iiiilii Hi yiiiiiiiiiiil iiiiii "Ml m m !V lllliii Story of the Nations A Series of Historical Studies intended to present in graphic narratives the stories of the different nations that have attained prominence in history. In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their philosophical relations to each other as well as to universal history. 12°, Illustrated, cloth, each . . $1.50 Half Leather, each .... $1.75 Nos. 62 and following Nos. . net $1.35 Each .... (By mail) $1.50 Half leather, gilt top, each . net $1.60 (By mail) $1.75 FOR FULL LIST SEE END OF THIS VOLUME MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA ARClU.i- i .-.!,. :i., — IN Gl.AZED TILES ALONC, TUF. PALAtk :jF DAREIOS I., AT SUSA. KXHUMED BV iR. DIEULAFOY, IN l885. Frontispiere. THE STORY OF THE NATIONS .MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA INCLUDING A STUDY OF THE ZEND-AVESTA OR RELIGION OF ZOROASTER FROM THE FALL OF NINEVEH TO THE PERSIAN WAR (continued from "the story of Assyria") 'ZENAIDEA. jRAGOZIN '" ' MEMBER OF THE "AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY," OF THE SOClfiT^ ETHNOLO- GIQUE " OF PARIS; ASSOCIATE OF THE "VICTORIA INSTITUTE " OF LONDON, ETC. " He (Carlyle) says it is part of his creed that history is poetry, could w tell it right." — Emerson. "Da mihi, Domine, scire quod sciendum est." — "Imitation of Christ." (J''' Grant that the knowledge I get may be the knowledge worth havings- Matthew Arnold^ s Translation.) NEW YORK G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS LONDON : T. FISHER UNWIN 1903 49563 • * '** ' *cdfVRiGkf** Entered at Stationers^ Hail, London By T. Fisher Unwin Ube imtclietbochet press, Hew fiorh CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. I. A Notable Religious Survival : the Parsis — Anquetil Duperron .... 1-16 § I. The Parsis, descendants of the Persians and followers of Zoroaster. — § 2. The Parsis not heathens. — § 3. Con- quest of Persia by the Arabs. — § 4. Oppression and con- version of the country. — § 5. Self-exile of the Zoroastrians. — § 6. Their wanderings and settlements in India. — § 7. Principal tenets of their religi' n. — g 8. Discovery of Parsi manuscripts. — g 9. Anquetil Duperron and his mission. — § 10. His departnre for India. — § il. Obstacles and hard- s'lips. — § 12. His translation of the Zend-Avesta. — § 13. He is attacked l)y William Jones. — § 14. His mistakes and disadvantages. — § 15. Eugene Burnouf, the founder of Eranian scholarship. — § 16. Advance and results of Eranian studies. II. The Prophet of Eran — The Avesta , . 17-33 § I. The religions that have sacred books, and their de- mands. — § 2. They claim to be supernaturally revealed. — § 3. The Veda and the Zend-Avesta — the sacred books of the Hindus and Aranians. — §4. "Zend-Avesta" a mis- nomer. — §§5,6. " Pehlevi " the Persian language of the Sassanian period. — § 7. Uncertainty and obscurity of most points concerning the Avesta. — § S-. Ancient writers on Zoroaster. — § 9. The " Gathas " (>ongsl the oldest portion of the Avesta. — § 10. Scant information on Zarathushtra (Zoroaster)in the Avesta. — § 11. King Vishtaspa, the friend iv CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. and follower of Zarathushtra.— § 12. Loss of the greatest part of the Zoroastriaii literature. — § 13. Survival of some texts. The parts of the Avesta as we have it. — § 14. The Bundehesh : its lateness and its contents. III. Aryan Myths ...... 34-55 §§ 1,2. Impossibility of invention in a strict sense. — § 3. Zarathushtra not an inventor, but a reformer. — § 4. The Hindus and Eranians — sister nations of the Aryan or Indo- European race. — § 5. The Airyana-Vaeja, or first Aryan home of Eranian tradition. — § 6. The Rig-Veda, the most ancient sacred book of the Aryan Hindus, and its indica- tions concerning the religion of the primitive Aryas. — § 7. The powers of nature — the gods of the Aryas. — § 8. The Aryan sky-gods, Dyaus and Varuna. — § 9. The Aryan light-god, Mitra. — § 10. The Aryan fire-god, Agni. — § II. Aryan-dualism. Gods and demons, light and dark- ness, rain and drought. — § 12. Aryan storm-myth.^ § 13. Indra, the god of the thunderbolt. — § 14. Vritra and Ahi, the cloud-fiends. — §§ 15, 16. Soma, plant, beverage and drink. — 17, 18. Efficacy of sacred texts — Mantra — and of sacrifice. — § ig. Crossness of some of these concep- tions. — § 20. Richness of Aryan mythical epos. — § 2i. King Yama and the Pitris. — § 22. Aryan reverence toward the spirits of the departed — the Pitris. — § 23. The Pitris pass into heroic epos. IV. Aryan Myths in the Avesta — Thetr Allegori- cal Transformation . . . 56-94 § I. Enervating influence of the Indian climate on the Aryan population. — § 2. Bracing and hardening influence of the soil and climate of Eran. The nature of Eran all in ex- tremes. — § 3. It intensifies the feeling of dualism, and de- velops the battle-myth almost exclusively. — § 4. Spiritual transformation of Aryan myths in Eran, — ^ 5. Ahura- Mazda, the supreme God and Creator, the successor of the CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. V Arj'an sky-gods. — § 6. The sacred mountain and paradise of the Eranians. — § 7. The heavenly sea, the celestial spring, and the tree of life and immortality. — § 8. An- thropomorism subordinate in Eranian myth. — §i^ 9, 10. Mithra, the successor of the Aryan Mitra, transparently mythical. — 11. His spiritual transformation : the god of light becomes the god of truth. — § 12. His allegorical at- tendants : Victory, Obedience, Uprightness, etc. — § 13. Allegory a distinctive feature of the Eranian mind. — g 14. The Amesha-Spentas, or " Bountiful Immortals," and their allegorical character. — § 15. The seven Amesha-Spentas and their functions. — § 16. Ahura-Mazda is the first of them and has created the others. — § 17. Atar — Fire — successor of the Aryan Agni. — § 18. The Hvareno, or " Kingly Glory," — § 19. Tishtrya, the chief of stars and Eranian storm -god. — § 20. The Fravashis, the successors of the Aryan Pitris. — §§ 21, 22. — Desire of the Eranian gods for sacrifice. — § 23, 24. The Manthra, or sacred text, and the Ahuna- Vairya, and their power over the fiends. — § 25. Angra- Mainyu, or the " Evil One." — § 26. Yima, the successor of the Aryan Yama ; history in the Avesta. — § 27. The fall of Yima. — § 28. The Sagdid. V. The Gath as — The Yasn a of Seven Chapters, 95-1 1 2 § I. Mazdayasnians and Daevayasnians. — § 2. Zarathush- tra's work. — § 3. Early period of the Gathas. — § 4. The prophet's denunciations of the Daevayasnians, or Fiend- worshippers. — § 5. The Aryan, " Devas," — gods — trans- formed into the Eranian " Daevas " — fiends. " Ahura " and "Asura." — §6. Poetical prologue of the Gathas. — § 7. Proclamation of the new religion. — § 8. Essence of Mazdeism : moral dualism. — § 9. The hymn of questions. — § 10. Simplicity and literalness of the Gathas. — § 11,12. The " Yasna of Seven Chapters." Slight deterioriation in the spirit of Mazdeism ; formation and return to myth. — § 13. The Mazdayasnian " Profession of Faith." — § 14. Marriages between near relations. CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. VI. Migrations and Foreign Influences — The Vendidad — Heathen Revival — The Khordeh Avesta .... 1 13-168 §1. Character of the Vendidad. — §2. The three fundamen- tal principles of the priestly legislation. — § 3. Power of the priesthood. — § 4. The Athravans and Zoroastrian sacrifice. §§ 5, 6. Holiness of an agricultural life. — § 7. Care of the body enjoined ; asceticism denounced. — §§ 8, g. Exposing of the dead. — § 10. The Dakhma. — § 11. Questions on purity and pollution. — § 12. Impurity of the Dakhmas.— § 13. Treatment of corpses in winter. — § 14. Sinfulness of burying a corpse. — § 15. Impure creatures become clean by dying. — § 16. On sickness. — § 17. On thriftiness. — § 18. The Nasu, or corpse-fiend. Rights of purification. — § 19. Dangerous sinfulness of carrying a corpse alone. — § 20. On physicians. — § 21. Sacredness of the dog. — § 22. Of the cock. — § 23. Signs of nomadic life in the Vendidad. — § 24. 25. Turanian influences encountered by the Eranians in their westward migration. — §§ 26, 28. Traces of these in- fluences in the Avesta. — § 29. Hebrew affinities. — §§ 30-31. Puzzling penal legislation. — § 32. The " Khordeh-A vesta." Heathen Revival. — § 33, 34. The Chinvat Bridge, and the trials of the soul after death. — § 35. High standard and beauty of Mazdeism. Its high place among religions. VII. The Last Days of Judah . . . 169-185 § I. Affairs in Syria. — 2. Necho II. of Egypt plans an in- vasion of Asia, — § 3. His campaign in Syria. — § 4. Battle of Megiddo, and defeat of Josiah of Judah. — § 5. Battle of Karkhemish ; defeat of Necho by Nebuchadrezzar. — § 6. The Median and Babylonian empires — § 7. Submission of Syria. — § 8. The prophet Jeremiah, — § g. First taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. — § 10-13. Jeremiah's preaching and unpopularity. — § 14. Destruction of Jerusa- lem. — §15, 16. The siege of Tyre. Nebuchadrezzar. CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. VU VIII. Lydia and Asia Minor — The Balance of Power IN THE East ..... 186-222 55§ 1—3. The countries of Asia Minor independent of Baby- lon. — §§ 4, 5. Lydia. Kandaules and Gyges. — § 6. Rock- tombs of Lycia. — § 7. Languages of Asia Minor. — § 8. The Hittite element in Asia Minor. — § 9. Indo-European influences. — § 10. Hellas, the Doric migration and Ionian colonies. — § ii. Ionian colonies on the shore of Asia Minor — § 12. Mutual influence of the Greeks and Lydians. — §§ 13, 14. Invention of coinage by the Lydians. — § 15. Aggrandizement of Lydia. — § 16. Her wars against the Greek cities on the sea-shore. — § 17. War between Lydia and Media. ^§ 18. Battle of the Eclipse. Peace and inter- marriages. — § 19. Death of Kyaxares. IX. Babylon the Great — The House Egibi. 223-260 § I. Little durability of a balance of powers. — § 2. Nebu- chadrezzar's fear of Media. — His works of fortification. — § 4. The Median Wall. — § 5. His constructions at Baby- lon. — § 6. The great walls. — § 7. The great bridge and the embankments. § 8. The new palace. — §§ 9, 10. The Hanging Gardens. — § 11. The temple of Bel-Marduk. — § 12. Legends of Semiramis and Nitokris. — § 13. Nebu- chadrezzar's greatness. — § 14. Herodotus' account of some Babylonian customs. — § 15. Discovery of the banking house of Egibi. — § 16. Long duration of the firm. — § 17. Their archive of private transactions. — § 18. Their business operations. — § 19. Legal transactions in property. — §§ 20- 22. Tablets of legal precedents. — § 23, 24. Dignified and independent position of Babylonian women. — § 25. Private letters. — § 26. Reading-books, and children's exercise books, § 27. Late use of cuneiform writing in contract-tablets. X. Media and the Rise of Persia . . 261-288 §1. Astyages succeeds Kyaxares. His insignificance. — §2. Splendor of Median royalty. — § 3. Columnar architecture via CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. introduced by the Medes. — §§ 4, 5. The palace at Agbatana. § 5. Uncertainty concerning the Medes. — § 7. The Median tribes, Aryan and un-Aryan. — § 8. The Magi — the priest- hood of Media. — § g. Their probable un-Aryan origin. — § 10. Their political power. — § 11. The Perbians. Uncer- tainty about their origin. — § 12. Persia proper — its climate and productions. Character of the Persians. — § 13. The Persian tribes, Aryan and un-Aryan. Elam and Anshan. § 14. Reunion of the tribes under Akhsemenes. Begin- nings of the Persian nation. — § 15. The double line of the Akhsemenian house ; the Anshan line, and the Persian line. § 16. The newly discovered cylinders of Nabonidus and Kyros. — § 17. The Rock and Inscription of Behistun. — § 18. The early Akhnemenian house reconstructed from these documents. XI. KuRUSH, THE King, the AKHi^MENiAN . 289-332 §§ I, 2. Fall of the Median Empire. — §§ 3, 4. Herodotus' fabulous account of the birth and childhood of Kyros. — § 5. Explanation of the account. — § 6. Probable details. — § 7. Extension of the Persian Empire in the East. — § 8. Kyros' wise rule. Fusion of the Medes and Persians. — § 9. The ruins of Pasargadse, Kyros' royal city in Persia. — § 10. Persian art, as shown in the monuments at Pasat^gadse, imi- tated from Assyrian art. — § 11. The balance of powers threatened by Kyros. — § 12. Alyattes of Lydia succeeded by Kroisos. — § 13. Kroisos prepares to make war against Kyros, and seeks alliances. — § 14. His embassy and gifts to the Delphic temple. — § 15. Beginning of the war. — § 16, 17. The fall of Sardis and capture of Kroisos. — § 18. At- tempted self-immolation of Kroisos. His rescue from the pyre. — § 19. Subjection of the Ionian cities and the rest of Asia Minor. — § 20. First and unsuccessful attack on Baby- lon. Complete subjection of Elam. Susa one of the capi- tals of the Persian empire. — § 21. The successors of Nebuchadrezzar at Babylon. Accession of Nabonidus. — § 22. He indisposes the priesthood of Babylon. First and unsuccessful attempt of Kyros. — § 23. The priesthood call CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. IX in Kyros. — § 24. The Jews support him. — § 25. Surrender of Babylon and triumphal entry of Kyros. — § 26. He con- ciliates the priests and delivers the Jews. — § 27. Obscurity of his last years, and death. Appendix to Chapter XI. , . , 333-343 The last discoveries at Susa. XII. Kambyses. 529-522 B.C. .... 344-360 § I. Accession of Kambyses. — § 2. His unfortunate nature and jealousy of his brother Bardiya. — § 3. He plans the conquest of Egypt. — § 4. — Preparations on both sides. — § 5. Assassination of Bardiya. — § 6. Battle of Pelusion and con- quest of Egypt. — § 7. — Kambyses' religious tolerance and mild rule in Egypt. — § 8. — His reluctance to return and further campaigns. — § g. Tidings of an impostor person- ating Bardiya, and of a general revolt. Kambyses confesses his crime and puts an end to his life. — § 10. Record of the event in the Behistun inscription. XIII. Dareios I., THE Son of Hystaspes. 522-485 B.C. First Period : Civil Wars . , 361-383 § 1-3. Gaumata the Magian slain by the seven Persian princes. Accession of Dareios I. — § 4. The Behistun in- scription on the subject. — § 5. Dareios a Mazdayasnian. — § 6. The Persians not strictly followers of the Vendidad. — § 7. Breaking out of the civil war. — § 8. Revolt of nine provinces. — § 9. Revolt of Media. — § 10. Capture of the Median pretender. — § 11. End of the civil war. — § 12. Sculptures at Behistun. — § 13. List of nations. XIV. Dareios I. Second Period : Years of Peace, 384-411 § I. Dareios' wise home rule. — § 2. His system of taxation. § 3. Construction of roads, and institution of a postal ser- CLASSIFIED CONTENTS. vice. — § 4. The Nile canal and uniformity of coinage. — § 5. Susa and Persepolis. — § 6. Great platform at Persepolis. § 7. Stairs at Persepolis. — § 8. The palace of Dareios. — § 9. The Hall of Hundred Columns. — § 10. The audience- hall at Susa, in the Book of Esther. — §11. Buildings of Xerxes at Persepolis. — § 12. Conjectures about the walls of the palaces. — § 13. The royal tombs at Persepolis. XV. Dareios I. Third Period : Foreign Wars. 412-433 § I. Dareios begins a series of foreign wars. — § 2. The knowledge of the Greeks about Scythia. — §§ 3, 4. Herodo- tus' description of Scythia. — §§ 5,6. Of the Scythians. — § 7. Dareios bridges and crosses the Bosporus and the Danube. — §§ ^' 9- H!is campaign in Scythia. — § 10. His retreat and return across the Danube and the Hellespont. — §11. Ex- peditions in India and Africa. Revolt and chastisement of the Greek cities in Asia and Thracia. Preparations against Greece. Index 435 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ARCHER-FRIEZE ..... Frontispiece A PARSI GENTLEMAN (mODERn) .... 6 A PARSI LADY (mODERn) 7 page of the avesta ...... 29 parsi in praying costume . . . -us " paitidana " . . . . , . -115 "kosti" 115 *' atesh-gah," or " fire-altar " of modern par- SIS ... .... 116 " ATESH-GAH," OR '' FIRE-ALTAR " ; SEEN BY ANQUE- TIL DUPERRON II7 SACRIFICIAL IMPLEMENTS USED IN PARSI WORSHIP II9 A "dAKHMA," or "tower of SILENCE " . . 127 ANCIENT " DAKHMA " NEAR TEHERAN IN PERSIA . I2g VIEW IN AUDERBEIDJAN ..... 143 VIEW IN AUDERBEIDJAN 145 ASSYRIAN ALTAR ....... I49 RUIN of " ATESH-GAH " AT FIRUZABAD . . • ^Sl RESTORATION OF THE SAME ..... 153 LYCIAN ROCK-TOMBS AT MYRA .... I90 LYCIAN ROCK-TOMB AT TELMESSUS . . . 19I LYCIAN ROCK-TOMB AT TELMESSUS . . . I92 FACADE OF LYCIAN ROCK-TOMB AT MYRA . . I94 ROCK-TOMB AT MYRA 1 95 RELIEFS ON THE SO-CALLED '' HARPY-TOWER " . I97 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENT AT XANTHOS MODERN CONSTRUCTIONS IN LYCIA GRANARY IN MODERN LYCIA GRANARY IN MODERN LYCIA ROCK-TOMB OF MIDAS CITY WALL OF CNIDUS STATUE OF THE ARTEMUS OF EPHESUS RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF DIDYM^EAN APOLLO FRAGMENT OF ORNAMENT EARLY AND LATE LYDIAN COINS BRICK OF NEBUCHADREZZAR HANGING GARDENS OF BABYLON MOUNTAIN SCENERY IN MEDIA PERSIAN AND MEDIAN FOOT-SOLDIERS ROCK OF BEHISTUN SCULPTURES AND INSCRIPTIONS ON THE ROCK OF BEHISTUN .... GATE-PILLAR OF KYROS' PALACE BAS-RELIEF REPRESENTING KYROS TOMB OF KYROS AT PASARGAD^ SUPPOSED TOMB OF KAMBYSES I. LION-FRIEZE, IN GLAZED TILES, AT SUSA DESIGN ON archers' ROBES . BATTLEMENTED STAIR PARAPET ROYAL SEAL OF THE AKH.EMENIAN KINGS WINGED BULL AT PERSEPOLIS PERSIAN PILLAR BASE AND CAPITAL DOUBLE GRIFFIN CAPITAL DOUBLE BULL CAPITAL . . , RUINED PALACE AT FIRUZABAD SASSANIAN ROCK-SCULPTURES DAREIOS I. ON HIS THRONE TOMBS OF AKHi^MENIAN KINGS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XUl DETAIL OF AKHjEMENIAN TOMB BUILDING KNOWN AS " RUSTEM's TOMB " SASSANIAN SCULPTURE SASSANIAN KINGS MASONRY OF GREAT PLATFORM AT PERSEPOLIS LION ATTACKING BULL PARAPET OF STAIR, PERSEPOLIS CARVED LINTEL OF WINDOWS AND DOORS PALACE OF DAREIOS AT PERSEPOLIS ATTEMPT AT RESTORATION OF SOUTH FRONT OF PALACE OF DAREIOS AT PERSEPOLIS DAREIOS FIGHTING A MONSTER DOOR OF PALACE OF DAREIOS, PERSEPOLIS PILLARS OF THE HALL OF XERXES GENERAL VIEW OF THE PALACE OF DAREIOS SCYTHIANS AFTER A BATTLE GREEK SILVER VASE, FOUND AT KERTCH 373 375 377 Z9Z 396 397 398 399 401 403 405 407 409 421 423 1 ^ 1 B § PRINCIPAL WORKS READ OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS VOLUME. Anquetil, Duperron. Zend-Avesta : Ouvrage de Zoroastre, con- tenant les idees theologiques, physiques et morales de ce legisla- teur, les ceremonies du culte religieux qu'il a etablies, etc., etc. 2 vol. in 4°. Paris 1761. Ayuso, Francisco Garcia. Los Pueblos Iranios y Zoroastro. Madrid, 1874. i vol. Babelon, Ernest. Histoire Ancienne de l'Orient. gme ed. 5th and 6th vol. Paris, 1887 and 1888. (Continued from Lenormant.) Bartholom^, Chr. Arische Forschungen. II. and III. Halle, 1886 and 1887. Bradke, p. v. Dyaus Asura, Ahura-Mazda und die Asuras. Studien und Versuche auf dem Gebiete alt-indo-germanischer Religionsgeschichte. Halle, 1885. 128 pages. Darmesteter, James. The Zend Avesta. Part I., The Vendi- dad. Part II., The Sirozahs, Ya^ts, and Nyaij. ("Sacred Books of the East." Series, vol. IV. and vol. XXIII). Oxford, 1880 and 1883. 2 vols. Ormazd et Ahriman : Leurs origines et leur histoire. (Bibliotheque de 1' Ecole des Hautes Etudes ; age Fascicule.) Paris, 1877. I vol. -Haurvatat et Ameretat : Essai sur la mythologie de I'Avesta. (Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes ; 236 Fascicule.) Paris, 1875. 85 pages. Delaitre, a. Le Peuple et l' Empire des Medes, jusqu' a la fin du regne de Cyaxare. Bruxelles : 1883. i vol. Dosabhai, Framji Karaka. History of the Parsis. Including their Manners, Customs, Religion and Present Position. Lon- don, 1884. 2 vol. xvi PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED. DuNCKER, Max. Geschichte des Alterthums. 5th edition. I2th and 4th vol. Leipzig, 1880. EvERS, Dr. E. Das Emporkommen der Persischen Macht UNTER Cyrus : nach den neuentdeckten Inschriften. Berlin, 1884. 40 pages. Ferguson, James. Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis Re- stored. London, 1851. i vol. Floigl, Dr. Victor. Cyrus und Herodot : nach den neugefun- denen Keilinschriften. Leipzig, 1881. 197 pages. Harlez, M. C. de. Avesta : Livre sacre du Zoroastrisme traduit du texte Zend, accompagne de notes explicatives, et precede d'une Introduction a I'etude de I'Avesta et de la Religion Mazdeenne ; 2e edition. Paris, 1881. i vol. Les Origines du Zoroastrisme. (Extrait du Journal Asiaf- ique.) Paris, 1879. Deux parties en 8". Haug, Martin. Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, AND Religion of the Parsis. i vol. Second edition. HOVELACQUE, Abel. L'AVESTA, ZoROASTRE et LE MAZDftsME, Paris, 1880. I vol. Le Chien DANS l'Avesta. Les soins qui lui sont dus. Son eloge. Paris, 1876. 56 pages. Les Medecins et la Medecine dans l'Avesta. 21 pages. Jackson, A. V. Williams. A Hymn of Zoroaster Yasna XXXI. Translated with comments, 62 pages ; Stuttgart, 1888. Justi, Dr. Ferdinand. Geschichte des Alten Persiens. Ber- lin, 1879. I vol. Kuhn, a. Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des GOtter. trankes. First edition, i vol. I-enormant, Fran9ois. La Monnaie dans l'Antiquite. Vol. 1st. Paris, 1878. Les Origines de l'Histoire, d'apres la Bible et les tradi- tions des peuples Orientaux. 2d vol. Paris, 1882. Maspero, G. Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient. 3d edition. Paris, 1878. Menant, Joachim. Zoroastre : Essai sur la Philosophic Religi- euse de la Perse, 2d edition. Paris, 1857. i vol. Meyer, Eduard. Geschichte des Alterthums. Stuttgart, 1884. Vol. ist. Mills, L. H. The Zend Avesta: Part III. The Yasna, Visparad, Afrinagan, Gahs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. ("Sacred Books of the East." Series, vol. XXXI.) Oxford, 1887. I vol. PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED. xvii MuLLER, F. Max. Chips from a German Workshop. New York, 1876. 4 vol. Lectures on the Science of Language. New York, 1875. 2 vol. Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas. London, 1888. Myer. Remains of Lost Empires, i vol. Oppert, J. Le Peuple et la Langue des Mi;DES. L' HoNOVER : le Verbe Createur de Zoroastre. (Extrait des Annales de Philosophie Chretienne, Janvier, 1862.) 24 pages. Plutarch. De Iside et Osiride. Rawlinson, George. The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, London, 1865. 3d and 4th vol. History of Herodotus, a new English version. London, 1875. 4 vol. Rialle, Girard de. Agni, Petit-fils des Eaux, dans le Veda et I'Avesta. Paris, 1869. 16 pages. Sayce, a. H. The Ancient Empires of the East. London, 1884. I vol. Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Babylonians. Hibbert Lectures, 1887. I vol. Schrader, Eberhard. Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament. 2d edition. Giessen, 1883. i vol. Spiegel, Friedrich. Eranische Alterthumskunde. 3 vol. Leipzig, 1871, 1873, and 1878. Die Altpersischen Keilinschriften. 2d edit. 1881. Unger, G. Fr. Kyaxares und Astyages. (Aus den Abhandlungen der kon. Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, I CI., XVL Bd., Ill Abth.) Miinchen, 1882. 85 pages. Vaux, W. S. W. Persia, from the Earliest Period to the Arab Conquest. (Ancient History from the Monuments.) I vol. Vigouroux, Abbe F. La Bible et les Decouvertes Modernes en Palestine, en Egypte et en Assyrie. 4th edit. Paris, 1884. 4 vols. West, E. W. Pahlavi Texts. Part I. The Bundahij, Bah- man Yajt and Shayast La-Shayast. (" Sacred Books of the East." Series, Vol. V.) Oxford, 1880. I vol. Whitney, Wm. Dwight. Oriental and Linguistic Studies, New York, 1873. i vol. XVI 11 PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED. WiNDiscHMANN, Friedrich. Zoroastrische Studien. Abhand- lungen zur Mythologie und Sagengeschichte des alten Iran. Berlin, 1863. MiTHRA : ein Beitrag zur Mythengeschichte des Orients ; Leipzig, 1857. 89 pages. Numerous works on Ancient India and Comparative Mythology ; also pamphlets and essays by Sir H. C. Rawlinson, Th. G. Pinches, W. St. Chad Boscawen, H. Rassam, De Harlez, Spiegel, Hovelacque, Halevy, Girard de Rialle, E. Dieulafoy, and others, in Rawlinson's " Herodotus," the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and various periodicals, such as "Transactions" and "Proceedings" of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, the " Journal " of the Victoria Institute, the " Museon," the " Baby- lonian and Oriental Record," the " Revue Archeologique," " Gazette des Beaux Arts," and others. This volume will surely — and deservedly — be found fault with by critics on the score of inconsistent spelling of Oriental and Greek names. It is a defect very difficult to avoid in the present transition stage between the spelling sanctioned by old habit, though utterly incorrect and misleading, and the more faithful and rational trans- literation which a finer scholarship is rapidly introducing. The author is fully conscious of this shortcoming, which, however, shall be thoroughly eliminated in a final revised edition of the entire work. Z. A. R. PRINCIPAL DATES GIVEN IN THIS VOLUME. Battle of Megiddo (Defeat of Josiah of Judah by Necho II. of Egypt) 6og B.C. Battle of Karkhemish (Defeat of Necho II. by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon) 605 ' ' First Taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar . 597 " Destruction of Jerusalem and Beginning of Cap- tivity 586 " Battle of the Eclipse (between Alyattes of Lydia AND KYAXARES of MeDIA) 585 " Death of Kyaxares 584 " Death of Nebuchadrezzar 561 ' Fall of the Median Empire (Astyages, son of Kyaxares, Dethroned by Kyros, King of An- shan and Persia) 549 " Conquest of Lydia by Kyros 546 " Conquest of Babylon by Kyros and End of Jew- ish Captivity 539 " Death of Kyros the Great 529 " Kambyses, son of Kyros 529-522 " Battle of Pelusion and Conquest of Egypt . . 525 " Dareios I., SON OF Hystaspes 522-485 " (522-515, Civil Wars ; 515-508, Years of Peace ; 508-485, Foreign Wars). Battle of Marathon 490 ' THE STORY OF MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. I. A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL : THE PARSIS. — ANQUETIL DUPERRON. I. Among the so-called heathen religions which still claim for their own more than one half of man- kind, there is none of greater interest and impor- tance than that of the Parsis, more generally known under the graphic but misleading name of " Fire- Worshippers." It is certainly not from their num- bers this sect derive that interest and importance, for in that respect they form an almost imperceptible unit in the general sum. The entire number of Parsis now living scarcely, if at all, exceeds 100,000, which represents about one in fourteen thousand of the earth's population. But, small as that frag- ment of humanity is, it is a chip from one of the world's noblest and mightiest nations, the PERSIANS of old, a nation which, though not extinct, and still counted as one of the greater political powers of the East, has degenerated beyond recognition under the 2 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. influence of foreign conquest, enforced change of re- ligion, and mixture of races. And the religion which these exiled descendants of the ancient Persians have preserved along with purity of race and time- honored customs, is that of ancient Eran, the old and widely spread faith, the prophet of which, Spitama Zarathushtra, was vaguely known and reverenced by the writers of Greek and Roman antiquity, as well as by the later scholars of Europe, under the name of ZOROASTER. 2. It is customary to sweep under the head " Heathen Religions " all except the three great Semitic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam- ism, or the religion of Mohammed. It is doubtful how far so comprehensive a designation may be cor- rect in individual instances. In that of the Parsis, at least, it appears decidedly rash, since they earnest- ly, emphatically profess the worship of the one true God, and a horror of any kind of polytheism — a form of belief which, surely, should win them a place among monotheists, as must be shown by a brief re- view of their religious tenets and practices. 3. It was in the year 641 A.D. that the Arab in- vaders, in the heyday of their fervor for the faith of which their prophet Mohammed had taught them to consider themselves the heaven-sent bearers, won the battle, (on the field of Nehavend, fifty miles from ancient Ecbatana), which changed the destinies of Eran, and turned its people, dreaded and victorious for four centuries under their last national kings, the SasSANIAN dynasty, into a conquered, enslaved, and for a long time ruthlessly oppressed and ill-treated A NOTABLE J^ELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. 3 population. Yezdegerd III., the last Sassanian king, was murdered on his flight, for plunder, and no effort was made to retrieve the lost fortunes of that terrible day, with which closed an heroic struggle of over eight years ; the country's energies were broken. 4. It was but natural that the religion of the van- quished should be the first object of persecution at the hands of victors whose wars and conquests were all prompted by religious fanaticism. The Persian clergy were persecuted, their temples desecrated and destroyed, their sacred books likewise, and the faithful followers of the ancient national creed sub- jected to so many indignities and extortions as to make existence not only burdensome, but wellnigh impossible. They were made to pay ruinous extra taxes, were excluded from all offices, frojrn all par- ticipation in public life, and, worst of all, very nearly deprived of the protection of the law, at all events systematically denied justice or redress whenever they applied for either against a Mussulman. Their property, their lives, their honor, thus were com- pletely at the mercy of the insolent and grasping foreign rulers. From so many and unbearable ills, the only escape lay in embracing the faith of these rulers, doing homage to Mohammed, and abjuring all their own traditions, beliefs, and practices. By this one act they could step at once from the state of down-trodden slaves to a condition if not of equality with their masters, at least of well-protected subjects. It is no wonder that apostasy became rife in the land. Compulsory conversion, however, is scarcely likely to be sincere, and we may take it 4 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. for granted that the first generations of new-made Mussulmans were so only in self-defence and in outer form. Not so their descendants. Habit and asso- ciations gradually endeared to them the faith in which, unlike their fathers, they were born and bred, and at the present moment there are no more zeal- ous followers of the Arab prophet than the Persians. 5. But even at the time of the wholesale con- version of the country to Islamism, which was an accomplished fact in less than two hundred years after the conquest, great numbers preferred every hardship to apostasy. Only, as life under such con- ditions had become unendurable at home, the vast majority of these took the desperate resolution of going into exile, to seek some place of refuge in foreign lands, where they would be tolerated as harmless guests, and suffered to practise their re- ligion unmolested. A small remnant only stayed, lacking the courage to sever all old ties and go forth into absolute uncertainty, and of this remnant the fate was most pitiful. '' In the tenth century of the Christian era," says a distinguished modern Parsi writer,* " remnants of the Zoroastrian population were to be found only in the provinces of Fars and Kerman ; and the reader will have an idea of the rate at which that remnant has declined even in recent times, when it is stated that, while about a hundred and fifty years ago it numbered one hundred thou- sand souls, it does not at present exceed seven or eight thousand." * Dosabhai Framji Karaka, in his " History of the Parsis," Lon- don, 1884. A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVLVAL. 5 6. The self-exiled Zoroastrians fared better. After wandering for many years somewhat at random, stop- ping at various places, but not attempting any per- manent settlement until they effected a descent on the western coast of India, they reached at last the peninsula of GujERAT (or Guzerat), where they were hospitably received by the reigning Hindu prince, after they had agreed to some by no means onerous conditions : they were to lay down their arms, to give an account of the religion they pro- fessed, to adopt the language of the country, to conform to some of its customs. From this time forth and through several centuries the Zoroastrian exiles, who now began to be called Parsis, prospered greatly. Deprived of arms, and with no call to use them had they retained them, they settled into the thrifty, intelligent, industrious ways which charac- terize them at the present day. Agriculture and commerce became their favorite pursuits, and as they were in no way repressed or restrained, they began to spread even as far as Upper India (the Penjab). Then, about 1300 A.D., they were once more driven forth homeless, by a Mussulman in- vasion, which ended in the conquest of Gujerat. This time, however, they did not stray far, but betook themselves to Navsari and SOrat near the coast, where they came in contact with Euro- peans, to the great furtherance of their commercial interests. It was undoubtedly this new commer- cial intercourse which drew them southwards, to the great centre of the western coast, the city of Bombay, where we find them as early as about MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. 1650 A.D., just before the transfer of the city and territory from the Portuguese to the EngHsh crown. The Presidency of Bombay with its capital has since become the head-quarters of the Parsis, whose num- bers in this part of the country and the whole of India amount to something over 85,500. 7. It has always been known in Europe that the Parsis, or Gebers, ["infidels," as the Mussulmans con- temptuously call them), followed a religion of which the most peculiar and striking outer feature was the honor paid to fire; that they had sacred fires kept burning always in chapels, and that when they moved from place to place they car- ried these fires with them. It was, naturally enough, in- -ferred that Fire was their deity, their god ; and the name of " Fire-Worshippers " was universally bestowed on them. Only a scholarly few had a deeper and more cor- rect perception of what was to the mass an absurd super- stition, and knew that the Parsis did not worship fire as a deity, but admired and honored it as the pure- est and most perfect emblem of the Deity.* They * The Parsi writer quoted above, in vindicating his brethren from the charge of heathenism, very aptly cites the words of Bishop Meu- rin, the head of the Roman Catholics of Bombay : " A pure and un- i. a parsi gentleman (modern). A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. also knew that the Parsis believe in a number of spiritual beings who take care of the world under the orders and supervision of the Creator, in six spirits more exalted still and partaking in their essence of some of the Divine qualities, also in the existence and power of sainted souls, and that they invoke all these beings in prayer somewhat as the Roman and Orien- tal churches do angels, archangels, and saints. Lastly, scholars knew that the Parsis professed to follow strictly and undeviatingly the law of Zoroaster, as it was handed down from their ancestors be- fore the conquest, the Per- sians of the Sassanian period, who were, in their turn, said to have received it from re- mote antiquity. Now these assertions are strongly con- firmed by a great many pas- sages from Greek and Roman writers of various times, whose accounts (fragmentary ~^^— as they are) of the beliefs 2- a parsi lady (modern). and religious practices of the Persians as they knew them in their time, agree remarkably with the beliefs and practices of the modern Parsis. The name of Zoroaster, too, is mentioned by many classical authors, vaguely, it is true, and with many defiled flame is certainly the most sublime natural representation of Him who is in Himself Eternal Light." 8 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. contradictions, but always with reverence, as one coupled with much holiness and mystery. It was, therefore, generally understood among the learned : 1st. That the Parsis must possess sacred books of great antiquity, containing and expounding the laws of one of the oldest and most remarkable religions in the world ;*2d. That it would be extremely desira- ble, in the interests of historical and religious re- search, to gain access to these books, and, if possi- ble, to secure copies of them for the great European libraries. 8. Both these points were partially settled by the happy chance which, in the beginning of the last century, put an English traveller and scholar, George BouRCHIER, in possession of a manu- script, which he obtained from Parsi priests dur- ing a visit to Surat. It contained the VendidAd Sadeh, i. c, a compilation of prayers and hymns, in the order in which they are recited at religious ser- vices, and was deposited at Oxford. More manu- scripts followed, until towards the middle of the century that great university owned a nearly com- plete collection. But what was the use, when there was no one to read them? The very characters were unknown, and there seemed but little prospect that the puzzle should ever be solved. 9. Fortunately four pages traced from one of the Oxford manuscripts found their way to Paris, and there happened to meet the eye of a young Oriental student, Anquetil DuperroN. Ambitious, eager- minded, and scarcely twenty-two, he saw in this a hint of fate, a great work, worthy of all his energies A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. 9 and enthusiasm, given into his hand ; in short, that most desirable of boons — an object in hfe. " I at once resolved to endow my country with this pecul- iar piece of literature," he says. " I dared to form the design of translating it, and determined to go to the East with that object in view, and learn the an- cient Persian language in Gujerat or Kerman." Be- longing to a noble family, he could command the influence of high-placed friends, and might, in time, have obtained an appointment at one of the count- ing-houses of the French East-India Company. But such a roundabout way and its inevitable delays ill- suited with his youthful impatience, and, taking counsel of no one, he committed the reckless step of engaging as a private in the service of the Com- pany, which was sending out a batch of recruits, just to secure an immediate passage. Only when all the arrangements were completed did he inform his elder brother of what he had done, and, unmoved by his dismay and tearful entreaties, marched out with his company one raw November morning of the year 1754- 10. Enterprising and brave to foolhardiness as Anquetil was, from temperament, from national bent, and from the buoyancy which belongs to ex- treme youth, it is .just possible that he might not have embarked in such blind wise on his adventur- ous errand, had he quite known the number and. the nature of the hardships which he was rushing to meet, even though they were greatly mitigated for him by the exertions of his friends, who obtained from the government his discharge from military lO MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. service, a small pension, and pron:iise of further assistance even before he left his native soil. The good news reached him at L'Orient, the seaport from which the recruits were to be shipped, and he stepped on board the vessel in February, 1755, a free man. It was well for him that it fell out so ; for as we read his account of the voyage and of the share of suffering which fell to him as one of the ofTficers* mess, we ask ourselves with a shudder what would have been his fate had he been counted among the wretched rabble of vagabonds, criminals, and scamps of every description, the scum of prisons and regi- ments, which made up the Company's soldiery, and were housed, fed, and generally treated accordingly, on a six months' voyage, mostly on tropical seas. II. Nothing can be more entertaining and in- structive, at times more fascinating and thrilling, than Anquetil's own detailed narrative of his long wanderings and manifold adventures. The book is but little read nowadays. We accept the results of a great man's self-devotion, and care little to recall at what cost those results were obtained. Yet there are surely some good lessons to be drawn from the career of men whom we see giving up home, friends, prospects in life, for the sake of knowledge, pursuing this, to the great mass of men, most unsubstantial of goods, at the risk of life and health, grudging neither time nor money, or, far more frequently still, working for it without any money, by sheer personal exertion and perseverance, in the face of appalling privation and hardships, and considering themselves repaid beyond any wealth if they succeed in securing A NO 7^ ABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. II even but a portion of the knowledge they sought. Such men there have always been ; such men there are now, many of them. They work, they succeed, they suffer, — they die, too, more of them than the world knows of, victims of their enthusiasm and self-devotion ; witness George Smith,* witness the two Lenormants, father and son, Charles and Fran- cois, and so many others, all smitten in harness by cruel diseases contracted in distant and uncongenial climes, at their noble tasks. Anquetil Duperron was emphatically one of the heroic band. Few suffered as many and varied ills, and if he lived to achieve and enjoy, it was solely owing to an exceptionally vigorous constitution. 12. He was absent seven years. But there was no time lost. When he re-entered Paris, early in 1762, he was barely thirty. The most arduous and adven- turous part of his task lay behind him, successfully achieved, and before him — the best years of his manhood, to be devoted to comparatively easy and certainly pleasant work: — that of translating the several books which formed the body of Parsi Scrip- ture, and became generally, though incorrectly, known under the name of Zend-Avesta. This translation, accompanied by a detailed narrative of his varied wanderings and experiences, was laid be- fore the public as early as 1771, in three quarto vol- umes bearing the lengthy but exhaustive title : " Zend-Avesta, the Work of Zoroaster — Contain- ing the Theological, Physical, atid Moral Ideas of that Lawgiver, the Ceremonies of the Religions Worship Es- * See " Story of Chaldea," pp. 102-105. 12 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA, tablishcdby Jnin, and Several Import ant Traits Bearing on the Ancient History of the Persians^ The manu- scripts from which he worked had already be-en de- posited in the Royal Library. He had therefore fully redeemed the vow to which he pledged himself seventeen years before on first beholding the puz- zling pot-hooks on the Oxford tracing, and now waited anxiously and with natural curiosity to see the impression which his labors would produce on the scholarly world of Europe. 13. Here he was doomed to an unlooked-for and disheartening experience. True, there was here and there a little burst of enthusiasm, but the large ma- jority of scholars held aloof, uncertain and bewil- dered, while the English scholars, partly moved thereto by personal feeling against the author, who had been guilty of some very ill-tempered and un- warrantable attacks on the University of Oxford, took a decided hostile stand. Their spokesman was William Jones, then a very young man, but al- ready distinguished as a linguist and Orientalist, who published in French an anonymous ^' Letter to Mr. A- du P " in the form of a pamphlet. Though so abusive as to be decidedly in bad taste, it was very clever, and the French was so perfect that it was some time before the nationality of the writer was suspected. Jones simply accused the elder scholar of forgery, or else of a credulity pass- ing all reasonable bounds. He objected that the WTitings, presented to the world as the works of one of the greatest thinkers of all ages, half the time — to use a homely expression, — " didn't make sense," A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. 1 3 and when they did, were insufferably stupid and prosy. " Though the whole college of Gebers were to assert it," he says, " we should never believe that even the least clever of charlatans could have writ- ten the nonsense with which your two last volumes arc filled. , . . Either Zoroaster was devoid of common-sense, or he did not write the book you at- tribute to him. If the first, you should have left him to obscurity ; if he did not write the book, it was impudent to publish it under his name. You have then either insulted the public by offering them worthless stuff, or cheated them by palming off false- hoods on them, and in both cases you deserve their contempt." On this theme the changes were rung for years with little variety and less good-breeding. " The least reason I shall offer " (for rejecting the authenticity of the book) " is the uncommon stu- pidity of the work itself," is the verdict of another English scholar. 14. Time and more advanced scholarship have vindicated the memory of Anquetil Duperron. They have long ago assigned to him his true place, established the great and real worth of the work he did, and also its shortcomings. For though it would enter nobody's head nowadays to deny the authen- ticity of the books he undertook to translate, his rendering of them is so faulty, carried out on such altogether wrong principles, as to be utterly un- available—the monument at once of a great achieve- ment and a great failure. He had neither the right method nor the right tools. He trusted entirely to his instructors, the Parsi Desturs, or high-priests, and 14 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. their word-for-word translations into modern Persian, never dreaming how unreliable their knowledge was. He was aware, indeed, that the mass of the Parsis hear and recite their sacred texts parrot-wise, without understanding or deeming it needful to understand a single word of them, satisfied with scrupulously performing the ceremonies and rites of the worship they were taught. But he was told that on their higher clergy rested the obligation to study the ancient dead languages of their race, so as to hand down from generation to generation the sense and spirit of their religious law as well as its outer forms. How could he suspect that, in carrying the vessel, they had spilt most of the contents, and that their main-stay was a thread of tradition, continuous, in- deed, but growing more and more corrupt and unreliable? So he wrote down every word in mod- ern Persian, as his Desturs gave it, then rendered that literally into French, and — to do his opponents justice — half the time it did 7iot " make sense." 15. Thus it seemed as though one puzzle had only been exchanged for another, scarcely less hopeless. A great and clear mind w^s needed to disentangle it and carry on the work which had been dropped from sheer inability to grasp it. Such a mind turned up only sixty years later, in the person of another French Orientalist, EUGENE BURNOUF. He thought he saw his way to a more correct understanding of the Parsi sacred books, by means of a more rational and exhaustive method, and although the experiment really lay outside of his special line of studies, he undertook it, more to open the road for others and A NOTABLE RELIGIOUS SURVIVAL. 1 5 " show them how," than with a viev/ to follow it to the end himself. True, he brought to the task a tool which Anquetil had lacked — a perfect knowl- edge of Sanskrit, the most ancient surviving language of the Aryans of India and the sister tongue of that in which the so called Zoroastrian books were origi- nally written. Curiously enough, this tool, which was the means of establishing Anquetil's claim to honor and recognition, even while exposing his shortcom- ings, was in a measure supplied by his bitter foe and detractor, Sir William Jones; for it was this great scholar who, being called to India to fill a high offi- cial position, first took up the study of the classical language of ancient India himself, and inspired his fellow-workers and subordinates with the same en- thusiasm, earning for himself the title of founder of those Sanskrit studies which were to become so principal a branch of the then dawning science of Comparative Philology. The great likeness which was discovered between the ancient languages of the Aryans of India and of Eran suggested to Burnouf that by bringing to bear Sanskrit scholarship on the Eranian texts, the traditional but mostly unint^i- gent rendering of the Parsi Desturs might be con-^^ trolled and corrected, and a closer comprehension of their Scriptures attained than they could at all achieve. One chapter was all he worked out accord- ing to this plan. But on what scale and with what thoroughness the research was conducted, is shown by the fact that it fills a quarto volume of eight hun- dred pages.* * " Commentaire sur le Yafna," published in 1S33-35. l6 MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. 16. All the work that has since been done on this field was carried out aIon