 Deutsche 
 
 Acetylen 
 
 Gesellschaft 
 
 Berlin 
 
 10249 
 Apr. 24, 1897 
 
 Evans, E. 
 Llanrwst 
 
 10508 
 Apr. 27, 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generation of gas is regulated by the rise and fall of the 
 gasholder. Arrangement is made for cutting off the water 
 supply should the holder sink too far on exhaustion of the 
 carbide. Another modification employs two or more generators 
 brought into action automatically and successively. 
 
 Patterson, 
 
 J. J. 
 
 Batavia, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 10(386 
 Apr. 29, 1897 
 
 
 Generator. 
 
 A stationary cylindrical generator in which is a perforated 
 shelf. Beneath the shelf is a central tube communicating with H644 
 other tubes with the outside of generator. The cover forms a May 11, 1897 
 safety valve with discharge pipe in centre. The whole is in- 
 serted in a larger cylindrical vessel. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 The generator is attached to the side of a gasholder and partly 
 filled with water. The carbide is contained in a receptacle 
 above the generator, and allowed to come in contact with the 
 water by the rise and fall of the holder. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The tap between the generator and gasholder is controlled by 
 the movement of the gas bell. A safety syphon is provided 
 for escape of surplus gas. The water is taken from the gas- 
 holder tank. 
 
 821 
 
 Campbell, 
 C. H. 
 
 Philadel- 
 phia 
 
 12120 
 May 15, 1897 
 
 Trouve, G. 
 Paris 
 
 12110 
 Mav 15. 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Preston, A. 
 
 Athcrton 
 12268 
 
 May 18. 1897 
 
 Quatannens- 
 
 Moens, R. 
 
 Carreer 
 
 Dilger, E. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 i'2.~>r><; 
 
 Mav 'JO. 1*97 
 
 Dresser, F. 
 Liverpool 
 
 1 H( >8 1 
 Mav 27. 1897 
 
 Mitchell, 
 
 F. A. 
 
 Wilmington, 
 U.S.A. 
 
 1349G 
 June 1. 1897 
 
 Whalley, D. 
 
 Hacking, J. 
 
 Ideal Gas 
 
 Co. 
 Blackburn 
 
 18G67 
 June 8, 1897 
 
 Soxhlet, F. 
 
 Van den 
 
 Berghe, F. 
 
 Borremans 
 
 Freres 
 
 Hal, 
 Belgium 
 
 18905 
 .1 urn 1 5. 1.S97 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A ball valve and float operated by the gasholder bell admits 
 water to the carbide. A back pressure valve is employed in 
 the upper end of the pipe, which conveys the gas to the holder 
 to prevent escape of gas during re-charging. A purifier is also 
 used. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The water supply to the carbide is controlled by pressure of 
 gas in the generator. A reserve generator is employed during 
 the re-charging. The generator is provided with a cooling 
 water jacket, and is supplied with water from a tank, the valve 
 being controlled by the movement of a float in a second tank 
 immediately below the main tank. A purifier containing 
 sulphate of iron, on top of which is a layer of chloride of 
 calcium, is used. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A vertical partition divides a vertical cylinder into two com- 
 partments, one closed at the top, forming a gas chamber, and 
 communication between the two being established through a 
 hole at the bottom of the partition. A slanting grid is placed 
 in the second compartment, which is open at the top. The 
 vessel is filled with water, and carbide introduced in a bag of 
 canvas, and falling upon the grid is borne into the closed 
 chamber. The gas generated forces water out of this chamber 
 into the other. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 The generator is fitted at the side of a gasholder, the supply 
 of water being regulated by the movements of the gasholder. 
 An alarm is arranged to indicate the exhaustion of the carbide, 
 and a force pump is attached to remove the remaining acetylene 
 from the generator to the holder. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Plant. 
 
 The claim is the arrangement of pipes connecting the gene- 
 rator with the condenser and condenser with the gasholder. 
 Water cannot rise as high as the bend of the pipes, so that 
 neither water from the tank nor water of condensation are 
 carried forward with the gas. 
 
 Production of " Oxycarbene " Gas. 
 
 Carbide is automatically fed into water by the rise and fall 
 of the gasholder. A certain quantity of air is first admitted to 
 the holder, so that when the holder is full it contains a mix- 
 ture of air and acetylene. A regulator and " flame arrester " of 
 rolled metallic gauze are placed at every burner. 
 
 822 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Several carbide holders are used, the water acting on each 
 successive^. The carbide boxes float on the water, engage with 
 a trip device, and are overturned into the water, or they are 
 provided with hinged bottoms, opened at the proper time by a 
 float, allowing the carl-ide to fall into the water, or the boxes 
 are balanced on ledges at different heights, so that the rising 
 water overturns them, emptying their contents into the water. 
 
 Holders for Gases. 
 
 Through a tube wholly or partly capillary water falls drop 
 by drop on to a lower vessel containing carbide. The pressure 
 of the gas is regulated by the pressure of the water on the gas. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 A gasholder containing bellows, arranged in such a manner 
 that when expanding or contracting they leave room for the 
 gas in the holder, or take the place of the gas. The pressure is 
 regulated by a weight. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A perforated carbide holder is placed in a cylindrical vessel, 
 a space being left between the sides and bottoms, thus allowing 
 condensed water to be drawn off without attacking the carbide. 
 The carbide chamber is surrounded by a water jacket in con- 
 nection with two cisterns placed one above the other. The 
 water for the carbide is taken from the cisterns, the lower of 
 which is completely filled with water. The gas passes through 
 the upper cistern, any excess being stored in the lower, and 
 cutting off the water supply to the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide holder is placed in the gasholder bell, and can be 
 charged from the exterior. On the holder sinking the contents 
 of the box are automatically tipped into the water, and as the 
 holder rises it is closed air-tight, so that the box can be changed 
 at leisure. A two-chambered exit box is provided for the gas . 
 one filled with sponge and the other with asbestos. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide vessel with an air-tight lid is placed in a 
 cylindrical vessel. The pressure of the gas controls the water 
 supply, which rises to the carbide from below. The gasholder 
 is divided into two chambers, the upper double wall containing 
 the bell, and the lower containing a purifying chamber fixed 
 to the partition. This chamber is filled with water to supply 
 the carbide, and through it the gas passes by a coil to the puri- 
 f ving chamber, and is thence drawn off for use. 
 
 823 
 
 Trendel, F. 
 Berlin 
 
 14015 
 June 8. 1897 
 
 Jimeno, E. 
 Barcelona 
 
 L4090 
 
 June y. 1897 
 
 Jimeno, E. 
 Barcelona 
 
 14091 
 June 9, 1897 
 
 Haviland, 
 
 F. H. 
 
 Murch, W. H. 
 Bourne- 
 mouth 
 14208 
 June 11, 1897 
 
 Gaskcll, G. 
 
 Reeve, R. F. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 14818 
 J une 12, 1897 
 
 Fowler, T. R. 
 Liverpool 
 
 14742 
 June 18. 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Mace, P. 
 Paris 
 
 14905 
 June 19. 189'i 
 
 Scarth, J. W. 
 Pudsey 
 
 15125 
 June 24. 1897 
 
 Smith, F. H. 
 Dunblane 
 
 15754 
 July 2. 1897 
 
 Ayckroyd, J. 
 
 and B. 
 
 Culling- 
 
 worth 
 
 16344 
 July 10. 1897 
 
 Zimmerman 
 
 16624 
 Julv 18. 18 l 7 
 
 Sigurdsson, 
 O. V. 
 
 Hammer- 
 smith 
 
 16798 
 July 15, 1897 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 5 to 15 per cent, of manganese dioxide is proposed to be added 
 to the mixture of lime and carbon for the electric furnace. The 
 two carbides produce a mixture of methane and acetylene, 
 which will burn without smoke. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generator is fixed to the side of a gasholder. When the 
 bell sinks a displacer causes water to overflow to the lower part 
 of the generator to attack the carbide. The rising of the bell 
 stops the supply of water. Means are also provided for driving 
 the water back from the carbide and for preventing escape of 
 gas during re-charging. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 An apparatus for the automatic supply of water to the 
 generators successively. The generators consist of a divided 
 chamber, a pipe leading from the bottom of the upper to the 
 bottom of the lower chamber, in which there are two or three 
 slotted tubes, the central tube having a slot at a higher level. 
 In it are also recesses in which carbide trays are placed. A 
 five-way cock regulates the water supply, and the exhausted 
 carbide vessels may be re-charged without interfering with the 
 rest. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A water vessel divided into two chambers is used. In the 
 upper is a bell, and to the chamber is attached a generator. 
 The exit pipe for the gas passes above the water level and then 
 down to the bottom of the lower chamber. The water pipe for 
 the carbide is a syphon with a water seal having a valve 
 normally closed, but opened by the fall of the bell. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 In the base of the lamp is a circular block of carbide sur- 
 rounding a vertical perforated tube. The upper circular portion 
 of the lamp is an annular water chamber. The flow of water 
 to the carbide chamber is controlled by a cock or valve. An 
 open pipe conducts the gas to the burner from the carbide 
 chamber. The burner is provided with a movable needle for 
 cleaning. A safety valve is provided. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is placed in a hopper, at the bottom of which is a 
 feeding chamber with an opening communicating with the 
 supply chamber and another with the generator. A two-way 
 valve can open to the supply chamber or the generator. The 
 motion of the rising bell first shuts off the supply of carbide to 
 
 824 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 the generator, and then opens the way between the hopper and 
 feed chamber, the operation being reversed as the bell falls. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two generators working successively are attached to the top ] 
 of a tank divided into two chambers, the upper receiving the 
 gas, and the other, which is in connection with the first, con- July 17, 1897 
 taining a ball float valve, a discharge pipe, and a gas delivery 
 pipe. Water under pressure rises to the carbide from below. 
 Gas, water, and lime then flow into the first tank, where the 
 two latter remain whilst the gas passes to the second chamber. 
 The excess of water is discharged through the ball valve in the 
 second compartment. The water supply to the carbide is 
 governed by the gas pressure. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide holder is attached to a vessel open at the bottom, 
 and supported in the lower part of a cylindrical tank of water. 
 The pressure of gas controls the water supply to the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is suspended in a vessel in the top of a gasholder, 
 and comes in contact with the water when the bell sinks. A 
 special device is claimed for preventing excess of gas gene- 
 ration. 
 
 Godin, E. 
 Quebec 
 
 17021 
 July 19, 1897 
 
 Barnard, E. 
 Christ- 
 church 
 
 17090 
 July 20. 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is connected to the holder, and above it is a Carter, R. F. 
 
 device for tipping a measured quantity of water into the gene- N Fau^ a 
 
 rator when the holder sinks. As the holder rises any excess of 17448 
 
 water from the tipping tank runs to waste. An improved con- July 24, 1897 
 densation chamber and safety valve are also claimed. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Claims : The automatic regulation of the water supply by a 
 floating body or spring. The successive exhaustion of the 
 carbide in several generators. The closing of the generators by 
 means of lids, so as to render the apparatus odourless. And the J ll b' 24. 1897 
 use of the pipes for withdrawing condensed water as safety 
 valves for excessive pressure. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Porous material, such as felt, is placed between the water and Kitchen, 
 the carbide, and the regulation of the rate of percolation is pro- wandi t 
 
 N. 
 
 Rome' ^ 
 
 17482 
 
 vided for by compressing the material. The carbide holder is 
 placed in a tank of water, the base of the holder being rounded 
 so that excess of pressure will drive the water from the carbide. 
 
 825 
 
 17793 
 ,1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Kitchen, 
 J. G. A. 
 
 Manchester 
 
 17794 
 July 29. 1897 
 
 Rieffel, A. 
 Paris 
 
 17938 
 
 J ul vai). 1897 
 
 Goulding F. 
 
 Great 
 Harwood 
 
 Josse and 
 
 Defays 
 
 Lille 
 
 18355 
 Aua 1 . <). 189 
 
 Bull, J. C. 
 
 Erith 
 
 18355 
 Ail". G. 1897 
 
 The porous material is placed in a small gland at the lower side 
 of the carbide holder. 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 The bottom of a water reservoir is fitted internally with a 
 layer of felt or similar absorbent material. In the top of the 
 reservoir is a neck screwed to receive a collar, which encircles 
 a long tube containing carbide, and fitted at the top with a 
 stopcock and burner. The bottom of the carbide tube is in 
 contact with the felt pad, and by means of the collar in the 
 neck of the reservoir can be adjusted to press loosely or tightly 
 upon the pad. The bottom of the tube is provided with a small 
 orifice and rim facing. The rate of flow of water through the 
 pad to the carbide is dependent upon the degree of compression 
 which the carbide tube exerts upon the pad. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A water tank discharges intermittently into a basin, from 
 which the feed pipe for the carbide water supply is taken. The 
 generator contains the carbide placed on shelves. Chief charac- 
 teristics : a combined tank and basin to ensure constant water 
 level in the feed pipe ; a rising and falling pipe conveying 
 water to the generator ; the device for allowing for the varying 
 weight of the holder acting on the water supply ; and a con- 
 denser filter filled with canvas or similar material kept con- 
 stantly wet. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The supply of water is regulated by the movement of the gas 
 bell. A. back pressure valve is used to prevent escape of gas 
 into the water pipes. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two or more generators are used, in which the carbide is 
 placed in shallow trays resting on one another. A gasholder 
 and water tank in connection with the generators through a 
 special mercury valve operated by the gas bell, and a washer 
 or purifier are also employed. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Two or more generators charged with carbide are connected 
 with each other and with a gasholder, the water being supplied 
 to the generators, and controlled through the medium of a 
 mercurial valve actuated by the movement of the gasholder 
 bell. The mercurial valve is situated upon the outer side of 
 the gasholder tank, and consists of a vessel adapted to contain 
 water having another vessel containing mercury suspended 
 
 826 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 within it, and an open tube connected with the water-tank and 
 dipping into the mercury. The inner vessel is suspended by 
 means of a spring-controlled rod, which is depressed by a stop 
 on the gasholder bell when the latter falls to a certain position. 
 When the bell rises the spring forces the rod into its normal 
 position, and prevents water flowing to the generator until the 
 bell again descends. The orifices of the water pipes are situated 
 at or near the top of the generators, but downward curved 
 flanges are provided to prevent the water from splashing upon 
 any carbide except that contained in the lowest unattacked 
 tray. One generator may be cleaned out while the other is in 
 action. 
 
 Portable Generator. 
 
 A metallic cylinder having its ends closed, and composed of 
 two parts which screw into one another, is provided. The 
 upper part, which serves as the water reservoir, is divided from 
 the lower part, which forms the carbide holder, by a horizontal 
 partition having an opening for the passage of water. The 
 water regulator forms the main feature of the invention. It is 
 composed of a socket secured to the bottom of the water reser- 
 voir, communicating by a small passage with the carbide 
 chamber, and in which is introduced a piston. The piston is 
 secured to the end of a rod, which, passing upward through the 
 water reservoir, enters a collar socket screwed on another 
 socket outside the top of the reservoir, terminates in a button. 
 The collar socket has five notches, one above the other, in 
 one of which is hung a pin which passes through the rod. 
 Inside the reservoir a spring passes around the rod. By turn- 
 ing the button the height of the notch in which the pin is 
 placed, and consequently the rate of flow of water, is regulated. 
 
 Denich, A. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Water is supplied to the carbide stored in cylindrical vessel 
 with movable divisions from a vessel of equal capacity at 
 a higher level. The generating cylinder is sealed with a mer- 
 cury lute, so as to dispense with the use of screws, etc., for AugTiY.1897 
 fixing the cover. Washing vessels and a purifier are provided. 
 
 Wigham, 
 J. R. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 18971 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 As the bell of the holder sinks, carbide is fed from a sealed Barnard, E. 
 receptacle 011 the top to a perforated basket suspended in the Christ- 
 bell. An arrangement is provided for withdrawing the spent 
 carbide from the basket. Aiur.20. ls*7 
 
 827 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Bell, H. J. 
 Niagara 
 Falls Co. 
 
 19411 
 Aug. 23, 1897 
 
 Munstcr- 
 berg, O. 
 Berlin 
 
 19615 
 Aug. 25. 189 1 
 
 Thorp, T. 
 Marsh, T. G 
 Manchester 
 
 19828 
 Aug. 28, 1897 
 
 Chambault. 
 
 L. 
 Paris 
 
 19951 
 Aug. 30, 1897 
 
 Rhind, F. 
 
 Bridgeport. 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 20052 
 Aug. 31, 1897 
 
 Rhind, F. 
 
 Bridgeport, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 20051 
 Aug. 31, 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generator previously described is provided with a screw top 
 instead of a water-sealed top. Improvements in the method of 
 introducing measured quantities of water to the generator and 
 other minor points are claimed. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The bell of the gasholder actuates an endless band provided 
 with ledges to hold carbide, thus automatically feeding carbide 
 into the water. Means are provided for storing excess of gas in 
 a second holder, or allowing it to waste. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Granulated carbide is fed into water from a hopper, through 
 a valve actuated by the movement of the gas bell. The hopper 
 is divided into two by a flap valve. Carbide is placed in the 
 upper part, the lid put on gastight, and the valve opened by a 
 crank from without, when the carbide falls into the lower 
 chamber ready for use, 
 
 Generating Acetylene for Lighting Boats, Auto-cars, etc. 
 
 A casing is divided into two parts, the upper forming 
 the water reservoir, and the lower containing the basket 
 charged with carbide. Upon one side of the basket is a 
 stopping box fitted with an internal baffle plate. This box 
 serves as a regulator, and receives the water from the upper 
 reservoir through a pipe provided with a stop-cock. Water 
 drops through a nipple upon the carbide in the basket, and the 
 gas escapes to the burner through a tube in the partition which 
 divides the casing. Excessive gas pressure prevents flow of 
 water to the carbide. Several modifications in size, shape, and 
 form of the generating arrangement all working on the same 
 principle are described. In one form the generating device is 
 fitted within a walking-stick, and the burner is lodged in the 
 top of the stick. 
 
 Acetylene Generating Lamps. 
 Refers to portable lamps. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A vessel is divided into two parts, the lower containing water, 
 and the upper carbide in a bag. A central hole is made in the 
 partition. Water is drawn by a wick, moved from outside by a 
 rack and pinion till it comes in contact with the bag of carbide. 
 
 828 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide holder is automatically shaken by a special Dolan, E. J. 
 device, in order to expose fresh surface to the water and to get Philadel- 
 rid of spent material. This is done when the gas pressure falls ?ooii 
 below a certain point, when water is admitted, the increase of Aug. 31,1897 
 pressure causing the rotation of the cylinder. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide hopper is fixed on top of the gas bell, and has a Kieffer, F. A. 
 valve attached to a float. When the holder falls the float causes Paris 
 the valve to open, thus admitting carbide to the water, and im" 
 
 vice versa. The level of the water in the tank is kept constant 
 by an overflow tap. 
 
 20537 
 Sep. 7, 1897 
 
 Portable Generator. 
 
 A tube is divided by a gas-tight removable diaphragm into Windham, F. 
 two chambers, the upper to contain water, the lower carbide. London 
 In the centre of the diaphragm is a conical opening, which is 
 controlled by a conically pointed plunger having a spindle, 
 which passes through the cap of the water chamber. The point 
 passes through the conical opening, and forms a cleaner for the 
 opening, and also acts as a drip point for the water. A regu- 
 lating valve may be provided to control admission of water to 
 conical valve. The gas is led from the bottom of the carbide 
 to the burner by a pipe passing through the base of the tube. 
 A spiral slot in the conical plunger allows any gas which may 
 accumulate under abnormal pressure when the water valve is 
 closed to escape through a valve, and through the water, and 
 into the air. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 See patent No. 5756 of 1897. Three vessels containing carbide 
 in communication with the interior of the bell are attached to 
 the inside top of the bell at different heights. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The outer cylindrical casing, which serves as the water 
 reservoir, is closed at the top by a screw plug carrying the gas 
 outlet cock and the air-inlet valve. Within this is a second 
 cylinder having its lower end closed with a metal plug pierced 
 with a central perforation, and its upper part fitted with a tube 
 of small diameter, which leads to the gas outlet cock. In this 
 inner cylinder is placed a perforated tube or basket which 
 serves as a carbide holder, and has a cock attached beneath its 
 base to prevent blocking of the perforation in the metal plug. 
 Water being introduced into the outer cylinder, it flows through 
 
 829 
 
 Bean, H. R. 
 
 Ringwood, 
 
 H. 
 London 
 
 21114 
 Sep. 14, 1897 
 
 Chardin, 
 C. E. 
 Paris 
 
 21372 
 
 Sep. 17, 189; 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Windmuller, 
 
 J. 
 Cologne 
 
 21164 
 Sep. 18, 185 >7 
 
 Wizard Co. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 21831 
 
 Sep. 28, 1897 
 
 Ageron, J. A. 
 
 Wirth, L. 
 
 Paris 
 
 22648 
 Oct. 2, 18! >7 
 
 Flock, A. 
 
 Mcsscdat, F. 
 
 Cologne 
 
 22730 
 Oct. 4, 18! >7 
 
 Beck, C. W. 
 Chicago 
 
 22850 
 Oct. 5, 18<7 
 
 Bailey, C. J. 
 
 22918 
 Oct. 6. 181)7 
 
 the perforation to the carbide, and when the generation of gas 
 becomes more rapid than the consumption, the water is forced 
 back by the gas pressure from contact with the carbide. 
 
 Cycle Lamp. 
 
 A cycle lamp, the upper part serving as a water reservoir, the 
 lower provided with a double wall containing the carbide. The 
 pressure of the gas forces the water out of contact with the 
 carbide. 
 
 Cycle Lamps. 
 
 A stick of carbide is pressed against an absorbent pad, to the 
 under side of which water is admitted from a surrounding water 
 receptacle. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The gas produced by the fall of carbide into water passes 
 through a pressure regulator, the supply of carbide being regu- 
 lated by the movement of the gas bell. Each burner has a 
 central delivery tube for the addition of oxygen or ozone. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A chamber is divided into four parts a water reservoir, a 
 carbide chamber, a chamber connected by a perforated plate 
 with the carbide, and a drying chamber containing pumice 
 soaked in sulphuric acid. Water from the reservoir passes 
 through the perforated plate to the carbide, the gas passing 
 through the drying chamber to the exit pipe. Pressure of gas 
 forces the water back from the carbide through the third 
 chamber, and thence to the first. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Objects : to provide means for maintaining a regulated supply 
 of liquid to the carbide, to provide a relief reservoir for excess 
 of gas, and a means for charging the generator without escape 
 of gas. 
 
 Portable Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide is contained in a small cylinder, which has a 
 central tube not quite reaching to the top of the cylinder. This 
 central tube is surrounded by a tube of perforated metal or 
 wire gauze. At the upper end of the cylinder is fitted another 
 cylinder, the bottom of which may form the top of the first 
 cylinder. The second cylinder contains water, and is fitted at 
 its lower end with an outlet and escape valve or tap, and a pipe 
 which leads to the lower end of the central tube in the first 
 cylinder, and which may contain a back pressure valve. A 
 small vent is made in the top of the water cylinder. When 
 
 830 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 water is admitted from the upper cylinder to the carbide 
 cylinder, it rises in the central tube of the latter, and flows 
 over its upper edge to the bottom of the space enclosed by the 
 perforated tube. It then flows to the carbide, which is packed 
 around the outer side of the perforated tube. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The bottom of the carbide box is slightly inclined, the down- 
 ward motion of the carbide towards the water being started by a 
 vibrating hammer actuated by mechanism. The water reservoir 
 is divided into two parts, communicating by a pipe. The ham- 
 mer is regulated by a float within the water reservoir. Increase 
 of pressure causes the water level to sink, and interrupts the 
 movement of the hammer. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A carbide hopper is fixed to the top of the generator, having 
 a feeding chamber at the base communicating with the hopper 
 and the gas generating chamber, the valve opening and shut- 
 ting off the carbide supply being operated by a forked lever 
 engaging with a stud on the gasholder. 
 
 Molet, A. 
 
 Buenos 
 
 Ayres 
 
 23198 
 
 Oct. 9, 189; 
 
 Sigurdsson, 
 O. 
 
 Hammer- 
 smith 
 23351 
 
 Oct. 11, 1897 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A series of generators, supplied with water from an overhead 
 cistern, are connected with a gasholder. Two generators are 
 
 Warten- 
 weiler, A, 
 
 worked together whilst the others are shut off. Each generator Switzerland 
 
 23547 
 ^ ut - 13, 1897 
 
 is divided into radial chambers, so arranged that the contents 
 of each shall be successively attacked by the water. A three- 
 way cock between the washer and generator allows excess gas 
 to be blown off. The water supply is governed by the rise and 
 fall of the holder. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Water is supplied to the carbide through a small pipe ending 
 in a spray. The tap of the water supply has a weighted lever 
 arm for closing, whilst the arm on the other side is connected 
 by a chain to the bell of the holder, causing automatic addition 
 of the water to the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Seven carbide cylinders, open at top and closed at bottom, 
 but connected in such a way as to form triangular tubes be- 
 tween each, are contained in a larger cylinder, which in turn'is 
 introduced into another containing receptacle. Water from an 
 upper tank, having a constant water level, enters the lower part 
 of the generator, and passes through a hole in the bottom of the 
 first carbide cylinder. The gas produced passes consecutively 
 
 831 
 
 Buffington, 
 
 L. S. 
 
 Minneapolis 
 23802 
 
 Oct. 15, 18! 7 
 
 Guadaguini, 
 
 P. 
 
 commonly 
 
 known as 
 
 Johnson, W. 
 
 London 
 
 23977 
 Oct. 18, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 through the top of all the carbide cylinders. After the water 
 has flooded the first cylinder, it overflows and descends to the 
 bottom of the second cylinder, and so on in succession. Accu- 
 mulation of gas pressure forces back the water from contact 
 with the carbide. A small floating bell, or a displacement 
 gasholder may be used, but the claims include the abolition of 
 the ordinary gasholder. Several modifications are described. 
 
 M'Conechy, 
 J. 
 
 Glasgow 
 
 24801 
 Oct. 21, 1 ( J7 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Three generators connected to a gasholder, each consisting of 
 an upright casing with dome-shaped top, the opening of which 
 is closed by a lid. The upper portion of the casing contains a 
 water tank, from which water falls on the carbide. The amount 
 of water is just sufficient to decompose the carbide. 
 
 Holliday, T. 
 Hudders- 
 
 ficld 
 
 24860 
 Oct. 21, 185)7 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A perforated cage in the bottom of the lamp contains carbide. 
 The water reservoir at the top of the lamp is provided with an 
 external device to manipulate the valve which regulates the 
 flow of water through the tube which leads from the water 
 chamber to the carbide. Between the water and carbide 
 chambers is a chamber to serve as a gas container, from which 
 the gas passes through a porous filter to the burner. The gas 
 container is provided with a gas safety valve. In some cases a 
 rubber ball is employed for storing the gas. 
 
 Heal, J. B. 
 and S. H. 
 
 Southsca 
 
 24446 
 Oct. 22, 18 ( J7 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Two drawers, having perforated bottoms and containing car- 
 bide, are passed into corresponding horizontal cylindrical gener- 
 ating chambers having arched roofs, and the doors are closed. 
 The chambers are themselves situated within a closed water 
 displacement tank, the bottom of each chamber being in com- 
 munication with this tank. By manipulation of various cocks 
 water is allowed to rise in the tank until it enters the chambers 
 and reaches the carbide. The gas liberated forces back the 
 water until it flows into a water level-maintaining tank 
 situated behind the water-displacement tank, and at about the 
 same level as the carbide drawers. The displacement tank is 
 connected with a gasholder, the bell of which is so loaded that 
 it will not rise until the gas pressure exceeds that exerted by 
 the normal height of water in the level-maintaining tank. The 
 surplus gas collected in the gasholder passes into the displace- 
 ment tank and is consumed before the water can return to the 
 carbide. 
 
 832 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A carbide receptacle and a vertical gastight elastic pouch Guy, C. 
 are fitted to the gastight lid of a water reservoir. By means of 
 springs and levers the elastic pouch, after being filled with 
 acetylene, prevents the fall of the carbide into the water, whilst 
 when the pouch collapses the carbide can fall into the water. 
 The pouch is so arranged that inflation occurs chiefly in the 
 side connected to the lever arrangements. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide falls into water from a hopper, the movement of Ravel, L. 
 the bell acting on an endless band always worked in the same Marseilles 
 direction. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps applied to Tubular Frames of Bicycles, etc. 
 
 The generator consists of a tube within which is placed a Bond, E. S. 
 removable tube charged with carbide. At the lower end of the Handsworth 
 
 Oct. :-jo. isi7 
 
 carbide tube is a screw-cap pierced with a small hole for the 
 
 water inlet. The upper end of the carbide tube carries a 
 tubular extension, whose external surface is made to tightly 
 fit the interior of the vertically inclined tube of the cycle 
 frame. One or more holes are made at the junction of the 
 carbide tube with the extension, communicating from the ex- 
 terior of the carbide tube to the interior of the extension tube. 
 In the top of the carbide tube is a small gas discharge pipe 
 carried nearly to the top of the extension tube, and there 
 furnished with a tap and a nozzle to receive a flexible pipe. 
 The flexible pipe is connected to another tube, preferably of 
 metal, which is carried in the horizontal tube of the cycle 
 frame to a gas tap and nozzle on the steering post, from which 
 the gas is led by another flexible pipe to the lamp. The lower 
 end of the vertically inclined cycle tube is hermetically sealed, 
 but is provided with a cock and outlet for cleaning purposes. 
 This vertically inclined tube itself serves as the water reservoir, 
 a side inlet furnished upon the outer side with a removable 
 safety valve being provided. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Improvements on a previous patent. The carbide tube is Barthez, 
 continued for a short distance below the surface of the water A. H. 
 in the generator, and terminating in a distributing cone. This 
 prevents the acetylene coming in contact with the distributing fs- ov 
 basket wheel, and avoids any escape of gas during charging. 
 
 833 53 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two generators successively brought into action automa- 
 tically. The water supply is controlled by the movements of 
 the gas bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene, 
 
 The carbide generator is arranged in the upper part of a fixed 
 gasholder, together with a water reservoir. The carbide cy- 
 linder is water-jacketed, and rests upon the porous bottom of 
 the surrounding cylinder, forming a bell for the generated gas. 
 Water passes to the carbide through holes closed by porous 
 partitions. The pressure of gas regulates the supply of water. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The water used for washing the gas is afterwards used for 
 generating the gas. Three generators are fixed at different 
 levels, together with a regulator. The gas passes through this 
 regulator to the holder, which, rising, transmits motion to the 
 valves. These motions cause the intermediary vessel or regu- 
 lator to be kept supplied with a regular quantity of water, 
 through which the gas passes, and which is afterwards em- 
 ployed to decompose the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Under the dome of a gas bell, carbide holders are arranged at 
 different heights. The gas is forced, by means of a bell covering 
 the carbide holders, through the milk of lime. The water 
 supply tank has a lever arm controlled by the movement of 
 the bell. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Hall, R. F. The carbide may be placed directly in a metal cartridge, 
 Bir * n ff am which is then hermetically sealed ; or it may first be sealed up 
 Nov 15 1-S97 i n a P 01 ' 0118 envelope of fabric or unglazed paper, and then trans- 
 ferred to the metal cartridge, which is subsequently hermeti- 
 cally sealed. If desired, the cartridge may have an air-tight 
 removable cover. 
 
 Acetylene 
 
 Light 
 
 Syndicate 
 
 Trowbridge 
 
 25952 
 Nov. 8. 1897 
 
 Alexandre, 
 F. 
 
 Paris 
 
 2(5825 
 Nov. 11. 1897 
 
 Arkell, G. E. 
 
 Bailey, J. 
 Clapham, J. 
 
 Keighley 
 
 26269 
 Nov. 11. 1897 
 
 Mucke, J. 
 and J. 
 Berlin 
 26435 
 
 Nov. 12.189, 
 
 Schmid, F. 
 Vienna 
 
 Nov 1'V \897 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The upper part of lamp contains water, the lower contains 
 carbide placed in a removable holder. The carbide is covered 
 ky a ^ sc f fe^ ^h e water passes through a specially con- 
 structed valve. The rate of flow of water from the upper re- 
 servoir is dependent upon the degree of compression exerted 
 upon a disc of felt or cloth placed therein. The water passing 
 through this regulator drops upon the felt which covers the 
 carbide, and which is not compressed. The carbide receptacle 
 
 834 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 may be divided into compartments to come into use consecu- 
 tively, and the water supply may be diverted from one com- 
 partment to another by aid of a funnel having one or more 
 spouts, which may be turned by a rod passing to the outside of 
 the casing. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The lower part of the bell of a gasholder supports a coned 
 sieve on which the carbide falls. Fixed to the tank, but rising 
 within the bell, is the carbide hopper, and externally on the 
 bell is another hopper from which the inside one may be filled, 
 by means of a cock, even while the apparatus is at work. The 
 movement of the bell operates the valve which regulates the 
 fall of the carbide into the water. 
 
 Kremer, J. 
 Belgium 
 
 '26770 
 Nov. 16, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Generator resembles a bicycle pump and is clipped to any 
 suitable part of cycle frame. It is a long tube closed at base 
 and having screw cap at top. Through this cap passes the gas 
 eduction tube and a valve to act as an air regulator. The car- 
 bide holder in the lower part of the tube contains a series of 
 superposed trays threaded upon a central tube, by which all the 
 trays may be removed. Water from the outer tube flows 
 through a piece of sponge at bottom of carbide holder, up 
 through a perforated tube and an outer slit tube to the carbide. 
 Increase of gas pressure forces back the water from the carbide. 
 
 Evans, E. 
 Denbigh 
 
 26810 
 Nov. 16. 1897 
 
 Converting Ordinary Lamps into Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Oil lamps and candle carriage lamps are provided with suit- Bond, E. S. 
 able air-inlet holes, ventilation holes, acetylene burners, and Handsworth 
 gas supply pipes terminating in a nozzle to receive an india- -, 
 rubber pipe. The acetylene may be delivered to the flexible 
 tube from any form of generator. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide holders are attached to the side of a gasholder. They 
 are water-jacketed, and their water is supplied from the holder 
 tank. To the top of the holder are attached rods which operate 
 on the cogs of a crank by means of which the water supply 
 is regulated. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide falls in fragments one by one into water, the 
 rate being controlled by the bell of a gasholder. The carbide is 
 fed to the discharge pipe on an endless band. 
 
 835 
 
 Benjamin, J. 
 Swansea 
 
 27065 
 Nov. 19, 1897 
 
 Reibel, J. 
 
 Angouleme 
 
 27288 
 Nov. 20, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generator. 
 
 Schulke.J.H. ^ n a water tank several generators are placed, each communi- 
 Berlin eating with a gas-pipe leading below the water tank to a 
 i c - weighted gasholder, the tank of which contains a condensing 
 coil. The carbide vessels are open at both ends and perforated. 
 Each fits into a cylinder open at the top and surrounded by a 
 bell, into which the water flows, but its height is determined 
 by the pressure of gas in the bell. By means of a pipe the 
 water is supplied to the carbide from below. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Roxburgh, The bottom chamber contains carbide, the top water. The 
 water for the carbide is supplied from an intermediate chamber, 
 Nov 25 1897 wn i cn i g ^ n communication with both water reservoir and 
 carbide chamber in such a manner that when water passing 
 from the intermediate chamber through a tube to the carbide 
 generates sufficient gas to create an increasing pressure, then 
 the gas escapes to the top of the intermediate chamber and 
 exerts its pressure on the surface of the water until it has 
 driven the water below the level of the opening of the supply 
 pipe, the retreating water being forced up into the top chamber. 
 A small compartment located in the top water reservoir filled 
 with cotton- wool serves to filter the escaping gas on its way to 
 the burner. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Liver Improvements of Patent No. 10508 of 1897. The carbide 
 
 Acetylene trays are all placed in a tray-holder closed at bottom, but 
 Liverpool " having a vertical channel passing up one side of the chamber. 
 and Into this channel water can enter from outside through a hole 
 Evans, E. near the top, and this water can escape through a guarded 
 hole or series of holes connecting the channel with the tray 
 NovT'26, 1897 chamber, and so arranged that water entering the hole at top 
 runs down to bottom or to level of water in tray chamber in- 
 stead of spurting through at once. Also in order to allow the 
 air in the gas bell to escape when it is lowered into its tank, a 
 siphon is fitted in the gas bell, with its open end opening into 
 the top of the bell, and its bend descending nearly to the bottom. 
 The other limb is carried upwards to a point above the bell, 
 where it is provided with a hole to allow air to escape when 
 the bell is lowered into the tank. This hole is sealed when the 
 water has risen in the bell to above the height of the open end, 
 and remains permanently sealed. 
 
 836 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generator. 
 
 The bell of a gasholder carries a tube sealed by the water in 
 the tank, down which carbide is dropped, falling upon the cone- 
 shaped base of the tank, the cone preventing it falling directly 
 below the feed tube. Four types of generator are illustrated. 
 
 Tyree, W. 
 
 New 
 Zealand 
 
 28091 
 Nov. 29, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 A tube with three superposed compartments ; the bottom con- 
 tains a perforated cage charged with carbide, and the inter- 
 mediate contains water. The top compartment is a purifier. 
 Water passes to the bottom of the carbide chamber by a pipe 
 controlled by a cock. The carbide chamber is also in communi- 
 cation with the purifier, which has a feed water pipe extending 
 through it to the water chamber. The top of this feed tube is 
 provided with a funnel closed by a screw-plug having a minute 
 aperture through it. The aperture admits such air as is re- 
 quired for the automatic working of the lamp, and acts as a 
 safety valve in event of excessive gas production. The purifier 
 contains " special chemicals " placed upon a rose. 
 
 Wagner, M. 
 France 
 
 28102 
 Nov. 29, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The carbide chamber forms the base of the lamp, and is sup- 
 plied with water from an upper reservoir mounted at the back 
 of the lamp. The tube communicating between the two cham- 
 bers contains a porous wick, which passes nearly to the bottom 
 of a perforated tube which rises centrally in the carbide cham- 
 ber. The perforated tube is surrounded with fine muslin. The 
 gas produced passes through a filtering medium up a central 
 tube to the burner. Accumulation of gas pressure retards the 
 flow of water through the wick. A stopcock or valve is also 
 provided to regulate the flow of water. 
 
 Keck, L. J. 
 Liverpool 
 
 28258 
 Nov. 30, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide holder is a cylinder with minute holes drilled at 
 short intervals up the side, and capped or corked at the ends. 
 This is placed within a cylinder having a minute hole in its 
 base, and a cap at its upper end with a small tube for carrying 
 the gas to the burner. This cylinder, together with the carbide 
 holder, is enclosed in a larger cylinder which serves as a water 
 reservoir and has a screw cap at both ends, the upper cap having 
 in its centre a hole to allow the gas tube to pass through and to 
 act as a safety valve in the event of the gas pressure within the 
 apparatus becoming excessive. 
 
 837 
 
 Chitty, J 
 
 London 
 
 28167 
 
 Nov. 30. is! 17 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Grubb 
 Sir H. 
 Dublin 
 
 28264 
 
 Nov. 30, 1897 
 
 Sockccl, V. 
 
 Lanby, A. 
 
 Drisse, C. 
 
 Calais 
 
 28439 
 Dec. 2, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A generator, provided with baskets or compartments and 
 charged with carbide, is connected with an elevated water 
 tank, so that water will flow naturally to the carbide. The 
 gas passes into a displacement holder, the increase of gas 
 pressure forcing the displaced water up a pipe into the water 
 supply tank, and leaving the generator comparatively dry. 
 The generator may be provided with a water-jacket, and the 
 closing of the various valves when it is necessary to recharge 
 may be automatically performed by removal of the cover of 
 the generator. The valves are preferably operated by springs. 
 Several modifications in the arrangement of plant working on 
 this principle are described. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is placed in the upper part of a vessel divided by 
 a perforated diaphragm, milk of lime falling into the lower. 
 The carbide vessel is placed within another truncated cylinder, 
 the whole being placed in the tank of water. After being 
 purified the gas passes into a gasholder. 
 
 Generating and Purifying Apparatus. 
 
 Richard, B. An automatically closing gasholder, the closure being dis- 
 posed within the gas bell. A generator consisting of three 
 
 Dec" 6 1897 chambers, one containing the carbide in cages, and another 
 acting as a purifier. A drying chamber. An automatic water- 
 feed. A top valve, which may be automatic or worked by 
 hand. A safety device, consisting of a bell moving in a mer- 
 cury seal. 
 
 Making Illuminating Gas. 
 
 Bryant, H. Two tanks are provided, one being furnished with a movable 
 ' ex ^' Y' S<A ' bell, and the other being of any suitable form and capable of 
 ])<'(." 6^1897 withstanding a high internal pressure. The vertical cylindrical 
 generator, containing a removable carbide holder, is connected 
 to both the rise-and- f all gasholder and the high-pressure tank. 
 The latter tank has near the top a diaphragm, above which is a 
 water reservoir, a water inlet, and a pipe with a valve for feed- 
 ing water to the generator. By lifting this valve water is 
 allowed to flow into the generator. The gas, by lifting a valve, 
 escapes to the burners in use, and if generated faster than it is 
 consumed, the excess gas passes into the movable gas bell. The 
 bell rises and lifts a chain, which actuates a lever and cuts off 
 the supply of water to the carbide. If the generation of gas 
 still continues excessive, then the excess gas would pass into 
 the pressure tank and is stored there without increasing the 
 
 838 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 gas pressure at the burners. The fall of the gas bell allows the 
 gas in the pressure tank to escape and water to again flow to 
 the generator. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Crushed carbide drops into water from a conical hopper, the Boule, E. M. 
 
 supply being regulated by a valve, which acts as a measure Ve *f^ 
 
 and distributes the carbide, and is actuated by a float. Dec. 8 1897 
 
 Portable Generator. 
 
 A capillary tube is slit longitudinally to receive a strip of 
 blotting paper or similar absorbent material. The tube may 
 also be perforated and surrounded with wick. The tube is 
 centrally placed in the cylinder charged with carbide, so that it 
 extends from its base almost to its cap. The carbide cylinder 
 being placed in a tube fixed in a receiver containing water, the 
 water will enter the lower end of the capillary tube, ascend the 
 strip of blotting paper, and moisten the carbide. The gas is led 
 from the cap of the carbide tube to the burner. Increase of gas 
 pressure drives the water from the capillary tube. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The carbide holder is a cylindrical vessel situated in the 
 middle of the lamp body. It terminates at the bottom in a 
 cone, having a circular opening adapted to be closed by a rubber 
 ball. Above the carbide holder, and in communication with it, is 
 a drying and purifying chamber. Water is poured into the lamp 
 through an orifice (having a screw stopper) at the top, the car- 
 bide holder having previously been introduced through a screw- 
 cap opening at the base of the lamp. The carbide holder is 
 covered by a fixed bell, and the lamp body is divided into two 
 compartments. When water is poured into the lamp it rises in 
 the body and in the bell until it reaches the rubber ball, which 
 it lifts, and then comes in contact with the carbide. When the 
 gas pressure rises it forces back the water out of carbide holder, 
 and presses the ball on to its seat. The gas generated after the 
 closing of the valve, if it cannot escape by the burner, is com- 
 pelled to pass through a tube to the water below the division 
 plate in the lower part of the lamp. Here it makes a gas 
 chamber for itself by forcing back the column of water, until 
 allowed to escape through the burner. 
 
 Generators. 
 
 A small water-tube, containing a thread or wire to increase 
 its capillarity, ensures the regular feed of water to the carbide. 
 
 839 
 
 Prevost, 
 E. V., 
 
 Rans, O., 
 
 and 
 
 Cerkel, A. 
 Paris 
 
 29-201 
 l>c. 9. 1897 
 
 Bergmann, 
 
 F. J. 
 Germany 
 
 29258 
 Deo. 10, 1897 
 
 Marechal, V. 
 
 Garcin, L. 
 
 Paris 
 
 29405 
 Dw. 11, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Thiersant.H. 
 
 Coulson, W. 
 
 London 
 
 29571 
 Dec. 14, 1897 
 
 Smith, F. H. 
 
 Newcastle- 
 
 on-Tyne 
 
 29843 
 Dec. 16, 1897 
 
 Wagner, M. 
 France 
 
 299f>0 
 
 Dec, 17, 1897 
 
 01. July 13, 
 
 1897 
 
 Baughan, 
 W. H. 
 
 Charbury 
 
 30272 
 Dec. 22, 1897 
 
 Acetylene Gas Producer. 
 
 The carbide holder placed below communicates with an outer 
 vessel containing water by means of curved pipes. Round the 
 holder is a gallery, a number of small holes allowing communi- 
 cation with the holder. The two are covered by a cone-shaped 
 vessel fitted with pipes. Water only comes in contact with the 
 carbide when the pressure falls below a certain limit. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A number of packages containing carbide are placed at the 
 bottom of a vessel containing water, and are automatically and 
 successively opened so as to admit water. Instead of separate 
 packages of carbide, a tray having several compartments 
 charged with carbide and covered with tinfoil may be employed. 
 In the water chamber is a float fixed to a vertical spindle free 
 to rise and fall and to turn in bearings. When the pressure of 
 gas decreases, the level of water rises, and with it the float, and 
 a knife or perforator suitably attached thereto perforates one of 
 the carbide packages or chambers. Increase of gas pressure 
 depresses the level of the water, and with it the float, and 
 thereby raises the knife. The float carries a pin which rotates 
 between two toothed wheels to effect movement of knife from 
 one chamber or package to another. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 For industrial purposes it is necessary to supply the acetylene 
 under a pressure of 20 centimetres to a metre or more. There- 
 fore an apparatus is constructed in which water flows from an 
 elevated tank to a generator containing compartments charged 
 with carbide in such manner that the charges are attacked 
 successively. The generator and purifier are entirely sur- 
 rounded with water. The pressure of gas in the generator is 
 regulated by the length of pipe between water supply reservoir 
 and generator, the flow of water being stopped when the gas 
 pressure is sufficient to equalise the pressure of this height of 
 water column. A feed water cylinder for the supply reservoir 
 is also provided. The purifier is charged with a mixture of 
 sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, and sawdust. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two tanks to be filled with water are provided, one to contain 
 a gasholder bell, the other to contain one or more vertical 
 cylindrical carbide chambers. The gasholder tank contains a 
 condenser and an automatic water supply valve, and the two 
 tanks are connected by suitable pipes, and filled with water to 
 the same level. The supply of water from the gasholder tank 
 
 840 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 to the carbide chambers is automatically cut off when the bell 
 rises, and re-connected when the bell falls to a certain position. 
 The carbide is contained in perforated trays, and the water first 
 attacks the carbide in the bottom tray. One generator can be 
 cleaned while a second is in action. 
 
 30585 
 Dec. 28, 1897 
 
 Ritchie, J. 
 
 ' 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The water supply is regulated by a lever operating taps, and M'Conechy, 
 depending upon the movement of the bell of a gasholder. As 
 the holder rises the water is cut off by a spring working a 
 quadrant. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Water is sprayed over carbide. The carbide chamber is at 
 bottom, and water reservoir at top. An intermediate gas and ** m *kwick 
 water chamber is connected to both top and bottom chambers 
 in such a way that water flows into the intermediate chamber 
 and down a pipe to the carbide sprayer, until the pressure of 
 gas which escapes to the top of the intermediate chamber is 
 sufficient to force the water back until it is below the entrance 
 of the supply pipe. The retreating water escapes to the upper 
 tank until the pressure is relieved. Several carbide chambers, 
 to work singly or simultaneously, may be provided. The car- 
 bide holder has a perforated bottom, and a drain into which 
 the waste water may collect. The parts may be arranged to 
 form either a vertical or a horizontal generator. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The carbide is placed in receptacles made of finely woven 
 fabric. The receptacles should be only partially filled. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A cylindrical tube is filled with water, and in its lower part 
 is immersed a closed cylindrical carbide holder. The carbide 
 holder has a perforated tube extending from its lowest internal 
 end to a stopcock situated just below its top cover, and terminat- 
 ing in a short pipe, which passes through the cover, and thus 
 allows water to flow into the carbide holder through the per- 
 forated tube when the stopcock is open. The handle of the 
 stopcock passes through the side of the carbide holder and also 
 through the side of the outer cylinder, so that the cock can be 
 operated externally. Two tubes also extend from the top of the 
 carbide holder to the exterior of the cover of the water cylinder. 
 One is the gas eduction tube, and terminates in a stopcock ; the 
 other is a safety tube, and terminates in a safety valve. 
 
 841 
 
 Muckc, 
 
 J. and J. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 30637 
 Dec. 28, 181)7 
 
 Legge, J. C. 
 
 and 
 
 Cooper, A. S. 
 Dublin 
 
 30690 
 Dec. 28, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Barnard, E. 
 Christ- 
 church, 
 Hants 
 
 457 
 Jan. 7, 1898 
 
 Barnard, E. 
 Christ- 
 church, 
 Hants 
 
 490 
 Jan. 7, 1898 
 
 Richardson, 
 
 S. T. 
 Birmingham 
 
 891 
 Jan. 12, 189H 
 
 Bournon- 
 
 ville, E. 
 
 Jersey City, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 1013 
 Jan. 1H, 18! )S 
 
 Mace, 
 P. P. H. 
 
 and 
 
 Burgue, J.de 
 Paris 
 
 1005 
 Jan. 18, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Within the bell of a gasholder a perforated bucket is sus- 
 pended. As the bell descends, a charge of carbide is delivered 
 from a hopper attached to the outer top of the bell into the 
 bucket. Small quantities of carbide are thus automatically 
 distributed to the water, and withdrawn by the rising of the 
 bell to a certain height. A long rod extends from the false 
 bottom of the carbide box down towards the bottom of the 
 gasholder tank, so that when the bell sinks sufficiently to 
 cause this rod to touch the bottom of the tank, carbide is pushed 
 out of the supply box and falls down a shoot into the bucket. 
 Several modifications of this arrangement are described. 
 
 Cycle and Carriage Lamps. 
 
 Claims the use of the tubes of bicycles or other vehicles for 
 containing acetylene or other gas generating apparatus. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Two cylindrical vessels are connected side by side : one con- 
 tains carbide, the other water. The pipe connecting the lower 
 ends is fitted with a small cock to regulate supply of water to 
 carbide. At the top the cylinders are connected by a small 
 tube fitted with a cock that opens simultaneously with the 
 lower water cock, so that gas from the carbide cylinder flows 
 to the water cylinder and equalises the gas pressure on the 
 water. A branch pipe from this top tube leads down to the 
 burner. Each cylinder has a removable cover, and the cover 
 of the water cylinder may be pierced with a hole, in which is 
 fitted a small tube leading down nearly to the bottom of the 
 cylinder to admit air if required. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Carbide is fed in certain quantities into water automatically 
 by the descent of the gas bell. The carbide is covered with oil 
 to prevent atmospheric decomposition, this oil also forming a 
 layer on the water in the tank. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A long cylindrical vessel divided horizontally at about its 
 centre, but so constructed that the two parts can be fitted gas- 
 tight into one another. The cover of the upper portion carries 
 two threaded orifices, in which are screwed two rods threaded 
 at their upper ends. The bottom of this upper portion also 
 carries two tubular orifices through which the water, which is 
 contained in the upper chamber, passes to the carbide in the 
 
 842 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 lower chamber. By screwing down the two rods which ter- 
 minate in cones, these orifices can be closed. The carbide is 
 contained in a removable cylinder provided with small orifices. 
 It is closed at its lower end by a movable bottom, to the centre 
 of which is attached a tube which rises vertically in the 
 cylinder, and has a lateral opening at its lower part. The top 
 of the carbide cylinder also carries a perforated cover having a 
 central tube which fits into the larger tube rising from the 
 bottom. Some of the water falling upon the perforated cover 
 attacks the top layers of carbide, while a further portion falling 
 down the central tube attacks the bottom layers. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Two generators containing carbide are situated at the side of Drummond, 
 a gasholder, the bell of which rises and falls in an oil seal. Aberdeen 
 The water, which falls from an overhead tank, is cut off from 1154 
 the working generator by the rise of the bell. The generators J an. 15, 189b 
 work alternately, one being recharged while the other is in ac- 
 tion. The carbide holder in each generator rests in a water sealed 
 space, and fresh charges of carbide can be inserted without re- 
 moving the spent charge or stopping the manufacture of gas 
 until the holder is filled with spent material. A slide valve is 
 provided for automatically changing the supply of water from 
 one generator to the other. 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 Water passes from the upper reservoir through a cock and a Kitchen, 
 regulator, and then along an absorbent wick to the carbide in M ancnes t e r 
 the base of the lamp. The regulator is an arrangement for 1477 
 compressing the wick more or less by means of an adjustable Jan. 10, 1898 
 screw, so that the flow of water along the wick may be regu- 
 lated. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 The carbide chamber is detachably connected with the base of Davison, 
 
 A C* 
 
 the lamp. The water reservoir is at the top of the lamp and is and ' 
 
 connected to the carbide chamber by a suitable pipe, through Lucas, H. 
 which is passed a screwed stem valve which controls the water Birmingham 
 supply. The valve seat passes through a fixed conical plate j 
 separated from a lower movable conical plate or cup by means 
 of a spring. The water drops upon the lower plate and reaches 
 the carbide by flowing over the periphery. The products of gas 
 combustion are led away by a flue tube passing through the 
 water reservoir in a direct vertical line with the burner be- 
 neath. 
 
 843 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Thiersant.H. 
 
 Coulson, W. 
 
 London 
 
 1584 
 Jan. 20, 1898 
 
 Owens, W. 
 
 Pontar- 
 
 dawe 
 
 1625 
 -Ian. 20, 1898 
 
 Quatennens- 
 Moens, R. 
 Carreer- 
 Dilger, E. 
 Belgium 
 
 1665 
 Jan. 21, 1898 
 
 Arnot, M. C. 
 New York 
 
 1760 
 Jan. 22, 1898 
 
 Moss, R. J. 
 
 Birming- 
 ham 
 1920 
 Jan, 24, 1898 
 
 Holliday, R. 
 
 and 
 
 Holliday, R. 
 
 & Sons 
 
 Hudders- 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 The carbide holder is placed in a vessel provided with an 
 escape valve. Water attacks the carbide through a spiral 
 perforated tube. 
 
 Manufacturing Acetylene. 
 
 Water is automatically supplied to carbide by the movement 
 of a gas bell, which engages a lever opening a valve between 
 the water supply and the carbide. The carbide is placed in 
 trays in the generators, the water rising from below. A con- 
 densing chamber with baffle plates is used. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The generator containing water is surrounded by an annular 
 tank and connected to a gasholder. The carbide is in charges 
 in a distributing drum immediately above. A valve opens 
 when a charge of carbide falls on it, allowing the charge to 
 fall into the water, and closes immediately. The distributing 
 drum is worked by the movement of the gas bell. 
 
 Generators for Lamps. 
 
 The generating chamber is attached to the bottom of the 
 lamp, and is provided with a charge of carbide preferably in the 
 form of a disc. A smaller block of carbide is fastened to the 
 lamp bottom immediately above the generating chamber, and is 
 just below the opening which admits the acetylene to the bur- 
 ner. An auxiliary water receptacle is situated between the 
 lamp bottom and a false bottom above it, while the main water 
 tank is an annular chamber situated on the top of the lamp. 
 When the valve in this upper water tank is opened, water runs 
 into the lower auxiliary water vessel and causes an overflow 
 into the generating chamber. The acetylene, generated after 
 being dried by the upper block of carbide, passes to the burner. 
 When the gas is generated too rapidly, the accumulation of 
 pressure forces back the water and prevents its further flow 
 until the pressure decreases. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Improvement on a previous patent. Means are provided for 
 trapping the gas in the generator to prevent escape of gas 
 during recharging of the generator. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Water is conveyed to the carbide by a wick, the entrance of 
 the wick to the carbide chamber being at a higher level than 
 that of the water. The carbide chamber is immersed in a 
 vessel containing water, and the portion of the wick which 
 
 844 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 descends into the carbide can be opened out amongst the car- field 
 bide. The other portion of the wick passes out of the carbide 
 chamber and down a vertical tube into the water. A valve is 
 provided which can be screwed down upon the wick to check or 
 stop the flow of water. 
 
 Goodwin, 
 
 J. S. 
 London 
 
 2714 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The carbide receptacle is a tube provided at the top with a 
 removable cap, and terminating at the bottom in a truncated 
 cone perforated centrally. The upper cap is also perforated 
 centrally, and is provided with a gas outlet pipe extending j a ii.27, 1898 
 upwards through a tube in the upper part of the lamp, and 
 around which is stored the water for decomposing the carbide. 
 The carbide receptacle is placed within a larger cylinder, having 
 the water reservoir at the top, and fitted at the bottom with a 
 removable cap and washer. The bottom of the carbide recep- 
 tacle is fitted with a handle, the lower end of which rests upon 
 the washer at the base of the cylinder. A horizontal partition 
 above the carbide receptacle separates the water chamber from 
 the lower part of the cylinder, save that a very narrow pipe 
 extends from the water chamber nearly to the bottom of the 
 cylinder, through which water is allowed to slowly rise to the 
 carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas from a cylinder of the liquefied gas forces 
 water out of a vessel into the generator, the supply of the car- 
 bonic acid gas being regulated by stopcocks. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 See a previous patent. The improvements regulate more per- 
 fectly the supply of carbide from the lower hopper to the 
 generator, facilitate access to the admission valve without 
 necessitating emptying the gasholder, and improve the con- 
 struction of the filtering apparatus and washer. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide container has a number of separate compartments 
 communicating at bottom with each other. The lower part of 
 container has a pressing plate and spring to keep the carbide in 
 contact with moist pad of lime which forms at top of container. 
 In another form of container the charge of carbide is divided 
 into small portions by partitions. Water is allowed to drop 
 upon the carbide, but the container and water supply nozzle 
 are rotated relatively to one another, so that the water con- 
 tinuously drips upon a fresh surface of carbide. The rotation 
 
 845 
 
 Jacobi, G. 
 Dresden 
 
 2b09 
 Jan. 28, 1898 
 
 Thorp, T. 
 Whitefleld 
 
 2454 
 Jan. 31, 1898 
 
 Praag, 
 D. J. van 
 
 and 
 Barker, 
 
 P. W. 
 
 London 
 
 2227 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 may be effected by hand, or by rise and fall of a gas bell. The 
 lamp comprises an upper water reservoir with an adjustable 
 supply valve, and a lower part provided with a water seal 
 forming gastight joint between the outer parts and a removable 
 carbide container. 
 
 Marcks, 
 H. O. 
 Berlin 
 
 2002 
 Feb. 1, 1898 
 
 Beaumont, 
 
 R. C. 
 Rochdale 
 
 2534 
 Ff>b. 1, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Charges of carbide attached to rods are caused to fall as 
 desired into water. 
 
 Generator for Portable Lamps. 
 
 Gas is generated by the drip of water through a capillary 
 tube upon carbide from a water vessel above it. The generat- 
 ing apparatus may be a portion of the lamp itself, or may be 
 separate from it. A tube runs from the water vessel to within 
 half an inch of the bottom of the carbide chamber, and has a 
 valve or tap fitted on its upper part. On the lower end of the 
 tube is a short length of indiarubber tube, having a transverse 
 slit, and closed at the end by an elastic cap forming a sensitive 
 valve, which acts automatically. Excess of gas pressure pre- 
 vents now of water. A perforated sleeve slides over the water 
 tube, and serves to distribute the water evenly through the 
 carbide. A purifying chamber, partially filled with a mixture 
 of anhydrous copper sulphate and calcium chloride, is provided. 
 A burner with a bottom screw, by which the rate of gas con- 
 sumption can be regulated, is also claimed. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Ferguson, ^ number of receptacles charged with carbide are placed in a 
 J. S. chamber, each upon a horizontal shelf capable of swinging 
 Minneapolis downward to a vertical position when a latch beneath each 
 Fnb 4 J 'l898 sne ^ i s deflected. The chamber is charged with water to about 
 one-third of its height. A ratchet wheel outside the chamber 
 being turned one tooth, rotates a shaft, and causes one carbide 
 vessel to be precipitated into the water. Acetylene flows to a 
 gasholder bell until the carbide from the one receptacle is en- 
 tirely decomposed. Then when the withdrawal of gas from 
 the holder causes the bell to sink until it reaches a certain 
 position, a pendant rod attached to the top of the bell engages 
 the ratchet wheel and rotates it one tooth, so that another 
 carbide receptacle is thrown into the water. Thus the produc- 
 tion of gas is automatically carried on until all the carbide 
 receptacles have been precipitated. 
 
 846 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Major, J. 
 Eccles 
 
 ,, , 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The top of the carbide chamber is closed by a removable gas- 
 tight cover carrying a burner in its centre. Beneath the bottom 
 of the chamber is a small socket or recess in which may be 
 placed a piece of sponge, or preferably a vertical perforated tube 
 covered with absorbent fabric and reaching nearly to top of 
 chamber. The rate of flow of water through this socket is 
 regulated by a valve or cock operated outside the apparatus. 
 The carbide chamber is immersed in an outer water reservoir. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Fitted within the open bottom of the generator chamber and Sanderson, 
 extending up therein almost to the crown is an inverted sack W. A. 
 or bag made of canvas or similar material, and having the Birn ^ n ) ghi 
 edges of its mouth end turned backwards to overlap and lie jnvi/ 9 189s 
 around the outside lower edge of the generator. A water- 
 regulating compression cap of rubber closes the lower end of 
 chamber and bag, and is so arranged as to leave a part of the 
 canvas exposed for direct contact with water, whilst compres- 
 sing other parts of the canvas between itself and the walls of 
 the chamber. Carbide is contained in the canvas bag, and 
 beneath the carbide bag and generating chamber is a reservoir 
 containing water. To stop generation of gas the chamber con- 
 taining bag with carbide is bodily lifted until the exposed parts 
 of the absorbent canvas are clear of the w^ater. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The water reservoir is a vessel about six inches in length and 
 three inches in width, and preferably of oval shape in cross 
 section. The carbide cylinder is of almost equal length, but of 
 smaller diameter, and is placed within the water reservoir. At 
 the bottom of the carbide chamber, which is pierced with two 
 holes, is a tube extending from the centre of the carbide cham- 
 ber into the water reservoir. The cock which regulates the 
 admission of water to the carbide through this tube is operated 
 by a handle outside the top of the water reservoir. The top of 
 the carbide cylinder is connected to a gas eduction tube and 
 stopcock. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A large drum is horizontally divided into two compartments. 
 The upper one is open to the air, while the lower is closed, save 
 for two small orifices. The upper compartment contains a 
 smaller tank, in which is contained the water for the carbide. 
 The small tank is connected by a pipe to the lower end of a 
 cylindrical generator. The generator contains suitable cages 
 charged with carbide, which the water surrounds as it rises 
 
 847 
 
 Rous, T. 
 Ardleigh 
 
 8594 
 Feb. 12. 1898 
 
 Mitchell, T. 
 
 Oldham 
 
 3581 
 Feb. 12. 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 from below. The large drum is charged with water until it has 
 filled the lower compartment and risen some distance in the 
 upper compartment. The gas passes from the generator to the 
 lower part of the lower compartment of the drum, where it 
 bubbles through the water, and accumulates until withdrawn 
 for use. Too rapid generation of gas causes the water in the 
 generator to be driven back from contact with the carbide. The 
 water from the lower compartment of the drum which has been 
 displaced by gas rises into the upper compartment. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Harrison, The water is in an upper reservoir, and the carbide in a lower 
 chamber. The sole claim relates to the use of a cane with its 
 11 lower end covered with flannel or similar material. The cane 
 Feb. lt>, 1<S9H is the medium for conducting the water from the upper reser- 
 voir in just sufficient quantity to generate only as much gas as 
 is required. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Couison, A carbide feeder, having several compartments and operated 
 by clockwork or other suitable arrangement, is fitted upon the 
 Thiersant, to P * t ^ ie holder bell. The water in the holder tank is covered 
 H. de with a layer of oil. When the bell rises to a certain height, it 
 London engages a portion of the clockwork mechanism and prevents the 
 Feb 18 189s discharge of carbide. "When the bell falls the clockwork mec- 
 hanism may be relieved from the stop piece and again operate 
 the feeder. The carbide falls down a shoot, passes through 
 the oil layer, and arrives at the bottom of a split cylinder 
 fitted vertically to the bottom of the holder tank. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 Berger, H. The carbide holders are grouped to form a column. Means are 
 
 Berlin provided for preventing the escape of gas during recharging. 
 4118 
 
 Manufacture and Treatment of Acetylene. 
 
 Allegemeine The carbide falls on the sloping plate in a water reservoir 
 
 Acetylen through a feed tube. A condenser formed of trays of wire 
 
 chart 8 " gauze, containing chloride of lime with other materials as 
 
 Berlin desired, is used. An odour may be given to the gas by passing 
 
 it over amyl acetate or carbylamine. Means are provided for 
 
 * mixing the acetylene with oil gas if desired. 
 
 Producing and Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Walker, H. A vertical lead-lined generator contains a bucket in which is 
 
 Dublin an agitator, which may be worked by hand or power. Pipes 
 
 Feb 22 1898 conve y water to the carbide and the evolved gas to the purifier. 
 
 Carbide and a dry acid, such as oxalic, is placed with chalk in 
 
 848 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 the generator. The purifier contains sulphate of iron, or copper 
 filings and iron sulphate. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Crushed or granulated carbide is automatically and inter- Ross, J. H. 
 mittently fed into water. A vessel of cylindrical shape has an Birmingham 
 inner cylinder concentric with it. The water into which the -p^ 22 189H 
 carhide is discharged is contained in the inner cylinder, while 
 a gas bell slides in a water seal between the walls of the two 
 cylinders. On top of the bell is a tap with a pipe projecting 
 vertically upwards. An arm attached to the outer cylinder 
 extends upwards and carries the carbide holder, which can 
 rotate on pivots, and has a conical spout, the larger end of 
 which is fixed to the carbide holder, and the lower end of 
 which is fitted with a pipe projecting downwards. This pipe 
 is connected to the pipe on the gas bell by a flexible tube. 
 When the gas bell is empty of gas, the carbide falls by gravity 
 from the carbide holder down this spout and into the bell ; but 
 when the bell rises it raises the spout, and thereby causes the 
 carbide holder to partially rotate on its pivot. When the bell 
 has pushed up the spout until it is nearly horizontal with the 
 carbide holder, carbide will cease to fall. As the bell sinks 
 carbide will again commence to fall through the descending 
 spout or channel. Several modifications of the generator are 
 described. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The body of the lamp is constructed of an inner and outer Millward, H. 
 metallic shell having a space between them to serve as a water Birmingham 
 reservoir. This chamber preferably surrounds the burner. The ^oi^iecQ 
 
 base of the lamp forms a carbide holder and has two parts, one 
 an exterior casing, the other a cup attached from the underside 
 to the casing. The cup has a perforated bottom and contains 
 carbide. The water supply pipe is a vertically suspended tube 
 passing from the outlet valve of the water chamber downward 
 to the centre of the carbide cup. Over the outlet end of this 
 vertical tube is passed another tube having perforated walls and 
 a closed lower end. Around the perforated tube absorbent 
 fabric is wrapped. The water passes through this porous fabric 
 to the carbide. The gas passes from the carbide cup to the 
 burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide is in a drum rotating over a water tank, and set Scheldt, B. 
 in motion by the descent of a gas bell. The drum is divided Charlotten- 
 into compartments, each provided with a hinged lid on the 
 periphery of the drum. Feb. 25 1898 
 
 849 54 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 See a previous patent. Special carbide cages from which the 
 ham spent matter can easily escape are provided, and a carrier for 
 
 JMjJ the cages and generating chamber resting upon the holder, and 
 
 Feb. 2H, 1898 capa ble of being lifted out of its position. 
 
 Hviid, L. P. 
 Copenhagen 
 
 549b 
 Mar. 5, 18<>* 
 
 Dedecker, 
 L. J. 
 
 Brussels 
 
 5538 
 Mar. 7, 1898 
 
 Schluter, 
 
 C. H. 
 Lindemann, 
 
 C. L. 
 Hamburg 
 
 5594 
 Mar. 7, 18! )S 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A funnel-shaped receptacle is closed at the bottom with a 
 slightly convex india-rubber membrane provided with a small 
 fissure. A little distance above the membrane is a grid sup- 
 porting the carbide. The mouth of an india-rubber bag is 
 fastened around the lower end of the funnel. The whole is 
 contained in a metal cylinder provided at the top with a re- 
 movable gas-tight cover, and closed at the bottom with a 
 soldered plate. A ring of perforations around the lower part of 
 the cylinder allows free play to the internal rubber bag. The 
 gas eduction pipe attached to the cover is provided with a safety 
 valve. A certain quantity of water is poured over the carbide, 
 and then the cover is screwed on. Acetylene is generated, and 
 the pressure of gas forces the w r ater through the fissure in the 
 membrane down into the rubber bag. Increase of gas pressure 
 causes the rubber bag to expand, but the water being forced 
 away from the carbide generation ceases, until, owing to con- 
 sumption of the gas, the bag again contracts and forces the 
 water back through the fissure to the carbide. 
 
 Gas Producer. 
 
 A generator, having an inclined base and provided with a 
 carbide hopper, is fixed to the side of a gasholder, the supply of 
 carbide being controlled by the movement of the gas bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide vessels are fixed on a frame, being pivoted and kept 
 in a horizontal position by springs. As the level of the water 
 in the tank rises, a float engages these springs, causing the 
 carbide to be tipped into the water. Water ceases to flow into 
 the generator when the gas bell rises, but flows again when the 
 bell descends, causing the float to act. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Sockets are fitted upon the internal base of a gasholder tank 
 and long tubes, open at the top, and containing carbide, are in- 
 serted vertically in them. The mouth of each tube is above the 
 level of water in the holder tank. Upon the top of the holder 
 X[ J S , K bell is a second tank containing water. Pipes provided with 
 
 cocks pass from the bottom of this water tank through the bell 
 
 850 
 
 Clayton, R. 
 
 and 
 
 Steward, 
 H. B. 
 
 Stafford 
 
 5701 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 to deliver water over the carbide tubes, a separate pipe being 
 provided for each carbide tube. When a cock is partially 
 opened, water trickles into one of the carbide tubes. Acetylene 
 is generated, and the bell rises. When the carbide in all the 
 tubes has been decomposed and the gasholder is empty, the bell 
 is removed and the tubes are taken out, cleaned, and recharged. 
 In place of the common water-supply reservoir, an independent 
 reservoir may be provided for each carbide tube. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is a cylindrical vessel of water fitted at top to Vezin, R. 
 carbide discharge apparatus, and connected with a gasholder. *J nd 
 As the bell of the gasholder rises, its tappet releases the end of a ^p ar i' s 
 lever, and a valve closes the carbide discharge opening under the 590s 
 influence of a spring. The descent of the bell again causes the Mar. 10, 
 discharge of carbide. A syphon-like tube enables the necessary 
 water for the supply of the generator to be introduced during 
 the working of the apparatus after having discharged the car- 
 bide residue. The discharge is effected by means of an inclined 
 passage at bottom of generator having a draining cock at end. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is packed in watertight packages, in which are small Smith, F. H. 
 holes with wicks leading from the holes through the mass of 
 carbide. The packages are thrown into water. ]\j ar 19, 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The rise and fall of the gasholder produces a variation of Percival, J. 
 level in the water in the generator. The generating cylinders L ?S?? n 
 are placed outside the bell, but move vertically between the jy ar \j ^9^ 
 bell and the gasholder tank. Water attacks the carbide in each 
 cylinder from below. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The carbide holder has several separate partitions, the per- Steincr, L. 
 forated bottoms of which are arranged at different levels, so Roumania 
 that the carbide charges may be attacked successively. The j ai /23 1898 
 holder is suspended from the top of a bell, so that when the 
 bell, which rises and falls in a tank charged with water, con- 
 tains little or no gas the holder is immersed in water, and 
 when the bell rises the carbide holder is drawn out of the 
 water. The top of the bell is detachable, and carries a stopcock 
 and gas eduction tube. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The water reservoir is in the upper part of lamp, and prefer. Millward, H. 
 ably surrounds the burner. The detachable carbide chamber is Birmingham 
 at base of lamp. Between the carbide chamber and water M ar ''>$"] 898 
 
 851 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Daix, V. 
 Paris 
 
 7521 
 Mar. 2U, 1898 
 
 Limcllc, 
 A. E. A. P. de 
 
 Lyons 
 
 7655 
 Mar. 30, 1898 
 
 Straehl, 
 
 E. de 
 Rcchard, A. 
 
 and 
 Devarenne, 
 
 A. 
 
 Paris 
 
 7770 
 
 Mar. 31. 1898 
 
 Bond, E. S. 
 Handsworth 
 
 7777 
 Apr. 1, 1898 
 
 reservoir is a socket containing drying and filtering material, 
 through which the gas passes before reaching the burner. The 
 water passes through a regulating valve to an inverted T tube 
 having its lower end near the bottom of carbide chamber, and 
 perforated above and below, and covered with absorbent 
 material, through which water reaches the carbide. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A gasholder and automatic water supply. A generator 
 arranged air-tight upon the bottom of the water tank or on 
 the outside. Carbide baskets placed in a drawer containing 
 several compartments, and used in succession. And means for 
 leading water from the holder to the generator and gas to the 
 holder. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A cylinder, having a perforated carbide tube in its upper 
 portion, and a water reservoir in its base. A wick passes from 
 the top of the carbide down through its centre to the water in 
 the lower reservoir. The gas escapes through the perforations 
 in the carbide tube to the annular space between this tube and 
 the outer cylinder, and rises to the burner in the top of the 
 cylinder. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A vertical cylindrical case, arranged to contain a perforated 
 tube in which are superposed trays charged with carbide, is 
 fitted centrally within the bell of a gasholder, the top of the 
 case extending to the outside of the bell, where it is closed by 
 a gas-tight removable cover. The water in the holder tank 
 first attacks the carbide in the lowest tray, the bell rising and 
 drawing the carbide from the water when the rate of genera- 
 tion exceeds that of consumption. At top of carbide case is a 
 tube and stopcock, and a similar cock is connected with the top 
 of the bell. The two cocks are connected by a pipe containing 
 a number of interlaced springs to clear the gas in its passage to 
 the burner of particles of water and other impurities. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper chamber contains water, the lower carbide. The 
 water passes to the carbide chamber through a valve controlled 
 by a screw rod passing upwards through the top of the reservoir. 
 The water passes down a pipe which extends to the bottom of 
 the carbide chamber. The carbide is contained in a removable 
 cylinder perforated near the top with one or more openings in 
 the same horizontal line. The openings are covered with porous 
 
 852 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 fabric. The water ascends around the carbide cylinder until it 
 reaches these openings, when it flows to the carbide. The car- 
 bide is covered with a disc, and rests upon a disc in the bottom 
 of a cylinder, the two discs being attached to a central vertical 
 rod. The gas passes through a pipe carried through the centre 
 of the water chamber up to the burner. Gas evolved under 
 excessive pressure escapes into the air through a small chamber 
 upon the top of the water chamber. The chamber contains 
 cotton- wool and charcoal impregnated with a strong pleasant 
 perfume. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A number of carbide receivers are arranged over a water 
 receptacle. The carbide is automatically fed into the water by 
 means of a conveyer screw, which is actuated by the move- 
 ment of the gas bell. The carbide, in small charges, drops into 
 a large volume of water. 
 
 Szepczynski. 
 
 S de 
 Vienna 
 
 7838 
 Apr. 1, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 A cylinder with screw caps on top and bottom. The cylinder 
 is divided horizontally, the upper portion forming water cham- 
 ber, the lower a carbide chamber. A holder charged with car- 
 bide is placed in the bottom of the carbide chamber immediately 
 beneath a sprinkler, which is attached to a tube leading from 
 the water chamber. Jn the upper part of the carbide chamber 
 is a perforated purifier, through which the gas passes on its 
 way to burner. A cock with two transverse bores extends 
 along the partition between the two chambers, one bore for 
 admission of water and one for exit of gas. When the cock is 
 closed, any gas which continues to be generated escapes through 
 a longitudinal bore to the open air. 
 
 Sohnel, 
 
 A. E. R. 
 
 and 
 
 Zchner, A. R. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 8030 
 
 Apr. 4. 189-s 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A generator attached to a fixed gasholder divided into two. 
 Water from the lower chamber is led to the carbide in the 
 generator. The generator is provided with a settling tank, 
 which can be cleared out when the cover of the generator is 
 raised. 
 
 Kelly, C. 
 
 Passiac, 
 
 U.S. A. 
 
 8147 
 Apr. 5. 1898 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A double casing constituting a water seal, in which a holder 
 works, is fixed on top of a water reservoir. The carbide holder 
 is placed on the reservoir at the side of the casing, the valve of 
 which opens with the fall of the gasholder, allowing the carbide 
 to fall into the water. 
 
 853 
 
 Grand, J. 
 Lyons 
 
 8382 
 Apr. 7, 189s 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Lewis, T. H, 
 
 and 
 
 Lux Syndi- 
 
 cate, Ltd. 
 
 London 
 
 Ap 
 
 1S9S 
 
 Stott, J. 
 Oldham 
 
 84H9 
 Apr. 9. 1898 
 
 Lacroix, 
 P. A. M. 
 Toulouse 
 
 8565 
 AIT. 12, 1898 
 
 Graetz, A. 
 Berlin 
 
 8(375 
 Apr. 18, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The lower portion of the lamp is the carbide chamber and 
 contains a number of tubes, in each of which a carbide cartridge 
 is placed. Water flowing from the upper part of the lamp 
 enters the lower part of the first tube, then overflows through 
 an opening near its top and passes down a duct to the lower 
 part of the second tube, and thus decomposes the carbide in each 
 tube in succession. The casing of the cartridges may be vege- 
 table gauze, stiff canvas, or cloth, or the cartridges may re- 
 semble gun cartridges. The carbide may be reduced to powder 
 and mixed with Kiesulguhr or like matter. 
 
 Generating and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Water rises round carbide, and the gas is led through a con- 
 densing coil to a displacement holder. The carbide is placed on 
 trays fixed on an upright rod in the generators. The pressure 
 of gas regulates the water supply. 
 
 Automatic Apparatus for Producing Acetylene. 
 See Patent 4761 of 1897. The present invention consists 
 mainly in the application of a hydraulic lever with a water- 
 feed independent of the gasholder to the circulation of water 
 in one or more generators of any kind. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Two generators, to work alternately, a water tank to supply 
 water to the carbide, and a gasholder, the movement of which 
 controls the water supply. The movement of the gas bell also 
 causes the water supply to be transferred from one generator 
 to another when the carbide in the one is exhausted and the 
 generator is completely filled with water. 
 
 Generation of Acetylene. 
 
 The main feature is the employment of an automatic pressure 
 regulator, consisting essentially of a receptacle having elastic 
 
 Bowers, 
 A F. 
 
 sides or a variable volume, so that the capacity of the receptacle 
 Apr, 15. 189s can be increased to a certain extent by exerting a pull upon one 
 point of its wall, so as to fill it with air or liquid by suction; 
 the said receptacle when thus filled and released having the 
 tendency to reassume its original volume, thus forcing the air 
 or liquid, in proportion as the acetylene is consumed, at an 
 adjustable and graduated pressure. In an acetylene lamp 
 shown, the base of the carbide container rests upon a bellows. 
 The interior of the bellows communicates with the water 
 reservoir, which surrounds the carbide chamber. The external 
 wall of the reservoir is adapted to turn freely, and carries a 
 
 854 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATOES 
 
 number of pins capable of sliding into slots provided in a sup- 
 port. When the apparatus has been charged with carbide and 
 with water, the generator is freed from its supports, and rests 
 upon the bellows, which undergoes compression sufficient to 
 force water through a distributor; increase of gas-pressure 
 causes the level of the water to fall below the distributor, 
 and water ceases to flow to the carbide until the gas pressure 
 decreases. To stop the working of the lamp, the generator 
 is again lifted on to its supports so that it no longer presses 
 upon the bellows. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper chamber contains water, the lower contains car- 
 bide. Between the two chambers is a two-bore stopcock 
 terminating in a thumbscrew outside the lamp. By turning 
 the stopcock, water is delivered to the carbide, and acetylene is 
 simultaneously allowed to pass to burner. The carbide chamber 
 is provided with a spring safety valve. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Three superposed compartments, the top forming a water 
 reservoir, the bottom a carbide chamber, while the intermediate 
 chamber is in -connection with both neighbouring chambers. 
 The gas outlet is a pipe running from the top of the carbide 
 chamber to the burner. A wick or capillary tube passes from a 
 suitable height in the intermediate chamber down to near the 
 bottom of the carbide chamber. An open pipe projects from the 
 bottom of the water reservoir down towards the base of the in- 
 termediate chamber, and another open pipe leads from the top 
 of the carbide chamber up through the water in both upper 
 chambers and down again through the water in the upper 
 chamber to the top of the intermediate chamber. When the 
 water reservoir is charged, the water descends into the inter- 
 mediate chamber, until its level rises above the top of the wick 
 tube leading to the carbide chamber. Water descends to the 
 carbide, and some of the gas generated passes to the burner, 
 while the excess escapes to the upper part of the intermediate 
 chamber, and when the pressure becomes sufficiently great it 
 forces back the water in the intermediate chamber up the tube 
 depending from the water reservoir, until the water level is 
 below the top of the wick tube, and water ceases to flow to the 
 carbide. 
 
 Producing Acetylene.. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a porous receptacle which is then 
 covered with a bell, in which a ring to sustain the porous vessel 9209 
 
 is fixed, thus creating a small gas chamber. The whole is A pi-. 21, IS9.S 
 
 855 
 
 Fletcher, 
 
 W. B. 
 
 and 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 ,s80U 
 Apr. lo, 1> 
 
 Dargue. 
 
 W. H. 
 
 Newcastle- 
 
 on-Tyne 
 
 9028 
 Apr. 1!), !-) 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 immersed in a reservoir filled with water. The water, upon 
 reaching the outer side of the porous vessel, creates a humid 
 atmosphere within the vessel, and acetylene is generated. 
 Accumulation of gas under pressure forces back the water from 
 contact with the porous vessel. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Javal, A. Carbide is fed into water, successive charges being introduced 
 
 Neuilly automatically, in proportion as the gas produced is consumed. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Kitchen, Water passes from the upper water reservoir through an 
 
 orifice leading to a passage fitted with a cock. Over the orifice 
 9^4 is a pad of absorbent material, and upon the pad is a metal 
 Apr. 28, 1898 plate which can be compressed upon it by means of a screw 
 actuated by a handle on top of lamp. The pad has a central 
 hole through which passes the upper portion of an inverted 
 perforated cup. The plate which compresses the pad is dished 
 in the middle so as not to press upon the cup. Water percolates 
 through the pad, and drops upon the carbide in the bottom of 
 the lamp. Accumulation of gas under pressure retards the 
 flow. 
 
 Gas Generator. 
 
 Williamson, A cylindrical chamber is divided into three compartments, 
 the lowest being again divided into two to form two generators. 
 Water descends from the middle compartment on to the carbide ; 
 
 Apr. 2(>, 1898 the highest chamber is an overflow. Pressure of gas regulates 
 the water supply. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Melhuish, The cylinder containing carbide has a water jacket around it 
 and a water well below it. The carbide cylinder may be sur- 
 ie, M. roun ^ e( j by a circular wick turned over at upper edge so as to 
 Hughes, J.H. extend downwards within the cylinder, or the carbide may 
 Birmingham surround a circular wick stretched around a perforated tube. 
 y ^- 4 iot s Above top of cylinder is a funnel into which water may be 
 pumped by aid of a small cylindrical purnp attached to side of 
 generator, in order to start generation more rapidly than by 
 capillary attraction. Fitting over wick surrounding carbide 
 cylinder is an open-ended cylinder, which allows the carbide 
 cylinder with its wick to be pushed down a short distance if a 
 large surface of wick is to be exposed to water, or pulled up- 
 wards within the cylinder if capillary attraction is to be 
 retarded. 
 
 856 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating and Burning Acetylene. 
 
 Water reservoir on top, carbide chamber below. The flow of 
 water to carbide depends upon pressure exerted by adjustable 
 screw upon porous material through which the water must pass. 
 The carbide chamber contains a drum, which can be rotated 
 from outside by spring crank. The drum receives several 
 closed carbide cartridges, which may be perforated when re- 
 quired by a pressure rod (with cutting edge and grooves) ex- 
 tending to outside of water chamber. One hole is made to 
 admit water, and another for gas outlet. The burners may be 
 provided with internal cleaning needles operated from outside, 
 or the needles may be fitted outside the burners and brought 
 into action by the compression of springs. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generator is attached to the side of a gasholder. The fall 
 of the gas bell causes a projection attached to its cover to come 
 in contact with a tumbler lever operating a pin and spindle, 
 whereby water is made to flow from an overhead reservoir to 
 the carbide within the generator. The rise of bell stops the 
 flow. A non-return valve is fitted at top of pipe, which admits 
 gas to bell. In another form the carbide chamber is above a 
 tank of water, and the descent of gas bell causes carbide to be 
 fed to water, while its ascent prevents the feed. 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 Water in upper, carbide in lower chamber. The valve which 
 allows water to pass to carbide chamber is so attached to the 
 gas outlet stopcock that the valve closes when the cock is 
 closed. When, however, the outlet cock is open, the valve is 
 regulated by the pressure of gas within the water reservoir ; 
 for the gas, leaving carbide chamber, passes to upper part of 
 reservoir, where it exerts its pressure upon surface of water. 
 As the gas pressure increases, the valve closes and decreases 
 the rate of water flow^, until, at a certain pressure, the flow en- 
 tirely ceases. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Water is sprayed over carbide, the generators being placed 
 beneath a gasholder, with movable bell. The water supply is 
 regulated by the movement of the bell. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generators consist of carbide holders provided with bells, 
 in which the delivery pipes enter. The water inlets are 
 arranged at various heights, and water is passed into the 
 carbide vessels successively, the pressure controlling the supply. 
 A purifier is used. 
 
 857 
 
 Strakosch, 
 M. 
 and 
 
 Schmid, F, 
 Vienna 
 
 9718 
 Apr. 27. 
 
 Haigh, B. 
 London 
 
 L0023 
 May 2, 1898 
 
 Saxl, I. 
 
 Vienna 
 
 10056 
 
 May 2, 1S9.S 
 
 Voro, F 
 Selmecz- 
 
 banya, 
 Hungary 
 
 10141 
 May 3, 1898 
 
 Schulke, J. H. 
 Berlin 
 
 10305 
 May 5, 198 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Barltrop, 
 W. P. 
 
 Mav 10 i 
 
 Bilbie, J. 
 
 and 
 Drivet, H. 
 
 Mav 13, 189s 
 
 Strode,W.W. 
 ** 
 
 May 16, 1898 
 
 Kieffer, F. A. 
 Paris 
 
 Mav 17\8Hs 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper water chamber is detachably connected to the 
 lower carbide chamber. The valve in the bottom of the water 
 chamber is controlled by a rod passing up vertically through 
 tne chamber and terminating outside in a button. Vent-holes 
 in the screw-cap allow air to enter and excess gas to escape. 
 The water regulator consists of a metal tube, threaded inside, 
 passing vertically upwards and having a number of small holes 
 one above the other to allow drops of water to enter. Within 
 this tube is the regulating rod which, when screwed down, 
 closes the holes, and when drawn upwards opens them in 
 succession. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp Generators. 
 
 The cylinder containing carbide is held centrally within a 
 larger cylinder by springs soldered on opposite sides of it. The 
 larger cylinder receives the water. The carbide cylinder is 
 covered by a centrally perforated and removable lid having a 
 g as eduction pipe leading upward from the central perforation. 
 The pipe terminates in a curved end, with a nipple to receive 
 one end of an indiarubber tube. The carbide cylinder is also 
 furnished with a bottom situated some distance from the end 
 of the cylinder; and inside the cylinder is arranged a curved 
 perforated tube, two branches of which are soldered within the 
 cylinder, one branch on each side. Through this tube a wick is 
 passed in such a manner that the lower end passes under the 
 bottom-plate within the cylinder, while the upper portion 
 passes through the curved tubes, which are united by a 
 coupling ring or sleeve. The whole wick forms an endless 
 band, having its lower portion dipping into the water which 
 rises in the carbide cylinder in the space beneath the bottom 
 plate when water is poured into the outer cylinder. By capil- 
 larity the whole wick absorbs water, and communicates it 
 through the perforations in the tube to the carbide. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A water wheel is provided, connected with a carbide feeding 
 device, consisting of a hollow rotating vessel, part of which is 
 internally divided into a spiral passage. A holder described in 
 & previous patent is used to collect the gas, the surplus water 
 driving the water wheel. The rotating carbide vessel is in 
 connection with a hopper projecting some little distance into it. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A gasholder bell carries inside it a carbide receptacle, the 
 f ee( j va lve of which is worked by a float. Another carbide 
 vesse l above the interior one allows of fresh carbide being 
 introduced. 
 
 858 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Shackle ton. 
 J. 
 
 and 
 
 Ross, A. 
 Antrim 
 
 11 HOT 
 May is. lxls 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 An outer tank containing water has within it an inverted 
 tank in upper end of which is fixed a hollow plugged tap to 
 receive carbide. On lower end of inverted tank below water 
 level, is a perforated tray upon which the carbide falls when 
 the plug tap is turned. When tap is turned to discharge 
 carbide, the plug at same time closes, so that gas cannot escape 
 through it. If generation exceeds consumption, the gas pres- 
 sure drives level of water below perforated tray. Before pass- 
 ing to point of consumption or storage holder the gas is led 
 through a washer. Drain cock for removal of waste water is 
 provided. 
 
 Manufacture of Acetylene. 
 
 See Patent No. 14742 of 1897. Two generators, each having 
 a water inlet, gas exit, and drain cocks, are so connected together 
 as to be simultaneously operated by a common handle, the 
 water inlet cocks of the pair being also connected together in 
 such a manner that the act of cleaning either of them will open 
 the other. 
 
 Acetylene Cycle Lamps. 
 
 The carbide chamber is at base, and the water reservoir at Wells, H. W. 
 back of lamp. In the carbide chamber is a perforated tube 
 packed with absorbent material. In the pipe connecting water 
 to carbide chamber is a ball check valve and a branch gas 
 circulation pipe, whereby the flow of water is controlled by the 
 difference in pressure between water column and gas. The 
 water falls upon the absorbent material, from which it passes 
 through the perforations to the carbide. A funnel-shaped de- 
 flector plate fits loosely into the perforated tube. 
 
 Fowler, T. R. 
 
 Seacombe 
 
 11H77 
 Mav 
 
 Philadel- 
 phia 
 11636 
 
 Mav '2:i 189S 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Within the bell of a gasholder is a partly perforated rotating 
 barrel to contain granular carbide. The barrel is suitably 
 journalled and situated above the water in the holder tank. 
 The crown of the gas bell is fitted with a removable lid. A 
 flexible chain is fastened to one end of rotatable barrel, from 
 which it passes vertically downwards through a guide tube to 
 a pulley, then up through a second tube to a catch on the gas 
 bell. A separate chain also attached to the barrel terminates in 
 a suspended weight, the tendency of which is to drag round the 
 barrel until its mouth is on the underside and discharges car- 
 bide. When the gas bell rises it drags its chain with it. and 
 pulls round the barrel until its mouth is in such a position that 
 carbide ceases to fall from it. If preferred, the barrel may be 
 
 859 
 
 Ely, H. 
 
 West 
 
 Bromwich 
 11566 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 stationary and have a bottom orifice closed or opened by a 
 rotating shutter actuated by the gas bell. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Forbes, Sir In the lower part of the lamp is a cup-shaped receptacle con- 
 taining carbide, and above this is a reservoir divided by a hori- 
 zontal diaphragm into two compartments. In the diaphragm 
 
 May 24, 1898 a central hole is bored, and into this is fitted a tube, which 
 passes up to the top of the reservoir to a dome-shaped cover, 
 which terminates outside the reservoir in a cock and burner. 
 Another smaller tube passes vertically upward from the top of 
 the carbide receptacle through the larger tube almost fx> its 
 dome. This inner tube has a water inlet nozzle let into its 
 side, and terminates at its lower end in a distributor. The 
 upper compartment of the reservoir being charged with water, 
 the water passes down a depending tube fitted in the diaphragm, 
 and rises in the lower compartment and the larger tube until it 
 reaches the inlet of the nozzle let into the smaller tube. Water 
 passing through the nozzle drips upon the carbide. If gas pro- 
 duction exceeds consumption, the gas pressure forces back the 
 water level until it is below the inlet of the nozzle. 
 
 Portable Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Bartlett, J. The lamp has an outer case for storing the gas, and an inner 
 1 chamber containing a chamber for carbide, and two receptacles 
 
 Mav 25 1898 ^ or containing water. The water passes through perforations 
 to the carbide chamber, and the gas passes through perforations 
 to the outer casing, which is fitted with an upper chamber con- 
 taining wadding or similar material. The gas passes through 
 this purifying material before reaching the burner. Water be- 
 ing introduced into the lower water receptacle, it comes in 
 contact with some absorbent packing, through which it slowly 
 permeates to the carbide. 
 
 Lantern for Acetylene Burners. 
 
 Falk, S. Two tubes are arranged one within the other. The inner tube 
 
 London serves to carry off the products of combustion, whilst fresh air 
 is admitted in the space between the tubes. Around the lower 
 ends of the tubes is a globe which encloses the burners, the outer 
 tube being enlarged to embrace the upturned mouth of the globe. 
 Around the lower end of the outer tube are a series of apertures 
 for admission of air, a deflector to stop injurious air currents 
 being arranged adjacent to them. 
 
 860 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is dropped into water, the arrangement being actu- Dreske, P. 
 ated by a motor operated by the rise and fall of the gasholder 
 bell, the speed of the motor being regulated, but its motion never ^ ^Q 
 stopped. A purifier is used. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generator has an open charging space, and a closed bell 
 communicating with a gasholder. A long-handled receptacle 
 adapted to hold the carbide is provided, so that a charge of 
 carbide may be readily introduced under the bell, and the resi- 
 due be conveniently withdrawn. The top of the receptacle is 
 so perforated that when the acetylene is being generated at a 
 sufficient rate the admission of water is prevented by the issuing 
 gas. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Improvements in Patent No. 20903 of 1896. A supplementary 
 generator charged with carbide is attached to the side of the 
 gasholder, so that manufacture of gas may be continuous. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generator is connected to the gasholder bell, underneath 
 which rails are arranged, which start from the exterior of the 
 generator, and lead down at a sharp angle into the water in 
 the generator. On these rails cartridges of carbide travel. A 
 mechanical device is provided, which causes the gasholder bell, 
 at a certain position, to discharge a cartridge on to the rails, 
 down which it slides into the water. The cartridges consist 
 of perforated casings, filled with carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A water supply pipe passes from lower part of a gasholder 
 water tank to bottom of generator containing carbide. Around 
 upper portion of the supply pipe which is within the gas bell, 
 and which may terminate in a T with slightly curved ends, is 
 a float having a central metal pipe passing through and above 
 it. This pipe is of larger internal diameter than the exterior of 
 water supply pipe, so that float may slide freely upon same. 
 On top of float and surrounding the float pipe is a cup partially 
 filled with mercury to form a mercury seal for the curved T ends 
 of the water supply pipe. One or more brackets are fixed to top 
 of float, so that when gas bell descends, its dome will come in 
 contact with the brackets and cause the float to descend until 
 the T ends are withdrawn from the mercury, and water can 
 pass to the generator. When bell rises, the float also rises, and 
 the mercury again seals supply pipe. To enable generation to 
 
 861 
 
 British Pure 
 Acetylene 
 Gas Syndi- 
 cate, Ltd. 
 & T. Keene 
 Liverpool 
 
 11970 
 May 26, 1898 
 
 Sardi, V. 
 Turin 
 
 12182 
 May 28, 1898 
 
 Goscllschaft 
 
 fur Heiz & 
 
 Beleuch- 
 
 tungwesen 
 
 Heilbronn 
 
 12250 
 May 31, 1898 
 
 Scarth, J. E. 
 Pudsey 
 
 12401 
 June 2, 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Ernst, O 
 Philips, A. 
 Germany 
 
 12510 
 June 8, 18! 8 
 
 Levetus, 
 E. L. 
 
 Birmingham 
 12469 
 
 June 8, 189H 
 
 Socicta 
 
 Italiana del 
 
 carburo di 
 
 calcio aceti- 
 
 lene ed altr 
 
 gas 
 
 Rome 
 
 12491 
 
 June 8, IBOb 
 
 Jackson, 
 
 F. A. 
 Tunbridge 
 
 18029 
 June 10, 1898 
 
 proceed continuously, two or more generators may be provided 
 one to be cleaned while the other is in operation. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A generator and gas collector are fitted in a water tank and 
 surrounded by a bell. Means are provided for preventing escape 
 of gas during charging. The pressure of gas controls the water 
 supply. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Two compartments : water at top, carbide below. In the 
 water chamber is a syphon tube, haying its longer limb ex- 
 tending through division plate between the chambers and down 
 into the carbide chamber. Its lower end is contracted, while 
 the mouth of the short limb, which opens near the bottom of 
 the water chamber, may be provided with a tap capable of 
 being operated from outside the casing. A safety pipe may 
 extend from top of gas chamber up through top of water 
 chamber, where it terminates in a valve. The water fed 
 through syphon drops on to carbide, and the gas passes to 
 burner. The end of syphon tube in carbide chamber may have 
 several branches to facilitate distribution of water over carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Carbide is fed automatically or by hand into a water reser- 
 voir from a carbide chamber by a feeding device comprising a 
 rotating disc and discharging blades. The rotation is effected 
 by clockwork mechanism. The carbide discharge valve may 
 be automatically closed by the ascent of the gasholder bell, and 
 opened by its descent. The bottom of the water chamber is 
 funnel-shaped and provided with a discharge pipe and cock. 
 Outside the water chamber a vertical pipe extends upward from 
 the horizontal discharge pipe, and is provided with a rod carry- 
 ing a kind of piston valve. By introducing this rod and piston 
 valve into the vertical pipe and working it like the plunger of 
 a pump, the lime sludge may be removed without stopping the 
 working of the generator. A bell safety valve and means for 
 supplying fresh water to the reservoir are provided. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The descent of the gasholder automatically at a certain point 
 causes a charge of carbide to be dropped into a large excess of 
 water. The charge passes into the generator through a metal 
 shoot. Above the generator is a gasholder, connected with it 
 by a pipe. The top of the shoot is provided with a revolving 
 disc, the working of which depends on the movement of the 
 
 862 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 eras bell. Charges of carbide are mounted on this disc in con- 
 tainers, and at a certain point in the descent of the gas bell the 
 contents of each are discharged down the shoot. The water in 
 the shoot is preferably covered with a layer of oil. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 One or more water-jacketed generating chambers are supplied 
 with water from superposed tanks. The carbide is contained 
 in a drawer which slides into the generating chamber. Within 
 the water tank is a displacement gas bell held to its seat by a 
 metal band. From a hole in the top of the generator a pipe 
 extends vertically upwards to the top of the gas bell. At a 
 certain distance up in the bell this pipe is provided with a 
 dripping nozzle, inserted in a downward oblique direction 
 through a hole drilled in the pipe. Water drips upon the 
 carbide ; and if the gas production exceeds the consumption, 
 the gas collects under pressure in the bell, and drives out the 
 water, so that water ceases to be supplied to the nozzle. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A mechanical closure and water seal are provided for the 
 carbide feed tube in those generators in which carbide is fed 
 into water. 
 
 Portable Lamp. 
 
 The carbide holder is supported by a perforated cylinder, and 
 has a base with a circular aperture, the edges of which bear 
 blades of different length, directed radially towards the centre 
 and continuing in the curvature of the ovoid holder. The 
 interstices between the blades are capable of simultaneously 
 retaining or supporting the fragments of carbide in the receiver, 
 and of allowing the lime paste to flow through. The cover of 
 the holder being immovably fastened by a bayonet catch, the 
 expansive force of the decomposing carbide accelerates the 
 passage of the lime paste. The water for decomposing the car- 
 bide contains 120 to 130 grams of saccharose. The cylinder on 
 which the carbide holder is supported contains at base an 
 annular gutter, in which the lower end of a perforated cylinder 
 . is secured. Between the cylinders a floating bell moves con- 
 centrically, and is provided with flexible gas outlet tube. The 
 gas traverses a series of pieces of metal gauze between bell and 
 burner. Openings in the perforated cylinder receive sounding 
 blades, which, when bell ascends or descends, are acted upon by 
 pins and create a noise to act as annunciator. The flow of 
 water to carbide is automatically controlled by gas pressure 
 within bell. 
 
 863 
 
 Forbes, Sir 
 
 C. S. 
 Strathdon 
 
 13070 
 June 11,1808 
 
 Lipckc, P. 
 
 Charletten 
 berg 
 13387 
 
 June 15, 1898 
 
 La Societc 
 
 Chaussard 
 
 et Cie and 
 
 Vignes, C. E. 
 
 Seine 
 
 13573 
 
 June 17, 1898 
 
 01. Nov. 22. 
 
 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 Forbes, Sir See previous patents. 11716 and 13070 of 1898. The present 
 
 claims include the combination of an acetylene generator hav- 
 Strathdon . i i i a 
 
 18686 m > a su P er Psed watertank with a combined gas and dripping 
 
 June 18, 1898 tube, so constructed that the gas pressure vessel is supported 
 l>y and turns thereon, thereby opening or closing the nozzle 
 through which water is admitted to the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Joscphson, A standard lamp with a generator arranged in the foot. The 
 generator consists of a cylindrical vessel of water, in which is 
 immersed a second vessel resembling a diving-bell, and closed 
 June '21, 1898 at bottom by a cover having a fine perforation. The upper part 
 of the bell carries the gas eduction tube leading to the burner. 
 Inside the bell is a plate or table which carries the carbide. 
 
 Payan, O. 
 France 
 
 13880 
 June 21 ,1898 
 
 Forbes, Sir 
 C. S. 
 
 Strathdon 
 
 13968 
 June 23, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The generator is a water container having funnel-shaped 
 base with drain cock. A vertical carbide shoot passes through 
 top of reservoir to some distance above it, and terminates at 
 top in a funnel. Above and at one side of this funnel is a 
 horizontal plate cut away at the part which would project 
 immediately over funnel. Over this plate a series of carbide 
 receptacles move, each receptacle containing sufficient carbide 
 to generate the gas required to fill the bell of gasholder con- 
 nected to generator. Each receptacle has a cover, and a hinged 
 bottom resting upon the plate. When the bell sinks to a certain 
 position, the plate is caused to rotate by automatic operation of 
 a mechanical contrivance, so that a carbide receptacle is 
 brought over funnel, and the fall of hinged bottom allows car- 
 bide to fall down shoot into generator. The bottom end of 
 shoot is covered by a plate, but this is automatically moved 
 aside when carbide is discharged. The carbide, which is pre- 
 ferably impregnated with oil before use, falls upon a double 
 cone in generator, which distributes it over the bottom of the 
 generator. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide cup is in lower part, and the water reservoir in 
 upper part of lamp. Threaded into the centre of the cover of 
 the water reservoir is a cap having ports which admit gas to 
 burner, a spindle which extends vertically downward and sup- 
 ports the valve which admits water to the carbide, and a bell, 
 which revolves with the cap, and contains a circulating tube. 
 When the cap is turned, water is admitted through the valve 
 to the carbide. When production exceeds consumption, the 
 
 864 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 pressure of gas in the bell drives back the water until its level 
 is below the valve. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. Billwiiier, J. 
 
 Rosenthal, 
 
 The carbide vessel is formed of porous material, the pressure K. 
 
 of gas regulating the water supply. 
 
 June 24, 1898 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Carbide falls into water from receptacles placed in the bell of Rosenthal, 
 a gasholder as the bell sinks. The carbide vessels are moved by 
 turning a spindle at the side of the generator. 
 
 June 24, 1898 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Two independent generators are suspended externally from gez, H. 
 the bell of a gasholder and connected with it. The generators St. Denis 
 contain carbide in boxes in layers. The water comes in contact ^QT^OC 
 with the carbide when the bell descends, being led to the gener- 
 ators by flexible pipes. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 A number of tubes are attached vertically to the under side Lewis, W. W. 
 of a water reservoir. The lower ends of the tubes are screw- Davis, S. J. 
 threaded, and are provided with screw caps. To these caps are a 
 
 affixed tubes, which fit loosely into the vertical tubes when the F j^ 
 caps are screwed on, and which rise to about two-thirds of Smethwick 
 height of outer tubes. The internal tubes have small perfora- 
 tions near base. The upper space within each outer tube is 
 connected by tubing to the base of the succeeding tube. Water 
 flows into the first tube, and then overflows into the other 
 tubes in succession. The carbide is employed in the form of 
 cartridges. The gas eduction tube passes from the top of the 
 last of the tubes through the water reservoir to the burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. British 
 
 See patent 29554 of 1896. Improvements in the method of Acet ylene 
 bringing the chambers into action, also in the construction of Kir5kaldy 
 the water valves and pipes. 14432 
 
 June 30, 1898 
 Cycle Lamps. 
 
 The carbide chamber is a cylinder perforated at bottom with Schroder, 
 
 very fine holes. A thick disc of felt inside the cylinder covers H - F - A - 
 
 the holes, and the carbide is placed upon the felt. The cover of Nehemias 
 
 the cylinder is connected by a rubber pipe to the metal pipe M. J. 
 
 leading to burner. The carbide chamber is introduced into a Hamburg 
 
 cylindrical reservoir containing water, in which it floats, j ] 
 Water penetrating the felt reaches the carbide. Excessive 
 
 865 55 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 generation causes floating cylinder to rise, and also prevents 
 water penetrating felt. A safety valve is provided. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 From top of a gasholder bell depends a cylindrical vessel 
 closed at bottom, but open at upper end, and furnished inter- 
 nally with a wire basket charged with carbide. The bottom of 
 cylindrical vessel may communicate with inside of bell by a 
 cock manipulated by a handle connected to a spindle which 
 
 Davoren, M 
 Belton,J.P. 
 
 and 
 
 Davoren, J. 
 
 Carlow 
 
 14567 
 
 " passes up through top of bell. When the bell is empty of gas, 
 water is admitted to carbide by opening this cock. The gas 
 passes through a pipe and cock in upper part of cylindrical 
 vessel to a purifier and condenser. The purifier contains oxide 
 of iron. A safety pipe is provided. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Fournicr, M. The carbide is placed in receptacles within a case fitted above 
 * en a slanting shaft communicating with a generator charged with 
 July 2 1898 water - The carbide receptacles are liberated and allowed to 
 slide into the generator by the release of the covering sides of 
 the case. The sliding arrangement is actuated by the bell of a 
 gasholder, the sinking of the bell to a certain position succes- 
 sively allowing one carbide receptacle with its contents to slide 
 into the water. 
 
 La Com- 
 
 pagnie Con- 
 
 tinentale 
 
 Brussels 
 
 14713 
 July 4, 1898 
 
 Gastaldi, F. 
 Turin 
 
 14729 
 July 4, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator, half -filled with water, has a side feed tube, 
 down which the carbide is fed from baskets attached to a 
 vertical spindle. The charge is automatically tipped into the 
 water by a lever actuated by the gasholder bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two similar generators are attached to a gasholder, and pro- 
 vided with pipes and with cocks, which are worked partly by 
 hand and partly automatically. The generator is a cylinder 
 having within it another cylinder perforated with small holes 
 in its upper part, and carrying near its centre a horizontal 
 grating, consisting of sharp edged bars with points projecting 
 upwards. On this grating is placed the carbide in cakes or 
 large pieces. The upper part of the outer cylinder is sur- 
 rounded with a water-jacket communicating with the holder 
 tank, and the bottom is provided with a hinged cover held by 
 a suitable catch. The gasholder is comparatively small, as it 
 is not intended to store gas, but merely to regulate its production 
 and pressure. The gas inlet to the bell is through a helically 
 twisted pipe, having its outlet above the level of the water in 
 the holder tank. When water is allowed to rise to the carbide, 
 
 866 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 the gas passes through a washer and the twisted pipe to the 
 holder bell. When the bell rises it closes a cock which com- 
 municates with both generators, and thereby causes the gas 
 pressure in the generator to increase until it drives back the 
 water from contact with the carbide. When the bell falls and 
 reopens the cock it relieves the gas pressure, and allows the 
 water to again flow from the gasholder tank towards the 
 carbide. 
 
 Generating Apparatus. 
 
 An annular water tank with central well is divided into two 
 compartments, the lower being gastight and the upper open. A 
 basket containing carbide is placed in the well connected with 
 the water in the lower chamber. Pressure regulates the supply 
 of water. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Inside a water reservoir, closed at top by a removable gas- 
 tight cover, is a bell-shaped generator, also having a gas-tight 
 removable top. The carbide is contained in a movable basket 
 within the generator. The bell is perforated around its upper 
 part to allow water from the outer reservoir to enter when the 
 bell sinks low enough. The burner cocks being opened, the air 
 rushes out of the bell, which then sinks in the water until 
 the perforations are below the water level in the reservoir. Gas 
 is then generated and the bell rises, and water cannot again 
 enter until the consumption of gas causes the bell to again sink. 
 The gas escapes downward through a pipe to a storage chamber 
 in the bottom of the water tank. It then passes to a cylindrical 
 purifier, having beneath it a chamber and drain cock for with- 
 drawal of condensed liquid. From the purifier the gas passes to 
 the burner. A safety valve may be provided. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The lower part of the lamp contains carbide, and is connected 
 to an upper reservoir containing water. From the centre of 
 the bottom of the reservoir a long tube passes down to the 
 bottom of the carbide chamber. This tube is open at both ends, 
 and is packed with felt or similar absorbent material, or the 
 tube itself may be a capillary tube. Another tube terminating 
 in a cone, and furnished with side apertures, fits into the first 
 tube and extends upward through the water chamber, at the 
 top of which it is closed by a stopper. The tube in the carbide 
 chamber is sheathed with another tube, closed at its lower end 
 and perforated half way up its length. The perforated tube is 
 covered with porous material. The water descends through the 
 wick, and eventually reaches the porous material which is in 
 
 867 
 
 Henriquez. 
 
 E. 
 
 Brussels 
 15020 
 
 July 8 ; 1898 
 
 Marrs, W. 
 London 
 
 15175 
 July 11, 1898 
 
 Delmouly, E. 
 Paris 
 
 15179 
 
 July 11. 1898 
 
 Cl. Mar. 29. 
 
 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 contact with the carbide. Increase of gas pressure prevents 
 water flowing through the perforated tube. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Bohne, M. The dome of a gasholder bell is provided with a carbide recep- 
 { J?jSf tacle, beneath which is a balance, with regulating rod projecting 
 July 13, 1898 downwards. This rod, when the gasholder is nearly empty, 
 strikes against the bottom of the holder tank, opening the car- 
 bide hopper, and allowing carbide to f al 1 into the water. As the 
 bell rises the balance closes the carbide hopper. The gas gene- 
 rated passes through the carbide in the hopper, in order to dry 
 it, then through a delivery pipe into the gas bell, where it is 
 prevented from coming in contact with the water by a layer of 
 oil. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 Schmitt, L. Water reservoir at top, and carbide chamber at base of lamp. 
 Lm ' A comparatively long pipe extends from the reservoir to the 
 carbide chamber ; and in order to prevent irregularity of water 
 July 18, 1898 flow when lamp is shaken, the tube may either be bent into 
 several convolutions, or the tube may be filled with porous 
 wick. To keep the water outlet of the distributing tube clean, 
 a needle passes vertically upward through the water valve to 
 the outside top of the water reservoir, where it terminates in 
 a button. The needle may be moved up and down by this 
 button. Increase of gas pressure in the generator prevents flow 
 of water. Insulating packing is provided between the lantern 
 and the generator to prevent heating of the latter. 
 
 Dant, H. 
 Nuremberg 
 
 16090 
 July 23, 1898 
 
 Moore, W. N. 
 
 and 
 Karr, J. 
 
 16317 
 July 26, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A holder containing carbide vessels, and having a gas-tight 
 lid and perforated at the bottom, is placed in a water tank. The 
 carbide vessels are arranged at different heights, the pressure of 
 gas controlling the water supply. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The water reservoir in the upper portion of the lamp has a 
 controllable discharge opening in its base. A carbide holder is 
 removably connected with the lower portion of the lamp. A 
 wire gauze tube filled with an absorbent fabric extends from 
 the base of the carbide holder to the base of the water chamber. 
 The carbide holder is of less diameter than the lamp body, so as 
 to leave an annular space to constitute a gas chamber. The 
 bottom of the water reservoir is in the form of an inverted cone, 
 having the discharge opening at its apex, and controlled by a 
 needle valve. Water passes through this valve to the absorbent 
 fabric, and from thence passes to the carbide. 
 
 868 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 The carbide is placed in a hopper on top of the gasholder bell, Williams, R. 
 the mouth of the hopper being closed by a weighted cone. As 
 the gas bell descends, the weighted cone comes in contact with 
 an upright rod fixed centrally to the bottom of the holder tank, London 
 causing carbide to fall into water. The rising of the bell closes 1 ^ 79 
 
 the mouth of the carbide hopper. The bell works in a separate 
 annular chamber surrounding the tank holding the water for 
 the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide holders are so arranged in the generator that Berger,H.R. 
 they have a gradual rise in the form of a spiral. Division 
 walls separate each holder from the other, save that the bottom j u i y ^g 1898 
 of one holder covers the top of the holder beneath. Water is 
 supplied from an overhead cistern, which has two compart- 
 ments which are in communication. Each compartment has a 
 valve actuated by a rod connected to a swing lever above the 
 cistern. Water passes from one compartment into the other, 
 and from thence into the generator. The water valves are 
 automatically operated by the bell of the gasholder, the ascent 
 of which prevents discharge of water, while the descent, to a 
 certain point, causes the discharge of the contents of the lower 
 compartment of the cistern. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Water passes from gasholder tank to a generator containing Legge, 
 perforated basket charged with carbide. The gas passes through J ' ?|. C * 
 pipe and valve to cooling and purifying chamber, and from 16487 
 thence to gas bell. The purifier contains hydrochloric or other July 29, 1898 
 acid to remove ammonia, and a tray containing caustic potash 
 or soda and a top layer of calcium chloride. When the bell is 
 nearly filled it automatically closes the cock which admits 
 water from tank to carbide. Gas subsequently produced in 
 generator tends to force back the level of water from perfora- 
 tions in carbide basket. A safety valve is provided for escape 
 of gas which may accumulate under abnormal pressure. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two concentric cylinders are mounted upon a water tank, Testelin, C. 
 having a condensing chamber at one side. The space between 
 the two cylinders contains water, which forms a seal for a bell. " p ar j s ' 
 Within the bell is a carbide holder, conical at its lower end, 16613 
 and charged with powdered carbide. The lower end of the July 30, 1898 
 
 869 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carbide holder contains a spring-controlled spherical valve, and 
 opens into a second smaller carbide holder, also provided at its 
 lower end with a spring-controlled spherical valve. When gas 
 bell sinks it bears upon a rod, and first opens the valve of the 
 lower carbide holder. If the lower holder be empty, the bell 
 continues to sink, and opens the upper valve, which allows 
 carbide to fall from upper to lower holder. When bell rises 
 the valves close. The gas is subsequently led through a purifier 
 outside generating apparatus, from which it passes to burner. 
 
 Hedgeland 
 F. W. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 16723 
 Aug. 2, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide receptacle is covered by a fixed bell, in the top of 
 which is the gas eduction tube leading to the burner. The car- 
 bide chamber is in connection with a water tank, which may 
 surround the bell or be separate from it. In the lower part of 
 the carbide receptacle is a short horizontal passage or chamber 
 which receives water at its bottom, and gas under pressure 
 through an opening in its top. When generation of gas be- 
 comes excessive, the pressure of gas forces the water away from 
 contact with the carbide, and when the pressure diminishes the 
 water flows back to the carbide. 
 
 Evans, E. 
 Denbigh 
 
 16733 
 Aug. 2, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 An auxiliary water chamber is provided to feed main water 
 chamber on the " bird-fountain " principle, in order to reduce 
 the necessary size of the water chamber in base of lamp. In 
 lower part of lamp is a tubular gas container, inside which a 
 number of tubes, each containing a specially devised carbide 
 holder having hinged and perforated doors, are placed. The 
 holes for admitting water to the tubes are at different levels. 
 Around the gas container is the main water chamber. Water 
 enters the gas container through a valve at bottom, and passes 
 into the carbide tubes in succession. 
 
 Varon, J. 
 Bordeaux 
 
 16884 
 Aug. 4, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Gas Producer. 
 
 The carbide distributor is placed in a horizontal casing, and is 
 composed of two or more bucket wheels mounted on a common 
 shaft. A rectangular box, extending downwards, is attached 
 to the lower part of the casing, and has a carbide dispersing 
 cone at the lower end. Beneath the distributor is the water 
 container. A hand-wheel on the shaft rotates the distributor 
 for re-filling, the number of buckets used being shown by an 
 index, and an electric alarm is provided to give warning when 
 the last bucket has been emptied. 
 
 870 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Water is automatically sprayed upon carbide. Horizontal 
 cylindrical chambers are situated in lower part of a gasholder 
 tank, and have their mouthpieces extending through wall of 
 tank. Into these chambers perforated vessels containing car- 
 bide are introduced. From an aperture inside of gasholder 
 tank a small water supply pipe leads to a sprinkler fixed 
 within upper part of each cylindrical chamber, the handle of 
 stopcock on pipe being formed by a lever, which is so arranged 
 that the cock is closed when the gas bell is raised, but is opened , 
 by contact with a tappet fixed to bell, by the descent of bell 
 to certain position. Separate stopcocks, actuated by tappets 
 arranged at different levels, are provided for the different 
 generating chambers. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 12 claims, 37 figures. A charge of carbide is automatically 
 discharged into a generator containing water each time the bell 
 of a gasholder descends to certain point. The carbide may be 
 used in the form of cartridges, or may be spherical charges 
 arranged within a vertical column. An automatic step-by-step 
 rotary motion is imparted to the bell by a movable oblique 
 finger attached to bell being engaged during descent between a 
 series of studs. The finger moves from oblique to vertical 
 position when bell rises. Or the step-by-step rotation may 
 instead be imparted to the cartridge-releasing device. The 
 carbide distributor partially surrounds the upper part of the 
 gasholder tank, and comprises a series of chambers wherein are 
 pivoted the carriers which discharge carbide when the finger 
 on the bell comes in contact with one extremity of a carbide 
 chamber. Various modifications in arrangement and form of 
 apparatus are described. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 To prevent the production of a constant strong smell from the 
 apparatus by means of a device which allows the water to 
 attack the carbide only when the apparatus is hermetically 
 closed. The washing apparatus effects a thorough removal of 
 the waste carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 18 claims. Water reservoir above, carbide chamber at base. 
 Between the two chambers is a gas chamber, through which 
 gas from carbide chamber passes on its way to burner. A 
 central gas tube passes vertically through water chamber and \ 
 carries at top a tubular support fitted with burner, and in its 
 lower end a channelled plug. An inclined tube containing a 
 
 871 
 
 Higgins, W. 
 and 
 
 Sandilands. 
 
 H. 
 London 
 
 15977 
 Aug. 4, 189H 
 
 Montais, 
 M. L. J. R. 
 
 L. de 
 France 
 
 16903 
 Aug. 1, 1898 
 
 Gehlert, F. 
 
 y. 1898 
 
 Schu. 
 nacher, J. 
 Chicago 
 
 20 
 
 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Schieroni, 
 
 F.E. 
 London 
 
 17269 
 Aug. 10, 1898 
 
 Schwarz, I. 
 Berlin 
 
 17350 
 Aug. 11, 1898 
 
 Spence, H. K. 
 
 and 
 
 The British 
 Acetylene 
 Gas Gene- 
 rator Co. 
 Kirkcaldy 
 
 17327 
 Aug. 11, 1898 
 
 Jeapes, W. C. 
 London 
 
 17405 
 Aug. 12, 1898 
 
 plug valve also passes from bottom of reservoir to upper part of 
 casing, where the valve terminates outside the casing in a 
 handle. Water passes through channels in plug valve to a 
 compressible felt valve, and from thence down a depending 
 stem covered with porous material, which is surrounded by the 
 carbide. Within the burner is a cleaning needle, the point of 
 which penetrates the burner orifice when the burner is pressed 
 down upon its spring support. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The inner vessel containing carbide has a dome cover with 
 overlapping flange to form a cover to outer water vessel, in 
 which the carbide vessel is contained. The lower end of car- 
 bide container is closed by a cork. A wick tube passes from 
 upper part of container down through cork and dips in water in 
 outer vessel. The wick can be compressed by side screw having 
 head outside of lamp. The upper end of wick falls slightly 
 over top of wick tube to convey moisture, but not liquid water, 
 to carbide. The gas escapes through dome to valve or cock, 
 and from thence to burner. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Carbide vessel at base of lamp, water reservoir above. Car- 
 bide chamber instead of being screwed is tightly attached to 
 body of lamp by aid of rubber disc. A special water inlet valve, 
 provided with an indicating device having a spring pointer 
 attached to an adjusting disc, is also claimed. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Water is contained in the lower portion of the outer casing? 
 which has within it a gas-containing chamber with a tubular 
 aperture at its base, through which a wick passes to the water. 
 Inside the gas chamber is a carbide holder having a perforated 
 bottom, arid attached to a spindle which passes gas-tight 
 through the top of the outer casing. By means of this spindle 
 the carbide holder can be lowered until its perforated base rests 
 upon the wet wick when gas is required, or raised from it when 
 gas is not required. The gas escapes from apertures in top of 
 carbide holder by a pipe in the gas container to the burner. 
 
 Acetylene Cycle Lamps. 
 
 The tubular handle bar and its stem serve as the water 
 receptacle, and within it is fitted a removable carbide holder 
 provided at bottom with a perforated plug. A vent is provided 
 at suitable point in handle bars to allow air to enter as level of 
 water falls. A safety valve may also be provided. The car- 
 
 872 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 bide holder is provided at top with a projection, which engages 
 with a bayonet joint slot in top of cycle stem. The top of the 
 carbide holder is screw threaded, and on the thread is mounted 
 the cup portion of a ball joint, a tap being arranged in this 
 portion to enable gas passing to burner to be controlled. The 
 ball carrying the burner and lamp casing is retained in the cup 
 by a ring. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Two generators working alternately are supplied with water 
 according to the movement of the gas bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The water tank is situated above the carbide chamber, and a 
 gas bell rises and falls in the tank. The carbide chamber is 
 provided with doors for introducing the trays charged with 
 carbide. The space below the trays is filled with water. A 
 weighted valve is fitted at top of the gas eduction pipe, which 
 passes from the carbide chamber to just above water level in 
 tank. When the bell is nearly emptj" some part or projection 
 of it presses on a lever, opens the valve, and permits gas to 
 pass. As the bell rises the valve closes. Increase of gas 
 pressure in the carbide chamber forces back the water from 
 carbide into the tank. When gas in bell is consumed, the bell 
 again descends, and by opening the weighted valve simul- 
 taneously allows gas to pass from carbide chamber to bell, and 
 water from tank to carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A lamp for miners. The generator is attached to lower part 
 of lamp. The acetylene is conducted into and burned in a 
 chamber, to which the outside atmosphere can only find access 
 by traversing wire gauze. The lamp is lighted by means of an 
 electric spark or a wire heated to incandescence by an electric 
 current. The walls of the combustion chamber are preferably 
 constructed of glass, with longitudinal passages to convey air 
 to the flame. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 The generator is a cast metal box having a tray charged with 
 carbide carried upon horizontal internal ledges. The bottom 
 of the tray is perforated or of wire network. A deep pan con- 
 taining a layer of water rests upon the bottom of the generator, 
 and serves as a receptacle for the spent carbide and surplus 
 water. By means of a crank arm outside the generator the 
 tray can be shaken, and the spent carbide dislodged from the 
 unspent material. A clip suspended beneath the tray also 
 
 873 
 
 Manger, T. 
 
 Bamberg 
 
 17449 
 Aug. 13, 1898 
 
 Emmerson. 
 G. W. 
 
 Newcastle- 
 
 on-Tync 
 
 17504 
 Aug. 13, 1898 
 
 Buffington, 
 
 F. S. 
 
 Minneapolis, 
 U.S.A. 
 
 17587 
 Aug. 15, 1898 
 
 ' 
 
 Chicago 
 
 u ^ 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 carries a lump of carbide, which is precipitated into the pan 
 beneath when the crank arm is rotated. Above the generator 
 is a reservoir from which water descends through a valve, a 
 stopcock, and absorbent wick to a serrated absorbent curtain 
 suspended in the generator over the carbide tray. When the 
 valve controlling the outlet of gas to the burners is closed, the 
 gas generated by the fall of the lump of carbide into the pan 
 passes to the top of the water reservoir, and tends to force the 
 water through the absorbent material to the carbide in the 
 tray. The main gas valve is now opened, and gas passes to 
 the burners. The accumulation of gas pressure within the 
 generator prevents the continued descent of water. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generator consists of a water tank, provided with a water 
 London* discharge pipe and gas supply pipe, and carrying a central gas- 
 17734 holder and two carbide distributors. Each carbide receptacle is 
 Aug. 17, 1898 provided with a scraper, formed of a hollow stem fitted with 
 blades. The carbide receptacles are truncated, the inner peri- 
 phery of the small base of each being provided with teeth gear- 
 ing, with a conical wheel mounted on the lower end of a vertical 
 shaft. When the gasholder descends, the vertical shaft rotates, 
 distributing the carbide into the water in the tank below. 
 
 Bufnngton, 
 
 A. L. 
 Minnesota, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 17920 
 
 Aug. 19, 1898 
 
 Cl. Jan. 20, 
 
 1898 
 
 Cycle Lamps. 
 
 A spherical lamp containing an annular water chamber, 
 which in its upper part is normally closed by a cap or plug- 
 perforated with very small vents. The carbide holder consists 
 of two parts, made of alternate layers of perforated metal and 
 absorbent material. The metal portions are placed in direct 
 contact with the carbide, which is coarsely pulverised. The 
 carbide chamber is in the centre of the lamp, and is surrounded 
 by the water chamber. The generating action is started by 
 moving a valve in the bottom of the lamp, which opens the 
 water feed passage. The water flows to the generating 
 chamber under a pressure equal to the height of the column of 
 water in the lamp. The water comes in contact with the ab- 
 sorbent material, which conducts it around the carbide. Six- 
 teen claims are made. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Thorp, T Generator consists of cylindrical chamber built in horizontal 
 
 position in lower part of gasholder tank, and having its open 
 
 Aug. 19, 1898 exterior end closable by gas-tight cover. The carbide box 
 
 which slides into generator is divided by hollow partitions, up 
 
 which water rises until it overflows to carbide. The box is so 
 
 874 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 formed that when in position a space remains below and around 
 the box to form water jacket. The top of generator is provided 
 with vertical gas pipe leading through a water seal into gas 
 bell. The inlet for water from gasholder tank is in centre of 
 tank-bottom, and underneath it is a gutter arranged to convey 
 water beyond the end or sides of carbide box, so that water will 
 not drop upon carbide, but rise from bottom up hollow par- 
 titions to it. Water inlet pipe is controlled by three-way cock. 
 At a short distance above the cock, in the pipe surmounting it, 
 is valve seating and inverted valve, the stem of which at 
 upper end is connected to disc fitting loosely into tube and 
 provided with arms extending through slots in the tube into 
 the tank, and fitted with floats. Above this disc is another 
 disc connected by adjustable rod to top of gas bell. When bell 
 sinks, the valve opens ; when bell rises, the valve closes. The 
 three-way cock has spindle terminating outside tank, so that 
 water can be withheld from generator altogether, or be made to 
 pass through lateral passage from position uncontrolled by 
 valve to generator, or through vertical passage in which water 
 feed is controlled by the regulating valve. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 A tank is divided by horizontal partition, having a central Ward L - 
 circular opening, to the edge of which is attached the upper 17892 
 end of a cylindrical tube, which extends down nearly to Aug. 19, 1898 
 bottom of lower tank. Within this tube is the carbide cham- 
 ber, consisting of a cylindrical vessel passing through the 
 bottom of the lower tank. The gas outlet pipe extends up- 
 ward, and is coiled within the upper tank for cooling and 
 condensing purposes. The bottom of the carbide cylinder is 
 closed by removable cover. The carbide cage consists of two 
 hollow cylinders perforated, or formed of wire gauze, cut away 
 through a part of the periphery, and placed one within the 
 other, so that they may have the same geometric axis, and the 
 inner be capable of rotation within the outer. The inner part 
 of cage may be divided into any number of compartments. 
 The cage is supported upon a sliding rod. Water poured into 
 upper tank flows down between carbide cylinder and outer 
 cylinder until the lower tank is full, and rises in the upper 
 tank for a few inches above the horizontal division plate. 
 When cock is opened water passes by pipe from upper part of 
 lower tank, and rises within the carbide cylinder, where it 
 comes in contact with carbide in lowest compartment of cage. 
 When generation of gas exceeds consumption, the gas accumu- 
 lates in top of lower tank, and forces back water until its level 
 is below inlet of supply pipe. 
 
 875 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene Apparatus. 
 
 Gustafsson, Carbide is fed into water covered with a layer of oil through 
 K. G. a side shoot. The carbide falls into a wide tube containing 
 water without the layer of oil. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Miller, C. A. The carbide holder, which forms base of lamp, may be inter- 
 and nally fitted with a spring clip for a carbide cartridge consisting 
 
 Birmingham of carbi( l e enveloped by a thin case pierced, prior to use, with a 
 17997 series of holes. The carbide chamber is separated from gas 
 
 Aug. 22, 1898 chamber and filter chamber by a diaphragm pierced with a 
 small hole. The upper part of lamp constitutes water reser- 
 voir, and communicates by a passage controlled by a valve, 
 capable of being externally operated, with the carbide chamber. 
 The external head of the valve spindle is provided with an 
 index with limiting stops, to be employed in conjunction with 
 a fixed pointer secured to body of lamp. Within carbide 
 chamber, instead of cartridge there may be a removable bottom 
 plate carrying an upward vertical perforated tube, through 
 which water passes to carbide arranged around tube. Gas 
 passes through small hole in diaphragm to gas chamber, and 
 through filtering material to burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Kremer, J, See Patent No. 26776 of 1897. The present improvements con- 
 sist in the addition of a small vessel beneath the generator, 
 Belgium . . 
 
 18133 communicating therewith by a cock, and which serves as a 
 
 Aug. 23, 18 ( J8 receptacle for the carbide residue. The regulating rod is ex- 
 tended to the top of the gasholder by means of a rod of smaller 
 diameter, protected by a sheath. By this means the jamming 
 of the regulating rod, as it passes through the carbide, is 
 avoided. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 One or more vertical cylindrical generators, having semi- 
 Alsace circular carbide trays arranged at different heights on a com- 
 18220 mon central rod, are provided. The generator is connected to a 
 s gasholder, the bell of which controls the supply of water to the 
 carbide by its rise and fall. The gas generated passes through 
 a leaden purifier and a vertical pipe, having its upper end bent 
 and dipping into the water in the tank, to the bell. On leaving 
 the bell the gas passes through a cooling worm contained in 
 the gasholder tank. The holder bell will hold rather more gas 
 than is generated by the carbide contained in any one tray. 
 When two generators are provided, a device is supplied to cause 
 the water from the one generator to automatically overflow into 
 the second generator. The water for the generator is supplied 
 from an overhead tank. 
 
 876 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The valve between upper water chamber and lower carbide Stearnes, H. 
 chamber is connected to a vertical spindle, actuated by a rack an 
 
 and pinion wheel, and terminating in a knob outside casing. Manchester 
 The knob is provided with a stop piece, and a stop piece is pro- 18197 
 vided on side of casing, so that the limit of rotation of spindle Aug. 24, 189 
 is the lift of the valve. Within the tube which conducts gas 
 from carbide chamber to burner is a wire or pricker, suitably 
 connected to a screw-threaded piece, and so arranged that 
 when the screwed piece is rotated in one direction the pricker 
 passes up through orifice of burner, and when rotated in opposite 
 direction is withdrawn below the burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 For regulating the water supply to the carbide. At a certain Walker, W 
 pressure in the generator the water sinks within the sight-feed Aberdeen 
 vessel below the exit feed pipe, and flows back into the water Auo . 34 1898 
 container. On the pressure being relieved, water again rises in 
 the feed vessel, and flows to the carbide. Fresh charges of 
 carbide can be supplied whilst the apparatus is working. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Two or more generators or sets of generators are connected Matthys- 
 to gasholder, so that while one is being cleaned the other may sens, G. 
 be in operation. Each generator has a carbide receptacle into An * 
 which water enters through side perforations. The gas collects Aug. 27 1898 
 in bell covering carbide receptacle, the bell having double walls 
 forming a water jacket, and being itself immersed in hydraulic 
 seal. From top of bell gas descends to an inclined pipe, from 
 which it passes to main gasholder bell. All generators are 
 contained in the compartments of one main vessel separated by 
 partitions, over which water supplied to one compartment of a 
 set flows to other compartments of the same set. In each com- 
 partment water enters the bell through perforation near its 
 base. When the bell of the main gasholder rises above a cer- 
 tain point it raises a flexible tube, forming outlet from water 
 supply cistern, and thus cuts off supply to generators. Also 
 when the bell reaches a certain height it opens a safety cock, 
 and allows gas to escape. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Fifty or more carbide compartments successively discharge Quattannes- 
 
 their contents into a tank of water situated beneath the dis- Moens, R. 
 
 tributing drum. The discharge is automatically effected by Dil a ^y 
 
 the bell of a gasholder by means of a ratchet wheel keyed upon Belgium' 
 
 the shaft of the distributing drum. A trough containing water 18591 
 
 surrounds the generator, and serves as a gas washer. In the Aug. 30, 18 
 
 877 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 generator is a sieve, upon which the carbide falls after leaving 
 the distributing funnel. A pipe leads the gas from the gas- 
 holder to the point of consumption, and another pipe branching 
 from this pipe extends down to the bottom of a closed vessel, 
 which constitutes a bubbling-up device or leak indicator. The 
 gas after leaving the holder passes through a purifier contain- 
 ing a layer of sulphate of iron, a plug of wadding, and a layer 
 of calcium chloride. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Wilson, F. C. The lower part of a gasholder tank is provided with parti- 
 Chicago tions to form a water supply chamber and a generating cham- 
 ber. One end of the generator projects through wall of water 
 ' tank, where it is provided with movable cover. The carbide is 
 contained in a movable drawer, which is provided at some dis- 
 tance from its bottom with one or more gratings to support 
 carbide, while residue drops through to bottom of drawer. The 
 gas passes to bell, which in its ascent lifts weights arranged 
 at different levels, so that the higher the bell rises the greater 
 is the pressure under which the gas is stored. The pressure of 
 gas in generator has a tendency to drive back level of water 
 below carbide drawer, and the higher the bell rises the lower 
 does the level of water in generator become, owing to the in- 
 creasing gas pressure. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Soderquist, An. outer cylindrical vessel united at bottom to inner con- 
 R <ien centric cylinder provided with a cover. A gas bell slides be- 
 tween the walls of the two cylinders in a seal of water or 
 Sep. 5, 1898 glycerine. Suspended internally to roof of bell is a perforated 
 carbide holder which passes into a vertical cylinder fitted gas- 
 tight through the cover of the inner cylinder. Inside this 
 vertical cylinder is a cylindrical vessel with double walls con- 
 taining within it another cylindrical vessel having its walls 
 perforated at some distance above its bottom. When the gas 
 bell sinks, the carbide holder is lowered into this inner per- 
 forated cylinder, which is supplied with water indirectly from 
 an external tank, which is in communication with the inner 
 double-walled cylinder. Generation of gas causes the bell to 
 rise and draw the carbide holder from contact with the water. 
 
 Portable Generator. 
 
 Hansen, G. An outer vessel provided with series of holes near bottom is 
 
 Kraeftin A threaded at to P to receive screwed lid fitted with gas pipe and 
 
 Copenhagen burner and stopcock. The upper part of vessel contains a short 
 
 19106 inner vessel charged with carbide and having a funnel-shaped 
 
 Sep. 7, 189b perforated bottom, the centre of which is prolonged downward 
 
 878 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 in a short tube. Within the tube is a pipe attached to and 
 extending upwards from the water reservoir below. In the pipe 
 a wick is placed, which has one end terminating in the water 
 and the other in contact with the carbide. The carbide 
 chamber is connected to water reservoir by a gas-tight rubber 
 cylinder. Water passes up wick to carbide, but as the gas 
 pressure increases the intermediate rubber cylinder expands and 
 draws the top of the wick out of contact with the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generator consists of a large tray carrying a central 
 reservoir fitted with four metallic wells. The reservoir con- 
 tains a cylinder, covered by a gasholder capable of rising and 
 falling, provided at the top with a ring, to which is fastened a 
 vertical chain carrying a weight at the lower end. Each well 
 contains a water reservoir, open at the bottom, and a carbide 
 receptacle furnished with perforated bottom. A central vertical 
 pipe extends upwards through the well to the top of the tray. 
 When the holder rises, the chain and weight are raised, allowing 
 water to flow below the level of the carbide. On the holder 
 descending, the weight falls upon the bottom of the external 
 casing, causing water to rise in the side reservoir till it attacks 
 the carbide. 
 
 Goodwin, 
 
 J. S. 
 London 
 
 19149 
 
 Sep. 8. 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generating chamber is situated beneath a gasholder 
 having a ball valve in the centre of its base. This ball valve 
 is self-acting, and free to rise and fall by the force of unequal 
 pressure from above or below, and allows a free passage for 
 either gas or water from one chamber to the other. In the 
 generating chamber is an inclined floor, upon which the carbide 
 is discharged through a side shoot when the chamber has been 
 filled with water. Beneath the inclined floor is a chamber 
 which is also filled with water, and which communicates with 
 that part of the generating chamber which is above the in- 
 clined floor by means of a pipe passed through the highest part 
 of the inclined floor. This lower chamber has a manhole in its 
 base for cleansing purposes, and has also two side cocks, one for 
 emptying the generating chamber, and the other for filling it 
 with fresh water. The automatic closing of the ball valve in 
 the base of the gasholder tank prevents the water in this tank 
 from flowing out when the water in the generating chamber is 
 discharged 
 
 879 
 
 Boss, J. 
 London 
 
 19369 
 Sep. 12, 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Marshall, G. 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 19518 
 Sep. 14. 1898 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide is contained in a perforated cartridge of card- 
 board or similar material lined inside with absorbent material. 
 A wick passes vertically and centrally through the cartridge, 
 and has its lower end projecting below the cartridge for a suit- 
 able distance. The cartridge is placed over a vessel containing 
 water, with its external wick end passing into the water. The 
 lamp contains a suitable upper chamber to receive the cartridge, 
 while the detachable base forms the water reservoir. 
 
 Browctt, A. 
 London 
 
 19549 
 Sep. 14. 1898 
 
 Waite, T. R. 
 Bury St. 
 Edmunds 
 
 19G83 
 Sep. l(j. 1898 
 
 Robinson, 
 
 J.V. 
 Dublin 
 
 19(374 
 Sep. 16, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A metal cylindrical case, perforated at the top and at the 
 bottom, has some porous material, such as blotting-paper, placed 
 within its lower end, and arranged to admit water but pre- 
 vent exit of gas. The case is then filled with alternate layers 
 of carbide and porous material. When this case is placed with 
 its lower end in water, gas is generated, and may be ignited at 
 the orifice in the top of the case. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Carbide is supplied to a generating chamber by means of a 
 hollow removable plug at the upper end of the chamber, having 
 an opening, so that it may be filled with carbide and then 
 partly revolved before its contents are discharged. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Three vessels of different diameters, each having one end 
 open, are fitted one within the other. The outside vessel, with 
 open top, contains water ; the next vessel, with top closed by 
 stopcock, but open at bottom, serves as gas container ; while the 
 innermost vessel, with open top and closed bottom, is the car- 
 bide holder, and its side is perforated with holes at different 
 levels. When stopcock of gas container is opened, water rises 
 to first perforation and passes to carbide, and if quantity of gas 
 generated is not sufficient, the water rises to second perforation. 
 If generation of gas exceeds consumption, the pressure of gas 
 forces level of water below perforations. 
 
 Henry, H. 
 
 Manning- 
 ham 
 19912 
 Sep. 20, 1898 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 A generator having a detachable bottom, held in position by 
 a spring device, is claimed. An inner vessel to contain carbide 
 is secured to the detachable bottom. The upper part of the 
 generator contains water, which falls by gravity upon the 
 carbide 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide cartridges are contained in a magazine consisting of wallin, B. H. 
 a band of ribbon fastened to a hub or shaft. The ribbon is 
 gradually unwound during the operation of acetylene manu- 
 facture, and is wound upon a roller on the shaft, round which a Gothenburg 
 lever can be swung. As the ribbon is wound the cartridges are 
 moved downwards into a chute opening into a vessel containing Se P- ' 
 water. The gasholder bell is located below the magazine, and 
 has a guide rod provided with steel points. Each time the bell 
 descends to certain position, these points actuate mechanism ? 
 which causes the discharge of a cartridge. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide is placed upon a horizontal perforated shelf placed Dillberg, G. 
 in the middle of a cylinder which is immersed in a water tank. sw* 
 That portion of the cylinder which is below the shelf serves as 20430* 
 a gas storage chamber when gas is produced more rapidly than Sep. 27, 1898 
 it is consumed. The top of the cylinder is fitted with a cap 
 having a gas eduction tube and stopcock. A cover of gauze is 
 placed over the lower end of the cylinder. The outer water 
 tank is fitted with a cover provided with a vent hole. The 
 generation of gas is regulated by the pressure within the 
 cylinder, as the rise in pressure forces back the water from con- 
 tact with the carbide. 
 
 Pocrsch- 
 mann, F. B. 
 
 and 
 Schneider, 
 
 H. 
 Dresden 
 
 20541 
 Sep. 28, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 A water reservoir is formed of two compartments connected 
 together by a valve, the upper compartment being formed to 
 supply the lower compartment with water, while the lower 
 compartment surrounds the carbide chamber and supplies it 
 with water, and serves as a storage and cooling chamber during 
 interruption of gas production. The carbide chamber is a tube 
 open at bottom and closed at top by a cover fitted with a stop- 
 cock situated outside the water reservoir. The carbide is placed 
 in an open basket, which in turn is placed within the carbide 
 chamber. The water flows from the lower water compartment 
 up through the open bottom of the carbide chamber to the car- 
 bide. The gas passes through the top stopcock to the burner. 
 Increase of gas pressure in the carbide chamber forces back the 
 water from contact with the carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A lower water tank is provided, within which is another Crees, G. 
 inverted tank of slightly smaller size and capable of freely T 1 ' 
 rising and falling. The carbide chambers are situated at the 20626 
 lower part of the tank. As the gas bell descends it presses upon Sep. 30, 1898 
 
 881 56 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Forrester, 
 W. 
 
 20766 
 Oct. 3, 1898 
 
 Turr, R. 
 Paris 
 
 20996 : 
 Oct. 5, 1898 
 
 McConechy, 
 
 J. 
 Glasgow 
 
 21038 
 Oct. 6, 1898 
 
 a float which descends, drawing with it a small bucket. As 
 soon as the upper edge of the bucket is below the surface of 
 the water in the tank, water flows into the bucket, and thence 
 by a pipe into the carbide chamber. The bell rises, and the 
 float carries the bucket to the surface of the water, shutting off 
 the water supply. 
 
 Acetylene, Generator. 
 
 Upon the top of the pillars, which serve as guides for a gas- 
 holder bell, a water tank is placed, and serves to supply the 
 generators with water. At the upper end of the pipe through 
 which the water flows is a valve which is operated by means of 
 a weighted lever connected with a chain terminating in a 
 weight, which passes through a casing in the tank. As the 
 bell rises its cover comes in contact with the weight, and by 
 lifting it causes the water valve to close. A pipe carries the 
 gas from generator into a water seal and purifier. In the gas- 
 holder tank is a condensing coil through which the gas passes. 
 The generators containing carbide may be inside or outside the 
 holder. An electric indicator to give warning when all carbide 
 is decomposed may be provided. 
 
 Regulating the Production of Acetylene. 
 
 An apparatus very similar to the well-known hydrogen 
 apparatus employed in laboratories. Carbide, water, and naph- 
 tha, or some liquid hydro-carbon, are arranged in the apparatus 
 in such a manner that " the water necessary for the action 
 leaves upon the carbide, as soon as the reaction has taken place, 
 a deposit of the hydro-carbon, the effect of which is inert. A 
 gasholder is not necessary." The action of the water on the 
 carbide is arrested, according to this, immediately the carbide 
 is immersed in the hydro-carbon. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide receptacle is an oblong rectangular chamber 
 divided along its length into a number of cells to receive car- 
 bide. Each cell has a spout leading into adjacent cell. The 
 cells may conveniently be separated by a water-jacketed space. 
 The water flows from the water-jacketed space into the adjoin- 
 ing cell, and from that cell into the next water space, and so on. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Water chamber above, carbide chamber at base. Carbide con- 
 
 21576 tainer has two concentric walls, the inner one being perforated, 
 
 Oct. 13, 1898 while the annular space between the walls is closed with one or 
 
 more sheets of perforated metal, with or without intervening 
 
 layers of canvas. About half-way up space formed by inner 
 
 882 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 wall is a disc upon which drips the water for the carbide. A 
 cover, held in position by a spring above it, is placed over the 
 lower end of the container. The water is delivered in drops 
 from a tube having a pointed end, and passing upward through 
 the water chamber to outside of lamp. The lower part of the 
 tube has perforations one above the other, and an adjustable 
 screw rod closes these holes when it is screwed down, and opens 
 them when drawn upward. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator consists of a casing containing a cylindrical 
 receptacle for carbide. Above this is a gasholder, provided with 
 water seal ; and above this again is a water reservoir, in which 
 the water level is kept constant by a ball float. Through a 
 stuffing box in the water reservoir a tube slides, gas tight, and 
 attached to the top of the gas bell beneath. The tube is pro- 
 longed through the bell, and slides in another vertical tube 
 fixed to the base of the holder. The upper part of the first tube 
 is surrounded by a perforated cylinder, upon which rests a 
 weighted cap. When the bell rises carrying the tube with it, 
 the weighted cap is lifted from its support, preventing the 
 further supply of water to the carbide or escape of gas from the 
 holder. The generator communicates with the gasholder by a 
 vertical pipe fitted with stop valve and non-return valve. A 
 blow-off safety tube is also fitted. The carbide is placed between 
 the perforated top of the carbide receptacle and an unperforated 
 disc pressed up by a spring, thus keeping the carbide in contact 
 with the moist pad of lime formed under the perforated top. 
 
 Generator. 
 
 A reservoir nearly filled with water has a sloping bottom 
 and a sloping overhead partition, which serve as guides for 
 the passage of the carbide. A passage between the two approxi- 
 mate ends of the partitions has a flat valve or door, operated 
 when required from exterior of generator. The door opens into 
 the water chamber, into which the carbide slides, and which 
 has at top a gas eduction pipe. The carbide is fed to the 
 generator by hand. At base of sloping bottom is a sludge dis- 
 charge cock. The water may be charged with any substance 
 which prevents freezing. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Apparatus comprises generator, condenser, double purifier, 
 and storage gasholder. The generator consists of a tank filled 
 with water, in which is a gas bell free to rise and fall. The 
 bell carries the carbide cage within it. In top of gas bell is an 
 opening surrounded by grooved annular flange, which serves as 
 
 883 
 
 Van Praag, 
 
 D. J. 
 
 London, & 
 Harker, W. 
 Maidenhead 
 
 21691 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Schneeweis, 
 J. 
 
 Hanau -on- 
 Main 
 
 22110 
 Oct. -20. 189S 
 
 Williamson. 
 
 A. D. 
 London- 
 derry 
 
 22272 
 Get . 22. 1S9S 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Schieroni, 
 
 F.E. 
 London 
 
 22341 
 Oct. 24, 1898 
 
 Waibel, F. B. 
 New York 
 
 22673 
 
 Oct. 28, 1898 
 
 Bailey, J. W. 
 & Clapham, 
 J. Keighley 
 
 22826 
 Oct. 31, 1898 
 
 water seal for equally deep outer tube of charging vessel, This 
 vessel is cylindrical and has near its bottom a transverse par- 
 tition, and near its upper end another similar partition. The 
 space between partitions is air-tight. Beneath lower partition 
 is a cross rod to which carbide cage may be detachably con- 
 nected. Water is placed in seal and above top diaphragm. 
 When carbide cage touches water in tank, gas is generated, and 
 bell with carbide cage rises. When consumption exceeds gener- 
 ation, bell sinks and water again attacks carbide. The gas is 
 led to a washer and condenser, then into liquid purifier contain- 
 ing hydro-carbon oil, and subsequently to dry purifier containing 
 chlorinated lime in upper part, and oxide of iron below. Finally 
 gas passes to storage holder. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 See Patent No. 17269 of 1898. The carbide is contained within 
 a cartridge case having a base flange with an exterior shell of 
 such depth that it may fit, watertight, into lower end of inner 
 cylinder. A wick extends centrally from upper part of cart- 
 ridge down through base, and dips in the water contained in 
 outer cylinder. The cartridge has removable stoppers at both 
 ends. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The water chamber is above the carbide chamber. The 
 bottom of carbide chamber is removable, and the carbide is 
 placed in a receptacle, having at top a perforated plate, and 
 muslin, or similar material, to act as a filter for the gas. The 
 receptacle has also a central perforated tube covered with mus- 
 lin, and is held in position by a spring pressing upon its upper 
 end. The valve which regulates admission of water to carbide 
 chamber has a spindle passing vertically up through water 
 chamber, and terminating outside in handle. The water passes 
 through bottom of water chamber into a conductor having 
 lateral discharge openings, and also grooved upon the surface, 
 so that the water will follow conductor by capillary action, and 
 pass into central perforated tube. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Improvements in previous patents. The water for decom- 
 posing the carbide is drawn from the vessel in which the acety- 
 lene is washed before passing to the holder. The pipe connections 
 are so arranged that acetylene cannot escape through the pipe 
 by which water is supplied to the washing vessel. A number 
 of carbide holders are arranged at different heights, so as to be 
 successively decomposed. 
 
 884 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 Gilmer, G. A 
 Paris 
 
 23230 
 Nov. 4, 1898 
 
 Bilbie, J. 
 
 and 
 
 Drivet, H. 
 London 
 
 18543 
 
 Nov. 5, 1898 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide is placed in perforated cylinders supported at 
 some distance from the bottom of a water tank by rests. Each 
 carbide holder is covered by a bell so fixed to plates at bottom of 
 tank that water is able to rise within them from the bottom. 
 The fixed bells are covered by another bell which rises and falls 
 within the water tank. When the cock attached to the gas 
 eduction of any of the fixed bells is opened, water rises within 
 that bell and attacks the carbide. The gas passes through a 
 cooling coil to the movable gas bell. Thus the carbide chambers 
 may be brought into use simultaneously or in succession. In- 
 stead of a separate fixed bell for each carbide holder, one fixed 
 bell may cover all the carbide holders. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp Generators. 
 
 The carbide receptacle is situated in the upper part of the 
 lamp, and is surrounded by a water jacket. The carbide 
 chamber is closed at the top, and provided with a gas pipe 
 leading to the burner. The water reservoir is at the bottom of 
 the lamp, and contains a wick. One end of the wick dips into 
 the water, while the other passes upwards through a wire 
 gauze horizontal partition to the carbide, to which it conveys 
 moisture. The evolution of gas is stopped, and the lamp is 
 extinguished, by withdrawing the moistened wick from contact 
 with the carbide, the withdrawal being effected by turning the 
 water reservoir from left to right, the rotation drawing the 
 wick from contact with the gauze and consequently with the 
 carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The water receptacle is at back of lamp, and the carbide 
 chamber at the base. The two vessels are connected by rubber 
 pipe. The carbide is placed in a reticulate bag, and the water 
 flows to the bag either direct from the nozzle or after first 
 travelling through a screen, in which the bag may be placed. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Between the chamber at base of lamp, which contains an 
 open dish charged with carbide, and the water reservoir at the 
 top of lamp, is a cylinder covered by a bell capable of rising 
 and falling in a water or glycerine seal formed between the 
 casing of the lamp and the bell. Water passes through an 
 adjustable valve in bottom of water reservoir down a pipe to a 
 series of radiating downwardly inclined tubes, which distri- 
 bute it over the carbide. If generation exceeds consumption in 
 spite of adjustment of valve, the excess gas passes into the 
 
 885 
 
 Fischer, 
 
 O. R. 
 Germany 
 
 Mbller, 
 J. C. H. 
 
 and 
 
 Schaefer, 
 
 W. C. L. 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 23385 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Thiersant, 
 H. de 
 and 
 
 Coulson, 
 W. A. 
 28675 
 Nov. 10. 
 
 Troubetzkoy 
 L. 
 
 Milan 
 
 24002 
 Nov. 14. l9s 
 
 Margulies, 
 P. 
 
 Odessa 
 
 24065 
 
 Nov. 15. LS98 
 
 bell, which rises and completely closes the valve. If gas con- 
 tinues to accumulate it may escape up a safety pipe to an 
 auxiliary burner, where it ignites by contact with the flame of 
 the principal burner. 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 The carbide is contained in a perforated holder placed within 
 a cylinder. The cylinder has internal spiral grooves running 
 around it. The grooves have apertures at suitable intervals. 
 An outer jacket is tightly secured around the cylinder, and has 
 a gas outlet pipe at top. The jacket, with its cylinder, is im- 
 mersed in a chamber charged with water. The water obtains 
 access to carbide through the grooves and apertures. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a number of receptacles, one above 
 the other. The lower part of generator consists of cylindrical 
 casing provided near lower end with transverse partition. 
 Within casing is cylinder, open at top and closed at bottom, 
 containing another cylinder also closed at bottom and open at 
 top, within which the carbide receptacles are placed. The 
 annular chamber formed between walls of outer cylinder and 
 casing is filled with water. The upper part of generator con- 
 sists of casing divided by horizontal partition, to form an upper 
 water receptacle, while lower compartment is open at bottom 
 and adapted to enter the annular water seal in lower outer part 
 of generator. Water inlet is so arranged that top carbide recep- 
 tacle is first attacked, and after carbide in this has been ex- 
 hausted, the water overflows to next receptacle, and so on. The 
 valve which admits water is attached to lever which is 
 actuated by the bell of a gasholder connected to the generating 
 apparatus. When bell sinks, water valve is opened ; and when 
 bell rises, the valve is closed. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Two gas containers are provided, one of which is connected 
 to the burners, and is automatically closed if gas pressure ex- 
 ceeds normal, while the other receives the gas subsequently 
 produced. Water flows from an elevated tank to a generator 
 containing carbide, but when the gas pressure exceeds a certain 
 point it actuates a device which cuts off the water supply, 
 whilst a second regulating device closes communication of 
 generator with the gas container, to which the burners are 
 connected. A modification of this generator is adapted for 
 railway carriage lighting. 
 
 886 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A water tank has a gas bell fitted within it, and within the 
 bell is another water tank so placed that when the bell is in 
 its lowest position it forms a cover over the cover of the tank 
 with little or no intervening space for the presence of gas or 
 air. The inner tank supplies water to the generators. The 
 horizontal cylindrical generators are placed in any convenient 
 position below the water tanks, and are fitted with gas-tight 
 doors. The carbide is contained in perforated or wirework 
 baskets within compartments so arranged that the water de- 
 composes the carbide in one compartment before flowing over 
 into the next. Suitable pipe connections and stopcocks and 
 valves are arranged between the different parts. When the 
 gas bell rises, the flow of water ceases ; when it sinks, the water 
 again flows to carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Water flows by gravity into a generator containing carbide. 
 The acetylene is conducted to a gasholder bell, the rise and fall 
 of which connects and disconnects the water supply to the 
 generator. The carbide is placed in a tin receptacle partitioned 
 off with clearance spaces within the divisions. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The gasholder bell in its descent releases carbide cages, which 
 are pivoted one above the other at the side of the feed arrange- 
 ment. The sludge can be removed without interfering with 
 the working of the plant. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 By means of a rotating fan, gas or air is drawn through a 
 vessel filled with porous material saturated with water, then 
 passing through another chamber containing carbide on a per- 
 forated tray. By repeating this process, dry acetylene is pro- 
 duced from the carbide without allowing liquid water to come 
 in contact with the carbide. 
 
 Beech, W. W. 
 
 and 
 
 Jones, H. 
 Stockport 
 
 24409 
 Nov. 18. 1898 
 
 Ellen, W. 
 Manchester 
 
 24501 
 Nov. 21. 1898 
 
 Falbe, O. 
 Berlin 
 
 24682 
 
 Nov. 22, 1898 
 
 Lanchester, 
 F. W. 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 24771 
 Nov. 23, 1898 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A number of cylindrical generators containing carbide are Bailey, C. J. 
 attached to a tank divided by a horizontal partition. A pipe 
 extends from bottom of upper chamber nearly to bottom of Manchester 
 lower chamber. A suitable pipe conveys water from the lower 24785 
 chamber to the generators. The lower chamber is supplied Nov. 24. 1898 
 with water from the upper chamber, which is a water reservoir. 
 The gas from generator escapes into upper part of lower cham- 
 ber, and as the gas pressure increases the level of water is 
 
 887 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Schwass, A. 
 Berlin 
 
 25016 
 Nov. 26. 1898 
 
 Bucher, P. 
 
 Mannheim 
 
 25297 
 Nov. 30, 1898 
 
 forced back until it is below the inlet of the supply pipe to 
 generators. The retreating water escapes into the upper cham- 
 ber. The generators are used successively, the water from one 
 overflowing into the next. The carbide holder consists of a 
 series of shallow cases fitted one above the other upon a central 
 removable spindle. Each case is open at top, and has two or 
 more division plates, the water inlet to each division being at 
 a different level. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide is packed in receptacles successively brought into 
 action. The water supply is governed by the movement of the 
 gas bell. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a perforated receptacle, which can be 
 passed into, or removed from, a generator open at base and 
 closed at top, by aid of a rotatable lever. For continuous 
 working, two or more such removable carbide receptacles may 
 be employed. The apparatus may be worked by hand or be 
 automatically operated by the rise and fall of a gas bell. 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 Thubron, D. In portable lamp the flow of water from upper chamber is 
 Scarborough regulated by external stopcock. The carbide in lower chamber 
 Nov 80 'l89s * s con tained in removable cage. A pipe passes from upper part 
 of carbide chamber through water chamber to stopcock and 
 burner. In a larger generator the carbide is contained in a 
 scoop in generating chamber at bottom of gasholder tank, and 
 water is automatically sprayed over carbide when bell descends 
 to certain position. The gas passes through water trap, and 
 then up through any suitable filtering material. In another 
 form the carbide is placed in perforated tube suspended within 
 bell of gasholder, and when bell rises the carbide tube also rises 
 from contact with water. In a floating light for fishing pur- 
 poses the carbide is placed within a buoy perforated at bottom. 
 The gas pressure within the buoy automatically controls inlet 
 of water. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 An outer cylindrical casing is divided horizontally by a par- 
 London tition near the bottom. Immediately above the partition a 
 26628 number of circular openings are made in the side of the casing. 
 Dec. 16. 1898 Cylinders to hold carbide receptacles are fitted inwardly through 
 these openings ; they are placed horizontally and radially, and 
 are closed at inside end. Upon the end fitted outside the case 
 they are provided with removable covers. Perforated receptacles, 
 
 888 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 closed at one end and having removable covers, and charged 
 with carbide, are placed within the cylinders. Pipes extend 
 from top of one cylinder to bottom of adjacent cylinder. The 
 first cylinder is in communication, by a pipe passing through 
 the partition, with the lower part of the lower compartment. 
 Water being admitted to the upper part of the casing flows 
 through a pipe to the lower compartment, driving the air out 
 through the carbide chambers. The water rises and gradually 
 enters lowest cylinder, and subsequently enters the other 
 cylinders in succession. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Apparatus includes a supply chamber for carbide and means 
 for measuring and delivering a given quantity of carbide into a 
 water chamber. Also means for automatically controlling the 
 delivery of carbide, and a cut-off or separator located between 
 the water in the water chamber and the carbide-feeding mec- 
 hanism, whereby moisture from the water chamber is pre- 
 vented from rising to the carbide. 12 different claims. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The generator containing carbide is placed beneath a gas- 
 holder, the water for the generator being supplied from the 
 gasholder tank, and automatically connected and disconnected 
 by the rise and fall of the bell, which actuates a suitable rock 
 lever and valve situated at the bottom of the holder tank. 
 The generator must not be more than half filled with carbide, 
 as the carbide in decomposing will double its volume. This 
 fact is made use of to cause a perforated plate placed upon the 
 carbide to rise and actuate the counting wheel of a meter fitted 
 near the base of the gasholder tank to indicate how much car- 
 bide remains undecomposed. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper reservoir containing water is detachably connected 
 with lower chamber containing carbide. Claims relate solely to 
 method of connection, the connecting part being formed in one 
 piece of material with the water reservoir. The attachment of 
 carbide chamber is effected by stirrup piece hinged on one side 
 and secured on other side by lever catch. The stirrup piece 
 presses against bottom of carbide chamber, and is provided with 
 a regulating screw for compressing the packing material. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Three superposed chambers, the bottom containing water, the Beck, C. W. 
 middle containing a carbide feed-hopper, and the top one con- Chicago 
 taining a loaded gas bag for regulating the feed of carbide. As , 
 
 Gardner, 
 E.P. 
 and 
 
 Kelly, T. 
 
 New London, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 26862 
 
 Dec. 20, 1898 
 
 Friebel, E. 
 
 and 
 
 Nake, R. 
 Dresden 
 
 27326 
 Dec. 27. 1898 
 
 Schmitt, L. 
 
 27618 
 Dec. 31, 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 the gas bag collapses, the feed plunger descends and allows car- 
 bide to pass, and as the bag becomes inflated it draws up the 
 plunger and closes the feed aperture. To prevent splashing of 
 water when carbide drops into it, a cork float is suspended in 
 the water chamber, and has holes through which water may 
 pass up through it. An expansible bag is fastened to mouth of 
 water chamber and to the edge of the float. The carbide drops 
 upon the float, and as it accumulates weighs down the water 
 below the water surface. When all the carbide has been decom- 
 posed the bag and float containing the residue can be removed. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Sciffcrt, E. 7 sheets drawings, 7 claims. A carbide receptacle provided 
 with internal pockets, arranged radially and spirally, is placed 
 
 Tomlinson, within a cylinder. The interior space within the receptacle is 
 J. D. in communication above and below with water pipes, through 
 
 Rochdale which is conducted a constant stream of water to cool the re- 
 
 Jan ll" 1S9!) ceptacle. The water for generation of gas is admitted through 
 a pipe into annular perforated pipe at upper end of cylinder. 
 The perforated pipe directs water against inner wall of cylinder, 
 down which it runs. The gas rising from carbide passes 
 through pipe to a dip pipe, which delivers it below the water 
 of a gasholder. Automatic control of gas pressure is obtained 
 by means of a float valve working in a water cistern. A gas- 
 holder is also described, which consists of two or more tubes 
 having a common gas exit, but insulated by wire gauze to pre- 
 vent communication of explosions. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Electro Water chamber at top, and carbide chamber at base. Between 
 
 Lamp Co ^ Q chamber is a screw-threaded channel with a conical open- 
 707 ing to receive end of needle valve. The needle valve is adjusted 
 Jan. 11. 1899 by turning a perforated tube, which passes upward through the 
 water vessel, and terminates in a perforated funnel, fitted at 
 top with a milled perforated head outside the casing. The 
 perforated tube is surrounded with cloth or other porous fabric. 
 The carbide container has a removable top and removable 
 bottom. A vertical perforated tube secured to the bottom ex- 
 tends through the centre of the container. The water from 
 reservoir enters this tube, which may be filled with filtering 
 material, and passes through perforations to carbide. Within 
 the container is a horizontal disc supported from the top by a 
 spring. This spring is adapted to compensate for the swelling 
 of the carbide beneath the disc. Absorbent discs are placed 
 against top and bottom surfaces of the carbide. 
 
 890 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Berlin 
 
 1796 
 Jan. 26. 1899 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 One end of a cylinder fitted with a piston opens into the Hillberg, E. 
 generator, one end of the piston being acted on by the gas in 
 the generator and the other by a helical spring. When the 
 volume of gas in the generator decreases, the piston is forced 
 inwards by its spring until a rod attached to it comes in con- 
 tact with a sliding valve at the bottom of a vertical carbide 
 chamber. The valve being thus opened, carbide falls into the 
 water in the generator. With the increased volume of gas, 
 the piston is forced back closing the carbide chamber. 
 
 Acetylene Apparatus for Railway Cars. 
 
 A cylindrical casing containing an inner water reservoir and 
 carbide holder, divided into compartments which are attacked 
 successively as required. The outer casing also serves to store 
 the gas before it passes to the burners in the car. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A rectangular metal vessel is divided at about half its height 
 by a horizontal partition. The upper chamber of the rectangu- 
 lar vessel serves as a water reservoir, the lower as a displace- 
 ment gasholder. Passing across the interior of the gasholder is 
 a rectangular chamber so constructed that it is hermetically 
 sealed from the gasholder, save at point where water enters and 
 gas escapes. The chamber is inclined and closed by a gas-tight 
 door projecting slightly beyond wall of gasholder. The trays 
 containing carbide are inserted through this door. Each car- 
 bide chamber has near top a perforation, all the perforations 
 being at a different level. When the water rises to level of 
 lowest perforation, gas is generated and passes through washer 
 to top of gasholder. Increase of pressure beyond certain point 
 prevents flow of water to carbide. A gauge, to show by height 
 of water which carbide vessel is in action, is provided. 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 The water reservoir is immediately beneath the carbide 
 holder, which latter nearly fills the gas chamber in which it is 
 contained. A central tube rises through reservoir, and within 
 it is a wick tube capable of being moved up or down by a cam 
 and shaft connected to an operating button outside bottom of 
 reservoir. A cap is also screwed to top of shaft, so that when 
 operating button is turned the cap is moved over top of central 
 tube simultaneously with the lowering of the wick tube, or 
 turned away from top of tube when the wick tube is raised. 
 The details of construction may be largely varied. Gas is 
 generated by contact of top of wick with carbide. 
 
 891 
 
 Duder- 
 stadt, F., & 
 Handler, M. 
 
 Leipsig 
 
 1809 
 Jan. 26, 1899 
 
 Bond, E. S. 
 Handsworth 
 
 2186 
 Jan. 31, 1899 
 
 Rhind, F. 
 
 Bridgeport 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 2226 
 
 Jan. 81, 1899 
 01. July 22. 
 
 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Schneeweis Carbide falls into water. The carbide is placed in a series of 
 
 j 4 ' chambers circularly arranged, the bottom plates being opened 
 
 Hanau, successively by a rotating plate operated by the descent of the 
 
 J n y gas bell. In the water vessel, into which the carbide falls, is 
 
 Feb. 2 1899 an inclined tubular shoot having an orifice which can be closed, 
 
 so that the carbide may be introduced by hand when desired. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Barratt ^ ne llse ^ a double water supply chamber is claimed. Pre- 
 
 F. w. ferably one chamber is above the other. The carbide chamber 
 Wimborne is attached to base of lower water chamber. A tube passes from 
 JQJJJJ bottom of upper water chamber down through lower water 
 chamber. The end of tube is bent upward so that its mouth 
 opens in the lower water chamber near the bottom. The water 
 from top chamber passes to lower chamber to replace that con- 
 sumed in gas generation. Water is introduced- through open- 
 ings normally closed with perforated screw caps. Gas pipe 
 from carbide chamber may pass through both water chambers 
 to burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Szepczynski, Carbide is fed into water by drums operated by a gasholder 
 
 S. de bell, and divided into cells which are emptied in succession. A 
 
 Vienna number of annular receptacles are arranged to surround an 
 
 Feb 17 1899 inner drum, and as each receptacle is emptied, it carries along 
 
 the adjoining charged receptacle. Each time a receptacle is 
 
 discharged by sinking of the bell to certain position, a charged 
 
 receptacle is simultaneously brought over the feed aperture. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 De Lasservc Two or more bells, each containing a cylinder perforated in 
 
 Isaac the upper part and holding trays loaded with carbide, are so 
 
 France connected to a gasholder bell that when all are immersed to- 
 
 Feb 23 1899 S^her in the same tank of water the ascent of the gasholder 
 
 bell withdraws the carbide bells from the water at the same 
 
 time. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Caldicott, J. Within a gasholder tank there rises a vertical pipe provided 
 Hull with a packed gland. Within this pipe slides a pipe vertically 
 ^94 ( suspended from the top of the gas bell, and having water inlet 
 holes perforated in it at a certain distance from the top of the 
 bell. The generators containing carbide are externally con- 
 nected by suitable pipes and cocks to the gasholder, from the 
 tank of which they are supplied with water when the gas bell 
 
 892 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 sinks sufficiently to allow the perforations of the depending 
 pipe to fall below the water level. When the bell rises suffi- 
 ciently to draw the perforations above the water level, no water 
 can flow to the generators. 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 A cylindrical casing is mounted upon a detachable water Sunderland, 
 reservoir. Within the casing, and separated from water 
 reservoir by a partition, is an annular secondary chamber Marshall, G. 
 partly filled with water, and constituting a water seal for a Birmingham 
 bell. Within the bell is a cylindrical chamber, having its 
 bottom open to water reservoir, and its top furnished with a 
 neck opening into upper part of bell. This cylindrical chamber 
 receives a detachable carbide holder, having a sleeve at bottom, 
 which fits into neck of water reservoir. The lower end of car- 
 bide holder is closed by a conical valve operated by a rod ex- 
 tending up through the holder, and kept up to its seating by a 
 spring in the upper neck of carbide holder. The interior of 
 carbide holder is formed into a series of hopper-shaped com- 
 partments, one above the other. When generation exceeds 
 consumption, gas passes up to bell, which rises and allows the 
 spring-operated rod to close carbide feed valve. When bell 
 sinks, it presses down the rod and spring, and opens the valve. 
 Gas eduction pipe passes up through top of annular chamber, 
 where connection is made with flexible tubing, which conducts 
 it to burner. The burner is fitted on top of detachable lid of 
 casing. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Amplification of Marshall's Patent No. 19518 of 1898. The Sunderland, 
 cartridge case is lined internally with absorbent material, and and 
 
 has an internal domed false bottom. The domed bottom is pro- Marshall, G. 
 vided to allow room for the expansion of decomposing carbide, Birmingham 
 and may be constructed of the absorbent lining material, or b ^24^1899 
 any other compressible substance. The wick, which passes 
 through the cartridge and hangs below its base, is now 
 weighted at the end suspended in water. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 Carbide falls into water. A vertical shaft rises through the ' 
 
 centre of a generator connected with a gasholder. The shaft 4223 
 
 passes through the bottom of the generator, where it is con- Feb. 25, 1899 
 nected to a fixed pulley round which a chain or cord is passed. 
 The fall of the gasholder causes the pulley to rotate to a certain 
 extent. The top of the shaft terminates in a disc provided with 
 one or more slots. On the rotation of the shaft by the descent 
 of the gasholder, the pin which fastens the hinged bottom of 
 
 893 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Haws, J. R. 
 Liverpool 
 
 1560 
 Mar. 2, 1899 
 
 Riemann, 
 
 A. H. 
 
 and H. O. 
 
 Saxony 
 
 5090 
 Mar. 8, 1899 
 
 Dolan, E. J. 
 Philadel- 
 phia 
 
 5221 
 Mar. 9, 1899 
 
 a carbide receptacle is withdrawn, allowing- the carbide to fall 
 into the water. The carbide boxes are segments of a circle in 
 cross section with hinged bottoms. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The lamp has a hollow base, into which is placed a wire cage 
 charged with carbide, and provided with a spring, which 
 presses the carbide upward. Around the base is an annular 
 space filled with water to form a water jacket. Above the base 
 is a water container having a cylinder, which dips into the 
 water in the annular space, depending from its under side. 
 Upon the upper side of the bottom of the container is a gas 
 chamber secured by a bayonet joint. Small holes are provided 
 in side of gas chamber near bottom. A pipe extends from 
 centre of top of carbide chamber up into the gas chamber, and 
 has a small side hole above bottom of the gas chamber. A stop- 
 cock and burner is situated on top of gas chamber. When con- 
 tainer is charged with water, the water flows into the gas 
 chamber, and through the hole in central pipe, from whence it 
 drops to carbide. The gas escapes up central pipe to gas cham- 
 ber, and as gas pressure increases the level of water is driven 
 back until it ceases to flow through hole to carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Relates solely to devices for securing carbide holder contained 
 within a case to the underside of the body of an acetylene lamp. 
 A flange extends downward from lower part of lamp body, and 
 the carbide holder case has two flanges provided with inter- 
 hooking parts engaging as bayonet joint. Through bottom of 
 case a screw extends upward to press carbide holder against 
 packing material in seating of lamp body. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Three superposed compartments : the top to contain water, the 
 middle to contain carbide, the bottom to receive carbide residue. 
 Between middle and bottom chambers is a rotatable grate 
 operated by a spindle extending outside. This grate supports 
 the carbide, and when rotated detaches the residue from the 
 undecomposed carbide, and distributes the carbide so that fresh 
 surfaces are constantly exposed to the water. The water passes 
 through a valve in bottom of top chamber, but instead of falling 
 direct upon the carbide is made to flow along a flexible con- 
 ductor, in the form of one or more small chains, so that it 
 reaches carbide in steady stream. Within the middle chamber 
 is an inwardly extending finger, the lower end of which ap- 
 proaches the rotatable grate, and retards movement of carbide 
 
 894 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 when grate is rotated. The spindle may pass through the base 
 of the bottom chamber, and terminate in a hand-wheel large 
 enough to form a base for the lamp. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A containing vessel has a bottom provided with a downward Frbhlich, B. 
 cylindrical extension. Within the extension is the holder con- Leipzig 
 taining carbide, the holder being normally forced upwards by a ^ ar ^5 1899 
 spring beneath it. The lower portion of the containing vessel 
 is filled with a heavy liquid such as chloroform or carbon 
 disulphide, which must be unattacked by carbide or acetylene. 
 Upon this layer of inactive liquid is placed a layer of water. 
 The spring forces up the carbide holder so that the carbide is in 
 contact with the water. If production exceeds consumption, 
 the gas pressure forces down the carbide holder below the water 
 level and immerses it in the inactive liquid. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The generating chamber at the base of the apparatus is a sunderland, 
 double cone-shaped compartment surrounded preferably by an R. H. & F., & 
 outer casing, and terminating at the bottom in an outlet for ^ 
 spent lime, etc. The upper end of the generator is surmounted 
 by a fixed carbide holder in a cylindrical casing. A valve stem Mar. '23, 189?' 
 passes out through the top of the carbide chamber, and has a 
 head or button at the upper end, between which and the top of 
 the chamber a spring is placed, the tendency of the spring 
 keeping the valve up on its seat when the gas-containing 
 chamber, located around the carbide chamber and working in a 
 water seal in the outer casing of the apparatus, is raised by the 
 generated gas. When the holder falls, the top of the container 
 strikes the top of the valve rod, compressing the spring and 
 opening the valve, thus allowing carbide to fall into the water 
 in the generating chamber. The gas is cooled by passing 
 through a worm in the gas container. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Each generator is provided with a carbide bucket, and has at Robinson, 
 top a non-return gas valve. The generators are covered by J. W. 
 movable bell, and the whole is contained in a closed tank filled and 
 with water to suitable height. The closed tank communicates Enfieid ' 
 with a superposed water reservoir. When bell is in lowest 
 position a valve at bottom of superposed reservoir is held open Mar. 23, 1899 
 by spring, and water passes down a pipe to the generators. 
 The pressure of gas generated first commences to force water 
 from bell up into superposed tank, but soon the bell rises, and 
 when it nearly reaches top of closed tank in which it is con- 
 tained, it raises a plate and lever, and thereby closes valve 
 
 895 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 which admits water to generators. Gas generated after water 
 supply is cut off merely tends to force water from closed tank 
 up to overhead tank. One generator may be cleaned while 
 others are in operation. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Hedgeland, The carbide is placed in a cylindrical holder open at bottom 
 
 F. W. and closed at top by a removable cap having a gas eduction 
 
 tube passing through its centre. The carbide holder is placed 
 
 Mar 27 1899 within a chamber in the body of the lamp, the chamber being 
 surrounded by the outer casing containing water. Beneath the 
 carbide chamber is an equalising chamber which has an in- 
 clined pipe passing from bottom annular passage of water 
 reservoir nearly to its base. The water inlet from annular 
 passage to equalising chamber is controlled by valve having 
 stem projecting through top of reservoir. Through centre of 
 carbide holder a tube passes vertically, the upper portion form- 
 ing gas eduction pipe, and lower part, which is enlarged in 
 diameter and is perforated, serves as water inlet. Eeservoir 
 being filled with water, water passes into equalising chamber 
 through valve and rises to the enlarged perforated part of tube. 
 When production exceeds consumption, pressure of gas forces 
 back the water to equalising chamber. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Combier, A. The generator is formed of a double reservoir with a single 
 Pierre bottom, the interior one receiving the water to act on the carbide, 
 and the exterior containing the gasholder bell. The carbide 
 3925 hopper is attached to the dome of the bell. A rod carrying 
 Mar. 30, 1899 two spherical valves passes through the mouth of the hopper. 
 When the bell rises be3>x>nd a certain position, the upper spheri- 
 cal valve closes the mouth of the hopper; and when the bell 
 falls, the valve is raised from its seat, allowing carbide to drop 
 into the water. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Thinauit. The carbide is placed in suitable holder in carbide chamber, 
 
 A. E. which in turn is situated within a reservoir charged with 
 
 and water. The carbide chamber carries cap with burner. A metal 
 
 Paris ' tu^ sufficiently thick to absorb heat arising from carbide de- 
 
 7099 composition without conducting it to the water, passes verti- 
 
 '* cally through centre of carbide holder. The tube is slotted for 
 
 certain portion of its height to allow water to pass to carbide. 
 
 A threaded rod passes down the tube, leaving a small annular 
 
 space for water passage. The rod is screwed into collar at 
 
 lower end of slotted tube. The rod is preferably provided with 
 
 several threads, so that the water rises as if in several capillary 
 
 896 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 helicoidal tubes. In another form of lamp the rod is not 
 threaded, but is arranged within a perforated tube, leaving 
 slight play between rod and tube. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Apparatus consists of two detachable parts. The lower part 
 has a container for carbide and residual lime, and serves as 
 a gasholder. The upper part is a water reservoir having a 
 number of valves or taps through which water cannot pass 
 more rapidly than in drops. The gas producing capacity of 
 generator is proportionate to number of valves. Each valve 
 can be operated independently of the others. 
 
 Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 The water reservoir is at base of lamp, and its bottom is con- 
 structed of rubber. Carbide is contained in a grid in a cylin- 
 drical chamber above, and at top of this chamber is a rubber 
 gas bell. The rubber chambers at top and bottom of lamp are 
 protected by suitable perforated metal guards so constructed as 
 to allow space for expansion of rubber. When pressure of gas 
 rises owing to shutting burner cock, or to excessive production, 
 the rubber bottom of the water reservoir is pressed downwards 
 and the level of water sinks below the carbide grid. The gas, 
 which may then continue to be slowly evolved, passes into the 
 rubber bell at top of carbide chamber, and any gas produced 
 after this is filled may escape through a safety valve to open 
 air. The gas passes through a tube containing some suitable 
 filtering and drying material. When gas pressure is relieved, 
 water returns to the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A drum for holding the carbide, divided into several compart- 
 ments, is fitted immediately above a water container connected 
 with a gasholder. Between the gas bell and the weighted drum 
 is a ratchet, which causes the drum to move to a certain extent 
 at each movement of the bell. The charges of carbide thus 
 automatically released by the rise and fall of the bell pass into 
 the hopper of the water container, and are deflected by a cone 
 to the sides of the vessel, to prevent the residue accumulating 
 in the centre of the vessel. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A funnel-shaped carbide receiver, closed at top, has an aper- 
 ture at bottom, which can be closed or opened automatically by 
 a valve, operated by an annular float by means of a lever. A 
 pipe attached to bottom of carbide receiver passes down into an 
 open vessel arranged within a water container. The float in 
 
 897 57 
 
 Holliday 
 Acetylene 
 
 Co. 
 Cardno, W. 
 
 and 
 
 Read- 
 
 Holliday 
 
 Hudders- 
 
 fleld 
 
 7325 
 
 Apr. 7, 1899 
 
 Andersen, 
 A. P. 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 7400 
 Apr. 8. 1899 
 
 Demuth, C. 
 
 Zittan, 
 Saxony 
 
 7877 
 Apr. .14, 1899 
 
 Kuppers, K. 
 and 
 
 Schroeder, 
 
 H. 
 
 Aix-la- 
 Chapelle 
 
 Apr . 2 0," 1899 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 lower part of open vessel is connected with vertical lever, 
 which actuates carbide feed valve. Below valve is a conical 
 shield to prevent scattering of falling carbide. The gas educ- 
 tion pipe is connected to a small pipe extending upwards to top 
 of carbide receiver. A device to indicate the amount of carbide 
 in the receiver is fitted in receiver cover. When carbide drops 
 into water, the pressure of gas generated forces down level of 
 water and with it the float, thereby causing feed valve to close. 
 As pressure diminishes, float rises and opens valve. The bot- 
 tom of water container being funnel-shaped, and provided with 
 drain pipe and cock, the removal of sludge is easily effected. 
 
 Portable Generator. 
 
 The carbide holder is adjustably suspended in a water recep- 
 burg tacle by means of its vertical gas outlet tube. In bottom of 
 carbide holder is a spring-pressed valve having a stem with a 
 ! ' conical top projecting upwards above the carbide. When the 
 holder is lowered into the water to a certain distance a very 
 fine jet of water passes up through the valve to the carbide. 
 Gas is generated and passes to burner. As the gas pressure in 
 the holder increases, it drive$ back the water and checks genera- 
 tion. 
 Alexande"' Acetylene Generator. . 
 
 W. A. Two carbide holders, each having a bottom portion divided 
 
 ad into a series of sections hinged to the body of the holder, are 
 
 Guelph located above a water reservoir. The successive discharge of 
 
 Canada the contents of each section is automatically effected by the 
 
 repeated descent of a gasholder bell to a certain point. 
 May 9, 1899 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Steiner, L. rp^ carbide receptacle is situated within a displacement gas- 
 Bucharest, J _ , , V, ., ^ 
 Roumania holder, and can be removed from below or from the side. The 
 
 10152 holder is surrounded by a water tank, the two communicating 
 ' with each other through holes in the lower part of the gasholder. 
 A safety blow-off pipe is provided for the escape of gas when the 
 pressure is excessive. Above the water tank and gasholder is 
 placed a water reservoir, from which, by means of a valve 
 operated from the exterior of the reservoir, water is allowed 
 to drip upon the carbide. The acetylene passes through pipes 
 from the generating chamber to the gasholder. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Generators. 
 
 Steiner, L. A bell with carbide holders fitted within is immersed in a 
 
 water tank. The carbide holders are provided with water inlet 
 
 May 15. 1899 openings, placed at various heights, in order to prevent the 
 
 whole of the carbide being acted on at once, and to avoid over 
 
 production of gas. 
 
 898 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide falls into water. The carbide rests against a special Tabard, G. 
 form of valve in the generator, the seat of which rises or moves 
 at the required moment, allowing a certain quantity of carbide jyiay 17, 1899 
 to fall. The device may be attached to the bell of a gasholder 
 or to generators separate from the holder. 
 
 Saule, P. C. 
 Tulle, 
 France 
 
 10862 
 May 24, 1899 
 
 Fenderl, E. 
 Vienna 
 
 11116 
 M ay 27, 1899 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 The generator is shaped like an inclined funnel, and can be 
 turned round on a pivot for cleaning purposes. The upper open- 
 ing of the generator is immediately beneath the discharge end 
 of a carbide shoot. The shoot is arranged in a spiral round 
 the gas bell, and in it are placed balls of carbide or iron balls 
 filled with carbide. When the bell is in a certain position a 
 fork attached to the bell enters the shoot above the lowest ball. 
 On the bell still sinking, a rod disengages the catch which closes 
 the end of the discharge pipe, and allows the ball to fall into the 
 water in the generator. 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A generating device formed by a spiral or worm inside a 
 sieve casing. In the worm, or on the casing, are fixed claws 
 or pins to effect the continuous sifting, turning, and distribu- 
 tion of the pieces of carbide, in order to free them from the 
 coating of lime. At the same time, cold water is directed by 
 means of jet pipes upon the carbide, and this water washes the 
 surface of the carbide, cooling and purifying the gas as it is 
 liberated. As an alternative, a conveying worm may be 
 arranged under the generating device to move forward con- 
 tinuously the lime sludge that sinks down. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Acetyloid, which is " a combination of calcium carbide with Worsnop, 
 other substances which make it impervious to moisture," is C. H. 
 placed in a wire basket, which in turn is placed in a fixed bell. 
 This bell has at top a tubular extension terminating at top in \j a y 29, \# 
 stopcock and burner. The tubular extension is divided into 
 chambers, the lower containing carbide to dry the gas, the in- 
 termediate with purifying " chemicals," and the top chamber 
 with cotton wool. The bell is lowered into a cylindrical vessel 
 half filled with water, and covered at top by lid attached to 
 tubular extension of bell. When gas generation exceeds con- 
 sumption, the pressure of gas forces water away from contact 
 with carbide. 
 
 899 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hilberg, E. 
 Berlin 
 
 11494 
 June 2, 
 
 Morin, T. 
 
 and 
 
 Straguin, A. 
 Paris 
 
 11551 
 June 2, 1899 
 
 Nowak, G. 
 and 
 
 Portable Lamps. 
 
 The water tank is at base of apparatus. The carbide is 
 placed in a receptacle within a vertical cylindrical chamber 
 having its lower end opening into the top of the water tank. 
 The carbide outlet is closed by a valve consisting of two rubber 
 semi-circular discs, having the straight edges arranged opposite 
 each other, and the circular edges secured to the mouth of the 
 receptacle. A complete disc of rubber, having a slit along its 
 diameter, may be substituted. The valve is opened by a spindle, 
 which is forced down by a spring in the top of the lamp. At- 
 tached to spindle is a flexible diaphragm, which is forced 
 upward against spring by pressure of gas, and withdraws the 
 end of spindle from the valve, and thus permits it to close and 
 stop feed of carbide. When gas pressure falls, the pressure of 
 spring again causes spindle end to open carbide feed valve. 
 The gas passes upward through a filter, and through a passage 
 formed in valve spindle, to the burner. A tube passes from 
 bottom of water reservoir to a stopper in upper side of lamp. 
 If gas pressure becomes excessive, the water is forced up this 
 tube, pushes out the stopper, and escapes, leaving lower end of 
 tube open also for escape of gas. Carbide which falls into 
 water chamber when water is at low level is caught upon the 
 perforated top of the sludge receptacle. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper water reservoir has a cylindrical top closed by a 
 screw plug. In side of cylindrical top is an aperture for ad- 
 mitting air, which may be completely or partially closed by a 
 rubber ring around it. The opening at bottom of reservoir is 
 fitted with a porous plug through which water falls, drop by 
 drop, upon an inclined plate in chamber beneath, and from 
 thence flows to horizontal cylinder containing wire basket 
 charged with carbide. The gas escapes through a chamber 
 containing filtering material on top of carbide cylinder. After 
 filtration, the gas passes to burner. In carriage lamp, water 
 reservoir is at back of lamp, and communicates with lower 
 carbide chamber by a tube with porous plug. The water drips 
 upon carbide, and gas escapes down into a tubular gas chamber 
 and up through a depending tube charged with flannel or other 
 filtering material and up to the burner. The bottom of the 
 lamp holder is a tubular detachable collector for the condensed 
 water. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 The carbide receptacle has a bottom provided with a number 
 of vertical conical tubes, through which water rises so as to 
 
 900 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 attack the carbide from the top downwards. The carbide re- 
 ceptacle is suspended in bell of gasholder. The gas eduction 
 pipe leads to a second gasholder, the bell of which is so ad- 
 justed that it will rise under a lower gas pressure than will the j une 
 bell of the generator When generation of gas in the generator 
 causes bell of storage gasholder to rise, the generator bell 
 remains stationary. But when the storage bell has risen to a 
 certain point it automatically closes the gas cock leading from 
 the generator. The pressure of gas in generator therefore in- 
 creases, and the generator bell rises and draws the carbide 
 receptacle from the water. The wet carbide will still continue 
 to evolve gas for a time, but this may escape to the storage bell 
 through a specially provided gas-way. When storage bell 
 sinks, the main inlet gas cock is automatically opened, and as 
 the pressure in generator bell is relieved, the bell sinks and 
 again immerses carbide receptacle in water. 
 
 Klemm, P. 
 Austro- 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A generator tank containing water, a gasholder, and a method 
 of causing the holder to feed charges of carbide to the tank. 
 The specific claims are : Novel method of feeding the carbide to 
 the water ; an arrangement between gasholder and feed- wheel 
 for actuating the latter at the proper time and position by the 
 holder ; novel methods pertaining to the generator tank, and for 
 
 Goldbacher, 
 
 J. N., New 
 
 York, & 
 
 Bournon- 
 
 ville, E., 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 13301 
 
 controlling and delivering the gas to the holder, whereby the 
 waste can be withdrawn without interfering with the apparatus. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The casing is open at bottom but closed at top by a dome 
 cover, which serves as a gas reservoir. A vessel closed at 
 bottom but open at top is detachably fitted in the casing, and 
 contains a cylinder closed at bottom but open at top, and sup- 
 ported by horizontal partitions in the containing vessel. In 
 the cylinder, which is surrounded with water, is placed the 
 carbide holder, which has a small perforation in its bottom, 
 through which passes the lower end of a small vertically slit 
 feed water tube. Below the cylinder is an air chamber. The 
 water, when allowed to pass the valve, enters the air chamber, 
 but the flow is soon checked by compression of air therein. 
 Sufficient water will however enter to rise through the inlet to 
 carbide chamber and up the slit tube. The generated gas 
 escapes to gas reservoir, then down a pipe to cooling chamber 
 and then to burner. The flow of water to carbide is automati- 
 cally regulated by the pressure of gas within the lamp. 
 
 901 
 
 Pauli 
 
 Lamp Co. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 13339 
 
 June 27, ISO 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Sunder land, 
 A. H. & F.. & 
 Marshall, G. 
 Birmingham 
 
 13786 
 July 4, 1899 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Improvement of Patent 6274 of 1899. The objects are to 
 improve and simplify the construction of the apparatus in such 
 a manner that the escape of gas is prevented. The apparatus 
 may be re-charged with carbide while in operation. The liability 
 to explosions is minimised, and the generated gas is cooled and 
 purified before being conveyed to the holder. 
 
 Wilson, F. C. 
 Chicago 
 
 18805 
 July 4, 1899 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Claims : The employment within a generating chamber of 
 one or more floating carbide containers, and so arranged that 
 the water gains access to the carbide as gas is required, where- 
 upon the vessel sinks and immerses the carbide ; arranging a 
 series of buoyant carbide containers with means for limiting 
 their upward flotation, the water inlets being at different levels 
 thus each carbide vessel is attacked in succession ; arranging 
 means whereby the carbide holders are held with their inlets at 
 different levels, so that they are successively lowered according 
 to the demand for gas j arranging the carbide receptacles in 
 a removable pan or drawer within the generating chamber and 
 communicating therewith. 
 
 Lacroix, P. 
 Paris 
 
 13924 
 July 5, 1899 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Relates to a device to enable water to flow to two generators 
 simultaneously immediately one of them becomes exhausted or 
 becomes inadequate to supply the volume of gas required. The 
 device consists of a water distributor attached to a syphon tube 
 connected to an elevated water tank. The distributor com- 
 municates by a pipe with a variable-pressure gasholder, and 
 has three cocks communicating with one another. The central 
 cock regulates admission of water to distributor, and the side 
 cocks permit or prevent its flow to the respective generators. 
 
 Hamont, 
 P. Van 
 
 Belgium 
 14124 
 
 July 8, 1899 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 Two vertical generators connected to a gasholder contain 
 superposed trays charged with carbide. The bell of the holder 
 is attached to the control valve of an elevated water tank. 
 When the bell sinks, the connecting rope becomes taut and 
 opens the valve ; and when the bell rises, the rope slackens 
 and the valve closes. The water rises from the bottom of one 
 generator to each tray in succession ; and when the carbide in 
 all the trays in one generator has been decomposed, the water 
 overflows to the_next generator. 
 
 902 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE G-ENEBATORS 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 This invention is to render the use of stuffing boxes in acety- Quciic, E. 
 lene generators gas tight, by maintaining a bath of oil at the 
 back of the box on which the pressure of gas is exerted. The , LI(V " 
 generator is a cylinder hermetically closed, and filled with 
 water to a certain level. Powdered carbide is placed in a hopper 
 above the generator, and above the hopper is the oil box. The 
 shaft passing through the stuffing box serves to actuate the 
 valve by the movement of the gas bell. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Carbide in measured quantities is automatically discharged Soderberg, 
 into water. The carbide containers are fixed on the lid of the 
 water receptacle, and the contents of each are discharged, when N jJ^^^ nd ' 
 the gas bell sinks to a certain position, down a shoot into the ^499 
 
 water. This is effected by a toothed wheel, within which is July 13, 1809 
 arranged a pawl and pawl wheel, which allows the bell to rise 
 without affecting the generating mechanism. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The outer case is provided with a hinged cover and contains Gerdes, A, 
 water in its lower part. Between the water reservoir and the Berlin 
 upper carbide chamber is a space in which netting and filtering 
 material is arranged. In the top of the outer case, above the ' 
 carbide chamber, is a casing containing clockwork. This clock- 
 work rotates a vertical shaft, which causes a conveyer to con- 
 duct carbide from its containing chamber into the water. The 
 gas passes through the filtering material and passes up a lateral 
 pipe to the burner. The clockwork is shielded from contact 
 with the gas, but the gas can pass up the central shaft to a 
 shell. If the gas pressure becomes unduly high, certain mech- 
 anism is actuated which stops the clockwork and the discharge 
 of carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 An inner case contains carbide, and the outer case water. Bayiey,G,W. 
 Between the two is a valve controlled by the pressure of gas, Brooklyn, 
 admitting water when pressure falls below a fixed point, and 
 cutting it off when pressure rises. The cylinder which contains July 18. 18W 
 the valve projects upward centrally into the carbide vessel from 
 its base. The carbide may be contained in a cartridge consisting 
 of two telescopic cups having their closed ends outward. The 
 cups are made annular, having cylinders placed concentric with 
 the outer walls and telescoping in a similar manner. The 
 cylinder which forms a portion of the lower cup has a series of 
 perforations in its sides through which water is admitted to the 
 
 903 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Snyder, G. G. 
 
 and 
 
 West, M. L. 
 
 Easton, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 14795 
 
 July 18, 1899 
 
 cup. The cups are provided with a longitudinal groove at one 
 side, adapted to accommodate the pipe within the inner case. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The carbide chamber is suspended in water reservoir. Within 
 carbide chamber is perforated tube provided with wire gauze 
 jacket. Pipe in top of chamber conducts gas to burner. A plug 
 in lower end of perforated tube is provided with central verti- 
 cal passage terminating at top in lateral passage, through 
 which water flows to carbide. The flow of water is automa- 
 tically controlled by pressure of gas within carbide holder. 
 
 Cycle Lamp. 
 
 Carey, A. M. A metal tube divided into two chambers, the lower contain- 
 ing carbide, and the upper containing water, which is admitted 
 * *^e l wer by an adjustable valve in the disc between the 
 chambers. The tube is inserted in the handle bars of the cycle. 
 A burner governed by a pin valve is provided upon the front of 
 the handle bars, and this burner is in communication with the 
 gas chamber formed between the internal tube and the internal 
 walls of the tubular handle bars. 
 
 June 19 1899 
 
 Bridges, C. 
 
 M., San 
 Francisco 
 
 14984 
 July 20, 1899 
 
 Bond, E. S. 
 
 Handsworth 
 
 15336 
 
 July 26, 1899 
 
 Producing and Storing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide holder is placed above a cylindrical vessel con- 
 taining water. When the carbide drops into water the gener- 
 ated gas passes into a perforated drying chamber, through 
 another cylindrical chamber, into the gasholder bell. The pro- 
 duction of gas is automatic, but one of the main objects is " to 
 relieve the gas from constant contact with water by providing 
 a novel dry seal and thereby improve its quality and illumina- 
 ting properties." When the bell is forced upwards by the 
 generation of gas, a rubber sleeve or hood is acted upon and the 
 carbide supply cut off. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The upper chamber is filled with water through an elbow 
 having a perforated screw cap. In the lower chamber is 
 a removable holder charged with carbide and covered with 
 asbestos or similar substance. The water chamber has the 
 burner above it and a stopcock beneath it, the two being con- 
 nected by a vertical pipe passing centrally through the water 
 chamber. The stopcock has two channels : one for passage of 
 gas, the other for passage of water. The stopcock may be so 
 turned that water is cut off while gas passage is open, or both 
 passages may be either open or closed. The water passes down 
 a vertical pipe sheathed with a tube perforated around top 
 
 904 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 placed in the centre of carbide holder. The perforated tube 
 carries a horizontal flange extending over the surface of the 
 carbide. Thus some of the water passes to the centre of the 
 carbide, while another portion flows over the flange to the 
 furthermost carbide. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A cylindrical chamber is fitted inside another cylindrical 
 chamber in such a way that both chambers are closed at top by 
 the same cover, and the inner chamber is in communication at 
 the bottom with cuter cylinder. The inner chamber is pro- 
 vided with a bell which encloses a carbide holder having per- 
 forated walls and a conical bottom. The cover of holder is in 
 form of a piston having its rod extending downwards through 
 the carbide and holder bottom, where it is attached to a spring 
 which has its lower end hooked to a suitable part of the 
 apparatus. This spring tends to pull the piston down, and as 
 the carbide is decomposed, to press the residue out of the holder. 
 The outer cylinder is the water reservoir. The gas outlet pipe 
 passes from bottom of inner cylinder to a coil in the outer 
 reservoir, and from thence to burner. Below the bottom of 
 cylinders is an acetone chamber, with which a pipe in the inner 
 chamber communicates. This pipe is bent within the chamber 
 so that its open end is normally below the level of water, which 
 is provided with a layer of oil in this chamber. Gas generated 
 under excessive pressure is absorbed by the acetone. 
 
 Bartmann, 
 
 L. 
 Berlin 
 
 15406 
 July 27, 1899 
 
 Portable Generators. 
 
 The carbide container which forms upper part of generator 
 has an elastic cover, through centre of which a rod passes 
 vertically downward and is provided at lower end with valve 
 which controls vent at bottom of carbide chamber. The rod has 
 an upper screw thread and terminates outside chamber in a nut, 
 by which the carbide discharge valve may be adjusted. When 
 pressure of gas in carbide chamber increases, the elastic cover is 
 forced upward and draws up the valve rod, thereby closing feed 
 valve. When pressure falls, the valve opens. The water 
 chamber which forms base of generator is detachably connected 
 to carbide chamber. The lower part of tube which extends 
 from carbide into water chamber is perforated or of metallic 
 network, thus preventing the splashing of water into carbide 
 feed valve. A gas tube leads from top of carbide chamber down 
 through its funnel-shaped bottom, while another tube leads from 
 top of carbide chamber to burner. 
 
 905 
 
 Mottlau, 
 
 A. J. 
 Copenhagen 
 
 15459 
 July 27, 1899 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hilbcrg, E. 
 Berlin 
 
 16426 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 See Patent No. 11494 of 1899. Water tank at base. A 
 cylinder is divided by a funnel-shaped carbide feed contrivance 
 Aug. 12, 1K99 i nto an upper carbide chamber and a lower gas chamber. The 
 lower end of the cylinder dips down into the water in the 
 bottom tank, which has an upward cylindrical extension which 
 surrounds the cylinder, and is furnished with openings at its 
 upper end. The gas chamber formed by this cylindrical ex- 
 tension is in communication with the gas chamber below the 
 carbide feed. The carbide feed valve is a rubber plate split 
 diagonally, or two such plates coming in contact with one 
 another may form a better valve. A rod furnished with a 
 tongue may be worked by any preferred mechanism to open 
 and close the valve. If the lamp be accidentally overturned, 
 the water cannot flow out owing to the provision of some 
 spiral courses between the cylindrical extension and the wall 
 of the inner cylinder. 
 
 Schad, 
 
 Herbst & Co. 
 
 Mannheim 
 
 17195 
 Aug. 24, 1899 
 
 Dauber, A. 
 
 Bochum, 
 Germany 
 
 - 17343 
 Aug. 26, 1899 
 
 Matthews, F. 
 Montreal 
 
 ] 7406 
 Aug. 28, 1899 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 The water reservoir is at top, and has a drip tube terminating 
 in a valve, and depending into the central tube of a lower 
 chamber containing carbide. The central tube is perforated at 
 its lower end. Beneath carbide chamber is a tubular ring, 
 which constitutes base of lamp. When valve is opened, and 
 water flows to carbide, gas escapes to a gas chamber between 
 water and carbide reservoirs, and then passes down a hollow 
 pillar to ring at base, from which it passes to burner. The 
 base of lamp is detachable, to allow of introduction of carbide 
 holder. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide falls into water. A device to prevent the distribution 
 of the carbide over the whole area of the bottom of the water 
 tank, thus preventing the escape of gas between the tank and 
 gas bell. When the bell sinks to a certain point, carbide is auto- 
 matically discharged upon a spiral, and falls into an inner 
 water vessel in the tank. The carbide hopper is attached to the 
 top of the bell. 
 
 Acetylene Gas Machines. 
 
 Carbide falls into water. The generator contains a hollow 
 stem in the centre, its four sides being connected with hinged 
 carbide buckets, the catch of which is released by a rod extend- 
 ing up through the stem, and worked by the movement of the 
 gas bell. The carbide buckets are overturned in succession. A 
 safety blow-off pipe is provided. 
 
 906 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 Dewey, C. 
 and 
 
 Chown, J. A. 
 London 
 
 18189 
 Sep. 8, 1899 
 
 Adolfsson, 
 A.E. 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 19345 
 Sep. 26. 1899 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A carbide receptacle, tapered downwards, is closed at top by 
 soldered plate carrying gas eduction pipe, and at bottom by a 
 cap, through which passes a wick to convey water to the car- 
 bide. This device may be applied to any oil lamp by using the 
 oil reservoir as the outer water reservoir. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 A device for generators in which carbide is intermittently 
 fed into water, to prevent air entering generator when water is 
 being changed. It consists of a pipe connection, combined with 
 a water seal, between the water-space of the generator and the 
 outer air, and also between the gas-space of the generator and 
 the water-space of the gasholder, and thirdly, between the 
 water-space of the generator and the gas-space of the gasholder, 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 A water-jacketed cylindrical vessel to contain carbide has 
 open ends adapted to be closed by gas-tight stoppers. A central 
 hole in the upper stopper receives the nozzle of a flexible water 
 reservoir. The nozzle is provided with a stopcock, which is so 
 adjusted that when there is no pressure upon the water reser- 
 voir no water passes the cock. The gas eduction tube from the 
 carbide chamber communicates with an ordinary gasholder, the 
 bell of which carries upon its top an arm which extends over 
 the flexible water reservoir when the bell is filled with gas, but 
 which comes in contact with, and compresses, the reservoir as 
 the bell sinks. The pressure upon the reservoir causes water to 
 pass the stopcock and flow to the carbide. 
 
 Generating Acetylene Gas. 
 
 Carbide falls into water. The generator is a water tank pro- Llorens, J. 
 vided at the top with a pipe for the gas and with a shoot with 
 its lower end inclined. The carbide is placed in a bottomless Oct.~10 18W 
 box travelling on rails and divided by vertical partitions, each 
 compartment being divided by a horizontal movable partition. 
 As the gasholder descends it draws the carbide box by a cord 
 over the mouth of a funnel, allowing one compartment to 
 empty; with the rise of the bell the carbide box is drawn 
 away, this operation continuing until the carbide is exhausted. 
 
 Ginnasi, F. 
 New York 
 
 20256 
 Oct. 9, 1899 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 A cartridge to give a steady flame throughout the life of the 
 carbide charge when the end of the cartridge is immersed in 
 water. In making the cartridge a strip of absorbent material 
 so convoluted as to serve the purpose of a confining and divid- 
 
 907 
 
 Lewis, T. H. 
 
 London 
 
 22389 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 ing frame for the carbide, and to provide room for expansion 
 during decomposition, is employed. The valve for admitting 
 water comprises a metal disc with slits for tongue pieces, a 
 cork packing ring, and an absorbent pad. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Richtcr, S. The piston is removed from a cyclist's tyre inflater. The 
 
 NU 99?k^ rg cylinder is then charged with carbide and closed by a cap. The 
 
 Nov 15 189!' u PP er P ar t of ca P consists of two cylinders arranged one inside 
 
 the other, and through which is a gas channel. An elastic 
 
 ball, which acts as water reservoir, has a valve cock, and is 
 
 attached to projecting side tube of inflater. Water flows from 
 
 the ball to the carbide in inflater cylinder. The generated gas 
 
 passes through openings and channel in cap and escapes through 
 
 drying chamber to burner. 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 Turner, T.G. 21 claims. Each carbide container is made of glass or other 
 New York frangible and fireproof material, into which carbide is packed 
 
 Nov" 1 21 1899 at Pl ace f manufacture and hermetically sealed. When one of 
 these containers arrives at inlet of feed arrangement it rolls 
 laterally off inclined periphery of feed wheel and drops upon 
 grate just over water in generator, where it is broken. If de- 
 sired, the carbide feed may be automatically controlled by 
 pressure of gas within apparatus. The pressure, by displace- 
 ment of water, may cause float to rise and press brake shoe 
 against friction wheel and hold feed mechanism at rest. 
 Diminution of pressure allows level of water in basin to sink, 
 and permits float to descend and release mechanism. 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Smith, G. G. An elevated water tank is provided for each generator. Each 
 generator contains a cylindrical closed holder charged with 
 
 Nov 22 1899 carbide. Between bottom plate of generator and bottom of 
 holder is an upwardly projecting spike surrounded by a spring, 
 which supports the bottom of carbide holder just above spike. 
 A spiked rod also passes vertically through top of generator, 
 and is held in position by a spring. This spike comes in con- 
 tact with cover of carbide holder. Each holder contains suffi- 
 cient carbide to fill the bell of the gasholder. When bell sinks 
 to certain point one of the carbide holders is automatically 
 punctured, and simultaneously water is allowed to flow to the 
 generator in which the holder is situated. Each complete de- 
 scent of the bell brings another carbide holder into operation. 
 
 908 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Acetylene Generator. 
 
 A vessel is divided by a vertical partition into two chambers, 
 one of which is partially filled with water and contains in its 
 upper portion a carbide chamber terminating at bottom in a 
 feeding device. The feeding device consists of a drum having 
 longitudinal compartments for receiving carbide, and which are 
 shaped like screw-threads to ensure gradual discharge of their 
 contents. When the carbide drops through the discharge open- 
 ing it is caught by a wheel beneath. The wheel is provided 
 with a number of pockets having bottoms of some porous 
 material. The wheel dips in the water to about half its 
 height, and is rotated from the shaft of the feed drum by 
 suitable means, so that the pockets are always wet. Thus, 
 dust-like particles of carbide are decomposed upon the porous 
 bottoms of the pockets, and the lumps are carried below the 
 water by the wheel In the bottom of the second vertical 
 chamber is a motor for the carbide-feeding device. This motor 
 is driven by the gas generated in the first chamber. It consists 
 of a cell wheel enveloped by a liquid of high specific gravity. 
 The upper portion of the second chamber is a gas reservoir and 
 contains a pressure-equaliser consisting of a vessel, having one 
 of its walls constructed of flexible material pressed outward by 
 a spring. 
 
 Supplying Water to Generators. 
 
 A pump is situated in the centre of a gasholder tank, and is 
 actuated by the movements of the bell. A pipe and suction 
 valve is provided between the water supply and the pump, and 
 a delivery pipe, with or without a valve, extends from the 
 pump to a point above the highest point of the generator to 
 which the gasholder is connected. The plunger of the pump is 
 connected by a rod with the crown of the gas bell. As the bell 
 rises and draws the plunger with it, water is sucked into the 
 pump ; when the bell falls, the plunger is forced down, and the 
 water is discharged into the generator. 
 
 Adolfsson, 
 A. E. 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 23937 
 Dec. 1, 1899 
 
 Carey, J. W. 
 Brisbane 
 
 23988 
 Dec. 1, 1899 
 
 Acetylene Generators. 
 
 Relates to mechanism whereby carbide is automatically dis- 
 charged into water by the descent cf gasholder bell to certain 
 point, and the discharge is prevented by its ascent. Also to a 
 safety arrangement whereby the movement of distributing drum 
 is arrested if the principal pawl and ratchet wheel mechanism 
 do not immediately come into gear. The drum is provided 
 with suitable number of tubes, each of which receives sufficient 
 carbide for the evolution of a determined quantity of gas of less 
 
 909 
 
 Rouma, A, 
 
 Belgium 
 
 24364 
 Dec. 7, 1899 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 volume than the capacity of gas bell. The drum is keyed upon 
 a vertical shaft provided at lower end with bevel wheel which 
 engages the bevel wheel of a horizontal shaft. 
 
 Acetylene Lamps. 
 
 Strdher, J. Several carbide and water compartments are arranged inde- 
 Dusseldort pendently of each other, and can be brought into action in 
 Jan 3 1900 success ^ on - ^ ne carbide and water receptacles are preferably 
 arranged in circle, and separated by partitions. A water 
 supply pipe from upper reservoir, having controllable valve, is 
 bent sideways below the valve, and is capable of turning on 
 vertical axis. By turning this pipe the water may be made to 
 flow into any desired compartment, and reach carbide behind 
 that water compartment. An index hand to show into which 
 compartment water is being directed is provided in top of 
 reservoir. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ACETYLENE PATENTS 
 
 NOTK. Patents relating solely to constructive details of electric 
 furnaces are not included. 
 
 Willson,T. L. Producing Metallic Carbides and Acetylene therefrom. 
 
 16842 Production of carbide from lime and carbonaceous matter in 
 
 A .ug.27, 1894 the electric furnace, and the evolution of acetylene by the 
 action of water on the carbide. 
 
 NewYork ' Producing Metallic Carbides and Acetylene therefrom. 
 
 As above. 
 
 Willson, T. L. Production and Utilisation of Acetylene. 
 
 The acetylene from carbide is diluted with a certain propor- 
 Nov. 5^894 tion ^ a "* ^ n a holder. 
 
 Gearing, E. Producing Carbide. 
 
 Harrogate An electric furnace with a travelling electrode and feed 
 
 Carburettinq Air and Gases. 
 Bullier, L. IK. y 
 
 Paris Claims the admixture of acetylene with gases for imparting 
 
 1953 or increasing illuminating power. 
 Jan. 28, 1895 
 
 Manufacture of Carbides of Earth Metals. 
 
 Sullier, L. M. Manufacture of various carbides and acetylides of the rare 
 earth metals as cerium, thorium and lanthanum in the electric 
 Feb. 8, 1895 furnace. 
 
 910 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Rendering Acetylene suitable for Burning. Bullier, L M, 
 
 Acetylene is diluted with nitrogen, preference being given to 
 a mixture of equal parts. Afar. 28, 1895 
 
 Enriching Water Gas with Acetylene. 
 
 Acetylene is added to water gas practically at the place of 
 consumption. 
 
 Dickerson, 
 
 E. N. 
 New York 
 
 11848a 
 June 18, 1895 
 
 Manufacture of Illuminating Gas. Willson, T. L. 
 
 New York 
 
 Acetylene is added to illuminating gas or enriched water 18750 
 
 gas. July 18, 1895 
 
 Production of Illuminating Gas. Willson, T. L. 
 
 Non-luminous gases are enriched by adding the gas produced 6 j^76(? r 
 by subjecting acetylene to heat. .July 18, 1895 
 
 Production of Cyanogen Compounds. Caro 
 
 A mixture of calcium and barium or sodium carbides is con- Charlotten- 
 verted into cyanides by the joint action of nitrogen, water 
 
 vapour, and heat, Au. 10 1895 
 
 Production of Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Carbide is made by feeding lime and carbon into the arc 158GO 
 
 produced by an alternating current. Aug. 15, 1895 
 
 Production of Phosphorus. 
 
 Tricalcic phosphate mixed with carbon is heated in electric 
 furnace to yield calcium carbide and free phosphorus. 
 
 Hilbert & 
 Frank 
 
 Charlotten- 
 burg 
 
 18785 
 Oct. 7, 1895 
 
 Manufacture of Carbonic Acid Gas. 
 
 The carbon monoxide produced as a waste product in manu- 
 facture of calcium carbide is converted into carbon dioxide by 
 passage over heated cupric oxide. 
 
 Producing Carbides, Acetylene, etc., etc. 
 
 The numerous claims include production of calcium carbide 
 by passing a highly heated hydrocarbon through a calcium 
 compound ; and production of acetylene by passing highly heated 
 hydrogen, or a gaseous fluid containing hydrogen, through car- 
 
 911 
 
 Ellworthy & 
 
 Henderson 
 
 Bombay & 
 
 London 
 
 19445 
 Oct. 16, 1895 
 
 Maxim, H. 
 New York 
 
 1905 
 Jan. 27. 1890 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 bon. When producing calcium carbide, ordinary limestone, 
 instead of lime, is employed, and when making an illuminating 
 gas in connection with the manufacture of the carbide, a suffi- 
 cient excess of carbon is mixed with the limestone, not only to 
 produce the carbide, but also to reduce the carbonic acid set free 
 from the limestone to carbonic oxide. 
 
 Production of Acetylene with other Gases. 
 
 Greenwich ' Acetylene mixed with other hydrocarbons is produced by the 
 6922 action of water upon calcium carbide mixed with various other 
 
 Mar. 30, 189(5 carbides . 
 
 Pictet, R. P. 
 
 May 2, 1890 
 
 Coppeaux, C. 
 Brussels 
 
 9630 
 May 6, 1896 
 
 Bauer- 
 
 wacrts, E. H. 
 
 Brussels 
 
 11706 
 May 29, 1896 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 The lime and carbon mixture is heated with an oxyhydrogen 
 jet before it reaches the electric furnace. 
 
 Burning Acetylene. 
 
 The acetylene flame is fed with a forced current of hot or 
 cold air, produced either by a fan or by some other air-com- 
 pressing device. 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Purifying acetylene by passing it through lime, or lime mixed 
 with iron sulphate and sawdust, then through acidulated water, 
 through caustic soda or potash solution, and finally through a 
 drying material such as sawdust or bran. 
 
 Thorp, T. 
 Marsh, T. G. 
 Manchester 
 
 12942 
 June 12, 1896 
 
 King, R. 
 
 and 
 
 Wyatt, F. 
 New York 
 
 13881 
 June 23, 196 
 
 Burning Acetylene. 
 
 Acetylene is mixed with air by passing from a holder under 
 pressure through an air injector into the delivery pipes or a 
 second holder. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Pulverised coke and lime in about equal proportions are 
 mixed together and formed into a mound around a core of con- 
 ducting material supported in vertical position between two 
 superposed electrodes. The vertical centre of the mound is 
 heated to incandescence by passing an electric current through 
 the electrodes and core. A nugget of carbide is formed, and as 
 the mixture fuses, the upper electrode descends. The carbide 
 nugget is withdrawn while hot, a new core is then inserted, 
 and the process is repeated. The advantages claimed are that 
 no furnace is required, and that the process is practically con- 
 tinuous. An improved electric furnace is also described for 
 use when desired. 
 
 912 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Use of Acetylene in Motors and Ordnance, and for Producing 
 Explosions. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows an automatic generator in which, water is 
 sprinkled over carbide ; Fig. 2 an automatic generator in which 
 carbide falls into water ; Fig. 3 a generator in combination with 
 a horizontal engine ; Fig. 4 a generator or reservoir of acetylene 
 fitted to a gun. Acetylene is made and stored in a suitable 
 vessel under pressure. The gas may be employed by itself 
 expansively to take the place of steam in steam engines, or it 
 may be mixed with air or other gas or gases to form an explo- 
 sive mixture, for use in the same way as ordinary gas in gas 
 engines. 
 
 Purifying Acetylene, 
 
 Acetylene is passed through finely-powdered iron, then 
 through concentrated sulphuric acid. 
 
 Gowlland, 
 
 W. and C. S. 
 
 London 
 
 14375 
 June 29, 1896 
 
 Isaac, G. 
 
 Charlotten- 
 burg 
 15139 
 
 July 6. 1896 
 
 Producing Carbide. Haviland, 
 
 Preliminary heating of the carbon and lime to form carbide, Bourne- 
 by means of a furnace or other arrangement, before the current 
 is turned on. 
 
 mouth 
 
 15489 
 July 16, 1896 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 A flux is added to the mixture of lime and carbon, enabling a Bullier.L. M. 
 lower temperature to be employed. 10 per cent, of calcium 
 
 fluoride is recommended. 
 
 July '22, 1896 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 The gas is bubbled through calcium chloride solution cooled Pictet, R. 
 to 20 and 40C, then through 40 per cent, sulphuric acid at 
 the same temperature, through a solution of lead salts, and Aug. 17, 1896 
 lastly over crystallised calcium chloride. 
 
 Inflating Floating Appliances. 
 
 A receiver charged with calcium carbide, or other suitable Matignon, L. 
 carbide, is connected to the bag or apparatus to be inflated, and ^SS^ 6 
 is so arranged that when the apparatus is thrown into the ^ (l p 14, is<)6 
 water, water penetrates into the receiver, and the acetylene 
 passes into the flexible apparatus and inflates it. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is mixed with an inert material to retard the 
 production of acetylene on contact with water. 
 
 913 58 
 
 Deuther, 
 
 J. A. 
 Boston, 
 U.S.A. 
 
 20598 
 e P- 17 > 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Letang, M. P. The carbide is covered with a protective coating or paint. 
 The one recommended is composed of glucose, petroleum, and 
 11 chalk. 
 
 Apparatus for Containing and Supplying Liquefied Gas. 
 
 Fournier, Relates to use of liquid acetylene for lighting, and for in- 
 flating pneumatic tyres. Comprises a metal reservoir, a device 
 with one or two valves for charging and discharging, and a 
 Sep. 30, 18! M> safety device fitted with a reed, syren, or other sonorous ap- 
 paratus indicating the extent to which the reservoir has been 
 filled. 
 
 Oving, H. E. Mixing Acetylene with Air. 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 23670 Acetylene and air are mixed in a special apparatus in definite 
 
 Oct. 24, 1896 proportions as required. 
 
 Signal Lights. 
 
 Lewes, V. B. Cartridges are charged with a mixture of calcium phosphide 
 Greenwich, and calcium carbide, which, on contact with water, evolves a 
 ^4365 spontaneously inflammable illuminating gas. The cartridges 
 Oct. 31, 1896 may be attached to buoys, torpedoes, etc. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 Maxim, H. Numerous claims include " the superheating of previously 
 
 London heated fuel-gas and air by the combustion of a portion of such 
 
 25611 
 .Nov. 13, 1896 
 
 heated or superheated gas ; " and the " process of making calcium 
 
 carbide, which consists in fusing the carbide-forming material 
 by the heat of combustion, and converting the said material 
 into carbide by the aid of electricity." 
 
 Turr R Incandescent Mantle with Acetylene. 
 
 Paris A burner of the Bunsen type is supplied with acetylene under 
 
 pressure, a mantle being suspended in the flame. Several forms 
 Nov. 18, 1896 * . , , 
 
 of burner are shown. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Kiesewalter, Electricity is not employed. Calcium carbide is produced in 
 retorts, or muffle furnaces, or such furnaces in which the 
 onSiahn" material to be treated is hermetically enclosed against the 
 Germany action of the outer air and of the fire gases. A temperature of 
 1,300 C. to 1,500 C. must be obtainable. To the mixture of 
 lime and carbon a flux is a<i( l ed - Either of the following mix- 
 tures may be used : lime, 45 parts ; carbon, 45 parts ; potas- 
 sium hydrate, 10 parts ; tar, 20 parts ; zinc, 25 parts ; or, lime, 
 30 parts ; magnesia, 20 parts; soda, 15 parts; carbon, 55 parts; 
 
 914 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 tar, 22 parts; Zinc, 30 parts. It is asserted that the correct 
 formula for calcium carbide is Ca OC 2 , not Ca C 2 . 
 
 Storing Acetylene. 
 
 Acetylene is dissolved under pressure in certain liquid hydro- 
 carbons, such as alcohol, ether, benzene, phenols, furfurol, etc., 
 or mixtures of these. 
 
 Agglomeration of Carbides. 
 
 Pulverised carbide is placed in a rigid sheath or casing, and 
 the interstices between the pieces of carbide are filled with 
 bitumen mixed with 3 to 5 per cent, of tallow, or fine grain 
 sand. When the sheath is completely filled, it is covered with 
 waterproof paper or fabric. The shape of the cartridge, with or 
 without longitudinal slits along it, and the agglomerating 
 material used in its construction (tar, bitumen, sand, etc.), is 
 varied in accordance with the required speed of decomposition. 
 
 Acetylene Jet for Optical Lanterns. 
 
 An arrangement to carry three burners in such position that 
 their flames are presented to the condenser edgeways, the 
 middle burner being fixed lower than the outer ones. The two 
 outer burners are inclined inward towards the middle one. At 
 suitable distance from burners is a parabolic reflector. 
 
 Receptacle for Storing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 A receptacle with double neck forming channel for luting. 
 The cover has two collars, the inner one to drop into the 
 channel containing a luting. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 The mixture of raw materials is first highly heated with the 
 aid of fuel gas, and then passed into a bath of calcium carbide 
 maintained in a molten condition by means of an electric current. 
 A quantity of the carbide thus formed is withdrawn through 
 one of the electrodes, which is a tube of carbon. A certain 
 quantity of molten carbide must always be left in the furnace 
 for continuing the process. 
 
 Producing Acetylene and Carbon Dioxide. 
 Carbon dioxide is mixed with the acetylene at the time of 
 generation, mixtures capable of evolving carbon dioxide being 
 added to the carbide. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The carbide is made to absorb some fatty or oily substance 
 impermeable to water, such as oils and varnishes, tar, and the 
 like. 
 
 915 
 
 Claude, G. 
 
 Hess, A. 
 
 Paris 
 
 29750 
 Dec. 24, 1896 
 
 Sales, R. de 
 Lyons 
 
 1653 
 .Tan. 21, 189? 
 
 Thorn, P. S. 
 
 and 
 
 Hoddle, C. 
 London 
 
 2260 
 Jan. 28, 1897 
 
 Thorn, F. S. 
 
 and 
 
 Hoddle, C. 
 London 
 
 2261 
 Jan. 28, 1897 
 
 Maxim, H, 
 London 
 
 2894 
 Feb. 3, 1897 
 
 Stattler, K. 
 
 Stretjz, A. 
 
 Vienna 
 
 4428 
 Feb. 18, 1897 
 
 Bosca, F. 
 Turin 
 
 4675 
 Feb. 20, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Vaughan- 
 Shcrrin. J. 
 
 10877 
 May 1, 1897 
 
 Smith, F. H. 
 Dunblane 
 
 13103 
 
 May 27, 1897 
 
 Connecting Carbide Containers to a Water Vessel. 
 The carbide in small pieces is placed in tins with soldered 
 ends. A circular portion is cut out of one end leaving a narrow 
 flange all round. The flange is placed in a recess, with rubber 
 packing provided in the end flange of a tap or valve fixed to 
 the water vessel. The carbide tin is pressed against the rubber 
 packing ring by any suitable means. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Calcium carbide in powder or a crystalline state is compressed 
 into tablets with or without the use of an adhesive. The 
 tablets are coated with wax varnish or water-proof material. 
 
 Burning Acetylene. 
 10 to 50 per cent, of acetylene is mixed with the gas obtained 
 
 Piatti, A. 
 and Co. 
 Rome 
 
 . by carbonising straw, etc. 
 June 15, 189 1 
 
 Bean, H. A. 
 London 
 
 14700 
 June 17, 1897 
 
 Baucr- 
 
 waerts, E. F. 
 
 Brussels 
 
 15369 
 June 26, 1897 
 
 Edwardes, 
 
 E. J. 
 London 
 
 16738 
 July 15, 1897 
 
 Lewes, V. B. 
 Greenwich 
 
 17749 
 July 28, 1897 
 
 Mixing Acetylene with Alcohol Vapour. 
 
 Acetylene is passed through a vessel containing fibrous 
 material soaked in alcohol, thus impregnating the gas with the 
 vapour of alcohol. 
 
 Mixing Acetylene with Alcohol Vapour. 
 
 Acetylene gas before being burnt is passed through a vessel 
 containing a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid, to carburet 
 and purify it. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Porous material is traversed by the water before it attacks 
 the carbide; thus the gas is gently and continuously disen- 
 
 Manufacture of Diluted Acetylene. 
 
 A mixture of methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide is made 
 in an apparatus of the water gas type : it is passed through a 
 scrubbing tower, and in a moist condition traverses a column of 
 carbide, the evolved acetylene mixing with the gas. A valve is 
 provided in the carbide container to allow carbide to drop into 
 water to increase the amount of acetylene. 10 per cent, of 
 acetylene with a gas consisting of 52 per cent, of hydrogen, 16 of 
 carbon monoxide, and 32 of methane has been found to be satis- 
 factory. 
 
 916 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEEATOES 
 
 Hacking, 
 
 L. A. 
 Blackburn 
 
 17854 
 July 30, 1897 
 
 Kenevel, 
 J. W. 
 
 Spofford, 
 C. A. 
 and 
 
 Mead, J. H. 
 New York 
 
 19512 
 Aug. 24, 1897 
 
 Pictet, R. P, 
 Geneva 
 
 21508 
 
 Sep. 20, 1897 
 Cl. Feb. 20, 
 
 1897 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 A device for providing means whereby surplus gas produced 
 when generating acetylene may be led away to a place of safety, 
 or stored in another holder. 
 
 Pi'oducing Carbides. 
 
 The carbide- producing mixture is fed between electrodes in 
 the form of rotating rolls. The material passing between the 
 rotating electrodes is converted into carbide, and falls to the 
 bottom of the furnace. Baffle plates are placed below the 
 electrodes to prevent the too rapid fall of the carbide; and at 
 regular intervals a liquid, such as coal oil or kerosene, is 
 allowed to fall by gravity through a series of small pipes upon 
 the electrodes, in order to prevent carbide adhering to them. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Improvements upon Patent No. 9358 of 1896. To the mixture 
 of lime and coke is added some reducing substance (such as coal, 
 pitch, etc.), at high temperature, with or without the addition 
 of fluxes. These substances are introduced into a suitable fur- 
 nace, into which air is brought by tuyeres, which air, in oxidis- 
 ing hydrogen and carbon, heats the substances intensely before 
 they are brought under the influence of the electric arc. A 
 special form of furnace. 
 
 Enriching Coal Gas. Pilous, E. 
 
 Coal gas is passed into calcium carbide either alone or mixed 
 with hygroscopic materials. Oct. 9, 1897 
 
 Producing Acetylene. Lundstrom, 
 
 Carbide is coated with some substance insoluble in water. 
 When w r anted for use a solvent suitable for removing the coat- 
 ing is added to the water. Oct. 15, 1897 
 
 Producing Carbides. 
 
 A mixture of slaked lime and powdered carbon is mixed with 
 some liquid or adhesive substance and compressed into bricks 
 and dried. The bricks are then broken into small pieces and 
 introduced into an electric furnace with a movable bottom. 
 The water gas obtained as a bye-product may be used for any 
 industrial purposes. 
 
 Carbide Containers. 
 
 A perforated cylinder with a removable cap at each end. 
 The cylinder or tube is lined inside with thin soluble paper or 
 similar material. One end is preferably tapered so that it may 
 be telescopically fitted into the untapered end of a twin tube 
 or cylinder. 
 
 917 
 
 Memmo, R. 
 Rome 
 
 24077 
 Oct. 19, 1897 
 
 Bond, E. S. 
 Stafford- 
 shire 
 
 26843 
 Nov. 17, 1897 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Lazarus, 
 
 W. J. 
 Duren 
 
 27639 
 Nov. 24, 1897 
 
 Billwiller, J. 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 28003 
 
 Nov. 27, 1897 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is impregnated with paraffin or other similar material, 
 and after being powdered is made into cartridges, either by com- 
 pressing it or packing in metal envelopes luted with an imper- 
 meable substance. 
 
 Purifying the Products of Combustion. 
 
 The products of combustion are led through a cylinder divided 
 into several compartments by strainers, some of which contain 
 a material like pumice stone soaked in a 50 per cent, solution of 
 potassium carbonate or such liquid. 
 
 Hurtenstein, 
 H. L. 
 
 Bellaire 
 U.S.A. 
 
 28220 
 Nov. 80. 1897 
 
 Wigham, 
 J. R. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 2852G 
 Dec. 3, 1897 
 
 Bastick, J. 
 Manchester 
 
 and 
 Thornton, 
 
 A. W. 
 Wetherby 
 
 29008 
 Bee. 8, 1897 
 
 Bergmann. 
 F. J. 
 
 Germany 
 
 29384 
 DPC. 11, 1897 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 Limestone is mixed with a solid fuel and calcined with the 
 aid of a forced air supply, or the crude limestone may be cal- 
 cined by a combustible gas. Into the calcined mass, while in a 
 heated condition, a suitable proportion of pulverised coke is 
 blown by a combustible gas under pressure. The particles of 
 coke thus intimately mixed with the lime serve as conductors 
 through which an electrical current is passed. The gas serving 
 as a vehicle for the injection of the pulverised coke is also con- 
 sumed, increasing the degree of heat and furnishing a constant 
 supply of the combustible ingredients. 
 
 Enriching Coal Gas. 
 
 Acetylene is used for enriching coal gas by means of well- 
 known devices for the exact adjustment of the ingredients of 
 the mixture. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 The required quantities of coke and lime, either separate or 
 roughly mixed, are passed simultaneously to a grinding 
 machine, then reduced to the required size and thoroughly 
 mixed together in the grinding machine and its hopper prior 
 to entering elevator buckets. The ground and mixed material 
 is elevated to a conveying trough, by which it is conducted to 
 the electric furnace. 
 
 Production of Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Carbide is produced without electricity. A water-jacketed 
 furnace is kept in continuous working, and a mixture of coal 
 and lime is burned in the presence of a blast of oxygen or oxy- 
 gen and air. The furnace contains three chambers, the middle 
 being charged with lime and coal, while the two outer ones are 
 charged with fuel. Manganese oxide is the substance employed 
 to obtain a supply of oxygen from the air. 
 
 918 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide broken into small pieces is heated and then soaked in Yvonneau, 
 a liquid made of glucose and some fatty body, a new body Ca 4 C 9 E. C. 
 
 being formed, which may be moulded as required. It is coated 
 
 .,-, , , . 
 
 with a protective covering. ^ ec 30 ^97 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Powdered lime is mixed with about an equal weight of coal- Leede, J. 
 tar pitch, or similar material, and heated in a retort for fifteen Minneapolis 
 to thirty minutes. The hard coke-like product (preferably pul- . 
 verised) is then converted into carbide in the electric furnace 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Kelly, W. J. 
 
 A pencil or block is made with a mixture of pulverised chalk and 
 
 or lime with coke or coal breeze. This pencil is fed through an Roantree, H, 
 opening in the electric furnace to the arc formed between the 
 carbon electrodes. j an . 22, 1898 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 Briquettes of any suitable shape and size are made by mixing Hewes, J. E. 
 carbon and lime in proper proportions with a binder, such as Phila- 
 sugar, asphaltum, tar, etc. The briquettes are heated in an 
 electric furnace. It is said that these briquettes yield better j an 25 i9 
 results, and can be heated with less waste, than a powder. 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 Briquettes or cakes of carbide-producing materials are made Hewes, J. E. 
 and a current of electricity is passed between electrodes and Phila- 
 through the briquettes to produce carbide. Jets of air, with or delphia 
 
 without the addition of a combustible gas, are forced into the , 
 
 tJail. 4O. loao 
 
 mass. 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 A core of calcium carbide mixed with much free fused lime is Hewes, J. E. 
 formed between the electrodes, which are gradually separating Phila- 
 during its formation. Then the working cross-section of one of ^uKr** 
 the electrodes is increased, and the core maintained in an in- j au 95 ^9^ 
 candescent condition by a regulated increase of current which 
 causes it to take up carbon and form carbide concentrically 
 around the core. 
 
 Mixing Acetylene with Air. Thorp, T. 
 
 An apparatus for mixing air with acetylene, together with an 2*r?^ 
 arrangement for preventing fluctuations of pressure. Jan. 31, 1898 
 
 919 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Thorp, T. 
 Whitefield 
 
 2458 
 Jan 80. 1898 
 
 Dicsler, C. 
 and 
 
 Dicckmann, 
 
 F. 
 Germany 
 
 4861 
 Feb. "2, 1898 
 
 Burning Acetylene. 
 
 A heat-abstracting plug of metal wires is provided at each 
 burner and at the commencement of the service pipe to prevent 
 back-firing. 
 
 Producing Metallic Carbides. 
 
 Metallic carbonates are finely pulverised and mixed with 
 coal-dust or carbon in the proportion of eighteen parts of car- 
 bonate to seven parts of coal-dust. The mixture is compressed 
 into small cubes with the aid of an agglutinant such as coal- 
 tar. The cubes are heated in retorts in which a vacuum has 
 been produced. When the temperature has risen above 900 C. 
 the air-pump draws off the disengaged gas. Then the pump is 
 shut off and the retort is filled with hot monoxide or dioxide of 
 carbon. The heat required to fuse the carbonate of lime may 
 be produced with or without the aid of electricity. The tem- 
 perature must not exceed 1,200 C. 
 
 Gearing, E. 
 Harrogate 
 
 Feb 2 M898 Briquette 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide in powder is mixed thoroughly with tar, and the re- 
 sulting mass is heated till the tar is carbonised, forming 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Etaix, L. Commercial bleaching powder or other hypochlorite is used 
 
 Paris to remove phosphuretted hydrogen from the gas. The gas after- 
 wards passes through caustic soda. 
 
 Jbeb. 10. 1898 
 
 Producing Carbides. 
 
 Landin, J. The pulverised carbide-producing materials are mixed with 
 tar or similar substance, and the mass is pressed into briquettes 
 Feb. 17. ,189s or rods. These briquettes are then heated, preferably under 
 pressure, to 300 or 500 C. Before making the briquettes, a 
 substance, such as calcium chloride, may be introduced to act 
 subsequently as a flux. The briquettes or rods are finally con- 
 verted into carbide by passing them between the carbon elec- 
 trodes of an electric furnace. 
 
 Orlowsky, 
 
 von J. 
 St. Peters- 
 burg 
 
 4298 
 Feb. 21, 1898 
 
 Rendering Carbide Non-hygroscopic. 
 
 Carbide is steeped in suitable liquid hydrocarbons, such as 
 petroleum. The carbide is preferably treated immediately after 
 it has been crushed after leaving the furnace, and while still at 
 a temperature of 100 to 120 C. 
 
 920 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Receptacle for Storing Carbide. 
 
 The receptacle has a bottom provided with a projecting 
 flange and a projecting mouthpiece capable of being closed by 
 a screw cap. The mouthpiece serves as the filling aperture, 
 and as the damp air attacks the carbide, acetylene rises to the 
 upper part of the receptacle and protects the carbide from 
 further attack. The top of the receptacle is provided with a 
 handle. 
 
 Rumelin, L. 
 
 and 
 Aner, H. 
 
 Gratz, 
 Hungary 
 
 4459 
 Feb. 22. 1898 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Nine claims. Carbide is made by introducing lime and car- Hewes, J. E. 
 bon into a fused bath containing manganese, calcium, and 
 oxygen, and passing a continuous electric current through the 
 fused mass. The flux employed consists of oxide of manganese 
 and carbonate of calcium, which latter " reduces to nascent cal- 
 cium and combines with carbon." 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is moistened with petroleum or a mixture of mineral Hviid, L. P. 
 oils, and to the mixture is added an odorous inert oil, such Copenhagen 
 as oil of roses. To decompose the carbide a saturated solution 
 of sodium chloride is proposed. 
 
 r>49/ 
 Mar. 5. 1898 
 
 Enriching Combustible Gas. 
 
 Combustible gas is enriched by acetylene, either by each being Rickman, 
 delivered from a weighted holder to another holder, or by pass- 
 ing through meters. 
 
 Mar. 19, 1898 
 Mixing Air and Acetylene. 
 
 0.4 to 1 per cent, of an oxidising gas such as air or carbon Gurovltz, E, 
 dioxide is mixed with acetylene. Vienna 
 
 Mar. 24, 1898 
 Producing Amorphous Carbon from Acetylene. 
 
 Pure acetylene under a pressure of over two atmospheres is Hubon, 
 exploded in a strong closed vessel. The residual hydrogen may L. J. E. 
 be used for industrial purposes. If after a preceding operation 
 hydrogen at atmospheric pressure be left within the vessel, and ;\j ar -24 1898 
 acetylene under a pressure of four atmospheres be introduced, 
 the closed vessel will contain a mixture of ^ hydrogen and | 
 acetylene. This mixture will be decomposed with less explosive 
 violence than when pure acetylene is used. The explosion is 
 performed by means of an electrically heated wire. 
 
 921 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Mixing Gases in any Desired Proportions. 
 
 Acetylene Apparatus specially adapted for mixing acetylene with oil- 
 Illumina- .,, . m , , 1 -, -. 
 
 ting Co., Ltd. & as or Wltil alr - -*- ne gases are fed under moderate pressure 
 and into gasholders, a separate gasholder being provided for each 
 
 P. C. Day description of gas. Discharge pipes from the different gas- 
 holders converge at a point to form one common main. After 
 Mar. 20 1898 passing through a mixing chamber the mixture may be passed 
 into a storage holder or direct to the point of consumption. 
 
 Ascher- 
 
 mann, H. 
 
 Cassel, 
 
 Germany 
 
 7428 
 Mar. 28, 1898 
 
 Wilson, C. L. 
 
 and others 
 
 Holstein 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 7574 
 Mar. 29, 1898 
 
 Roberts, 
 
 T. L. 
 New York 
 
 8010 
 
 Apr. 4. 1898 
 <JI. Nov. 24. 
 
 1897 
 
 Tooth, E. 
 
 Redfern, 
 
 N.S.W. 
 
 8554 
 Apr. 12, 1898 
 
 Aykroyd, 
 J. and B. 
 
 Culling- 
 worth 
 
 8683 
 Apr. 14, 1898 
 
 Producing Carbides. 
 
 Sulphide of iron is mixed with lime and carbon and heated in 
 the electric furnace to obtain metallic iron and calcium carbide 
 at a reduced electrical expenditure. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 The base and sides of the electric furnace are lined with 
 granular calcium carbide. The mixture of lime and carbon is 
 then fed to the arc between the electrodes, and the molten car- 
 bide collects upon the carbide-covered base and sides. 
 
 Preserving Carbides. 
 
 States that carbide during handling in shipment may generate 
 a spark by friction between the lumps, and this spark may ex- 
 plode the mixture of air and acetylene commonly present in the 
 drums. Therefore the interstices between the lumps of carbide 
 are filled with wheat, bran, or chaff", in order to leave little air 
 space in the drum ; and finally, before closing the drum, acety- 
 lene is passed through it to drive out any air which may still 
 be present. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is made into cartridges with lime and terebene 
 which last may have about 2 per cent, of paraffin added 
 to it. 
 
 Carbide Basket for Acetylene Generators. 
 
 A basket for use in generators, in which water is admitted in 
 or near the top of the generator. The basket is constructed of 
 wirework, and has wirework horizontal partitions and suitable 
 side openings for the admission of carbide. Upon the top of 
 the basket is a sheet metal deflector, having its periphery ex- 
 tending beyond the side of the basket, so that water falling 
 upon it will fall into the generator without coming in contact 
 with the upper portion of the carbide. 
 
 922 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 The colophony used in a previous patent is replaced by a bitu- 
 minous substance. 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Bleaching powder or chloride of lime is placed in horizontal 
 movable containers open at top. The containers are then placed 
 in horizontal cylindrical vessels closed at one end by movable 
 cover. The acetylene passes over or through the containers 
 charged with purifying material in succession. 
 
 Producing Calcium Carbide. 
 
 A mixture of lime and carbon is placed in a crucible which 
 is heated by a number of specially devised blow-pipe burners 
 fed with a mixture of acetylene, marsh gas, and hydrogen. 
 The gaseous mixture is prepared by action of petroleum vapour 
 on heated bog iron-ore, steam being subsequently passed over 
 the heated spongy metallic iron so produced. 
 
 Producing Acetylene. 
 
 Carbide is dusted over with talc or lycopodium, with a view 
 to render it more slippery and not liable to stick when being 
 fed into the container. 
 
 Washing and Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 A tank is provided to contain water or other suitable fluid. 
 At about the centre of the tank is a dome or cylinder having a 
 removable cover. The interior of the cylinder consists of a 
 circular vessel, having a double bottom of wire gauze, and 
 shaped like a bucket. The gas passing up through the washer 
 passes through the gauze meshes. Attached to the tank is a 
 syphon tube, which acts as a safety valve. The tank is filled 
 with water, and after bubbling through, the gas is relieved 
 of mechanical impurities by passage through the wire gauze. 
 A further purifier may be employed containing solid substances, 
 such as lime, oxide of iron, sawdust choked with acid. 
 
 Carbide Holder for Generators. 
 
 The carbide holder may be rotated, or otherwise moved or 
 adjusted, to expose fresh surfaces of the carbide to the action of 
 water. The form of holder illustrated consists of two cylinders, 
 one of which slides telescopically within the other, the two 
 cylinders forming a box in which the carbide is placed. Funnel- 
 shaped openings and perforations are provided at both ends of 
 the box, which latter may be turned upside down when neces- 
 sary by means of a milled head outside the generator which is 
 connected to the pivots in which the holder is supported. 
 
 923 
 
 Piatti, A. 
 and Co. 
 Rome 
 
 8813 
 Apr. 15, 1898 
 
 Thorn, F. S. 
 
 and 
 
 Hoddle, C. 
 London 
 
 9104 
 A pr. 20. 189* 
 
 Woods, 
 J. E. T. 
 
 and 
 
 Byrom,W. A. 
 London 
 
 10021 
 May 2, 1898 
 
 Sartig, J. 
 Cassel 
 
 10768 
 May 11, 1898 
 
 Evans, E. 
 
 1167(3 
 Mav 23. 189H 
 
 Rigby, J. K. 
 Thames 
 Ditton 
 
 12022 
 May .26, 19 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 MacGeorge, 
 G. W. & 
 
 Buxton, 
 A. H. C. 
 
 Paignton 
 
 13189 
 June 13. 1898 
 
 Forbes, C. S 
 Strathdon 
 
 14139 
 June 25, i89s 
 
 Lighting Cycle Lamps. 
 
 A device so constructed that a match or its equivalent can at 
 any time be loaded into the lamp, and there locked in position, 
 and also that the striking of the match and ignition of the gas 
 or wick can at any subsequent period be effected by pressing an 
 external button. 
 
 Condenser for Acetylene. 
 
 Two cylinders are joined together by a flanged horizontal 
 diaphragm, to which they are riveted. In the upper cylindrical 
 chamber thus formed is a tubular coil, the lower end of which 
 is connected to a pipe, which passes through the diaphragm 
 down nearly to the bottom of the lower chamber. The outlet 
 gas pipe passes from near the top of the lower chamber down 
 through its base. The gas from the generator entering the top 
 of the coil, which is surrounded with cold water, passes down 
 through the coil to the bottom of the lower chamber. Any 
 water carried over by the gas is deposited in this lower cham- 
 ber, where it acts as a water seal. From the upper part of the 
 lower chamber the gas passes to an ordinary gasholder. 
 
 Calcium Carbide Manufacture. 
 
 Woods, J. E. Crude petroleum vapour is led through retorts containing 
 
 Byrom, W. oxide of iron heated, spongy iron and steam being formed with 
 
 some carbon deposited. Steam is then blown through the 
 
 June 30 1898 mass > oxide of iron being formed, while hydrogen combines 
 with the carbon to form marsh gas and acetylene. The re- 
 sulting gases are led to a holder and are utilised for heating 
 crucibles containing lime and coke for the manufacture of car- 
 bide. 
 
 Dilberg, G. 
 Sydney, 
 
 N.S.W. 
 
 15212 
 
 July 11, 1898 
 
 Dilberg, G. 
 Sydney, 
 
 N.S.W. 
 
 15213 
 
 July 11, 1898 
 
 Dilberg, G. 
 Sydney 
 
 July 1M898 
 
 Treating Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Crushed carbide is stirred in a liquefied mixture of naphtha- 
 lene and resin, then placed in a mould and compressed. 
 
 Protective Coatings for Carbide. 
 
 Cartridges of carbide are coated with any suitable material 
 which ultimately solidifies and forms a crust impervious to 
 moisture and air. 
 
 Using Calcium Carbide. 
 
 The carbide is placed in a porous bag, raised, thus causing 
 finer bubbles and more effective purification by the water of 
 the generator. 
 
 924 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 Controlling Water Supply to Generators. 
 
 A. cock plug is actuated by the movements of a gas bell by 
 means of operating mechanism. The plug has passages so 
 arranged that upon the sinking of the bell, caused by the ex- 
 haustion of one carbide cell, the water supply is automatically 
 diverted to another cell. The operating wheel connected with 
 the rotatable cock plug is actuated by a spring operating mem- 
 ber arranged upon lower end of rack connected with gas bell. 
 
 A Carbide Holder for Generators. 
 
 The carbide holder has several compartments, each compart- 
 ment being perforated at a different level, so that the water 
 rising in the generator will decompose the carbide in one com- 
 partment before it rises to the carbide in the next. 
 
 Water Jacket for Generators. 
 
 A water jacket open at top, with water surrounding sides and 
 top of carbide containers. Any number of carbide containers 
 can be deposited in the water jacket, from which also the water 
 to decompose the carbide is drawn. The lowest and coldest 
 part of the water passes to carbide, while fresh water is ad- 
 mitted to upper and hottest part. The mouth of each carbide 
 container passes through bottom of water jacket, and is closed 
 by removable gas-tight cover. 
 
 Treating Calcium Carbide. 
 
 Carbide is powdered and placed in a bath of tallow or other 
 oil, causing any free lime to saponify. The resulting thick 
 mass is pressed whilst hot in moulds. 
 
 Combined Oil and Acetylene Lamp. 
 
 An acetylene burner is fixed in any oil or other lamp close 
 to the oil burner. The acetylene burner may be connected by 
 a piece of rubber tube to an acetylene generator, which may be 
 separate or contained in the lamp. " A lamp in which oil and 
 acetylene gas can be burnt together or separately " is the sole 
 claim. 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Acetylene is passed through a solution of potassium bichro- 
 mate and sulphuric acid, or through a solution of chromic acid 
 with sulphuric or acetic acid. 
 
 Treating Carbide. 
 
 Carbide is sprinkled with some essential oil, such as citronella 
 or eucalyptus, then with purified petroleum, and finally with 
 more of the essential oil. 
 
 925 
 
 Spanier, H. 
 Berlin 
 
 15782 
 Julv 18, 1898 
 
 Bailey, W. J. 
 
 and 
 
 Clapham, C. 
 Keighley 
 
 17127 
 Aug. 9, 1898 
 
 Smith, W. 
 Weymouth 
 
 1723< 
 uff. 10, 1898 
 
 Inter- 
 national 
 Patent Co. 
 Chicago 
 
 18110 
 Aug. 23, 1898 
 
 Morris, W.R. 
 
 and 
 
 Spraggett, 
 P. E. 
 
 Handsworth 
 19276 
 
 Sep. 10, 1898 
 
 Lands* 
 
 berger, A. 
 
 Berlin 
 
 19757 
 Sep. 17, 1898 
 
 Bilbie, J. 
 Drivet, H. 
 London 
 
 19786 
 Sep. 17, 1898 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Carbide Cartridges. 
 
 Wailin, B. H. Porous carbide cartridges are prepared by filling unsized 
 
 and Wendel, porous paper cases with sifted pulverized carbide, the grade of 
 
 porosity being so regulated that the generation of gas has 
 
 g ceased within one minute after cartridge has been immersed in 
 
 , Sep. 21, 1898 water. 
 
 Abeles, R. 
 Dresden- 
 
 Lbbtan 
 Germany 
 
 20646 
 Sep. 80, 1898 
 
 Dbllncr, G. 
 Berlin 
 
 22880 
 Oct. 24, 1*9S 
 
 Containers for Carbide or Acetylene Gas Apparatus. 
 
 Vessels provided with " an enamel, or vitreous or like coat- 
 ing " are employed. 
 
 Purifying Acetylene. 
 
 Kieselguhr, or similar absorbent material, is mixed with a 
 purifying solution to form a slightly moist plastic powder. 
 The solution is an acid solution of metallic salts. The follow- 
 ing are examples of mixtures recommended : (1) Anhydrous 
 sodium sulphate, chloride of copper, and sufficient dilute hydro- 
 chloric or sulphuric acid to produce a warm solution, which 
 solidifies when cool ; (2) A solution of bichloride or sulphate of 
 mercury in melted acid sodium, sulphate; (3) A solution of 
 chloride of chromium in melted chromic acid, oxalic acid, or 
 the like. The acetylene is conducted through a mass of the 
 material contained in a suitable receptacle. 
 
 Preparing Calcium Carbide for use in making Acetylene. 
 Baskets or cartridges of carbide are made by forming a spiral 
 Ha "ST rth or c il ^ W1YQ f the required diameter and length with a 
 bottom formed of the wire itself. A paper bag or cylinder is 
 placed either outside or inside the spiral, of a length equal to 
 the coil spring when fully compressed. The bag is filled with 
 carbide, the ends of the bag being held closed by the ends of the 
 coil, but being capable of expansion when the carbide swells 
 during generation of gas. From the sides of the coil a number 
 of spikes project into the carbide, so that water may more 
 readily find its way to the centre of the carbide. 
 
 Producing Carbides. 
 
 Several electric furnaces are symmetrically arranged around 
 a central and common chimney stack. The conversion of lime 
 and carbon into carbide is not effected within the electric arc 
 itself, but at some distance from it. 
 
 Acetylene Motor for Cycles. 
 
 Water drop by drop falls upon carbide, the flow of water 
 being regulated by a valve actuated by a handle at top of 
 generator. The acetylene generated works an air-pump and 
 
 926 
 
 Bond, E. S. 
 
 Nov". 7 
 
 Handler, M. 
 
 and 
 
 Wehner, C. 
 Leipzig 
 
 25800 
 
 Nov. 30, 1898 
 
 Offen, C.H. 
 Holstein 
 
 27250 
 Dec. 24, 1898 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 motor, whereupon the gas and compressed air pass through 
 tubes into a pressure- vessel, in which they are continuously 
 ignited with the object of transmitting the high pressure pro- 
 duced by the combustion through a cylinder to the crank of the 
 cycle. The whole apparatus is suitably attached to the cycle 
 frame. 
 
 Production of Acetylene. 
 
 Pulverised carbide is dissolved or suspended in a liquid such 
 as a mineral oil, which will not decompose the carbide and 
 which is of approximately the same specific gravity. This 
 liquid charged with carbide is allowed to drop upon the gas- 
 generating fluid, or the fluid may be allowed to drop upon the 
 carbide liquid. 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 Relates to method of manufacture, in which raw materials 
 are acted upon by incandescent gases. The raw materials are 
 heated in a compound furnace, in one part of which preliminary 
 heating takes place, and from which the materials are subse- 
 quently discharged into the other part of furnace for final 
 heating and conversion into carbide. The raw materials are 
 not allowed direct contact with injurious gases. 
 
 Gossweiler, 
 K. 
 
 Heilbronn 
 
 27252 
 Dec. 24, 1898 
 
 Warner, R. 
 Wade, J. 
 
 and 
 
 Fox, C. T. 
 London 
 
 2497 
 Feb. 3, 1899 
 
 Carbide Container for Generators. 
 
 Porous pots resembling those employed in electrical batteries 
 are charged with carbide, and fitted with removable caps 
 having gas eduction pipes. Each porous pot may be imper- 
 vious to water for half its height, and may be immersed in 
 water nearly to the level of its porosity. 
 
 Buoy Lights. 
 
 A ring of metal on top of buoy forms foundation for a circular 
 plate dished in centre which is attached to a dome-shaped 
 cylindrical chamber having an inner chamber for the carbide 
 holder. Upon walls of inner chamber is a flange inclining 
 outwards to facilitate distribution of water to carbide irrespec- 
 tive of angle at which buoy may float owing to swell of waves. 
 The opening through which carbide holder is introduced is 
 closed by a gas-tight door. A water chamber is formed above 
 carbide chamber in the dome chamber by a horizontal partition. 
 Water is admitted to carbide chamber through tube regulated 
 by plug. Outside the top of dome chamber is a socket having 
 recesses which engage projections upon the lower end of a 
 removable mast which supports and carries gas to the burner. 
 
 927 
 
 Watts, C. J. 
 Guernsey 
 
 3102 
 Feb. 11, 1899 
 
 Murphy, 
 
 W. J. 
 London 
 
 3747 
 
 Feb. 20. 1899 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Carbide Holder for Generators. 
 
 Bean, H. R. The carbide vessel is made of one or more sections, each 
 section being- isolated from the others by a suitable gas-tight 
 joint at outer edge. Each section or compartment has a 
 London channel communicating with it to convey water from the top 
 of the holder to the carbide, and to enable the gas to be led 
 away. The top compartment has a gas-tight cover with a 
 raised hood upon it into which are gathered the upper ends of 
 the channels or tubes. In the cover a number of perforations 
 are made, varying according to the size of the vessel, through 
 which water is conveyed to the upper ends of the tubes. The 
 tubes are of different lengths, so that when the sections are fixed 
 in position the upper ends of the tubes are of different levels 
 the top compartment having its channel way lower in the hood 
 than any of the others. The top compartment is the first to 
 come into action, and becomes entirely surrounded with water. 
 
 Connecting Carbide Reservoirs to Gasholders. 
 
 Schubert, W. A device for rapidly changing generators charged with car- 
 bide. The generators are to be connected to, or disconnected 
 from, a displacement gasholder, from lower part of which water 
 is supplied. The device is a gas-tight bayonet coupling joint 
 between short pipes. 
 
 Producing Small Masses of Carbide. 
 
 er> c< Small brick-like masses of carbide are produced by mixing 
 
 Kandler M pulverised carbide in a heated state with sugar or caramel. 
 
 Leipzig The mixture is moulded under pressure, and the bricks thus 
 
 obtained may be coated with melted paraffin. 
 Apr. 5, 1899 
 
 Manufacturing Calcium Carbide and Illuminating and 
 
 Heating Gases. 
 
 Provides for the production of calcium carbide and "a gas 
 
 & Blunn, " suitable for general illuminating purposes " in the electric fur- 
 
 A. A. nace " at one and the same operation." The waste heat of the 
 
 Galveston, f urnace is employed to heat the air to be used in the manufac- 
 
 Tcxfm 
 
 9j 56 ture of illuminating gas. The hot air is first carburetted and 
 May 1, 1890 then mixed with acetylene. The mixed gases are finally de- 
 composed by the heat of the furnace through which they are 
 passed, " thereby producing a superior quality of illuminating- 
 gas." 
 
 Acetylene-lighted Projectile. 
 
 and ' The projectile is cylindrical, with one end conical and 
 
 Turnbull, weighted. The cylinder contains a carbide chamber immedi- 
 
 H> c - ately above the conical end, and above this is a gas chamber 
 
 separated from carbide chamber by movable partition. Near 
 
 928 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 butt end of projectile is a chamber containing the burners, and 
 another chamber containing lumps of metallic potassium pre- 
 served from oxidation by coal oil. The time fuse is a lead tube 
 filled with powder. When the gun has been fired, and the 
 projectile drops into the water, it will at first be submerged, 
 and the potassium becoming wet will ignite, and will fire the 
 end of the fuse. The projectile will float and assume upright 
 position. The water will enter the conical end and attack the 
 carbide. The acetylene will fill gas chamber and pass to 
 burners, where it will be ignited -by fuse. 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 A suitable charge of raw material is fed around vertical 
 electrodes. A pool of molten carbide is maintained until it 
 spreads out laterally beyond the field of reduction. The carbide 
 and charge is then shifted, so as to bring successive portions of 
 the charge into field of reduction. 
 
 Illuminating Projectiles. 
 
 A cylindrical shell has an upper gas chamber and a lower 
 chamber in which carbide is supported upon a perforated shelf. 
 The weight of carbide causes shell to float in perpendicular 
 position when thrown into water. The gas and carbide cham- 
 bers are separated by a perforated partition, and any suitable 
 number of apertures for inlet of water are provided in walls of 
 gas chamber. A series of burners, including an igniting device, 
 are supported on plate on top of gas chamber. A cylindrical 
 casing is arranged around ignition burner, and contains the 
 terminals of electric conductors forming opposite sides of a 
 circuit furnished with current by battery supported within a 
 receptacle secured in upper part of gas chamber. When shell 
 is to be used the necessary fluid is introduced into battery. The 
 current heats resistance wire sufficiently to ignite gas. The 
 shell is then thrown into water, and the gas formed by action 
 of water on carbide escapes to burners, where it is ignited by 
 resistance wire. 
 
 phia 
 U.S.A. 
 
 9718 
 
 May 9, 1899 
 
 Horry, W. S. 
 
 14261 
 July 11, 1899 
 
 Rose, W. H. 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 15249 
 July 25, 1890 
 
 Packing Calcium Carbide for Storage or Use in Generators. 
 
 Small charges of carbide are placed in a wrapper of suitable 
 material, such as coarse cheese cloth, and bound tightly into a 
 compressed bundle. Preferably two or more thicknesses of the 
 wrapper material surround the bundle. One or several of such 
 packages may be placed in the carbide chamber of any genera- 
 tor. This method of packing is also recommended for the 
 shipping and storage of carbide. 
 
 929 59 
 
 Dolan, E. J. 
 Phila- 
 delphia 
 
 15506 
 July 28, 189! 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Hartenstein, 
 H. L. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 16128 
 Aug. 8, 1899 
 
 Richard, 
 
 C.B. 
 
 and 
 Cahen, F. 
 
 17631 
 Aug. 31, 189! * 
 
 Kellner, C. 
 Austria 
 
 21035 
 Oct. 20, 1899 
 
 Watson, J. A. 
 
 Washington, 
 
 U.S.A. 
 
 22227 
 
 Xov. 7, 18! )9 
 
 Producing Carbide. 
 
 See Patent No. 224 of 1898. Finely pulverised carbon and 
 carbonate of lime are forced into molten blast furnace slag by 
 a reducing gas, and then subjected to electric current. 
 
 Generating Gas having Acetylene as Base. 
 
 A number of bi-metallic cartridges, containing calcium car- 
 bide, and forming a voltaic battery for decomposing the acidu- 
 lated water and compressed air passed into a reservoir, are 
 employed. The cartridges are made of a certain number of 
 sleeves arranged one upon another. Water enters the lower 
 part of the cartridge, and the gas produced rises into the upper 
 sleeves and out through holes provided in the top sleeve. The 
 electric current " decomposes the water, air, or other gas that 
 may be used for the purpose of modifying the nature of the 
 acetylene." 
 
 Generating Acetylene. 
 
 A solution of calcium chloride is employed for decomposition 
 of the carbide. The strength of solution depends upon the 
 quantity of gas to be generated in given time from given 
 quantity of carbide. A solution having spec. grav. 1'38 yields, 
 with 600 grammes carbide, sufficient acetylene to supply table 
 lamp for 29 hours. The carbide is always covered by the 
 liquid, and the same solution may be used repeatedly if suffi- 
 cient water be added to compensate for water decomposed by 
 carbide. 
 
 Marine Torch. 
 
 The shell may be cylindrical, with conical bottom. It has a 
 lower carbide compartment and an upper air compartment of 
 sufficient size to give buoyancy to the shell. Below carbide 
 chamber is a drainage compartment to receive spent carbide. 
 The carbide is contained in wire basket. Several small water in- 
 lets are provided in side of air chamber to permit water to flow 
 to carbide when shell is put into water. At upper end of air 
 chamber is top plate carrying burners, adjacent to one of which 
 is a chamber containing calcium phosphide, which will give off 
 spontaneously inflammable gas which will ignite acetylene. 
 The shell is hermetically sealed until about to be used. 
 
 930 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 ACETYLENE BURNERS 
 
 Device for conducting air to the gas flame 
 
 Schulke, 
 A. H. J. 
 Berlin 
 
 10463 
 Mav 27, 189fi 
 
 11 .,1 T . , i Holliday, T. 
 
 A small injector with ordinary union jet burner, with air Hudders- 
 
 holes at side of burner. The mixed gas and air pass into a field 
 
 mixing chamber before being burnt. 
 
 S<-p. 26, 1895 
 
 Nipples with fine slits or orifices combined with an outer cap 
 enclosing the nipple. Air entering by the inlets meets the gas 
 escaping from the nipple. Nov. 15, 1895 
 
 Acetylene is forced through a tube or tubes with fine needle- 
 hole outlets to obtain straight jets of flame (not spread out like 
 fish-tail or bat's wing). The straight jets may be either single, 
 or when us.ed vertically or obliquely for lighthouse or other 
 purposes may be arranged in groups either concentrically or 
 otherwise. Over each jet or group of jets is suspended a tube of 
 mica or glass. The burner tubes are surrounded with a cover 
 of perforated zinc, copper, or other material, conical in shape, 
 and having a bottom of the same perforated material. 
 
 Wigham, 
 
 J. R. 
 Dublin 
 
 4825 
 Feb. 28, 1896 
 
 In one form the gas enters a mixing chamber communicating 
 with the air by oblique passages, and upon this chamber is the 
 burner proper. The second form is for a circular flame an 
 argand-shaped flame with a deflector in the centre. A suitable 
 chimney is used. 
 
 Bauer- 
 waerts, 
 E. F. J. 
 
 Brussels 
 
 117d7 
 May 20, 1896 
 
 A union jet with a small injector, the quantity of air drawn 
 in being regulated by the size of the apertures. A needle valve 
 is fitted in the orifice of the supply pipe. 
 
 The gas passes through a metallic cloth before entering the 
 burner proper. Air inlets are arranged above the orifice where 
 the gas enters. A mixing chamber of conical form is provided 
 above the air inlets, and the burner is screwed on this. An 
 apparatus for regulating the air supply is also specified. 
 
 931 
 
 Holliday, T. 
 
 Hudders- 
 
 field 
 
 17469 
 A up;. 7,18% 
 
 Gillett, S. D. 
 
 Forest, G. 
 
 Paris 
 
 27086 
 Nov. 28, 1896 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Raupp, K. H. A burner so constructed that the jets issuing from it are closer 
 Mayence, together at their bases than at their points. The burner illus- 
 G ^ in r a _ ny trated resembles a tubular button-hook with gas orifices pierced 
 
 Dec" 5 181 n a l n g the outer rim of the curved end. 
 
 Billwiller, 
 
 J. S. 
 Switzerland 
 
 29980 
 Dec, 29, 189(i 
 
 The gas issues from a two-armed burner in two jets which 
 meet and form a flat flame. A cone-shaped cap is fitted a slight 
 distance above the gas exit holes, having a larger hole exactly 
 over the gas exits. The burner is made of a bad conductor of 
 heat, but the cap of a material that is a good conductor. 
 
 Jarre, V. The burner has an annular centre, provided at the top with a 
 Usannez, E. recess, over which fits a plate pierced with small holes. Gas 
 ways are arranged from the annular centre to the holes. The 
 Feb. 18, 18! '7 S as ta P is cork lined. 
 
 Lcbcau, J. A two-armed burner of steatite, with air passages formed in 
 the shoulders of the burner. A small gas chamber is provided 
 Apr. 15, ' 18!7 to compensate for slight variations of pressure. 
 
 Kitchen, J. The burner orifice is trumpet shaped. The nozzle of the 
 Manchester burner is formed like a tube having its end turned inwards all 
 
 . round. Glass forms a cheap and efficient burner. 
 Apr. 17, 180 i 
 
 Turr, R. 
 Paris 
 
 11352 
 May 6, 189 1 
 
 Burners constructed on the Bunsen principle. A jet of acety- 
 lene passes into a small mixing chamber having orifices for 
 admission of air. The mixed gases pass upward into a tube 
 capable of having its effective length adjusted by moving it up 
 or down. The burners are shown applied to a cooking stove, a 
 heating stove, and a soldering iron. 
 
 Modena The flame heats a plate, which communicates heat to the gas 
 
 1229H before combustion. 
 
 May 18. 1897 
 
 This burner is composed of capillary tubes fixed in a chamber, 
 so that the jets converge towards one another. The air is 
 
 Schulke, J. 
 Berlin 
 
 M 25 1897 Directed in parallel streams to all parts of the flame 
 
 A series of acetylene burners in rows are arranged obliquely 
 F^R a ^ a su it a ble angle in front of a reflector. Means are provided 
 14835* for adjusting the height of the burners and reflector or diffuser 
 .) u IK- 18, J 897 to any required angle. 
 
 932 
 
PATENTS FOR ACETYLENE GENERATORS 
 
 A small metal capsule is placed on the burner to regulate the Kaestner, c. 
 quantity of air admitted. ^Seo^ 
 
 June 28, 1897 
 
 A burner of the Bunsen type. A straight jet of acetylene 
 passes into a small chamber having perforations in its base Ackermann, 
 which admit air. From this chamber the gas jet flows upward, F. P. J. 
 together with a certain quantity of air, into a tube resembling a Mai j s J 1 
 Bunsen tube, save that its lower end is reduced; and the gas ^ uu . '.j'j *^ } - 
 outlet may also be a reduced opening or a series of small tubes. 
 By various combinations and modifications this burner is ap- 
 plied to numerous purposes. 
 
 Dolan, E. J. 
 
 Two converging streams of gas from a two-armed burner are Philadel- 
 each surrounded by a tube of air drawn in from air passages at 
 the top of the burner, and form a flat flame. Am?. 81 1897 
 
 This burner is a hollow thin-walled cylindrical body made of Lebrun, G. 
 glass or such material. The upper rounded extremity is made c r p^jg ' 
 paraboloidal, whilst the orifice of the gas exit is trumpet 20574 
 shaped. Sep. 7, 1897 
 
 The gas and air are separately conducted to the burner, and Fraser, A. C. 
 there impinge on one another in minute jets. 
 
 Nov. 18, 1897 
 
 Falbe, O. 
 Borchardt, 
 
 The burner is provided with a hood or cap having a slightly E. 
 
 larger opening than the mouth of the burner. Berlin 
 
 27586 
 
 Nov. 28. 1897 
 
 A flat or convex surface is given to the top of the burner. 
 The arc of the flame and of the burner unite at a central point 
 of their apices. Jan. 7, 1898 
 
 Schulke, 
 
 A disc or plate is fixed directly above the burner outlet, 
 having a hole corresponding to that of the burner, so that the **>&*' 
 gas flame does not touch the burner. Jan. 12, 1898 
 
 Legg, J. 
 
 A two-armed burner with air injector holes in the steatite n >I i?r' 
 top. A mixing chamber is formed above the air holes. 1054 
 
 .Jan. 14, 1898 
 
 933 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 A cap with minute hole, and having air passages formed in it, 
 1 is fixed to the burner body, air being drawn in by the stream of 
 
 Jan. 28, 189s gas. 
 
 Worsnop, 
 
 C. H. 
 Halifax A burner fitted with a spring or pin for cleaning purposes. 
 
 2H6G 
 Jan. 29. lS9s 
 
 Lauri, C. L. Beneath the gas outlet orifice is a cleaning wire mounted 
 L ?o n upon a head adapted to form a gas-tight screw- joint with the 
 
 Apr. 21. Is9s cap in which the burner tip is situated. When the cap is 
 screwed down the wire passes through the orifice, and clears it 
 from deposit, and when the cap is unscrewed to a certain ex- 
 tent the wire sinks below the orifice, leaving it clear for pas- 
 sage of gas. 
 
 A circular burner for use with a glass chimney. The air for 
 r supporting combustion is allowed to mingle with the gas below 
 Apr. 21, 189 the point at which the gas issues from the burner. 
 
 This burner has a nozzle with a relatively small hole through 
 
 msFi which the gas escapes from the supply pipe, and a cap with 
 
 May 11, 1898 a relatively large hole through which the gas passes to be burnt. 
 
 It has one or more openings through which air is allowed to 
 
 enter the space between the cap and the nozzle. A jet burner, 
 
 a ring, double ring, and heating burner are shown. 
 
 A union jet burner, having on its surface a narrow ridge, on 
 the apex of which is a small ridge in which the gas apertures 
 
 Oct. 8, 1898 are pierced. 
 
 Two or more jets impinge on one another. Separate orifices 
 99Q54 are use( ^ f r ea ch jet, with air inlets in the form of slits or 
 Oct. 20. 1898 Holes. 
 
 Three forms of burner of the " duplex " type are shown. 
 Hollow arms branching from a central screwed tube, are pro- 
 vided with tips arranged at an angle with one another, so that 
 Jan. 5. 1899 the gas jets meet and spread out into a flat flame at a slight 
 elevation above the burner. The tips provided for the gas out- 
 let are capped by other combustion tips. 
 
 934 
 
PATENTS FOE ACETYLENE GENEBATOBS 
 
 The burner tips, of soapstone or similar material, are provided Shaffer 
 with an entrance hole and a discharge passage extending at K- ch < 
 an angle to the entrance passage and having a minute gas 1(334" 
 aperture. Lateral air inlets are provided about half below and Jan. 24. 1899 
 half above the bottom of the discharge passage. Near the outer 
 end of the passage are very small lateral passages to admit air 
 to the column of mixed air and acetylene near the point of 
 combustion. The tips are arranged at an angle to form a flat 
 flame ; the body of the burner projects upwards and close to the 
 undersides of the flame from the burner tips, and the projecting 
 mass " will be heated by the flames and will react upon the gas, 
 promote its combustion, and heat the air rising from below." 
 
 To each acetylene burner, of whatever kind, a needle-hole jet Wigham, 
 is attached as a stand-by, fed by the gas at the full pressure of Dublin 
 the holder, the flow of gas when burning not being interrupted 4865 
 by any valve or tap. The ordinary burner may be turned off, F^. 28. 189 
 leaving the small jet alight, thus obviating the inconvenience 
 of having the acetylene burner cock either fully turned on or 
 altogether closed. 
 
 Over the burner tip is fitted a cap having a combustion slot Dolan, E. J. 
 of greater area than the slot in the burner tip beneath. Pro- 
 vision for introduction of air is made at a point intermediate (511(3 
 between the slots. Mar. 21, 1899 
 
 This burner is made of very hard material, preferably precious Geisseler, G. 
 stone. It is bored in the centre as usual and set in a metal ?** 
 fitting for attachment to gas pipes. On the upper rim of the JQQO 
 metal fitting is a metal cap provided with a hole rather larger Apr. 5, 1899 
 than the hole in the burner just below it, causing a space to 
 be left between. The cap may be provided with a number of 
 openings so as to allow the outside air to flow into this space 
 and be drawn through the burner orifice. The employment of 
 precious stones produces a burner of great durability, and the 
 hole in it may be cleaned without danger of enlarging it. 
 
 A head of lava, steatite, or similar material is fitted to a Steward, 
 metal pillar. Two stems are fitted into the head, each stem 
 
 tapering towards the end which fits into the head, and sur- i^s^ 8 * 
 
 mounted at the longer end by a burner tip formed by an annu- 15:344 
 
 lar cup-shaped flange, and extensions provided with a discharge July 26, 1899 
 
 935 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 opening. In the flange a hole is drilled opposite the discharge 
 opening. The two burner tips are directly opposite each other, 
 so that the two gas jets commingle and form a flat flame. Or, 
 a number of radial stems may be fitted in the head, each burner 
 tip being provided with two discharge openings, so located that 
 the jets commingle with jets from adjacent tips, one on each 
 side, so as to form a flat flame between each pair of stems. 
 
 Trendel, F. A narrow mixing tube is arranged over the gas injector 
 within the principal mixing chamber of a burner of the 
 
 SHJ>. 8 isfi Bunsen type. The addition of this inner tube is to ensure 
 production of a non-luminous flame under all conditions. 
 
 Compagnie 
 
 Francaise 
 
 de 
 
 1'Acetylenc 
 Paris 
 28032 
 
 \ov. 18. 1899 
 
 The passage into which the acetylene is injected consists of 
 a narrow cylindrical portion, flaring at its lower end, and con- 
 tinued above by a conical portion. In the lower end of the 
 cylindrical part the air and gas pass from the injector at a 
 high speed, which decreases in the conical part with increase 
 of pressure. The orifices of the burner consist of tubes ar- 
 ranged at considerable intervals apart, surrounded by a con- 
 vergent outer tube, the wider end of which is downwards, and 
 admits external air, whilst its narrower end is within the 
 lower part of the mantle. 
 
 936 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 oz. 
 
 Drachms. 
 
 1= 
 
 16= 
 
 256= 
 
 7,168= 
 
 28,672= 1,792 
 
 573,440=35,840 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 448 
 
 AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 Ibs. qrs. cwts. 
 
 0625= -0039= -000139= -000035= 
 
 = -0625= -00223 = -000558= 
 
 = 1 = -0357 = -00893 = 
 
 =28 =1 = -25 = 
 
 = 112 =40 
 
 =2,240 =80 
 
 =1 
 =20 
 
 =1 
 
 ton. French grammes. 
 
 -00000174= 1-771846 
 
 -000028 = 28-34954 
 
 -000447 = 453-59 
 -0125 = 12,700 
 -05 = 50,802 
 
 =1,016,048 
 
 LONG MEASURE. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 1 = 
 
 12= 
 
 36= 
 
 72= 
 
 198= 
 
 7,920= 
 
 feet. 
 083 = 
 1 
 3 
 
 yards. 
 
 fath. 
 
 02778= 
 
 poles. 
 
 furl. 
 
 mile. French metres. 
 
 660 = 220 
 
 = 110 
 
 0139= 
 
 005 = 
 
 000126= -0000158= 
 
 0254 
 
 1667= 
 
 0606= 
 
 00151 
 
 = -0001894= 
 
 3048 
 
 5 = 
 
 182 = 
 
 00454 
 
 = -000568 = 
 
 9144 
 
 1 
 
 364 = 
 
 0091 
 
 = -001136 = 
 
 1-8287 
 
 2| = 
 
 1 = 
 
 025 
 
 = -003125 = 
 
 5-0291 
 
 = 40 
 
 1 
 
 = '125 = 201-16 
 
 63,360=5,280 =1,760 
 
 =880 =320 =8 
 MEASURE OF CAPACITY. 
 
 cubic ft. 
 -02 
 -1604 
 -3208 
 1-283 
 10-264 
 51-319 
 102-64 
 
 =1 
 
 =1,609-315 
 
 galls. 
 -125 
 1 
 2 
 8 
 64 
 320 
 640 
 
 litres. 
 
 -5676 
 4-541 
 9-082 
 36-32816 
 290-625 
 1,453-126 
 2,906-25 
 
 Pints. 
 1 
 8 
 16 
 64 
 512 
 2,560 
 5,120 
 1 gallon = 277| cubic in. = 16 cubic ft. = 10 Ibs. dist. water = 4-543458 litres. 
 
 cubic ft. x 6-2355 = gallons. 
 1 grain = -064799 gram. 1 Ib. avoir. = -453593 kilogram. 
 
 USEFUL DATA. 
 
 1 Ib. avoir. = 16 oz. = 7,000 grains = 453-59 grammes = 1-21527 Ib. troy. 
 
 1 Ib. troy = 12 = 5,760 = 373-242 = 0-82285714 Ib. avoir. 
 
 1 oz. avoir. = 437-5 grains = 28-35 grammes = 0-9114583 oz. troy. 
 
 1 cubic cent. = -0610270734 cubic in. = -282 fl. drm. = -00176 pint = -0352 fl. oz. 
 
 1 cubic ft. = 28315-3 c.c. = 6-2321 gallons = 28-3153 litres = 997-1364 fl. oz. = 
 
 49-8568 pints. 
 
 1 gallon = -16046 cubic feet = 277-274 cubic in. = 4-54346 litres. 
 1 cubic in. = 16-386 c.c. = 4-616 fl. oz. = -0164 litre = -02885 pint. 
 1 litre = -035316 cubic ft. = -220096 gallon = 61-0270 cubic in. = 1-761 pint. 
 
 1 fl. oz. = 28-396 c.c. = 1-7329 cubic in. 
 
 1 pint = 567-919 c.c. = -020057 cubic ft. = 34-659 cubic in. = -567920 litre. 
 
 1 gramme = ;002204 Ib. = -03527 oz. = 15-432348 grains. 
 1 cubic metre = 35-315617 cubic feet. 
 
 To convert cubic feet per Ib. into litres per kilo, multiply by 63. 
 
 To convert litres per kilo into cubic feet per Ib., divide by 63. 
 
 937 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF CUBIC METRES 
 INTO CUBIC FEET. 
 
 Cubic 
 Metres. 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 Cubic 
 Metres. 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 Cubic 
 Metres. 
 
 Cubic Feet. 
 
 1 
 
 35-315617 
 
 35 
 
 1236-046603 
 
 68 
 
 2401-461972 
 
 2 
 
 70-631234 
 
 36 
 
 1271-362220 
 
 69 
 
 2436-777589 
 
 3 
 
 105-946852 
 
 37 
 
 1306-677837 
 
 70 
 
 2472-093206 
 
 4 
 
 141-262469 
 
 38 
 
 1341-993455 
 
 71 
 
 2507-408824 
 
 5 
 
 176-578086 
 
 39 
 
 1377-309072 
 
 72 
 
 2542-724441 
 
 6 
 
 211-893703 
 
 40 
 
 1412-624690 
 
 73 
 
 2578-040058 
 
 7 
 
 247-209321 
 
 41 
 
 1447-940307 
 
 74 
 
 2613-355685 
 
 8 
 
 282-524938 
 
 42 
 
 1483-255924 
 
 75 
 
 2648-671293 
 
 9 
 
 317-840555 
 
 43 
 
 1518-571541 
 
 76 
 
 2683-986910 
 
 10 
 
 353-156172 
 
 44 
 
 1553-887158 
 
 77 
 
 2719-302527 
 
 11 
 
 388-471790 
 
 45 
 
 1589-202775 
 
 78 
 
 2754-618144 
 
 12 
 
 423-787407 
 
 46 
 
 1624-518393 
 
 79 
 
 2789-933761 
 
 13 
 
 459-103024 
 
 47 
 
 1659-834010 
 
 80 
 
 2825-249379 
 
 14 
 
 494-418642 
 
 48 
 
 1695-149627 
 
 81 
 
 2860-564996 
 
 15 
 
 529-734259 
 
 49 
 
 1730-465244 
 
 82 
 
 2895-880613 
 
 16 
 
 565-049876 
 
 50 
 
 1765-780862 
 
 83 
 
 2931-196230 
 
 17 
 
 600-365493 
 
 51 
 
 1801-096479 
 
 84 
 
 2966-511848 
 
 18 
 
 635-681110 
 
 52 
 
 1836-412096 
 
 85 
 
 3001-827465 
 
 19 
 
 670-996728 
 
 53 
 
 1871-727713 
 
 86 
 
 3037-143082 
 
 20 
 
 706-312345 
 
 54 
 
 1907-043331 
 
 87 
 
 3072-458699 
 
 21 
 
 741-627962 
 
 55 
 
 1942-358948 
 
 88 
 
 3107-774316 
 
 22 
 
 776-943579 
 
 56 
 
 1977-674565 
 
 89 
 
 3143-089934 
 
 23 
 
 812-259197 
 
 57 
 
 2012-990182 
 
 90 
 
 3178-405551 
 
 24 
 
 847-574814 
 
 58 
 
 2048-305799 
 
 91 
 
 3213-721168 
 
 25 
 
 882-890431 
 
 59 
 
 2083-621417 
 
 92 
 
 3249-036785 
 
 26 
 
 918-206047 
 
 60 
 
 2118-937034 
 
 93 
 
 3284-352402 
 
 27 
 
 953-521666 
 
 61 
 
 2154-252651 
 
 94 
 
 3319-668020 
 
 28 
 
 988-837283 
 
 62 
 
 2189-568269 
 
 95 
 
 3354-983637 
 
 29 
 
 1024-152900 
 
 .63 
 
 2224-883886 
 
 96 
 
 3390-299254 
 
 30 
 
 1059-468517 
 
 64 
 
 2260-199503 
 
 97 
 
 3425-614872 
 
 31 
 
 1094-784134 
 
 65 
 
 2295-515120 
 
 98 
 
 3460-930489 
 
 32 
 
 1130-099751 
 
 66 
 
 2330-830737 
 
 99 
 
 3496-246106 
 
 33 
 
 1165-415369 
 
 67 
 
 2366-146355 
 
 100 
 
 3531-561723 
 
 34 
 
 1200-730986 
 
 
 
 
 
 938 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA 
 TABLE OF ELEMENTS. 
 
 Elements. 
 
 Sym- 
 bol. 
 
 Atomic 
 Weight. 
 
 Elements. 
 
 Sym- 
 bol. 
 
 Atomic 
 Weight. 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Al 
 
 27-0 
 
 Molybdenum . . . 
 
 Mo 
 
 95'5 
 
 Antimony (Stibium) 
 
 Sb 
 
 120-0 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 N 
 
 14-0 
 
 Arsenic 
 
 As 
 
 75-0 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Ni 
 
 58-6 
 
 Barium 
 
 Ba 
 
 137'0 
 
 Niobium 
 
 Nb 
 
 94-0 
 
 Beryllium .... 
 
 Be 
 
 9-0 
 
 Osmium 
 
 Os 
 
 190-8 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Bi 
 
 208-2 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 
 
 16-0 
 
 Boron 
 
 B 
 
 11-0 
 
 Palladium .... 
 
 Pd 
 
 105-7 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Br 
 
 80-0 
 
 Phosphorus . . . 
 
 P 
 
 31-0 
 
 Cadmium .... 
 
 Cd 
 
 112-0 
 
 Platinum .... 
 
 Pt 
 
 194-4 
 
 Ceesium 
 
 Cs 
 
 133-0 
 
 Potassium (Kalium) 
 
 K 
 
 39-0 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Ca 
 
 40-0 
 
 Ehodium .... 
 
 Eo 
 
 104-0 
 
 Carbon 
 
 C 
 
 12-0 
 
 Rubidium .... 
 
 Kb 
 
 85-3 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Ce 
 
 140-5 
 
 Scandium .... 
 
 Sc 
 
 44-0 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Cr 
 
 52"0 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Se 
 
 79-0 
 
 Copper 
 
 Cu 
 
 63-2 
 
 Silver (Argentum) . 
 
 Ag 
 
 107-7 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 Cl 
 
 35-5 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Si 
 
 28-2 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Co 
 
 58-6 
 
 Sodium (Natrium) . 
 
 Na 
 
 23-0 
 
 Didymium .... 
 
 Di 
 
 142-5 
 
 Strontium .... 
 
 Sr 
 
 87-5 
 
 Er DI u in 
 
 Er 
 
 165-9 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 s 
 
 32-0 
 
 Fluorine 
 
 F 
 
 19-0 
 
 Tantalum .... 
 
 Ta 
 
 182-0 
 
 Gallium 
 
 Ga 
 
 68-8 
 
 Tellurium .... 
 
 Te 
 
 127-6 
 
 Gold (Aurum) . . . 
 
 An 
 
 196-0 
 
 Thallium .... 
 
 Tl 
 
 204-0 
 
 Hydrogen .... 
 
 H 
 
 1-0 
 
 Thorium 
 
 Th 
 
 233-4 
 
 Indium . . 
 
 In 
 
 113-4 
 
 Tin (Stannum) 
 
 Sn 
 
 118-0 
 
 Iodine 
 
 1 
 
 127-0 
 
 Titanium .... 
 
 Ti 
 
 48-0 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Ir 
 
 192-5 
 
 Tungsten (Wolfram) 
 
 W 
 
 184-0 
 
 Iron (Ferrum) . 
 
 Fe 
 
 56-0 
 
 Uranium .... 
 
 U 
 
 236-5 
 
 Lanthanum . . . 
 
 La 
 
 138-5 
 
 Vanadium .... 
 
 V 
 
 51-3 
 
 Lithium . 
 
 Li 
 
 7-0 
 
 Ytterbium .... 
 
 Yb 
 
 172-8 
 
 Lead (Plumbum) . . 
 
 Pb 
 
 206-5 
 
 Yttrium 
 
 Y 
 
 89-8 
 
 Magnesium . . . 
 
 Mg 
 
 24-4 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zn 
 
 65-3 
 
 Manganese .... 
 
 Mn 
 
 55-0 
 
 Zirconium .... 
 
 Zr 
 
 90-0 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Hg 
 
 200-0 
 
 
 
 
 939 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 COMPARISON OF THERMOMETERS. 
 
 Centi- 
 grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 Centi- 
 grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 Centi- Fahren- 
 grade. heit. 
 
 Centi- 
 grade. 
 
 Fahren- 
 heit. 
 
 + 260 
 
 + 500-0 
 
 225 
 
 437-0 
 
 + 190 +374-0 
 
 155 
 
 311-0 
 
 259 
 
 498-2 
 
 224 
 
 435-2 
 
 189 372-2 
 
 154 
 
 309-2 
 
 258 
 
 496-4 
 
 223 
 
 433-4 
 
 188 370-4 
 
 153 
 
 307-4 
 
 257 
 
 494-6 
 
 222 
 
 431-6 
 
 187 ' 368-6 
 
 152 
 
 305-6 
 
 256 
 
 492-8 
 
 221 
 
 429-8 
 
 186 
 
 366-8 
 
 151 
 
 303-8 
 
 255 
 
 491-0 
 
 220 
 
 428-0 
 
 185 
 
 365-0 
 
 150 
 
 302-0 
 
 254 
 
 489-2 
 
 219 
 
 426-2 
 
 184 
 
 363-2 
 
 149 
 
 300-2 
 
 253 
 
 487-4 
 
 218 
 
 424-4 
 
 183 
 
 361-4 
 
 148 
 
 298*4 
 
 252 
 
 485-6 
 
 217 
 
 422-6 
 
 182 ! 359-6 
 
 147 
 
 296-6 
 
 251 
 
 483-8 
 
 216 
 
 420-8 
 
 181 
 
 357-8 
 
 146 
 
 294-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 482-0 
 
 215 
 
 419-0 
 
 180 
 
 356-0 
 
 145 
 
 293-0 
 
 249 
 
 480-2 
 
 214 
 
 417-2 
 
 179 
 
 354-2 
 
 144 
 
 291-2 
 
 248 
 
 478-4 
 
 213 
 
 415-4 
 
 178 
 
 352-4 
 
 143 
 
 289-4 
 
 247 
 
 476-6 
 
 212 
 
 413-6 
 
 177 
 
 350-6 
 
 142 
 
 287-6 
 
 246 
 
 474-8 
 
 211 
 
 411-8 
 
 176 
 
 348-8 
 
 141 
 
 285-8 
 
 245 
 244 
 
 473-0 
 471-2 
 
 210 
 
 410-0 
 
 175 
 174 
 
 347-0 
 345-2 
 
 140 
 
 284-0 
 
 243 
 
 469-4 
 
 209 
 
 408-2 
 
 173 
 
 343-4 
 
 139 
 
 282-2 
 
 242 
 
 467-6 
 
 208 
 
 406-4 
 
 172 
 
 341-6 
 
 138 
 
 280-4 
 
 241 
 
 465-8 
 
 207 
 
 404-6 
 
 171 
 
 339-8 
 
 137 
 
 278-6 
 
 
 
 206 
 
 402-8 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 276-8 
 
 240 
 
 464-0 
 
 205 
 
 401-0 
 
 170 
 
 338-0 
 
 135 
 
 275-0 
 
 239 
 
 462-2 
 
 204 
 
 399-2 
 
 169 
 
 336-2 
 
 134 
 
 273-2 
 
 238 
 
 460-4 
 
 203 
 
 397-4 
 
 168 
 
 334-4 
 
 133 
 
 271-4 
 
 237 
 
 458-6 
 
 202 
 
 395-6 
 
 167 
 
 332-6 
 
 132 
 
 269-6 
 
 236 
 
 456-8 
 
 201 
 
 393-8 
 
 166 
 
 330-8 
 
 131 
 
 267-8 
 
 235 
 
 455-0 
 
 200 
 
 392-0 
 
 165 
 
 329-0 
 
 130 
 
 266-0 
 
 234 
 
 453-2 
 
 199 
 
 390-2 
 
 164 
 
 327-2 
 
 129 
 
 264-2 
 
 233 
 
 451-4 
 
 198 
 
 388-4 
 
 163 
 
 325-4 
 
 128 
 
 262-4 
 
 232 
 
 449-6 
 
 197 
 
 386-6 
 
 162 
 
 323-6 
 
 127 
 
 260-6 
 
 231 
 
 447-8 
 
 196 
 
 384-8 
 
 161 
 
 321-8 
 
 126 
 
 258-8 
 
 230 
 
 446-0 
 
 195 
 
 383-0 
 
 160 
 
 320-0 
 
 125 
 
 257-0 
 
 229 
 
 444-2 
 
 194 
 
 381-2 
 
 159 
 
 318-2 
 
 124 
 
 255-2 
 
 228 
 
 442-4 
 
 193 
 
 379-4 
 
 158 
 
 316-4 
 
 123 
 
 253-4 
 
 227 
 
 440.6 
 
 192 
 
 3776 
 
 157 
 
 314-6 
 
 122 
 
 251-6 
 
 226 
 
 438-8 
 
 191 
 
 375-8 
 
 156 
 
 312-8 
 
 121 
 
 249-8 
 
 940 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Fahren- 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Fahren- 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Fahren- 
 
 Centi- 
 
 Fahren- 
 
 grade. 
 
 heit. 
 
 grade. 
 
 heit. 
 
 grade. 
 
 heit. 
 
 grade. 
 
 heit. 
 
 + 120 
 
 + 248-0 
 
 85 
 
 185-0 
 
 + 50 
 
 + 122-0 
 
 15 
 
 59-0 
 
 119 
 
 246-2 
 
 84 
 
 183-2 
 
 49 
 
 120-2 
 
 14 
 
 57-2 
 
 118 
 
 244-4 
 
 83 
 
 181-4 
 
 48 
 
 118-4 
 
 13 
 
 55-4 
 
 117 
 
 242-6 
 
 82 
 
 179-6 
 
 47 
 
 116-6 
 
 12 
 
 53-6 
 
 116 
 
 2408 
 
 81 
 
 177-8 
 
 46 
 
 114-8 
 
 11 
 
 51-8 
 
 115 
 
 239-0 
 
 80 
 
 176-0 
 
 45 
 
 113-0 
 
 10 
 
 50-0 
 
 114 
 
 237-2 
 
 79 
 
 174-2 
 
 44 
 
 111-2 
 
 9 
 
 48-2 
 
 113 
 
 235-4 
 
 78 
 
 172-4 
 
 43 
 
 109-4 
 
 8 
 
 46-4 
 
 112 
 
 233-6 
 
 77 
 
 170-6 
 
 42 
 
 107-6 
 
 7 
 
 44-6 
 
 111 
 
 231-8 
 
 76 
 
 168-8 
 
 41 
 
 105-8 
 
 6 
 
 42-8 
 
 110 
 
 230-0 
 
 75 
 
 167-0 
 
 40 
 
 104-0 
 
 5 
 
 41-0 
 
 109 
 
 228-2 
 
 74 
 
 165-2 
 
 39 
 
 102-2 
 
 4 
 
 39-2 
 
 108 
 
 226-4 
 
 73 
 
 163-4 
 
 38 
 
 100-4 
 
 3 
 
 37-4 
 
 107 
 
 224-6 
 
 72 
 
 161-6 
 
 37 
 
 98-6 
 
 2 
 
 35-6 
 
 106 
 
 222-8 
 
 71 
 
 159-8 
 
 36 
 
 96-8 
 
 1 
 
 33-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water 
 
 
 105 
 104 
 103 
 102 
 101 
 
 Water 
 
 221-0 
 219-2 
 217-4 
 215-6 
 213-8 
 
 70 
 69 
 68 
 67 
 66 
 
 158-0 
 156-2 
 154-4 
 152-6 
 150-8 
 
 35 
 34 
 33 
 32 
 31 
 
 95-0 
 93-2 
 91-4 
 
 89-6 
 87-8 
 
 freezes 
 
 
 
 - T 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 
 32-0 
 
 30-2 
 
 28-4 
 26-6 
 24-8 
 
 boils 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 100 
 
 212-0 
 
 65 
 
 149-0 
 
 30 
 
 86-0 
 
 
 23-0 
 
 "99 
 
 210-2 
 
 64 
 
 147-2 
 
 29 
 
 84-2 
 
 6 
 
 21-2 
 
 98 
 
 208-4 
 
 63 
 
 145-4 
 
 28 
 
 82-4 
 
 7 
 
 19-4 
 
 97 
 
 206-6 
 
 62 
 
 143-6 
 
 27 
 
 80-6 
 
 8 
 
 17-6 
 
 96 
 
 204-8 
 
 61 
 
 141-8 
 
 26 
 
 78-8 
 
 9 
 
 15-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 14-0 
 
 95 
 
 203-0 
 
 60 
 
 140-0 
 
 25 
 
 77-0 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 201-2 
 
 59 
 
 138-2 
 
 24 
 
 75-2 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 199-4 
 
 58 
 
 136-4 
 
 23 
 
 73-4 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 197-6 
 
 57 
 
 134-6 
 
 22 
 
 71-6 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 195-8 
 
 56 
 
 132-8 
 
 21 
 
 69-8 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 194-0 
 
 55 
 
 131-0 
 
 20 
 
 68-0 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 192-2 
 
 54 
 
 129-2 
 
 19 
 
 66-2 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 190-4 
 
 53 
 
 127-4 
 
 18 
 
 64-4 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 188-6 
 
 52 
 
 125-6 
 
 17 
 
 62-6 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 186-8 
 
 51 
 
 123-8 
 
 16 
 
 60-8 
 
 
 
 CONVERSION OF THERMOMETER DEGREES. 
 
 C to F, multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. 
 3 F to C first subtract 32, then multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 
 
 941 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 TABLE OF THE CORRESPONDING HEIGHTS OP THE BAROMETER 
 IN MILLIMETRES AND ENGLISH INCHES. 
 
 Milli- 
 metres. 
 
 = 
 
 English 
 inches. 
 
 Milli- 
 metres. 
 
 = 
 
 English 
 inches. 
 
 Milli- 
 metres. 
 
 English 
 inches. 
 
 720 
 
 = 
 
 28-347 
 
 739 
 
 = 
 
 29-095 
 
 758 = 
 
 29-843 
 
 721 
 
 
 
 28-386 
 
 740 
 
 =: 
 
 29-134 
 
 759 = 
 
 29-882 
 
 722 
 
 
 
 28-425 
 
 741 
 
 = 
 
 29-174 
 
 760 - 
 
 29-922 
 
 723 
 
 = 
 
 28-465 
 
 742 
 
 := 
 
 29-213 
 
 761 = 
 
 29-961 
 
 724 
 
 
 
 28-504 
 
 743 
 
 
 
 29-252 
 
 762 = 
 
 30-000 
 
 725 
 
 : 
 
 28-543 
 
 744 
 
 
 
 29-292 
 
 763 = 
 
 30-039 
 
 726 
 
 
 
 28-583 
 
 745 
 
 z= 
 
 29-331 
 
 764 = 
 
 30-079 
 
 727 
 
 
 
 28-622 
 
 746 
 
 = 
 
 29-370 
 
 765 = 
 
 30-118 
 
 728 
 
 
 
 28-662 
 
 747 
 
 = 
 
 29-410 
 
 766 = 
 
 30-158 
 
 729 
 
 
 
 28-701 
 
 748 
 
 = 
 
 29-449 
 
 767 = 
 
 30-197 
 
 730 
 
 = 
 
 28-740 
 
 749 
 
 = 
 
 29-488 
 
 768 = 
 
 30-236 
 
 731 
 
 
 
 28-780 
 
 750 
 
 =: 
 
 29-528 
 
 769 = 
 
 30-276 
 
 732 
 
 
 
 28-819 
 
 751 
 
 
 
 29-567 
 
 770 = 
 
 30-315 
 
 733 
 
 
 
 28-858 
 
 752 
 
 = 
 
 29-606 
 
 771 = 
 
 30-355 
 
 734 
 
 = z 
 
 28-898 
 
 753 
 
 = 
 
 29-645 
 
 772 = 
 
 30-394 
 
 735 
 
 
 
 28-937 
 
 754 
 
 
 
 29-685 
 
 773 = 
 
 30-433 
 
 736 
 
 
 
 28-976 
 
 755 
 
 ^= 
 
 29-724 
 
 774 - 
 
 30-473 
 
 737 
 
 =. 
 
 29-016 
 
 756 
 
 =: 
 
 29-764 
 
 775 = 
 
 30-512 
 
 738 
 
 = 
 
 29-055 
 
 757 
 
 = 
 
 29-803 
 
 
 
 UNITS OF HEAT. 
 
 The British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.), or unit of heat, is the 
 quantity of heat required to raise 1 Ib. of pure water 1 Fahr., 
 or, more exactly, from 39"1 to 40'1 Fahr. 
 
 The Calorie, large calorie, or French unit of heat, is the 
 quantity of heat required to raise 1 kilogramme of water 
 through 1 C. 
 
 The calorie, or small calorie (with a small c) is the scientific 
 unit of heat. It is the quantity of heat required to raise one 
 gramme of pure water from to 1 C. 
 
 The pound centigrade unit is the quantity of heat required to 
 raise 1 Ib. of water from to 1 C. 
 
 B.T.U. Ca. ca. 
 
 1 = 0-252 = 252 
 
 3-9682 =1 = 1,000 
 
 0-003968 = 0-001 = 1 
 1-8 - 0-4536 = 453-6 
 
 942 
 
 Lb. C.U. Foot-lbs. 
 
 - 0-555 - 776 
 
 = 2-2046 = 3,080 
 
 = 0-002046 - 3-08 
 
 = 1 = 1,397 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 
 
 SOLIDS. 
 
 Metals. 
 
 
 
 Description. ^0 
 
 Weight in Ibs. 
 
 of a cubic. 
 
 Aluminium 2'67 
 Antimony . . 6*71 
 
 Foot. 
 162 
 418 
 
 Inch. 
 094 
 242 
 
 Bismuth .... 9'79 
 
 610 
 
 352 
 
 Cadmium 8'60 
 
 536 
 
 309 
 
 Calcium 1'57 
 Copper, from 8*60 
 to 8-92 
 average .... 8'80 
 Gold 19-3 
 
 98 I 
 537 
 557 
 549 
 1204 
 
 056 
 311 
 322 
 318 
 697 
 
 Iron, cast, from .... 7'0 
 to 7-6 
 average. . . 7'22 
 Iron, wrought, from . . 7'55 
 to ... 7-81 
 average . 7'70 
 Lead cast 11*36 
 
 437 
 474 
 451 
 471 
 
 487 
 480 
 708 
 
 253 
 274 
 261 
 273 
 
 282 
 280 
 408 
 
 sheet 11-4 
 Magnesium 1/74 
 Manganese 8'0 
 Nickel ... 8-9 
 
 711 
 108 
 499 
 555 
 
 412 
 062 
 289 
 321 
 
 Platinum .... 21'5 
 
 1 342 
 
 776 
 
 Potassium '86 
 Silver ' 10'5 
 
 54 
 
 655 
 
 031 
 379 
 
 Sodium . '97 
 
 60 
 
 035 
 
 Steel from . ... 7'8 
 
 487 
 
 282 
 
 to 8-0 
 
 499 
 
 289 
 
 average .... 7'9 
 Tin 7'3 
 Zinc . . . 7'1 
 
 493 
 456 
 443 
 
 285 
 264 
 256 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 943 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 Alloys. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Weight in Ib 
 
 s. of a cubic 
 
 Aluminium bronze (90 to 
 95% copper), from . . 
 to ... 
 Bell metal . 
 
 7-7 
 8-0 
 8-05 
 
 Foot. 
 
 480 
 499 
 502 
 
 Inch. 
 
 280 
 289 
 29 
 
 Brass, from 
 to 
 
 8-4 
 8-6 
 
 524 
 
 537 
 
 303 
 311 
 
 Bronze, from . . . . . 
 to 
 
 8-4 
 8-7 
 
 524 
 543 
 
 303 
 314 
 
 Gun metal, from . . . 
 to .... 
 Babbitt metal .... 
 White metal 
 
 8-5 
 8-6 
 7'3 
 7'3 
 
 530 
 537 
 456 
 456 
 
 307 
 311 
 264 
 263 
 
 Electrical Horse Power 
 
 746 
 
 Kilowatt =^?xE.H.P. 
 
 RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE EXPRESSED IN INCHES OF 
 WATER AND POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH. 
 
 Inches of 
 Water. 
 
 Effective Pressure in 
 Pounds per square inch 
 
 Effective Pressure in Ounces 
 per square inch. 
 
 
 
 Exactly. ' Approximately. 
 
 1 
 
 0-03617 
 
 0-578 f oz. 
 
 1| 
 
 0-04521 
 
 0-723 | 
 
 1 
 
 0-05425 
 
 0-868 T o 
 
 If 
 
 0-06329 
 
 1-013 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 
 
 0-07234 
 
 1-157 
 
 li , 
 
 2i 
 
 0-08138 
 
 1-302 1J , 
 
 2| 
 
 0-09042 
 
 1-447 li , 
 
 2| 
 
 0-09946 
 
 1-591 If , 
 
 3 
 
 0-10851 
 
 1-736 
 
 li , 
 
 3* 
 
 012659 
 
 2-025 
 
 2 , 
 
 4 
 
 0-14468 
 
 2-315 
 
 21 , 
 
 44 
 
 0-16276 
 
 2-604 
 
 2| , 
 
 5 
 
 0-18085 
 
 2-893 
 
 3 
 
 944 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA 
 
 PHOTOMETRIC STANDARDS. 
 
 English Candle (Sperm) 
 French Carcel . 
 German Candle (Paraffin) 
 Hefner Unit 
 
 CANDLES. 
 
 . 1 
 
 . 9-5 
 1-05 
 O89 
 
 DENSITIES AND WEIGHTS OF GASES AND VAPOURS. 
 (Wirikler and Lunge's " Technical Gas Analysis") 
 
 Name of Gas. 
 
 Molecular 
 Formula. 
 
 Density 
 (Hydrogen=l) 
 
 1 Litre of 
 Gas in the 
 normal state 
 weighs 
 
 Acetylene .... 
 
 CoH 2 
 
 12-970 
 
 Grammes. 
 1-1621 
 
 Benzene 
 
 C 6 H 6 
 
 38-910 
 
 3-4863 
 
 Butylene 
 Carbon disulphide . . . 
 Carbon oxysulphide . . . 
 Cyanogen 
 
 C 4 H 8 
 
 CS 2 
 C0 2 S 
 
 (CN) 2 
 
 27-940 
 37-965 
 29-955 
 25-990 
 
 2-5034 
 3-4017 
 2-6839 
 
 2-3287 
 
 Ethane 
 
 C 9 H 6 " 
 
 14-970 
 
 1-2413 
 
 Hydrogen cyanide . . . 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen . 
 Propylene 
 
 HCN 
 H 3 P 
 
 13-495 
 16-980 
 20-955 
 
 1-2091 
 1-5214 
 
 1-8775 
 
 Silicium tetrafluoride . . 
 
 SiF 4 
 
 52-055 
 
 4-6641 
 
 945 
 
 60 
 
ACETYLENE 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND WEIGHTS OF GASES AND VAPOURS. 
 
 (Alkali Maker's Handbook.) 
 North latitude, 52 30', 130 feet above sea level. 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Mole- 
 cular 
 Weight. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 (Air=l.) 
 
 Grains per 
 cub. foot 
 29-92" and 
 32 Fahr. 
 
 Lbs. per 
 cub. foot 
 29-92" and 
 32 Fahr.i 
 
 Ammonia 
 Atmospheric air. . . . 
 Bromine 
 Chlorine 
 
 NH 3 
 
 Br 2 ' 
 
 CL 
 
 17 
 
 160 
 71 
 
 0-58890 
 1-00000 
 5-52271 
 2-44921 
 
 332-96 
 565-16 
 3,122-1 
 1384-73 
 
 04757 
 08074 
 4460 
 1978 
 
 Carbonic oxide .... 
 Carbonic anhydride . . 
 Ethylene .... 
 Hydrogen 
 Hydrogen chloride . . . 
 Iodine 
 
 CO 
 C0 2 
 C 2 H 4 
 H 2 
 HC1 
 I 2 
 
 28 
 44 
 28 
 2 
 36-5 
 254 
 
 0-96709 
 1-51968 
 0-96744 
 0-06923 
 1-25922 
 8-756 
 
 546-78 
 859-21 
 546-98 
 39-1439 
 711-94 
 4,949-90 
 
 07811 
 12274 
 07814 
 0055919 
 1017 
 '7071 
 
 Methane 
 Mercury 
 Nitrogen 
 
 CH 4 
 Hg 
 
 No 
 
 16 
 
 200 
 
 28 
 
 0-55297 
 0-97010 
 
 312-64 
 3,914-39 
 
 548-47 
 
 04466 
 5592 
 "07835 
 
 Nitrous oxide 
 Nitric oxide 
 Nitrous anhydride . . . 
 Nitric peroxide .... 
 
 ?? T5 .... 
 
 Oxygen . . .... 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen . 
 Sulphurous anhydride . 
 Sulphur 
 Water 
 
 N 2 
 NO 
 
 N 2 3 
 N0 2 
 N 2 4 
 2 
 H 2 S 
 S0 2 
 S 2 
 H 2 
 
 44 
 30 
 76 
 46 
 92 
 32 
 34 
 64 
 64 
 18 
 
 1-52269 
 1-03767 
 2-630 
 1-592 
 3-184 
 1-10521 
 1-17697 
 2-21295 
 2-2155 
 0-62182 
 
 860-90 
 586-66 
 1,487-46 
 900-31 
 1,800-63 
 624-85 
 665-44 
 1,251-19 
 1,252-59 
 351-57 
 
 1229 
 08381 
 2125 
 1286 
 2572 
 08926 
 09506 
 1787 
 1789 
 05022 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 For calculations with large quantities of gas, it is sufficiently accurate to assume 
 that 10,000 cubic feet weigh as many cwts. as the molecular weight of the gas divided 
 by 4 indicates. 
 
 For example, 10,000 cubic feet of sulphuretted hydrogen weigh s -=8'5 cwts. 
 (exactly, it would be 8'488 cwts.). 
 
 946 
 
APPENDIX OF USEFUL DATA 
 
 CALCULATION OF THERMOMETRIC SCALES. 
 
 The Centigrade thermometer is always employed in scientific 
 work, and differs from the Fahrenheit, in that the freezing 
 point of water is taken as on the Centigrade, and 32 on the 
 Fahrenheit scale ; and the boiling point on the former is 100, 
 whilst in the latter 212. One scale can be readily converted 
 into the other by the formulas: 
 
 | (F.-82)=C. 
 
 9 C 
 5 
 
 CALCULATION OF CHANGE OF VOLUME IN A GAS, WITH 
 ALTERATIONS OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE. 
 
 The variations in volume, due to change of temperature and 
 pressure, have made it necessary to fix a standard temperature 
 and pressure at which all gases shall be measured, and for all 
 scientific purposes C. and a barometric pressure equal to 
 760 mm. of mercury have been adopted, and called the 
 " normal " temperature and pressure. 
 
 Now it is evident that it would be practically impossible to 
 secure these conditions, so that the usual method adopted is to 
 measure the gas under ordinary circumstances, and having 
 noted the temperature and pressure, to calculate what would 
 be the volume under normal conditions of temperature and 
 pressure, and this is done by the formula : 
 
 v p_v l p 1 , 
 
 t = ' t 1 
 where 
 
 v = original volume. 
 
 p = observed pressure. 
 
 t ^observed temperature in (273 + C.) 
 
 v 1 =required volume. 
 
 p 1 = normal pressure. 
 
 t 1 = normal temp. (273 + 0C.) 
 
 This formula is adapted for any calculation as to change in 
 volume, etc., by using v 1 , p l , and t 1 as may be required. 
 
 947 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abingdon generator, 390. 
 Acetaldehyde, production of, 161. 
 Acetic acid, formation from 
 
 Acetylene of, 66. 
 Acetone, solution of Acetylene 
 
 in, 67, 131. 
 Acetyl-alcohol made by Berthe- 
 
 lot, 6. 
 
 "Acetylator" bicycle lamp, 455. 
 Acetylene accidentally made by 
 Hare, 4 ; action of heat on, 
 102, 115 ; action of high tem- 
 perature on, 46, 399, 495; 
 action of sulphuric acid on, 
 141 ; action on anhydrous 
 cupric chloride of, 149 ; action 
 on cupric salts of, 148 ; action 
 on mercury salts of, 158 ; action 
 on metallic salts of, 143 ; action 
 on metals of, 143, 162 ; action 
 on silver salts of, 153 ; action on 
 the nervous system of, 168. 
 
 and copper, 146. 
 
 and cuprous chloride, com- 
 pound of, 150. 
 
 argand burner, 561. 
 
 as an analytical reagent, 
 
 152 ; as an illuminant, sanitary 
 position of, 587 ; as a unit of 
 light, 583. 
 
 Berthelot's researches on, 
 
 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 27, 33, 43, 45, 47, 
 58, 65, 67, 68, 79, 83, 91, 102, 
 115, 120, 129, 133, 136, 137, 140, 
 141, 142, 146, 153, 155, 159, 160, 
 167, 298, 693; bicycle lamps, 
 443 ; Birnbaum's researches 
 on, 11 ; Boettger's researches 
 on, 5, 45, 146, 153 ; burners, 532 ; 
 carriage lamps, 463 ; Caze- 
 neuve's researches on, 13, 14, 54 ; 
 commercial possibility of, 173 ; 
 comparative analyses of, 107 ; 
 
 composition of, 6, 65 ; composi- 
 tion of, as given by Davy, 2 ; 
 decomposed by the electric 
 arc, 29 ; decomposition under 
 pressure of, 84 ; density of, 64 ; 
 Destrem's researches on, 13 ; 
 detection of, by ammoniacal 
 cuprous and silver solutions, 
 4; De Wilde's researches on, 
 12. 
 
 Acetylene diluted with carbon 
 dioxide, 624 ; with carbon mon- 
 oxide, 624 ; with coal gas, 619, 
 647 ; with hydrogen, 624 ; with 
 methane, 625 ; with nitrogen, 
 625; with oil gas, 631; with 
 water gas, 618. 
 
 discovery of, 1 ; Dixon's 
 researches on, 82 ; effect of heat 
 on, 90 ; effect of light on, 133 ; 
 effect of shock on, 88; electrical 
 relations of, 100 ; explosive 
 properties of, 83, 91, 96 ; Fittig's 
 researches on, 10 ; flame, heat- 
 ing effect of, 588 ; formation 
 of acetic acid from, 66 ; forma- 
 tion of benzene from, 66 ; 
 formation of ethylene from, 
 66 ; formation of formic acid 
 from, 66 ; formation of oxalic 
 acid from, 66 ; formation of 
 prussic acid from, 66. 
 
 formed by electrolysis, 10 ; 
 
 by incomplete combustion, 33 ; 
 by the electric arc, 29 ; from 
 barium carbide, 19. 
 
 formula for, 64. 
 
 for photographic purposes, 
 
 584 ; for printing and copying 
 purposes, 586. 
 
 found in the products of 
 
 incomplete combustion, 10. 
 
 gas engine tests with, 611. 
 
 generators, classification of, 
 
 341. 
 
 949 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acetylene, Haller's researches 
 on, 12 ; heat of combustion of, 
 65, 120 ; how prepared by Ber- 
 thelot, 6 ; hydrate, 135 ; hy- 
 gienic value of, 590. 
 
 Illuminating Company, 215. 
 
 illuminating power of, 595 ; 
 impurities found in, 43 ; in- 
 fluence of size of burner on, 
 531. 
 
 installations, the fitting of, 
 441 ; the starting of, 443. 
 
 - introduced into England, 
 346 ; Jahn's researches on, 13 ; 
 Kekul6's researches, 10 ; Klet- 
 zinsky's researches on, 10 ; 
 KutscherofFs researches on, 
 13 ; Lewes' researches on, 105, 
 112, 113, 118, 392, 473, 489, 490, 
 492, 506, 521, 526, 527, 592, 620, 
 638. 
 
 lighting at Wolverton 
 
 station, 379. 
 
 - limits of combustion of, 
 119 ; liquefaction of, 71 ; lumin- 
 ous decomposition of, 113. 
 
 - made by burning oxygen 
 in methane, 10 ; by McLeod's 
 method, 33; by Quet, 4; by 
 sparking ether vapour, 12 ; by 
 the action of hot alcoholic 
 potash on ethylene dibromide, 
 11 ; from silver acetate and 
 iodine, 11. 
 
 Maquenhe's researches on, 
 19 ; McLeod's researches on ; 
 10 ; MiasnikofTs researches on, 
 7, 51, 153 ; Moissan's analysis 
 of, 64 ; molecular weight of, 
 64 ; Odling's researches on, 12 ; 
 oxidisation of, 65 ; photometric 
 tests with, 521 ; Pizarello's 
 researches on, 12 ; Polis' re- 
 searches on, 43, 128 ; possibility 
 of use of, 3 ; prepared from 
 bromoform and powdered 
 silver, 14 ; prepared from vinyl 
 chloride, 7 ; presence in coal 
 gas of, 5, 9 ; presence in lumin- 
 ous hydrocarbon flames of, 116 ; 
 price of, 591 ; production from 
 alcohol vapour of, 4 ; produc- 
 tion from calcium carbide of, 
 60; products of combustion 
 of, 118 ; properties of, 2 ; puri- 
 fication of, 53, 60 ; reaction of 
 hydrogen on, 104 ; reaction of 
 
 iron on, 103 ; reaction of nitro- 
 gen on, 104 ; Beboul's re- 
 searches on, 9; Reischauer's 
 researches on, 5, 153 ; Bieth's 
 researches on, 11, 35; Eoemer's 
 researches on, 14, 43, 133, 137 ; 
 SabanejefTs researches on, 11, 
 43, 51, 137, 138 ; Sawitsch's re- 
 searches on, 7; search-lights, 
 468 ; signalling apparatus, 466 ; 
 smell of, 66; solid, 97; solu- 
 bility in acetone of, 67, 131; 
 solubility of, 66; specific 
 gravity of, 6, 65; Suckert's 
 researches on, 75, 79, 97. 
 Acetylene supply works at vari- 
 ous towns, 425. 
 
 - supply works in America 
 425 ; in Germany, 425 ; in 
 Hungary, 425 ; in France, 425. 
 
 synthesised by Berthelot, 7, 
 27 ; by Dewar, 13, 81. 
 
 - table lamps, 469. 
 
 - temperature of decomposi- 
 tion of, 118 ; Tommasi's re- 
 searches on, 13 ; toxic action 
 of, 166 ; Truchot's researches 
 on, 12. 
 
 - used for projection work, 
 586. 
 
 - Yielle's researches on, 68, 
 83, 91, 130; Villard's researches 
 on, 66, 67, 74, 97, 135; Vogel's 
 researches on, 5, 146, 153 ; 
 weight of, 65; Willson's re- 
 searches on, 75, 79, 97. 
 
 " Acetylette " bicycle lamp, 458. 
 Acetylite, 402. 
 Acetyl-sulphuric acid made by 
 
 Berthelot, 6. 
 
 Acheson, researches of, 57. 
 Achim, Acetylene supply works, 
 
 at, 425. 
 Acid mercuric chloride as a 
 
 purifier, 500. 
 
 solution of copper and iron 
 salts as a purifier, 510. 
 
 Acidulated chromic acid as a 
 purifier, 513. 
 
 Ackermann, researches of, 277. 
 
 Action of Acetylene on anhy- 
 drous cupric chloride, 149 ; on 
 cupric salts, 148 ; on metallic 
 salts, 143 ; on metals, 143, 162 ; 
 on mercury salts, 158; on 
 silver salts, 153 ; on the nervous 
 system, 168. 
 
 950 
 
INDEX 
 
 Action of benzene on burner tips, 
 
 497. 
 of chlorine on Acetylene, 
 
 136. 
 
 of heat on Acetylene, 102, 
 115 ; on amorphous carbon, 82 ; 
 on hydrocarbons, 5 ; on mono- 
 sodium Acetylene, 144. 
 
 - of high temperatures on 
 Acetylene, 46. 
 
 of hydrochloric acid on 
 
 lime residues, 335. 
 
 of iron on heated Acetylene, 
 103. 
 
 of palladium, 134. 
 
 of peroxide of hydrogen, 134. 
 of platinum black on Acety- 
 lene, 12, 134. 
 
 - of potassium amalgam on 
 chloroform, 10. 
 
 - of silent discharge on 
 hydrocarbon vapours, 12. 
 
 of sulphuric acid on Acety- 
 lene, 6, 141. 
 
 After-generation of Acetylene in 
 
 drip generators, 359. 
 Ahrens, researches of, 502, 504. 
 Air and Acetylene, ignition 
 
 point of, 646. 
 Albas sur le Lot, carbide works 
 
 at, 317. 
 
 Alby, carbide works at, 318. 
 Alcohol flame, 117. 
 
 vapour used to make Acety- 
 lene, 4. 
 
 Alcoholic potash, Acetylene made 
 by action of a spark on, 4 ; 
 action on ethylene dibromide 
 of, 11. 
 
 Aldehyde, formation of, 142. 
 
 Alexandra's remarks on the 
 Spanish carbide industry, 249. 
 
 Allan and Morehead, researches 
 of, 615. 
 
 Allandorf, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Allen, researches of, 101. 
 
 Allgemeine Carbid- und Acety- 
 len-Gesellschaft, 230. 
 
 Electricitats Gesellschaft, 
 
 227. 
 
 Alumina in ash of coke, deter- 
 mination of, 666. 
 
 - in lime, determination of, 
 670. 
 
 Aluminium, carbide of, 55 ; pro- 
 perties of, 55. 
 
 Aluminium sulphide, 336. 
 
 Alzonne, Acetylene supply works 
 at, 425. 
 
 Amagat, researches of, 79. 
 
 America, Acetylene supply works 
 in, 425. 
 
 American burners, 532; gener- 
 ator, early type of, 362 ; hollow 
 pole furnace, 234. 
 
 Ammonia and its effects, 471, 
 491. 
 
 in Acetylene, determina- 
 tion of, 689. 
 
 Ammoniacal cuprous chloride to 
 detect Acetylene, 4. 
 
 Amorphous carbon, action of 
 heat on, 82. 
 
 Analyses of crude carbide, 474. 
 
 Analysis of ash from coke, 276, 
 665 ; of calcium carbide, 20, 
 672 ; of chalk, 267 ; of charcoal 
 by Faisst, 277 ; of coke, method 
 employed, 660; of lime, 668; 
 of limestone, 267, 668; of 
 metallic nodules in carbide, 
 332 ; of mountain limestone, 
 268; of South Wales anthra- 
 cite, 272. 
 
 Analytical reagent, Acetylene 
 as an, 152. 
 
 AngstrOm, researches of, 98. 
 
 Anhydrous cuprous chloride, 
 action of Acetylene on, 149. 
 
 Ansdell, researches of, 72, 76. 
 
 Anthracite coal, 271. 
 
 Apparatus, Berthelot's synthetic, 
 27; Johnson's, 13; Jung- 
 fleisch's, 13, 37; modification 
 of Jungfleisch's, 41. 
 
 Appendix of Useful Data, 937. 
 
 Application to the Home Office 
 re the use of mixed oil gas and 
 Acetylene, Worth's, 650. 
 
 Argand burners for Acetylene, 
 561. 
 
 Armour Institute of Technology, 
 Chicago, 235. 
 
 Arseniuretted hydrogen, 491. 
 
 Arth, researches of, 157. 
 
 Arudy sur le Gave d'Ossau, car- 
 bide works at, 317. 
 
 Arys, Acetylene supply works 
 at, 425. 
 
 Ash of coke, analysis of, 276, 
 665 ; determination of, 662. 
 
 Astfalck and Schneller's electric 
 furnace, 186. 
 
 951 
 
INDEX 
 
 Atmospheric Acetylene burners, 
 
 562. 
 
 Attfield, researches of, 98. 
 Austria, carbide works in, 318. 
 Automatic generators, 341. 
 Autun, origin of petroleum at, 
 
 58. 
 
 Baeyer, researches of, 133, 137. I 
 
 Bailey's generator, 374. 
 
 Bamberger, researches of, 491, 
 677, 684. 
 
 Banks, Sir Joseph, 175. 
 
 Barcelona, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Barga, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Barium carbides, 55; formation 
 of Acetylene from, 19. 
 
 " Basle " burner, 538. 
 
 Basset, researches of, 158. 
 
 " Beacon " generators, 352. 
 
 Becquerel, researches of, 178. 
 
 Behal, researches of, 156, 157. 
 
 Bellegarde sur la Ehone, carbide 
 works at, 317. 
 
 - sur la Valserine, carbide 
 works at, 317. 
 
 Benzene, Acetylene polymerised 
 into, 6 ; formation from Acety- 
 lene of, 66; researches of 
 Amagat on, 79. 
 vapour and its effects, 496. 
 
 Berend, researches of, 137, 153. 
 
 Berge, researches of, 160. 
 
 Berge and Eeyschler, purifying 
 process of, 500 ; reagent of, 
 514 ; researches of, 682. 
 
 Bergmann, oxygen furnace of, 
 322 ; researches of, 134. 
 
 Bernard, electric furnace of, 182 ; 
 researches of, 167. 
 
 Bern, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Berthelot, paper by, 100; re- 
 searches of, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 27, 
 33, 43, 45, 47, 58, 65, 67, 68, 79, 
 83, 91, 102, 115, 120, 129, 133, 
 136, 137, 140, 141, 142, 146, 153, 
 159, 160, 167,298, 693 ; synthesis 
 of Acetylene, 27, synthetic ap- 
 paratus, 27. 
 
 Bertin, researches of, 179. 
 Bertrand-Taillet generator, 408. 
 Berzelius, researches of, 145. 
 Bicarburet of hydrogen, 63. 
 Bicycle lamps, Acetylene, 443 ; 
 burners for, 551 ; the " Acety- 
 
 lator," 455 ; the " Acetylette," 
 458; the " Bundy," 453; the 
 " Celolite,"454>; the "Excelsior," 
 447; the "Hutton," 462; the 
 " Leuchtkugel," 451 ; the 
 "Majestic," 451; the " Muns- 
 terberg," 461; the "Pheno- 
 menon," 449; the"Scharlach," 
 459 ; the " Solitaire," 455 ; the 
 " Triumph," 450 ; the " Twen- 
 tieth Century," 447; the 
 "Veritas," 457; the "Wind- 
 miller," 449 ; the " Yahr," 458. 
 Biginelli, researches of, 160. 
 Billwiller burner, 537 ; develop- 
 ments of, 544 ; Photometric 
 tests with, 539. 
 Birnbaum, researches of, 11. 
 Bischofswerder, Acetylene sup- 
 ply works at, 425. 
 Bistrow, researches of, 166. 
 Bitterfeld, carbide works at, 225. 
 Bituminous coal, 271. 
 Blast furnace slag, 324. 
 Bleaching powder (chloride of 
 
 lime) as a purifier, 500. 
 Blochmann, researches of, 147, 
 
 153, 155, 525. 
 
 Blondel and Psarondatri, re- 
 searches of, 570. 
 Boettger, researches of, 5, 45, 146, 
 
 153. 
 
 Boisbaudran, researches of, 98. 
 Bondowerd, researches of, 123. 
 Bondt, researches of, 46. 
 Bone, experiments of, 29, 123, 
 
 133. 
 
 Borchers, criticism of Moissan 
 and Willson by, 23; electric 
 furnace, 193, 262 ; process for 
 making carbide, 322 ; re- 
 searches of, 15, 22. 
 Bouguer, introduction of the 
 candle as the unit of light by 
 578. 
 
 Bourgeois, researches of, 149. 
 Bouzen, light supply of, 238. 
 Bozel, carbide works, at, 317. 
 Bradley, electric furnace of, 14 ; 
 rotary electric furnace of, 209. 
 Bray burner, 532. 
 Bredel, researches of, 299. 
 Bredig, researches of, 100. 
 British Association, Davy's com- 
 munication to, 1. 
 Brociner, researches of, 168. 
 Brodie, researches of, 145. 
 
 952 
 
INDEX 
 
 Bromine compounds, 137. 
 
 Bromoform and powdered silver, 
 Acetylene formed from, 14. 
 
 Bruylants, researches of, 157. 
 
 Buff, paper by, 46. 
 
 Bullier and Perrodil, researches 
 of, 330. 
 
 - burner of, 543; electric 
 furnace of, 220 ; patent taken 
 out by, 22 ; researches of, 164, 
 282, 618. 
 
 Bundy bicycle lamp, 453. 
 
 Bunsen burner for Acetylene, 
 difficulty of making, 562. 
 
 Bunte, researches of, 43. 
 
 Burch, researches of, 524. 
 
 Burner, Argand, 561 ; atmos- 
 pheric, 562; "Basle," 538; Bill- 
 wilier, 537 ; Bray, 537 ; Bullier, 
 534; "Cockscomb," 554; Cru- 
 veillier, 536 ; Dolan, 539 ; " Ep- 
 worth Wonder," 558; French 
 quadrant-tipped, 543 ; Gear- 
 ing, 536 ; German union jet, 
 557 ; Hempel, 532 ; " Hera," 
 547; Holliday, 535; "Ideal," 
 560 - Lewes, 532; "Mush- 
 room," 548 ; Naphey, 497, 539 ; 
 Schulke, 547; "Slit," 556; 
 " Stewart," 558. 
 
 tip, action of benzene on, 
 
 497. 
 
 Burners for bicycle lamps, 551 ; 
 multiple jet," 554. 
 
 Cailletet, researches of, 71. 
 
 Cain, researches of, 123. 
 
 Calcium] carbide, action of 
 water on, 9 ; analysis of, 20 ; 
 colour of, 329 ; first manu- 
 factured at Spray, 21 ; 
 made by Hare, 4; made by 
 Moissan, 19 ; made by Tra- 
 vers, 20 ; made by Willson, 16 ; 
 made by Woehler, 9 ; made 
 from calcium tartrate, 320; 
 materials from which it is 
 made, 264 ; metallic nodules in, 
 331 ; properties of, 306 ; re- 
 searches on the residues from, 
 333 ; silicon in, 330 ; Woodside 
 process for making, 321. 
 
 oxide, composition of, 265 ; 
 
 in the ash of coke, determina- 
 tion of, 667. 
 
 Calorific calculations, Landin's 
 260. 
 
 Campbell, researches of, 134. 
 
 Canada, carbide works in, 315. 
 
 Candle introduced as the unit 
 of light, 578. 
 
 Carbide as a power transmitter, 
 601 ; commercial sizes for, 310 ; 
 drums, 327 ; effects of over- 
 heating on, 303; electrical 
 energy used in making, 298 ; 
 graphite in, 337 ; heat evolved 
 during decomposition of, 355. 
 
 making, carbon used for, 
 
 269 ; chemical process of, 173 ; 
 gas-coke unsuited for, 273. 
 
 - manufacture, importance 
 of chemical analysis in, 659. 
 
 of aluminium, 55 ; of bari- 
 um, 55 ; of calcium, 55 ; of 
 cerium, 56 ; of chromium, 57 ; 
 of glucinium, 56 ; of lantha- 
 num, 56 ; of manganese, 56 ; 
 of molybdenum, 57 ; of sili- 
 con, 57 ; of strontium, 55 ; of 
 thorium, 56 ; of titanium, 57 ; 
 of tungsten, 57; of uranium, 
 56 ; of vanadium, 57 ; of yttri- 
 um, 56 ; of zirconium, 57. 
 
 package of, 327. 
 
 - sources of iron in, 336 ; 
 storage of, 327, 329. 
 
 - works at Bitterfeld, 225; 
 at Foyers, 215 ; at Froges, near 
 Grenoble, 223; at Hafslund, 
 229 ; at Ingleton, 256 ; at Leeds, 
 213; atMeran,237; atMerrit- 
 ton, 201 ; at Montesquin, 249 ; 
 at Narni, 243 ; at Niagara, 
 199 ; at Port San Martin, near 
 Ivrea, 243 ; at Hhinefelden, 
 227 ; at San Marcello d'Aosta, 
 244; at Sarpsborg, 230; at 
 Saulte Ste. Marie, 207; at 
 Spray, 195 ; at Terni, 244. 
 
 - w- in Austria, 318 ; in 
 Canada, 315 ; in England, 316 ; 
 in France, 317; in Finland, 
 318; in Germany, 316; in 
 Italy, 318; in Norway, 318; 
 in Russia, 318 ; in Spain, 319 ; 
 in Sweden, 318; in Switzer- 
 land, 319; in the United 
 States, 316. 
 
 works, power used for, 284. 
 I Carbides, formation of, 174. 
 j Carbolite, 324. 
 
 953 
 
INDEX 
 
 Carbon growths on Acetylene 
 
 burners, 533. 
 Carbon dioxide gas at St. Nec- 
 
 taire, 59. 
 monoxide, 307 ; Acetylene 
 
 diluted with, 624 ; effects of, 
 
 494, 504 ; poisonous action of, 
 
 307. 
 
 used for carbide making, 
 269 ; in synthesising Acety- 
 lene, 28. 
 
 Carborundum, 57. 
 
 Carcel lamp as a unit of light, 
 580. 
 
 Carlson, researches of, 282. 
 
 Carnot, researches of, 274. 
 
 Caro, holder relief valve, 439 ; 
 researches of, 139, 383, 392, 
 420, 475, 480, 482, 486, 487, 488, 
 492. 
 
 Carriage Acetylene lamps, 463 ; 
 the " Munsterberg," 465; the 
 " Scharlach," 465. 
 
 Causes of impurity in crude 
 carbide, 470. 
 
 leading to chemical decom- 
 position, 174. 
 
 Cazeneuve, researches of, 13, 14, 
 54. 
 
 Cederkreutz and Lunge, re- 
 searches of, 675, 683. 
 
 researches of, 500. 
 Cerium, carbide of, 56. 
 
 " Cetolite " cycle lamp, 454. 
 Chalk, analysis of, 267. 
 Character of the light emitted 
 
 by Acetylene, 575. 
 Charcoal, Faisst's analysis of, 
 
 277. 
 Chavastelon, researches of, 150, 
 
 156, 694. 
 Chemical decomposition, causes 
 
 leading to, 174. 
 process of carbide making, 
 
 173. 
 
 Chicago, carbide works at, 316. 
 Children, researches of, 179. 
 Chloride of lime (bleaching 
 
 powder) as a purifier, 500. 
 Chlorine, properties when mixed 
 
 with Acetylene, 8, 136. 
 Chloroform, action of potassium 
 
 amalgam on, 10. 
 Choice of dynamo for carbide 
 
 works, 288. 
 
 Chromium, carbide of, 57. 
 Classification of generators, 341. 
 
 Claude, researches of, 67, 96. 
 Clerc's electric furnace, 180. 
 Clowes, researches of, 161. 
 Coal and its origin, 269. 
 
 gas, Acetylene diluted with, 
 619, 647 ; influence of size of 
 burner on, 531; methods em- 
 ployed in the enrichment of, 
 650, 654 ; presence of Acety- 
 lene in, 5, 9. 
 
 Cobalt, action of Acetylene on, 
 
 162. 
 
 " Cockscomb " burners, 554. 
 Coke, 272 ; method of analysing, 
 
 660. 
 
 Colour of calcium carbide, 329. 
 Combustible and volatile matter 
 
 in coal, determination of, 661. 
 Combustion of Acetylene, limits 
 
 of, 119 ; products of, 118. . 
 
 of methane, 629. 
 Commercial carbide, nitrogen 
 
 in, 334. 
 
 possibility of Acetylene, 
 
 173. 
 
 sizes for carbide, 310. 
 
 Comparative analysis of Acety- 
 lene made by Lewes, 107; of 
 limestone used at different 
 continental works, 268. 
 hygienic effects of different 
 illuminants, 599. 
 
 pecuniary value of different 
 
 illuminants, 592. 
 Comparison between the cost of 
 Acetylene and coal gas, 589, 
 592. 
 
 between Frank & Ullmann's 
 
 purifying processes, 516; of 
 
 the explosive limits of various 
 
 gases mixed with air, 122 ; of 
 
 various globes, 571. 
 Composite " Hera " burners, 548 ; 
 
 Naphey burners, 541. 
 Composition of Acetylene, 2 ; 
 
 according to Berthelot, 6. 
 - of calcium oxide, 265 ; of 
 
 coke, 274. 
 Compound of Acetylene with 
 
 cuprous chloride, 150. 
 Compounds of bromine, 137 ; of 
 
 iodine, 138. 
 Confusion between potassium 
 
 carbide and potassium car- 
 
 bonyl, 145. 
 Continuous feed furnaces, 183, 
 
 187. 
 
 954 
 
INDEX 
 
 Contradti, carbon electrodes 
 
 made by, 305. 
 
 Conversion of power into elec- 
 trical energy in carbide works, 
 286. 
 
 Copper Acetylene, 146 ; examined 
 by Berthelot, 8. 
 action of liquid Acetylene 
 on, 164. 
 
 Copying, the use of Acetylene 
 for, 586. 
 
 Corodenbeath, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Cost of Acetylene and coal gas, 
 comparison between, 589, 592. 
 
 Cost of Frank's purifying mix- 
 ture, 512 ; of making carbide 
 at Meran, 315 ; of Ullmann's 
 purifying mixture, 515. 
 
 Cowles electric furnace, 15, 180, 
 181, 183; patent furnace lin- 
 ing, 15. 
 
 Cramer, researches of, 598. 
 
 Crampagna, carbide works at, 
 317. 
 
 Crastin, researches of, 609. 
 
 Cremieux, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Crompton's electric furnace, 184, 
 255. 
 
 Crova, researches of, 146. 
 
 Crude Acetylene, causes of phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen in, 264; 
 Wolffs analysis of, 474. 
 
 carbide, causes of impurity 
 
 in, 470. 
 
 Crushing machinery, Speyerer's, 
 310. 
 
 Cruveillier's burner, 536. 
 
 Cuinat, researches of, 612. 
 
 Cupric salts, action of Acety- 
 lene on, 148. 
 
 Cuprous chloride and Acety- 
 lene, compound of, 150. 
 
 chloride, how to prepare, 
 
 28. 
 
 Cyanogen flame, 117. 
 
 Cycle lamp reflectors, 445. 
 
 Daaden, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 425. 
 
 Dalton, researches of, 46. 
 Danger from Acetylene and air 
 
 mixtures, 428 ; prevention of, 
 
 432. 
 
 Davy, Edmund, 1, 54, 63, 64, 118, 
 136, 145, 521. 
 
 - Sir Humphrey, 14, 175, 523, 
 researches of, 48. 
 
 De Chalmot, King and More- 
 head's carbide works, 199. 
 
 Decomposition, causes leading 
 to chemical, 174 ; of Acety- 
 lene by the electric arc, 29 ; 
 of Acetylene, ultimate pro- 
 ducts of, 105; of Acetylene 
 under pressure, 84 ; of carbide, 
 heat evolved during, 355; of 
 ethylene, 47, 48; of ethylene 
 bromide, 51 ; of ethylene chlo- 
 ride, 51 ; of liquid Acetylene, 
 87. 
 
 De Forcrand, researches of, 136. 
 
 Deimann, researches of, 45. 
 
 Density of Acetylene, 64 ; of 
 liquid Acetylene, 77. 
 
 Denzel, researches of, 138. 
 
 Description of Berthelot's syn- 
 thetic apparatus, 27. 
 
 Desiderata in a good generator, 
 354. 
 
 Despretz, electric furnace, 179, 
 193 ; researches of, 135, 177. 
 
 Destrem, researches of, 13. 
 
 Destructive distillation, Acety- 
 lene in the products of, 5. 
 
 Detection of Acetylene by am- 
 moniacal cuprous and silver 
 solutions, 4. 
 
 Determination of the ammonia 
 in Acetylene, 689 ; of the ash 
 of coke, 662 ; of the calcium 
 oxide in the ash of coke, 667 ; 
 of the gas-yielding power of 
 calcium carbide, 672, 675, 676 ; 
 of the iron and alumina in 
 lime, 670; of the iron and 
 alumina in the ash of coke, 
 666 ; of the lime and magnesia 
 in lime, 671 ; of the magnesia 
 in the ash of coke, 668 ; of the 
 manganese in the ash of coke, 
 667 ; of the moisture in coal, 
 661 ; of the moisture in coke, 
 661 ; of the phosphorus in coke, 
 663; of the phosphorus in 
 lime, 672 ; of the phosphuret- 
 ted hydrogen in Acetylene, 
 682, 686 ; of the silica in lime, 
 669 ; of the silica in the ash 
 of coke, 665 ; of the sulphuret- 
 ted hydrogen in Acetylene, 
 
 955 
 
INDEX 
 
 687; of the sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen in crude Acetylene, 
 681 ; of the sulphur in coke, 
 663 ; of the sulphur in lime, 
 671 ; of the volatile and com- 
 bustible matter in coal, 661. 
 Detonation of Acetylene, 79, 
 
 92. 
 Deutschen Gold und Silber 
 
 Scheide Anstalt, 251. 
 Developments of the Bill wilier 
 
 burner, 544. 
 Deville and Debray, lime used 
 
 by, 190. 
 Dewar and Liveing, researches 
 
 of, 525. 
 
 Dewar, on the spectrum of 
 hydrocarbons, 98 ; recounts 
 an experiment of Ramsay's, 
 140 ; synthesis of Acetylene 
 by, 13, 31. 
 De Wilde, researches of, 12, 51, 
 
 134. 
 
 Dibden's researches, 580 ; ten 
 candle unit of light, 582, 
 621. 
 
 Dickerson generator, 400; re- 
 searches of, 615. 
 Difference between illuminating 
 
 power and effect, 565. 
 Different origins of petroleum, 
 
 58. 
 Difficulty of making a Bunsen 
 
 burner for Acetylene, 562. 
 Diluted Acetylene, 615. 
 Discovery of Acetylene, 1; of 
 calcium carbide by Woehler, 
 9 ; of metallic acetylides, 5. 
 Dissociation of gaseous com- 
 pounds, 47. 
 
 Dixon, researches of, 82, 83. 
 Dolan's burner, 539. 
 Dollner, researches of, 487. 
 Double salts of silver Acetylene 
 and silver nitrate, 156; of 
 silver Acetylene and silver 
 sulphate, 156. 
 Drawbacks to the Naphey 
 
 burner, 543. 
 
 "Drip" generating apparatus, 
 341 ; after generation in, 
 359. 
 Durenberg, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Dust nuisance in electric fur- 
 naces, 205. 
 
 E 
 
 Early form of burners used for 
 Acetylene, 532. 
 
 form of French burners, 
 
 534. 
 
 type of American genera- 
 tor, 362. 
 
 Economic values of the two car- 
 bide processes, 250. 
 
 Effect of ammonia, 471, 491 ; of 
 benzene vapour, 496 ; of fog, 
 mist or smoke on illuminants, 
 573 ; of heat on Acetylene, 90, 
 399, 495; of light on Acety- 
 lene, 133 ; of overheating car- 
 bide, 303 ; of phosphuretted 
 hydrogen, 470 ; of shocks on 
 Acetylene, 88 ; of siliciuretted 
 hydrogen, 490; of sulphur- 
 etted hydrogen, 490 ; of various 
 reagents on Acetylene, 692. 
 
 Electrical energy required in 
 making carbide, Bredel's 
 calculations, 299 ; Pictet's cal- 
 culations, 300 ; Sieber's calcu- 
 lations, 300. 
 
 energy used in making 
 
 carbide, 298. 
 
 - relations of Acetylene, 100. 
 Electric arc, calcium carbide 
 
 first made in, 4 ; decomposi- 
 tion of Acetylene by, 29 ; for- 
 mation of Acetylene by, 29; 
 gaseous products of, 178 ; tem- 
 perature of, 177. 
 
 - furnace, Bernard Freres', 
 182 ; Borcher's, 193, 262 ; 
 Bradley 's, 14; Bradley 's ro- 
 tary, 209; Bullier's, 220; 
 Clerc's, 180; Cowles', 15, 180, 
 181; Crompton's, 184, 255; 
 Despretz, 179, 193 ; Frankfort, 
 251; Gin and Leleux's, 239; 
 Girard and Street's, 187; 
 Heroult's, 183, 223 ; " Horry " 
 rotary, 207 ; Joules and 
 Thompson's, 179 ; Kiliani's, 
 184 ; King and Wyatt's, 194 ; 
 Landin's, 259; Laval's, 187; 
 Maxim-Graham, 194 ; Mem- 
 mo's, 246 ; Moissan's, 188 ; 
 Napier's, 179; Niagara, 200; 
 Parker's, 185; Patin's, 262; 
 Pichon's, 179; Pictet's, 255; 
 pre-heating, 255, 259; Eathe- 
 nau's, 227; Eeadman's, 184; 
 
 956 
 
INDEX 
 
 Keuleaux's, 184 ; Schneller and 
 Astfalck's, 186 ; Siemens- 
 Halske, 230 ; Siemens', 15, 180 ; 
 Willson's, 185. 
 
 Electric furnaces, dust nuisance 
 in, 205 ; in use at Foyers, 219 ; 
 reintroduced by Siemens, 174. 
 
 Electricitats Aktien G-esell- 
 schaft, 229. 
 
 Electricity, dissociation of 
 gaseous compounds by, 47. 
 
 Electrodes, manufacture of, 305. 
 
 Electroid gas, 618. 
 
 Electrolysis used to form Acety- 
 lene, 10. 
 
 Electro-metallurgy, Borcher on, 
 15, 22. 
 
 Ellerbeck, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Eltekoff, researches of, 141. 
 
 England, carbide works in, 316. 
 
 Enrichment of coal gas, method 
 used for the, 650, 654. 
 
 Epierre, carbide works at, 317. 
 
 " Epworth Wonder " burner, 
 558. 
 
 Erdmann, criticised by Hoff- 
 man, 161 ; researches of, 142, 
 144, 151, 160, 576. 
 
 Ether vapour, formation of 
 Acetylene from, 12. 
 
 Ethylene bromide, decomposi- 
 tion of, 51 ; preparation of 
 Acetylene from, 7. 
 chloride, decomposition of, 
 51 ; De Wilde's researches on, 
 51 ; preparation of Acetylene 
 from, 9. 
 
 dibromide, action of alco- 
 holic potash on, 11. 
 - decomposition of, 46; di- 
 luted, 626; formation from 
 Acetylene of, 66 ; Lewes's re- 
 searches on, 49 ; liquid hydro- 
 carbons formed from, 49 ; 
 made by Berthelot, 6 ; re- 
 searches of Magnus on, 46 ; 
 researches of Marchand on, 
 46. 
 
 " Excelsior " cycle lamp, 447. 
 
 Exley's generator, 367 ; purify- 
 ing process, 520. 
 
 Experimental drip generator, 
 341. 
 
 Experiments as to the penetra- 
 tive power of different illu- 
 minants, 574. 
 
 Experiment with ~ " dipping " 
 generators, 396 ; with " drip " 
 generators, 394. 
 
 Explosion of Acetylene at at- 
 mospheric pressures, 602. 
 
 of pure Acetylene, propa- 
 gation of, 650. 
 
 Explosive character of chlorine 
 and Acetylene mixtures, 8. 
 
 limits of various gases 
 
 mixed with air, comparison 
 of, 122. 
 
 power of pure and diluted 
 
 Acetylene, 636. 
 
 properties of Acetylene, 96, 
 
 429 ; of gaseous Acetylene, 83, 
 91. 
 
 Faisst, analysis of charcoal by, 
 277. 
 
 Faure, researches of, 179. 
 
 Favre, researches of, 628. 
 
 Feischmann, researches of, 164. 
 
 Fery's Acetylene unit of light, 
 583 ; researches, 577. 
 
 Finland, carbide works in, 318. 
 
 First Acetylene generator, 339. 
 
 Fittig, researches of, 10. 
 
 Fitting Acetylene installations, 
 441. 
 
 Flame, luminosity of, 523 ; tem- 
 perature of, and its import- 
 ance, 628. 
 
 Fog, effect on illuminants of, 
 573. 
 
 Forbes generator, 347. 
 
 Formation of Acetylene by the 
 electric arc, 29 ; of aldehyde, 
 142 ; of carbides, 174 ; of thio- 
 phane, 141. 
 
 Formic acid, formation from 
 Acetylene of, 66. 
 
 Formula for Acetylene, 64. 
 
 Fouque, free hydrogen collected 
 by, 59. 
 
 Fourchotte generator, 378. 
 
 Fourcroy, researches of, 46. 
 
 Fournier, researches of, 65. 
 
 Fownes, researches of, 26. 
 
 Fox, researches of, 179. 
 
 Foyers, carbide works at, 215, 
 316 ; electric furnaces in use 
 at, 219 ; process for preventing 
 waste of electrode in use at, 
 205. 
 
 957 
 
INDEX 
 
 France, Acetylene supply works 
 
 in, 425 ; carbide works in, 317. 
 Frank, purifying process of, 
 
 510; researches of, 118, 140, 
 
 167, 493. 
 Frank and Hilpert, phosphorus 
 
 process of, 475. 
 Frank and Ullmann's processes, 
 
 comparison of, 516. 
 Frankfort-a-M., carbide works 
 
 at, 316 ; electric furnace at, 
 
 251. 
 Frank! and, E., researches of, 524. 
 
 P., researches of, 626. 
 
 Fraser, letter from Willson to, 
 
 18; patent solicitor of Will- 
 son, 16. 
 Frauenberg, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Fredureau globes, 571. 
 French automatic generator, 
 
 410. 
 
 Freund, researches of, 152. 
 Friedland, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Froges, carbide works at, 223, 
 
 317. 
 
 Fuchs, researches of, 67. 
 Fuchs and Schiff, researches of, 
 
 676. 
 Furnace coke, 273. 
 
 - lining patented by Cowles, 
 
 15. 
 
 G 
 
 Gas coke unsuited for carbide 
 
 making, 273. 
 engine power for carbide 
 
 works, 285. 
 
 - engine tests with Acety- 
 lene, 611. 
 
 - produced, influence of 
 generator on, 421. 
 
 referees, regulations of the, 
 
 579. 
 Gaseous Acetylene, explosive 
 
 properties of, 83. 
 compounds, dissociation of, 
 
 47. 
 products of the electric arc, 
 
 178. 
 Gearing burner, 536 ; generator, 
 
 347. 
 General comparison of various 
 
 illuminants, 599. 
 
 Generator, " Abingdon," 390 ; 
 " Acetylite," 402 ; Bailey's, 
 374; "Beacon," 352; Bert- 
 rand-Taillet, 408; desiderata 
 in a good, 354; Dickerson's, 
 400 ; early type of American, 
 362; Exley's, 367; Forbes', 
 347 ; Fourchotte, 378 ; French 
 automatic, 410 ; Gearing's, 
 347 ; Gibbs', 409 ; Graetz, 381 ; 
 Grubb's, 377; " Haus Cent- 
 rale," 413; Button's, 378; 
 " Ideal," 363 ; influence of the 
 generator on the gas produced, 
 421 ; influence of the genera- 
 tor on the residue, 422 ; Kay's 
 "Manchester," 351; Kipp's, 
 342 ; " Kleine Centrale," 413 ; 
 " Liver " or " Sovereign," 389 ; 
 " Midland," 350 ; Owen's, 382 ; 
 "Perfection," 412; Pictet's, 
 401; Pintsch's, 414; Read- 
 Holliday's, 368; Boss's, 405; 
 Sardi, 388; Sigurdsson, 403; 
 Strode, 406 ; " Sunbeam," 386 ; 
 " Sunlight," 366 ; Szepezynski, 
 407 ; " Thorscar," 370 ; Trouve, 
 380. 
 
 Generators, automatic, 341 ; 
 classification of, 341; Latch, 
 408 ; non-automatic, 341 ; port- 
 able, 468 ; safety water seals 
 for, 438; screw, 406; valve, 
 402. 
 
 Geneva, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Gerard, researches of, 332, 333, 
 490. 
 
 Gerdes, criticised by Grittner, 
 164; researches of, 127, 163, 
 432, 471, 617, 632. 
 
 German union jet burners, 557. 
 
 Germany, Acetylene supply 
 works in, 425 ; carbide works 
 in, 316. 
 
 Gibbs' generator, 409. 
 
 Gin and Leleux, carbide pro- 
 cess, 236 ; paper by, 303 ; ven- 
 tilators, 309. 
 
 Girard and Street, electric fur- 
 nace of, 187. 
 
 Globes, comparison between dif- 
 ferent kinds, 571 ; Fredureau, 
 571; Holophane, 570; use of, 
 570. 
 
 Glucinium, carbide of, 156. 
 
 Goettig, purifying process of, 
 510 ; researches of, 518. 
 
 958 
 
INDEX 
 
 Goldberg and Ullmann, re- 
 searches of, 515. 
 
 Graetz generator, 381. 
 
 Granulating machinery, Spey- 
 erer's, 284. 
 
 Graphite in carbide, 337. 
 
 Gray, researches of, 178. 
 
 Grehant, researches of, 167. 
 
 Grittner, researches of, 164. 
 
 Grossenlinden, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Grover, researches of, 602. 
 
 Grubb's generator, 377. 
 
 Guequen, researches of, 526. 
 
 Guttstadt, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Haber, researches of, 108, 112, 
 114, 118, 399, 496. 
 
 Hafslund, carbide works at, 229, 
 318. 
 
 Haller, researches of, 12. 
 
 Hamekoski, carbide works at, 
 318. 
 
 Handkop, researches of, 278. 
 
 Harcourt's pentane unit of 
 light, 581. 
 ten candle unit of light, 582. 
 
 Hare, calcium carbide and 
 Acetylene made by, 4. 
 
 Hartenstein, carbide process of, 
 322. 
 
 Hartman, researches of, 578. 
 
 Haselberg, paper by, 100. 
 
 Hassfurt, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Hautefeuille, researches of, 56. 
 
 Hautes Alpes, sur le Buech, 
 carbide works at, 317. 
 
 Haute Savoie sur 1'Arve, car- 
 bide works at, 317. 
 
 Haze arising from impurities in 
 Acetylene, 470. 
 
 Heat, action on Acetylene of, 
 102, 115 ; action on amorphous 
 carbon of, 82 ; effect on Acety- 
 lene of, 90, 399 ; evolved during 
 decomposition of carbide, 355. 
 
 Heating effect of the Acetylene 
 flame, 588. 
 
 Heat of combustion of Acety- 
 lene, 65, 120. 
 
 Hecht, researches of, 46. 
 
 Hefner Alteneck unit of light, 
 580. 
 
 Hempel and Karl, researches of, 
 686. 
 
 Hempel burner, 532. 
 
 Henry, researches of, 46. 
 
 Hera burners, 547. 
 
 Heroult's electric furnace, 183, 
 223. 
 
 Hess, researches of, 67. 
 
 Heumann, researches of, 525. 
 
 High temperature, action on 
 Acetylene of, 46. 
 
 Hilgard, researches of, 525. 
 
 Hille, Acetylene engine made 
 by, 613. 
 
 Hilpert and Frank, phosphorus 
 process of, 475. 
 
 Hittorf , researches of, 98. 
 
 Hoffman, researches of, 161. 
 
 Hofman, paper by, 46 ; re- 
 searches of, 149, 151. 
 
 Holliday burner, 535. 
 
 Holophane globes, 570. 
 
 Hopf, machinery made by, 242. 
 
 Horry rotary electric furnace, 
 207. 
 
 Houston, Kenelly and Kinni- 
 cutt, report by, 195. 
 
 Humboldt, hypothesis advanced 
 by, 58. 
 
 Hungary, Acetylene supply 
 works in, 425. 
 
 Hunmanby, electroid gas used 
 at, 618. 
 
 Hutton cycle lamp, 462 ; gener- 
 ator, 378. 
 
 Hydrate of Acetylene, 135. 
 
 Hydrocarbon vapours, action of 
 silent discharge on, 12. 
 
 Hydrocarbons, action of heat on, 
 5 ; formation from ethylene of, 
 49 ; researches on the spectrum 
 of, 97. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, action on 
 lime residue of, 335. 
 
 Hydrogen, Acetylene diluted 
 with, 624 ; effects of, 630 ; re- 
 action on Acetylene of, 104. 
 
 Hygienic value of Acetylene, 
 590. 
 
 " Ideal " burner, 560 ; generator, 
 
 363. 
 Ignition point in mixtures of 
 
 air and Acetylene, 646. 
 
 959 
 
INDEX 
 
 Illuminant, possibility of using 
 Acetylene as an, 3. 
 
 Illuminants, the effect of fog, 
 mist, or smoke on, 573. 
 
 Illuminating power and effect, 
 difference between, 565. 
 
 power of Acetylene, 595. 
 
 value of a gas, 522. 
 
 value of hydrogen as a di- 
 luent, 630. 
 
 value of methane, 629. 
 
 Imabro, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Immersed volcanoes at Santorin, 
 59. 
 
 Importance of chemical analysis 
 in carbide manufacture, 659. 
 
 of flame temperature, 628. 
 of purification in Acetylene, 
 
 472. 
 
 Impurities found in Acetylene, 
 43 ; in coke, 275 ; in wood 
 charcoal, 277 ; injurious, 499 ; 
 non - injurious, 499 ; to be 
 avoided in lime used for car- 
 bide, 266. 
 
 Impurity in crude carbide, 
 causes of, 470. 
 
 Incandescent metallic thread, 
 detonation of Acetylene by, 
 92. 
 
 Incomplete combustion, Acety- 
 lene found in the products of, 
 10, 33. 
 
 Ingleton, carbide works at, 256. 
 
 Influence of the generator on the 
 gas produced, 421, 673 ; on im- 
 purities in the gas, 489, 492 ; 
 on the residue, 422. 
 of the pressure on impuri- 
 ties in the gas, 489. 
 
 of size of burner in Acety- 
 lene lighting, 531 ; in coal gas 
 lighting, 531. 
 
 Injurious effects of overheating 
 carbide, 303. 
 - impurities, 499. 
 
 Introduction of Acetylene into 
 England, 346. 
 
 of the candle as the unit 
 
 of light, 578. 
 
 Iodine and silver acetate, Acety- 
 lene made from, 11. 
 
 compounds, 138. 
 
 Iron, action of Acetylene on, 162 ; 
 action on heated Acetylene of, 
 103. 
 
 in carbide, sources of, 336. 
 
 Iron in lime, determination of, 
 670 ; in the ash of coke, deter- 
 mination of, 666. 
 
 Italy, Carbide works in, 318. 
 
 Ivrea, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Jacobsohn, researches of, 487. 
 Jahn, researches of, 13. 
 Jajce, carbide works at, 318. 
 Jerdan, experiments by, 29. 
 Johannisburg, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Johnson, apparatus of, 13. 
 Jones, researches of, 101. 
 Joule and Thompson, electric 
 
 furnace of, 179. 
 
 Jungfleisch, apparatus of, 13, 37. 
 -- apparatus, modification of, 
 
 41. 
 -- researches of, 136. 
 
 K 
 
 Karl and Hempel, researches of, 
 
 686. 
 Kay's " Manchester " generator, 
 
 351. 
 Keat's lamp as the unit of light, 
 
 580. 
 Keiser, researches of, 148, 154, 
 
 157, 159, 160. 
 Kekule, researches of, 10. 
 Kellner Partington Paper Pulp 
 
 Company, 230. 
 Kelvin, Letter to Willson from, 
 
 17. 
 
 Kenan, researches of, 339. 
 Kend, carbide works at, 318. 
 Kenelly, Kinnicutt and Houston, 
 
 report by, 195. 
 Kieselguhr, used in purifying 
 
 mixtures, 511. 
 
 Kiliani, electric furnace of, 184. 
 King and Wyatt's furnace, 197. 
 King, Morehead & de Chalmont's 
 
 carbide works, 199. 
 Kinnicutt, Houston and Kenelly, 
 
 report by, 195. 
 Kipp's generator, 342. 
 Kletzinsky, researches of, 10. 
 Klosters, carbide works at, 319. 
 Klumene, 63. 
 
 , . 
 Koehner, criticised by Hoffman, 
 
 } by 
 
 161; researches of, 144, 151 
 160. 
 
 960 
 
INDEX 
 
 Krueger, researches of, 139, 140. 
 Kuespert, researches of, 149, 151. 
 Kutscheroff, researches of, 13, 
 158, 160. 
 
 La Bastide de Levis, carbide 
 
 works at, 317. 
 
 La Bathie, carbide works at, 317. 
 - 1'Arbine, carbide works at, 
 
 317. 
 
 Lagermark, researches of, 141. 
 Landin, calorific calculations of, 
 
 260 ; carbide process, 257, 309 ; 
 
 electric furnace, 259. 
 Landolt, researches of, 525. 
 Lanthanum, carbide of, 56. 
 La Praz sur 1'Arc, carbide works 
 
 at, 317. 
 
 Latch generators, 408. 
 Lauffeu-a-M., carbide works at, 
 
 316. 
 
 Laurent, 63. 
 
 Lauwerenberg, researches of, 45. 
 Laval, electric furnace of, 187. 
 Lebeau, researches of, 56. 
 Le Castelet, carbide works at, 
 
 317. 
 Lechatelier, researches of, 118, 
 
 123, 330, 335, 490, 562, 609; 
 
 thermo-couple, 393. 
 Lechbruck, carbide works at, 
 
 316. 
 
 Leeds, carbide works at, 213. 
 Legal enactments for various 
 
 countries, 697. 
 LEGAL ENACTMENTS : 
 
 Abstract of Petroleum Acts, 
 702. 
 
 Acetylene mixed with air, 716. 
 
 America, 716. 
 
 Application for license, Lon- 
 don County Council, 715! 
 
 Austria, 742. 
 
 Belgium, 766. 
 
 City of London Regulations, 
 710. 
 
 Compressed acetylene and oil 
 gas, 701. 
 
 Conditions of License : City 
 of London, 708. 
 
 London County Council, 
 
 713. 
 
 Denmark, 773. 
 
 Denmark, Copenhagen, 768. 
 
 LEGAL ENACTMENTS (continued) : 
 Explosive Acts relating to 
 
 Acetylene, 700-707. 
 Finland, 773. 
 Fire Insurance Regulations 
 
 Austria, 783. 
 
 Belgium, 779. 
 
 Denmark, 783. 
 
 England, 783. 
 
 Finland, 783. 
 
 France, 778. 
 
 Germany, 776. 
 
 Hungary, 783. 
 
 Netherlands, 783. 
 
 Russia, 783. 
 
 Spain, 782. 
 
 Sweden, 780. 
 
 Switzerland, 777. 
 France, 763. 
 German Traific Regulations, 
 
 784. 
 Germany 
 
 Alsace, 742. 
 
 Altenburg, 738. 
 
 Anhalt, 738. 
 
 Baden, 736. 
 
 Bavaria, 730. 
 
 Berlin, 728. 
 
 Bremen, 741. 
 
 Coburg Gotha, 737. 
 
 Hamburg, 740. 
 
 Hessen Darmstadt, 736. 
 
 Lippek Detmold, 739. 
 
 Lubeck, 741. 
 
 Munich, 730. 
 
 Nurnberg, 732. 
 
 Oldenburg, 737. 
 
 Reuss Schleiz Gera, 739. 
 
 Saxe Meiningen, 738. 
 
 Saxe Weimar, 737. 
 
 Saxony, 730. 
 
 Schaumburg Lippe, 739. 
 
 Schwarzburg Rudilstadt, 
 739. 
 
 Schwarzburg Sonderhausen, 
 739. 
 
 Wurttemburg, 735. 
 Hungary, 773. 
 Italy, 773. 
 Luxemburg, 773. 
 Netherlands, 773. 
 Norway, 767. 
 Portugal, 773. 
 Prussia, 726. 
 Prussian States, 729. 
 Roumania, 772. 
 Russia, 773. 
 
 961 
 
 61 
 
INDEX 
 
 LEGAL ENACTMENTS (continued] : 
 Spain, 773. 
 Sweden, 773. 
 Switzerland 
 Appensell, 744. 
 Basle, 745. 
 Basle district, 747. 
 Bellinsona, 757. 
 Bern, 748. 
 Lucerne, 751. 
 Neuchatel, 752. 
 Niederwalden, 753. 
 Schaffhausen, 754. 
 St. Gallen, 749. 
 Tessin, 755. 
 Uiiterwalden, 758. 
 Wallis, 759. 
 Zug, 760. 
 Zurich, 761. 
 Turkey, 773. 
 Petroleum Acts relating to 
 
 carbide, 698. 
 
 Leleux and Gin, electric furnace 
 of, 239 ; paper by, 303 ; venti- 
 lators, 309. 
 
 Leiitin, researches of, 179. 
 Lessing, carbon electrodes made 
 
 by, 305. 
 
 Letter from Kelvin to Willson, 
 
 17 ; from Willson to Eraser, 18 ; 
 
 from Willson to Kelvin, 17. 
 
 " Leuchtkugel " cycle lamp, 451. 
 
 Lewes and Eedwood, researches 
 
 of, 429. 
 
 Lewes, burner, 532 ; method for 
 utilisation of carbide dust, 
 311 ; researches of, 50, 105, 112, 
 113, 118, 392, 473, 489, 490, 492, 
 506, 521, 526, 527, 592, 620, 627, 
 638. 
 
 Liebetanz, researches of, 481. 
 Liebig, researches of, 145. 
 Liebrich, researches of, 166. 
 Light, effect on Acetylene of, 133. 
 
 - emitted by Acetylene cha- 
 racter of, 575. 
 
 given per gallon of oil, 595. 
 
 Limagne, origin of petroleum at, 
 58. 
 
 Lime, analysis of, 668 ; composi- 
 tion of, 265 ; method of pre- 
 paring it for carbide, 265 ; 
 quality of, 266 ; residues of, 
 334, 418. 
 
 - and magnesia in lime, de- 
 termination of, 671. 
 
 Limestone, analysis of, 266. 
 
 Limits of combustion of Acety- 
 lene, 119. 
 
 Linde, researches of, 322. 
 
 Lining for the electric furnace, 
 patented by Cowles, 15. 
 
 Liquefaction of Acetylene, 71. 
 
 Liquid Acetylene, action on cop- 
 per of, 164 ; decomposition of, 
 87. 
 
 hydrocarbons formed from 
 ethylene, 49. 
 
 List of carbide works, 316. 
 
 Liveing and Dewar, researches of, 
 525. 
 
 - on the spectrum of hydro- 
 carbons, 98. 
 
 " Liver " or " Sovereign " gener- 
 ator, 389. 
 
 Ljubawin, researches of, 143. 
 
 Lobhonitz, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Lonza, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Low temperatures, explosibility 
 of Acetylene at, 96. 
 
 Love, researches of, 618. 
 
 Luchaire, researches of 537. 
 
 Ludstrom, researches of, 494. 
 
 Luminosity of flame, 523. 
 
 Luminous decomposition of 
 Acetylene, 113. 
 
 Lunge and Cederkreutz, re- 
 searches of, 675, 683. 
 
 researches of, 500. 
 
 M 
 
 Magnesia in lime, determination 
 of, 671. 
 
 - in the ash of coke, deter- 
 mination of, 668. 
 
 Magnus, researches of, 46. 
 
 Mailfert, researches of, 134. 
 
 " Majestic " cycle lamp, 451. 
 
 Mallard, researches of, 609. 
 
 " Manchester " generator, 350. 
 
 Maneuvrier, researches of, 65. 
 
 Manganese, carbide of, 56 ; in 
 the ash of coke, 667. 
 
 Manufacture of calcium carbide 
 at Spray, 21. 
 of electrodes, 305. 
 
 Maquenne, researches of, 19, 54, 
 82, 83, 174. 
 
 Marcenat, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Marchand, researches of, 46. 
 
 Matei, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 962 
 
INDEX 
 
 Materials from which calcium 
 
 carbide is made, 264. 
 Maxim-Graham electric furnace, 
 
 194. 
 
 May, researches of, 149, 152. 
 McLeod, researches of, 10, 33. 
 Memmo electric furnace, 246. 
 Mendeleef, researches of, 58. 
 Meran, carbide works at, 237 ; 
 
 cost of making carbide at, 
 
 315. 
 Mercuric fulminate, detonation 
 
 of Acetylene by, 79. 
 Mercury salts, action of Acety- 
 lene on, 158. 
 
 Merritton, carbide works at, 201. 
 Metallic acetylides, discovery 
 
 of, 5. 
 
 carbides, 21. 
 
 - nodules in carbide, 331. 
 
 salts, action of Acetylene 
 on, 143. 
 
 - sulphides in carbide, 336. 
 
 thread, detonation of Acety- 
 lene by, 92. 
 
 Metallurgic coke, 273. 
 
 researches of Willson, 15. 
 Metals, action of Acetylene on, 
 
 143, 162. 
 
 Methane, Acetylene diluted 
 with, 625 ; action of an induc- 
 tion spark on, 7 ; combustion 
 of, 629 ; formation from ethy- 
 lene of, 46 ; illuminating value 
 of, 629 ; synthesis of, 30. 
 
 Method employed in analysing 
 coke, 660. 
 
 of preparing lime for car- 
 bide, 265. 
 
 Methods employed for the enrich- 
 ment of coal gas, 654. 
 
 for making carbide with- 
 out electricity, 319. 
 
 Methven screen, 580. 
 
 Meyer, researches of, 120, 141. 
 
 Mezotur, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 245. 
 Miasnikoff, researches of, 7, 51, 
 
 153. 
 
 Micassy, carbide works at, 317. 
 " Midland " generator, 350. 
 Milford (Delaware), Acetylene 
 
 supply works at, 425. 
 N.Y., Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Mist, effect on illuminants of, 
 
 573. 
 
 Mixtures of air and Acetylene 
 
 ignition point of, 646. 
 Modern dynamo used in carbide 
 
 works, 289. 
 Modification of Jungfleisch's 
 
 apparatus, 41. 
 Moissan, analysis of Acetylene 
 
 by, 64 ; criticised by Borchers, 
 
 23 ; electric furnace of, 188 ; 
 
 researches of, 19, 54, 56, 57, 58, 
 
 108, 144, 162, 167, 188, 282, 329, 
 
 334, 335, 475, 481, 490, 529. 
 Moisture in coal, determination 
 
 of, 661. 
 in coke, determination of, 
 
 661. 
 Molecular weight of Acetylene, 
 
 64. 
 
 Molteni, researches of, 587. 
 Molybdenum, carbide of, 57. 
 Mono-sodium Acetylene, action 
 
 of heat on, 144. 
 Montesquin, carbide works at, 
 
 249. 
 Morehead and Allan, researches 
 
 of, 615. 
 Morehead, King, and de Chal- 
 
 mont's carbide works, 199. 
 Morren, researches of, 98. 
 Morton, researches of, 47. 
 Mouneyrat, researches of, 137. 
 Mountain limestone, analysis of, 
 
 268. 
 
 Mourren, researches of, 162. 
 Muller, researches of, 138. 
 Multiple jet burners, 554. 
 Munsterberg, carriage lamp, 465 ; 
 
 cycle lamp, 461 ; researches of, 
 
 575. 
 
 Murlot, researches of, 481, 487. 
 " Mushroom " burners, 548. 
 
 N 
 
 Naphey burner, 539 ; composite 
 form of, 541 ; drawbacks to, 
 543. 
 
 Napier, electric furnace of, 179. 
 
 Narni, carbide works at, 243. 
 
 Nervous system, action of Acety- 
 lene on, 168. 
 
 Neuberg, researches of, 611, 613. 
 
 Neuhausen, carbide works at, 
 319. 
 
 New Milford, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 963 
 
INDEX 
 
 Niagara, carbide works at 199 ; 
 electric furnace at, 200. 
 
 Nickel, action of Acetylene on, 
 162. 
 
 Nickles, researches of, 146, 163. 
 
 Nitrogen, Acetylene diluted 
 with, 625 ; in commercial car- 
 bide, 334, 495 ; reaction on 
 Acetylene of, 104. 
 
 Nomenclature, system of, 63. 
 
 Non-automatic generators, 341. 
 
 Non-injurious impurities in 
 Acetylene, 499. 
 
 Norway, carbide works in, 318. 
 
 Notodden, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Noyes, researches of, 48. 
 
 Nurnberg, supply of burners 
 from, 541. 
 
 Observations on the electric fur- 
 nace by Sterry Hunt, 15. 
 
 Odling, researches of, 12. 
 
 Oechelhaeuser, researches of, 108. 
 
 Oil gas, Acetylene diluted with, 
 631. 
 
 generators, 440. 
 
 light given per gallon, 595. 
 Oliva, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 424, 425. 
 Oliver, paper by, 168. 
 Ontario, carbide works at, 316. 
 Oreba, carbide works at, 318. 
 Organic sulphur compounds in 
 
 carbide, 336. 
 Origin of coal, 269. 
 Owen's generator, 440. 
 Oxalic acid, formation from 
 
 Acetylene of, 66. 
 Oxidation of Acetylene, 65. 
 Oxygen furnace, Bergemann's, 
 
 322. 
 
 Package of carbide, 327. 
 Palladium, action of, 134. 
 Palolo, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 165. 
 
 Paris, carbide works at, 317. 
 Parker, electric furnace of, 185. 
 Passenheim, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Patent taken out by Bullier, 22. 
 - taken out by Willson, 18. 
 
 PATENTS : 
 
 Abeles, No. 20646 (1898,), 926. 
 Acetylene Illuminating Co., 
 
 No. 7373 (1898), 922. 
 Acetylene Light Syndicate, 
 
 No. 25952 (1897), 834. 
 Ackermann, No. 14278 (1896), 
 
 800. 
 
 - No. 19536 (1897), 933. 
 Adolfsson, No. 19345 (1899), 
 
 907. 
 
 - No. 23937 (1899), 909. 
 Ageron, No. 22648 (1897), 830. 
 Alexandre, No. 5913 (1897), 
 
 817. 
 No. 16728 (1896), 802. 
 
 - No. 26325 (1897), 834. 
 Allgemeine Carbid-und-Ace- 
 
 tylen Gesellschaft, No. 4446 
 
 (1898), 848. 
 
 Andersen, No. 7400 (1899), 897. 
 Appelby and Harris, No. 5976 
 
 (1896), 796. 
 Arkell-Bailey and Clapharn, 
 
 No. 26269 (1897), 834. 
 Arnot, No. 1760 (1898), 844. 
 Aschermann, No. 7423 (1898), 
 
 922. 
 Atkinson, No. 20468 (1895), 
 
 792. 
 
 No. 13147 (1896), 800. 
 
 Aykroyd, No. 16344 (1897), 824. 
 No. 868 3 (1898), 922. 
 
 Bablon, No. 25224 (1896), 809. 
 Bailey and Clapham, No. 22826 
 (1898), 884. 
 
 - No. 17127 (1898), 925. 
 Bailey and Nicklin, No. 22918 
 
 (1897), 830. 
 
 - No. 24785 (1899), 887. 
 Baldwin and Crastin, No. 5445 
 
 (1897), 817. 
 
 Barker, No. 21698 (1896), 806. 
 Barltrop, No. 10684 (1898), 858. 
 
 - No. 21576 (1898), 882. 
 Barnard, No. 17090 (1897), 825. 
 
 No. 19319 (1898), 827. 
 
 No. 457 (1898), 842. 
 
 No. 490 (1898), 842. 
 
 Barratt, No. 2699 (1899), 892. 
 Barthez, No. 9294 (1897), 819. 
 
 No. 25870 (1897), 833. 
 
 Bartlett, No. 11910 (1898), 860. 
 Bartmann, No. 15406 (1899), 
 905. 
 
 964 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Bastick and Thornton, No. 
 
 29008 (1897), 918. 
 Baughan, No. 30272 (1897), 
 
 840. 
 Bauweraerts, No. 11706 (1896), 
 
 912. 
 No. 11707 (1896), 931. 
 
 - No. 11708 (1896), 799. 
 
 - No. 15369 (1897), 916. 
 Bayley, No. 19771 (1895), 792. 
 
 - No. 322 (1896), 793. 
 
 - No. 6739 (1896), 796. 
 
 - No. 14816 (1899), 903. 
 Bean and Ringwood, No. 5756 
 
 (1897), 817. 
 
 No. 2428 (1897), 815. 
 
 No. 14700 (1897), 916. 
 
 - No. 21114 (1897), 829. 
 
 - No. 6029 (1899), 928. 
 Beaumont, No. 2534 (1898), 
 
 846. 
 Becherel, No. 23289 (1896), 807. 
 
 - No. 23290 (1896), 807. 
 Beck, No. 22850 (1897), 830. 
 
 No. 636 (1899), 889. 
 
 Beech and Jones, No. 24409 
 
 (1898), 887. 
 
 Bell, No. 19411 (1897), 828. 
 Benjamin, No. 27065 (1897) 
 
 835. 
 Berger, No. 4113 (1898), 848. 
 
 - No. 16457 (1898), 869. 
 
 - No. 4223 (1899), 893. 
 Bergmann, No. 29258 (1897), 
 
 839. 
 
 - No. 29384 (1897), 918. 
 Bilbie and Drivet, No. 10985 
 
 (1898), 858. 
 
 - No. 18543 (1898), 885. 
 
 - No. 19786 (1898), 925. 
 Billwiller, No. 29980 (1896), 
 
 932. 
 No. 28003 (1897), 918. 
 
 - No. 14050 (1898), 865. 
 Blakeley, No. 5150 (1896), 797. 
 Boettcher, No. 8765 (1899), 898. 
 Bohne, No. 15423 (1898), 868. 
 Bond, No. 25189 (1897), 833. 
 
 - No. 26842 (1897), 835. 
 
 No. 26843 (1897), 917. 
 
 No. 7777 (1898), 852. 
 
 No. 23346 (1898), 926. 
 
 - No. 15336 (1899), 904. 
 
 - No. 2186 (1899), 891. 
 Bosca, No. 4675 (1897), 915. 
 Boss, No. 19369 (1898), 879. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Boter, No. 16345 (1896), 801. 
 Boule, No. 29054 (1897), 839. 
 Bournoiiville, No. 1013 (1898) r 
 
 842. 
 Bowers, No. 13511 (1896), 800. 
 
 - No. 16975 (1897), 825. 
 
 - No. 8825 (1898), 854. 
 Bray, No. 21197 (1898), 934. 
 
 - No. 22054 (1898), 934. 
 
 Bridges, No. 14984 (1899), 904. 
 
 British Acetylene Gas Gener- 
 ator Co., No. 14432 (1898), 
 865. 
 
 British Pure Acetylene Gas 
 Synd., No. 11970(1898), 861. 
 
 Browett, No. 19549, (1898), 880. 
 
 Bryant, No. 28824 (1897), 838. 
 
 Bucher, No. 25297 (1898), 888. 
 
 Buffington, No. 23802 (1897), 
 831. 
 
 No. 17920 (1898), 874. 
 
 No. 17587 (1898). 873. 
 
 Bull, No. 18355 (1897), 826. 
 
 Bullier, No. 6101 (1895), 911. 
 
 No. 1953 (1895), 910. 
 
 No. 2820 (1895), 910. 
 
 No. 16255 (1896), 913. 
 
 Cahen, No. 17631 (1899), 930. 
 Caldicott, No. 4115 (1899), 892. 
 Campbell, No. 12120 (1897), 
 
 821. 
 
 Campe, No. 16691 (1895), 791. 
 Carey, No. 15413 (1899), 904. 
 
 No. 23988 (1899), 909. 
 
 Carter, No. 2284 (1897), 815. 
 
 - No. 17448 (1897), 825. 
 Cerckel, No. 6719 (1896), 797. 
 Chambault, No. 19951 (1897), 
 
 828. 
 
 Chardin, No. 21372 (1897), 829. 
 Chesnay and Pillion, No. 20090, 
 
 (1896), 804. 
 
 No. 20254 (1896), 804. 
 
 No. 21758 (1896), 806. 
 
 No. 25236 (1896), 809. 
 
 Chitty, No. 28167 (1897), 837. 
 Chivert, No. 19059 (1896), 803. 
 Clarke, No. 7242 (1896), 797. 
 
 No. 7243 (1896), 797. 
 
 No. 17450 (1896), 802. 
 
 No. 17451 (1896), 802. 
 
 No. 1421 (1897), 814. 
 
 Claude and Hess, No. 29750 
 
 (1897), 915. 
 
 965 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Clausolles, No. 11737 (1896), 
 
 799. 
 
 Clayton, No. 5701 (1898), 850. 
 Colberg, No. 23812 (1896), 808. 
 Combier, No. 6925, (1899), 896. 
 Commuci, No. 20694 (1896), 805. 
 Compagnie Continentale, No. 
 
 15064 (1896), 801. 
 
 - No. 14713 (1898), 866. 
 Compagnie Francaise, No. 
 
 23032 (1899), 936. ' 
 Coppeaux, No. 9630(1896), 912. 
 Coulson and Thiersant, No. 
 
 4129 (1898) 848. 
 , Cousin, No. 8552 (1897), 819. 
 Crastin and Baldwin, No. 9928, 
 
 (1897), 820. 
 Crees, No. 22880 (1897), 881. 
 
 - No. 20626 (1898), 881. 
 
 Daix, No. 911 (1897), 813. 
 
 - No. 7521 (1898), 852. 
 Dant, No. 16090 (1898), 868. 
 Dargue, No. 29768 (1896), 812. 
 
 - No. 9023 (1898), 855. 
 Dauber, No. 17343 (1899), 906. 
 Davison and Lucas, No. 1549 
 
 (1898), 843. 
 Davoren and others, No. 14567 
 
 (1898), 866. 
 
 Dedecker, No. 5538 (1898), 850. 
 Deike and others, No. 9743 
 
 (1899), 898. 
 Delmouly, No. 15179 (1898), 
 
 867. 
 
 Demuth, No. 7877 (1899), 897. 
 Denich, No. 18907 (1897), 827. 
 Dennis, No. 2976 (1897), 815. 
 Deroy, No. 12683 (1896), 799. 
 Deuther, No. 20598 (1896), 
 
 913. 
 
 - No. 20599 (1896), 805. 
 Deutsche Acetylen-Gas Gesell- 
 
 schaf t, No. 10199 (1897), 821. 
 
 - No. 10249 (1897), 821. 
 Dewey, No. 18189 (1899), 907. 
 Dickerson, No. 5730 (1895), 
 
 789. 
 
 - No. 11848 (1895), 790. 
 
 - No. 11848A (1895) 911. 
 
 - No. 11848B (1895), 790. 
 Diesler, No. 4861 (1898), 920. 
 Dillberg, No. 15212 (1898), 924. 
 
 - No. 15214 (1898), 924. 
 
 - No. 20430 (1898), 881. 
 
 - No. 15213 (1898), 924. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Dolan, No. 20010 (1897), 933. 
 
 - No. 20011 (1897), 829. 
 
 - No. 253 (1899), 934. 
 
 - No. 6116 (1899), 935. 
 
 - No. 5221 (1899), 894. 
 
 - No. 15506 (1899), 929. 
 Dollner, No. 22330 (1898), 926. 
 Dreske, No. 11964 (1898), 861. 
 Dresser, No. 13081 (1897), 822. 
 Drivet, No. 17734 (1898), 874. 
 Drummond, No. 1154 (1898), 
 
 843. 
 Ducretet and Lejeune, No. 
 
 16502 (1895), 791. 
 Duderstadt and Kandler, No. 
 
 1809 (1899), 891. 
 Duffield, No. 17646 (1896), 802. 
 
 Edwardes, No. 16738 (1897), 
 
 916. 
 
 Eldridge, No. 9156 (1899), 928. 
 Electro Lamp Co., No. 707 
 
 (1899), 890. 
 
 Ellen, No. 24501 (1898), 887. 
 Elworthy, No. 19445 (1895), 911. 
 Ely, No. 11566 (1898), 859. 
 Emmerson, No. 17504 (1898), 
 
 873. 
 
 Engasser, No. 18220 (1898), 876. 
 Ernst and Philips, No. 12510 
 
 (1898), 862. 
 
 Essards, No. 1153 (1897), 813. 
 Etaix, No. 3914 (1898), 920. 
 Evans, No. 10508 (1897), 821. 
 
 No. 26810 (1897), 835. 
 
 No. 11676 (1898), 923. 
 
 16733 (1898), 870. 
 
 Exley, No. 12344 (1895), 790. 
 
 No. 20453 (1895), 792. 
 
 No. 20727 (1895), 792. 
 
 No. 8551 (1897), 819. 
 
 Falbe and Borchardt, No. 
 
 27536 (1897), 933. 
 Falbe, No. 24682 (1898), 887. 
 Falk, No. 12012 (1898), 860. 
 Farnsworth, No. 5624 (1896), 
 
 795. 
 
 Fenderl, No. 11116 (1899), 899. 
 Ferguson, No. 2863 (1898), 846. 
 Ferracciu, No. 7782 (1897), 818. 
 Ferrari, No. 12293 (1897), 932. 
 Fischer, No. 23339 (1898), 885. 
 Fitzgibbon, No. 22526 (1896), 
 
 806. 
 No. 17038 (1896), 802. 
 
 966 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Fletcher and Cutler, No. 8800 
 
 (1898), 855. 
 Flock and Messedat, No. 22730 
 
 (1897), 830. 
 Forbes, No. 11716 (1898), 860. 
 
 - No. 13070 (1898), 863. 
 No. 13636 (1898), 864. 
 
 - No. 13968 (1898), 864. 
 
 - No. 14139 (1898), 924. 
 Forrester, No. 20766 (1898), 
 
 882. 
 Fourchotte, No. 12047 (1896), 
 
 799. 
 Fournier, No. 21695 (1896), 
 
 914. 
 
 - No. 25488 (1896), 809. 
 
 - No. 14616 (1898), 866. 
 Fowler, No. 28206 (1896), 811. 
 
 - No. 14742 (1897), 823. 
 
 - No. 11377 (1898), 859. 
 Frank and Caro, No. 15066 
 
 (1895), 911. 
 Frank and Hilbert, No. 18785 
 
 (1895), 911. 
 
 Franco, No. 5236 (1897), 816. 
 Eraser, No. 17678 (1896), 803. 
 
 - No. 27016 (1897), 933. 
 Friebel and Nake, No. 27326 
 
 (1898), 889. 
 
 Frohlich, No. 5614 (1899), 895. 
 Fuller, No. 19288 (1896), 803. 
 
 - No. 1440 (1897), 814. 
 
 Gabe, No. 15991 (1895), 791. 
 
 - No. 17746 (1895), 791. 
 Gardner and Kelly, No. 26862 
 
 (1898), 889. 
 Gaskell and Gibbs, No. 20074 
 
 (1896), 804. 
 Gaskell and Reeve, No. 14313 
 
 (1897), 823. 
 
 - No. 14835 (1897), 932. 
 Gastaldi, No. 14729 (1898), 866. 
 Gastine, No. 20529 (1896), 804. 
 Gearing, No. 22183 (1894), 789. 
 
 - No. 25203 (1894), 789. 
 
 - No. 1807 (1895), 910. 
 
 - No. 6777 (1895), 789. 
 No. 21757 (1895), 931. 
 
 - No. 2997 (1898), 920. 
 Gehlert, No. 17079 (1898), 871. 
 Geisseler, No. 7200 (1899), 935. 
 Gerard, No. 29188 (1896), 811. 
 Gerdes, No. 14698 (1899), 903. 
 Gesellschaft fur Acetvlen- 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Gaslicht, No. 7744 (1897), 
 818. 
 
 Gesellschaft fur Heiz-und-Bel- 
 euchtungwesen, No. 12250 
 
 (1898), 861. 
 
 Gibbs, No. 12788 (1896), 800. 
 Gillet and others, No. 27085 
 
 (1896), 810. 
 
 No. 27086 (1896), 931. 
 
 No. 17612 (1898), 873. 
 
 Gilmer, No. 23230 (1898), 885. 
 Ginnasi, No. 20256 (1899), 907. 
 Gobron, No. 1784 (1897), 814. 
 Godin, No. 17021 (1897), 825. 
 Goldbacher and Bournonville, 
 
 No. 13301 (1898), 901. 
 Goodwin, No. 10407 (1896), 
 
 798 
 
 No. 17644 (1896), 803. 
 
 No. 2174 (1898), 845. 
 
 - No. 19149 (1898), 879. 
 
 No. 26628 (1898), 888. 
 
 Gosling and Synnock, No. 
 
 24088 (1895), 793. 
 Gossart and Che vail ier, No. 
 
 27574 (1896), 810. 
 
 No. 4424 (1897), 816. 
 
 Gossweiler, No. 27252 (1898), 
 
 927. 
 Goulding, No. 18128 (1897), 
 
 826. 
 Gowlland, No. 14375 (1896), 
 
 913. 
 
 Graetz, No. 8675 (1898), 854. 
 Grand, No. 8382 (1898), 853. 
 
 No. 9269 (1898), 855. 
 
 Grenier and Grand, No. 17904 
 
 (1896), 803. 
 
 Grubb, No. 28264 (1897), 838. 
 Guadaguini, No. 23977 (1897), 
 
 831. 
 
 Gurovitz, No. 7184 (1898), 921. 
 Gustafsson, No. 18063 (1898), 
 
 876. 
 Guy, No. 24707 (1897), 833. 
 
 Hacking, No. 17854 (1897), 917. 
 Haigh, No. 10023 (1898), 857. 
 Hall, No. 26614 (1897), 834. 
 Hamont, No. 19912 (1898), 902. 
 Hanotier and Hostelet, No. 
 
 24558 (1896), 809. 
 
 No. 27697 (1896), 810. 
 
 Hansen and Kraeftung, No. 
 
 19106 (1898), 878. 
 
 967 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Hargreaves, No. 27194 (1897), 
 
 810. 
 
 Harrison, No. 3835 (1898), 848. 
 Hartenstein and Weber, No. 
 
 28226 (1897), 918. 
 Hartenstein, No. 16128 (1899) 
 
 930. 
 Haviland and others, No. 
 
 15489 (1896), 913. 
 
 - No. 15122 (1896), 801. 
 
 - No. 14208 (1897), 823. 
 Haws, No. 4560 (1899), 894. 
 Heal, No. 24446 (1897), 832. 
 Hedgeland, No. 16723 (1898), 
 
 No. 6602 (1899), 896. 
 
 Henriquez, No. 15020 (1898), 
 
 867. 
 
 Henry, No. 19912 (1898), 880. 
 Hewes, No. 1983 (1898), 919. 
 
 - No. 1984 (1898), 919. 
 
 No. 1985 (1898), 919. 
 
 No. 4866 (1898), 921. 
 
 Higgins and Sandilands, No. 
 
 15977 (1899), 871. 
 Hilberg, No. 1796 (1899), 891. 
 
 No. 11494 (1899), 900. 
 
 No. 16426 (1899), 906. 
 
 Hilbert and Frank, No. 18785, 
 
 (1895), 911. 
 
 Hoddle, No. 3142 (1896), 794. 
 Holliday, No. 17997 (1895), 931. 
 
 - No. 5813 (1896), 796. 
 
 No. 885 (1897), 813. 
 
 No. 17469 (1896), 931. 
 
 No. 24360 (1897), 832. 
 
 No. -2078 (1898), 844. 
 
 No. 7325 (1899), 897. 
 
 Horry, No. 14261 (1899), 929. 
 Hubon, No. 7139 (1898), 921. 
 Hutton, No. 9857 (1897), 820. 
 Hviid, No. 5497 (1898), 921. 
 No. 5498 (1898), 850. 
 
 International Patent Co., No. 
 
 18110 (1898), 925. 
 Isaac, No. 15139 (1896), 913. 
 
 Jackson, No. 13029 (1898) 862. 
 Jacobi, No. 2309 (1898), 845. 
 Jarre and Usannez, No. 4370 
 
 (1897), 932. 
 
 Javal, No. 9319 (1898), 856. 
 Jeapes, No. 17405 (1898), 872. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Jimeno, No. 14090 (1897), 823. 
 
 - No. 14091 (1897), 823. 
 Johnson, No. 23032 (1899), 936. 
 Josephson, No. 13771 (1898), 
 
 864. 
 
 Josse and Defays, No. 18355 
 (1897), 826. 
 
 Kaestner, No. 18824 (1895). 
 791. 
 
 - No. 15060 (1897), 933. 
 Kandler, No. 25300 (1898), 926. 
 Kay, No. 21351 (1896), 805. 
 
 No. 24611 (1896), 809. 
 
 Keck, No. 28258 (1897), 837. 
 Kellner, No. 21035 (1899), 930. 
 Kelly and Webb, No. 5905 
 
 (1896), 796. 
 Kelly and Eoantree, No. 1819 
 
 (1898), 919. 
 
 Kelly, No. 8147 (1898), 853. 
 Kenevel and others, No. 19512 
 
 (1897), 917. 
 Kerr and Fry, No. 8989 (1897), 
 
 819. 
 
 Kesselring,No.9714 (1897), 819. 
 Kieffeiy No. 20142 (1897), 829. 
 
 - No. 11261 (1898), 858. 
 Kieswalter, No. 27744 (1896), 
 
 914. 
 King and Wyatt, No. 13881 
 
 (1896), 912. 
 Kitchen, No. 7918 (1897), 818. 
 
 No. 8 270 (1897), 818. 
 
 No. 9762 (1897), 932. 
 
 No. 9763 (1897), 819. 
 
 - No. 17793 (1897), 825. 
 
 - No. 17794 (1897), 826. 
 No. 1477 (1898), 843. 
 
 - No. 9384 (1898), 856. 
 Klemm, No. 12659 (1899), 901. 
 Kon, No. 21468 (1896), 805. 
 Kremer. No. 26776 (1897), 835. 
 
 No'. 18133 (1898), 876. 
 
 Kuppers, No. 8339 (1899), 897. 
 
 Lacroix, No. 4761 (1897), 816. 
 
 - No. 8565 (1898), 854. 
 
 - No. 13924 (1899)^902. 
 Lagerie, No. 29168 (1896), 811. 
 Lanchester, No. 24771 (1898), 
 
 887. 
 
 Landin, No. 4033 (1898), 920. 
 Landsberger, No. 19757 (1898), 
 
 925. 
 Lasserve, No. 4054 (1899), 892. 
 
 968 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Lauri, No. 9226 (1898), 934. 
 Lazarus, No. 27639 (1897), 918. 
 Lebeau, No. 9719 (1897), 932. 
 Lebrun and Cornaille, No. 512 
 (1897), 813. 
 
 - No. 20574 (1897), 933. 
 Leede, No. 32 (1898), 919. 
 Legge and Cooper, No. 30690 
 
 (1897), 841. 
 
 - No. 1054 (1898), 933. 
 Legge, No. 16487 (1898), 869. 
 Letang, No. 21572 (1896), 914. 
 Lewes, No. 692'2 (1896), 912. 
 
 - No. 24365 (1896), 914. 
 
 - No. 17749 (1897), 916. 
 Lewis and Lux Synd., No. 7303 
 
 (1899), 854. 
 Lewis and others, No. 14149 
 
 (1898), 865. 
 
 Lewis, No. 22389 (1899), 907. 
 Levetus, No. 12469 (1898), 862. 
 Limelle, No. 7655 (1898), 852. 
 Lipcke, No. 13387 (1898), 863. 
 Liver Acetylene Co., No. 27876 
 
 (1897), 836. 
 
 Llorens, No. 20354 (1899), 907. 
 Luis, No. 1332 (1896), -794. 
 Lundstrom, No. 23793 (1897), 
 
 917. 
 Lyons, No. 7043 (1897), 817. 
 
 Mace, No. 29596 (1896), 811. 
 
 - No. 3013 (1897), 815. 
 
 - No. 14905 (1897), 824. 
 
 - No. 1005 (1898), 842. 
 Mackenzie, No. 23752 (1896), 
 
 808. 
 Maddock and Jones, No. 22359 
 
 (1896), 806. 
 
 Major, No. 3147 (1898), 847. 
 Manger, No. 17449 (1898), 873. 
 Marcks, No. 2602 (1898), 846. 
 Marechal and others, No. 29405 
 
 (1897), 839. 
 Marguiles, No. 24065 (1898), 
 
 886. 
 
 Marrs, No. 15175 (1898), 867. 
 Marshall, No. 19518 (1898), 880. 
 Marshall and Sunderland, No. 
 
 4087 (1899), 893. 
 Marshall and others, No. 6274 
 
 (1899), 895. 
 Matignon, No. 20324 (1896), 
 
 913. 
 Matthews, No. 17406 (1899), 
 
 906. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Matthyssens, No. 18436 (1898), 
 
 877. 
 Maxim, No. 1905 (1896), 911. 
 
 - No. 25611 (1896), 914. 
 
 No. 2894 (1897), 915. 
 
 M'Conechy, No. 24301 (1897), 
 
 832. 
 
 No. 30585 (1897), 841. 
 
 No. 28 (1898), 933. 
 
 - No. 21038 (1898), 882. 
 McGeorge and Buxton, No. 
 
 13189 (1898), 924. 
 Melhuish and others, No. 9674 
 
 (1898), 856. 
 
 Memino, No. 24077 (1897), 917. 
 Meyer, No. 27212 (1896), 810. 
 Miller, No. 17997 (1898), 876. 
 Millward, No. 4614 (1898), 849. 
 
 No. 7102 (1898), 851. 
 
 Mitchell, No. 13496 (1897), 822. 
 
 - No. 3531 (1898), 847. 
 Molet, No. 23198 (1897), 831. 
 Moller, No. 23385 (1898), 885. 
 Montais, No. 16903 (1898), 871. 
 Moore and Carr, No. 16317 
 
 (1898), 868. 
 
 Moreau, No. 11581 (1896), 798. 
 Morency, No. 10186 (1897), 820. 
 Morin, No. 11551 (1899), 900. 
 Morley Acetylene Gas Co., No. 
 
 10126 (1896), 797. 
 Morris and Spragget,No. 19276 
 
 (1898), 925. 
 
 Morrison, No. 2437 (1895), 789. 
 Morton-Brown and Maundrell, 
 
 No. 22628 (1896), 806. 
 Moss, No. 1254 (1897), 813. 
 
 - No. 1920 (1898), 844. 
 
 - No. 4801 (1898), 850. 
 Mottlau, No. 15459 (1899), 905. 
 Mucke, No. 139 (1897), 812. 
 
 No. 26435 (1897), 834. 
 
 No. 30637 (1897), 841. 
 
 Munsterberg, No. 19615 (1897), 
 
 828. 
 Murphy, No. 3747 (1899), 927. 
 
 Nowak, No. 12659 (1899), 900. 
 
 Offen, No. 27250 (1898), 926. 
 Orlowsky and Jensen, No. 
 
 4298 (1898), 920. 
 Oving, No. 23669 (1896), 808. 
 
 No. 23670 (1896), 914. 
 
 Owens, No. 1625 (1898), 844. ' 
 
 969 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Patterson, No. 10686 (1897), 821. 
 Pauli Lamp Co., No. 13339 
 
 (1899), 901. 
 
 Payan, No. 13830 (1898), 864. 
 Percival, No. 6006 (1898), 851. 
 Pereire and others, No. 6997 
 
 (1897), 817. 
 Piatti & Co., No. 2129 (1897), 
 
 815. 
 
 - No. 14505 (1897), 916. 
 
 No 8813 (1898), 923. 
 
 Pictet, No. 9358, (1896), 912. 
 No. 18207 (1896), 803. 
 
 - No. 18208 (1896), 913. 
 
 No. 
 
 21508 (1897), 917. 
 ad others, No. 232 
 
 Pilous and others, No. 23237 
 
 (1897), 917. 
 Pintsch and Bickman, No. 
 
 20602 (1896), 805. 
 Poerschmann and Schneider, 
 
 No. 20541 (1898), 881. 
 Praag (No. 21691 (1898), 883. 
 
 - No. 2227 (1899), 845. 
 Preston, No. 12263 (1897), 822. 
 Prevost and others, No. 29201 
 
 (1897), 839. 
 Pym and Gore, No. 3219 (1896), 
 
 794. 
 
 Quattannes-Moens and Dilger, 
 
 No. 12556 (1897), 822. 
 1665 (1898), 844. 
 
 - No. 18591 (1898), 877. 
 Quelle, No. 29500 (1896), 811. 
 
 - No. 14240 (1899), 903. 
 
 Bagot, No. 5279 (1896), 795. 
 Eaupp, No. 27807 (1896). 932. 
 Bavel, No. 25002 (1897), 833. 
 Beggiani and Chrisini, No. 
 
 17482 (1897), 825. 
 Beibel, No. 27288 (1897), 835. 
 Besener and Luchaire, No. 
 
 24440 (1896), 809. 
 
 29320 (1896), 811. 
 
 Besener, No. 30037 (1896), 812. 
 Beynolds, No. 29342 (1896), 
 
 811. 
 Bhind, No. 20051 and 20052 
 
 (1897), 828. 
 
 No. 2226 (1899), 891. 
 
 Bichard, No. 28798 (1897), 
 
 838. 
 No. 17631 (1899), 930. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Bichardson and Price, No. 891 
 
 (1898), 842. 
 Bichter, No. 22788, (1899), 
 
 908. 
 Bickman, No. 20602 (1896), 
 
 805. 
 
 - No. 6748 (1898), 921. 
 Bigby, No. 12022 (1898), 923. 
 Bierfel, No. 17938 (1897), 826. 
 Biemann, No. 5090 (1899), 894. 
 Bitchie, No. 80602 (1897), 841. 
 Boberts, No. 8010 (1898), 922. 
 Bobinson, No. 19674 (1898), 
 
 880. 
 Bobinson and Hadley, No. 
 
 6328 (1899), 895. 
 Bose, No. 2260 (1898), 934. 
 
 - No. 15249 (1899), 929. 
 Bosenthal, No. 14049 (1898), 
 
 865. 
 
 Boss, No. 4372 (1898), 849. 
 Bossbach-Bousset, No. 11783 
 
 (1895), 790. 
 
 - No. 1116 (1896), 794. 
 Bouma, No. 24364 (1899), 909. 
 Bous, No. 3594 (1898), 847. 
 Boxburg, No. 27689 (1897), 836. 
 Bumelin, No. 4459 (1898), 921. 
 
 Sales, No. 1653 (1897), 915. 
 
 No. 2292 (1897), 815. 
 
 Sanderson, No. 3228 (1898), 847. 
 Sardi, No. 20903 (1896), 805. 
 
 No. 12182 (1898), 861. 
 
 Sartig, No. 10763 (1898), 923. 
 Saule, No. 10862 (1899), 899. 
 Saxl, No. 10056 (1898), 857. 
 Scarth, No. 15125 (1897), 824. 
 
 No. 12401 (1898), 861. 
 
 Schad, Herbst & Co., No. 17195 
 
 (1899), 906. 
 
 Scheldt, No. 4739 (1898), 849. 
 Schemidt and Kaufman, No. 
 
 16432 (1896), 802. 
 Schieroni, No. 17269 (1898), 
 
 872. 
 
 - No. 22341 (1898), 884. 
 Schltiter and Ltidemann, No. 
 
 5594 (1898), 850. 
 Schmid, No. 26676 (1897), 834. 
 Schmidt, No. 15688 (1898), 868. 
 Schmitt, No. 27618 (1898), 889. 
 Schneeweis, No. 22110 (1898), 
 
 No. 2392 (1899), 892. 
 
 970 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (contimied) : 
 
 Schroder, No. 14517 (1898), 865. 
 Schubert, No. 7010 (1899), 928. 
 Sclmlke, No. 10468 (1895), 931. 
 
 - No. 14929 (1896), 800. 
 
 - No. 12928 (1897), 932. 
 
 - No. 27767 (1897), 836. 
 
 - No. 926 (1898), 938. 
 
 - No. 10305 (1898), 857. 
 Schumacher, No. 30134 (1896), 
 
 812. 
 
 - No. 17088 (1898), 871. 
 Sclnvarz, No. 17350 (1898), 
 
 872. 
 
 Schwass, No. 25016 (1898), 888. 
 Scott, No. 1952 (1897), 814. 
 Seiffert, No. 682 (1899), 890. 
 Sez, No. 14197 (1898), 865. 
 Shackleton, No. 11367 (1898), 
 
 859. 
 
 Shaffer, No. 1634 (1899), 935. 
 Sherrin, No. 2689-7 (1896), 810. 
 
 - No. 10877 (1897), 916. 
 Sigurdsson, No. 16793 (1897), 
 
 No. 23351 (1897), 831. 
 
 Smith, No. 22646 (1896), 806. 
 
 - No. 22647 (1896), 807. 
 
 No. 24414 (1896), 808. 
 
 No. 4790 (1897), 816. 
 
 - No. 7929 (1897), 818. 
 
 No. 13103 (1897), 916. 
 
 No. 15754 (1897), 824. 
 
 No. 29843 (1897), 840. 
 
 - No. 5941 (1898), 851. 
 
 - No. 17230 (1898), 925. 
 
 - No. 23309 (1899), 908. 
 Snyder, No. 14795 (1899), 904. 
 Societa Italiana, No. 12491 
 
 (1898), 862. 
 Societe Chaussard, No. 13573 
 
 (1888), 863. 
 
 Sockeel, No. 28439 (1897), 838. 
 Soderberg, No. 14499 (1899), 
 
 903. 
 Soderquist, No. 18943 (1888), 
 
 878. 
 Sohnel and Zehner, No. 11161 
 
 (1898), 853. 
 Soxhlet and others, No. 13905 
 
 (1897), 822. 
 
 Spanier, No. 15732 (1898), 925. 
 Spence and others, No. 29554 
 
 (1896), 812. 
 
 - No. 17327 (1898), 872. 
 Stattler and Strejz, No. 4428 
 
 (1897), 915. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Stearnes and Wilson, No. 18197 
 
 (1898), 877. 
 Steiner, No. 7070 (1898), 851. 
 
 No. 10151 (1899), 898. 
 
 No. 10152 (1899), 898. 
 
 Sterza, No. 1549 (1897), 814. 
 Steward, No. 15344 (1899), 35. 
 Stott, No. 8439 (1898), 854. 
 Straehl, No. 7770 (1898), 852. 
 Strakosch and Schmid, No. 
 
 9718 (1898), 857. 
 Strode and White, No. 6658 
 
 (1897), 817. 
 
 No. 11161 (1898), 858. 
 
 Stroher, No. 196 (1900), 910. 
 Sugg, No. 9251 (1898), 934. 
 Sunderland and Marshall, No. 
 
 4087 (1899), 893. 
 
 No. 4093 (1899), 893. 
 
 No. 6274 (1899), 895. 
 
 No. 13786 (1899), 902. 
 
 Sutcliffe, No. 11644 (1897), 821. 
 Svnnock and Gosling, No. 
 
 "24088 (1895), 793. 
 Szepczynski, No. 7838 (1898), 
 
 853." 
 No. 3551 (1899), 892. 
 
 Tabard, No. 10410 (1899), 899. 
 Tede, No. 658 (1897), 813. 
 Testelin, No. 16613 (1898), 869. 
 Thiersant and Coulson, No. 
 
 29571 (1897), 840. 
 No. 1584 (1898), 844. 
 
 - No. 23675 (1898), 886. 
 Thinault and Dreyfus, No. 7099 
 
 (1899), 896. 
 Thorn and Hoddle, No. 3142 
 
 (1896), 794. 
 
 No. 15862 (1896), 801. 
 
 No. 2260 (1897), 915. 
 
 No. 2261 (1897), 915. 
 
 No. 9104 (1898), 923. 
 
 Thorp and Marsh, No. 12355 
 
 (1895), 790. 
 
 No. 12356 (1895), 790. 
 
 No. 12942 (1896), 912. 
 
 No. 1929 (1897), 814. 
 
 No. 18823 (1897), 828. 
 
 Thorp, 2452 (1898), 919. 
 
 No. 2453 (1888), 920. 
 
 No. 2454 (1888), 845. 
 
 No. 17840 (1898), 874. 
 
 Thubron, No. 25227 (1898), 888. 
 Tice, No. 4478 (1896), 795. 
 Tobler, No. 12662 (1896), 799. 
 
 971 
 
INDEX 
 
 PATENTS (continued} : 
 
 Tooth, No. 8554 (1898), 922. 
 Trendel, No. 139 '(1897), 812. 
 
 - No. 14015 (1897), 823. 
 
 - No. 18204 (1899), 936. 
 Trost, No. 20406 (1896), 804. 
 Troubetzkoy, 24002 (1898), 
 
 886. 
 Trouve, 23521 (1895), 792. 
 
 - 23591 (1896), 807. 
 
 - 23592 (1896), 808. 
 
 - 12110 (1897), 821. 
 Turner, 23179 (1899), 908. 
 Turney, 5375 (1896), 795. 
 Turr, 24274 (1896), 808. 
 
 26041 (1896), 914. 
 
 - 11352 (1897), 932. 
 
 - 20996 (1898), 882. 
 Tyree, 28094 (1897), 837. 
 
 Varon, 16884 (1898), 870. 
 Vaugban - Sherrm, 26897 
 
 (1896), 810. 
 
 - 10877 (1897), 916. 
 Vezin and Oudry, 5908 (1898), 
 
 857. 
 Villejean and Frossard, 2554 
 
 (1897), 815. 
 
 Voigt, 19126 (1896), 803. 
 Voro, 10141 (1898), 857. 
 
 Wagner, 28102 (1897), 837. 
 
 - 29960 (1897), 840. 
 Waibel, 22673 (1898), 884. 
 Waite 19683 (1898), 880. 
 Wallin and Wendel, 20057 
 
 (1898), 926. 
 
 - 20122 (1898), 881. 
 Walker, 4352, (1898), 848. 
 
 - 18178 (1898), 877. 
 Ward, 17892 (1898), 875. 
 Warn and King, 75 (1896), 
 
 793. 
 Warner and others, 2497 (1899), 
 
 927. 
 Wartenweiler and Spengler, 
 
 23547 (1899), 831. 
 Watson, 22227 (1899), 930. 
 Watts, 3102 (1899), 927. 
 Webb and Kelly, 5905 (1896), 
 
 796. 
 
 - 10725 (1896), 798. 
 W^ehner and Kandler, 7160 
 
 (1899), 928. 
 Wells, 11636 (1898), 859. 
 
 PATENTS (continued) : 
 
 Whalley and Hacking, 15654 
 (1896), 801. 
 
 - 13667 (1897), 822. 
 Wigham, 4825 (1896), 931. 
 
 4125 (1897), 816. 
 
 - 18971 (1897), 827. 
 
 - 28526 (1897), 918. 
 
 - 4365 (1899), 935. 
 Williams and Clarke, 16479 
 
 (1898), 869. 
 Williamson, 9545 (1898), 856. 
 
 - 22272 (1898), 883. 
 Willson, 16342 (1894), 910. 
 
 - 16705 (1894), 910. 
 
 - 21222 (1894), 910. 
 
 - 13750 (1895), 911. 
 
 - 13766 (1895), 911. 
 
 - 15360 (1895), 911. 
 Wilson, 7574 (1898), 922. 
 
 - 18741 (1898), 878. 
 
 9718 (1899), 928. 
 
 13805 (1899), 902. 
 Windham, 20537 (1897), 829. 
 
 - 10815 (1898), 934. 
 Windmiiller, 21464 (1897), 830. 
 Wizard Manufacturing Co., 
 
 21831 (1897), 830. 
 Woods and Byrom, 10021 
 (1898), 923. 
 
 - 14453 (1898), 924. 
 Worsnop, 2366 (1898), 934. 
 
 - 11135 (1899), 899. 
 Wyatt, 13881 (1896), 912. 
 
 Yvonneau, 30833 (1897), 919. 
 
 Zimmerman, 328 (1897), 812. 
 
 - 16624 (1897), 824. 
 Patera, researches of, 277. 
 Patin, electric furnace of, 262. 
 Peat charcoal, 279. 
 Peiskretscham, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Penetrative power of different 
 
 illuminants, experiments on, 
 
 574. 
 Pentane gas and its preparation , 
 
 581. 
 
 Pepys, researches of, 175. 
 " Perfection " generator, 401. 
 Peroxide of hydrogen, 134. 
 Perrodil and Bullier, researches 
 
 of, 330. 
 
 972 
 
INDEX 
 
 Perrodil and Sertier, researches 
 of, 675. 
 
 Perrodil, researches of, 673. 
 
 Petroleum, 58. 
 
 Phenol, synthesis of, 142. 
 
 " Phenomenon " cycle lamp, 
 449. 
 
 Phillips (F.), researches of, 134, 
 692 ; (C.) researches of, 148. 
 
 Phosphorus in coke, determina- 
 tion of, 663. 
 
 in lime, determination of, 
 
 672. 
 
 Phosphuretted hydrogen and its 
 effects, 470, 473. 
 
 hydrogen in Acetylene, 
 
 determination of, 682, 686. 
 
 hydrogen in crude Acety- 
 lene, causes of, 264, 470. 
 
 Photographic uses of Acetylene, 
 584. 
 
 Photometric Committee, unit of 
 light recommended by, 582. 
 
 tests with Acetylene, 
 
 521. 
 
 - tests with Billwiller burn- 
 ers, 539. 
 
 Pichon, electric furnace of, 
 179. 
 
 Pictet, electric furnace of, 255 ; 
 generator, 401 ; purifying pro- 
 cess, 499 ; researches of, 75, 
 164, 528. 
 
 Pile, Volta's discovery of, 175. 
 
 Pintsch's generator, 414. 
 
 Pizarello, researches of, 12. 
 
 Platinum black, action on Acety- 
 lene of, 12, 134. 
 
 Platinum suggested as the unit 
 of light, 580. 
 
 Plimpton, researches of, 137, 154, 
 
 158, 159. 
 
 Plticker, researches of, 98. 
 Poggio Misteto, carbide works 
 
 at, 318. 
 
 Poisonous action of carbon mon- 
 oxide, 307. 
 
 Poleck, researches of, 160. 
 Polis, researches of, 43, 128, 
 
 490. 
 Pont San Martin, carbide works 
 
 at, 243. 
 
 Portable generators, 468. 
 Potash, alcoholic, Acetylene 
 
 made from, 4. 
 
 Potassium amalgam, action on 
 chloroform of, 10. 
 
 Potassium carbide, 145. 
 
 carbide and carbonyl, con- 
 fusion between, 145. 
 Power transmitter, carbide as a, 
 601. 
 
 used for carbide works, 
 
 284. 
 
 Preheating furnaces, 255, 259. 
 Preparation of Acetylene by 
 
 Berthelot, 6; Miasnikoff, 7; 
 
 Eeboul, 9 ; Sawitsch, 7. 
 
 of cuprous chloride, 28. 
 
 of pure carbide, 329. 
 Presence of Acetylene in coal 
 
 gas, 5 ; in luminous hydro- 
 carbon flames, 116. 
 
 Price of Acetylene, 591. 
 
 Printing, the use of Acetylene 
 for, 586. 
 
 Process used by Landin for 
 making carbide, 257. 
 
 Production of Acetylene from 
 calcium carbide, 60. 
 
 Products of combustion of 
 Acetylene, 118. 
 
 of destructive distillation, 
 Acetylene found in, 5. 
 
 Projection work, the use of 
 Acetylene for, 586. 
 
 Propagation of explosion of pure 
 Acetylene, 650. 
 
 Properties of Acetylene, 2 ; of 
 aluminium, 55 ; of calcium 
 carbide, 306; of chlorine mixed 
 with Acetylene, 8. 
 
 Proportions of lime and carbon 
 theoretically required in car- 
 bide, 281. 
 
 Prunier, researches of, 143. 
 
 Prussic acid, formation from 
 Acetylene of, 66. 
 
 Psarondatri and Blondel, re- 
 searches of, 570. 
 
 Pueckert, researches of, 139. 
 
 " Puratylene " purifying mix- 
 ture, 509. 
 
 Pure Acetylene condemned for 
 railway carriage lighting, 634. 
 - carbide, the preparation of, 
 329. 
 
 Purification of Acetylene, 53, 60 ; 
 importance of, 472. 
 
 Purifying process, Berge and 
 Eeyschler, 500 ; Exley's, 520 ; 
 Frank's, 510; Goettig's, 510; 
 Pictet's, 499; Smith's, 500; 
 Stern's, 520; Thorn and 
 
 973 
 
INDEX 
 
 Hoddle's, 502 ; Ullmann's, 513 ; 
 Willgerodt's, 500 ; Wolffs, 502. 
 Pyrrol, synthesis of, 141. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quality of lime used for carbide, 
 
 266. 
 Quet, researches of, 4, 46, 146, 
 
 153. 
 
 Ragot, researches of, 537. 
 
 Railway carriage lighting, pure 
 Acetylene condemned for, 634. 
 
 Ramsden, researches of, 335. 
 
 Ramsey, researches of, 140, 143. 
 
 Rathenau, electric furnace of, 
 227. 
 
 Ratzebuhr, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Reaction of hydrogen on Acety- 
 lene, 104. 
 
 of iron on Acetylene, 103. 
 - of nitrogen on Acetylene, 
 104. 
 
 Read-Holliday generator, 368. 
 
 Readman, electric furnace of, 
 184. 
 
 Re-agent, Berge and Reyschler's, 
 514. 
 
 Reboul, researches of, 137, 147, 
 153. 
 
 Redwood and Lewes, researches 
 of, 429. 
 
 Reflectors, cycle lamp, 445. 
 
 Regulations of the gas referees, 
 579. 
 
 Re-introduction of the electric 
 furnace, 174. 
 
 Reischauer, researches of, 5, 153. 
 
 Relative merits of the two car- 
 bide processes, 250. 
 
 Renault, researches of, 479. 
 
 Report of Venable on Willson's 
 work, 16. 
 
 Residue, influence of generator 
 on, 422. 
 
 Residues from carbide, re- 
 searches on, 333, 418. 
 
 Reuleaux, electric furnace of, 
 184. 
 
 Reyschler, researches of, 160. 
 
 Reyschler and Berge, purifying 
 process of, 500. 
 
 re-agent of, 514. 
 
 | Reyschler and Berge, purifying 
 
 researches of, 682. 
 Rheiiifelden, carbide works at 
 
 227, 316. 
 
 Richard, paper by, 100. 
 Rieth, researches of, 11, 35. 
 Riom, origin of petroleum at, 
 
 Ut7. 
 
 Risener, researches of, 537. 
 Roemer, researches of, 14, 43, 
 
 133, 137, 147. 
 
 Rome, carbide works at, 318. 
 Rosemann, researches of, 168. 
 Rossetti, researches of 178. 
 Ross's generator, 405. 
 Run carbide, 312, 313. 
 Russia, carbide works in, 318. 
 
 S 
 
 Saalfeld, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 425. 
 Sabanejeff, researches of, 11, 43, 
 
 51, 137, 138. 
 
 Sabatier, researches of, 163. 
 Saernstroem, researches of, 277. 
 Safety water seals for genera- 
 tors, 438. 
 Salies du Salat, carbide works 
 
 at, 317. 
 Sanitary position of Acetylene 
 
 as an illuminant, 587. 
 San Marcel, carbide works at 
 
 318. 
 San Marcello d'Aosta, carbide 
 
 works at, 244. 
 Santorin, immersed volcanoes 
 
 at, 59. 
 
 Sardi generator, 388. 
 Sarpsborg, carbide works at, 
 
 230. 
 Saulte Ste. Marie, carbide works 
 
 at, 207. 
 
 Sawdust as a purifier, 505. 
 Sawitsch, researches of, 7, 51. 
 Scharlach cycle lamp, 455. 
 
 carriage lamp, 459. 
 Schiff, researches of, 67. 
 Schiff and Fuchs, researches of, 
 
 676. 
 Schlangenbad, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 Schlegel, researches of, 136. 
 Schneller and Astfalck, electric 
 
 furnace of, 186. 
 Schonsee, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 
 974 
 
INDEX 
 
 Schroter, researches of, 142. 
 
 Schuckert's carbide works, 229. 
 
 Schuetzenberger, researches of, 
 149. 
 
 Schulke's burner, 529. 
 
 Screw generators, 406. 
 
 Search-light apparatus, Acety- 
 lene, 468. 
 
 Sechilienne sur la B,omanche, 
 carbide works at, 317. 
 
 Selenico, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Sensburg, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Sertier and Perrodil, researches 
 of, 675. 
 
 Shewangen Falls, carbide works 
 at, 316. 
 
 Shock, effect on Acetylene of, 
 88. 
 
 Siemens' electric furnace, 14, 
 180. 
 
 Siemens-Halske electric furnace, 
 230. 
 
 Siemens, researches of, 179. 
 
 - re-introduction of electric 
 furnace by, 174. 
 
 Signalling apparatus, Acety- 
 lene, 466. 
 
 Sigurdsson generator, 403. 
 
 Silbermann, researches of, 628. 
 
 Silent discharge, action on hy- 
 drocarbon vapours of, 12. 
 
 Silica in lime, determination of, 
 669. 
 
 in the ash of coke, deter- 
 mination of, 665. 
 
 Siliciuretted hydrogen and its 
 effects, 490. 
 
 Silicon, carbide of, 57. 
 in calcium carbide, 330. 
 
 Silver acetate and iodine, Acety- 
 lene made from, 11. 
 
 Silver Acetylene and silver 
 nitrate, double salts of, 156. 
 
 Acetylene and silver sul- 
 phate, double salts of, 156. 
 
 salts, action on Acetylene 
 
 of, 153. 
 
 solution used to detect 
 
 Acetylene, 4. 
 
 Simpson, researches of, 138. 
 
 Sinderens, researches of, 163. 
 
 Slit burners, 556. 
 
 Sludge cocks, 439. 
 
 Smell of Acetylene, 66. 
 
 Smith, purifying process of, 
 500. 
 
 Smith, researches on the spec- 
 trum of hydrocarbons, 98. 
 
 Smithells, researches of, 529. 
 
 Smoke, its effect on illuminants, 
 573. 
 
 Societa Italiana dei Forni Elet- 
 trici, 243. 
 
 Societa Italiana del Carburo de 
 Calcio, 244. 
 
 Soden, Acetylene supply works 
 at, 425. 
 
 Soederbaum, researches of, 148, 
 151, 152, 153. 
 
 Solid Acetylene, 97. 
 
 " Solitaire " cycle lamp, 455. 
 
 Solubility of Acetylene, 66. 
 
 Soret, researches of, 524. 
 
 Sources of iron in carbide, 336. 
 
 South Wales anthracite, analy- 
 sis of, 272. 
 
 " Sovereign " or " Liver " genera- 
 tor, 389. 
 
 Spain, carbide works in, 319. 
 
 Spanish carbide industry, Alex- 
 andre's remarks on, 249. 
 
 Specific gravity of Acetylene, 
 according to Berthelot, 6, 65. 
 - gravity of Acetylene, ac- 
 cording to Moissan, 65. 
 
 Spectrum of hydrocarbons, 97. 
 
 Speyerer's crushing machinery, 
 3lO. 
 
 Spongy platinum, action of 
 Acetylene on, 163. 
 
 Sprav, manufacture of carbide 
 at, 21. 
 visited by Venable, 16. 
 
 Steam power for carbide works, 
 284. 
 
 Ste. Beron, carbide works at, 
 317. 
 
 Stein, researches of, 524. 
 
 Stern, purifying process of, 520. 
 
 S terry Hunt, observations on 
 the electric furnace by, 15. 
 
 " Stewart " burner, 558. 
 
 St. Katherine's, Ontario, carbide 
 works near, 201. 
 
 St. Nectaire, carbonic acid gas 
 at, 59. 
 
 Stockholm, carbide works at, 
 318. 
 
 Storage of carbide, 327. 
 
 Street and Girard's electric 
 furnace, 187. 
 
 Strelitz, Acetylene supply works 
 at, 425. 
 
 975 
 
INDEX 
 
 Strode generator, 403. 
 
 Strontium, carbide of, 55. 
 
 Styrolene, Acetylene poly- 
 merised into, 12. 
 
 Suckert, researches of, 75, 79, 97, 
 615. 
 
 Sugg, modification of Keate's 
 lamp by, 580. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen in Acety- 
 lene, determination of, 687. 
 
 hydrogen, its effects, 490. 
 Sulphuric acid, action on Acety- 
 lene of, 6, 141. 
 
 Sulphur in coke, determination 
 
 of, 663. 
 in lime, determination of, 
 
 671. 
 Sulzburg, Acetylene supply 
 
 works at, 425. 
 
 " Sunbeam " generator, 386. 
 " Sunlight " generator, 366. 
 Sweden, carbide works in, 318. 
 Switzerland, carbide works in, 
 
 319. 
 Synthesis of Acetylene by 
 
 Berthelot, 7, 27. 
 
 of Acetylene by Dewar, 13, 
 31. 
 
 of methane, 30. 
 
 of phenol, 142. 
 
 of pyrrol, 141. 
 
 of urea by Woehler, 26. 
 Synthetic apparatus used by 
 
 Berthelot, 27. 
 
 researches of Fownes, 26. 
 System of nomenclature, 63. 
 Szepezynski generator, 407. 
 
 Table lamps, Acetylene, 469. 
 Tar carbon, 279. 
 
 Temperature of decomposition of 
 Acetylene, 118. 
 
 - of flame and its import- 
 ance, 628. 
 
 - of ignition of Acetylene 
 mixtures, 119. 
 
 of the electric arc, 177. 
 
 of the electric furnace, as 
 estimated by Violle, 14. 
 
 Terni, carbide works near, 244. 
 Thalen, researches of, 98. 
 Thermo-couple, Lechatelier's, 
 
 393. 
 Thiophane, formation of, 141. 
 
 Thomas, researches of, 136. 
 Thompson and Joule's electric 
 furnace, 179. 
 
 (S.) researches of, 177. 
 Thomsen, researches of, 65, 120 
 
 298. 
 
 Thorium, carbide of, 56. 
 Thorn and Hoddle, purifying 
 
 process of, 502. 
 " Thorscar " generator, 370. 
 Thummel, researches of, 160. 
 Titanium, carbide of, 57. 
 Tommasi, researches of, 13. 
 Torrey, researches of, 3, 146, 163. 
 Totis, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 425. 
 
 Toxic action of Acetylene, 166. 
 Travers, calcium carbide made 
 
 by, 20, 54. 
 
 researches of, 159, 174. 
 Trepton, Acetylene supply works 
 
 at, 425. 
 
 " Triumph " cycle lamp, 450. 
 
 Trollhatten, carbide works at 
 318. 
 
 Troost, researches of, 56. 
 
 Trouve generator, 380. 
 
 Trowbridge, furnace experi- 
 ments made at, 195. 
 
 Truchot, researches of, 12. 
 
 Tungsten, carbide of, 57. 
 
 Turf charcoal, 279. 
 
 " Twentieth Century " cycle 
 lamp, 447. 
 
 Two carbide processes, economic 
 values of, 250. 
 
 carbide processes, relative 
 merits of, 250. 
 
 Two different classes of electric 
 furnace, 192. 
 
 U 
 
 Ullmann and Frank's process 
 comparison of, 516. 
 
 and Goldberg, researches of 
 
 515. 
 
 purifying process of, 513. 
 
 Ultimate products of the de- 
 composition of Acetylene, 105. 
 
 Union Carbide Company's works 
 221. 
 
 United States, carbide works in, 
 316. 
 
 United States, patent taken out 
 by Willson, 18. 
 
 970 
 
INDEX 
 
 Unit of light, Dibdin's ten- 
 candle, 582 ; Fery's Acetylene, 
 583 ; Harcourt's ten-candle, 
 582; Keate's lamp as, 580; 
 platinum suggested as, 580 ; 
 the candle as, 578 ; the Carcel 
 lamp as, 580 ; the Harcourt 
 pentane lamp, 581 ; the Hef- 
 ner Alteneck, 580 ; the Meth- 
 ven screen, 580 ; Violle's Acety- 
 lene, 583. 
 
 Uranium, carbide of, 56. 
 
 Urea synthesised by Woehler, 
 26. 
 
 Use of globes, 570. 
 
 of Kieselguhr in purifying 
 
 mixtures, 511. 
 
 Usoff, researches of, 100. 
 
 Vallorbes, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Valve generators, 402. 
 
 Vanadium, carbide of, 57. 
 
 Van Troostwyk, researches of, 
 45. 
 
 Vapour of alcohol used to make 
 Acetylene, 4. 
 
 Vapours, washers for the re- 
 moval of, 498. 
 
 Various reagents, their effect on 
 Acetylene, 692. 
 
 Vauquelin, researches of, 46. 
 
 Venable, report on Willson's 
 work by, 16, 339. 
 visits Spray, 16. 
 
 Ventilation of carbide works, 
 306. 
 
 Ventilators, Gin and Leleux's, 
 309. 
 
 " Veritas " cycle lamp, 457. 
 
 Vesprem, Acetylene supply 
 works at, 425. 
 
 Vesprezen, difficulties of purifi- 
 cation in the installation at, 
 505. 
 
 Vidal, researches of, 585. 
 
 Vielle, researches of, 68, 83, 91, 
 130. 
 
 Vigouroux, researches of, 490. 
 
 Villard, researches of, 66, 67, 74, 
 97, 135. 
 
 Vinyl bromide, Acetylene pre- 
 pared from, 7. 
 
 - chloride, Acetylene pre- 
 pared from, 7. 
 
 Violette, researches of, 277. 
 
 Violle, estimation of the tempera- 
 ture of the electric furnace, 
 14. 
 
 researches of, 178, 577, 580, 
 
 583. 
 
 Vogel, researches of, 5, 146, 153. 
 
 Volatile and combustible matter 
 in coal, determination of, 661. 
 
 Volta, discoveries of, 175. 
 
 W 
 
 Wabash, Acetylene supply works 
 at, 425. 
 
 Wachs, researches of, 514. 
 
 Walmsley, researches of, 585. 
 
 Warsaw, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Washers for removing vapours 
 from Acetylene, 498. 
 
 Waste of electrode, Foyers pro- 
 cess for preventing, 205. 
 
 Water, action on calcium car- 
 bide of, 9. 
 
 gas, Acetylene diluted with, 
 
 618. 
 
 power for carbide works, 
 
 284. 
 
 seals for generators, 438. 
 
 Watts' dictionary, 145. 
 
 Watts, researches of, 98. 
 
 Weight of Acetylene, 65. 
 
 Werdermann, researches of, 179. 
 
 Weyl, researches of, 167. 
 
 Wiborg, carbide works at, 318. 
 
 Willgerodt, purifying process 
 of, 500. 
 
 researches of, 474. 
 
 Willson, calcium carbide made 
 by, 16 ; criticised by Borchers, 
 23 ; electric furnace of, 185, 
 195 ; English patent of, 25 ; 
 letter to Lord Kelvin from, 17 ; 
 researches of, 15, 75, 79, 97, 
 282; United States patent of, 
 18. 
 
 Willson's improved crucibles 
 used at Foyers, 309. 
 
 work reported on by Ven- 
 able, 16. 
 
 Wilson and Bone, researches of, 
 
 133. 
 
 " Windmiller " cycle lamp, 449. 
 Winkler, review of researches 
 
 by, 19. 
 Woehler, researches of, 54, 174, 
 
 338. 
 urea synthesised by, 26. 
 
 977 
 
 62 
 
INDEX 
 
 Wolff, analysis of crude Acety- 
 lene by, 474. 
 purifying process of, 502. 
 
 Wolverton Station, Acetylene 
 lighting at, 379. 
 
 Wood charcoal, 275. 
 
 Woodside process for making 
 carbide, 321. 
 
 Wormditt, carbide works at, 
 316. 
 
 Worth's application to the 
 Home Office re the use of 
 mixed oil gas and Acetylene, 
 650. 
 
 Wuellner, paper by, 100. 
 
 Wyatt and King, electric 
 
 furnace of, 194. 
 Wynan, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 " Yahr " cycle lamp, 458. 
 Yttrium, carbide of, 56. 
 
 Z 
 
 Zeisel, researches of, 53, 141. 
 Zino, researches of, 140, 320. 
 Zirconium, carbide of, 57. 
 Zurich, carbide works at, 319. 
 
 Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. 
 

 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS 
 
 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
 DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY 
 OVERDUE. 
 
 AU6 13 1335 
 
VO CH884