■■r^^ 
 
 ■— HTT^i^* . ^IW^^ 
 
 ■^THYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PROVINCE OF ASSAM. 
 
 {Reprinted from the Report on the Administration of the Province of Assam 
 for the year 1892-93, and published by authority.) 
 
 SHILLONG : 
 PRINTED AT THE ASSAM SECRETARIAT PRINTING OFFICE, 
 
 1896. 
 
 Price—One Rupee. 
 
 ''-'~- ^ - -"^-
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 PROVINCE OF, ASSAM, 
 
 (Raprinted from the Report on the Administration of the Province of Assam 
 for the year i8g2-gj, and published by authority.) 
 
 SHILLONG : 
 PRINTED AT THE ASSAM SECRETARIAT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1896. 
 
 Price— One Rupee.
 
 * 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 rUlNTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF TEE ASSxVM 
 BEOEETAEIAT PKINIINQ OFFICE.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE 
 
 COUNTRY, AREA, CLIMATE, AND 
 
 CHIEF STAPLES. 
 
 Pass 
 
 Section 1. Area and Boundaries, and 
 
 Physical Features ... 1 
 
 „ 2. Geological Features ... 10 
 
 ,, 3. Climate ... 18 
 
 „ 4. Chief Staples ... 2a_ 
 
 „ 5. Commercial Staples ... 31 
 
 ,, 6. Manufactures ... 44 
 
 „ 7. Trade and Commerce .,. 47 
 
 ,, 8. Mines and Minerals ... 53 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 Section 1. Assam Proper ■ ... 62 
 
 „ 2. Godlp5ra ... 75 
 
 „ 3. Cachar ... 77 
 
 „ 4. Sylhet and Jaintia ... 80 
 
 „ 5. The Hill Districts ... 82 
 
 „ 6. Formation of the Chief 
 
 Commissionership ... 97 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 Bection 1. General Administrative 
 
 System and StaflE ,.. 99 
 
 „ 2. Legislative Authority ... 110 
 
 „ 3. Education ... 112 
 
 „ 4. Immigration and Labour 
 
 Inspection ... ... 120 
 
 Page 
 
 Section 5. Public Works ... 133 
 
 „ G. Local Self-Government.. 138 
 „ 7. Finance ... ... 144 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CHARACTER OF LAND TENURES 
 _ AND SYSTEM OF SETTLEMENT 
 AND SURVEY. 
 
 Section 1. Land Tenures ... 154 
 
 „ 2. Waste Land Tenures ... 167 
 
 ,, 3. System of Survey and 
 
 Settlement ... 172 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CIVIL DIVISIONS OF BRITISH 
 TERRITORY. 
 
 Civil Divisions of British Territory' 181 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 
 Details of the Last Census ... 186 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FRONTIER RELATIONS AND 
 FEUDATORY STATES. 
 
 Frontier Relations and Feudatory 
 
 States 
 
 207 
 
 31J4i>2l 
 
 '^M^:
 
 Physical and Political Geography. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Physical Features of the Country, Area, Climate, and Chief 
 
 Staples. 
 
 SECTION l.—AREA AND BOUNDARIES AND PHYSICAL 
 
 FEATURES, 
 
 1. The Province of Assam lies on tlie north-east border of 
 
 Bengal, on the extreme frontier of the Indian ^^ 
 
 Area and boundaries. . ^ 7 
 
 Empire, with Bhutan and Thibet beyond it Bo7,ndalies 
 on the north, and Burma and Manipur on the east. It comprises p.""*^ 
 the whole of the valley of the Brahmaputra down to the point Features. 
 where that river, emero-inor on the Benf^^al delta, takes a sudden 
 southward curve, and the greater portion of the valley of the 
 Surma, nearly to the junction of that stream with the great estuary 
 of the Me^ma, too^ether with the intervening? rancre of hills which 
 forms the watershed between them. It lies between latitude 28° 18^ 
 and 23° 1 5' North, and longitude 89° 46' and 97° 4' East, and contains 
 an area of 49,004 square miles, of which 28,755 square miles are 
 plain and 20,249 square miles are hilly country.* The immediate 
 boundaries of the province are, on the north Independent Bhutan, 
 a tract inhabited by Bhutias under the direct Government of Lhassa, 
 
 « These figures represent the area of the plains and hill districts, respectively, the 
 North Cachar subdivision being treated for this purpose as a hill district. The real 
 plains area is somewhat greater, as a portion of the Garo Hills district (473 square n)iles) 
 is plain and so also a small part of the Naga and the KhAsi and Jaintia Hills districts. 
 On the other hand, it must be remembered that the area classed above as plain includes 
 the Mikir Hills in Nowgong, and also some low ranges of hills in the south of the Cachar 
 and Sj'lhet districts. 
 
 The North Lushui Hills are not included in these figures, as, although that tract of 
 country is now practically part of Assam, it has not yet been actually formed intoa district 
 and incorporated in the ordinary adiniuistratiun of the province. An account of this 
 tract and of its occupation will be found in Chapter VII. 
 
 B
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Section i. knowii as Towang, and a range of sub-Himalaj^an hills, inhabited, 
 Ai^nd first by two small races of Blmtia origin, who are believed to be 
 
 ^""'atd'" independent, and further eastwards by the savage tribes of Akas, 
 Physical Daflas, Miris, Abors, and Mislnnis ; on the north-east the Mishmi 
 
 Features. j 7 ? -yt n 
 
 Hills, which sweep round the head of the Brahmaputra Valley > 
 (•n the east the Pdtkoi range, the intervening ranges, inhabited 
 clr.efly by -".arious tribes of Niigas, and the Native State of Mani- 
 pur ; on the south the Lushai Hills, Hill Tippera, and the Bengal 
 district of Tippera ; on the west the Bengal districts of Mymensingh 
 and Eangpur, and the Native State of Kuch Bihar, 
 
 2. Assam Proper, or the valley of the Brahmaputra, is an 
 alluvial plain, about 450 miles in length, with 
 Brahmaputra Valley. ^^ average breadth of about 50 miles, lying 
 almost east and west in its lower portion, but in its upper half 
 trendino- somewhat to the north-east. To the north is the main 
 chain- of the Himalayas, the lower ranges of which rise abruptly 
 from the plain ; to the south is the great elevated plateau, or 
 succession of plateaux, known as the Assam Eange, much broken 
 at its eastern and western extremities and along its northern face, 
 but in its central portion, from the eastern border of the Gdro 
 Hills to the watershed of the Dhansiri, a region of table land 
 and rolling uplands. The various portions of this range are called 
 by the names of the tribes who inhabit them, — the Gdro, the 
 Khdsi, the Jaintia, the North Cacliar, and the Ndga Hills. At 
 several points on the southern side of the valley the hills of the 
 Assam Eange abut on the river, and at GoAlpdra, Gaulidti, and 
 Tezpur it has spurs belonging to this group on the north, as well 
 as on the south bank. The broadest part of the valley is 
 where the river divides the districts of Sibsdgar and Lakhimpur, 
 below wdiich the isolated block of the Mikir Hills to the south (a 
 mass of mountains cut off from the main Assam Eange by the 
 valleys of the Dhansiri, Ldngpher, and Jamuna rivers), and the pro- 
 jecting Rroup of the Dafla Hills to the north suddenly contract it. 
 Forty miles lower down it widens out, but at the lower end of the 
 Nowgong district it is again encroached upon by the Khdsi Hills, 
 among the spurs of which the river makes its way in front of the
 
 C^aP" ^'] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 station of Gaulidti, and it is almost completely shut in just to the SEc;Tio>f i. 
 west of that town, below the temple-crowned hill of Nildchal or Area and 
 Kamdkhyil, where the stream is not 1,000 yards broad. Beyond ^'"'^f^Y''' 
 this point the hills recede again, and the mountains do not approc.ch p'j^i][lfg 
 the Brahmaputra until the station of GotUpara, situated on a spur 
 of the Garo Hills, is reached. Here, at the confluence of the IManas 
 and between the rocks of Jogighopa and Pagla Tek, is the 
 *' ^^^^ Q^ A ssam," to the east of which Assamese is spoken, and 
 to the west of it Bengali. Beyond this point the valley again 
 widens, and at Dhubri opens out into the great delta ofjBengal. 
 3. Throughout its course the Brahmaputra receives a vast 
 number of affluents, great and small, from 
 The Brahmaputra ami ^|^^ i^ijjg ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^ g^^d south. The greater 
 
 Its amuerits. o 
 
 of the northern streams are snow-fed, while 
 those from the south (except the Dihing) depend upon the annual 
 rains for their volume, and shrink to small dimensions in the dry 
 season. On the north the chief tributaries of the Brahmaputra 
 are the Dibong, Dihong, Subausi'ri, Bhoroli, Bornadi, and Manc4s ; 
 on the south the greater affluents are the new and old Dihings, the 
 Disang, the Disoi, and the Dhansiri. A short distance below the 
 junction of the last named a considerable body of water separates 
 itself from the Brahmaputra, and, under the name of the Kallang, 
 goes on a tortuous course through the Nowgong district, rejoining 
 the main stream about 10 miles above Gauhdti. The Kallang 
 receives, in the Kopili, the whole drainage of the North Cachar 
 and the Jaintia Hills, besides several minor streams from the Kht'isi 
 Hills. Below Gauhdti, the Kulsi and the Jinjiram are the chief 
 southern affluents of the Brahmaputra. 
 
 The Dihong, which emerges from the Himalayas through tlie 
 hills inhabited by the Abors, has been proved by Mr. Needham to 
 be the same stream as the Sanpo, the eastward course of whicli, 
 along the north of the great Himalayan barrier, has been traced 
 by explorers to a point where it turns southwards into the range. 
 The Brahmaputra itself, so far as is known, has but a short course 
 beyond the limits of British territory, and above Sadiya is far 
 
 inferior in volume to the Dihong. 
 
 b2
 
 4 ASSAM ADMINISTHATION REPOHT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section i. Except at the points already mentioned, ■where hills impinge 
 
 Area and iipon the Bralimaputra, the river flows between sandy banks, 
 
 and which are subject to constant changes for a breadth of about 6 
 
 Physical j-^-^jjgg qj^ either side of the stream. Within this belt there is no 
 
 Features. 
 
 permanent cultivation, nor any habitation but temporary huts 
 erected by people who grow mustard on the chur lands during the 
 cold weather. Beyond, the level of the alluvium rises, and tillage 
 and population take the place of sandy flats covered with long 
 grass. Little of this is seen from the river, and the traveller up 
 the Brahmaputra receives the impression that the country is a 
 wilderness untenanted by man, except at the few points where, 
 rock giving permanency to the channel, towns and villages have 
 been established along the stream. These points are Dliubri, the 
 capital of the Goalpdra district, Godlptira, GauhAti, the capital of 
 Kdmrup, Tezpur, the capital of Darrang, Koliabar, the port for 
 Nowgong, from which it is distant 32 miles, and Biswanath, in the 
 Darrang district. Between the last named place and Sadiya, close 
 to the point where the river emerg£s from the hills, a distance of 
 about 200 miles, there is no tov;n or large village on the banks, 
 Golaghat being 20 miles, Jorhiit 10, Sibsdgar 8, and Dibrugarh 5, 
 away from the cold-weather channel. Proceeding inland from the 
 belt just described, through which the river flows, one fine's a 
 country consisting mainly of alluvial flats, much of which is un- 
 tilled and covered with long grass, and in the eastern portion of 
 the valley with forest, but much also is under cultivation. The 
 most thickly populated part of the valley is North Kamrup ; the 
 most thinly, Darrang, west of Tezpur, Lakhimpur, north of the 
 Brahmaputra, and the forests in the extreme east and south of the 
 latter district. To the peopled belt on either side of the valley 
 succeeds another where population again falls off, and extensive 
 forests and grass savannahs reach to the foot of the hills on the 
 north and south. The Brahmaputra is navigable by large steamers 
 as far as Dibrugarh throughout the year, and by smaller vessels as 
 far as Sadiya. Many of its affluents are also navigable in the rains 
 by steamers, and at all seasons by boats of small burthen. 
 
 4. The southern, or Surma, valley, which constitutes the second
 
 ^*^^P' '-^ PHYSICAL FEATrRES, ETC. 
 
 Features. 
 
 main division of the province, and comprises the two districts Section r. 
 The Sunna Vail.y. °^ Cachar and Sylliet, presents many points A^and 
 
 of contrast with that of the Brahmaputra ^'^"'"'r'" 
 It IS much smalJer in extent, covering only 7,886 sc^uare miles, P'^y^icni 
 against 20,8G9 m the latter. This,' however, excludes a portion 
 of it which lies south of the Garo Hills and east of the old Brahma- 
 putra, and which, though geographically a part of the Surma 
 Valley, is not included in the Province of Assam, but forms part 
 of the Bengal district of Mymensingh. Its mean elevation above 
 sea level is much lower, the cold-weather zero of the Surma at 
 Sylhet being only 22-7 feet above the sea, while that of the 
 Brahmaputra at Gauhati is 148*36 feet. The course of the nume- 
 rous rivers which traverse it is thus exceedingly sluggish, while 
 the stream of the Brahmaputra is swift. While the latter river 
 hurries rapidly along, through a waste of sandy churs, making and 
 unmaking its banks year by year, the rivers of the Surma Valley 
 find their way to the great estuary of the Megna by extremely 
 tortuous channels, the banks of which, reinforced by the annual 
 deposition of silt, are the highest ground in the alluvial area, 
 and as such are the most populous and best cultivated portions. 
 To the north of the valley stands the steep face of the Khasi and 
 Jaintia Hills, the plateau of which rises very abruptly from the 
 plain to a height of 4,000 feet, the table land presenting, when 
 seen from Sylhet, an almost level line. Near the eastern boundary 
 of Sylhet, the plateau recedes into the interior of the hills, and 
 a new barrier, the angular and serrated range of the Barail, 
 or " Great Dyke," takes its place as the northern boundary of 
 the valley. This range gradually increases in height and pre- 
 cipitous character as one proceeds eastwards, and at the eastern 
 extremity of Cachar takes a curve to the north-east, thereafter 
 forming the main axis of the Ndga Hills, and eventually merging 
 in the Pdtkoi. To the east the valley is shut in by the mountains 
 of Manipur, a continuation of the succession of parallel ridges, lying 
 north and south, into which the Arrakan Yoma range divides 
 as it approaches the Himalayas. On the south also these parallel 
 ridges extend for some distance into the alluvial plain, gradually
 
 6 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section i. retreating as the river emerges from Cacliar into Sylliet, but still 
 Ar7a~Ind preserving their uniform meridional direction, until the Bengal 
 Boundaries ^T^i^^^.^^^ ^f Tippera is readied. 
 
 ana ^ ^ 
 
 Physical Tlirougliout tliis great alluvial plain, except in the western 
 
 portion adjoining Mymensingh, the surface is broken by frequent 
 groups of isolated hills of small height, called tilas. These may 
 be regarded as continuations below the alluvium of the southern 
 rano-es of Tippera and the Lushai Hills. The most notable are 
 the groups about Chhatak and north of Sylliet, and the Chiknagul 
 hills in Jaintia. In Cachar, the ridges from the south touch the 
 Surma, or Bardk, at Badarpur and at the northern end of the Tilain 
 ran^e, and many isolated hills rise throughout that district, chiefly 
 to the south of the river. Except where the tilas and the southern 
 rano-es project, the whole valley is a vast deltaic expanse, covered 
 with a perplexing network of sluggish streams, and liable to deep 
 floodin.cf in the rains. The highest ground is on the river banks, 
 from which the surface slopes backward into great hollows, 
 called haurs, all of which are lakes, some of great extent, in the 
 rains, and in the greater of which water lies in some part through- 
 out the cold season. In the deeply-flooded but populous country 
 to the west, the villages are built on artificially-raised sites along the 
 river margins, and the ground which is thus obtained is so precious 
 that the houses are crowded together in a manner very unhke the 
 straggling aspect of a village in Assam. 
 
 5. The Surma, or Barak, river rises in the Bardil range to the 
 north of Manipur. Its sources are among the 
 
 The Surma river. 
 
 southern spurs or the great mountain mass 
 called Jiipvo, on the northern slopes of which are situated the most 
 powerful villages of the Anganii Ndgas. Thence its course is 
 south, with a slight westerly bearing, among the Manipur hills, 
 where it receives numerous tributaries befoi^e entering British 
 territory. At Tipaimukh, the trij unction point of Manipur, Cachar, 
 and the Lushai Hills, it turns sharply to the north, and, after, 
 emer^in"- from the Bhuban range near Lakhipur, takes a very 
 tortuous course, with a generally westward direction, through, 
 the district. A short distance below Badarpur, on the western
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL TEATURES, ETC. 
 
 Features. 
 
 boundary of Cacliar, it divides into two branches, the northern of Section t. 
 which is known as the Surma, and (lows westwards, more or less, ArTT^nd 
 closely under the Khtisi Hills, having on its banks the important Boundaries 
 centres of Sylhet and Chhdtak, till it turns southwards at Sundm- Physical 
 ganj ; the southern, called at first the Kusiara, has a south-westerly 
 direction, and near the confluence of the Manu river from the 
 south again divides into two branches, the southern of which 
 reassumes the original name of the whole river, Barak, and, 
 passing by the towns of Nabiganj and Habiganj, rejoins the Surma 
 a short distance to the west of the latter place. The other arm 
 called first the Bibidna and afterwards the Kalni, also rejoins the 
 Surma, north of the confluence of the Barak, at Abidabad. 
 
 The chief affluents of the Surma on the north, after it enters 
 British territory, are the Jiri and Jatinga from the North Cachar 
 Hills, the Luba, Hari, Piytiin, Bogapdni, and Jadukata, from the 
 Jaintia and Khasi Hills, and the Maheshkali from the Gc4ro Hills. 
 On the south it receives the Sonai, Dhaleswari, and Katakhal from 
 the Lusliai Hills, and (in its southern branch, tlie Kusiara-Banik) 
 the Langai, Juri, Manu, and Khwdhi from the Tippera Hills. At 
 Bhairab Bc4zar, in Mymensingh, 20 miles below the Sylhet 
 frontier at Lakhai, it unites with the old Brahmaputra, and 
 becomes known thenceforward as the Megna. The Surma is 
 navigable by steamers as far as Silchar in the rains ; in the cold 
 weather, however, these vessels do not ascend above Chhatak 
 on the northern and Fenchuganj on the southern branch. Boats 
 of considerable burthen traverse the whole river system as far 
 as Banskandi, east of Silchar, throughout the year, and in the 
 rains are the most usual vehicle of traffic. 
 
 6. The hilly tracts included in the Province of Assam consist 
 
 The Hill tracts. ^^ ^^® Assam Eange, which is interposed 
 
 The Assam Range. between the BrahmajDutra and Surma Valleys, 
 
 the North Lushai Hills, and the ridges, o-ene- 
 
 rally of low elevation, w^hich run northward from Hill Tippera 
 
 and the Lushai Hills into the Surma Valley. No part of the 
 
 Himalayas fall within British territory. These hilly tracts have 
 
 already been summarily described. The remarkable plateau of
 
 Features. 
 
 8 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Section i. tlie Gdro-Khdsi-Nortli-Cacliar Hills, wliicli, with the sharply- 
 Area and seiTated range of the BarAil and its spurs, constitutes the Assam 
 
 ^"^'^and^^^ Eange, is joined at its eastern extremity by the Pdtkoi to the 
 Physical Himalayan system, and by the mountains of Manipur to the Arra- 
 kan Yoma. At its western end, in the Gdro Hills, it attains an 
 elevation of more than 4,G00 feet in the peak of Nokrek, above 
 Tura, but falls again before the Khdsi boundary is reached. The 
 highest points of the Khdsi- Jaintia table land are the Shillong Peak, 
 6,450 feet, the Dincryei, 6,077, Kdbleng, 6,283, and Suer, 6,300 ; 
 but these are only the most elevated portions of a plateau, hardly 
 any portion of which falls below 6,000 feet, and which is all 
 inhabited and cultivated. To the east the level again falls, the 
 hin-hest summits not much exceedingr 5,000 feet in the Jaintia Hills, 
 and considerably less in the Cacliar Hills north of the Barail. 
 The latter range, commencing on the south-east margin of the 
 Khdsi-Jaintia plateau, where the Hari river issues from the hills, 
 rises by sudden leaps to a considerable height, and among the 
 hills bordering the Jatinga Valley summits of from 5,000 to 6,000 
 feet are found. The range then curves north-eastwards, and 
 attains a still greater height, where it forms the boundary between 
 the Naga Hills district and the State of Manipur. Here the 
 greatest elevation (in British territory) is reached by the peak 
 of Jdpvo, which is a little less than 10,000 feet above the sea. 
 To the north-east of this point the mountain system of the 13arail 
 is broken up, by the influence of the meridional axis of elevation 
 prolonged from the Arrakan Yoma, into a mass of ranges having 
 a general north-east and south-west direction until the Piitkoi 
 is reached. The highest points in this portion are from 8,0C0 to 
 9,000 feet. Snow is frequent on Jdpvo and in its neighbourhood, 
 but is not known further west. It is also seen to cover the hills 
 lying about the upper course of the Hilling as far as the Pdtkoi, 
 a country as yet insufficiently explored. 
 
 ' Between the main axis of the Assam Eange and the valley of 
 the Brahmaputra the average height of the hills varies considerabl}^ 
 The country is deeply cut into by river channels, and is covered 
 with dense forest. The isolated block of hills already referred
 
 Chap. K] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 to, lyino- to the east of Nowgonf^, called the Mikir-Kensilia Hills, SEcnoji i. 
 is cut ofi from the main range by low-lying valleys, and has Area and 
 within it summits attaining a height of 4,000 feet. Its interior ""anT^" 
 is little known, the population is very sparse, and the country is f^'//,'f^gj 
 densely wooded. The hills lying south of Sibsdgar and Lakhimpur, 
 and peopled for the most part by the tribes of Niigas which have 
 not yet been brought under British administration, consist of 
 small broken ranges, running generally north-east and south-west, 
 or having irregular spurs leading down into the plains, usually 
 steep on the northern side, with a more gradual slope on the 
 south. The greater part of this tract (in which very extensive 
 and valuable seams of coal exist) is uncultivated and forest-clad, 
 the outer ranges being chiefly uninhabited. 
 
 On the southern face the Gdro and Khdsi Hills rise very 
 abruptly from the plains, and present a succession of precipitous 
 faces, into which the rivers, fed by the enormous rainfall of this 
 region, have cut deep gorges as they issue upon the swamps of 
 North Sylhet. The level line forming the horizon of the plateau 
 is not broken until the BarAil is reached, where the contour 
 becomes rugored and irreo^ular, thout^h the sides are still preci- 
 pitous. In the Gdro Hills, the lower portions of the Khasi and^ 
 Jaintia Hills and the Barail range, the slopes are forest-clad. In 
 the upper and central plateau of the Khdsi Hills, and the greater 
 portion of North Cachar, the landscape is one of undulating grass}^ 
 hills, with occasional groves of pine and oak. It is believed that^ 
 the forests here have been destroyed or kept down by the custom 
 of annually burning, either for pasture or for cultivation, the 
 lono' crrass with which the surface is covered. Where fires are 
 excluded, thick forests of young pine and mixed leafy trees spring 
 up. 
 
 7. The LjishaiHills, which divide Assam from Burma, consist 
 of sandstones and shales of tertiary age 
 
 The southern hills. _ , p i • i 
 
 thrown into long folds, the axes ot which run 
 a nearly north and south direction. From the general character 
 of the deposits, it seems probable that they were laid down in the 
 delta and estuary of an immense river issuing from the Himalayas, 
 
 c
 
 lO ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 2. to the north-east of Assam durmg tertiary tmies, and flowmg clue 
 Geological south through the country now occupied by the Ndga and the 
 Lushai Hills. The hills are for the most part covered with dense 
 r bamboo jungle and rank undergrowth, but in the eastern portion, 
 \ owing probably to a smaller rainfall, open grass-covered slopes 
 are found, with groves of oak and pine interspersed with rhodo- 
 dendrons. These hihs are inhabited by the Lushais and cognate 
 tribes, but the population is extremely scanty. The outlying 
 slopes in the Cachar district constitute a great forest reserve ; 
 in Sylhet they are now being largely opened out for the growth 
 of tea. Till lately, however, they have been left to be roamed 
 over by Tipperas and Kukis, whose annual jhums were the only 
 cultivation which they supported. 
 
 SECTION 3.— GEOLOGICAL FEATURES. 
 
 8. The Province of Assam contains within its boundaries, as 
 Ts. . . - ^, , . , already mentioned, two ffreat alluvial plains. 
 
 Division of tlie subject. *^ ' o i ' 
 
 separated by a central mass of mountains 
 called the Assam Range, and further defined, — the Brahmaputra 
 Valley by the Himalayas on the north, and the Surma Valley by 
 the meridional ranges, the prolongation of the Arrakan hill system, 
 on the south. To the east of both valleys is the great extension 
 of the mountain system of Northern Burma, which eventually 
 unites with the Himalayas in the Putkoi. The geology of this 
 region, therefore, falls apart into that of the hill tracts, which are 
 being denuded, and of the alluvial plains, which are being formed 
 by the same process. 
 
 9. Of the Himalayan system which lies to the north of the 
 „,,,,. , Brahmaputra Valley we know very little. 
 
 Such observers as have explored it have been 
 unable to penetrate further than the exterior zone. In this, how- 
 ever, are found the same characteristic formations as distinguish 
 the sub-Himalayan rocks throughout their whole length from the 
 Indus to the eastern limit of observation. These rocks consist of 
 great thicknesses of soft massive sandstones, of tertiary age and 
 fresh-water origin, the dip of which is towards the interior zone of
 
 Chap, I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. TI 
 
 metamorpliic rocks. In tlie western portion of the range, among Section 2. 
 the Bliutan hills, it is believed that a gap exists in the.^^e sub-Hima- Ce'^kal 
 layan sandstones, or, at any rate, that the outer zone of rocks found ^'''*^"''«- 
 elsewhere along tlie chain, and known as the Siwaliks, is wantin^r ; 
 but further east, in the Dafla hills, and in the Abor mountains north 
 of Dibrugarh, there are the usual two well-marked ranges of sub- 
 Himalayan hills, with an intervening Dun. As in the Siwaliks, 
 nests and ^strings of lignite are frequently found in these rocks, 
 and have given rise to expectations, proved on enquiry to be base- 
 less, that useful coal might be discovered in them. 
 
 10. Of the rocks which close in the valley on the east nothing 
 ^, is known, except that limestone is found 
 
 Ihe eastern range. 
 
 among them. This occurs in the shape of 
 boulders and pebbles in the river-beds east of Sadiya, whence it is 
 conveyed by boat down the Brahmaputra, and forms almost the 
 sole lime-supply of Upper Assam.* 
 
 11. The Assam Eange, which divides the Brahmaputra and 
 „, . ^ Surma Valleys, is separated by well-marked 
 
 The Assam Range. '' ^. *^ , 
 
 physical and geological features into two 
 great regions, the boundary between which follows the line of the 
 Dhansiri Valley and the Barail range to the point where the latter 
 .commences at the south-eastern corner of the Jaintia Hills. The /, 
 f mountains to the west of this boundary, which include the Garo, 
 the Khasi, the Jaintia, and the Mikir Hills, with so much of North 
 Cachar as lies north and west of the BarAil, have been described by 
 geologists under the name of the Shillongj^laieau. '..The area to the ^ ^ 
 east of this boundary, including tlie""^ariiil, the ranges of Manipur, 
 and the Naga Hills, is orographically a part of the Burmese 
 mountain system, and of a widely different geological character. 
 
 12. The Shillong plateau consists of a great mass of gneis§, 
 
 bare on the northern border, where it is 
 
 I. The Shillong plateau. » , i ^ 
 
 broken into hills, for the most part low and 
 
 ♦ It is, however, not obtainable in large quantities at reniunerative ratep, and the 
 demand of the Assam- Bengal Railway, now under constrnclion, for limestone in the 
 Nowgong and Kamn'ip districts are boing^met from the quarries on the southern face 
 of the Khasi Hills, from which the stone is brought by river, vid Chhatak and Karain- 
 ganj, to Gauhdti. 
 
 C 2
 
 12 ^ ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 2. ver}'- irregular in outline, with numerous outliers in the Lower 
 Geological Assam Valley, even close up to the Himalayas. In the central 
 eatuyes. j-ggj^^-^ ^]^q gi-^eiss is covered by transition or sub-metamorphic 
 rocks, consisting of a strong band of quartzites overlaying a mass 
 of earthy giihists. In the very centre of the range, where the 
 table land attains its highest elevation, great masses of intrusive 
 diorite and granite occur ; and the latter is found, in dykes pierc- 
 ing the gneiss and sub-metamorphic series, throughout the southern 
 half to the boundary of the plains. To the south, in contact with 
 the gneiss and sub-metamorphics, is a great volcanic outburst of 
 trap, which is stratified, and is brought to the surface with the 
 general rise of elevation along the face of the hills between Sheila 
 and Thariaghat south of Cherrapunji : this has been described 
 as the " Sylhet trap." South of the main axis of this m.etamorphic 
 and volcanic mass, and almost at the edge of the central intrusive 
 dykes of granite and diorile, fossiliferous strata commence belong- 
 ) ing to" two well-defined series; (1) the cretaceous, and (2) the 
 • nummulitic. On their northern margin both rest conformably 
 on the metamorphics, and rapidly increase in thickness as one 
 proceeds southwards. (Jn the south the whole series bends down- 
 wards in a monoclinal flexure, and south of Cherrapunji disappears 
 below the alluvium of the Surma Valle}''. 
 
 The, cretaceous series, where last seen, occupies about 1,500 
 feet between the Sylhet trap and the nummulitic limestone ; it 
 varies much in the character of the deposits, consisting chiefly 
 of sandstones, locally massive, coarse, earthy, or ochreous, with 
 intervening dark and pale sliales and some layers of flaky, earthy 
 lirngstone. The series includes several beds of coal, of which the 
 best known are the Maobehlarkar * coal, a few miles south of 
 Mauphlang, whence the station of Shillong is supplied, the exten- 
 sive and valuable coal-field of Darrangiri, on the Someswari river 
 in the Garo Hills, and some coal close to the level of the plain at 
 the debouchure of the Jadukata river near Laur in Sylhet ; another 
 outcrop to the west of the last mentioned, on the Maheshkhdli 
 river in the Garo Hills, is very possibly continuous with the latter, 
 
 • Described in " Records of the Geological Survey of India," Volume VIII, page 86.
 
 Chap. 1.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 1 3 
 
 and, if so, promises to be of great value. An isolated specimen section a. 
 of the same series is found on the Ntimbar stream, on the extreme ^ "; — : , 
 
 ^ ^ ' Geological 
 
 eastern margin of the Shillong plateau, in the Mikir Hills, a few Features. 
 miles east of Borpathdr. This cretaceous coal is brown in colour, 
 compact, splintery, with a conchoidal fracture, and contains 
 numerous specks and small nests of fossil resin. 
 
 The nummulitic series, which overlies the cretaceous, varies 
 greatly in thickness in different parts of the range. In the Gdro 
 Hills west of the Someswari it is insignificant ; in the Khc4si Hills 
 it is much more massive. " Below Cherrapunji it has a thickness 
 of 900 feet in the Tharia river, consisting of alternating strata of 
 compact limestones and sandstones. It is at the exposure of these 
 rocks on their downward dip from the edge of the plateau that 
 are situated the extensive liniestone quarries of the Khasi Hills, 
 whence Eastern Bengal is supplied with lime of the best quality. 
 On the level of the plateau above the same strata are found, but 
 have undergone extensive denudation owing to the solubility of 
 the limestone rock in water and the enormous rainfall of that 
 region. In the whole of the southern face of these hills are found 
 numerous caves and underground watercourses due to this 
 cause ; and on the plateau of Cherrapunji, while the nummulitic 
 series survives in the rocks on which the Khasi villacre is built. 
 and in the ridge to the west of the old station, the site of the 
 station itself has been swept perfectly clear of it, with the 
 exception of a few rounded hills composed of tumbled 
 fragments of the harder sandstones which alternated with the 
 calcareous beds. 
 
 Before the uptlwust of the Bardil range the nummulitic beds, 
 like the other members of the series, retire in a north-easterly 
 direction, and their eastern limit has not been traced satis- 
 factorily. 
 
 This series also includes coal-beds, several of which have been 
 worked. The best known are the Cherra mines, in a seam situated 
 in the nummulitic mass to the west of the station, and the Laka- 
 dong mines in the Jaintia Hills. The nummulitic coal is black, 
 bright, with a cuboidal fracture, and very bituminous.
 
 14 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Section- 2. ^3, There is evidence that, as the niTmmulitic series overlies 
 Geological the cretaceous, the former was in its turn 
 
 Features. II. Banal range. ^' r x ^ ', ^ • x 
 
 / overlain (perhaps only on its outer mari>in) 
 
 by a third, or upper tertiary, series. These rocks have been 
 traced from the western margin of the Garo Hills, along their 
 southern face (where, south of the Someswari, the tertiary zone 
 is 14 miles wide), and beneath the scarp of the Kliasi Hills, where 
 they have been almost entirely removed from the plateau by denu- 
 dation. East of Jaintiapur the soft massive greenish sandstones 
 of this formation appear again, in force, and they rise rapidly from 
 this point into the Barail range. To this series, apparently, belong 
 also the tilas of the Sylhet and Cachar plain, and the low merid- 
 ional ranges of the Tippera and the Lushai Hills, which run up into 
 it on the south ; and the valley of Cachar seems to be excavated 
 out of the broken ground where these two conflicting strikes, the 
 west-east of the Bardil, and the south-north of the southern ridges, 
 meet. West of Cachar, the Barail curves north-eastwards, and 
 the southern ranges take the same direction, till eventually the 
 two lines are found in confluence. 
 
 Of this second great division of the Assam Eange we know some- 
 thing of the north-western face, looking down upon the Sibsagar 
 and Dibrugarh plains, but of the interior very little. A reconnois- 
 sance was made in the cold weather of 1881-82 through the eastern 
 and northern portions of Manipur and the district of the Naga Hills, 
 which gave some information regarding the rocks of these regions. 
 
 The whole of the western portion of this division of the Assam 
 • Eange, from the rise of the Bardil in south-eastern Ja'intia to the 
 peak of Jdpvo in the neighbourhood of Kohima, would appear 
 to be composed of the same tertiary sandstones as have already 
 been mentioned ; and the same rocks seem to be continued 
 along the south-eastern margin of the Brahmaputra Valley in 
 Sibsagar and Lakhimpur. To these succeed a series of hard 
 sandstones, slates, and shales, with quartzose beds, supposed to be 
 identical with the " axials " of the Northern Arrakan group. 
 Still further east is a considerable trappian intrusion, consisting 
 of serpentine dykes running north and south, identical in
 
 Chap. I] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 1 5 
 
 Section 2. 
 
 composition with those of Burma. Of the Patkoi [itself, and of 
 the junction between it and the Himalayas in the Mishmi Hills 
 
 T . . I, . ' Geological 
 
 we have at present no mtormation. Features. 
 
 14. The north-western face of this region, lying alon"- the 
 Cuiii fielclH of Upper I^ibrugarh and Sibsagar districts, contains 
 ^'''""- several very important coal-fields, which 
 
 constitute the chief mineral resource of the province. The rocks in 
 which the coal measures occur are, with one exception, situated to 
 the south-west of a great fault, in some places a short distance 
 within the hills, and in others constituting their escarpment towards 
 the plains, which is conjectured to have a throw of from 10,000 to 
 15,000 feet. They consist of an enormous thickness of sandstones 
 the npper series of which are topped by conglomerates and clays 
 containing fossil wood ; the coal measures have a thickness of 
 some 2,000 feet, and are succeeded by fine hard sandstones 
 overlying splintery gray shales, several thousand feet thick. The 
 exception is the Jaipur field, in the Tipam hills in the southern corner 
 of the Dibrugarh district, which is north of the fault. Alono- the 
 Buri Dihing, and near the exit from the hills of the Dikhu, Safrai, 
 Jhanzi, and Disoi rivers, the coal measures are exposed. The 
 greatest of the fields is that of Makum, on the Dihino- ; here there 
 is a seam 100 feet thick, containing at least 75 feet of sohd coal 
 and some very large seams have been traced for more than a mile 
 without diminution. 
 
 The age of these important and extensive coal measures is 
 still uncertain. The coal is of superior quality, and not unhke 
 the nummulitic coal of the Khasi Hills, though quite different 
 from the cretaceous coal of the same region ; but the place of the 
 coal in the series where it occurs in Upper Assam renders it ex- 
 tremely difficult to correlate it with the nummuHtic coal of Cherra 
 and Lakadong. It is possible that it belongs to the third series, 
 already noticed, along the southern face of the Shillong plateau ; 
 but the associated rocks have not as yet yielded any fossils by 
 which their relations can be studied.* 
 
 • " Records of tho Geological Survey of India," Volume XV, page 68.
 
 1 6 ASSAM. ADMINISTRATION REPORT. ' [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 2. 15 Turnuifr now to tlie alluvium, the marked difference 
 G ololcal ^^ ^^® physical geography of the Brahmaputra 
 
 Features. ^ ' and Surma Valleys, both of which belong 
 
 to the i^reat Indo-Gangetic plain, has already been noticed. The 
 former is at a considerably higher elevation above sea level than 
 the latter, and the fall is consequently greater. The following are 
 the hei"-hts above mean sea level of the chief points (at the surface 
 of the alluvium) in the Brahmaputra Valley. 
 
 Feet. -Feet. 
 
 Sadiya ... ... 440 
 
 Dibrugarh ... 348 
 
 Sibsdgar ... 319 
 
 Burarnukh, near Tezpur 256 
 Gauhati ... I(i3 
 
 Goalpara ... 150 
 
 Dhubri ... ... 118 feet. 
 
 The valley has thus, in a distance of about 450 miles, a fall 
 exceedin^y 300 feet. In the Surma Valley, on the other hand, the 
 following are the heights : 
 
 Silchar .•• 87 feet | Sylhet ... 48 feet. 
 
 Chhdtak ... ... 41 feet. 
 
 In consequence of this greater fall, the rivers in the Brahma- 
 
 r)utra Valley tend to cut away their banks, while those in the Surma 
 
 Valley tend to raise them. The former is, indeed, most correctly 
 
 described as in great part a gigantic khddar, or strath, within 
 
 which the river oscillates to and fro, while the latter is a delta in 
 
 the process of formation. Nearly the whole of the central portion 
 
 of the Brahmaputra Valley consists of fine greyish-white sand, 
 
 lio-htly covered by a layer of clay ; this is diversified near the 
 
 rocks which occasionally impinge upon the river by beds of strong 
 
 sandy clay, derived from their detritus. Away from the river the 
 
 alluvium is more consolidated, and clay, due to the decomposition 
 
 of the sand, predominates. Throughout this surface there are 
 
 found here and there (as in the southern portions of the Sibsagar 
 
 district, in the plain of Biswanath, and in the ridge of Tezpur) 
 
 more elevated tracts, which seem to represent a more ancient 
 
 hhdngar, or older alluvium, the greater part of which has
 
 Chap. 1.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 1 7 
 
 disappeared. Such places, where they have been laid bare by the Section 2. 
 river, are easily distinguishable, by their closer and heavier texture Geological 
 and by their higher colour, from the shifting grey sands of which ^'^ "'^^'* 
 the rest of the trough is composed, and are often indicated b}^ a 
 name chosen for their peculiar features {Hanga-mati, " coloured 
 earth," Ranga-gora, " coloured bank "). 
 
 In the Surma Valley the process of deltaic formation (whether 
 because depression of the surface has proceeded pari passu with 
 alluvial accretion, or because the deposition of silt is slower and 
 less copious than in the central portion of the Gangetic delta) is 
 less advanced than anywhere else in the great alluvial plain. As 
 already explained, the river banks are almost the only high land 
 (always, of course, excepting the tllas and hill ranges) in the 
 valley, and behind them lie great basins, or hdiirs, which are deeply 
 covered with water half the year. In the flood season the rivers 
 drain into these liciurs, and there deposit their silt, the water emerging 
 when the river falls perfectly clear. This process results in a 
 very noticeable raising of the level of these basins ; the Clidtla 
 Mur, a great depression in South Oachar, which receives the floods 
 of the Barak, is said to have risen 18 inches in the ten years ending 
 1882-83, and almost another foot during the last decade ; the 
 extensive Hakaluki hiur in South Sylliet, which receives the 
 Langai, is likewise steadily diminishing in depth. One remarkable 
 event in the history of Western Sylliet was the diversion of the 
 Brahmaputra, which, till the commencement of the present century, 
 flowed east of Mymensingh, and of the great tract of old raised 
 alluvium called the Madhupur Jungle, into a new course far to the 
 w^est. Previously to this diversion, which has now brought the 
 Brahmaputra, as a delta-forming agency, into direct competition 
 with the Ganges, the former river threw the greater portion of its 
 lighter silt into the Mis of West Sylhet, and thus co-operated in 
 raising that region. Now the Surma Valley deperds for its 
 accretions on the purely rain-fed floods of the minor rivers which 
 traverse it, and which are, of course, far inferior as silt-bearers to 
 the great glacier-fed streams that drain the mighty chain of the 
 Himalayas. 
 
 D
 
 l8 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 SECTION S.— CLIMATE. 
 ECTioN 3. ^^ ^1^^ climate of the Assam Province, botli in tlie Bralima- 
 Cliniate. Dutra and Surma Valleys, is marked by extreme 
 
 General remarks. 
 
 humidity, the natural result of the great 
 Tvater surface and extensive forests over which evaporation and 
 condensation go On and the close proximity of the hill ranges 
 Tvhich bound the alluvial tracts, and on and near to which 
 an excessive precipitation takes place. The cloud proportion 
 throughout the year, even in those months which in the rest of 
 India are generally clear, is very large, dense fogs being cha- 
 racteristic of the cold weather both north and south of the Assam 
 range. It is frequently asserted that the monsoon may be said to 
 beo-in in Assam two months before its commencement in the rest of 
 India. This, however, is probably a mistake, the exceptionally 
 heavy rainfall of April and May, which is characteristic of the 
 province, and which, aided in the Brahmaputra Valley by the 
 melting of the Himalayan snows, causes a sudden rise of the rivers 
 in those months, being due to local causes, to storms and local 
 evaporation. The spring rains are commonly succeeded by a 
 break, more or less prolonged, of dry weather with westerly 
 winds, before the true monsoon is ushered in, as in most other 
 parts of India, about the beginning of June. 
 
 17. Systematic observations have unfortunately been regularly 
 
 taken at only a few points in the province, 
 
 * Observing stations, . 
 
 and the record of its meteorology leaves 
 much to be desired. The places where meteorological observa- 
 tories have been long established are SibsAgar and Silchar ; that at 
 Goalpara was closed at the beginning of 1881, and Dhubri was 
 chosen in its stead. At other stations, only the rainfall has 
 hitherto been registered. 
 
 18. The mean temperature of the plains portion of the province 
 
 is, for a sub-tropical country, generall}^ low. 
 
 Tenniiratu'e. mi c n • 11' r- c 
 
 I he lollowiim' are the latest ni^^ures tor 
 
 o
 
 Chap. I.J 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 19 
 
 Sibsdgar and Dhiibri in the Bralimaputra, and Silchar in the ^ectiom 3. 
 Surma, Valley : ^ CUmaU. 
 
 Average monthly mean temperature. 
 
 — 
 
 ►-5 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 p. 
 <1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 a 
 so 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 s 
 
 « 
 ■3 
 
 Sibsagar 
 
 57-8 
 
 61*1 
 
 67'6 
 
 73-1 
 
 77-3 
 
 81-5 
 
 83-2 
 
 82-5 
 
 80-8 
 
 76-2 
 
 C7 6 
 
 58-7 
 
 72 3 
 
 Dhubri 
 
 62-2 
 
 64-5 
 
 74*6 
 
 78-2 
 
 77-6 
 
 79-3 
 
 81'6 
 
 80-6 
 
 79 1 
 
 77-9 
 
 70-1 
 
 6t5 
 
 74-2 
 
 Eilchar 
 
 63-3 
 
 6G-9 
 
 7 3-4 
 
 77-7 
 
 78-5 
 
 81-G 
 
 82-2 
 
 82-4 
 
 81-15 
 
 79-1 
 
 72-6 
 
 65-7 
 
 75-6 
 
 Wiiiils. 
 
 It will be seen that Sibsagar, in the upper half of the Assam 
 Valley, has a lower cold-weather, and higher rainy- season, tem- 
 perature than Dliubri in the lower half ; and that there is a general 
 coincidence throughout the year between the monthly means for 
 the latter station and Silchar. These points may probably be 
 taken as typical of the greater portion of the plains of Assam. 
 
 19. The wind circulation differs considerably in the two 
 valleys. In the Surma Valley, the general 
 direction is the same as that in the Gansretic 
 delta, south-west, changing to east towards the head of the 
 valley, for the greater part of the year, with a north-north-east 
 direction during the months of April and May. Over the western 
 portion of the Assam Range the south-west wind from the Ba}' of 
 Bengal sweeps w^itli considerable force throughout the spring- 
 months, preserving a remarkable uniformity of direction. 
 During the rains the direction changes somewhat towards 
 south and south-east, with an occasional northing. In the 
 Brahmaputra Valley, on the other hand, north-east winds are 
 prevalent during the cold-weather and spring months in the 
 upper portion, south-west winds taking their place during July 
 and August. At Goalpdra, in the lower half of the valley, the 
 north-east wind also prevails during the greater part of the cold 
 weather ; but for the rest of the year south-east winds are the 
 general feature. Thus, the monsoon winds of the Assam Valley are 
 a back- current of the south-west monsoon, which undoubtedly 
 blows across the hill range to the south. Both in the cold weather 
 
 D 2
 
 20 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 3. and rains calms are frequent in both valleys, though seldom of 
 Climate, ^oug coutinuance. 
 
 Storms often occur in the spring months, generally accompanied 
 by high winds and heavy local rainfall. The valleys and hills of 
 the Shillong plateau assist in the formation, and determine the 
 direction, of these disturbances, which are most common in the 
 lower portion of the Assam Valley. Cyclones from the Bay of 
 Bengal frequently visit and give heavy rainfall to the western 
 portion of the range and the plains at its foot ; they most often 
 occur at the close of the rainy season. 
 
 20. The average monthly mean relative humidity of the three 
 observing stations in the two valleys is 
 shown below : 
 
 Humidity, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 fe 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 C 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 p. 
 < 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 <1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 c; 
 
 
 
 l^ 
 
 tT 
 
 > ^ 
 
 Sibsagar .. 
 
 86 
 
 81 
 
 79 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 8i 
 
 84 
 
 84 
 
 86 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 Dhubri 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 61 
 
 68 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 Silchnr 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 84 
 
 80 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 79 
 
 This distribution of humidity resembles that of the Bengal 
 delta, and differs greatly (except, of course, in the rainy season) 
 from the data afforded by stations whose relative place in the 
 Ganges Valley resembles those of the three stations selected in 
 Assam. Taking the year as a whole, the humidity of the chmate 
 of Sibsugar is exceeded by that of no other meteorological station 
 in India,* and is equalled only by Darjeeling. 
 
 21. Tlie following figures show the recorded averages of cloud 
 proportion (complete overclouding being 
 represented by 10) at each of the three 
 observing stations month by month : 
 
 Cloud proportion. 
 
 
 ea 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 .«" 
 
 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 f* 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 0, 
 •< 
 
 rt 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 "3 
 
 ►-5 
 
 3 
 < 
 
 r/i 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 9 S 
 
 ■a 2 
 
 Bibs4gar 
 
 5'4 
 
 6-5 
 
 6-1 
 
 6-9 
 
 7-8 
 
 8-4 
 
 8-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 8- 
 
 6-5 
 
 45 
 
 4-4 
 
 6-7 
 
 Dhnbii 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-G 
 
 2-4 
 
 3-3 
 
 4-6 
 
 TA 
 
 6-9 
 
 7-4 
 
 fi-5 
 
 2-7 
 
 1-4 
 
 1-2 
 
 3-9 
 
 Silchar 
 
 3-2 
 
 3-1 
 
 4-4 
 
 0-3 
 
 6-2 
 
 7'S 
 
 7-9 
 
 7-9 
 
 7-1 
 
 4-8 
 
 3-4 
 
 2-9 
 
 5-3 
 
 « Excluding Ceylon 
 jrre 
 
 Excluding Ceylon The humidity of Galie and Newera Eliya in that island is slightly 
 atcr than that of 5:ib8<4gar, and that of two otlier stations is exactly equal to it.
 
 Chap. I.] 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 21 
 
 Out of 81 stations at which cloud observations have been Secttox 3. 
 taken in India, Sibsagar stands at the head of the hst,* being cumate. 
 approached only by Darjeehng. This pecuharity is probably due 
 to the regular prevalence of dense fogs (which are counted as 
 cloud in the table) during the cold weather in the Assam Valley, 
 and to the copious spring rainfall. In the Surma Valle}^ fogs 
 are decidedly less prevalent, and less dense when they occur, 
 than in that of the Brahmaputra, and are also less common in 
 the upper part of the valley, where Silchar is situated, than in the 
 western half. 
 
 22. The distribution of rainfall in Assam is that portion of 
 the meteorology of the province which is 
 
 Rainfall. , , '~^-. , , . -i •■,•-,• n^ 
 
 best known, and also that m which it dmers 
 most remarkably from other parts of India. Besides the 
 observations taken at district and subdivisional headquarters, a 
 rain-gauge is, as a rule, kept, and the rainfall is recorded at every 
 tea garden. There are thus abundant materials for the study of 
 the subject. The table below has been constructed to show 
 separately the rainfall of the three seasons into which the year 
 falls apart, in the Brahmaputra and Surma Valleys and the inter- 
 vening hill region, respectively. The stations chosen are those at 
 which observations have been recorded for the lon^^est time : 
 
 
 Cold 
 
 weath 
 
 er rain 
 
 fall. 1 
 
 Spring rainfall. 
 
 Monsoon rainfall. 
 
 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 
 
 S5 
 
 C 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 .0 
 
 as 
 
 p. 
 
 a! 
 
 c 
 
 s 
 
 1-S 
 
 "a 
 
 1-3 
 
 3 
 bo 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 0. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Brahmapctra Valley. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dhubri 
 
 0-12 
 
 O-Ifi 
 
 0-42 
 
 0-52 
 
 1-92 
 
 5-l(. 
 
 14-87 
 
 28-87 
 
 14-63 
 
 12-37 
 
 12-68 
 
 4-23 
 
 9C-'95 
 
 Goalpara .. 
 
 0*20 
 
 0-27 
 
 0-52 
 
 0-54 
 
 2-24 
 
 c-4e 
 
 13-61 
 
 24-65 
 
 17-76 
 
 12-18 
 
 11-41 
 
 418| 9402 
 
 Gauhati 
 
 59 
 
 0-27 
 
 0-64 
 
 0-S9 
 
 2-4£ 
 
 6'OP 
 
 9-83 
 
 12-91 
 
 12-51 
 
 10-89 
 
 8-00 
 
 2-97 6800 
 
 Tczpur 
 
 0-80 
 
 0*59 
 
 0-65 
 
 0-88 
 
 2-31 
 
 6-o; 
 
 9-55 
 
 13-56 
 
 15-Ul 
 
 12-4f 
 
 9-33 
 
 3-07 74 23 
 
 Nowgong . . . . 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-26 
 
 0-87 
 
 1-03 
 
 2-4( 
 
 5-5S 
 
 S-30 
 
 13-10 
 
 16-68 
 
 14-9; 
 
 U-21 
 
 3-94 79-83 
 
 Sibsagar 
 
 1-21 
 
 0-60 
 
 1-22 
 
 2-15 
 
 4'54 
 
 9-73 
 
 U-30 
 
 14-66 
 
 15-75 
 
 15 6] 
 
 11-78 
 
 5-11 
 
 93-76 
 
 Dibrugarh 
 
 1-27 
 
 0-91 
 
 1-47 
 
 2-39 
 
 5-8( 
 
 9-7.^ 
 
 13-86 
 
 18-86 
 
 19-52 
 
 18-11 
 
 13-83 
 
 5-96 
 
 111-72 
 
 The cloud proportion at Batticaloa in Ceylon is exactly equal to that at Sibsagar.
 
 22 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 3. 
 
 Climate. 
 
 
 Colli- weather rain 
 
 fall. 
 
 Spring rain 
 
 fall. 
 
 1 
 
 Monsoon rainfall. 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 >■ 
 
 
 ^ 8 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 i-< 
 
 a 
 
 <1 
 
 
 3 
 1-5 • 
 
 
 B 
 
 i 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 si 
 
 nn.L DisTKicrs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Assam Range.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tura 
 
 0-45 
 
 0-1': 
 
 0-6S 
 
 0'74 
 
 i-sr 
 
 C-10 
 
 15-92 
 
 26-46 
 
 23-31 
 
 20-8' 
 
 20-75 
 
 7-99 
 
 125-25 
 
 8hiUong 
 
 1-03 
 
 o-so 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-74 
 
 1-92 
 
 3-75 
 
 9-54 
 
 18-29 
 
 13-G8 
 
 13-7 
 
 15-14 
 
 6-12 
 
 84-76 
 
 Cherra Piinji .. 
 
 1-59 
 
 0-28 
 
 0-?5 
 
 2S2 
 
 9-C8 
 
 29-89 
 
 51-o7 116-55 
 
 115-39 
 
 80-0. 
 
 54-96 
 
 12-49 
 
 475-61 
 
 Kobima 
 
 1-2:) 
 
 0-47 
 
 0-74 
 
 1-10 
 
 2-92 
 
 4*Ul 
 
 7-31 
 
 U-i4 
 
 17-67 
 
 14,-2: 
 
 10-15 
 
 3-17 
 
 77-03 
 
 SCRMA Valley. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S.Tlhet 
 
 1-06 
 
 0-27 
 
 0-3D 
 
 1-43 
 
 6-3L' 
 
 14-75 
 
 21-51 
 
 32-35 
 
 25-33 
 
 26-lJ 
 
 20-72 
 
 7-80 
 
 158-13 
 
 fiilchar 
 
 I'll 
 
 0-61 
 
 0'67 
 
 2-3o 
 
 8-25 
 
 1.3-2; 
 
 15-91 
 
 19-94 
 
 20-18 
 
 18-2i 
 
 13-87 
 
 5-94 
 
 120-30 
 
 This table exhibits, in a very conspicuous manner, the chief 
 feature of the Assam climate, both in the Brahmaputra and Surma 
 Valleys, viz., its copious rainfall between March and May, at a 
 season when throughout Northern India generally precipitation is 
 at its minimum. It also indicates the existence, in the Brahmaputra 
 Valley, of a middle region (Gauhati, Tezpur, Nowgong), wdiere the 
 spring and monsoon falls are less than at either extremity of the 
 vallej^ This ma}^ possibly be due to the fact that south of this 
 portion lies the most lofty part of the Shillong plateau, on the 
 southern face of which (at Cherra Punji) and over the central 
 table land the monsoon currents are drained of their humidity. To 
 the west of this central plateau the valley is open to the winds of 
 the Bengal delt^ ; and to the east the average height of the range 
 falls greatly, admitting the south-west monsoon, by the gorge of 
 the Jatinga Valley, over the low uplands of North Cacliar and down 
 the long valley of the Dhansiri, into the great plain of Sibsagar and 
 Lakhimpur. 
 
 In the Surma Valley, the copiousness of the spring rainfall is 
 even more conspicuous than in Assam Proper. The recording 
 stations here are, unfortunately, rather close to the southern face 
 of the Assam range, so that they do not very accurately represent 
 the mean rainfall of this re<]jion*
 
 Chap. I,] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 23 
 
 The few stations for which observations liave been recorded in Section 3. 
 the hill region have the character of their rainfall determined very cJbmte. 
 largely by local conditions. Tura, the chief town of the Garo Hills, 
 is situated (at an elevation of only 1,323 feet above the sea) on the 
 northern skirts of the range which forms the main axis of the hills, 
 and rises south of the station to a height of 4,G52 feet in the peak of 
 Nokrek. It is thus greatly sheltered from the monsoon currents 
 which expend their moisture upon the ridge at its back. Similarly, 
 Shillong, though only 30 miles distant from Clierra, where the 
 greatest recorded rainfall in Asia is found, has the clouds drained 
 of their humidity long before they reach it by the immense precipi- 
 tation along the southern edge of the plateau and in the central 
 table land, which lies some 1,500 feet above the site of the station. 
 Cherra Punji, on the other hand, is so placed as to exemplify all the 
 conditions needed for a great rainfall. It stands, immediately over- 
 looking the plains at a height of 4,455 feet, on a small plateau 
 of thick-bedded sandstones, bounded on two sides by 2,000 feet 
 of sheer descent, which close in gorges debouching southwards 
 on Sylliet, which is practically at sea-level. The south-west wind 
 sweeping over the inundated alluvial tract, blows up these gorges, 
 as well as on the southern face of the general scarp, and, havino- 
 reached the heads of the gorges, ascends vertically. The plateau 
 is thus during the summer months surrounded, or nearlv so by 
 vertically-ascending currents of saturated air, the d3'namic coolin"- 
 of which is the cause of the enormous precipitation. It lies 
 moreover, at the elevation of 4,000 feet, which is found in the 
 Himalayas to be that of maximum precipitation. The annual 
 average varies greatly in ditlerent parts of the station, although the 
 whole extent of the plateau is not much more than a couple of square 
 miles. Some of the earlier registers, which were those of rain-gauo-es 
 near the edges of the plateau, show a higher precipitation than 
 those kept in recent years nearer its centre. The fall has varied 
 greatly from year to year : 805 inches were recorded in 1861, and 
 in the month of July of that year 36G inches fell. In 1884 the 
 total fall was only 270 inches. 
 
 Kohima is situated on a ridize north of the great mountain
 
 24 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 3. mass of Japvo (9,890 feet high), and is thus, hke Tura and Shillong, 
 CliiZte protected from the full force of the monsoon currents. 
 
 23. These being the general characteristics of the climate of 
 
 Assam, it will readily be understood that in 
 
 Effect of climate on jj-g effects upon human health and economic 
 
 heahli. . i 1 i- e 
 
 conditions, it presents the nsual leatures or 
 a cool, equable, humid, sub -tropical region. Kdla-azdr, malarial 
 diseases, and cholera are the most prevalent forms of sickness. 
 Kdla-azdr was once thought to be due to the effects of malaria, 
 but recent enquiries have shown that it is caused by the attacks 
 of a parasite {Dochmius diiodenalis), to the development of which 
 the humidity of the atmosphere is peculiarly favourable.* The 
 heavy mortality from this cause was first noticed in 1882 in certain 
 villages along the northern terai of the Giro Hills, and in 1884 
 the number of deaths became so great that a special relief work 
 was organised. Since that date the disease has spread gradually 
 through the Godlpdra subdivision, and throughout that portion of 
 the Kamriip district which lies on the south bank of the Brahma- 
 putra. It has now reached the Nowgong district, and for several 
 years past a number of deaths in North Kamrup and Mangaldai 
 have also been reported to be due to this disease. The mortality 
 attending its progress has been terrible, and tracts, which before 
 its advent were covered with thickly-peopled and prosperous 
 villaf^es, have been left by it deserted and uncultivated. Whole 
 villages have thus disappeared, and large areas of land have been 
 thrown out of cultivation. Malaria lurks chiefly in the broken 
 country forming the skirt of the Assam Eange, where the long low 
 valleys are seldom stirred by the strong winds which blow on the 
 southern face. In the open country away from the hills it is 
 seldom severe ; and the plains of Sibs^gar and Dibrugarh, with the 
 southern portion of Sylhet, are probably throughout the whole of 
 India, outside of the hills, the tracts which are most suited for 
 halntation by Europeans, who generally enjoy excellent health. 
 Notwithstanding the great water surface of Sylhet, and the deep 
 
 * Further enquiries liave, liowever, thrown doubt on the correctness of this view. Seo 
 Assam Sanitary Reports for 1893 and 18'JJt an.l Chief Comuiissioucr's Resolutions thereon.
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 25 
 
 flooding wliicli it undergoes in the rains, it is, on the whole, a very Section 4. 
 healthy district. Cachar, which is more confined by hills, is less chief 
 so. The climate of the hills is healthy or the reverse according to -^^^i^^^^- 
 their elevation. The whole of the central plateau of the Shillong 
 range is very salubrious, and the same is the case with the Naga 
 Hills. The Gdro and North Cachar Hills, on the other hand, are 
 low and feverish. 
 
 The copiousness of the spring rains, and the steady prevalence 
 of moisture throughout the year, are 
 on crops. extremely favourable to the two great crops 
 
 of the province : rice and tea. The cultivation of the former 
 resembles in its main features that of the same staple throughout 
 Bengal. But in x\ssam and Sylhet,,_tea^ yields more largely, and 
 can be plucked and manufactured more continuously, than in any 
 other part of India. 
 
 Famine, or even scarcity, due to drought, is unknown in the pro- 
 vince ; losses from inundation occasionally happen.* But excessive 
 floods are seldom of long duration, and the submerged lands can 
 usually be re-sown ; in any case, a bumper crop Jthe next season 
 invariably follows upon the destruction of one harvest by flooding. 
 
 24. Under this section may be mentioned the earthquakes to 
 
 which the province, or at least the eastern half 
 
 Earthquakes. 
 
 of it, is subject. Several severe shocks have 
 been recorded, but none such have occurred during the last decade* 
 A full account of the Cachar earthquake of the lOtli January 1869 
 has been published in the " Memoirs of the Geological Survey," 
 Volume XIX. Another severe shock occurred in September 1875, 
 which did some damage to houses in Shillong and Gauhdti ; and 
 Silchar was again visited by an earthquake in October 1882. 
 
 SECTION 4.— CHIEF STAPLES. 
 
 25. The principal and almost the only food-grain of the plains 
 ^ , . portion of the province is rice. The produc- 
 
 jocd-grains. ^^ ... 
 
 tion of this staple is carried on generally 
 under the same conditions as in Bengal ; but the times of sowino- 
 
 * In the Lushai Hills great scarcity has occasionally been caused by the ravages 
 of rats. 
 
 E
 
 26 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 4- and reaping, and the names given to the several crops, vary much 
 Chief in different parts of the province. 
 
 Staples. Q^^g exception to this barbarous system of agriculture is 
 
 found among the Angami Ntigas. Tiie powerful villages of 
 this people, which lie about the skirts of the central mass of 
 .Tapyo, are surrounded by admirably-constructed terraced rice- 
 fields, not, as in the Khdsi Hills, cut in the gentle slope of the 
 valleys and embanked with earthen dykes, but built up with stone 
 retaining-walls at different levels, and irrigated by means of skil- 
 fully-engineered channels, which distribute the water over each 
 step in the series. These remarkable works appear to be peculiar 
 to the group of villages mentioned, their neighbours following the 
 ordinary system of cultivation by jlium. They have doubtless 
 been produced by the necessity of their position. Living in con- 
 stant warfare w^ith one another and with their neighbours, and 
 maintaining their supremacy by military force, these ruling 
 villages were formerly compelled to keep their food-supply in the* 
 immediate vicinity of their habitations, and thus to make the 
 utmost of the productive powers of the valley bottoms, instead of 
 carrying their tillage over the wide hill-sides in a rotation of many 
 years, as is done by hillmen elsewhere. Another reason for their 
 resort to irrigation appears to be that their hills are too densely 
 peopled to admit oi jhum cultivation, as, although the latter seems 
 to yield a larger outturn for the years during which the cultiva- 
 tion is carried on, the land rapidly becomes exhausted, and, after 
 two or three years' cultivation, requires a long rest before it 
 recovers its fertility; a tribe cultivating on the jhum system thus 
 requires a much greater area of land for its support than one 
 resorting to irrigation. 
 
 26. In the Brahmaputra Valley generally there are only two 
 great rice crops, — the dhu, [dsii, dus) and the 
 ra mapu ra a o}. ^^^^ (^hdli). The dJm, or early rice, is 
 generally sown broadcast (though it is sometimes transplanted) 
 upon higher lands in February and March, and is reaped soon 
 after the setting in of the rains, from June to August. The sdli^ 
 on the contrary, is sown first in nurseries in June, and is trans-
 
 Chap. I.] 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 27 
 
 Chief 
 Staples, 
 
 planted in July and August into fields which can be flooded in Section 4. 
 the rains ; it is reaped in December and January.* 
 
 The following table will serve to show comparatively the area 
 under these two descriptions of rice and that under other crops 
 in the districts of the Brahmaputra Valley. It represents only 
 lands amalgamated with the mauza, that is, in charge of the local 
 fiscal officers, and does not include in Godlpdra the permanently- 
 settled portion of the .district, or, in the other districts, the estates 
 of revenue-free holders, grantees of waste lands devoted to tea 
 cultivation, or large privileged holders who pay only half the 
 ordinary rates of revenue, but, though for these reasons not 
 exhaustive, it sufficiently indicates the relative proportions of rice 
 and other cultivation in the districts of the valley : 
 
 District. 
 
 Early 
 rice. 
 
 Late 
 rice. 
 
 Mns- 
 tard. 
 
 Cane. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Other 
 crops. 
 
 Basti. 
 
 Fallow. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Deduct 
 
 twice 
 
 cropped. 
 
 Total 
 
 cultivated 
 
 area. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 n 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres, 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Godlpdra 
 
 17,689 
 
 40,896 
 
 8,192 
 
 49 
 
 656 
 
 1,057 
 
 5.193 
 
 611 
 
 74,343 
 
 8.149 
 
 66,194 
 
 Kamriip 
 
 204,327 
 
 357,179 
 
 87,240 
 
 4,110 
 
 28,361 
 
 37.284 
 
 65,893 
 
 86,487 
 
 840,881 
 
 121,684 
 
 719,197 
 
 Parrang 
 
 40,159 
 
 146,315 
 
 11,876 
 
 2,123 
 
 12,563 
 
 10,618 
 
 23,387 
 
 39,131 
 
 286,172 
 
 10,127 
 
 276,045 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 44,894 
 
 is.^sgo 
 
 61,751 
 
 2,305 
 
 19,911 
 
 4,636 
 
 26,028 
 
 11,440 
 
 326,555 
 
 42,101 
 
 284,454 
 
 Sibsagar 
 
 10,889 
 
 250.049 
 
 12,552 
 
 7,661 
 
 9,003 
 
 28,373 
 
 60,619 
 
 58,081 
 
 428,127 
 
 9,936 
 
 418,191 
 
 Lakhimpur .. 
 
 11.611 
 
 84.160 
 
 3,057 
 
 3,468 
 
 1.640 
 
 4,581 
 
 10.614 
 
 7,316 
 
 126,447 
 
 1,915 
 
 124,532 
 
 Total 
 
 329,569 
 
 1,015,089 
 
 184,668 
 
 19,716 
 
 72,134 
 
 1 
 
 86,549 
 
 171.734 
 
 203,066 
 
 2,082,525 
 
 193,912 
 
 1,888,613 
 
 * The names in tliis paragraph designate harvests rather than kinds of crop. In 
 Kamrup, for instance, the dhu includes (1) the dhulia dhu, sown early in dry pulverised 
 fields, which gives the best outturn ; (2) dsrd, sovvn broadcast in fields reduced to a puddle 
 by the early rains ; and (3) Icharma (called pharma in Upper Assam), which is transplant- 
 ed. The last two are less productive than the first. Under sdli is included bdo, a kind of 
 rice sown early in the season in hollows which fill too deeply with water for dhu or ordinary 
 sdli ; it is reaped about a month before the latter, and yields a very heavy outturn. Bdo 
 is sometimes sown broadcast and is sometimes transplanted ; in some districts the area 
 under this crop is considerable. It is sometimes sown together with dhu, and if the 
 inundation drowns the latter, the cultivator at least gets his crop of bdo ; if the rains are 
 moderate, both crops may be reaped, the dhu first, the bdo springing up after the other 
 has been taken away ; lastly, if the rains are scanty, the bdo hollows give an excellent 
 crop of sdli rice. Sdli, properly so called, is again divided into " Idhi " and " bor " dhdn : 
 tiie former includes the finer varieties, which are grown on comparatively high land 
 where the supply of water is somewhat scanty ; the latter is planted on land whichis 
 liable to be more heavily flooded. 
 
 E2
 
 28 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1 
 
 Section 4- Tlius, out of the total cultivation, 53-7 per cent, is late rice, or 
 Chief scili, and 17-4 per cent, early rice or dim. the two to2;ether makinsx 
 ""^ "' up 71-1 per cent, of the whole of the cultivation in the valley. 
 The remainder is distributed between mustard 9-7 per cent., pulse 
 3*8 per cent., sugarcane 1*04 per cent., the balance consisting 
 of other crops, such as til or sesamum, several varieties of 
 pulse or ddl, Indian-corn, tobacco, betel, plantations of sz^m-trees 
 {macliilus odoratissima) for rearing silk, vegetables for household 
 use, &c. 
 
 Of the land shown as cropped twice in the year, no portion is 
 included in that occupied by sdli rice or sugarcane. Aim rice, 
 mustard, and mdtikalai {phaseolus radiatus), the most common 
 variety of ddl or pulse grown in Assam) to some extent occupy the 
 same land, that cultivated in the sprim? with the first-named 
 yielding a winter crop of either of the two latter. But mustard 
 is chiefly grown in the low inundated country of Nowgong, Kdm- 
 rup, and Darrang, known as the chdpuri mahdls, on the light soil 
 left after the inundation has subsided. The grass is pressed down 
 and left to wither, after which it is burnt, the soil lightly stirred, 
 and the seed put in. The crop is reaped about February. 
 
 27. For the Surma Valley, owing to the fact that the greater 
 part of Sylhet is permanently settled, and 
 
 Sunn a ^ alley. ^ *' ^ •*■ '' 
 
 that Cachar is settled for a term, while in 
 neither district do mufassal establishments corresponding to the 
 patwaris of Upper India or the mandals of the Brahmaputra Valley 
 exist, we have no accurate statistics of the relative area under 
 different kinds of crop. But here also rice is so much the most 
 important staple that it is unnecessary to notice any other. There 
 is proportionately much less mustard grown in this valley than in 
 Assam Proper, and there is but little export of it to Bengal. 
 Besides mustard, a variety of radish, or tnidi, with a white flower, 
 is cultivated as an oil seed in Sylhet. The various kinds of pulse 
 are also insignificant in area. Sugar is produced in some quantity 
 in the south-west corner of the distri(3t, and has a local reputation. 
 The great crop of rice in Sylhet is the late rice, dman and sail : 
 the first of these two names is applied chiefly to rice sown broad- 
 cast, while the latter (which corresponds in name and character
 
 ^*^^P- '•] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 29 
 
 to the sail of Assam) is transplanted. This crop is reaped from Section 4. 
 the middle of JSTovember to the end of January. The cms {dsu or Chief 
 cihu of Assam) is a comparatively small crop; it is harvested 
 between the 1st June and the middle of September. In the 
 western and central parts of the district, which are subject to deep 
 flooding, a cold-weather rice, called sail hura, is grown in marshy 
 land, and reaped in April and May. This variety is only locally 
 of importance. 
 
 In Cachar, the rice crops resemble those of Sylhet, consist- 
 ing of the early and late dus (both minor crops), harvested between 
 June and September, and the sail and dsrd (the latter answering 
 to the dman of Sylhet), reaped in November and December. 
 
 28. In the hill districts, rice holds a less exclusive place 
 amoni:^ the crops cultivated. There are o-reat 
 
 Hill districts. ... *^ 
 
 differences in different parts of the province 
 in the crops grown and the system of cultivation adopted ; these 
 differences are determined partly by the character of the country 
 and partly by the degree of civilisation possessed by the tribe. 
 Among the KhAsis the system of agriculture is comparatively 
 elaborate, and carefully adjusted to the productive powers of the 
 soil. In the flattish valleys, with which the central plateau 
 abounds, rice is grown in terraced and well irrigated fields, and 
 such fields are found also on the northern margin of the district 
 wherever the conformation of the surface admits of them. With 
 this exception, however, the rest of their crops are grown on hill 
 sides, the turf and scrub upon which are burnt after being pre- 
 viously arranged in beds, and the seed sown in the ashes, which 
 serve as manure. In this way are raised unirrigated rice, potatoes, 
 various kinds of millet [the three principal being soh-riu or Job's- 
 tears (Coix lacrima), rai-tru {Eleusine coracarui), rai-shdng {Digi- 
 taria sp-?)], and a crop called sohphldng {Flemingia vestita), a 
 leguminous plant with a red flower, which produces large numbers 
 of tubers about the size of a pigeon's egg among its roots : these 
 are eaten raw by the Khdsis. 
 
 The crops just described are those of the central plateau ; 
 besides these, chiefly on the northern slopes of the hills towards
 
 30 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Sectiov 4. Kamrup and Nowgong, cotton is grown in forest clearings, or 
 ^l~f jhiims, -where the soil is enriched by burning the felled trees and 
 Staples, scrub. On the southern face of "the hills, and on the slopes 
 stretching into Sylhet, are produced the crops to which the wealth 
 of the Khtisis is so largely due, — oranges, betel-nuts, and pine- 
 apules. The orange and betel-nut trees grow together, in care- 
 fully kept and regularly renewed groves, and bear in immense 
 profusion. The pine-apple "grows like a weed in this region, and 
 is extraordinarily cheap and abundant. Besides these field crops, 
 every Kliasi village on the plateau has its carefully hedged home- 
 stead lands, in which fine crops of potatoes, Indian-corii, vege- 
 tables, and pulses are raised, with occasional plots of sugarcane. 
 
 No others among the hill races can compe.e with the Khasis in 
 the value of their staples, or the enlightened character of their 
 agriculture. The Garos to the west, and the Mikirs, Kacharis, 
 and Kukis to the east, cultivate entirely by jhuming, clearing the 
 forest with axe and fire, and growing in the space thus secured, 
 among the ashes of the trees and undergrowth, mixed crops of 
 long-stemmed rice, chillies, cotton, millets, and gourds. Some of 
 these tribes are less untidy than others in their mode of tillage, 
 and devote a jhiim to a single crop, as rice, cotton, or millet : 
 others mix their crops, which come to maturity at different times 
 during the year. But such a jhilm at best is a repulsive sight 
 with its rotting or half -burnt trunks of trees lying as they were 
 felled, and the crop struggling w^ith the weeds of the jungle. Land 
 thus jhiimed is nowhere occupied longer than three years, and often 
 less, after which it requires from ten to twenty years to recover its 
 fertility and to become reclothedwith forest. All the cotton grown 
 in the province is raised by the hill tribes in this manner, and is 
 remarkable for its short staple and harsh woolly fibre ; indeed, it so 
 much resembles wool that it has found a demand in Europe for 
 mixing with wool for the manufacture of carpets. 
 
 29. For a series of years, numerous experiments were made 
 annually with a view to ascertaining the 
 
 Average outturn of crops. , ° 
 
 average outturn of the* different crops grown 
 in Assam. The result of experiments continued over eight years
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 
 
 31 
 
 seems to be that sdli on the average yields a crop of about 20 Section 5, 
 maiinds per acre, dhu 17 maunds, and hao IG maunds.* In Sylhet, Co,Z^rc{al 
 the outturn of dman is nearly 19 maunds and that of dus 14 ^i'^P^es. 
 maunds per acre. The yield of dus (diimai and murdli) in Cachar 
 is 15 maunds per acre ; the experiments in other varieties of rice 
 in that district have not been sufficiently numerous to furnish a 
 reliable average. 
 
 For mustard, the same series of experiments shows an averao-e 
 outturn of 6^ maunds per acre. A particularly interestin^r 
 feature of the experiments in the outturn of this crop is the proof 
 afforded by them that the yield on land cultivated for the first 
 year is greater than that for the second year, and that in subse- 
 quent years the annual outturn falls rapidly. The figures for five ■ 
 years' experiments on lands cultivated for the first, second, and third 
 years are 574 pounds, 501 pounds, and 378 pounds, respectively. 
 
 The average yield per acre of other crops is — sugarcane 
 1,515 pounds, mdtikalai 401 pounds, linseed 433 pounds, rapeseed 
 328 pounds, uncleaned cotton 283 pounds, til 274 pounds, jute 
 1,045 pounds, and onions 1,625 pounds. 
 
 SECTION 5.— COMMERCIAL STAPLES. 
 
 30. The most important commercial staple of Assam 16 tea. 
 
 The plant is indigenous to the province, being 
 
 found wild in the forests south of the Dihino-, 
 
 in the Naga Hills to the south of Sibsagar, and in Manipur, North 
 
 Cachar, and the Lushai Hills. The following paragraphs, extracted 
 
 from a memorandum written by Mr. (now Sir ifolm) Edgar in 
 
 1873, give in a brief and convenient form a sketch of the growth 
 
 and progress of the tea industry in this province from its 
 
 commencement down to that year : 
 
 There have been lively disputes as to the first discoverer of tea in Assam 
 and the date of its discovery. It is probable that a Mr. C. A. Bruce, who 
 
 * Unfortunately, the experiments of earlier years failed to distinguish between the 
 different varieties of sdli and dhu. But from the figures for 1888-89 it appears that wliile 
 the bor dhdn variety of idli yielded 1,821 pounds per acre, ^ciAJ yielded only 1,159 pounds. 
 Similarly, transplanted dJiu or kharma dhdn gave an average outturn of 1,380 pounds, 
 against 1,300 pounds for dhu sown broadcast.
 
 32 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 5. commanded a division of gunboats in Upper Assam during the first Burmese 
 
 ^ . , war brought down from Upper Assam some plants and seed of the indige- 
 
 Commercial ? & ^ '■ -^ ^ 
 
 Staples. nous plant in 1826, and he actually received a medal from the English 
 Society of Arts. But his claim to have been the first discoverer of tea was 
 disputed by a Captain Charlton, who asserted that the existence of tea in 
 Assam had been first established by himself in 1832. In 1834, a committee 
 was appointed to enquire into, and report on the possibility of introducing 
 the cultivation of tea into India. In 1835 the first attempt was made by 
 Government to establish an experimental plantation in Lakhimpur, but it 
 failed, and the plants were afterwards removed to Jaipur, in the Sibsagar 
 district, and a garden established, which was sold to the Assam Company in 
 1840. This Company, which was formed about 1839, was the first, and is 
 still very much the greatest, concern for the cultivation of tea in Bengal. 
 It was not, however, very prosperous during its early years, and in 1846-47 
 its shares are said to have been almost unsaleable. Its prospects began to 
 improve about 1852, and in 1859 it was reported officially to have a cultiva- 
 ted area of about 3,'J67 acres, with an estimated outturn of over 760,000 
 pounds of tea. Meantime, tea cultivation had been commenced in many other 
 districts. In 1850 a garden was started by Colonel Hannay near Dibrugarh, 
 and in 1853, when Mr. Mills of the Sudder Court visited Assam, he found 
 three private gardens in Sibsagar and six in Lakhimpur. In 1854, the first 
 gardens were started in Darrang and Kamriip. In 1855 indigenous tea 
 was found in Cachar, and the first garden in the district was commenced in 
 the cold season of that year. In the following year (1856) tea was 
 discovered in Sylhet, but no attempt at cultivating it was made for some 
 time after. 
 
 It may be said generally that the foundations of the present tea indus- 
 try were laid between 1856 and 1859. In the latter year the labour 
 difficulty began to be seriously felt in Assam and Cachar ; but, although 
 Colonel Jenkins, Commissioner of Assam, recorded a serious warning, no 
 one else seemed able to foresee the formidable dangers into which the too 
 rapid progress of the industry would bring it. Later still, in 1862-63, 
 officials as well as planters seem to have indulged in visions of fabulous 
 prosperity, which only deepened the gloom of the miserable time that was 
 so soon to come on them. The Land Revenue Administration Report for 
 that year contains extracts from reports from Assam, Cachar, Sylhet, and 
 Darjeeling, written in the most hopeful spirit ; indeed, the two former are 
 written in an exalted tone that contrasts curiously with the usual sobriety 
 of official reports. But even'at the time of publication of these rej)orts 
 suspicions had begun to arise about the soundness of this condition of
 
 Chap. 1.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 33 
 
 affairs, which was apparently so brilliant. An Act for the regulation of the Sfxtion 5. 
 transport of native labourers emigrating to Assam and C'achar, passed in Commercial 
 1863, was expected to remedy many hideous evils which were discovered to ■^^"Z''^'" 
 exist in the impox'tation of labourers required to supplement the scanty 
 local supply. But it soon came to light that the condition of these labourers 
 on many gardens in both districts was most deplorable, while the morta- 
 lity among them was appalling. The evil first fruits of the reckless way 
 in which waste lands had been dealt with, in the belief that Government 
 was fostering tea cultivation thereby, were being gathered in the shape of 
 increasing hostility to Grovernment and its officials, caused by difficulties 
 about surveys, boundaries, title-deeds, and the like, which all had arisen 
 out of the mistaken policy of giving vast tracts of land to anyone choosing to 
 ask for them, without enquiry and without precaution of any kind. 
 
 In 1865, an Act was passed for the regulation of the relations of employ- 
 ers and imported labourers after the arrival of the latter in the districts of 
 Assam, Sylhet, and Cachar. Here I shall only say that, though at first at 
 least it did little to improve the condition of the labourers, I am convinced 
 that it had not the slightest connection with the temporary collapse of the 
 tea industry which took place in the following year. The cause of the 
 crash of 18G6 was the utterly unsound foundation on which the fabric of the 
 tea industry had been based, and not directly the action of Government, as 
 at the time it was the fashion of even usually well-informed persons to 
 assert. At the same time, we should never lose sight of the fact that the 
 industry might never have got into the ruinous slate of inflation that it was 
 in previous to 1866, had it not been for the unwise attempts of Government 
 to foster it at the outset by sacrificing the most necessary safeguards in 
 dealing with land. The depression of the industry consequent on the 
 collapse of so many concerns in 1866 was, of course, intensified by the 
 ignorance of the general body of proprietors of tea, shares, who, as was 
 remarked by me in a paper written in 1867, showed as much folly in their 
 hurry to get out of tea as they had a few years before in their eagerness to 
 undertake the speculation. 
 
 This depreciation of tea property continued during the years 1866, 1867, 
 and 1868; but about 1869 things began to look brighter. It was seen that 
 people who had worked steadily for years with a view to make gardens that 
 would yield a profit had been rewarded, while much of the property of the 
 collapsed companies had turned out well under careful management. In fact, 
 it was again found out that tea would pay, and ever since it has been 
 steadily progressing in popular estimation, and, as a general rule, in profit 
 to those engaged in it.
 
 34 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 5. There cannot be the slightest doubt that the industry is in an infinitely 
 
 Commercial better and safer position now than it was ten years ago. The existing 
 Staples. gardens are, as a general rule, well filled with plants, highly cultivated, and 
 carefully managed. The amount of tea produced per acre, although falling 
 far short of the sanguine expectation of the first days of tea-planting, is 
 satisfactory in all the more important districts, while the prices obtained 
 this season show that the average quality must be very good. There is 
 every reason to hope that the labour difficulty is disappearing in Cachar, 
 and, in spite of the complaints from Assam, there are evident signs of 
 improvement in that province. 
 
 Tea is now cultivated in all the plains districts of the province, 
 and there is one "arden in the Khdsi Hills. The followin« fiiiures 
 give the total area under tea in each district, and the estimated 
 outturn iu pounds, according to the last returns, those of 1892 : 
 
 
 
 Area in acres. 
 
 Approximate 
 outturn iu 
 pounds. 
 
 
 JMature 
 plants. 
 
 Immature 
 
 plants. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Brahmaputra Valley. 
 
 
 
 
 Godlpdra 
 
 380 
 
 36 
 
 416 
 
 144,825 
 
 Kamrup 
 
 4,004 
 
 218 
 
 4,822 
 
 769,384 
 
 Darrang 
 
 20,885 
 
 3,745 
 
 24,630 
 
 11,275,835 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 10,856 
 
 1,146 
 
 12,002 
 
 3,209,496 
 
 Sibsagar 
 
 50,503 
 
 7,441 
 
 57,994 
 
 18,094,557 
 
 Lakhimpur 
 
 32,793 
 
 7,391 
 19,997 
 
 40,184 
 
 15,567,207 
 
 Total 
 
 120,021 
 
 139,998 
 
 49,061,304 
 
 Surma Valley. 
 
 
 
 Sylhet 
 
 40,300 
 
 7,574 
 
 47,874 
 
 18,649,385 
 
 Cachar 
 
 53,184 
 
 6,106 
 
 59,290 
 
 16,506,444 
 
 Khasi Hills 
 
 20 
 93,504 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 4,000 
 
 Total 
 
 13,090 
 
 107,194 
 
 35,159,829 
 
 Grand total 
 
 213,525 
 
 33,067 
 
 247,192 
 
 84,221,133 
 
 When the industry was first undertaken, the land which was 
 supposed to be bast suited for the plant was hill or undulating
 
 Cha.X3, 1 ] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 35 
 
 Secttov c 
 ground, siicli as the spurs of the Khasi Hills, in South Kamrup, •' 
 
 and the tilas of Sylhet and Cachar. Now, however, it has been ^stapUsT 
 found in the Surma Valley that, with good drainage, the heaviest 
 crops of tea can be raised from low-lying land, even such as 
 formerly supported rice cultivation. In the Assam Valley, the 
 most suitable soil is considered to be the old alluvium, or bltdngar, 
 .such as is found in the south of Sibsdgar district and in the north 
 of Darrang. This is a rich loam, capable, by reason of its undu- 
 lating surface, of excellent drainage, and very heavy crops are 
 obtained from such gardens. The average outturn per acre was 
 in 1892 returned as 376 pounds for Sylhet and Cachar, and 409 
 pounds for the Assam Valley. 
 
 31. There is ample space still available for the extension of 
 
 the tea industry. Besides the 247,192 acres 
 inLTuy?^^ "^ *^^ ^^* shown in the above statement as already 
 
 occupied with tea, some 797,792 acres have 
 been taken up for plantation purposes, much of which will, no 
 doubt, in due time, be planted, though a good deal may be un- 
 suitable for tea. Prices have fallen considerably during the last 
 decade, but the introduction of labour-saving machinery and of 
 improved methods of cultivation, together with careful attention 
 to economic working, have combined to reduce the cost of 
 production to such an extent that the profits from the better class 
 of gardens are considerably larger, and the position of the industry 
 generally is now much more assured and satisfactory than it was 
 ten years ago. 
 
 32. There are four varieties of domesticated silkworms in 
 
 Assam. The smaller or multivoltine pat 
 
 Silk- ,7 7 -N T 1 1 
 
 worm {bombyjc croesi), and the larger or 
 unlvoltine worm of the same name {bombyx textor), both feed on 
 the mulberry, and produce a white silk, which was in considerable 
 demand in the days of the Ahom kings. The cultivation of these 
 silkworms is, however, decreasing, and there is little prospect of 
 its revival. The muga worm {anthercea Assama) feeds on the 
 sum tree {machilus odoratissima), and on the dualu {tetranthera 
 monopetala), as also on a variety of other trees, but the silk yield- 
 
 F 2
 
 36 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. U 
 
 Section 5. ed b}' the siuV'ied worm is the best. The worm is a multivoltine, 
 Commercial j^elcling as many as live broods in the year, but nsually only three 
 Staples. ^^ these are used for the manufacture of silk ; and in Upper Assam 
 breedino- is discontinued during the rainy season, and is resumed 
 on the approach of the cold weather with cocoons imported from 
 Kamri'ip and Nowgong. In Upper Assam, the worms are fre- 
 quently fed on patches of natural forest, but in the western 
 districts land is planted out with sum trees for this purpose. The 
 worms are placed on the trees as soon as they are hatched, and 
 are watched night and day during the whole period of their life 
 in the open air. When ready to spin their cocoons, they descend 
 the tree, and are removed by the cultivator. The cocoon is about 
 11 inch long by J'^hs of an inch in diameter, and yields a soft 
 silk of a bright yellow colour, with a beautiful gloss. The silk is 
 wound off the cocoon by an extremely primitive process of reeling. 
 In 1837, Mr. Hugon calculated that an acre of trees would support 
 worms yielding 50,000 cocoons, capable of being reeled into 12 
 seers of silk ; but a careful estimate prepared by the Deputy Com- 
 missioner of Sibsagar in 1882 places the outturn per acre at only 
 a quarter of this quantity, — a difference which may partly be 
 explained by supposing that Mr. Hugon was speaking of 
 plantations, while the Sibsagar estimate relates to natural sum 
 forest, where the trees grow much more sj^arsely. The area of such 
 forests in the Assam Valley (where alone the muga is produced) is 
 believed to be about 300 square miles ; but this great area is used 
 for breeding silkworms only as the alluvial lands of the Brahma- 
 putra are used for growing mustard, that is to say, parties of men 
 make clearance of the undergrowth in patches, and cultivate 
 silkworms for a year or two, after which they move to another 
 spot. TheJ fourth kind of silkworm reared in Assam is that called 
 m, from its feeding on the eri {endi) or castor-oil plant. This is 
 bred chiefly by Ivacharis, Mikirs, Gdros, and Kukis, both in the 
 Assam Valley and on the northern and southern skirts of the 
 central range of Assam, as also in the low hills to the south of 
 Sylhet and Cachar. It is a multivoltine worm, reared entirely 
 indoors, and yielding five broods in the year. The cocoon is
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 37 
 
 smaller than that of the muga, and its colour is either white or a 
 
 deep brick-red, both red and white cocoons being produced ^"'stTpul^^ 
 indifferently by worms of the same brood. The silk is never 
 reeled, but is spun off by hand. 
 
 The demand for eri silk is rapidly increasing, but all attempts at 
 producing it on a commercial scale have hitherto failed, the main 
 reason being that the castor-oil plants, on which the worm feeds, 
 are peculiarly liable to destruction by caterpillars when grown 
 in large quantities. As regards the muga cocoon, no method of 
 reeling it has yet been introduced which will enable it to be sold 
 at remunerative prices, and its chief sale continues, as heretofore, 
 to be for the purpose of embroidering the hand-made muslins 
 manufactured at Dacca. 
 
 33. Cotton is grown in large quantities along the slopes of the 
 
 Assam ramye, especially in the Gdro and 
 Cotton. , ^ ... 
 
 Mikir Hills ; it is also grown in the hilly 
 
 country in South Cachar and Sjdliet. It forms, except in the 
 Khasi Hills, almost the only produce which the hillman has to 
 barter for the necessaries which he buys at the submontane markets, 
 where a large business in it is done. The staple is, as already 
 mentioned, short and harsh, and the main demand for the hill 
 cotton comes from within the province. (A certain quantity, how- 
 ever, is exported, and 68,485 maunds were exported during 1892- 
 93, against only 14,199 maunds during the corresponding year of 
 the last decade. The demand outside the province seems, there- 
 fore, to be increasing.) 
 
 34. One of the most valuable products of Assam is India- 
 
 rubber, which is obtained almost exclusively 
 
 Rubber. . , . , - ^ ^ 
 
 from Ficus elastica, the outturn from other 
 local species being inappreciable. 
 
 The rubber tree, which formerly was found in greater or less 
 abundance in many parts of the province, is now restricted to the 
 most inaccessible forests of the Lakhimpur, Darrang, and Khasi 
 Hills districts, and in the last of these this tree is now fast dis- 
 appearing, owing to the wasteful and destructive methods employed 
 by the tappers for obtaining the rubber. There is also good reason 
 
 sii'i'o'j
 
 38 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 5. for supposing that the rubber forests situated in territory beyond 
 Commercial tho Assam frontier, and from which the larger portion of the total 
 ^^' outturn is obtained, are gradually becoming less productive than 
 formerly, and that the more accessible of these forests have been 
 completely worked out. When the last decennial report was com- 
 piled in 1882-83, the outturn of rubber was returned as 10,000 
 niaunds per annum. But since then there has been a large falling 
 off, the average output during the past ten years having only 
 slightly exceeded 5,000 maunds, and even this comparatively low 
 average has not been attained during recent years, as will be seen 
 from the followinsj fi";ures : 
 
 Maiinds. 
 Outturn in 1889-90 ... ... ... 3,419 
 
 „ 1890-91 ... ... ... 3,076 
 
 „ 1891-92 ... ... ... 4,227 
 
 „ 1892-93 ... ... ... 3,250 
 
 Within the last year, the old system of leasing out the product 
 over certain areas, known as mahdls, was abolished, and replaced 
 by a duty of Es. 12 per maund, which is imposed on all rubber 
 brought from beyond the frontier, or collected in the Government 
 forests. This change of system, however, did not come into force 
 until November 1892, which accounts for the sudden falling off 
 exhibited in the figures of 1892-93, which must, therefore, be 
 considered as abnormally low. The receipts from rubber durinoj 
 the past ten years have averaged Es. 33,079 a year, but a consi- 
 derable increase on this sum may be expected to result in future 
 years from the collection of the abovementioned duty. 
 
 The amount of rubber exported from Assam during the past 
 three years has been 4,844 maunds in 1890-91, 5,903 maunds in 
 1891-92, and 4,006 maunds in 1892-93. Its selling price in the 
 Assam markets is from Es. 50 to Es. GO a maund ; in Calcutta it 
 fetches as much as Es. 100. 
 
 35. Indigenous lac is found in the Assam forests, but the 
 
 j^^ staple is also largely cultivated by artificial 
 
 propagation. The lac insect is chiefly reared 
 
 on two kinds of fig [Ficus cordifolia and Ficus lacci/era), which are 
 
 planted on a large scale near villages in the Kdmrup and Darrang
 
 Chap.l.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 39 
 
 districts. The form in which the great bulk of the Lac is exported Section 5. 
 is stick lac, the crude product, consisting of small twigs surrounded Commercial 
 by cylinders of translucent orange yellow gum, in which the insects 
 which deposited it are embedded. A small export exists of sliell 
 and button lac, and of lac-dye, the result of a process of purifica- 
 tion applied to the stickdac. The twigs are first separated, and 
 the gummy envelope is then scraped and rubbed by hand under 
 a stream of water till the colouring matter has been thoroughly 
 extracted ; this con&ists of the dead bodies of the insects buried in 
 the gum, and gradually precipitates itself to the bottom of the 
 water when left to settle. The water is then drained off, and the 
 sediment, after being strained, pressed, and dried, becomes lac-dye, 
 ready for the market. The gummy exudation is meanwhile dried 
 in the sun, and then melted, in bags of cotton cloth, over a char- 
 coal fire. It is then squeezed out, either in thin sheets upon an 
 earthen cylinder, when it becomes shell-lac, or in dabs upon a 
 plantain stalk, when it is called button-lac. The exports of lac 
 and lac-dye during the last three years have been as follows : in 
 1890-91, 9,337 maunds ; in 1891-92, 14,753 maunds ; and in 1892- 
 93, 15,376 maunds, 
 
 36. - Mustard forms a very important commercial staple in the 
 Assam Valley, where, as shown in the 
 ^^ ^^ ' preceding section, it is largely grown in the 
 
 inundated country of Kdmrup and Nowgong. It is manufactured 
 to a small extent into oil within the province ; but this product is 
 consumed almost exclusively by the immigrant population. The 
 following are the exports of mustard-seed during the past three 
 years from the Assam Valley ; * 
 
 Maunds. 
 1890-91 ... ... ... ... 8,69,571 
 
 1891-92 ... ... ... ... 12,77,217 
 
 1892-93 ... ... ... ... 11,28,996 
 
 But little mustard is exported from Sylhet and Cachar. The 
 figures are — 
 
 IMaunds. 
 1890-91 ... ... ... ... 25,974 
 
 1891-92 ... ... ... ... 2J,958 
 
 1892-93 ... ... ... ... 18,750
 
 40 ASSx\JI ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Section 5. oij>^ j^te is growu for export in Godlpdra and Kamrup, but hardly 
 
 Comnercial at all in Other districts of the Assam Valley. 
 
 '*^ "' There is also a little jute in South Sylliet. 
 
 The following are the figures showing the export of this staple for 
 
 the past three years : 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 1890-91 ... ... ... ... 3,40,678 
 
 1891-92 ... ... ... ... 2,21,595 
 
 1892-93 ... ... ... ... 2,16,479 
 
 Nearly the whole of the above came from the Assam Valley. 
 38. Potatoes are very largely grown in the Khdsi Hills, but in 
 no other part of the province, as a commer- 
 
 Potatoes. . ^ ^ . \ ^ . 
 
 cial staple. They were introduced into this 
 district by Mr. David Scott, Governor General's Agent, in 1830, 
 and are now cultivated throughout the upper plateaux of the 
 Khasi Hills Proper, though not in the Jaintia country. Two crops 
 are produced j^early, the first being sown in February and March 
 and reaped in July, and the second put down in August and taken 
 up in November and December. The latter crop is chiefly used 
 for seed, and the export is wholly derived from the former. Large 
 quantities are carried down by cart to Gauhdti for the supply of 
 the Assam Valley. But the main channel of export to Bengal is 
 via Clierra Punji and Sylhet, whence the potatoes are conveyed by 
 boat. The exports reached the highest point known in 18<Sl-82,. 
 when they amounted to 1,26,981 maunds. In 1886-87, they were 
 returned at 1,04,940 maunds, but in that year the tubers were 
 attacked for the first time by a disease due to the presence of a 
 fungus [PhytophtJiora infestans), and in the following year the crop 
 was reported to have rotted in the ground. Owing to this disease, 
 the exports continued to fall from 41,548 maunds in 1887-88, and 
 24,386 maunds in 1889-90 to 12,016 maunds in 1890-91. The 
 disease is now reported to have disappeared to a large extent and 
 the exports have increased in consequence. In 1891-92 they were 
 returned at 29,321 maunds. In the following year (1892-93), 
 however, the exports fell again to 10,776 maunds in consequence 
 of diminished cultivation and increased local consumption.
 
 Forests. 
 
 Chap. 1.] PHYSICAJi FEATUllES, ETC 4 1 
 
 39. Another article of considerable traffic '■which is exported Section 5. 
 
 from the Khdsi Hills consists of oranf^^es. rn„7ZZr;,f 
 
 Oran^'es. ^unimcrLiak 
 
 These are produced in great abundance, and staples. 
 of excellent quality, on the slopes of the hills bordering on Sylhet, 
 where there is a continuous fringe of orange-groves belonging to 
 the Khdsi proprietors from the Bogapani river to the exit of the 
 Piy^ in at Dauki Bazar. The higher plateaux produce lemons of 
 the best quality in profusion, but these are not largely exported. 
 The exports of oranges from Sylhet during the last three years 
 are shown below : 
 
 Maunds. 
 
 1890-91 ... ... ... ... 1,06,854 
 
 1891-92 ... ... ... «. 1,13,694 
 
 1892-93 ... ... ... ... 25,259 
 
 40. As might be expected from the character of its surface 
 and climate, the area of forest in Assam is 
 very extensive, and it is the home of many 
 
 extremely valuable timber trees. The head of the Assam Valley. 
 including the Lakhimpur district and part of the Sibsdgar and 
 Darrang districts, is a forest country, the greater portion of the 
 land not under cultivation being stocked with dense and chiefly 
 evergreen forest. The middle and lower portion of the valley, 
 on the other hand, is a comparatively open tract with vast expanses 
 of grass savannah, and forest only in the vicinity of the hills, 
 on the extensive tracts of high land and on the isolated hills which 
 are found in this part of the valley. In the Surma Valley there 
 is little forest in Sylhet, except on the southern hills stretching 
 up from Tippera, and in the great valley of the Langai and Singla 
 rivers, in the south-eastern corner, where there is a forest tract 
 of 170 square miles. In Cacliar the whole of the south of the 
 district bordering on the Lushai Hills, measuring more than 700 
 square miles, is a forest reserve, whence the populous district of 
 Sylhet draws its timber supply ; there are also 38 square miles of 
 reserve in the north of this district. In the hill districts there is 
 less good forest than might be expected, though there is no lack 
 of wooded country ; the habits of the hill races do not permit 
 
 G
 
 42 ASSAM ADMINISTEATION EEPOET. [Chap. 1. 
 
 Section 5. except ill isolated spots to -u'liicli their jhums have not extended, 
 Commercial of tlie growtli of Valuable timber. Forest iires and jliuming have 
 staphs. ([qy].^^{\q^ the interior of the hills, where the people chiefly live, 
 of most of its forests ; but along the northern and southern skirts 
 there are large areas of natural forest still untouched. The 
 following is a statement of the forest area as it stood in each 
 district on the 31st March 1893, classed either as (]) reserved 
 or (2) unclassed forests in which no special measures of protection 
 are in force, but Government asserts its right to the trees, and 
 does not allow them to be felled without paj'inent : 
 
 Cachar 
 
 Sylhet 
 
 Goalpdra ... 
 
 Kdrariip ... 
 
 Darrang ... 
 
 Nowgong ... 
 
 Sibsagar ... 
 
 Lakhimpur 
 
 Garo Hills 
 
 Khasi andJaintia Hills 
 
 Naga Hills 
 
 The most valuable trees in the forests of Assam are ajhar 
 {laqerstrcemia regince) and sam {artocarpus chaplasha), which are 
 found throughout the Assam Valley, nahor (niesua ferrea)^ which 
 does not grow in the plains of the Brahmaputra Valley west of 
 the Mikir Hills, though common in the evergreen forests of the 
 Gdro and Khasi Hills, sal {shorea rohusta), which is found only 
 in the lower part of the valley, in Goalpdra, Kanirup, Darrang, 
 and Nowgong, and the Gdro and Khasi Hills, sissu (daWergia sissoo) 
 which is not found east of the Manas river, mir1 l-hgir (^acacia 
 catechu), which extends eastwards to Charduar in Darrang. In 
 the Surma Valley, 7iaho7' (there called nagesar), ajhar (there 
 
 Forest 
 
 reserves. 
 
 uiic'jaBseu 
 State forest 
 
 Sq 
 
 . miles. 
 
 Sq. miles, 
 
 
 752 
 
 749 
 
 
 170 
 
 241 
 
 
 673 
 
 17 
 
 
 128 
 
 468 
 
 
 298 
 
 191 
 
 
 143 
 
 213 
 
 
 848 
 
 603 
 
 
 429 
 
 3,529 
 
 
 133 
 
 217 
 
 
 52 
 
 100
 
 Chap. I.l PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 43 
 
 cnWed. jar id), and cham (the sam of A&sam) are the most important Section 5. 
 
 trees. Commercial 
 
 The only trees which are important articles of export are sal^ "^ ^^' 
 sam, and ajhar, which are largely floated down the Brahmaputra 
 into Bengal, and from Cachar into Sylliet, chiefly for boat building. 
 The exploitation of the Cachar forests for the service of Sylhet has 
 alwaj's been active and is extending, while that of the Brahmaputra 
 forests in Goalpara and Kamrup has lately appeared to be 
 stationary. The upper part of the Assam Valley is too remote 
 from a market for its timber resources to be yet regularly exploited ; 
 the only use made of the forests is to yield posts and beams for 
 house building, trees for <:Zzf^ow^5 (the only kind of boat made in 
 the Brahmaputra Valley), charcoal, chiefly for tea manufacture, 
 and soft woods for tea boxes. The time, however, will doubtless 
 come when, with ' the improvement of communications and the 
 spread of population, these valuable forests will play their part in 
 the development of the province. 
 
 The timber exported from Assam in 1892-93 was valued at 
 Es. 11,76,234. 
 
 41. Among the "commercial staples" of Assam, elephants 
 ^, . , should also be mentioned. These valua- 
 
 Llephants. 
 
 ble animals abound in the forests of the 
 Assam Valley, on the lower slopes of the Assam Hange, and in 
 South Cachar and South-Eastern Sylhet. The Government khedda 
 establishment from Dacca have annually hunted the Garo Uills 
 forests for several years past, and large numbers of animals have 
 been captured by this agency. When not required for the purposes 
 of the Government khedda, the elephant mahdls (or right of hunt- 
 ing within certain defined tracts) are leased by auction sale to the 
 highest bidder. Besides the price of the mahdl, the lessee has to 
 pay a royalty of Rs. 100 on each animal captured. In 1890-91 
 259 elephants were caught by lessees, in 1891-92, 66, and in 
 1892-93, 103. The number of elephants caught by lessees has 
 been falling off' of late years, owing to the large captures effected 
 by the Government khedda estabhshment, which have resulted 
 in a considerable dechne in the market value of elephants. 
 
 G2
 
 44 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. I Chap. 1. 
 
 SECTION 6,-^MJNUFACTUEES. 
 
 Section 6. 42. Tea is tlie only important article of manufacture in Assam. 
 
 M^^m^ac- The total quantity of tea produced in 1892 
 
 *"''''■ ^'^' is returned as 84,221,133 pounds, of which 
 
 35 159,829 pounds were manufactured in the Surma Valley and 
 
 49,061,304: pounds in the Assam Valley. A sketch of the tea 
 
 industry has been given in the preceding section. 
 
 43. In proceeding to consider the native manufactures of 
 
 Assam, it is necessary to remember that the 
 Native mamifactureB province posscsses no large cities where 
 
 artisans can find scope for employment, and 
 that the common industrial classes of other parts of India, such as 
 carpenters, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, or masons, are represented 
 in Assam by workers imported from Bengal, and paid at extremely 
 high rates. The list of indigenous Assamese manufactures com- 
 prises only silk, thread, and fabrics, coarse cotton fabrics woven 
 mostly from imported thread, brass utensils, oil expressed from 
 the seeds of mustard and til, coarse sugar^ a few kinds of jewellery, 
 some ornamental articles in ivory, and common domestic pottery 
 and agricultural implements. The Assamese, in fact, are singularly 
 wanting in mechanical genius, and, although the occupation of an 
 artisan is one of the most remunerative in the province, the indus- 
 trial school established at Jorhdt has always suffered from a lack 
 of appreciation by the people whom it was intended to benefit. 
 
 44. The silk fabrics are the produce chiefly of the Assam 
 
 Valley. The various kinds of silk have been 
 described in the preceding section. It is 
 difficult to say whether their production, on the whole, is increas- 
 ing or decreasing. The common opinion is that it is largely on the 
 decline, and this is probably true of the silk yielded by the pat 
 or mulberry silkworms, which was more largely in vogue under the 
 native Government of the Assam Valley than it is in the present 
 day, when it is being supplanted by the cheaper tufisar of Bengal. 
 The price of the i7iugd and eri silks has also risen fourfold within 
 the last fifty years ; but this circumstance is probably 'due in part
 
 Chap. 1.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 45 
 
 to the influx of money into the province, while it is by no means Sfxtion 6. 
 certain that these silks were at any time more easily procurable Mamifac- 
 than they are now. The earliest mention of them is to be found "''^^' 
 in Muhammad Kasim's chronicle of Mir Jumla's invasion of Assam 
 in 1GG2, and it was then observed that the silks, though good, 
 were produced in quantities sufficient only for domestic consump- 
 tion. This is exactly the case at the present time, and as the 
 population of the Assam Valley is certainly greater now than it 
 was in 1662, it would seem to follow that the production of silk 
 is not less than it was in the most flourishing days of the Aliom 
 kingdom. The muga silk is used as an article of dress by the 
 wealthier classes in the Assam Valley, and is largely exported to 
 the southern hills, where it is much sought after by the Gdros, 
 Khdsis, and other hill tribes. Muga thread is also exported to 
 Bengal. Eri silk is, perhaps, even more extensively manufactured 
 than muga. Unlike the latter, it is not exported in the form of 
 thread, but considerable quantities of the cloth are purchased by 
 the Bhutia traders, who descend into the northern part of the 
 Godlpara, Kamriip, and Darrang districts every winter. En cloth 
 is now largely made up into coats, &c., for summer wear by 
 Europeans, and the demand for it on this account is increasing 
 every year. It is generally worn in the cold months by the 
 peasantry of the Assam Valley. The thread is produced also by 
 Kukis and Mikirs in the lower parts of the central range of Assam, 
 and is woven into the striped cloths which form the ordinary 
 dress of all the tribes inhabiting those highlands. It is impossible 
 to give even an approximate estimate of the quantity of muga 
 or eri produced annually in any part of the province. The value 
 of eri thread is Us. 5 to Es. 7 per seer ; of muga thread, Es. 8 to 
 Es. 12 ; while good gn' cloth sells at Ee. 1-8, and good m?^^^ at 
 Es. 2-4 per square yard. The manufacture of both kinds of silk 
 is purely domestic. There are no large filatures, nor is there any 
 system of breeding the worms on an extensive scale. The raiyat 
 breedM silkworms enough to yield him a few chhataks of thread, 
 which he either weaves himself, or disposes of at the village fair. 
 There is no regular trade in silk jarns or fabrics, nor any stated 
 market where they can be bought in large quantities.
 
 46 ASSAM ADiriNISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 6. 45^ The cotton fabrics of Assam deserve no particular mention. 
 Manufac- By tlie liill tribes and by the Miris in the plains, 
 
 t tt VS S V^ O L L Oil • 
 
 they are woven from cotton locally grown, 
 and gaily coloured with native dcyes. Elsewhere English thread is 
 generally used. A kind of rug or blanket is made by the Kukis and 
 jNIiris, with cotton ticking on a backing of coarse cloth. The cotton 
 cloths of the Nagas are very substantial and tastefully coloured. 
 
 46. Brass utensils are made by the Morias, a low Muhammadan 
 
 caste found chiefly in the districts of Sibsa^ar 
 
 Brass. "^ p 
 
 and JSTowgong. These are of the rudest kind, 
 without any attempt at finish or ornamentation. A style of 
 vessels somewhat superior to these is made at Gauhdti and at 
 Sarthibdri in Kdmrup. 
 
 47. The manufacture of mustard oil is of recent introduction. 
 
 The mill used is the ordinary bullock-mill of 
 
 Oil and sugar. ^ . 
 
 Upper India, and is gradually supplantmg 
 the domestic oil-press, which consists simply of a short beam 
 loaded with a heavy stone. Gui\ or coarse sugar, is entirely an article 
 of domestic manufacture. It is made by the rudest method, is never 
 exported, and its consumption within the province is but small. 
 
 48. The common jewellery of Assam is chimsy and ungraceful, 
 
 consistinoj chiefly of pieces of coloured glass 
 
 Jeweller}^. ° . ^ ^ , ^ 
 
 roughly set m gold or silver. Some beautiful 
 gold filigree-work is, however, made in Barpeta, and the art of 
 enamelling is still preserved in Jorlidt. The Klidsi bracelets, neck- 
 lets, and earrings in gold and silver are handsome ornaments, 
 though somewhat heavy in design ; and the Manipuri jewellery, or 
 similar patterns, is imitated in Sylhet. 
 
 49. The district of Sylhet is noted for its ivory, mats, and fans, 
 
 and the manufacture of shell-bracelets gives 
 
 Sylhet manufactureH. .*, 
 
 employment to a large number of artificers 
 in the town of Sylhet. These bracelets are cut out as solid rings 
 from large white conch-shells obtained from mau)^ places on the 
 sea coast in and near India. They are of graceful appearance, 
 and command a ready sale. In pargana Patharia, in this district, 
 there is a considerable manufacture of agar attai\ a perfume 
 distilled from the resinous sap of the agar tree {aquilaria
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 47 
 
 agallocha). This perfume is much esteemed by Oriental nations, Section 7. 
 and is exported, vid Calcutta, to Turkey and Arabia. Iron work Trade and 
 inlaid with brass, talwdrs and ddos, and such like articles, are '^'^>>''"^'^^<^^- 
 manufactured in Eajnagar and Lashkarpur in Sylhet. Boat 
 buildinix is also carried on to a considerable extent in that district. 
 Jorhdt, in the Sibsdgar district, still enjoys some local reputa- 
 tion for its ornamental carved work in ivory. This town is also 
 the only place in Assam where ornamental pottery is made. 
 
 50. The. boat-making of Barpeta ought, perhaps, to be men- 
 
 tioned in a catalo":ue of provincial industries. 
 
 Boats. ° _ ^ ^ 
 
 The roughly-hollowed logs are floated across 
 from the Gdro Hills, and, after being further excavated till the 
 thickness of the outer skin is reduced to about an inch and a 
 quarter, they are subjected to a steaming process in the boat- 
 builder's hands, being smeared with liquid mud and inverted over 
 a line of burning embers. While thus softened, the future boat 
 is widened by the insertion of thwarts. If, as usually happens, 
 it splits in the process, the rent is patched with a piece of wood 
 fastened in by clamps holding its bevelled edges to those of the 
 aperture. In this way boats sixty feet long by six or seven feet 
 in breadth are constructed, capable of lasting, if the wood be 
 good forest timber, for ten years or even longer. The same 
 process is followed elsewhere in the valley where boats are made. 
 No such thing as a built boat has probably ever been attempted 
 in the Brahmaputra Valley. 
 
 SECTION 7.— TRADE AN J) COMMERCE. 
 
 51. In the preceding sections an account has been given of 
 
 the most important commercial staples which 
 
 Introductory, -^ ^ 
 
 are produced in the province. It remains to 
 describe the general course of provincial trade, the classes by 
 whom it is conducted, the routes which it follows, and the markets 
 where transactions are concluded. 
 
 52. The trade of Assam is carried on in two different directions : 
 fu'st, and chiefly, with the neighbouring 
 
 Assam. 
 Trade routes. 
 
 Nature of trade in Assam. . « -r» i t ^^ • ^^ ^i 
 
 provnice 01 Bengal ; and, secondly, with the 
 
 foreign Stales and tribes which surround
 
 48 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section- 7. British territory on three sides. Both descriptions of trade are 
 Trade and registered, the first at the stations of Dhubri on the Brahmaputra 
 Commerce. ^^^^ Bhairab Bazar on the Surma, by -which channels nearly all 
 the merchandise from or for Bengal enters or quits the province : 
 and the second, either by special agency on the channels of 
 communication, or by the collection of statistics at the various 
 fairs or marts in the frontier districts to which the neisrhbourinoj 
 tribesmen resort. 
 
 The traffic conveyed by the boats and steamers that ply on the 
 Brahmaputra and Surma represents by far the most important 
 part of the trade between Bengal and Assam, in which as yet 
 railwa3's have no share. A certain amount of road traffic also 
 takes place, but this is not large enough to justify the retention 
 of a special establishment for the purpose of registering it. 
 Figures are, however, collected by the police at Sidli and Baida, 
 but, as they receive no special pay for this work, the figures 
 supplied are not very reliable. The river traffic is carried on 
 both by boat and by steamer. Mail steamers run daily on the 
 Brahmaputra river, between Dibrugarh and Goalundo, and on the 
 Surma between Goalundo and Silchar during the rainy season 
 and between Goalundo and Fenchuganj in the cold weather. A 
 considerable amount of cargo is carried in these steamers, but 
 special cargo steamers with large flats also run, and carry goods 
 whose bulk renders them unsuitable for carriage by the smaller 
 and more speedy mail steamers. Statistics of the goods carried 
 by these vessels are transmitted by the companies to which they 
 belong, through the Government of Bengal. 
 
 The boat traffic is registered by special establishments, which 
 were located in 1879 at the two points already mentioned. 1'lie 
 quantity of the goods carried is all (except in a few instances) 
 that these establishments record ; values are applied to these 
 quantities in the offices of the Deputy Commissioners of Dhubri 
 and Sylhet, according to the prices ruling for the articles at those 
 stations. The figures furnished by the steamer companies are 
 treated in the same way. 
 
 Boats monopolise the greater part of the trade between Assam 
 and Bengal in lime, rice, gram, kerosine and other oils, salt, sugar,
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 49 
 
 tobacco, oranges, and potatoes, but the more expensive articles of Section 7. 
 merchandise, such as tea, piece-goods, liquors, and metals, and Trade and 
 also coal and mustard, are for the most part carried by steamer. 
 A curious feature in the returns is that whereas in the Brahma- 
 putra Valley in 1882-83 steamers carried 85 per cent, of the total 
 value of the inter-provincial trade, in 1892-93 they carried only 
 82*63 per cent., while in the Surma Valley the value of goods 
 carried by steamer has increased from 45 per cent., at the 
 commencement of the decade to 61*89 per cent, at its close. In 
 the case of the latter valley, however, the increase in the propor- 
 tional values of articles carried by steamer is more than accounted 
 for by the traffic in a single article, tea. Not only is none of that 
 article now carried by boat, but the total value of the tea exported 
 has increased by more than the absolute increase in the value of 
 goods carried by steamer. 
 
 Taking the province as a whole, the value of goods carried by 
 steamer has increased in the last ten years by 40 per cent., as 
 against 50 per cent, in the case of goods carried by boat. 
 
 53. Full details of the imports into, and exports from, Assam 
 to foreign countries and to the neighbouring 
 province of Bengal will be found in Part IIb 
 of the General Administration Eeport. In 1892-93, the total value 
 of the imports from foreign countries amounted to Es. 7,92,189, and 
 that of the exports amounted to Es. 2,54,192. The total value of 
 the trans-frontier trade was therefore Es. 10,46,381. Considerably 
 more than half the imports were from Hill Tippera, and consisted 
 mainly of timber, canes, and other forest produce. Next in value 
 were the imports from Bhutan and Towang, amongst which blankets 
 and ponies formed the most important items. Of the exports, the 
 largest were those to Bhutan and Towang (chiefly rice and raw 
 silk), and to Hill Tippera (salt). 
 
 Turning to the inter-provincial trade, it may be noted that the 
 imports aggregated Es. 3,17,81,690, and the exports Es. 6,30,48,969. 
 In the following table, statistics are given showing the imports 
 and exports from each valley separately, and the form of carriage 
 used : 
 
 H
 
 50 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTEATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 7. 
 
 Trade and 
 Commerce. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 -* 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 "O 
 
 QD 
 
 OT 
 
 • 
 
 C5_ 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 03 
 
 ■^ 
 
 !" 
 
 ■<* 
 
 
 P3 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 Tji 
 
 c:> 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ca 
 
 m 
 
 -* 
 
 t-^ 
 
 (M" 
 
 
 
 
 P4 
 
 (M_ 
 
 T?^ 
 
 t>^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •'l'" 
 
 oT 
 
 tcT 
 
 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 \a^ 
 
 "*~ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 oT 
 
 
 
 •* 
 
 (M 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 eo 
 
 ■<? 
 
 & 
 
 1-4 
 
 
 i-H 
 
 eo 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 ca 
 
 uo" 
 
 eo' 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 iO 
 
 to 
 
 C^_ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 oT 
 
 t-^ 
 
 t>^ 
 
 
 1/3 
 
 
 ■>* 
 
 '^ 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -*" 
 
 (N" 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 ^—^ 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 »o 
 
 
 
 
 «o 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 •3 
 
 en 
 
 t^ 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 ■•-> 
 
 Ph 
 
 <— 1 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «> 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 Tp 
 
 
 
 ■<i< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vO 
 
 '^ 
 
 ctT 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 eo 
 
 
 13 
 
 m 
 
 cs^ 
 
 • 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 K 
 
 0^ 
 
 • 
 
 (M" 
 
 
 P4 
 
 
 to 
 eo 
 
 
 to 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 
 c— 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 • 
 
 to 
 
 1—1 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 rt 
 
 (4 
 
 (N 
 
 eo 
 
 10 
 
 
 (§ 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 to 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 \S 
 
 CJi" 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 C<l 
 
 t- 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c— 
 
 CO 
 
 »M 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 eo 
 
 Oi 
 
 co" 
 
 '"' 
 
 Pi 
 
 (M 
 
 VO 
 
 00 
 
 
 _2 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 0" 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 1—1 
 
 
 
 C^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 CTS 
 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 • 
 
 a^ 
 
 (M 
 
 T-( 
 
 
 ii 
 ^ 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 (N 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 to 
 
 t-^ 
 
 
 
 t>;^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •* 
 
 
 
 
 i-H 
 
 »— 4 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^' 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 ^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 tt) 
 
 
 ' ■ ■ ■■ 
 
 
 CX) 
 
 CO 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 vO 
 
 05 
 
 >o 
 
 
 
 
 05_ 
 
 lO 
 
 lO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4^ 
 
 ^" 
 
 T-T 
 
 -<* 
 
 to" 
 
 
 § 
 
 U5 
 
 00 
 
 cq^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 0" 
 
 tcT 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 c- 
 
 t- 
 
 '<? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I— T 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 00 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 , 
 
 
 "* 
 
 Oi^ 
 
 ■<3< 
 
 [3 
 
 
 to 
 
 "*" 
 
 »o" 
 
 0" 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 eo 
 
 
 
 ':»< 
 
 
 
 
 s" 
 
 t-T 
 
 (M" 
 
 
 
 
 
 l>^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 eo 
 
 '-' 
 
 -*" 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 
 1— H 
 
 lO 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 10 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 • 
 
 oT 
 
 0" 
 
 00 
 
 
 pa 
 
 iO_ 
 
 0^ 
 
 ■<* 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 «r 
 
 eo" 
 
 cT 
 
 
 
 
 t>^ 
 
 »o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 co~ 
 
 cT 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 __, 
 
 P-. 
 
 (a 
 
 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 j:i • 
 
 
 
 
 •!-> 
 
 
 -^ <o 
 
 
 
 
 3 . 
 
 c3 
 
 ^ y 
 
 g 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 g 
 
 s 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 1" -
 
 Chap- I ] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 5 I 
 
 The principal imports into the Brahmaputra Valley were rice, Section 7. 
 salt, gram and pulse, kerosine-oil, iron and sugar, while salt, gram, Trade and 
 kerosine-oil and pulse, sugar, tobacco, and coal and coke figured 
 most largely amongst the Surma Valley imports. Of the exports 
 from the Brahmaputra Valley, coal and coke, rape and mustard- 
 seed, timber, tea, raw jute, and rice in the husk, were the most 
 important, and rice in the husk, lime, bamboo, and tea from the 
 Surma Valley. Eice in the husk (paddy) is exported from the 
 Brahmaputra Valley, and husked rice is imported. Lime forms 
 one of the most important articles of export from the Surma Valley, 
 while in the Brahmaputra Valley a considerable quantity of the 
 same commoditj'- is imported from Bengal. 
 
 54. The classes who conduct the trade of the province are 
 _ ,. , different in the two valleys. In both, tea, the 
 
 Trading classes. / 
 
 great export of Assam, is consigned straight 
 from the gardens where it is produced to Calcutta, either to be sold 
 there or shipped to England for sale. But almost all the rest of 
 the export traffic, and nearly the whole of the import traffic, of the 
 Assam Valley is in the hands of Marwari traders, commonly called 
 Kaiyas, who not only manage the wholesale, but to a very large 
 extent the retail, trade of the valley. Besides these, there are a 
 few Muhammadan merchants from Dacca, who have settlements 
 in the chief centres ; but their transactions are small compared 
 with those of the Kaiyas. It is very remarkable to notice the 
 complete mastery of the internal commerce of the valley which 
 these strangers possess. The native Assamese hardly ever engages 
 in anything more extensive than petty shopkeeping, and this only 
 in the western portion of the valley. But the Marwari is found, 
 keen to buy and sell, wherever money is to be made ; he settles 
 himself not only in the populous villages of the inhabited region, 
 but in the midst of the jungle, on the paths leading to the mountains 
 from which the wild tribes come ; and it is exclusively with him 
 that these visitors do business. 
 
 In the Surma Valley the conditions are different. Here there 
 are comparatively few Marwaris, though they are not altogether 
 absent. The native population contains a large trading element, 
 and merchants from Dacca are more numerous than in Assam. 
 
 H2
 
 Comtnerce. 
 
 52 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOET. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 7. jn the hill districts there are considerable differences in the 
 Trade and cxtent to whicli the pcoplc themsclves engage in trade. In most 
 of these tracts, traffic is a necessary of life, the hills not producing 
 sufficient food for the people to live upon ; but in most also it 
 takes the simple form of barter, the exports consisting chiefly of 
 cotton, wax, ivory, and forest produce, and the imports of rice, 
 salt, dried fish, and cloth. But in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills 
 there is a much more active commerce. The valuable staples of 
 this tract have already been mentioned, and the trade in them is 
 kept by the people almost entirely in their own hands. Many of 
 them are adventurous merchants, travelling as far as Dacca, or 
 even Calcutta, during the cold season. In the Ndga Hills, too, the 
 Angdmi Ndgas, who occupy the central region, though producing 
 nothing of commercial importance themselves, do a thriving 
 business as carriers between Manipur and Assam, and spend much 
 money in the markets of the plains in the purchase of articles of 
 use or luxury for themselves. 
 
 55, All over the province there are weekly lidts, or markets, on 
 stated dates, where bu5^ers and sellers meet. 
 
 Trading centres. 
 
 and most of the business is done. Except at 
 a few places, there are no permanent hdzdrs. During the cold 
 weather, fairs are held along the foot of the hills which mark the 
 frontier, and to these the hillmen come down with their produce. 
 The most important permanent centres of commerce are Goalpara, 
 Barpeta, Eangia, Gauhdti, Kalaigaon, Tezpur, Nowgong, Chappar- 
 mukh, Bishndth, Golaghdt, Jorhtit, Lakhimpur, Dibrugarh, and 
 Sadiya, in the Assam Valley ; and Habiganj, Ajmiriganj, Sundmganj, 
 Chhdtak, Bdldganj, Sylhet, and Silchar in the Surma Valley. The 
 cold-weather fairs for frontier trade are held at Udalguri, Kher- 
 kheria, and Daimdra in the Darrang district for the Bhutias ; and 
 at Sadiya in the Lakhimpur district for the Abors, Mishmis, 
 Khdmptis, and Singphos. Besides these places, the Bhutias resort 
 largely to various marts in North Kdmrup, the Akds and Daflas to 
 Tezpur, the Daflas and Miris to Lakhimpur, and the southern 
 Ndgas to Jaipur and Goldghdt. In the Surma Valley, Barkhola 
 is the chief mart for North Cachar, Jaintiapur for the Jaintia Hills, 
 and Lakhat, Bhoh'iganj, and several other smaller markets to the
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 53 
 
 east for the Klitisi Hills. The Lushais are mainly served by a Section- 8. 
 bdziir at Changsil, where there are a few shops kept by Bengalis mIh^s and 
 from Silchar. The Manipur trade is chiefly carried on at Lakhipiir, ^^'"'^''"^^• 
 and that with Hill Tippera down the rivers which emerge from 
 that country into Sylhet. 
 
 SECTION 8.— MINES AND MINERALS. 
 
 56. In the section dealing with the geology of the province 
 
 some account has been given of the most 
 
 General remarks. . •inn-* 
 
 important minerals found in Assam, viz,, coal 
 and limestone. Iron occurs in the metamorphic and sub-metamor- 
 pliic rocks of the Shillong plateau, and is found in small quantities, 
 in the form of nodular masses of clay ironstone, in the neighbour- 
 hood of the coal of the Makum field. Petroleum springs exist in 
 the same locality. Gold was anciently washed in the rivers of 
 Upper Assam, but the industry is not now found to be worth 
 pursuing. Salt springs exist in several parts of the Bardil-Pdtkoi 
 section of the Assam Eange. 
 
 57. The mineral of the first economic importance to Assam is 
 
 undoubtedly the coal which is found on the 
 • north-western face of the Eastern Xaga Hills. 
 
 Upper Assam. o- t i r> i 
 
 Situated as these fields are, near the upper 
 terminus of steam navigation on the Brahmaputra, it had long 
 been recognised that their successful exploitation would effect a 
 revolution in the carrying trade by steamers on that river, which 
 formerly depended on Kaniganj for their fuel supply. The exist- 
 ence of coal here has been known since 1825. The question of 
 opening out the fields was reported on by a coal committee, as- 
 sembled at Calcutta in 1840 and 1845. The locahties were summarily 
 examined by Mr. Medlicott, of the Geological Survey, in 1865, and 
 in the seasons 1874-75 and 1875-76 Mr. Mallet, of the same Survey, 
 made a careful inspection of all the coal outcrops from the Tirdp 
 to the Desoi river. His report, which contains a detailed descrip- 
 tion of the several fields, will be found in Volume XII of the 
 Memoirs of the Geological Survey. The coal measures extend 
 along a distance of about 110 miles, but are exposed only where
 
 54 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section- 8. ii^q river valleys have cut into them. Five coal-fields have been 
 Mijies and described and named by Mr. Mallet, viz., the Makum, Jaipur, 
 Minera s. -jvij-^^ira (Dildiu and Safrai), Jlianzi, and Desoi fields. Besides these, 
 in the further extension of the Ndga Hills up the Dihing Valley to 
 the frontiers of Burma, there are other known, but not regularly- 
 explored, localities where coal occurs. The most important is the 
 Makum field on the Dihing river, where the seams reach an 
 immense thickness. Several desultory attempts had, from time to 
 time, been made to work the coal there, but, owing to difficulties 
 of labour and transport due to the uninhabited character of the 
 country, and the difficult navigation of the Dihing river, no large 
 quantity had, at any time, been brought out, until some ten years 
 ago, when the mine was leased to the Assam Eailways and 
 Trading Company, and a railway was constructed from the Brah- 
 maputra at Dibrugarh to the coal measures on the Dihing. Since 
 
 that time the mines have been vigorously 
 tons, worked, and the output of coal has risen 
 J890 '.!i 145,708 Steadily. The coal, which is of excellent 
 
 J^^.^ ••• }g^'yj5 quality, not surpassed by any and equalled 
 
 by few coals in India, is now exclusively used 
 by the steamers navigating the Brahmaputra. Local requirements 
 in the Brahmaputra Valley are entirely met by it, and in addition 
 large quantities are exported for consumption in ocean-going 
 steamers and other purposes. 
 
 A portion of the Dikhu or Nazira field, situated a short distance 
 within the hills south of Sibsagar, whence that river issues, is held 
 on lease by the Assam Company, but, except for the needs of the 
 lessees, has not yet been worked to any extent. In fact, since 
 1888 no coal at all has been extracted from this field. The other 
 outcrops, the Jaipur field in the Dihing, which is very favourably 
 situated for working, and the Jhanzi and Desoi fields, which are 
 less accessible from the plains, have not yet been exploited. 
 
 58. The only other localities where coal has been found in 
 „ , 1 rr, , . TT-,, the province are situated in the Gdro and 
 
 Garo and Khasi Hills. ^ 
 
 the Khdsi and Jaintia Hills. As already 
 noticed, this coal is of two very distinct kinds, the older or cretaceous
 
 Minerals. 
 
 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 55 
 
 coal, and the newer or nummulitic coal. The greatest deposits Section 8. 
 are those of the former in the coal-field of Darranggiri, on the Mines and 
 Someswari river, in the Gdro Hills. This field (which has been 
 described in the " Records of the Geological Survey," Volume 
 XV, page 175) is situated north of the main axis of the Garo 
 Hills, on either side of the gorge through which the river makes its 
 way to the plains. It has been estimated to contain 76 milhon 
 tons of good workable coal. At the exit of the Jadukata river, 
 near the western boundary of the Khdsi Hills, cretaceous coal is 
 found ahnost at the level of the plains, and the coal-bearing rocks 
 are exposed over an area of 30 square miles, so that there is a 
 large amount of coal available here in a very accessible situation. 
 A tramway might be laid from the Darranggiri field to the 
 plains of Mymensingh without much difficulty, and would bring 
 within reach of a market a very large supply of coal. With these 
 exceptions, both the cretaceous and the nummulitic coal in the 
 Khdsi Hills are found in small confined areas, which may be 
 described as pockets, representing original depressions in the 
 surface where the forests grew or woody matter accumulated. 
 The seams soon thin out, and no very extensive supply from any 
 one place can be reckoned on. The largest of these minor fields 
 are those at Cherra Punji and Lakadong. The last estimate of 
 the available coal (nummulitic) in the Cherra coal-field places 
 it from 1,200,000 to 1,370,000 tons (" Eecords of the Geological 
 Survey," Volume XXH, page 167), so that it would be exhausted 
 in less than ten years if extracted at the rate now attained at 
 Makum. Another obstacle in the way of working it is the eleva- 
 tion at which the coal is found, and the consequent cost and 
 difficulty which would be involved in transporting it to the plains. 
 The coal, however, is of excellent quality, and is one of the few 
 Indian coals which can be used with absolute safety on board 
 ocean-going steamers. The Lakadong coal-field is situated near 
 
 DO O 
 
 the southern edge of the Jaintia Hills, about 7 miles from the 
 plains, at Barghat on the Hari river. It was last visited in 
 1890 by Mr. T. D. LaTouche, whose report will be found in the 
 *' Kecords of the Geological Survey," Volume XXIII, page 14. The
 
 Minerals. 
 
 56 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPOIIT. [Chap. X. 
 
 Sections, field is calculated to contain about 1,1G4,000 tons of coal, ^Yllich, 
 Mines and like that of Clicrra Punji, belongs to the nummulitic or lower 
 eocene division of the tertiary formation. The elevation of this 
 field is 2,200 feet, or about half of that at Cherra Punji. 
 
 59. Iron exists in Assam, as in most other parts of India, in 
 great quantity and in various forms ; but the 
 competition of English iron, "vyitli the exhaus- 
 tion of the supplies of fuel which supported the native furnaces, 
 has almost extinguished the indigenous industry in the Khdsi 
 Hills ; while in Sibsdgar, where in the days of the Assam Eajas 
 iron-smelting was extensively practised, and the great iron cannon 
 for which Assam was once famous were forged, the art ha^ 
 completely ceased to exist. The Khdsi Hills iron, which is still 
 made in small quantities and exported to the submontane bdzdrs,. 
 is derived from the minute crystals of titaniferous iron ore, which 
 are found in the decomposed granite on the surface of the central 
 dyke of that rock, near the highest portion of the plateau. The 
 decomposed granite is rolled down into a stream, where it is 
 washed to separate the iron-sand, which is collected in wooden 
 troufdis, dried, and reduced with charcoal in small furnaces. The 
 quality of the iron is excellent, and it is still sought after to some' 
 extent for manufacture into hoes and dhaos ; but it cannot be 
 doubted that the industry must soon die out. Its s^reat extension 
 in former times is evidenced by the remains of smelting furnaces 
 which cover the surface for many miles, from the brow of the 
 hill below Cherra Punji as far north as Molim and beyond. The 
 slao- from these workings supplied a considerable portion of the 
 metal for the cart road between Cherra and Shillong. 
 
 In Upper Assam, clay ironstone occurs in nodules of various 
 sizes, and sometimes in thin beds, interstratified with shales and 
 sandstones, in the coal measures of the NAga Hills ; but it is 
 believed that the ore is not in sufficient abundance to aflord a 
 supply for a blast furnace on the English principle ; while the 
 scarcity of limestone required to form a flux would, even if the ore 
 were in greater quantity, probably form an insuperable obstacle 
 to operations on a large scale. The company who have the
 
 Chap, I.] PnYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 57 
 
 concession of the Makum coal-field liave also the monopoly of the Section 8. 
 iron of that region, but have hitherto made no attempt to work Mines and 
 it. The iron ore formerly smelted in Sibs:lgar was derived both ^^^"^''''^^• 
 from the clay ironstones in the coal measures (chiefly those of the 
 Nazira field), and from the impure limonite which occurs in great 
 abundance in the Tipani rocks south of the Dhodar Ali ; the 
 former was the source most used. 
 
 60. Pyritous shales are also found associated with the coal 
 
 . j^ measures of Upper Assam ; and it may, 
 
 perhaps, hereafter be found profitable to use 
 them for the manufacture of alum and copperas. 
 
 61. Petroleum is found in the neighbourhood of the coal of 
 Petroleum Upper Assam. It is a heavy oil, containing 
 
 a comparatively small proportion of the light 
 illuminating hydro-carbons, in which respect it could not compete 
 with the imported oils. For lubricating purposes, however, and 
 for yielding solid paraffine, it is beheved that it will prove valuable. 
 The earliest experiments in working it were made at Nahor Pung, 
 in the Jaipur field (where they were a failure) and near Makum, 
 when a considerable amount of oil was extracted in 1868. A 
 concession for working petroleum in the Makum field was granted 
 to the Assam Eailways and Trading Company in 1882-83, and two 
 similar concessions in the same neighbourhood have recently been 
 granted — one to the company already mentioned, and the other 
 to a syndicate. Borings have been made by both concessionaires, 
 and petroleum has been extracted, but their operations have not 
 yet resulted in any considerable extraction of oil. In fact, the 
 only field which has been at all properly worked up to date is the 
 second concession of the Assam Eailways and Trading Company, 
 the output from which in 1892 amounted to slightly over 19,000 
 gallons. 
 
 Besides the petroleum of Upper Assam, this mineral is also 
 found in Cachar. It occurs on the banks of the Bardk, at Mdsim- 
 pur, where the Tilain range crosses the river, and near Badarpur, 
 where the Sirispur hills run up to the stream from the south ; it has 
 besides been detected at various places along these ridges, which 
 
 I
 
 SS ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. I. 
 
 Section 8. ^^yq Y^^vt of tlio prolongation into tlie Surma Valley of the Arakan 
 Mines a7ii meridional ranges. It has also been found north of the Bardk, on 
 the Ldrang, a small stream issuing from the Baniil range north of 
 Kalain, and joining the Surma near Lebharpota. Spechnens 
 of petroleum from these localities have been sent for examination 
 to Calcutta, but no active steps have been taken to utilise it. 
 
 62. Salt-springs are found in conjunction with petroleum in 
 
 the Upper Assam coal area, at Borhat, Jaipur, 
 and other places. In former times their 
 brine was largely nsed for conversion into merchantable salt ; and 
 to this day a small quantity of salt so made (the brine being boiled 
 down in joints of bamboo) is imported by the Nagas into Jaipur. 
 Salt-springs exist in Cachar, both in the southern ranges (Sirispur 
 and Bliuban hills) and in the Bardil, Those in the Haildkdndi 
 Valley, in mauzas Bansbari and Chandipur, are the only ones 
 which are now worked, though formerly the industry was more 
 extensive. The springs are leased annually for a trifling sum ; 
 the brine is not boiled down, the water being disposed of in gharas 
 to the people of the neighbouring villages. Several salt-springs 
 are worked in Manipur, where they are highly valued. 
 
 63. Next in importance to coal in this province are the vast 
 
 stores of limestone which exist on the 
 
 Lime. 
 
 southern face of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, 
 where the downward bendin<:j strata of the nummnlitic rocks 
 have been worked as a lime-supply from a period long anterior 
 to British rule. " Sylliet lime " was a monopoly of the Mogul 
 Governors of Bengal, and, as such, figures in the early sanads, 
 Jarmans, and treaties by which the East India Company acquired 
 command over that province. The limestone is found from the exit 
 of the Someswari river in the Garo Hills to that of the Ilari river 
 in Jaintia ; but it can only be economically quarried in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the small State Railway which riins from Tharia to 
 Companyganj, or where facilities for water carriage exist, that is, 
 where rivers navigable by boats in the rains adjoin the rock faces 
 whence the stone is hewn. The most important of these quarries 
 are those situated on the Jadukata and Bunatirth rivers, which
 
 Minerals. 
 
 Chap. I.J PHYSICAL FEATURES, ETC. 59 
 
 debouch near Laur in Sylliet ; the Dwdra quarries to the east of Section 8. 
 these ; the Cheyla or SheHa quarries, on the Bogapani ; the Mdolong, Mine^< and 
 Byrang, Sohbar, and Borpunji quarries, which He immediately 
 under Cherrapunji ; and the Utma quarries a httle to the east 
 on an affluent of the Piydin. Those beyond have rarely been 
 worked, the advantages possessed by the quarries nearer the great 
 limestone marts of Chhutak and Sundmganj enabling the latter to 
 undersell them. Altogether, there are 34 limestone tracts which 
 are separately treated as quarries in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, 
 one in Sylhet, and one in the Garo Hills. The Government is the 
 sole proprietor of all the quarries in the Jaintia and Garo Hills 
 andtlie one in Sylhet, as well as of four in the Khasi Hills ; the 
 remainder (with one exceptiou) are the joint property of the Khasi 
 rulers or communities and the British Government, the latter 
 administering the estates and reaping half the profits. 
 
 Owing to the depression in the lime trade, and the consequent 
 decline in the Government revenue from the quarries, a special 
 enquiry was made in 1889 by the Director of Land Kecords, as 
 the result of which all the small quarries in the Khasi Hills were 
 closed for five years, and the five principal quarries only (Sohbar, 
 Borpunji, and Sheila under the permit system, and Langrin and 
 Nongstoin under lease) were kept open for work. In consequence 
 of this step, the revenue from the quarries rose from Rs. 13,580 in 
 1889-90 to Es. 17,646 in 1890-91. In 1892-93, the revenue 
 amounted to Rs. 15,536. 
 
 The stone is quarried chiefly during the dry months, and either 
 carried by rail to Companyganj, whence it is taken by boat to 
 Chhdtak, or rolled down to the river banks and conveyed over the 
 rapids, which occur before the rivers issue on the plains, in small 
 boats when the hill streams are in flood during the rains. Below, 
 the rapids it is generally reloaded on larger boats, and carried 
 down to the Surma river, on the banks of which it is burnt into 
 lime during the cold weather. The kilns are of a primitive descrip- 
 tion, being mere excavations in the river bank, faced and roofed 
 with clay. The fuel used consists of the reeds and grasses of 
 the swampy tract which stretches along the foot of the hills. This 
 
 I 2
 
 6o ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPORT [Chap. 1. 
 
 Minerals. 
 
 Section 8. industry gives employment to a great mimber of people, the 
 Mines and quarriers being generally Kliiisis, and the boatmen and hme-burners 
 Bengalis of Sylhet. For the last three years the exports of lime 
 from Sylhet to Bengal (all of which is derived from this source) 
 have been as follows : 
 
 Maunds. 
 1890-91 ... ... ... ... 18,04,197 
 
 1891-92 ... ... ... ... 18,26,675 
 
 1892-93 ... ... ... ... 13,14,161 
 
 Limestone is also found exposed in the Doigrung, a tributary 
 of the Dhansiri, a few miles south of Golaghdt. A description of 
 this formation, which still remains unworked, will be found in the 
 " Records of the Geological Survey," Volume XVII, page 31. 
 
 64. The rivers of Assam which have yielded gold are those of 
 the Darrang and Lakhimpur districts north 
 of the Brahmaputra, the Brahmaputra itself 
 in its upper course, the JSToa and Buri Dihings, and a small stream 
 called the Jaglo, which rises in the Tiptim Hills and falls into the 
 Buri Dihing. In the Sibsdgar district the Dhansiri, Disoi, and 
 Jlianzi rivers are said to have been auriferous. Of these streams, 
 the Bhoroli, Dikrang, and Subansiri in Darrang and Lakhimpur 
 appear to have formerly given the largest quantities. The gold in 
 these rivers is probably doubly derivative, being washed out of the 
 tertiary sandstones of the sub-Himalayan formations, themselves 
 the result of the denudation of the crystalline rocks in the interior 
 of the chain. The industry was maintained in the time of the 
 Assam Rajas by the peculiar system of taxation which then pre-- 
 vailed, each class of the population being bound to contribute in 
 kind or labour to the State. The Sonwals, or gold-washers, were 
 taxed at four annas' weight, or four rupees' worth, of gold per 
 annum. Since the British occupation of the country, the pursuit 
 of the precious metal has dwindled almost to nothing, and the lease 
 of the gold-washings in North Lakhimpur has of late years been sold 
 for Rs. 5 or Pis. 6 a year. In 1882, a European speculator obtained
 
 Chap. I.] rnrsiCAL features, etc. 6i 
 
 a monopoly for ten years of the right of seeking gold in the Suban- Section 8. 
 siri and its tributaries, but his operations were not attended with Mines and 
 success. This concession has recently again been granted to other ^^"'^''"'^^' 
 persons, and it is hoped that the work will be more vigorously 
 prosecuted than on previous occasions. 
 
 65. Platinum has been noticed with samples of gold obtained 
 from washings in the Noa Dihinor river, and 
 
 Platinum. . . .-, , , .^ . -,, -, -, p 
 
 it IS possible that, if specially searched for, it 
 might be found in large quantities (" Eecords of the Geological 
 Survey," Volume XV, page 54),
 
 62 ASSAM AD:^^NISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section :. 
 
 CHiPTEE, 11. 
 Historical Summary. 
 
 66. The different portions of territory included in tlie province 
 of Assam were formerly quite distinct, and 
 
 Assam IntroduclOry. ^.^ , . . , , , 
 
 Proper. liave Qiiierent histories ; they were brought 
 
 under British Administration at different times and in different 
 waj^s, and it is, therefore, necessary to treat them separately before 
 proceeding to describe the present organization of the province. 
 This chapter is accordingly divided into sections, summarising the 
 history of the following areas : 
 
 I. Assam Proper, that is, the five districts of Kdmriip, 
 Darrang, Nowgong, Sibsdgar, and Lakhimpur. 
 
 II. Goalpdra, including the Eastern Dudrs. 
 
 III. Cachar. 
 
 IV, Sylhet, including Jaintia. 
 V. The hill districts, viz., — 
 
 (3) North Cacbar. 
 
 (]) The Garo Hills. 
 ('^>> The Khasi „ 
 
 (4) The Ndga Hills. 
 
 SECTION 1.— ASSAM PROPER. 
 
 67. The history of so much of the valley of the Brahmaputra 
 as belongs to the modern province of Assam 
 
 The ancient Kdinarupa. . • i j. u • vi i.i i.i e ^^ 
 
 may be said to begin with the growth of the 
 Koch power upon its western frontier, and the invasion of the 
 Ahoms in the east. From such hints and glimpses of the country 
 as can be gathered from the Tantras and Purans, and other 
 ancient writings, it appears certain that, while the bulk of the 
 inhabitants have always been of non- Aryan origin, the colonisation 
 or conquest of parts of the valley by Aryan settlers began at an 
 early date. Krishna is said to have carried away his bride
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SmrMAUY. 63 
 
 Eukmini from her father Bhismaka, king of Kundilya, the name Section i. 
 of whose kingdom survives in the Kundil river to the east of J^ 
 Sadiya, while the memory of the monarch is still preserved in ^''"per. 
 Upper Assam. Krislma's son, Anirudha, captwred Sronitpur, now 
 called Tezpur, the capital of Eaja Ban, and carried off his daughter 
 Uslia.* Still more famous than Eaja Ban was his contemporary, 
 Narak, who ruled in Gauhdti, and is famed in Hindu mytholoo-y as 
 the guardian of KdmAkhyd and the conqueror of Ghatak, the king of 
 the Kirats, He is said to have been the son of the earth by Vishnu, 
 and for a long time enjoyed the favour of his celestial proo-enitor. 
 But success turned his head, and his pride and waywardness at 
 length gave such offence to Yishnu, that he was slain by him in 
 the incarnation of Krishna. His son Bhogdatta is renowned for 
 his zeal in propagating the Hindu religion, and is said to have 
 given his daughter in marriage to Duryodhana and to have fallen 
 in the battle of Kurukshetra, fighting on the Kauravas' side. 
 Later on, we find a king of Kdmarupa sending a present of ele- 
 phants to the hero of the Baghuvansa, and again when Hiouen 
 Thsang visited India, Kdmarupa is mentioned as a country famous 
 for these animals. Kdmarupa is described in the Jogini Tantra as 
 extending from the Karatuya to the eastern boundary of the 
 Brahmaputra Valley. f Its ancient divisions were Kampith, from 
 the Karatuya to the Sankosh, Eatnapith, from the Sankosh to the 
 Eupohi in the present district of Kdmriip, Suvarnapith from the 
 Eupohi to the Bhoroli, and Saumarpith, from the latter river to the 
 eastern end of the valley. The name Kdmarupa, however, varied 
 greatly in its territorial signification from time to time. Between 
 these legendary notices of Assam and the beginnings of what may 
 be called history, a gap of about a thousand years intervenes ; but 
 the Hindu religion would seem to have existed uninterruptedly 
 during this interval at various points in the valley, whether pro- 
 fessed by pure Aryans, or, as is more likely, by communities of 
 mixed descent, or by converted non- Aryan tribes. A Sudra king, 
 
 o The adventures of Krishna and tlie life of Narak aro described in Chapters 3G-42 
 of the Knlika Purun, and on paj^e 81 of the Jogini Tantra. Raghuvansa, IV — 81. 
 f Jogini Tantra, page 76.
 
 64 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section i. named Debeswar, reigned in Gaulidti, a place wliicli the proximity 
 Assam of the sacred hill Nilachal has always rendered notable. The 
 Proper, ^gj^^pig Qf Kdmdkliyd on its summit is of comparatively modern 
 origin, but rests on foundations reputed to be as old as the first 
 introduction of the Hindu religion into the valley of the 
 Brahmaputra. In Tezpur we find Eaja Nagasankar, who built the 
 temple of Biswanath, and whose descendant, Jongal Balahu, 
 was defeated in battle by the Kachari Eaja, near Eolia on 
 the Kopili.* 
 
 When Hiouen Thsang visited the country in 640 A.D., a prince, 
 named Kumdr Bhdskara Barman, was on the throne. The people 
 are described as being of small stature, with dark yellow com- 
 plexions ; they were fierce in appearance, but upright and studious. 
 Hinduism was the State religion, and the number of Buddhists was 
 very small. The soil was deep and fertile, and the towns were 
 surrounded by moats with water brought from rivers or banked 
 up lakes. f 
 
 68. Subsequently, we read of Pdl rulers in Assam. It is sup- 
 posed that these kings were Buddhist, and 
 ^ '"'^'^' belonged to the Pal dynasty of Bengal, The 
 
 latter supposition is strengthened by the recent discovery at Benares 
 of a copper plate, on which is inscribed a deed of gift of some 
 land in the neighbourhood of Pragjyotisha (Gauhdti) by Kumdra 
 Pdl, son of Edma Pdl and grandson of Vigraha Pdl, the name of 
 the two latter being synonymous with those of two of the later 
 kings of the Bengal line of Pdls.J The fact that Deva Pdl (who 
 ruled from about 895 to 915 A.D.) conquered Kdmarupa§ furnishes 
 another reason for supposing that the Assam Pdls were a branch 
 of the royal family ruling in Bengal, even if they were not lineal 
 descendants of that dynasty. It should, however, be noted that 
 " Pdl " was not an uncommon title at the period under discussion ; 
 it was the designation of many of the Bdro Bhuiyds, and was also 
 
 * Gunabhiram's Asam Baraiyi, page 48. 
 
 f Deal's " Buddhist Records of the "Western "World," "Volume II, page 19G. 
 X Phis copper plate, which bears a date equivalent to 1105 A.D., was deciphered by 
 Professor Venis of the Government Sanskrit College at Benares. 
 § " J(jurnal of the Asiatic Society o£ Bengal," 1878, page 407.
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 65 
 
 borne by an Aryan dynasty reigning over Kundilya, or the country Sfxtion i. 
 about Sadiya. Assam 
 
 69. After the fall of the Pal dynasty, the Khyen tribe under ''°^^^' 
 
 Niladhwaj rose to power, and thus became 
 
 Khyen dynasty. i p 1 • c t t^ , ^ 
 
 worthy or the attention or the Brahmans.* 
 Niladhwaj became a Hindu, and ordered that his caste should 
 thenceforth be known as " High Sudra." Fie was succeeded by his 
 son Chakradhwaj, who was followed by Nilambar, the last king 
 of this line. Nildmbar quarrelled with his councillor, a Brahman 
 named Suchi Patra, and the latter fled to the Nawab of Gaur, and 
 persuaded him to invade the country. The result was Husan 
 Shah's invasion, and the fall of the capital, Kamatdpur, in 1498 
 A.D.f The remains of this old city are still traceable, near the 
 Dharld, in the State of Koch Bihar.J 
 
 70. Although the whole of Kamarupa appears from time to 
 
 time to have been united into one kine^dom 
 
 Baro Bhuiyds. <• i ■, 
 
 under some unusually powerful monarch, 
 it was more often split up into numerous petty States, each of 
 which, under its own chief, was practically independent of the 
 rest, and this was once more the condition of the country after 
 the defeat of Nildmbar. About this time, two brothers, Chandan 
 and Madan, ruled for a few years at Mardlavas, some miles north 
 of Kamatapur,§ and the twelve chiefs, known as the Bdro 
 Bhuiyds, were exercising sovereign rights in Kdmrup and 
 Godlpdra. 
 
 The settlement of the Bhuiyds in Assam is detailed in the Gu7m 
 Chaintra, in which work it is said that they were introduced by 
 a king named Durlabh Ndrdyan, who appears to have held sway 
 in Godlpdra and Kdmrup, but whose lineage is still uncertain.. 
 This king engaged in war with a Hindu prince, who called himself 
 Gaureswar, or " the ruler of Gaur." Durlabh was victorious, and, 
 
 • Gunabhiram's Asam Buranji, pages 52-54. 
 
 •f The Musalman accounts of the fall of Kamatapur have been reprciluccd by 
 Blochmann in the " Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal " for 1872, pages I'J and 
 336, and 1874, page 281 . 
 
 :{; The ruins are described by Buchanan Hamilton, whose account is reproduced in 
 Dr. Hunter's " Statistical Account of Koch Bihar," page 3G2. 
 
 § Hunter's " Statistical Account of Koch Bihar," page 407. 
 
 K
 
 66 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 11. 
 
 Section- i. qu the conclusion of hostilities, obtained seven families of Brah- 
 Assam mans and seven of Kavasthas under twelve acknowledi^ed heads, 
 ' ^'''' the chief of whom was a Kiiyastha, named Chandibar, alias 
 Debidds. These people were settled by Durlabh Nardyan in the 
 country between Hdjo and the Bornadi, and soon became powerful 
 feudatories. The date assigned to their advent in Assam corre- 
 sponds to the year 1220 AD.* Their leader Chandibar was the 
 lineal ancestor of the celebrated Assamese rehgious reformer 
 Sankar Deb. 
 
 71. Nearly three centuries before the fall of Kamatdpur, an 
 event occurred at the eastern extremity of 
 
 The Ahoms. , ^. ■, • ■, t • ^ i .n 
 
 the valley, which was destined to change the 
 whole course of Assam history. -j* This was the invasion of the 
 Ahoms. The Ahoms were Shans, from the ancient Shan kingdom 
 of Pong, whose capital, Mogaung, still exists in the upper portion 
 of the valley of the Irrawaddy. A quarrel as to the right of 
 succession to the throne is said to have been the cause of the 
 secession of Chukapha, one of the rival claimants, who, after 
 wandering about the country between the Irrawaddy and the 
 Patkoi mountains for some years, at length crossed the range and 
 entered Assam with a small following. This was in the year 1228 
 A.D. The Ahoms found the country into which they descended 
 peopled by small settlements of Morans and Borahis, people of the 
 Bodo race, whom they had no difficulty in subduing. There was, 
 however, a Chutia kingdom of considerable power in the back- 
 ground, which had absorbed the ancient Pal dynasty of Sadiya, 
 
 *' This seema too early. Chandibar was Sankar Deb's great-great-grandfather, and we 
 have every reason for believing that the tradition that Sankar Deb was born in 1440A.D. 
 is approximately correct. Allowing twenty-five years a generation, it would seem 
 that Chandibar could not well have come to Assam before 1300A.D. at the earliest. 
 
 ■f Tbo above account of the Ahoms is taken from Kasinath Tamuli Phukan's 
 As'im Buranji, which was compiled about 1840 A.D., under the orders of Raja Purandar 
 Singh. The Ahoms appear to have possessed the historical faculty to a very considerable 
 extent, and many of their leading families maintained chronicles of important events. 
 Our infcjrmution regarding Ahom history would have been much fuller than it is 
 but for an act of literary iconoclasm in the reign of Rajeswar Singh (1751-1768), when 
 many of these family histories were destroyed, owing to some remarks adverse to the 
 Prime Minister having been made in a history produced by Numali Bar Phukan.
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 67 
 
 and in so doing liad adopted tlie Hindu religion, and imported an SEcrio:^ i. 
 Aryan strain into the royal blood by the marriage of the Pal king's Assam 
 daughter with the Chutia prince who succeeded him. The Cliutia ^''"P'^^- 
 dynasty at that time reigned at Sadi3^a and at Eangpur in the 
 Sibsagar district, but their dominions did not extend uninterrupted- 
 ly between the two places, nor did they reach very far back to- 
 wards the southern hills, and tlie Ahoms consequently had room 
 in which to develop themselves, for a considerable time, before 
 coming into collision with the actual possessors of Upper Assam. 
 Within the narrow limits of a territory corresponding to the 
 south-eastern portion of Lakhimpur and part of the Sibsagar 
 districts, the Aliom kings succeeded each other with great regula- 
 rity, governing through the means of their chief officers of State, 
 whose names and the dates of their appointments are duly 
 chronicled in the native histories of Assam, together with the 
 names of the kings and their dates of accession. We read that 
 in 1350 A.D. the Chutia king invited his Ahom neighbour to a 
 boat race on the Safrai river, and there treacherously captured 
 and murdered him ; but the final struggle between Ahom and 
 Chutia for the supremacy of Upper Assam did not take place until 
 a century and a half later. Meanwhile, the Ahoms, extending 
 their power along the south bank of the Brahmaputra, drove the 
 Kacharis back to the Kopili and Dhansiri Valleys, and thus touched 
 the Koch power on the west, as they touched the Chutia power on 
 the south-east. The three powers between which the contest for 
 the Assam Valley lay were the Koch, the Ahom, and the Chutia. 
 72. We have seen that, after the fall of Nilambar, the eastern 
 portion of Kdmarupa was split up into 
 ° ' numerous petty States, each of which was 
 
 ruled by its own chief. Amongst these, the Koch kings rapidly 
 forced their way to the front.* The legend runs that Hajo Koch 
 
 * The story as related here follows the Bangsuhali of Raja Laksluni Narayan Knar 
 of Howli Molianpiir. This Bangsdbali, is inscribed on oblong strips of sacli bark, each 
 strip being illustrated. It is supposed to have been written under the orders of Kaja 
 Sumudra Narayan about 1806 A.D. This version diflEers in some respects from accounts 
 given elsewhere, but seems, on the whole, to be the most trustworthy narrative 
 available. 
 
 K
 
 68 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOUT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section i . had two daughters, Hira and Jira, whom he married to Haria 
 Zllm Mandal, a Mech. Hira was an incarnation of Bhagavati, and was 
 Proper. ^..g-^.g^^| ^^ g^y^ in the guise of Haria Mandah The offspring- of 
 this intercourse was a son, Bisu, who consoHdated the power of 
 his tribe, and defeated the Bc4ro Bhuiyiis, who had become powerful 
 during the reign of Nilambar. He became a Hindu, taking the 
 name of Biswa Singh, and imported Baidik Brahmans from Sylhet 
 in the place of the KdUtas, who were previously the priests of his 
 tribe. He made an abortive attempt to invade the country of the 
 Ahoms, but was more successful in the internal management of his 
 kinfrdom. He settled the different offices of State, and established 
 his army on a secure basis. During his reign, the Ahoms attacked 
 the Chutias, and, after several campaigns of varied fortune, 
 defeated and slew the Chutia king, seized his capital, and over- 
 threw the Chutia dominion in Upper Assam for ever. His son, 
 Nar Narayan, succeeded him about 1528 A.D., and at once 
 •commenced a series of expeditions against the neighbouring powers. 
 He defeated the Ahoms, and made them tributary to him ; and his 
 brother Sukladhwaj, alias SiLarai, subsequently conquered the 
 kin<TS of Hiramba (Cachar), Jaintia, and Sylhet, but was defeated 
 and made prisoner by the Musalman ruler of Gaur. Silarai's 
 son, Kaghu, was adopted by Nar Narayan as his successor. 
 Then Silarai died, and Nar Narayan begat a son of his own, named 
 Lakshmi, whereupon Eaghu, fearing that he would lose the succes- 
 sion, broke out in rebelUon. The armies met, but a peace was 
 concluded without bloodshed ; the kingdom was divided into two 
 parts, Eaghu taking the portion east of the Sankosh, while the 
 part west of , that river was reserved for Nar Nardyan's son 
 Lakshmi. This division of the kingdom took place about 1581 A.D. 
 Eaghu was succeeded by his son Parikshit, who fought with 
 and defeated Lakshmi. The latter then invoked the aid of the 
 Emperor of Delhi, by whose troops the former was in his turn 
 defeated and made prisoner. His brother, Balit Ndrdyan, fled 
 to the Ahom Edja Swarga Narjiyan, who sent an army against 
 the Musalmans, and drove them across the Karatuya. From that 
 time, the independent rule of the Koch kings ceased. Balit
 
 Chap. 11.3 niSTOEICAL SUiniARY. 69 
 
 Nardyan became a tributary of the Alioms, and the western branch Section i. 
 succumbed to the Musahiians. Assam 
 
 73. The Musalman invasions of the Brahmaputra Valley all ''"^^^' 
 bear the character of temporary success due 
 
 Musalman invasions. . , ,. . . 
 
 to superior arms and discipline, and ultimate 
 failure induced by the unfavourable nature of the climate, ignorance 
 of the country, want of communications, and the impossibility 
 of repairing losses by reinforcements.* The first expedition of 
 the kind was despatched after the overthrow of the kingdom of 
 Kamatapur, under a leader recorded in Assamese history as 
 Turbuk, who fought his way as far as Koliabar, and was then 
 defeated and destroyed. A second invasion occurred about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century. The leader of this expedition 
 was Kala Paliar, an apostate from Hinduism, whose chief object 
 appears to have been the destruction of Hindu temples, and to 
 him is ascribed j;lie spoliation of the old temples at Hajo and 
 Kamakhyd. The next invasion was that, already referred to, 
 in which Parikshit was overthrown, and this was followed later 
 by another (in 1637) in which Balit Narayan was slain, and the 
 rule of the Musalmans was extended as far as Gauhcdti. The 
 last and greatest invasion was that undertaken by Mir Jumla in 
 1660-62. He captured the capital of the Ahoms, and is said to 
 have sent word to the Emperor that the next campaign would 
 carry him to the confines of China ; but his force melted away in 
 the rains, and he was obhged to retreat with the loss of all his guns. 
 The ultimate result of this disastrous invasion was to strengthen 
 the hold of the Ahoms on Lower Assam, and their rule was shortly 
 afterwards extended to Gauhati, at which place an Ahora Gover- 
 nor was stationed, until near the end of the eighteenth century, 
 when it became the headquarters of the Ahom kings. 
 
 74. Before the last Muhammadan invasion, the Ahoms had 
 been largely converted to the Hindu religion. 
 
 Fall of the Ahom r^^^ • • i i . • 
 
 kingdom. J- 1^6 reignmg monarch became a convert in 
 
 1655 A.D,, and adopted the name of Jayad- 
 waja Singh, and henceforward all the Ahom kings bear both 
 
 * The accounts of these invasions, furnisl:ecl by Musalman historians, have been 
 collected by Blochraann in an article in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal " 
 for 1872.
 
 yo ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 11. 
 
 Section i. Aliom and Hindu names. There were now no rivals to the Ahoms 
 AJZ'm i^ the Assam Valley. The Kacharis had been defeated just before 
 Proper. ]\j-j, j^nila's iuvasion, and the Eajas of Darrang and Bijni had 
 become tributary to the Ahom power on the fall of the Koch 
 monarchy. In 1695, Rudra Singh, the greatest of the Ahom kings, 
 ascended the throne. His dominions comprised the whole of tlie 
 Bralmiaputra Valley, so far as it was inhabited, except a strip of 
 submontane territory claimed by the Bhutias. In 1780, Gaurinath 
 Singh succeeded to the throne. His reign was marked chiefly by 
 a formidable rising of the Moamarias, a powerful religious sect. 
 Gaurinath, being hard-pressed, applied in his extremity to Mr. 
 Eausch, a salt farmer at Goalpara. Mr. Eausch, it is said, sent 
 a body of 700 sipahis to Gaurinath's aid, but these sipahis were 
 cut to pieces by the Moamarias. The Eaja of Manipur also sent 
 an armed force to Gaurinath's assistance, but the Manipuris 
 were likewise defeated. At this juncture, the king of Darrang, 
 Krishna Ndrdyan, taking advantage of (Taurinath's distress, made an 
 attack upon Gauhati, whither Gaurinath had retired. Gaurinath 
 again applied to Mr. Eausch for help, and also sent a deputation 
 to Calcutta. At the close of 1792 the British Government sent a 
 detachment, under the command of Captain Welsh, to assist 
 Gaurinath.* Captain Welsh defeated Krishna Narayan, put down 
 the Moamaria insurrection, and reduced the whole valley to 
 obedience. He was, however, recalled in 1794. A few months 
 later Gaurinath died. He was succeeded by Kamaleswar Singh, 
 who was a mere puppet in the hands of his minister. He died in 
 1809, and was succeeded by his brother, Chandra Kanta Singh. 
 The reign of this prince was marked by the appearance of the 
 Burmese in Assam. Chandra Kanta, having quarrelled with his 
 minister, the Bura Gohain, applied for aid to the Burmese. The 
 Burmese entered Assam with a force with which the Assamese 
 were utterly unable to cope. Shortly afterwards, however, the 
 Burmese retired, when the Bura Gohain deposed Chandra Kanta 
 and set up Purandar Singh. Chandra Kdnta again applied to the 
 Burmese, who sent an army and reinstated him. In 1819, 
 
 * A full account of Captain Welsh's expedition has been given by Sir J. Johnston in 
 a pamphlet published by the Foreign Department some years ago.
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 7 1 
 
 Purandar Singh applied for aid to tlie Lritisli Government, but Section i. 
 was refused. Chandra Ktinta, however, quarrelled with the Assam\ 
 Burmese, who finally expelled him from Assam, and he sought ^^P^^' 
 refuge with the British officers at Goalpara. But at this juncture 
 matters had come to a crisis between the British and tlia Burmese, 
 and on the 5th March 1824 war was declared against Burma.* 
 A British force, advancing with a gunboat flotilla, conquered the 
 valley as far as Koliabar, and during the next cold season com- 
 pleted the subjugation of the rest. Finally, on the 24th February 
 1826, the Burmese, by the treaty of Yandaboo, ceded Assam to 
 the East India Company. 
 
 75. For some time after the conquest, it was still doubtful 
 
 whether the Company would retain in their 
 
 Commencement of I3ii- j^ands or not the province they had won. 
 
 tish rule. '^ •' 
 
 Mr. Scott, the Commissioner of North-East 
 Eangpur, administered the country. Captain White being appointed 
 in 1827 to assist him in Lower Assam, and Captain Neufville in 
 1828 to have charge under him of Upper Assam. The Moamarias, 
 who had contributed so largely to the downfall of the Ahom 
 power, and whose country (known as Matak) was the present 
 district of Dibrugarh south of the Brahmaputra, were left under 
 their own ruler, styled the Bor Senapati, who in May 1826 
 executed an agreement of allegiance to the British Government. 
 And the Khampti chief of Sadiya, called the Sadiya-khoa, on the 
 15th of the same month, was confirmed as the Company's feuda- 
 tory in possession of that district. 
 
 At first, the civil and criminal duties of Assam Proper were 
 performed by councils of the Assamese gentry, called panchdyats, 
 of which there were two or three in each district of the province. 
 In judicial cases Captains White and Neufville were both Magis- 
 trates and Judges, trying the accused with the assistance of a 
 panchdyat, but referring all heinous cases, with their opinions, 
 to Mr. Scott for final judgment.f 
 
 * A full account of tlie Burmese war, so far as Assam is concerned, will be found in 
 Robinson's " Descriptive Account of Assam," published in 1841, pages 180-188. 
 
 t The information in this and the next paragraph is taken from Robinson's 
 " Descriptive Account of Assam," pages 207-211.
 
 72 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. H. 
 
 Section i. ij/q^ In 1S33 the districts of Sibsdgar and Lakhimpur north of 
 Assam the Brahmaputra were placed under the 
 
 Proper. Enie of Pnrandar Singh administration of Rai a Purandar Sincrh, who 
 
 in Upper Assam. ^ ° ^ _ 
 
 executed a treaty binding himself to -adminis- 
 ter the country upon the principles of justice established in their 
 territories by the East India Company, to act according to the 
 advice of the Political Agent stationed in his principality, and to 
 pay an annual tribute of Rs. 50,000. Thus, of Assam Proper there 
 remained British in 1833 only the districts of Kamrup, Nowgong, 
 and Darrang (which then only extended to and included Bishndth, 
 beyond which was Lakhimpur, subject to Purandar Singh). 
 
 77. In 1835, Act II of that year was passed, which placed 
 
 all functionaries in British Assam under the 
 
 ThoAssana Cude. . • • -i j 
 
 control and supermtendence, m civil and 
 criminal cases, of the Sadr Court, and in revenue cases under that 
 of the Board of Revenue, Lower Provinces, and further declared 
 that such superintendence should be exercised in conformity with 
 the instructions which these functionaries might receive from the 
 Government of Fort William in Bengal. Under this Act, rules 
 for the administration of Assam were framed by the Commis- 
 sioner, revised by the Sadr Court, and finally issued by that Court 
 with the sanction of Government in 1837. They applied not only to 
 Assam Proper, but also [vide the next section) to Godlptira. These 
 rules consisted of extracts from the Bengal Regulations of all that 
 was considered at that time suitable to the circumstances and 
 necessary for the proper administration of Assam. They were, 
 however, merely rules of judicial procedure. They declared 
 what courts, civil and criminal, should be established, and the mode 
 of appointing officers thereto ; they declared the jurisdiction of 
 these courts, and provided for appeals ; they prescribed a period 
 of limitation for the institution of civil suits and a procedure to 
 be followed in mortgage cases ; they provided also for the appoint- 
 ment of vakils, the establishment and remuneration of process- 
 servers, and the keeping of judicial registers and records. They 
 established in each district a summary suit court, to be presided 
 over generally by the Assistant in charge of the district (now called 
 the Deputy Oommigsioner) in his capacity of Collector ; they also
 
 Chai HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 73 
 
 established an office for the registry of deeds. Lastly, in all cases Section i. 
 not specially provided for in the rules, officers were directed to Assam 
 conform, as nearly as the circumstances of the province would 
 permit, to the provisions of the Bengal Regulations, and in all 
 doubtful matters of a judicial nature to refer for instructions to 
 the Sadr Court. The Police Law of Assam was at the same time 
 declared to be Eegulation XX of 1817, with certain modifications. 
 
 In 1839, a few supplementary civil rules were issued by the 
 Sadr Court with the sanction of Government, the .effect of which 
 was to give to Junior Assistants (now called Assistant Commis- 
 sioners) and Sub- Assistants (now called Extra Assistant Commis- 
 sioners) a greater share in the judicial administration of the 
 country than was allowed to them by the rules of 1837 ; and in the 
 same year an officer, styled Deputy Commissioner (whose designa- 
 tion was in 1861 changed to that of Judicial Commissioner), was 
 appointed to relieve the Commissioner of his duties as Civil and 
 Sessions Judge. 
 
 78. In October 1838, the territories which had been placed in 
 
 charge of Parandar Singh were resumed by 
 
 ReBumptionof Upper ^|^g Government of India. The Edja had 
 
 Assam. -^ 
 
 fallen deeply into arrears with his tribute, 
 and declared himself unable any longer to carry on the adminis- 
 tration. At first, the officers placed in charge of this tract acted 
 under the direct orders of the Government of India in the Foreign 
 Department ; but in July 1839 a proclamation was issued by the 
 Governor General in Council annexing the territory to Bengal, 
 dividing it into two districts, Sibsdgar and Lakhimpur, and direct- 
 ing that these two districts should be administered in the same 
 manner as the districts of Lower Assam. In August 1842 
 another proclamation was issued, annexing the territory of the 
 Bor Sena])ati, who had died in 1839, and whose son refused to 
 accept the management of the country on the terms offered to 
 him. Sadiya, the district of the Khdmpti chief, was, by the same 
 proclamation, incorporated with the rest of the province. This 
 place had been the scene of a rising of the Khdmptis in 1839. 
 They treacherously attacked the station of Sadiya, and killed the 
 
 L
 
 74 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPORT. [Chap. 11. 
 
 Section- i. Political Agent, Colonel White. The combination was not broken 
 ;; UD and dispersed till many lives had been lost. The son of the 
 
 Assam i- ■•• .."... 
 
 Proper. Sadiya-klioa, for his comphcity in this rebellion, was exiled with his 
 followers to Narayanpur, on the Dikrang, in the west of the 
 Lakhimpur district, where the colony still exists. 
 
 Thus, from 1842, the whole of Assam Proper was under the 
 same system of administration, save that in Lakhimpur, including 
 Matak and Sadiya, an establishment of panchdyat courts was, 
 for special reasons, maintained, to which persons of rank and 
 influence in the district were appointed, without much regard to 
 their judicial qualifications. This special panchdyat system was 
 abolished in 1860. 
 
 79. In that year. Act VIII of 1859 (the Civil Procedure Code) 
 
 and the Limitation Act (XIV of 1859) were 
 
 Extension of general extended to the wholc of Assam Proper and 
 
 laws to Assam. -•■ 
 
 Goalpara. In 1861 the Criminal Procedure 
 Code of that year was extended to the province, and in 1862 the 
 Police Act (V of 1861). In 1862, also, the Penal Code came into 
 force in the province without special extension. By these measures 
 the Assam Code of 1837 (which had been meanwhile revised in 
 1847) was superseded. In 1861 the designations of the officers 
 serving in the province under the Commissioner were changed, with 
 the sanction of the Government of India, as follows : the Deputy 
 Commissioner became Judicial Commissioner, the Senior or 
 Principal Assistants Deputy Commissioners, the Junior Assistants 
 Assistant Commissioners, and the Sub- Assistants Extra Assistant 
 Commissioners. Side by side with these officers, there existed in 
 the province a separate judicial establishment, consisting of one 
 Principal Sadr Amin, two Sadr Amins, and ten Munsifs. In 
 March 1872 this branch of the service was entirely abolished ; 
 several of the Munsifs were created Extra Assistant Commis- 
 sioners, and the ordinary district staff were invested with civil 
 judicial powers, the Deputy Cv)mmissioner becoming Subordinate 
 Judge and the Assistant and Extra Assistant Commissioners 
 Munsifs This arrangement is substantially that which now 
 exists.
 
 Chap. II.] niSTomcAL summary. 75 
 
 SECTION 2.—00ALPARA. 
 
 80. This district consists of two very distinct portions : the Section 2. 
 
 permanently settled part, comprising the ColTfuira. 
 '^^ ^ "" ^'^^' three tlianas of Goalpara, Dliubri, and Karai- 
 
 bari ; and the temporarily settled part, called the Eastern Dudrs. 
 The first tract was originally a portion of the district of Rangpur, 
 and, as such, was included in the province of Bengal, which, by the 
 Mogul Emperor's ya?v7i/f?z of the 12tli August 1765, became part of 
 the dominions of the East India Company. Like the neighbouring 
 district of Kamriip, this tract was inhabited chiefly by Koches, 
 Meches, or Kacharis. It formed part of the dominions of the Koch 
 dynasty, the rise and fall of which have already been described 
 and passed out of their hands on the defeat of Parikshit, when it 
 became a Musalman province. 
 
 On its southern border, the Godlpdra district marches with the 
 Garo Hills, and the thana of Karaibari, which stretches southwards 
 from Dhubri, is almost wholly composed of hilly country inhabited 
 by Garos. These mountaineers were, in the early period of our 
 rule, a terror to the people of the plains ; and the chiefs of the 
 border country, who had to restrain their incursions, were allowed 
 in return for this duty to hold their estates at a very light revenue. 
 Thus, it happened that when the decennial settlement of Bengal 
 was made, the few great zamindars among whom the permanently- 
 settled portion of Godlpjira was divided were assessed at an almost 
 nominal amount. It is somewhat doubtful whether this assessment 
 was ever formally converted into a permanent charge ; but these 
 estates have uniformly been treated as covered by the permanent 
 settlement of Bengal. 
 
 81. Shortly after this settlement, however, it became manifest 
 
 that the zamindars of the plains country, 
 
 Eegulation X of 1822. . , ^ . t i< .i \ 
 
 instead of provmg guardians or the peace 01 
 the border, were rather likely, by their oppressions and exactions, 
 to foster strife with the Garos of the hills, whose raids were con- 
 stantly provoked by the treatment they received from the land- 
 holders to whose markets they resorted. In order to check these 
 
 L2
 
 ^6 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 2. exactions, and to promote the growth of order and civili sation 
 Goalpara. amongst the hill people, it was deemed necessary to place this tract 
 under a special form of administration. Then in 1822, a Eegnla- 
 tion (Xo. X) was passed by the Governor General in Council, 
 exempting the three thanas of north-eastern Eangpur from the 
 operation of the General Regulations, and placing them under the 
 control of a Special Civil Commissioner. Mr. David Scott was the 
 first official entrusted with the charge ; and he took into his own 
 hands the collection of the rents claimed by the zaminddrs from 
 the Garo villages, paying over to them the proceeds, after deduct- 
 ing the costs of collection and administration. At the same time, 
 the duties levied by the zaminddrs on the hill produce (chiefly 
 cotton) were commuted to an annual payment by Government, and 
 abolished. Government recouping itself by imposing a special house 
 assessment upon the Garo villages. 
 
 82. When Assam Proper was conquered from the Burmese in 
 
 l826, Mr. Scott became Commissioner of the 
 
 Incorporation in Assam ^^^ province, witli wliicli Goalpara was 
 
 incorporated as a sej^arate district ; and from 
 
 that date until 1866 it remained a portion of Assam, and w^as 
 
 administered on the same system as the rest of the province. 
 
 83. In 18G6, the Eastern Duars, a thinly peopled but extensive 
 
 tract alonsj the base of the Himalayas north 
 
 Transfer to Koch Bihar. ^ -^ , 
 
 of permanently-settled Godlpdra, which had 
 previously been under the rule of the Deb Edja of Bhutan, was 
 annexed by the British Government on the conclusion of the 
 Bhutan war. For some little time these Dudrs were a separate 
 district ; but in 1867 the Bengal Commissionership of Koch Bihar 
 was formed, and from the 1st January of that year the Eastern 
 Dudrs were joined to Goalpara, and the entire district was included 
 in that Commissionership, the Commissioner having the powers of 
 a Civil and Sessions Judge within his jurisdiction. In October 
 1868, the judicial administration of Godlp^ra and the Gdro Hills 
 was taken away from the Commissioner of Koch Bihar, because of 
 the inconvenient distance of this tract of country from his head- 
 quarters, and placed in the hands of the Judicial Commissioner of
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SU30IARV. 77 
 
 Assam. The executive control, however, remained, as before, with Section 3. 
 the Commissioner of Koch Bihar. In 1869, the Guro Hills were Cachar. 
 formed into a separate district by Act XXII of that year, which 
 repealed Regulation X of 1822, but still exempted the hills from 
 the operation of the General Eegulations. In the same year the 
 Eastern Dudrs were similarly deregulationised by Act XVI of 1869. 
 Finally, when the Chief Commissionership of Assam was 
 formed in February 1874, the district of Godlpdra and the Eastern 
 Dudrs, and the district of the Gdro Hills were retransferred to 
 Assam. 
 
 SECTION 3.— CACHAR. 
 
 84. The early history of Cachar, or Hiramba, is extremely 
 obscure. Although it bears the same name 
 
 Early history. . p i t-» i i • pa 
 
 as a section or the i5odo population or Assam, 
 the part of the district south of the Barail was not until some two 
 hundred years ago in the possession of the race now called 
 Kachdris, It would appear that it belonged to the kingdom of 
 Tippera, or Tripura, since it is stated to have been acquired by 
 the Kachdri king, who had his capital at Maibong, as a dowry 
 upon his marriage with a Tippera princess. The Tipperas, how- 
 ever, are undoubtedly, as is proved by their language, themselves 
 of the Bodo stock, and very near kinsmen, not only of the Kachd- 
 ris of North Cachar, but also of those of the Brahmaputra Valley 
 and of the Gdros of the Garo Hills. Their true history, like that 
 of the Kachdri kings of Dimapur, Maibong, and Khdspur, has been 
 lost in the fugitive memory of a barbarous people, unacquainted 
 with letters, and has been further darkened by the fictitious 
 genealogies which have been invented for them by Brahman 
 priests on their reception within the pale of Hinduism. 
 
 It is, however, certain that the last native king of Cachar was 
 the descendant of a Hne of princes who came originally from the 
 Assam Valley. Their deserted capital, Dimapur, on the Dhansiri 
 river, beneath the Angdmi Naga Hills, contains some very striking 
 monuments, the meaning and purpose of which have much per- 
 plexed explorers, and a number of large and fine tanks. From this
 
 7^ ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section- 3. ^[iq^ i;^q^ buried ill dense jungle, the Kacluiri kings were forced, 
 Cachar. by tlie aggressious of the Ahoms on the north and of the Angumi 
 Nao-as on the south, to remove into the interior of the hills, and 
 took up their abode at Maibong, on the Mahur river. While settled 
 there, about the beginning or middle of the seventeenth century, the 
 Kachari king married a daughter of the Tippera Etija, and received 
 the valley of Cachar as her dowr}^ And some time between 1700 
 and 1750 the court was transferred from the hills, across the 
 Barail, to Khaspur, on the Madhura river in the plains. Here the 
 Kachari rulers found themselves in presence of an already settled 
 population of Hindus and Musalmans from Sylhet, who had over- 
 flowed from that district into the valley. The process of Hindui- 
 sation had probably already commenced at Maibong, at least 
 among the royal family and the court, if not among the Kachari 
 population. At Khaspur it proceeded rapidly ; and in 1790 the 
 formal. act of conversion took place, the E^ja Krishna Chandra 
 and his brother, Govind Chandra, entering the body of a copper 
 image of a cow, and emerging therefrom as Hindus and Kshatriyas. 
 A genealogy of a hundred generations, reaching to Bhima, the hero 
 of the Mahdhhdrata, was composed for them by the Brahmans, only 
 the last nine or ten names in which have probably any claim to 
 represent real personages. 
 
 85. In the beginning of the present century the valley of 
 Cachar became tlie scene of a struggle for 
 
 Taken under British , ^.^ -mt • • -u i.i 
 
 protection. Supremacy between the Manipuri brothers, 
 
 Marjit, Chaurjit, and Gambhir Singh, who 
 had been driven from their own country by the Burmese. Krishna 
 Chandra had died in 1813, and Govind Chandra succeeded him. 
 The Manipuri invaders speedily overran the country, and set at 
 naught the feeble authority of the Kachari king. In 1823 Mdrjit 
 held the Ilaihikdndi valley, and Gambhir Singh the rest of South 
 Cachar. Tlie Burmese were then in Assam, and, as lords of 
 Manipur (which they had conquered from Mdrjit in 1819), threat- 
 ened to annex Cachar. This the British Government, seeing the 
 danger which it would cause to Sylhet, decided to prevent. 
 Negotiations were first entered on with a view to an alliance with
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SU^IMARY. 
 
 79 
 
 tlie Manipuri brothers. These overtures fell through, and it was Section - 
 resolved to take up the cause of Govind Chandra, who was, with cZhar 
 the Edja of Jaintia, taken under British protection. The Burmese 
 armies, which had advanced both from Assam and Manipur, were 
 driven out, and Govind Chandra was replaced on the throne. A 
 treaty was executed on the 6th March 1824, by which the Eaja 
 placed himself under British protection, and agreed to pay a tribute 
 of Es. 10,000.* Govind Chandra's reign after his restoration was 
 very short; he was assassinated in 1830, and, as he left no heir, 
 either natural or adopted, the country was annexed by proclama- 
 tion on the 14th August 1832. 
 
 86. In its subsequent history Cachar much resembles Assam. 
 ^ .,. , , Act YI of 1835 (hke Act II of that year in 
 
 British rule. ^ •^ 
 
 the Assam Yalley) placed it under the 
 control of the Sadr Court and Board of Eevenue. It was adminis- 
 tered from the first by a Superintendent, who in 1833 was vested 
 with the powers of a Magistrate and Collector ; and in the same 
 year it was transferred from the supervision of the Commissioner 
 of Assam to that of the Commissioner of Dacca. It differs from 
 Assam in never having had any special code of administrative 
 rules drawn up for it ; the officers in charge applied " the spirit of 
 the Eegulations " inSacriti^g ^it]i judicial matters. The Civil 
 Procedure Code and Ln^'P^^ion Act were formally extended to the 
 district in 1859; in l8o2 the Criminal Procedure Code was 
 extended, and the Penal Code came into force. A special pecu- 
 liarity of the Cachar revenue system, which is a survival from 
 native rule, will be noticed in Chapter IV, section 1, 
 
 Since Cachar became British territory, the only important 
 political events which have marked its history have been the 
 Lushai raids of 1849 and subsequent years, which will be discussed 
 in the section dealing with the Lushais. In the Mutiny of 1857 the 
 sepoys of the 34th Native Infantry, who mutinied in Chittagong in 
 November of that year, were met in Cachar, and were defeated 
 and dispersed by the Sylhet Light Infantry. 
 
 * It is commonly asserted that the Burmese were driven out of Cachar in the course 
 of the first Burmese war. These events, however, occurred before the formal declaration 
 of war (5th March 182-4).
 
 8o ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOllT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 4. SECTION 4—SYLHET AND JAINTIA. 
 
 Sylhet and S7. Of Sjlliet uiicler its early Hindu rulers hardly anything is 
 3^"^'^^^^- known. It is believed that its native popula- 
 
 tion is largely made up of non- Aryan tribes, 
 probably of the same race as the Bodo Tipperas who now inhabit 
 the hills on its southern margin. The Eajas who held the country 
 at the date of the Musalman conquest, the chief of whom was 
 Gaur Govind, who ruled the south and centre, while the Raja of 
 Laur, under the Khasi Hills, governed the north, had evidently, 
 from their names, been taken up into Hinduism, and the country 
 colonised by Brahmans, who gradually extended their proselytising 
 operations. The district was conquered by the Muhammadan 
 kings of Bengal in 1384 A.D., the invaders being led by a spiritual 
 chief named Shah Jalal, whose shrine at Sylhet is still famous. 
 Laur and Jaintia, under the hills, retained their independence 
 during the rule of the Bengal kings. After the absorption of that 
 province in the Mogul Empire under AVi"u:i', iLiiJir became a depend- 
 ent principality. The last Hindu Rti^ a of Laur embraced Muham- 
 madanism at Delhi in Aurangzeb's reign. Todar Mai assessed 
 Sylhet (excluding Jaintia, which was? ^"'^v conquered by the 
 Moguls, and Laur) at Rs. I,67,0i0, am as ruled continuously 
 
 from that date, until, it passed into i /, hands of the East India 
 Company with the rest of Bengal in 17G5, by a succession of Amils 
 subordinate to the Nawab of Dacca. 
 
 The district was included in the decennial settlement of Bengal, 
 which afterwards became permanent in 1793, but the operation 
 of assessment was conducted in an exceptional manner, each hold- 
 ing being separately measured and settled upon fixed rates. Thus, 
 in Sylhet, the permanent settlement assumed a form which it bears 
 nowhere else, except perhaps in Chittagong. It was the policy of 
 the Collector, Mr. J. Willes, to put aside the chaudhuris, or zamin- 
 dars, who elsewhere obtained settlement, and to deal direct with 
 the better class of raiyats or mirasddrs. The result is that the settle- 
 ment is in great part a permanent raiyatwari one, the area which 
 each holding should contain being (so far as the records have been
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUMilAUY. 
 
 8l 
 
 preserved and can be trusted) accurately known. All land not Section 4. 
 included in the permanent settlement, or not subsequently settled Syiiiet and 
 in perpetuity, is neld on temporary leases. 
 
 The history of Sylhet since the permanent settlement has not 
 been eventful. The depredations of the Khdsis on the north were 
 brought to a close by the occupation of the station of Cherra Punji 
 in 1828 ; and those of the Lushais on the south were stopped, so 
 far as Sylhet is concerned, by the expedition of 1871-72. 
 
 88. The Edja of Jaintia, a Chief of Khdsi Hneage, was found by 
 us, on the annexation of the district, in 
 
 Jaintia. . » pi- . ^ • 
 
 possession of a tract of plains country lying 
 between the town of Sylhet and the Cachar border, and measuring 
 about 450 square miles, in addition to his hill territory stretching 
 from the foot of the hills overlooking the Surma Valley to the 
 Kalang river in Nowgong. At the same time that Cachar was 
 taken under British protection, in March 1824, a treaty was made 
 with Eam Singh, the Raja of Jaintia, by which he acknowledged 
 allegiance to the Company, and promised to aid in the military 
 operations then commenced against the Burmese in Assam. In 
 1832 four British subjects were seized by Chattar Singh, chief of 
 Gobha, under the orders of the heir-apparent, Rajendra Singh, and 
 th.ree of them were sacrificed to Kali, the tutelary goddess of the 
 Raja's family. One escaped, and gave information of the outrage, 
 which led to a demand by the British Government for the surrender 
 of the culprits. Negotiations went on for two years without any 
 result. In November 1832 Ram Singh died, and Rajendra Singh 
 succeeded him ; and it was finally resolved to punish this atrocious 
 crime (which had been preceded by similar outrages in 1821, 1827, 
 and 1832) by dispossessing the Rdja of his territory in the plains, 
 and confining him thenceforth to the hilly tract. On the 15th 
 March 1835 formal possession was taken of Jaintiapur, and the 
 annexation of the plains territory proclaimed by Colonel Lister ; 
 in April the district of Gobha was similarly annexed to Nowgong 
 in Assam. Upon this, the Raja declared himself unwilling to 
 continue in possession of his hill territory, over which he had but 
 little control, and it thus also became included in the Company's 
 
 M
 
 Districts. 
 
 82 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. U. 
 
 Section 5. dominions. The population of the plains of Jaintia, like that of 
 The Hill Cachar, is made up of Sylhet rai3^ats, with but a slight leaven of 
 settlers from the hills. 
 
 SECTION S.^THE HILL DISTRICTS. 
 
 89. The history of the Gjiro Hills has already been partly touched 
 
 , „.„ upon in the account given of the Goc41pdra 
 
 I. GAro Hills. : . , . 
 
 district, in which, up to 1866, they were, 
 
 80 far as British administration extended, included. These hills, 
 peopled by a wild race nearly akin to the Meches or Kacharis of 
 the plains, were surrounded on all sides except the east by the 
 estates of the great frontier zaminddrs or chaudhuris of Eangpur 
 and Mymensingh. The Garos were in the habit of resorting to the 
 markets in the plains estates of these zamindars for the sale of 
 their cotton and the purchase of the supplies they needed ; and the 
 police' of the border was maintained, and taxation levied on the 
 hill produce, by the zaminddrs by means of harkanddzes whom they 
 established at these marts. The chief of these chaudhuris were 
 those of Mechpara, Kalumdlupara, and Karaibtiri in Eangpur, and 
 Sherpur and Shushang in Mymensingh. The Gdros, like most of 
 the wild tribes of the north-east frontier, lived in a state of con- 
 stant internecine warfare, and it was a necessary ceremony at the 
 funeral of a great chief to bury with him as many human heads as 
 could be procured for the purpose, and, if possible, to put to death 
 on the occasion living captives. The border was thus vexed 
 by constant raids for the purpose of obtaining heads or prisoners ; 
 and the exactions of the plains zaminddrs at the submontane hats 
 likewise furnished frequent occasions for quarrel. 
 
 Under the Moguls, the chaudhuris of the border paid their 
 assessment in elephants, cotton, and agar wood to the Jaujddr of 
 Eangamati, midway between Godlpdra and Dhubri. After the 
 Company obtained the Diivdni, a sazdwal, or contractor, was 
 annually appointed, who took the place of the faujddr, and made 
 his own arrangements with the chaudhuris. Until 1787 the revenue 
 of these landlords continued to be paid, as before, in kind. Cash
 
 Chap, 11.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 83 
 
 payments were introduced in 1788, and the permanent settlement Section 5. 
 shortly afterwards followed. The Hill 
 
 90. In 1775, the chaudhuris of Mechpdra and Karaibdri, to 
 
 avenge some Gdro raids of more tlian usual 
 brou^ght within zlmindYiV Severity, invaded the hills bordering on their 
 ^^**^^' respective estates, and entered on a career of 
 
 conquest. They remained two or ihree years in the hills, and 
 brought the tribes of a large tract entirely under their control. 
 The zaminddr of Karaibdri, Mahendra Ndrdyan, was especially 
 successful in establishing his influence over the south-western 
 portion of the hills, and when the Company called his proceedings 
 in question, defied them from his fastnesses. After a long course 
 of warfare with other chaudhuris and with the chiefs of the interior, 
 Mahendra Ndrdyan's estates were at last sold by the Company for 
 arrears of revenue, and his influence gradually dwindled. 
 
 91. Meantime the raids of the Gdros on the plains continued, 
 
 and in 1816 Mr. David Scott was deputed to 
 Mr. Scott's proposals, report on the best means of preserving the 
 
 peace of the frontier. He found that at that 
 time the frontier zaminddrs had for the most part succeeded in 
 reducing a greater or smaller area on their borders to a state of 
 subjection, the largest conquests being those made by Karaibdri 
 and Mechpdra; beyond these areas thus incorporated in their 
 zaminddris, the chaudhuris had so far estabUshed their influence 
 that several villages in the interior paid them tribute. Beyond 
 these, again, in the heart of the hills, were the independent or 
 bemalwa Gdros. Mr. Scott proposed to s«iparate all the tributary 
 Gdros (from whom, and from the independent villages beyond, the 
 raids proceeded) from the zaminddr's control, and take them under 
 Government management, compensating the zaminddrs for any 
 losses which they might show that they had sustained ; to appoint 
 the chiefs of the villages thus brought under our jurisdiction to be 
 responsible for the peace and the collection of revenue ; and to 
 bring the submontane hats under Government control, all duties 
 being abolished there, except upon independent Gdros frequenting 
 them. These proposals were approved by Government, and after- 
 
 M2
 
 84 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Sections, ^ards embodied in Eegulation X of 1822, which gave Mr. Scott^ 
 The Hill who was appointed Special Commissioner, authority to extend 
 
 Dtstyicts 
 
 British administration over other Garo communities which miMit 
 be still independent, and exempted the whole tract (together with 
 the district of Godlpdra) from the operation of the General Regula- 
 tions. After the passing of the Regulation, Mr. Scott proceeded 
 to conclude engagements with the independent chiefs, and no 
 fewer than 121 of those living west of the Someswari are said to 
 have entered into terms with him. 
 
 92. Mr. Scott was shortly afterwards called away from his 
 
 work among the Garos to assume the admini- 
 Affairs eiibseqnent to gtration of Assam and the Eastern Frontier 
 
 Regulation X ot 1822. 
 
 generally, and his place was taken by the 
 Principal Assistant of Godlpdra, who was aided by a Gdro Sarbarah- 
 kdr with his headquarters at Singhimdri, situated nearly opposite 
 the middle of the western face of the hills. For many years the 
 British Government maintained a policy of non-interference with 
 the interior of the hills. The tributary Garos within paid with 
 great irregularity the tribute which they had agreed upon. Eaids 
 were frequent, and were followed either by expeditions or by 
 blockade of the submontane markets — measures which were found 
 to be quite ineffectual to stop them. Some little influence was 
 occasionally brought to bear upon the tributary Gdros through 
 visits paid to them by the Principal Assistant of GoalpAra; but 
 these annual tours were not regularly carried out, as designed by 
 Mr. Scott, and any intermission in them was followed by an 
 increase in the number of raids. 
 
 93. For all these years it was believed that the climate of the 
 EBtabliebment of a ^^^^^^ ^^^ SO deadly that no European could 
 
 Deputy Commissioner survivc witliin them, and that it was imprac- 
 
 Avithin the hills. . ^ 
 
 ticable to attempt any establishment of a 
 permanent post in their midst. At last, in 18G6, after two expe- 
 ditions to punish raids on the side of Mymensingh of more than 
 usual atrocity, the Government for the first time resolved to 
 appoint a special officer to the charge of the hills. Lieutenant 
 WilHamson was selected for this purpose, and was estabUshed on
 
 Chap. I!,] HISTORiaVL SUMMARY. 
 
 8s 
 
 a spur of the Tura mountain, with a special armed police force. Section 5. 
 Shortly after, in 1869, Act XXII of that year was passed, which ThTHill 
 enabled the Lieutenant-Governor to make special provision for the ^''*'''^^^- 
 administration of the district, and to prevent the collection by 
 zamindars or other persons of tributes, cesses, or other exactions 
 in the hills. By this Act, Regulation X of 1822 was repealed. 
 That Regulation had applied only to North-East Eangpur, after- 
 wards the Godlpara district. The Act of 1869 included Mymen- 
 singh, on Mdiich side also zamindari influence had been pushed into 
 the hills, and had provoked retaliation by the hillmen. 
 
 This experiment proved completely successful. The Deputy 
 Commissioner of the Gdro Hills and his police force brouo-ht almost 
 instant quiet to the district. Hearty aid was given to him by the 
 Gdros, and the headmen, relieved from the dread of retaliatory 
 feuds, at once began to perform their duty, to deliver up offenders, 
 and to enforce the payment of revenue. Raids ceased, and numer- 
 ous villages, theretofore independent, voluntarily became tributary. 
 
 94. In 1870 the survey, which had been carried through the 
 neighbouring Khasi Hills, entered the district, 
 
 Siibiection of the last -> •. it, ^ 
 
 independent Garos. ^nd it was resolved to explore as much of 
 
 the independent Garo country as was possible 
 in the course of surveying that which acknowledged British 
 authority. During that year no opposition whatever was offered 
 by the independent villages, of which about 60 still remained in 
 the heart of the district ; but in March 1871 a survey coolie, who 
 had been sent to clear a station on the top of a hill, was seized 
 by some Garos of Rongmagiri, and was tortured and murdered. 
 This put a stop to survey operations for the time, and in the 
 ensuing cold weather (1871-72) an expedition was led against the 
 offending village. In the summer of 1872 some independent 
 villages raided upon protected Gdro villages which had afforded 
 assistance to the expedition against Rongmagiri, and were attacked 
 and occupied by the Deputy Commissioner. It was eventually 
 resolved that the whole of the country which had hitherto been 
 left to its independence should be brought under the same mana^e- 
 ment as the rest ; and in the cold weather of 1872-73 three detach-
 
 86 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 5. ments of police, from Mymensingli on the south, from Tiira on the 
 
 The Hill west, and from Godlpara on the north, marched through the country 
 
 tstricts. ^^|^j(,|^ jj- \^rj^^ been decided to annex. All resistance was easily 
 
 overpowered, lashkars or headmen were appointed, the heads taken 
 
 in recent raids were surrendered, and peaceful administration was 
 
 established. 
 
 95. Since the expedition of 1872-73, the history of the district 
 
 has been one of profound peace. In Febru- 
 
 Eecent history. -^ . , ,. 
 
 ary and March 1881, a slight disturbance took 
 place near Bangdlkhd^ta, at the north-western corner of the hills, 
 in consequence of the construction of a road through that tract ; 
 but it was speedily suppressed without bloodshed. The whole of 
 the district, with the exception of a small tract of plains land on 
 the north, is now under the exclusive management of the Deputy 
 Commissioner, and is free from the exactions of zamindars, the 
 greater part of whose interests in the area formerly included in 
 their zaminddris or tributary to them have been bought out and 
 extinguished, 
 
 96. The Khasi Hills were first brought into direct relations 
 
 _ , . „ with the British Government in 1826, after 
 
 II. TheKh^si Hills. ^ n. • \ 
 
 the conquest of Assam.* The chiefs of the 
 Khasi States on the northern border of the hills had gradually, 
 since the decay of the Ahom power in the year 1794, established 
 themselves in the plains of Kdmriip in the tracts known as Dudrs, 
 and were accustomed to pay only a nominal allegiance to the 
 Assam kings. When Assam was acquired by the East India 
 Company, it became an object with Mr. Scott to establish com- 
 munication through the hills with Sylhet, and while the new 
 administration of Kdmriip refused to recognise the right of the 
 Khdsi rulers to encroach on the plains of Assam, Mr. Scott was 
 able, by agreeing to allow Tirat Singh, Seim of Nongkhldo, to rent 
 some lands in Bordudr, to induce that chief, and to persuade the 
 
 ® Tlie Klidsis bad previously been known only as troublesome marauders upon the 
 plains of Sylhet, where they were much dreaded. During the last century their ravages 
 between 1780 and 1790 are specially mentioned as severe. A hne of forts was kept up 
 under the hills to check these incursions.
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUJOIARY. 87 
 
 Other Seims, to permit a road to be made through the hills vid Section 5, 
 Cherra Punji, Maophldng, and Nongkhldo to Gauhdti. The Hill 
 
 In 1829, the insolent talk of some native servants belonging to 
 the surveying party who were making the road led to an attack 
 upon the party at the village of Nongkhlao, and Lieutenants 
 Burlton and Bedingfield, 'with about fifty or sixty natives, were 
 massacred. This event was followed by a general confederacy of 
 most of the neighbouring chiefs to resist the British, and led to a 
 long and harassing war, in which troops from Assam and Sylhet 
 co-operated. Eventually, Tirat Singh submitted in 1833, and was 
 confined as a prisoner for life in the Dacca Jail. The other chiefs 
 had either before made terms with the British Government, or did 
 so immediately after ; and since that date the establishment of a 
 British officer with an adequate military force in the midst of the 
 people, at Cherra Punji, which was abandoned in 1866 for Shillong, 
 liavS sufficed to maintain the most absolute tranquillity. 
 
 The greater part of the Kh^si Hills consists of the territories 
 of native chiefs in subsidiary alliance with the British Government ; 
 only a few scattered villages have remained British since the 
 conquest of 1833, or have been ceded since then under special 
 circumstances. The people govern themselves through their elected 
 rulers, who are bound to follow the advice of their darbdrs. They 
 pay no revenue to the British Government, but the Seims are 
 required on investiture to confirm the cession to the paramount 
 power of the mines and minerals, elephants, forests, and other 
 natural products of their States, on the condition of receiving half 
 the profits from these sources. All petty crime committed by their 
 subjects is dealt with by the chiefs and their darbdrs, only heinous 
 offences, or those cases in which subjects of different States are 
 concerned, being tried by the district authorities. The people are 
 extremely well-to-do, and make much money by trade with the 
 plains in the valuable staples which the hills produce. 
 
 97. It has already been related how, on the annexation of the 
 plains country of Jaintia in 1835, Ed] a 
 
 The Jaintia Hills. i^ ,. j o- -u j r ^ ^ . • +1 Til 
 
 Edjendra Smgh dechned to retani the hilly 
 portion of his principality, which thus lapsed to the British Govern-
 
 88 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. II, 
 
 Section 5. ment. This tract, inhabited by the same race of mountaineers as 
 The~Hill ^^^ neighbouring Khasi territory, was thereupon placed under the 
 
 Districts, administration of the PoUtical Agent at Cherra Punji. The Jaintia 
 Hills were (and still are) divided into 23 petty districts, 19 of 
 which are in charge of headmen, chosen by the people themselves, 
 called Dollois, and the remaining 4 in 'that of hereditary Sarddrs. 
 From 1835 to 1855 the people were left very much to themselves. 
 The Dollois heard all civil cases, at first without exception, and 
 after 1841 up to a certain limit, and all criminal complaints not of 
 a heinous character in which only people of their own villages 
 were concerned. No taxes of any kind were levied throughout the 
 hills, the only contribution required being the annual ofiering of a 
 he-goat from each village, which had been exacted by the Jaintia 
 Edja. In 1853 Mr, Mills, of the Sadr Court, reported on the dis- 
 trict, and drew attention to the absence of administrative control 
 in this portion of it. He suggested that a house- tax (which had 
 been proposed by the Political Officer in 1849, and then negatived 
 by Government) should be imposed, and a police thana posted in 
 the hills with a view to check the lawless proceedings of the Dollois. 
 The latter recommendation was carried out, and a thdna established 
 at Jowai ; but the former, though approved by Lord Dalhousie, 
 remained without effect. In 1858, Mr. Allen, of the Board of 
 Eevenue, again reported on the district, and strongly urged Mr. 
 Mills' recommendation that a moderate house-tax should be imposed, 
 but he added that a European civil officer should be stationed in 
 the midst of the tract, to be to the people a visible representative 
 of British authority. The latter of these proposals was neglected, 
 the former was adopted. In 1860 the house-tax was imposed, and 
 within a few months the people were in open rebellion. Fortunately, 
 a large force of troops was close at hand ; and before the revolt 
 could make any head, it was stamped out and the villages were awed 
 into apparent submission. After this rising, measures were taken 
 to improve the administration of the Dollois, who were notoriously 
 corrupt, but still no officer was posted to the subdivision. 
 
 In January 1862, the people of the Jaintia Hills were again in 
 fierce rebellion. The occasion was the imposition, only a year after
 
 Chap. II.] 
 
 HISTORICAL SUMMAEY. 
 
 89 
 
 the liouse tax had been introduced, of the income tax, to which 310 Sections. 
 persons in the hills were subjected. This new impost, quickly xiiTHill 
 succeeding the former, roused the deepest resentment among a Districts. 
 people who had paid nothing for generations, either to their own 
 Eaja or to the British Government, and had been left since annexa- 
 tion entirely to themselves. ' The suppression of the revolt was long 
 and tedious. Crushed apparently in four months after its outbreak, 
 it again almost immediately burst out afresh ; and it was not till 
 November 1863 that the last of the rebel leaders surrendered, and 
 the pacification of Jaintia could be said to be complete. 
 
 An English officer has since those events been stationed at Jowai. 
 He is required to make himself acquainted with the Khasi language, 
 and to be able to dispense with interpreters ; the administration of 
 the DoUois has been reformed, education (by the agency of the 
 Welsh Mission, estabhshed in the Khjisi Hills since 1842) has been 
 encouraged, and the country has been thoroughly opened up by 
 roads. The Jaintia Hills are now as secure and peaceable as the 
 neighbouring Khasi States. 
 
 98. North Cachar, the tract of thinly-peopled, low undulating 
 hills, divided from the valley of the Barak by 
 the range of the Barail, and interposed 
 between the Jaintia and the Naga Hills, has already been briefly 
 referred to in the section dealing with Cachar. When the district 
 w^as under native rule, during the last years of the reign of Govind 
 Chandra, this portion of it was the scene of a struggle between 
 that prince and one of his officers, named Kacha Din,* who rebelled 
 and endeavoured to establish an independent government in the 
 hills. He was captured and put to death by Govind Chandra, but 
 his son, Tulanim, a chaprdsi in the E^ija's service, immediately 
 revived the rebelhon, and in 1824 joined the Burmese in their 
 attack on Cachar. After a series of years, during which Tularum 
 successfully held his own, Mr. Scott induced Govind Chandra in 
 1829 to assign to him a tract of country in the hills, and bind 
 himself not to molest him within these limits. After the assassina- 
 
 III. North Cachar. 
 
 « Called " Kohee Dan " by Colonel Butler, Mills' "Assam Eeport," page chiii. 
 " Kacha Din " is the name given by Peniberton, "Eastern Frontier," page 191. 
 
 N
 
 go ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOKT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 5. tion of tlie Edja of Cachar, Tularam was a candidate for tlie vacant 
 The Hill throne, but failed to establish his title. In 1835, he entered into 
 an agreement with the British Government, in which he resigned 
 all the western portion of the tract ceded by Govind Chandra, 
 retaining the tract on the east, bounded on the south by the Mahur 
 river and the Naga Hills, on the west by the Diyung, on the east by 
 the Dhansiri, and on the north by the Jamuna and Diyung. For 
 this he was to pay a tribute of four pairs of elephants' tusks 
 annually, receiving a monthly pension of Es. 50. Tulardm died in 
 October 1850. His sons, Nakulnim and Braja Nath, held the 
 country for two and half years more, when the former was killed 
 in the Naga Hills, whither he had led an expedition to avenge an 
 attack on his village of Semkhor ; and in 1854 the tract was 
 resumed by the British Government, the surviving members of 
 Tularam's family receiving pensions. 
 
 In 1839, the portion of North Cachar, not included in Tularam's 
 dominions, was annexed to Nowgong ; and in 1853 a separate 
 officer was placed in charge of the subdivision, with his head- 
 quarters at Asalu, near the northern skirts of the Barail, whose 
 business it was to keep order among the Kukis and Arung Nagas 
 dwelling in this neighbourhood, and to protect them against the 
 Angfimi Nagas to the east, who were constantly making jaids into 
 this country and that held by Tularam. In 1854, that officer's 
 charge was augmented by the addition of Tularam's principality. 
 
 99. The defence of North Cachar and the Mikir Hills in 
 Nowgong, lying to the north of that sub- 
 history. ^^^ ' '^' ^^ ^ division, from the attacks of the Angami 
 Ndgas was a task, however, which experience 
 proved could not be successfully effected from Asalu. These 
 turbulent neighbours led yearly expeditions into the hills and the 
 valleys of the Jamuna, Diyung, and Dhansiri rivers. Outposts 
 throughout the hills held only the ground they covered, and the 
 Nagas were able to creep by them with impunity. Ten military 
 expeditions were led into the Naga Hills between 1835 and 1851, 
 the greater number of which were to punish raids. In 1846, a 
 police post, under Bhogchand Darogha, was established at Sama-
 
 Chap. 11] HISTORICAL SUMxMART. 9I 
 
 guting on a liill overlooking the Dhansiri Valley south of Dimapur. Section 5. 
 In 1849, Bhogchand was killed at Piphima in the hills by the men The Hill 
 of Khonoma and Mezuma. In 1S50, Lieutenant Vincent led a force 
 to Mezuma to avenge Bhogchand's death, and remained there for 
 six months, burning Klionoma daring his stay. In the winter of 
 1850-51, the tenth expedition, the greatest British force which 
 had entered the hills, advanced to complete the work of punish- 
 ment ; and on the lOtli and lltli December 1850, the strouf^ fort 
 of Khonoma was taken under almost the same circumstances as 
 attended its capture twenty-nine years later, in November 1879. 
 Paplongmai was burnt, and the Nagas of Kekrima, who challenged 
 our troops, lost 300 killed in a hand-to-hand fight which was long 
 remembered in the hills. 
 
 After this successful expedition the Government of India 
 decided upon a complete withdrawal from interference with the 
 internal concerns of the Angami Ndgas. The Governor General, 
 Lord Dalhousie, wrote in his minute of the 20th February 1851 : 
 
 Hereafter we should confine ourselves to our own ground ; protect it as it 
 can and must be protected ; not meddle in the feuds or fights of these 
 savages ; encourage trade with them as long as they are peaceful towards us ; 
 and rigidly exclude them from all communication, either to sell what they 
 have got or to buy what they want, if they should become turbulent or 
 troublesome. 
 
 These are the measures which are calculated to allay their natural fears 
 of our aggression upon them, and to repel their aggression on our people. 
 These will make them feel our power both to 'repel their attacks, and to 
 exclude them from advantages they desire, far better, at less cost, and with 
 more justice, than by annexing their country openly by a declaration, or 
 virtually by a partial occupation. 
 
 In March 1851, our troops were withdrawn, and in that rear 
 twenty-two Naga raids were reported, in which 55 persons were 
 killed, 10 were wounded, and 113 were taken captive. In 1853, 
 as already related, an officer was stationed in the North Cacliar 
 Hills at Asalu ; but he was instructed to regard the Angamis as 
 persons living beyond the jurisdiction of the British Government, 
 although in 1841 the watershed of the Barail range to the south of 
 
 N
 
 92 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 5. the Angami country liad been authoritatively laid down as the 
 The Hill boundary of jurisdiction between Manipur and Assam. A line of 
 
 Districts. . ■, 
 
 outposts, with regular patrols, was established between Asalu and 
 Barpathar, in the Nambar forest; but in 1857 these outposts were 
 reduced and gradually withdrawn. 
 
 100. Eaids continued to be numerous between 1853 and 1865, 
 
 during which years 19 occurred, in which 
 
 Hilirdistrk".° ^^ ^^^ ^32 British subjects were killed, wounded 
 
 or carried off. In 1864 and 18G5 the policy 
 to be followed towards the Anoranii Najj^as aixain came under review, 
 and the concurrent opinion of the local officers, of the Commis- 
 sioner, Colonel Hopkinson, and of the Lieutenant-Governor, Sir 
 Cecil Beadon, was that it was necessary for the credit of our 
 administration to advance into the hills, " to re-assert our authority 
 over the Nagas, and bring them under a system of administration 
 suited to their circumstances, and gradually to reclaim them from 
 habits of lawlessness to those of order and civilisation. " 
 
 The Government of India, in 1866, agreed to the proposal that 
 a new district should be formed, with its headquarters at Samagu- 
 ting, Asalu being abolished as a subdivision, and North Cachar 
 being divided between the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, South Cachar, 
 and Nowgong, that portion lying to the west of the Dhansiri 
 and the country on both banks of the Doyong forming, wath the 
 Angami Naga Hills, the new district. But they desired that the 
 main object to be kept in view should be not to extend our rule 
 into the interior, but to protect the lowlands from the incursion of 
 the Nagas. 
 
 Captain Gregory, the first officer in charge of the new district, 
 was succeeded in 1869 by Captain J. Butler, whose energetic 
 administration did much to consolidate our power in the hills. 
 Acting in the spirit of his instructions, he received the allegiance of 
 those villages which freely tendered it, but made no effort to include 
 those who were not willing to become British subjects. Much of 
 his time was given to exploration with survey parties ; and in 1876 
 he met his death in a fight with the LhotaNdgas of Pangti, a village 
 in the hills east of the Doyong river.
 
 Chap. II.] HISTORICAL SUMMARY. 
 
 93 
 
 101. In February 1877, the Angtiini Nagas of Mezuma raided Section 5. 
 
 Advance to Kohima. "P^^ ^^'^ ^^^^^" ^'^S^ ^^^^^g^ «^ Gumaigaju, r/^T^.z^ 
 
 in the heart of Xorth Cachar, kiUinr/ G and ^''''''*'- 
 wounding 2 persons. The cause of the attack was a feud thirty 
 years old. With this exception, no raid had been committed by 
 Angami Xagas within British territory since 1866, although there 
 were numerous complaints of their depredations in Manipur ; and 
 their internal feuds were^ as always, incessant. The village of 
 Mezuma refused to give up the raiders, and in the cold weather of 
 1877-78 an expedition was sent against it, by which the village was 
 burned. Mr. Carnegy, the PoHtical Officer, was accidentally killed 
 by a sentry of his own party while occupying Mezuma^ These 
 events led to a review of the position which we occupied in the hills ; 
 and in 1878, it was determined by Colonel Keatinge, after a visit to 
 the country, to abandon Samaguting, a low and unhealthy site on the 
 extreme edge of the Angdmi country, and to fix the future head- 
 quarters of the Political Officer at Kohima in the midst of the 
 group of powerful villages which it was specially necessary to 
 control. This selection was approved by the Government of India 
 in March 1878, and by the end of the next cold weather the 
 transfer from Samaguting to Kohima was completed. 
 
 In the course of the rains of 1879, indications of coming trouble 
 began to present themselves, but no serious apprehensions were 
 entertained by the Political Officer, Mr. Damant, who had planned 
 an expedition during the cold weather into the Hatigoria country to 
 the east of the Doyong. Before starting on this, however, he 
 resolved to visit the powerful villages of Jotsoma, Khonoma, and 
 Mezuma, to ascertain their disposition, and whether he might safely 
 leave Kohima. On the 14th October he arrived at Khonoma, and 
 leaving half his escort of 21 sepoys and 65 police with his baggage 
 at the foot of the hill, he advanced with the other half up the 
 narrow path leading to the strongly-fortified village site. The gate 
 of the village was found closed, and as Mr. Damant stood before 
 it, he was shot dead. A volley was then poured into his escort, 
 who turned and fied down the hill. The Nagas followed, and 
 dispersed the troops and police, Avho endeavoured by twos and
 
 94 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION RErOP.T. [Chap. 11. 
 
 Section: 5. threes to escapc to Koliima. Of the military accompanying Mr. 
 The Hill Daman t, 10 were killed and 5 were wounded ; of the police, 25 
 istncts. y^Q^Q killed and 14 were wounded. 
 
 When this news reached Kohima, preparations were made to 
 resist the attack. The subdivisioual officer was summoned from 
 Wokha, 57 miles distant, and arrived with his force of sepoys and 
 police on the 19th October. The stockade was besieged by the 
 Nagas from the 16th to the 27tli, when the garrison, who were 
 reduced to great straits for want of food and water, were relieved, 
 and the siege was raised, by the arrival of Colonel Johnstone, 
 Political Agent of Manipur, with a force of 2,000 Manipuri troops, 
 and his own escort of 30 sepoys and a few police. 
 
 A campaign against the Ndgas then ensued, in which the 42nd 
 and 44th Hegiments, with a wing of the 18th Native Infantry and a 
 detachment of the 43rd Native Infantry, took part, and which lasted 
 till March 1880. Khonoma was taken on the 22nd November 1879, 
 but the defenders retreated to a very strong position above the village 
 on a spur of Japvo, where they maintained themselves until the 
 end of the campaign. Jotsoma was captured on the 27th November, 
 and every one of the 13 villages which had entered into the coali- 
 tion against us was either occupied or destroyed. The most not- 
 able event of the war, however, was the daring raid made in 
 January 1880, by a party of Khonoma men from the fort above the 
 village, at the time beleaguered by our troops, 'upon the tea garden 
 of Bahidhan in Cachar, more than 80 miles distant, where they 
 killed the manager, Mr. Blyth, and 16 coolies, plundered what they 
 could, and burned everything in the place. 
 
 On the 27tli March, the fort above Khonoma submitted, and 
 the war was at an end. Fines in grain, cash, and labour were 
 imposed upon those villages which took part against us. The 
 Nagas were made to surrender the firearms they were known to 
 possess, and in some instances the removal of a village from a 
 fortified and inaccessible crest to a site below was directed. Khono- 
 ma was razed to the ground, and its site occupied by an outpost. 
 From all villages an agreement was taken to pay revenue in the 
 shape of 1 maund of rice and 1 rupee per house, to provide a certain
 
 Chap. 11. 1 HISTORICAL SUM3IAKY. 95 
 
 amount of labour annually for State purposes, and to appoint Section 5. 
 a headman who should be responsible for good order and for The Hill 
 carrying out the wishes of Government. mtncts. 
 
 After the close of this, the twelfth and last expedition, the 
 question of the policy to be adopted in dealing with the Nagas 
 was submitted by the Chief Commissioner to the Government of 
 India, who in Februaxy 1881 finally decided that our position at 
 Kohima should be retained, that a regiment should be permanently 
 stationed in the hills, and that the district should be adminis- 
 tered as British territory. Since that date the history of the 
 district has been one of the progressive establishment of peace 
 and good order, and the quiet submission of the Nagas to our 
 rule, 
 
 102. In 1875, a subdivision was opened at Wokha, which is 
 
 situated in the country of the Lliota Nagas, 
 
 Wokha subdivision. '' 1 » / • i i 
 
 who are separated from the Angamis by the 
 Rengmas and Semas. The village of Wokha had on several oc- 
 casions attacked survey parties sent into the hills, and it was deter- 
 mined to occupy the site to secure our position there. The Lhotas 
 have no connection with the Angamis, who do not pass through 
 their country in visiting the plains. This tract has been in ch'arge 
 of a tahsildar since 1889, when the Mokokchang subdivision was 
 formed, as the Lhotas had by that time become so amenable to 
 authority that it was considered unnecessary any longer to retain 
 a European officer in their midst. 
 
 103. The boundaries of the Naga Hills district were gazetted 
 
 in 1882, and the only change since that date 
 
 Mokokchacg- feubdivision. , . . . . ^ oorv <• i 
 
 has been the mclusion, m 18by, or the cis- 
 Dikhu tract of country inhabited by the Ao Nagas. The reasons 
 for this step were the difficulty of protecting the Aos from raids by 
 trans-Dikhu tribes unless a garrison was permanently established 
 in their midst, and the fact that the leading Ao villages had peti- 
 tioned the Deputy Commissioner for their incorporation in British 
 territory. The necessary measures were successfully carried out, 
 and the tract in question is now known as the Mokokchang sub- 
 division of the Naga Hills district. "»
 
 96 ASSAM ADMINISTEATIOX REPORT. [Chap. II. 
 
 Section- 5. 104. At the close of the Naga war of 1879-80, Sir Steuart 
 The Hill Bayley recommended, and the Government of 
 
 Districts. Re-establislunent of the t t -i A^ ^ i t i j_ i' ^i 
 
 North Cachar subdivision. I^dia approved, the re-estabhshment of the 
 subdivisional charge of North Cachar, where, 
 since 1866, no officer liad been located, the hiUmen being left, save 
 for the rare cold-weather tonrs of the Deputy Commissioner, 
 entirely to themselves. The subdivision was opened in December 
 1880, and placed in charge of an Assistant Superintendent of Police, 
 who was stationed at Gunjong, in the centre of the tract, a point 
 connected by easy hill paths with Nowgong to the north, Silchar to 
 the south, and Jowai to the west. A bridle path to Kohima, vid 
 the Kacha or A rung Naga country, has since been constructed. 
 In this hitherto isolated and thinly-peopled region, in the cold 
 weather of 1881-82, an event occurred which cost the life of a 
 valued officer. Major Boyd, the Deputy Commissioner of Cachar. 
 A Kacliari, named Sambhudan, declared himself inspired, claimed 
 to work miraculous cures, and with his followers, who, like 
 himself, took the title of deo, or god, levied contributions on the vil- 
 lagers about Maibong, the old capital of the Kachari kings, where 
 he took up his abode. The matter came under the notice of the 
 subdivisional officer, who reported it, and the Deputy Commis- 
 sioner, Major Boyd, immediately started for Gunjong with 30 police, 
 and reached that place without impediment. On the loth January 
 he left Gunjong with Mr. Soppitt, the subdivisional officer, for 
 Maibon^, which is six or eij2'lit hours' march distant ; Maibonsf 
 was reached and found deserted, and the party encamped in the 
 huts of the deos. On the same day Sambhuddn and his party, some 
 20 men, countermarched him, and about noon fell upon Gunjong, 
 where only a weak police guard, composed mainly of Kachdri 
 constables, who shared in the superstitions of their people, had 
 been left. They were panic-stricken, and fled without firing a shot ; 
 and the deos burned down all the houses at Gunjong, killed two 
 servants and a sick policeman, and left precipitately for Maibong. 
 On the morning of the 16th, soon after dawn. Major Boyd was 
 awakened by the shouts and drums of Sambhuddn and his followers, 
 • who had passed the night in the jungle. The police formed up in
 
 Chap. 11. ] niSTomcAL smiMAUY. 97 
 
 line with bayonets fixed, but did not fire at first. The enemy ad- Section 6. 
 vanced right up to them, and struck at them with their daos ; one Formation 
 man was wounded on the shoulder with a dao, and Major Boyd ° Commis- 
 received a deep cut between the forefinger and thumb. The police ^^°^^^^^^P' 
 then fired a volley, and killed eight of their assailants ; two or three 
 more were afterwards found dead in the jungle. Sambhudan 
 escaped for the time, but the insurrection completely collapsed at 
 once. Major Boyd was carried into Silchar ; his wound brought 
 on tetanus, from which he died on the 30th January 1882. 
 Sambhuddn evaded capture till the end of the year, when he was 
 surrounded by the police, who had received information of his 
 hiding place. In endeavouring to escape, he received a wound, 
 from which he quickly bled to death. Four of his gang were 
 arrested, of whom two died in jail, and two were tried at the 
 sessions ; one was acquitted, and the other was sentenced to 
 transportation for life. 
 
 During the last ten years the history of this subdivision has 
 been peaceful and uneventful, and nothing has transpired worthy 
 of permanent record. 
 
 SECTION 6.— FORMATION OF THE CHIEF COMMISSIONER- 
 SHIP. 
 105. In 1873 it was determined by the Government of India to 
 separate the districts now forming the Assam 
 Formation of the Chief province from the administration of the 
 
 ComnuBsionership. 
 
 Government of Bengal, and to form them into 
 a Chief Commissionership. By a proclamation dated the 6th 
 February 1874, the districts of Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang, Now- 
 gong, Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, the three hill districts, and the district 
 of Cachar were taken under the immediate authority and manage- 
 ment of the Governor General in Council ; and by a notification 
 of the same date they were formed into a Chief Commissionership, 
 and Lieutenant- Colonel R. H. Keatinge, v.c, c.s.r., was appointed 
 the first Chief Commissioner. On the 12th September of the same 
 year, by another proclamation and notification, Sylhet was added, 
 and the province, as it now exists, was completed.
 
 98 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION HEPORT. 
 
 [Chap. II. 
 
 Section 6. r^^^ following statement sliows the officers who have filled the 
 Formation Q^^ of Chief Commissioner since the formation of the Chief Com- 
 
 or t'le Chief i 
 
 Conimis- missioncrship : 
 
 It on ersli ip. 
 
 Name. 
 
 From 
 
 To 
 
 Bemarks. 
 
 Colonel R. H. Keatinge, 
 v.c, c S.I. 
 
 Sir S. C. Bayley, K.c.s.i.... 
 
 Mr. C. A. EUiott, c.s.i. ... 
 
 Mr. W. E. Ward 
 
 Mr. C. A. Elliott, C.S.I. ... 
 
 Mr. W.E.Ward 
 
 Mr. D. Fitzpatricb, c.s.i. 
 
 Mr. J. Westland, C.S.I. ... 
 
 Mr. J. W. Quinton, c.S I. 
 
 Brigadier-General Sir H. 
 CoUett, K.c.B. 
 
 Mr. W. E. Ward, c.s.i. ... 
 
 7th February 1874 
 
 S2nd June 1878 . 
 
 2nd March 1881 . 
 
 7th July 1883 ... 
 
 7th October 1883 
 
 23 rd February 
 1885. 
 
 31st October 1887 
 15th July 1889 
 
 22nd October 1889 
 24th March 1891 
 
 27th May 1891. 
 
 21st June 1878. 
 
 1st March 1881. 
 
 7th July 1883. 
 
 7th October 1883 
 
 23rd February 
 
 1885. 
 3ist October 1887 
 
 15th July 1889. 
 
 22nd October 
 
 1889. 
 24th Blarch 1891. 
 
 27th May 1891... 
 
 Officiating. 
 
 Officiating. 
 
 Officiating.
 
 Chap. Ill ] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 99 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Form of Administration. 
 
 SECTION 1.-.GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM AND 
 
 STAFF. 
 
 106. The province of Assam, excluding Sylhet, as already section i. 
 mentioned, was taken under the immediate ~ — , 
 
 p f i\ r"i ■ f General 
 
 ComiSoner. authority and management of the Governor Admi.istya. 
 
 General in Council, and constituted a separate ZU staff! 
 Administration, by a proclamation, dated the 6th February 1874. 
 A Chief Commissioner having been appointed, Act VIII of 1874 
 was passed to provide for the exercise by him of executive powers. 
 In September of the same year, on the addition of the district of 
 Sylhet to the Chief Commissionership, Act XII of that year made 
 the same provision in regard to that district. By these Acts the 
 powers which, on the date of the formation of the Chief Commis- 
 sionership, and on that of the transfer to it of the district of Sylhet, 
 were, by virtue of any law or regulation vested in, or exercisable 
 by, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal or the Board of Revenue 
 Lower Provinces, were transferred to, and vested in, the'^Governor 
 General in Council ; and it was enacted that the Governor General 
 in Council might, from time to time, delegate to the Chief Com- 
 missioner all or any of the said powers, and withdraw any powers 
 60 delegated. 
 
 . By notification, dated the 16th April 1874, the Government of 
 India delegated to the Chief Commissioner all powers which were 
 vested in the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal by the direct opera- 
 tion of any Act of the Governor General in Council, which also 
 conferred the same powers on the Chief Commissioners of Gudh, 
 the Central Provinces, and British Burma. By Act 'I of 1868 
 section 2, clause 10, all powers conferred upon a Local Govern- 
 ment by any Act of the Governor General in Council in force in
 
 lOO ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [ Chap. ill. 
 
 Sectio N I. Assam, and passed subsequent^ to the constitution of the Chief 
 General Commissionership, vest in the Chief Commissioner. By the o^ersi- 
 tive System ^ion of this clause and the notification of the 16th April (and, in 
 and staff, j-ggard to Sylhet, a similar notification of the 12th September 1874), 
 tlie Chief Commissioner has, in respect to all the general Acts of 
 the Governor General in Council, the powers of a Local Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Other powers have from time to time been delegated to the 
 Chief Commissioner under Acts VIII and XII of 1874 [or assumed 
 under section 6(c) of Act XIV of the same year], which, generally 
 speaking, place him in the position of a Local Government in regard 
 to most of the Eegulations and Acts, whether of the Legislative 
 Council of India or that of Bengal, in practical operation in 
 the province. 
 
 The Chief Commissioner is assisted by a Secretary and an 
 Assistant Secretary. 
 
 107. From the constitution of the province in 1874 down to 
 1880 there were no Commissioners in Assam. 
 General executive g^j. jj-^ June of the latter year one was appoint- 
 ed for the six districts of the Assam Valley, 
 the office being combined with that of Judge in these districts, and 
 the Commissioner being invested generally with the powers of a 
 Commissioner of Division in Bengal. In the other districts of the 
 province, that is, in the Surma Valley and Hill districts, the Chief 
 Commissioner continues to perform himself the duties of a 
 Commissioner of Division. 
 
 Each of the eleven districts of the province has a Deputy Com- 
 missioner as its chief executive officer, who is aided by a staff of 
 I Assistant Commissioners and Extra Assistant Commissioners. Tlije 
 
 functions of these oflicers are similar to those exercised by officers 
 of the same name in other provinces. 
 
 In addition to the above, there is the Director, Department of 
 Land Eecords and Agriculture, whose main duty it is to supervise 
 all survey and settlement operations, but who is also entrusted 
 with the collection of trade and agricultural statistics, the manage- 
 ment of survey schools, and other similar matters.
 
 Chap. Ill] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. lOi 
 
 108. The judicial organisation of tho province is at present in Section i. 
 much the same condition as at its constitution r'ZZ j 
 
 Judicial staff '^tiierac 
 
 in 1874. The six districts of the Brahmaputra ^^"'^I'^'t^a- 
 
 , ■'■ tivi; System 
 
 Valley, and the districts or Sylhet and Cachar, are subordinate to ^"'^ Staff. 
 the High Court of Fort William in Bengal. For the whole of the 
 Brahmaputra Valley there is one District and Sessions Judge (who 
 is also the Commissioner), whose headquarters are at Gauhati, but 
 who holds sessions at the various district headquarters when required. 
 Tlie Deputy Commissioners of the six districts have the civil powers 
 of Subordinate Judges, and the special powers conferred by 
 sections 30 and 34 of the Criminal Procedure Code of tryino- all 
 offences not punishable with death and awarding a sentence of 
 seven years' imprisonment. The Assistant and Extra Assistant 
 Commissioners have the ordinary powers of Magistrates of the first, 
 second, and third classes, and have also generally the civil powers 
 of aMunsif, though only the senior Extra Assistant Commissioner 
 or, where there is no Extra Assistant Commissioner, the senior 
 Assistant Commissioner at a headquarters station, and the subdi vi- 
 sional officer at a subdivisional station ordinarily exercises the 
 latter powers. 
 
 In the Surma Valley a different system prevails. In Sylhet 
 there is a separate judicial service, at the head of which is the 
 District and Sessions Judge, aided by a Subordinate Judge and a 
 staff of Munsifs for the disposal of civil cases. The . Deputy Com- 
 missioner, Assistant Commissioners, and Extra Assistant Com- 
 missioners have here no civil powers, and exercise only the 
 ordinary magisterial powers in criminal matters. In Cachar the 
 Sessions Judge is the Judge of Sylhet, who holds sessions at 
 Silchar when necessary ; but the Deputy Commissioner has the 
 special criminal powers mentioned in sections 30 and 34 of the 
 Criminal Procedure Code. The Deputy Commissioner, however, 
 and not the Judge of Sylhet, is the District Civil Judge ; there is 
 no Subordinate Judge, and the Assistant and Extra Assistant 
 Commissioners exercise the powers of Munsifs in addition to their 
 functions as Magistrates and executive officers. 
 
 In the hill districts and certain frontier tracts (the North
 
 102 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section I. Cacliar subdivision, the Mikir Hills tract in Nowgong, and the 
 General Dibrugarli frontier tract in Lakhimpur), the High Court possesses 
 
 I'^ris^iSn" ^^ J^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^''^^^P^ ^^^^ -^^^^^P^^^^ British subjects. The Hill 
 and Staff, clistricts Were formerly under the operation of the Deregulation- 
 izing Act, XXH of 1869, which was repealed by the Scheduled 
 Districts Act, XIV of 1874. Subsequently, the Frontier Tracts 
 Regulation, II of 1880, was passed, under which power is given 
 to the Chief Commissioner, with the previous sanction of the 
 Governor General in Council, to direct that any enactment in force 
 in any frontier tract shall cease to be in force therein, and this 
 Kegulation (with the additional power of extension conferred by 
 Regulation III of 1884) has been brought into force in all the 
 hill districts and frontier tracts referred to above. Under its 
 provisions, the operation of the enactments relating to Civil and 
 Criminal Procedure, Court-fees, Stamps, Transfer of Property, and 
 Registration, has been barred,* and a simpler system of adminis- 
 tering justice in civil and criminal matters has been prescribed by 
 rules framed under section 6 of the Scheduled Districts Act, XIV 
 of 1874. By these rules the Chief Commissioner is himself the 
 chief appellate authority in civil and criminal cases. The Deputy 
 Commissioner exercises the combined powers of District and 
 Sessions Judge and Magistrate of a district, and the Assistant 
 Commissioners and Extra Assistant Commissioners the powers of 
 Magistrates and Munsifs. The judicial administration in all petty 
 civil and criminal cases is carried on by village tribunals, pre- 
 sided over by headmen chosen from among the people themselves, 
 whose procedure is completely free from legal technicalities, and 
 whose proceedings are not reduced to writing. The Criminal 
 Procedure Code is in force in the Eastern Duars in Godlpdra, 
 and that tract is, therefore, on the same footing as the plains 
 districts so far as the administration of criminal justice is concern- 
 ed. The Civil Procedure Code, however, is not in force ; its place 
 is taken by rules under section 6 of Act XIV of 1874, which con- 
 
 • Except in cases when such enactments never were in force. The Civil Procedure 
 Code, for inatance, was nevcf extended to the hill districts, and it was, therefore, un- 
 necessary to include this in the declarations under Regulation II of 1880, which were 
 JBBued in regard to these districts.
 
 Chap. Ill ] pQj^^j Qj, ADMINISTRATION. IO3 
 
 tain much the same provisions as the corresponding rules framed Section i. 
 for the tracts which are under the operation of Eegulation ]I of G~al 
 
 1*^80. Admimstra- 
 
 Besides the judicial officers named above, there are a few ««^ -^'^^^ 
 Honorary Magistrates in nearly every district. The latter in all 
 cases, however, sit singly, no benches of Honorary Magistrates 
 having yet been formed in any district except Sylhet. 
 
 109. Up to the year 1886, Sylhet Proper was under the 
 T> 1 • • . *• operation of the old Benofal Eeo"ulations and 
 
 Revenue adminislration. ^ c^'j. o-icQuiaLiuuis auu 
 
 the Other land revenue enactments in force 
 in Bengal. In Jaintia and Cachar, and also, though to a less 
 extent, in Goalpara, these enactments were generally followed 
 but they were not treated as actually in force. In the Brahma- 
 putra Valley Proper, the settlement rules of the Board of Eevenue 
 had been replaced by local rules, which were revised and recast 
 in 1883. In other respects the revenue law of Bengal was follow- 
 ed, so far as the local officers considered it to be applicable, but 
 it was not treated as legally in force. All doubt and uncertainty 
 have now been removed by the enactment of the Assam Land 
 and Eevenue Eegulation, I of 1886, which has been brought into 
 force in all the plains districts of the province. It contains all 
 the necessary provisions of the revenue law of Bengal, the whole 
 of which it repeals, so far as Assam is concerned. The Eegula- 
 tion was amended in some respects as regards the recovery of 
 arrears^f revenue by Eegulation II of 1889, and its provisions re- 
 garding settlements, mutations, partitions, the recovery of arrears, 
 &c., have been supplemented by rules issued under it and deriving 
 from it the force of law. The superior authorities entrusted with 
 the revenue administration have already been stated. They are 
 the Chief Commissioner (as Local Government and Board of 
 Eevenue, and, in the Surma Valley and hiil districts, as Commis- 
 sioner), the Commissioner (in the Brahmaputra Valley), the 
 Director, Department of Land Eecords and Agriculture, and an 
 assistant for supervising the preparation and maintenance of land 
 records in cadastrally surveyed tracts in the Assam Valley districts, 
 the Deputy Commissioners in each district, and the Assistant
 
 104 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. ill. 
 
 Section i. and Extra Assistant Commissioners. Below these there are 
 ^ , different subordinate officers in different districts. Each subdivi- 
 
 Uoicral 
 
 Admiiiistra- gion in the plains districts, except South Sylhet and GoAlpara, has 
 ^and staff! an officcr called a Sub-Deputy Collector, who is employed mainly 
 upon supervision of the revenue establishments, upon surveying 
 waste and cultivated lands (the extent and importance of this work 
 in Assam will be seen from the following chapter), and the com- 
 pilation of the revenue records and returns. 
 
 Goalp<4ra, except the Eastern Duars, is, for all practical 
 purposes, a permanently-settled tract, and there are no mujassal 
 revenue establishments ; in the other districts of the Brahmaputra 
 Yalley the whole of the revenue was formerly collected by con- 
 tractors, called 77iaiizaddrs, holding charge of the revenue assess- 
 ment and collection within definite areas, called mauzas, into which 
 these districts are divided. On the conclusion of the annual assess- 
 ment (which will be described in a subsequent section*), the 
 mauzaddr entered into a contract to pay into the treasury the 
 revenue assessed, together with any additional revenue which 
 might be assessed on lands subsequently taken up within the year 
 for cold weather cultivation, irrespective of whether he succeeded 
 in realising the full amount from the cultivators or not, and was 
 remunerated by a commission calculated at 10 per cent, on the 
 first Es. 6,000 of revenue and 5 per cent, on any amount above 
 that sum. This system is still largely in vogue, but is being 
 rapidly superseded by the formation of tahsils, whereby from 3 
 to 11 mauzas are amalgamated and placed in charge of an ofUcial 
 called a tahsilddr, who is paid by a regular salary, and not by 
 commission. The first tahsils were started in 1883-84 durinsr 
 which year four were formed in the Ktirariip district, and from 
 that date the extension of the system has progressed rapidly. 
 There were at the close of 1892-93, 23 tahsils in the Brahmaputra 
 Valley, absorbing in all 125 mauzas. 
 
 The chief argument in favour of the tahsilddri as opposed to 
 the mauzaddri system is the great saving which is thereby effected 
 in the cost of collection, the percentage in 1892-93 of collection 
 
 ♦ See post, Chapter IV, Section 3, SyBtem of Survey and Settlement.
 
 Chap. III.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. IO5 
 
 charges in tahsils being only 2*38, against 3*71 in mauzas* The Section i. 
 amount thus saved is devoted to increasing the efficiency of the General 
 assessment operations, as will be described in the paragraphs the System 
 deaUng with the system of survey and settlement. Where tahsils ^" ^'^"' 
 have not yet been introduced, the cost of collection has been 
 reduced as far as possible by amalgamating mauzas, thereby 
 reducing the number of mauzaddrs^ and saving to that extent the 
 higher rate of commission which is payable on the first Es. 6,000 
 of a mauzaddrs collections. Ten years ago, the collection charges 
 amounted to 11'87 per cent, of the total revenue collected, while 
 in the present year the corresponding percentage is only 3*53. 
 
 It should be mentioned here that there are certain estates, the 
 revenue on which is paid direct into the treasury, and not through 
 the local revenue collector. This privilege is conceded in the 
 cases of waste land grants, all nisj-khiraj estates in Nowgong and 
 Darrang and many of those in Kamrup, and a few other special 
 tenures. Certain communities of Miris in North Lakhimpur 
 also pay their revenue direct into the treasury, through their 
 own headmen or gams. 
 
 At each subdivisional headquarters in Sylhet there is a collecting 
 office, where the revenue is paid in and the accounts are made 
 up. There are also mujassal establishments, viz., in Kanairghdt 
 in Jaintia, and at Hakaluki and Pratabgarh in Karimganj. Pro- 
 ceedings for the realisation of arrears (which are here generally 
 recovered by means of the Sale Law) are taken at the subdivisions. 
 
 In the plains portion of Cachar also, there are three collecting or 
 tahsil establishments for receipt of the revenue, which is here settled 
 for a term. Two of these are located at the sadr and subdivisional 
 headquarters, and the third at a point close to the Sylhet boundary. 
 
 In the hill districts, the general rule is that house tax, and not 
 land revenue, properly so called, is paid ; but in the Garo Hills 
 and a small area in the Jaintia and Naga Hills, there are tracts 
 where land revenue is taken, and mauzaddrs are the agency em- 
 ployed for collection. The house tax is, in the Garo, Jaintia, Naga 
 
 * In this calculation the Bijni tahsil has not been included, as the circumstances of 
 that tahsil are somewhat esccptional. 
 
 P
 
 I05 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section i. Hills, and North Cacliar, and the few villages in the Khc4si Hills 
 
 General which are British territor}-, collected and paid in by headmen, 
 
 the System "^^^10, like the mauzaddvs of the Assam Valley are remunerated by 
 
 and staff, a Commission. These officers are called Za5/d-«?'5 and Lakmas in 
 
 the Gc4ro Hills, Vollois and Sarddrs in the Jaintia and Khasi Hills, 
 
 Lamharddrs in the Naga Hills, and Mauzaddrs in North Cachar. 
 
 110, The province of Assam is a general police district under 
 
 Act V of 1861, and the police are under the 
 
 Police. ^ 
 
 control of an Inspector General, Tvho is on 
 the graded list of Deputy Commissioners. In each of the plains 
 districts there is an officer, either a District Superintendent or 
 an Assistant Superintendent, who has charge of the Civil Police 
 work. These officers are borne on the Bengal staff of police 
 officers, and receive promotion in that list. In addition to these 
 officers, whose work is to superintend the prevention and detection 
 of crime, there is a small stafi' consisting of one Civil and three 
 Military Police officers, who, under the designation of Command- 
 ants of Military Police, control that division of the Assam Police 
 Force which performs semi-military duties in manning the frontier 
 outposts, and in holding as a garrison the Garo, Naga, and North 
 Lushai Hills. This division of the force, besides being subject to 
 Act V of 1861, is under a special Regulation (The Assam Military 
 Police Regulation, 1890), which makes provision for the enforce- 
 ment of due discipline, and assimilates generally the terms of 
 service to those prevailing in the Native Army. The four divisions 
 of the Military Police are located as follows : (1) in the Brahma- 
 putra Valley, with headquarters at Dibrugarh ; (2) in the Surma 
 Valley, with headquarters at Silchar ; (3) in the Naga Hills, with 
 headquarters at Koliima ; and (4) in the Garo Hills, with head- 
 quarters at Tura. The Surma Valley battalion also holds the 
 North Lushai Hills, but a proposal has recently been sanctioned 
 to form a separate battalion for that purpose. In the meantime, the 
 Commandant is assisted by a second military officer, who is called 
 an Assistant Commandant. At the close of 1892 the sanctioned 
 strength of the Civil and Armed Civil Police in Assam was 2,178 
 officers and men, and of the Military Police 2,535 officers and men.
 
 Chap. 111.] rOEM OF ADMINISTRATION. I07 
 
 Besides the regular Civil Police, there are a few municipal Section i. 
 poUce entertained in towns which have been constituted " Unions " General 
 under the Bengal Municipal Act (these numbered 15 officers ana tive System 
 men at the close of 1892), and there is a force of chaukidars, or "" ^^' 
 rural police, in the districts of Sylhet, Cachar, and Godlpdra. 
 Except in the last-named district, there are no village police in 
 the Brahmaputra Valley. The mauzaddrs and mandals are re- 
 quired to give information and aid in detection of crime, and in 
 each village, or group of hamlets, there is a gaonbura, or village 
 elder, who is the recognised representative of the villagers in 
 police matters, but receives no remuueration from Government. 
 The chaukidars in Goalpara are governed by the Bengal Chauki- 
 ddri Act [VI (B.C.) of 1870 as amended by Act I (B.C.) of 1871], 
 and those in the Surma Valley by the Sylhet and Cachar Ftural 
 Police Regulation, I of 1883. On the last day of 1892 there were 
 6,812 village police in the province, of whom 5,616 were in Sylhet, 
 480 in Cachar, and 716 in Goalpara. Their cost was Rs. 2,93,960 
 for the year, the whole of which was paid by the villagers. 
 
 111. The jails in Assam are divided into three jails, large es- 
 tablishments at Gauhati, Tezpur, and Sylhet ; 
 six subsidiary jails, smaller places or con- 
 finement, at Dhubri, Nowgong, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh, Silchar, and 
 Shillong ; and thirteen lock-Kjys, at the headquarters stations of 
 Tura and Kohima, and the subdivisional stations of Goalpara, 
 Barpeta, Mangaldai, Jorhat, Golc4ghat, Lakhimpur, Sundmganj, 
 Karimganj, Habiganj, Maulvi Bazar, and Hailakandi. Besides 
 these, temporary jails are also opened, from time to time as 
 necessary, for the accommodation of prisoners employed upon 
 public works at a distance from the permanent jails. 
 
 Where a civil medical officer is employed (as is gererally the 
 case at Gauhati, Tezpur, and Sylhet), he is the Superintendent of 
 the Jail. The department is supervised by an Inspector General, 
 who is also Inspector General of Police. 
 
 The Jail Law of the province is Act XXVI of 1870, which was 
 brought into force in supersession of the Jail Acts, II of 1864 and 
 V of 1865, of the Bengal Council, by Regulation No. II of 1875.
 
 I08 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 111. 
 
 Section i. The Bengal Jail Manual, consisting of rules and orders issued by 
 
 cTZ'ral tlie Government and the Inspector General of Jails in that province, 
 
 Administra- - Iq\\q^^q^ j^ Assam SO far as it does not conflict with the provi- 
 
 iive oystem 
 
 and Staff, gions of Act XXYI of 1870. 
 
 112. Excise is managed (under the Excise Laws^ of Bengal, 
 which have been extended to Assam) by- 
 Excise, Stamps, Re- ^^^ Commissioner of Excise, an office which 
 
 giatration. ' 
 
 is held by the Inspector General of Police 
 and Jails in addition to his other duties. The same officer is also 
 Superintendent of Stamps and Inspector General of j Eegistration, 
 as well as Registrar of Joint Stock Companies under the 
 Companies' Act, and Eegistrar General of Births, Deaths, and 
 Marriages under Act VI of 1886. All Deputy Commissioners are 
 Eegistrars in their respective districts; the Sub-Eegistrars at 
 headquarters are either Extra Assistant Commissioners, who do 
 this work in addition to their other work, or special Sub-Eegistrars 
 (at Sylhet and Silchar) ; at subdivisions either the subdivisional 
 officer, or a second officer (generally an Extra Assistant Com- 
 missioner), if there is one, is Sub-Eegistrar. But in all the sub- 
 divisions of Sylhet there are special Sub-Eegistrars, and at Bala- 
 ganj, Hingajia, and Madhabpur in the same district there are 
 rural Sub-Eegistrars, 
 
 113. The Educational Department is supervised by a Director 
 of Public Instruction, who is borne on the 
 
 Educational Department. t n ,• , r ti i tt • ' ^ i ^ 
 
 graded hst of iiengal. He is assisted by 
 four Deputy Inspectors (one for the Surma Valley and three for 
 the Brahmaputra Valley, i.e., one each for Upper, Central, and 
 Lower Assam) and 24 Sub-Inspectors, viz., one forjeach [subdivi- 
 sion in the plains districts, with an extra man for Gauhdti, one for 
 the Gdro Hills, and two for the Khdsi and Jaintia Hills. Besides 
 these departmental officers, who directly control the Government 
 hif^h and middle schools and the higher normal school at Gauhdti, 
 all classes of aided schools in the eight plains districts are under 
 the supervision of the several Local Boards estabhshed under the 
 Assam Local Eates Eegulation, 1879. These authorities receive 
 applications and make allotments of grants-in-aid without reference
 
 Chap. Ill] FORM OF ADMINISTBATION. IO9 
 
 to the Director, but subject to the rules prescribed for such grants. Section i. 
 The aided schools are still generally under the control of the cTZ^al 
 Director of PubHc Instruction, and are, of course, subiect to in- ^!^""''^^i^a- 
 
 'J iiije System 
 
 spection by hnn, the Deputy Inspectors, and the Sub-Inspectors. and staff. 
 
 114. The Forest Department is under the control of a Con- 
 Forest Department. ^crvator, who is assisted by a staff of Deputy 
 
 and Assistant and Extra Assistant Conser- 
 vators. These officers are now borne on a separate Provincial 
 list, and their standing in the department depends on their places 
 in that list. At the time of writing this report, the sanctioned 
 list consists of six Deputy Conservators, three Assistant and three 
 Extra Assistant Conservators, but two of the three appointments 
 of Assistant Conservators are vacant. 
 
 The remaining ten officers are posted respectively to Lakhim- 
 pur, Sibsagar, and the Naga Hills, Darrang, Nowgong, Kdmriip, 
 and the Khdsi Hills, Goalpdra, the Gdro Hills, Cachar, Sylhet, and 
 the Working Plans Division. 
 
 115. The staff of direction of the Public Works Department in 
 
 Assam consists of a Chief or Superintending 
 ^Public Works Depart. Engineer, who is also Secretary to the Chief 
 
 Commissioner in that Department, aided by 
 an Assistant Secretary, and, as regards the accounts of Provincial 
 and Imperial works, by an Examiner and the usual staff. Excludincr 
 the above, as also the special establishment sanctioned for the 
 Nichuguard-Manipur road (an Imperial work), the present sanc- 
 tioned scale of executive staff provides seven Executive and five 
 Assistant Engineers. Besides the foregoing, the following special 
 stall is at present employed in the province : — Attached to the 
 Assam- Bengal Eailway, a Consulting Engineer, a Deputy Con- 
 sulting Engineer, and an Examiner of Accounts ; for the Nichu- 
 guard-Manipur road, one Superintendent of Works, two Executive 
 and two Assistant Engineers. 
 
 116. The medical institutions of the province are supervised 
 
 by the Principal Medical Officer, Assam 
 osSi>r' """"' Di«t"«t. ^^°' i" ^'idition to his military 
 
 duties, is the Sanitary Commissioner of the
 
 no ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 111. 
 
 Sectio.^ 2, province, and is the Chief Commissioner's adviser on sanitary and 
 Legislative msdical matters generally. Each district has a Civil Surgeon, 
 . utiortty. ^^^ ^^ •\vhom, assisted by an Assistant Surgeon (at Koliima), 
 holds that post in addition to his duties as Regimental Surgeon. 
 The Civil Surgeon of Tezpur, besides holding charge of the jail 
 there, is also Superintendent of the only Lunatic Asylum which 
 the province possesses, and which receives lunatics -from the 
 Assam Valley and Hill districts ; lunatics from the Surma Valley 
 are treated in the Dacca Asylum. The Civil Surgeons of Sylhet and 
 Gauhati are Superintendents of the jails there. The Civil Surgeon 
 of Dhubri is Embarkation Agent for emigrants recruited for the 
 labour districts of the Brahmaputra Valley. A medical officer is 
 stationed at Aijal as Civil Surgeon, North Lushai Hills, and the Eegi- 
 mental Surgeon at Manipur is in civil medical charge of that station, 
 
 117. The only Government Chaplain in the province is the 
 
 Minister of Shillong, who also visits Sylhet, 
 
 Ecclesiastical officers. ,,. -i r^ ^ - • it--i 
 
 Dhubri, and Gauhati at intervals during the 
 course of the year. Small allowances are, besides, given to clergy- 
 men provided by the Additional Clergy Society or by the Society 
 for the Propagation of the Gospel, for the spiritual charge of the 
 European population in other districts. These allowances are 
 drawn by ministers stationed at Tezpur, Dibrugarh, and Silchar. 
 
 118. The accounts of the province are in charge of a Comp- 
 
 troller, who is directly subordinate to the 
 Imperial departments financial Department of the Government of 
 
 lu the province. -l 
 
 India. The Post Office Department is in 
 charge of a Deputy Postmaster General, and the Telegraph De- 
 partment in that of a Superintendent. These officers, as well as 
 the officers of the Survey Department serving in the province, are 
 not subordinate to the Chief Commissioner. 
 
 SECTION 2.— LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY. 
 
 119. There are three ways in which measures of legislation are 
 
 brought into force in this province. The 
 
 Acts of the Governor r. , • ,i ^• ,.^ ^ ^ xi „ 
 
 General's Council. ni'^t IS the ordinary method, common to the 
 
 whole of India, of passing Acts in the Coun- 
 cil of the Governor General for making Laws and Eegulations.
 
 Chap. III. ] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. I i i 
 
 120. The second is the method of passing Eegulations in Sectiok 2, 
 n 1 ,. 1 00 accordance with the provisions of 33 Vic- Legislative 
 
 RcRnlatidns under 33 . ■*■ ^*,, ., 
 
 Victoria, ciiapter 3, sec- toria,Chapter 3, section 1 (an Act to make '''«:>'• 
 
 tion 1. 1 , , • • p 1 • -r 
 
 better provision ior making Laws and 
 Eegulations for certain parts of India, and for certain other 
 purposes relating thereto). This Act was, by Eesolutions passed 
 by the Secretary of State for India in. Council, made applicable 
 to the districts of Kamrup, Darrang, Nowgong, Sibsagar, and 
 Lakhimpur, and the Gdro, Khdsi and Jaintia, Ndga Hills, and 
 Cacliar from the 1st January 1873 ; to the district of Goalpara from 
 the 15 til December 1873 ; and to the district of Sylhet from the 1st 
 August 1874. Under its provisions, the Chief Commissioner has 
 power to "propose to the Governor General in Council drafts of 
 any Regulations, together with the reasons for proposing the same, 
 for the peace and government of the territories under his admi- 
 nistration. " Such drafts, when approved by the Governor General 
 in Council, and after they have received the Governor General's 
 assent, are published in the Gazette oj India, and thereupon have 
 the force of law. This method, which was first used in Assam in 
 1873, on the passing of Regulation Y of that year (the Inner Line 
 Regulation), before the constitution of the Chief Commissionership, 
 has since been frequently resorted to. 
 
 121. The third method is to make use of section 5 of Act 
 XIV of 1874 (The Scheduled Districts Act), 
 
 Extension under section _ ^ '' 
 
 5 of the Scheduled Dis- w^hich declares that " the Local Govern- 
 ment, with the previous sanction of the 
 Governor General in Council, may from time to time, by 
 notification in the Gazette of India, and also in the local Gazette 
 (if any), extend to any of the scheduled districts, or to any part 
 of any such district, any enactment which is in force in any part of 
 British India at the date of such extension." By section 6, clause 
 (c), of the same Act, the Chief Commissioner is empowered to 
 direct by what authority any jurisdiction, powers, or duties 
 incident to the operation of any enactment for the time being 
 in force in a scheduled district shall be exercised or performed. 
 Assam is one of the scheduled districts under this Act (Sche-
 
 I 12 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. HI- 
 
 Section 3. diile I, Part X) ; and the Act Tras declared to be in force in the 
 EdZZtion. province by notification on the 7th November 1877. Since that 
 date, numerous Acts in force in other parts of India have, under 
 the powers given by section 5, been brought into force in Assam. 
 
 DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEMS. 
 SECTION S.—EDUGATION. 
 
 122. The inspecting staff of the Educational Department has 
 already been described. It remains to state 
 
 Divisions of echools. c ^ i • .i i • i r 
 
 here the system 01 teaching, the kinds of 
 schools, and the manner in which they are supported. 
 
 In the first place, educational institutions in Assam are divided 
 into those subject to departmental inspection and rules and those 
 not so subject. The former are either Government institutions, 
 or receive some kind of assistance from public money, whether 
 granted direct from Provincial revenues or from Local Punds, and 
 are classified as follows : 
 
 I. Primary, divided into (a) Lower primary or pdthshdlas, and 
 (b) Upper primary. 
 
 II. Middle, divided into {a) Vernacular, and (5) English. 
 
 III. High schools. 
 
 lY. Training and special. 
 
 The latter are of two kinds : either wholly unaided and unin- 
 spected, being for the most part religious in their object ; or 
 schools established with a view to eventually obtaining a Govern- 
 ment grant, and carried on entirely on the model of Government 
 schools. The latter differ in no respect, expect in efficiency, from 
 the Government schools which they imitate. The former are 
 chiefly tols^ or Sanskrit schools, where, in addition to religious 
 subjects, books on literature, logic, philosophy, &c., in that lan- 
 guage are read ; and maktabs, Muhammadan schools, where the 
 Koran is learned by rote, and Arabic and Persian reading and 
 writing are taught. In 1887, however, reward rules for tols and 
 maktabs were framed, and schools competing for three rewards are
 
 Chap. III.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 113 
 
 liable to inspection. The result of this change is a marked Section 3. 
 improvement in the method of teaching, and pupils from tots in Education. 
 Sylhet have of late years competed with success at the Title Exam- 
 inations held in Bengal. In addition to these, there are Khampti 
 Buddhist schools, which are found in every village of that people, 
 where a monk, or hdim, gives instruction to the boys in reading 
 and writing the Shdn language, and teaches them the doctrines 
 of Buddha in that languas^e and Pali. Attendance at school is 
 quite optional, but the boys are kindly treated, and nearly all of 
 them avail themselves of the educational opportunities offered to 
 them. The usual course lasts three years, during which time the 
 boys live in the temple. Some of them ele-^t to remain on when the 
 usual course is finished, and qualify themselves for the priesthood. 
 The boys first learn to write with chalk on a piece of dark stained 
 wood, and when more advanced, they are allowed the use of paper 
 of local manufacture. Arithmetic does not apparently enter into 
 the curriculum. The teacher is remunerated by daily offerings 
 of food, and not by money. 
 
 123. The lower primary schools or pcithshdlas Sive institutions 
 , , where an elementary knowledge of the local 
 
 Primary schools. _ . . 
 
 vernacular is imparted. Beginning at the 
 beginning, they teach up to a course of study which forms the 
 subject of an examination, called the Primary Scholarship Exam- 
 ination. The subjects of this course are — 
 
 I. (a) Handwriting and dictation. 
 
 (b) Easy questions in grammar and explanations from 
 vernacular text-books. 
 
 II. Arithmetic — the first four rules, simple and compound, 
 
 after the European method ; practice, simple and com- 
 pound, after the native method ; and mental arithmetic, 
 native and European methods, on above rules. 
 
 III. Zaminddri and mahajani accounts and simple mensuration 
 
 after the native method. 
 
 IV. Sanitary Science. 
 
 A certain number of primary scholarships, worth Es. 3 a 
 month, and tenable for two years at any school of a higher status 
 
 Q
 
 114 ASSAM ADMIMSTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section 3. js allotted to each district, and these are awarded to the pupils 
 Education. Tvlio pass best ill the Primary Scholarship Examination. 
 
 Tlie course in the upper primary schools also works up to a 
 scholarship examination, the amount and conditions of the scho- 
 larship being the same as for the lower primaries. In these 
 schools a slightly higher degree of acquaintance with literature, a- 
 more extensive knowledge of arithmetic, part of Book I of Euclid 
 as well as mensuration, the history of Assam or Bengal (according 
 as the school is in the Assam or the Surma Valley), the geography 
 of the province (with a general knowledge of the four quarters), 
 and the elements of sanitation, are the objects aimed at in the 
 course of study, 
 
 124. In Government middle vernacular schools the course of 
 instruction is altoujether in Benc^ali, but in 
 
 Middle schools. ° . . , 
 
 aided schools of this class in the Brahma- 
 putra Valley the option is allowed of imparting instruction through 
 the medium of Assamese. The following are the subjects taught : 
 
 I. Bengali, or Assamese, comprising literature, grammar, and 
 composition. 
 
 II. History of India — Hindu, Muhammadan, and English 
 periods. 
 
 III. Geography, a general knowledge of the four quarters, 
 
 with special knowledge of that of India, and map-drawing. 
 
 IV. Arithmetic, general bazar, and zaminddri accounts, and 
 
 mental arithmetic. 
 V. Euclid (Book I), mensuration of plane surfaces and sur- 
 veying. 
 VI. Sanitary Science. 
 
 The course of study is closed by the Middle Vernacular Scho- 
 larship Examination, the successful candidates in which receive 
 scholarships worth Rs. 4 per mensem, tenable for four years in 
 any school of a higher class. 
 
 The middle English schools take up the full vernacular course, 
 with English as a second language. The course of instruction is 
 terminated by tlie ]\liddle En 'dish Examination. The value of
 
 Chap. Ill ] FORM or ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 115 
 
 these scholarships is Rs. 5 a month for three years, and they are Section 3. 
 tenable at any high school. Education. 
 
 There are 2G middle vernacular and 15 middle EnHish scho- 
 
 o 
 
 larships for which the candidates at the scholarship examination 
 compete. 
 
 125. Under the definition of high schools are included all 
 schools that profess to teach up to the Cal- 
 
 HJgh schools. 
 
 cutta University Entrance standard. The 
 course of study here is that prescribed for the University Exam- 
 ination, and needs no further description. Junior scholarships 
 are awarded to students who, after passing the Entrance Exam- 
 ination, go up to study for the F. A. Examination at any college 
 in Bengal. The number of these scholarships is 36 in all, viz., 
 11 for the Surma Valley, 14 for natives of the Brahmaputra "Valley, 
 3 for natives of the hill districts, and 8 for other than natives of 
 the Brahmaputra Valley or hill districts reading in high schools in 
 those parts. The monthly value of these scholarships is fixed at 
 Es. 25 for the two best boys, Es. 20 for natives of the Brahmaputra 
 Valley and hill districts, Es. 15 for boys passing in the Surma 
 Valley, and Es. 20, Es. 15, or Es. 10 for boys other than natives 
 who pass from schools in the Brahmaputra Valley and hill districts 
 according as they pass in the first, second, or third division at the 
 Entrance Examination. Junior scholars, who pass the F. A, Ex- 
 amination within two years of matriculating, are awarded senior 
 scholarships of an amount equal to that of the junior scholarship 
 previously granted to them. 
 
 There is no Government institution in the province which im- 
 parts instruction in the University course beyond the Entrance 
 Examination ; a lower grade college formerly existed in Gauhati, 
 but it was reduced in 1876 to the status of a Government high 
 school, on account of the excessive expense of its maintenance 
 and the small number of students who read at it. It is considered 
 more desirable that the natives of the province (aided, if neces- 
 sary, by scholarships under the scheme mentioned above) should 
 resort to Bengal to prosecute their studies, and thus enlarge 
 their minds by contact with a higher civilisation, than that an
 
 Il6 ASSiJM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section 3. expensive Government college should be maintained for them in 
 Education. Assani. It should, however, be mentioned that a private college 
 teaching up to the F. A. standard was started in the town of Sylhet 
 iu iS92, at which twelve junior scholarships may be held. In all 
 these schools, whether middle or high, it must be understood that 
 the lower classes include mere beginners, and that the courses of 
 study actually pursued by the boys in each kind of schools very 
 largely overlap, 
 
 126. The fourth class of schools consists of the training and 
 
 special schools. The hrst are the normal 
 Training and special ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ training classes in which lads are 
 
 schools. o 
 
 taught with a view to becoming teachers. 
 There are fifteen institutions or classes for the training of gurus, or 
 teachers for primary schools, two of which (Gauhati and Shillong) 
 also prepare teachers for middle schools. The second or special 
 schools include an artizan school at Jorliat maintained by a special 
 bequest made by Mr. AVilliamson, a tea-planter in Upper Assam, 
 and some survey schools. The latter are under the control of the 
 Director, Department of Land Eecords and Agriculture. 
 
 127. With the exception of a few schools which teach up to 
 
 the middle standard, female education in 
 
 Female education. • r^ t 1 
 
 Assam is confined to elementary instruction 
 in primary schools. There are pdthslidlas, exclusively for females, 
 managed on the same principle as boys' primary schools, and, in 
 addition, a considerable number of girls read in boys' pdthshalas. 
 The Khasi and Jaintia Hills is the only district in which female 
 education has made any considerable progress. The census re- 
 turns for that district show that, out of every 1,000 females, 13"7 
 are learning and lO'o are literate, the corresponding figures for 
 the province as a whole being 13 and 2*2 respectively. 
 
 128. The only school in the province for the education of Eu- 
 
 ropeans and Eurasians is the aided school at 
 
 European and Eurasian Sllillong. The number of SCholarS ill tllis 
 education. , . ^„„ ^„ « , ^-, 
 
 school m 1892-93 was 23, of whom 11 were 
 boys and 12 were girls. The Government grant-in-aid is Es. 140 
 per month, and the use of the school house and furniture (which
 
 Chap. III.] 
 
 FORM OF ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 117 
 
 belong to Government) is allowed at a rent of Es. 50 a montli. A Section 3. 
 mixed school was opened at Ganluiti in 1882 and a boys' school r^, 7. 
 at Shillong in 1883, but neither of these proved a success, and they 
 were closed in 188G. The girls' school which had been started at 
 Shillong in 1881 was closed in 1887 for the same reason. Two 
 scholarships of Ks. 15 a month are given annually to sons of indi- 
 gent European or Eurasian parents who are bond fide residents of 
 Assam. These scholarships are tenable for three years at any Eu- 
 ropean hill school approved by the Director of Public Instruction. 
 129. Schools .under inspection are, as already stated, divided 
 into (1) Government, the salaries of the 
 
 Division into Govern- , 
 
 ment, aided, and unaided teaclicrs bcmg bomc entirely by public funds 
 
 and the fees credited in the treasury; (2) 
 aided, a fixed contribution being made to meet the expenses of 
 the school; and (3) unaided. The following hst shows how many 
 schools there were of each class in the year 1892-93 ; the three 
 classes of religious unaided schools mentioned in paragraph 120 
 are not included : 
 
 
 
 
 Governme't. 
 
 /ided. 
 
 Unaided. 
 
 Class of institution. 
 
 Nnmbf-r 
 of insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 pnpils. 
 
 Number 
 of insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 pupils. 
 
 Number 
 of insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 pupils. 
 
 ARTS COLLEGES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TTniversity Education— English 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 
 ' For Boys— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 High Schools 
 
 11 
 
 1.991 
 
 3 
 
 664 
 
 5 
 
 818 
 
 
 
 Middle schools i^^^Sular Z 
 
 2 
 15 
 
 146 
 1,195 
 
 35 
 23 
 
 2,849 
 1,701 
 
 12 
 2 
 
 931 
 104 
 
 fe 
 
 For Girls— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •5 
 
 Middle Schools— Vernacular 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Primary Schools— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For Boys ... 
 
 1,173 
 
 32,748 
 
 1,026 
 
 30,995 
 
 150 
 
 4,479 
 
 
 „ Girls ... 
 
 123 
 
 1,711 
 
 23 
 
 671 
 
 27 
 
 359 
 
 SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pchool 
 Educa- 
 tion, 
 Special. 
 
 ' Training Schools and Classes ... 
 Law Schools ,., 
 Industrial Schools ... 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 230 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 134 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 
 ^ Other Schools 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 95
 
 Il8 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap HI. 
 
 Sectiox 3. 130. Except in tlie case of high schools, the grants-in-aid for 
 
 Education. which are now given by the Education De- 
 
 rrineiplLS of grauts-in- partmeut, all ffrants-in-aid are o-iven from 
 
 aid. *• ^ ^ ^ ° 
 
 funds administered by Local Boards and 
 Municipahties, but before making any grant, the local authority 
 must satisfy itself that there is a probability that the school will 
 be kept up, that it meets a recognised want, that the education 
 provided is likely to be good, and that local subscriptions are 
 forthcoming. The principles on which they are awatded are the 
 foUowins : 
 
 o 
 
 {!) Middle and Uj)per Primary Schods. 
 
 {a) The grants must be given on the principle of strict 
 religious neutrality. 
 
 {b) The schools receiving them must require some fee from 
 their scholars, unless in special cases exemption is recommended 
 by -the Local Board and allowed by the Director of Public 
 Listruction, Assam. 
 
 (c) Grants to middle schools at sadr and subdivisional head- 
 quarters may not exceed two-thirds of the income expended from 
 private sources ; at other places they may not exceed the total 
 sum so expended. Grants to upper primary schools in Sylhet 
 may not exceed the local income, elsewhere they may not exceed 
 three fifths of the total monthly expenditure ; in no case must the 
 grant exceed Hs. 10 a month. 
 
 Such schools must have a responsible committee of manage- 
 ment and a Secretary to conduct their correspondence ; they must 
 submit the prescribed returns, and be always open to inspection 
 by the inspecting officers ; and they must keep strict accounts of 
 receipts and disbursements. If the school becomes inefficient, the 
 grant is liable to be reduced or withdrawn. 
 
 {2) Lower Primary Schools. 
 
 In these schools the gurus are paid — 
 
 (a) by a fixed monthly salary combined with rewards for 
 pupils who pass an examination.
 
 Chap. Ill] rORM OF ADMINISTRATION. II9 
 
 (b) by rewards alone, or Section 3. 
 
 (c) under special rules. Edition. 
 
 Under [a) the maximum fixed salary is Es. 48, and the maximum 
 reward at the rate of Es. 48, a year. Under {b) the maximum 
 reward is at the rate .of Es. 96 a year. Under (c) fixed salaries are 
 given not exceeding Ks. G a month for one teacher or Es. 10 for 
 two in the case of girls' schools and schools for backward races. 
 For municipal schools and schools in hill districts, the limit of pay 
 for a teacher is fixed at Es. 10 a month. 
 
 In addition to the above, small rewards are paid for each 
 pupil passing the Lower Primary Scholarsliip Examination, pro'- 
 vided that the Deputy or Sub-Inspector certifies that the junior 
 classes of the school have not been neglected. 
 
 131. In the Giiro, Naga, and Khasi and Jaintia Hills, and 
 among the Kachari population of Darrang 
 
 Special arrangements and the Mikirs of Nowcroucr, the COUtrol of 
 with missionary bodies. ... o o^ 
 
 education is in the hands of different mis- 
 sionary bodies, who receive grants from the Local Boards con- 
 cerned (or from Government where there are no Local Boards), 
 and themselves make considerable contributions to the work. The 
 most important of these is the Welsh Mission in the Khdsi and 
 Jaintia Hills, who receive a grant of Es. 6,000 a year from Govern- 
 ment, the Mission themselves contributing (in 1892-93) Es. 29,085 
 towards primary education. In the Garo Hills the yearly grant 
 to the American Baptist Mission is Es. 2,600, and in Godlpara a 
 grant of Es. 400 is made to the same Mission for the furtherance 
 of education amongst the Gdros resident in that district. In 
 Darrang, the Kachari S. P. G. Mission receive Es. 1,500 a year 
 towards the support of Kachari schools. A grant of Es. 1,500 a 
 year is similarly made to the American Baptist Mission in Now- 
 gong for Mikir schools and of Es. 780 a year to the same Mission 
 at Amguri to assist them in keeping up schools in the Ao Naga 
 country. It has long been recognised that among these primitive 
 races, destitute of any settled form of religion, there is not the 
 same objection to the subsidising of missionary schools by the 
 State as exists in the case of Hindus and Muhammadans.
 
 I20 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. .11. 
 
 Section 4. 132. It only remains to notice the scale of fees levied from the 
 hn>^^7ation piipils attending these different classes of 
 
 and Labour ' scliools. In primary schools or pdthshdlas 
 
 Jnspectioii. i. ./ 1 
 
 there are no fixed rules for fees ; no pupil is prevented from read- 
 in"" by his inabihty to pay a fee : those who can pay, do so, and 
 those who cannot, do not. Often the fees are given in kind, the 
 gwni being supplied with food and other necessaries by the parents 
 of the pupils. In upper primary schools, the rate of fees varies 
 from one pice in the lowest to four annas in the highest class per 
 month. In middle schools the fees vary in different schools and 
 in different districts : the highest taken are 8 annas in the lowest, 
 and Re. 1 in the highest class ; the lowest 1 anna in the lowest 
 class and 2 annas in the highest. The scale of fees has to be 
 approved, if the school is an aided one, at the time the grant- 
 in-aid is settled. In high schools the fees vary from 12 annas in 
 the lowest to Es. 3 in the highest class. In the normal schools 
 and training' classes, on the other hand, the pupils, instead of 
 paying fees, receive small stipends, generally Rs. 3 or Es. 4 a 
 month. 
 
 133 The total expenditure on education in the province (in- 
 cluding the school at Manipur) in schools 
 
 Total expendituro on i r^ i. • i.- • r 
 
 education. under (Government inspection varies irom 
 
 year to year. The following figures are the 
 most recent, viz., those for 1892-93 : 
 
 Rs. 
 
 From Provincial ... 
 
 ... 1,79,506 
 
 „ Local Boards' Funds 
 
 ... 1,01,673 
 
 „ Municipal Funds 
 
 4,058 
 
 „ Fees 
 
 ... 1,09,420 
 
 „ Subscriptions 
 
 21,936 
 
 „ Endowments and other sources 
 
 60,427 
 
 Total 
 
 ... 5,40,020 
 
 SECTION 4.— IMMIGRATION AND LABOUR INSPECTION. 
 
 134. The principal recruiting areas are either densely inhabited 
 „ ,. p p, . districts, where the means of subsistence are 
 
 rolicy oi Lrovernment. ' 
 
 not suflicient for the support of the entire
 
 Chap. Ill,] FORM OJ: administration. 12 1 
 
 population in tolerable comfort, or such tracts as Choi a Nagpur, Section 4. 
 where, though the population in proportion to the area does not Immigration 
 
 T 1 1,1 11 • and Labour 
 
 appear excessive, wages are extremely low, and the labouring inspection. 
 classes are unable, without some relief by emigration, to obtain 
 an adequate livelihood. It has, therefore, been the settled policy 
 of Government to promote emigration from such areas to others 
 enjoying more favourable conditions ; and the importation of 
 coolies to Assam, at the expense of persons interested iu the tea 
 industry, has done much towards opening out and colonising the 
 fertile, but sparsely peopled, districts of Assam. 
 
 135. The necessity for legislation on the subject of labour 
 
 immigration into Assam is of the same charac- 
 tion?^^^^' ^ '^^ ^°'^ ^" ^^^ ^*^' though less in degree than, that which 
 
 exists in respect of emigration from India to 
 colonies beyond the seas. The classes which furnish emigrants 
 in both cases are extremely ignorant, and the interference of 
 Government is required to secure that they are not imposed upon ; 
 the transport between their homes and the place of labour, not- 
 withstanding the improvements of recent years, is still long and 
 tedious, and supervision is necessary to prevent overcrowding, 
 disease, and consequent mortality ; and under the changed con- 
 ditions of life, and especially of climate and food, which the new 
 country imposes, the immigrant is peculiarly liable to sickness, 
 often fatal in its results, and it is thus needful that the provision 
 of the requisite comforts, medical attendance, and other appliances 
 for his well-being should be enforced by law. Of these reasons, 
 the first is yearly becoming less and less operative, as returned 
 immigrants settle again in their homes, and form a centre of 
 information as to work and residence in the tea districts for their 
 neighbours. It is hoped that the second will also become less 
 cogent as communications continue to improve. 
 
 On the other hand, some regulation of the contract between 
 the labourer and his employer, and some more effectual means of 
 enforcing it than a civil action, is demanded by justice. It costs 
 a large sum to import a coolie into Assam ; and the provisions 
 for his comfort, which the law requires, are also expensive. The 
 
 E
 
 122 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. Ill, 
 
 Se ctio n 4. employer is compelled by law to guarantee to the coolie a minimum 
 Immigration "wage ; and it is only equitable that the law should provide him 
 
 and Labour . ^ ^ „,.. 
 
 Inspection, witli tlic meaus 01 oDtamuig the due fulfilment of the contract by 
 the coolie, whose only capital is his labour, and who ought not to 
 be allowed capriciously to withdraw himself from the service of 
 the employer who has paid for his introduction. 
 
 A penal labour law and Government protection, to the labourer 
 are thus correlative terms ; and both have been provided together 
 in the series of enactments which have from time to time been 
 passed on the subject, and of which a sketch is given in the follow- 
 ing paragraphs. 
 
 136. The first of the labour Acts was Act III (B.C.) of 1863. 
 
 This was an Act to regulate the transport 
 
 History of legislation q£ native labourers emif^ratincr to Assam, 
 
 on the subject. 00 ' 
 
 Cachar, and Sylhet. In 1865, Act VI (B.C.) 
 of that year was passed to provide for the protection of the labour- 
 ers after their arrival in the labour districts and for the enforce- 
 ment of the contracts entered into by them. Act II (B.C.) of 1870 
 consolidated and amended the law relating to the transport of 
 labourers to the labour districts and their employment therein, 
 and repealed the two previous Acts. Then came Act VII (B.C.) 
 of 1873, which repealed Act II (B.C.) of 1870, and was the labour 
 law of the province for nine years. During the last three years of 
 this period the amendment of the law regulating immigration and 
 the relations between employers and labourers in the tea districts 
 was under discussion. 
 
 In April 1880, in consequence of a memorial by the Indian 
 Tea Districts Association (an Association formed in London of 
 persons interested in the Indian tea industry), praying that some 
 measures might be taken to improve the position of the tea in- 
 dustry by the amendment of Act VII (B.C.) of 1873, a Commission 
 was appointed to enquire into the working of Act VII (B.C.) of 
 1873. The opinions of district officers and of the managers of 
 tea gardens consulted by them were laid before the Commission, 
 as' well as the recommendations of the Lieutenant Governor of 
 Bengal and those of the Chief Commissioner, and, after successive
 
 Chap, III.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 1 23 
 
 meetings, the Commission submitted its fmal report, with a draft Section 
 Bill embodying the amendments proposed in the law, in January r — • 
 
 "IQQT •' I fit migration 
 
 ^001. andLabour 
 
 Inspettion. 
 
 This draft Bill was eventually passed into law as Act I of 
 1882. In giving his assent to this Act, the Secretary of State for 
 India desired that at the end of three years he mio-ht receive a 
 special report on the working of the Act, with a view to consider- 
 ing the possibihty of abandoning all exceptional legislation respect- 
 ing contracts of labour in the Indian tea districts. On receipt of 
 the first special report, which was submitted in 1886, the Secretary 
 of State agreed that the time had not yet arrived when special 
 legislation might be abandoned, but added that such legislation 
 should be regarded as temporary only, and desired that a further 
 special report should be submitted after the lapse of another 
 period of three years. This report was submitted in 1890, It 
 was again admitted that exceptional legislation was still necessary, 
 but as experience had shown that Act I of 1882 was defective in 
 certain respects, it was decided to amend it. The draft amending 
 Bill was introduced into Council in January 1893, and was even- 
 tually passed as Act VII of that year. 
 
 137. Act YII (B.C.) of 1873 had been passed in the expectation 
 , , ^^^^ that it would give a great impetus to free immi- 
 
 Object of Act VII . . 
 
 (B.C.) of 1873 and its gration, and that such immigration would 
 piiccipa provisions. gradually establish itself and eventually render 
 
 the existence of a special law unnecessary. Among the changes 
 made by the Act which were looked upon as most important, were 
 those by which time-expired labourers were, on re-engagement, 
 freed from the ordinary provisions of the law, and by which a new 
 class of free labourers, those under contract for a term not exceed- 
 ing one year, was recognised. The collection of labourers by 
 means of garden sardars, without the intervention of contractors, 
 was provided for ; and the opportunity was taken, in amending 
 the law, to render more definite than before the provisions regard- 
 ing the closing of gardens declared unfit for the habitation of 
 labourers.
 
 1 24 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPORT. [Chap. Ill* 
 
 Section 4. 233, The Commissioners appointed to enquire into the working 
 Imi^niion of Act YII (B.C.) of 1873 reported that they 
 
 luspeaion. Yif (B"c')^of ms'" '^'^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ defective in respect 
 
 chiefly of the following points : 
 
 (1) That it did not afford sufficient encouragement to free emi- 
 
 gration. 
 
 (2) That it imposed unnecessary restrictions upon sardari 
 
 recruiting. 
 
 (3) That it failed to provide for the enforcement of contracts 
 
 made otherwise than under the provisions of the Act itself, 
 even in the case of imported labourers. 
 
 (4) That the remedies provided for employers in the event of 
 
 the unlawful absence, idleness, or desertion of their contract 
 labourers, were insufficient. 
 
 139. Act II (B.C.) of 1870 did not recognise free recruiting, 
 
 but made it penal to engage or convey an 
 
 Free immigration and immii^rant to the labour districts except in 
 
 free recruiting. '-' . . , . 
 
 accordance with its provisions. Act VII 
 (B.C.) of 1873, which repealed the Act of 1870, contained no penal 
 clauses forbidding free recruiting, and section 7 allowed contracts 
 between an intending immigrant and an employer for a term not 
 exceeding one year, although not made under the provisions of the 
 Act. Under the present Act, I of 1882, a labourer may now 
 proceed to the labour districts as a free immigrant, and on 
 arrival he may take work on an ordinary contract not 
 under the Act ; or, having gone to the labour districts as a free 
 immigrant, he may on arrival enter into a contract under the Act ; 
 or, lastly, he may go to the labour districts as an immigrant 
 recruited and registered under the Act, and having executed a 
 contract to labour before arrival in the labour districts. In the 
 ffrst case he is in no way subject to the Act ; in the second case 
 he is subject only to such of its provisions as refer to the carrying 
 out of the labour contract ; and in the third he is completely under 
 the Act from the date of his recruitment until the expiration of 
 his engagement.
 
 Chap. 1 1 1. J FORM OF ADMINISTIIATION. I 25 
 
 140. As to tlie second point, under the old law a garden Section 4. 
 
 sardar' s certificate was only allowed to run immT^tion 
 Sardari recruiting. ^^^, ^.^ montlis ; lie was not allowed to travel "I^^'^^^"^^ 
 
 Inspection. 
 
 with another garden sardar if the total number of their united 
 band of immigrants exceeded twenty ; and if he recruited more than 
 twenty immigrants himself, he was obliged to take tliem to a con- 
 tractor's depot. Under the present Act, a garden sardar's certi- 
 ficate may be given for a period of one year, and, on the appHcation 
 of the employer by whom the certificate was granted, an Inspector 
 or Magistrate may, without requiring the reappearance of the 
 garden sardar before him, countersign and forward, for delivery 
 to the garden sardar by the Magistrate of the district in which the 
 sardar is employed, a fresh certificate in renewal of a former 
 certificate. All connection between garden sardars and contractors' 
 depots has been severed, and a garden sardar may now recruit anv 
 number of persons. Moreover, the employment of local agents to 
 supervise the operations of garden sardars, or, under special 
 license, to recruit emigrants themselves and despatch them to the 
 labour districts without the assistance of certificated sardars, has 
 been authorised > 
 
 141. With respect to the third point, labour contracts could not 
 
 be made under Act VII (B.C.) of 1873 in a 
 inuteiaLurSictr''"^' labour district. Labour contracts entered 
 
 into in the tea districts, before the passing of 
 Act I of 1882, were made under the ordinary law. Act XIII of 
 1859 {an Act to provide for the pimis/unent of breaches of contract bij 
 artificers, workmen, and labourers in certain cases) has been applied, 
 and is still applied, in these districts to locally-made contracts ; 
 but, as was remarked in the Statement of Objects and Eeasons 
 published with the Bill which afterwards became the present Act 
 I of 1882, " its provisions were obviously never intended to meet 
 such cases." Act I of 1882, as originally enacted, permitted local 
 labour contracts to be made in labour districts by any natives of 
 India, whether immigrants to, or residing in, Assam on the same 
 conditions and subject to the same penalties for breach of the 
 conditions, as labour contracts made outside the province by
 
 1 26 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section 4. intending immigrants. As now amended, tlie Act distinguishes 
 
 Immigration between contracts made in the presence of a Magistrate or 
 
 Inspection. Inspector and contracts not so made, and permits contracts of the 
 
 latter class to be entered into for a term of one year only. 
 
 142. With regard to the fourth point as to which the Commis- 
 
 sion considered that the law was defective, 
 Penalty for unlawful ^^^ present Act provides for a system of 
 
 absence irom labour. i jr j 
 
 monthly lists of defaulters from work to be 
 forwarded by the employer to the Inspector, who, on enquiry, may 
 punish any such defaulter by entering the days of absence on his 
 contract and adding them to the term thereof, unless the labourer 
 consents to forfeit to his employer the sum of 4 annas for each 
 day of absence. Prolonged and repeated absence, or desertion, may 
 be punished criminally by the Magistrate as under the former law. 
 
 143. The only other points in which the provisions of Act VII 
 
 (B.C.) of 1873 were ahered by Act I of 1882, 
 T-i^^I^p n*;^^^p"?Q"o'" ^^^ which need be noticed, are the extension of 
 
 ^ II (B.C.) or lo/3. ' 
 
 the term, for which a labourer may contract 
 to labour, from three years under the old law to five years under 
 Act I of 1882 as originally enacted, and its subsequent reduction 
 to four years by the recent amending Act ; the provision in the 
 present Act that the maximum annual capitation fee leviable from 
 employers for each labourer on contract under the Act shall not 
 exceed one rupee (one rupee eight annas was the rate levied under 
 the old law) ; and the provisions making it compulsory for all 
 employers to keep up registers and submit returns of vital statistics 
 of the labour force employed by them, whether on contract under 
 the Act or not. 
 
 144. Two important changes effected by Act VII of 1893, viz., 
 
 the reduction of the general term of contract 
 Aa viT of Tsot''^'"^ ^^' to four years, and of local contracts not made 
 
 in the presence of a Magistrate or Inspector 
 to one year, have already been referred to. Another important 
 feature of the recent enactment is that it recognises what is known 
 as the " Dhubri system. " As already stated, one of the main fea- 
 tures of Act I of 1882 was that, while imposing careful restrictions
 
 Chap. III.j pQjjj^ Qj, ADMINISTRATION. 12; 
 
 on recruitment by contractors and garden sardars, it aimed at Section 4. 
 encouraging and facilitating free emigration. The result was that i>m^ation 
 both contractors and garden sardars evaded the restrictions intend- 7nspeftion 
 ed for them by refusing to register in the district of recruitment, 
 and by bringing their coolies as free labourers to Dhubri and 
 putting them under a local contract there. Although unforeseen, 
 this system has, in practice, been found, on the whole, to work well, 
 and Act yil of 1893 accordingly places it on a legal footino- by 
 bringing contracts so executed within the scope of section 112 of 
 the Act and by empowering the Chief Commissioner to make rules 
 having the force of law for regulating the procedure for the execu- 
 tion of these contracts. 
 
 The other provisions of the amending Act are framed to prevent 
 and remedy abuses in recruitment, and to strengthen the control of 
 the Local Administration over unhealthy gardens. The cancellation 
 of contracts in certain cases and the repatriation of coolies are 
 provided for in greater detail, and the option of a fine is allowed in 
 some cases in which imprisonment was formerly the only legal 
 penalty. 
 
 145. The whole subiect of the Govern- 
 
 Government supervi- 
 
 hion of the immigrant mcut supcrvisiou of the immigrant labourer 
 
 falls into three parts : 
 I. The recruitment of the labourer. 
 II. His journey to the labour districts. 
 III. His status while labouring under contract. 
 The immigrant labour force of the tea gardens of the province 
 is recruited by free immigrants (that is, by immigrants who go to 
 the tea districts without having been registered and without having 
 made contracts under the immigration Law) and by labourers who 
 have been registered and who have executed contracts under Act 
 I of 1882, imported through garden sardars authorised by employers 
 to recruit, or through contractors and recruiters licensed by 
 Government. 
 
 146. The extent to which free immigration exists will be apparent 
 
 from the fact that out of 41,802 adult 
 
 The free immigrant. immigrants who camc to the tea gardens of
 
 128 ASSAM ad:ministration report. [Chap. ill. 
 
 Section 4. the province during the year 1892, 13,347, or 311) per cent., were 
 
 iniT^ation " non-Act " or free. Ten years ago the percentage of free immigrants 
 
 and Labour | ;|^3.5_ j^-^ ^his respect the reversal of the policy which 
 
 Inspection. » ^ ± j 
 
 framed the penal clauses of Act II (B.C. ) of 1870 has been complete. 
 Section 7 of Act I of 1882 provides that nothing in that Act is to 
 be taken to prevent natives of India from emigrating otherwise 
 than under its provisions, and the only restriction is that allowed by 
 section 5, under which power is reserved to Local Governments 
 (with the sanction of the Governor General in Council) to prohibit 
 natives of India, or any specified class of natives, from emigrating 
 from any particular tract to any specified labour district or portion 
 of a labour district. As, however, great sickness and mortality 
 were found to exist amongst these free immigrants, an Act was 
 passed by the Bengal Council in 1889 (No. I of that year), ena- 
 bling the Local Government to exercise control over the routes by 
 which they should travel and to make such sanitary rules as might 
 seem to be needed. Tliis Act was extended to Assam by Notifica- 
 tion No. 1211J., dated the 2nd April 1890 ; and rules under it have 
 been framed for the regulation of the transit of free immigrants 
 to gardens in the Surma Valley, where the mode of travelling very 
 frequently adopted is by country boats carrying less than tT,fenty 
 passengers. In the Brahmaputra Valley the Act is not needed. 
 Almost all the coolies to gardens in that valley travel by steamer ; 
 and as these steamers carry more than twenty passengers, they 
 require to be licensed, and, in accordance with the rules framed 
 under Act I of 1882, they must carry a medical officer and also 
 medical stores and provisions. On board these steamers the free 
 immigrant is subject to the same supervision as the Act labourer. 
 When the transport is by boats carrying less than twenty 
 passengers, which do not require to be licensed under Act I of 
 1882, the rules framed under Act I (B.C.) of 1889 provide that 
 the supply of food and water shall be similar to that prescribed 
 for licensed vessels, and lay down that not more than one passen<Ter 
 shall be carried for every 5 maunds of the capacity of the boat. 
 They also empower any magistrate to detain any immigrant who 
 is certified by a medical officer to be unfit to proceed on tlie journey.
 
 Chap. III.] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 1 29 
 
 147. Tlie subject of recruitment by garden sardars has Section 4. 
 
 been noticed above. A garden sardar must immigmtion 
 
 Recruitment by £rarden vi ^i • i. t • • . ^ and Labour 
 
 saidars. appear With the intending immigrant -whom inspection. 
 
 he wishes to en^afTe before the registering 
 officer of the area within which he has been authorised to recruit. 
 Particulars of the intending immigrant are registered by the 
 registering officer, and the labour contract is executed before him. 
 The garden sardar is bound to provide proper food and lodging 
 throughout their journey for the labourers and dependents whom 
 he engages. If the garden sardar's employer has specified in the 
 garden sardar's certificate that he \\ishes a medical examination 
 to be made of labourers engaged, such an examination is 
 required to be made with reference to the labourer's fitness to 
 travel to, and to labour m, the labour district ; or if it appears to 
 the registering officer or to any Magistrate or Embarkation Agent 
 to be necessary that a medical examination should be made of any 
 person about to emigrate under the Act, a medical inspection of 
 the labourer's fitness to travel is made before he is allowed to 
 proceed. It has already been explained that these provisions have 
 to a great extent become a dead letter, and that the general 
 procedure now followed is for the sardars to recruit coolies and 
 bring them as free immigrants to Dhubri or to the garden for 
 which they are recruited, and to place them under the Act at one 
 or other of these places. 
 
 148. Contractors and recruiters are licensed by other Govern- 
 
 ments than that of this province, and their 
 Eecriutment by con- supervision is onlv to a vcrv small degree the 
 
 tractors and recruiters. ^ J J n 
 
 care of this Administration. Contractors are 
 bound to establish suitable depots for the reception and lodging of 
 labourers engaged by them or by their .recruiters, previous to 
 their despatch to the labour districts, and they are bound to 
 provide food, clothing, and medical treatment for such labourers 
 during their stay at the depot. 
 
 An intending immigrant, who is engaged by a contractor or 
 recruiter, must be brought before the registering oft'icer of the 
 area in which he is recruited, and he must also be examined by a 
 
 s
 
 130 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. Ill, 
 
 Section 4. medical officer, who niusi certify to liis fitness to travel before lie 
 hnmigration is allowcd to procced. When the labourer reaches the depot, 
 "'inspection. ^16 undergoes another medical examination by the medical inspector 
 of the dejjot, and he executes his labour contract after it has been 
 explained to him by the Superintendent of Emigration. Here also 
 the restrictions imposed by the Act are, as a general rule, avoided 
 by recruiting outside the provisions of the Act and only placing 
 the labourers under contract after their arrival in the labour 
 districts. 
 
 149. Practically, the whole of the immigration into the districts of 
 _ the Brahmaputra Valley is by steamer, while 
 
 Transport. . ^ J J ^ ■> 
 
 that into the Surma Valley, which was for- 
 merly almost entirely confined to boats, is now divided between boats 
 and steamers in very nearly equal proportions. The provisions of 
 the law with regard to Government supervision of the transport by 
 rivei: steamers and boats and the food and medical comforts which 
 they are required to carry have already been touched on. Licensed 
 vessels containing immigrants are inspected at the port of 
 embarkation, which is generally Dhubri or Goalundo for the 
 Brahmaputra Valley districts, and Goalundo for the Surma Valley 
 districts, by the Embarkation Agent and by a Government medical 
 ofiicer if the Embarkation Agent be not himself a medical officer. 
 They are also inspected by Government officers at all ports touched 
 during the voyage w^here civil officers are stationed. At debar- 
 kation ports, where the number of labourers annually landed is 
 large, there are Government depots under the charge of hospital' 
 assistants, to which all Act labourers and their dependents must go 
 for the purpose of being registered. They are also open to the 
 admission of all free immigrants who choose to avail themselves of 
 their accommodation. Sick persons are, if necessary, detained in 
 the depots for medical treatment. 
 
 150. Every employer is bound to provide for the labourers 
 
 employed on his estate proper house accom- 
 th^gardfn. '^^°"''^'"' '''' modation, water-supply, and sanitary arrange- 
 ments. He must supply Act labourers with 
 rice at a reasonable price, and he must provide hospital accommo-
 
 Chap, III.] rOllM OF ADMINISTRATION. I3I 
 
 Section 4. 
 dation, medicines, and medical attendance. If an estate be - — 
 
 declared by Government after enquiry to be unfit for tlie residence ami 'Labour 
 
 of labourers by reason of climate, situation, or condition, labour -^'"/"^^'^^<"'' 
 
 contract-s to labour on the estate cannot be enforced aiTainst the 
 
 labourer. 
 
 151. The duty of inspecting tea gardens upon which immigrant 
 
 labourers are employed is performed by In- 
 
 Inspection of estates. i * • t • pt ^ 
 
 spectors and Assistant Inspectors 01 Labourers, 
 most of whom are the officers of the Commission, and medical officers. 
 Every garden employing imported Act labourers must be inspected 
 at least once every year, and every garden in which the mortality 
 shown in the return of the last calendar year has exceeded 7 per 
 cent, (the number of deaths having exceeded 9) niust be inspected 
 by the Civil Surgeon of the district. The inspection reports state 
 what house accommodation, water-supply, medical attendance, 
 hospital accommodation, and sanitary arrangements have been 
 provided, and what the food-supply is. They also notice the 
 general treatment and condition of the labourers, and record their 
 vital statistics. In the case of unhealthy gardens a special form of 
 inspection report has been prescribed. 
 
 152. Contracts under the Act cannot be made for a term exceed- 
 
 ing four years, and the minimum monthly wage 
 
 Labour contracts under i-i i i_'i.-ip • -rt kp 
 
 Act I of 1882. which can be stipulated tor is ixs. 5 tor a 
 
 man and Es. 4 for a woman for the first three 
 years of the term of contract, and Es. 6 for a man and Es, 5 for a 
 woman for the fourth year of the term of contract. They must 
 also state the price at which rice is to be supplied to the labourer. 
 Schedules of tasks must be kept by employers, and if found to be 
 unreasonable, may be revised by an Inspector of Labourers. 
 Weakly labourers may be allowed subsistence allowance or diet by 
 order of an Inspector of Labourers, and labourers permanently 
 incapacitated for labour may be released from their contracts by 
 an Inspector. A labourer so released is entitled to receive from 
 his employer such sum, not exceeding three months' wages, as the 
 Inspector may award, or, if the labourer desires to return to his 
 3ountry, such sum, whether in excess of three months' wages or
 
 132 ASSAM ADMINISTllATION REPORT. [Chap, III. 
 
 Section 4- j^ot, as will suffice to defray the expenses of the journey. A 
 Immigration labourer may redeem his contract by payment of a sum of Ke. 1 
 
 and Labour ici -i • f ^ o x-no 
 
 Inspection, for evcry month of the unexpired portion of the nrst year, 01 Rs. 6 
 for every month of the second year, and of Es. 5 for every month 
 of the third and fourth j^ears of the term of contract. A contract 
 may be cancelled if ill-usage by the employer is proved, or if the 
 labourer's wao:es are in arrear for more than four months. When 
 the contracts of husband and wife expire at dillerent times, the 
 Magistrate may equalise the terras of their contracts by adding to 
 the one and deducting from the other in such proportions as may 
 appear to him to be equitable. Labourers who, without reasonable 
 cause, absent themselves from labour during their terms of contract, 
 or who desert, are punishable with fine and imprisonment. In the 
 case of a first conviction for the offence of desertion, the imprison- 
 ment may extend to the term of one month ; for a second conviction 
 the term may extend to two months, and for a third conviction to 
 three months. When a labourer has suflered imprisonment for 
 terms amounting altogether to six months for desertion, his labour 
 contract must be cancelled. 
 
 153. The fund raised from fees, fines, and rates levied under 
 the provisions of the Act is called the Inland 
 ^ The Labour Transport Labour Transport Fund. The law directs that 
 the fund so raised in a province shall be at the 
 disposal of the Local Government, who must apply it, under 
 the control of the Government of India, for defraying the 
 expenses of carrying out the purposes of the Act, including the 
 cost of sending labourers and other persons back to their native 
 districts. 
 
 The income of the fund in the year 1892-93 amounted to Es. 
 78,763-100, of which Es. 64,043-4-6 were raised in Assam and 
 Es. 14,720-0 6 in Bengal. The expenditure during the same year 
 amounted to Es. 71,994-2-7, of wJiicli the Assam share was 
 Es. 47,682-7-10. The principal local heads of receipts were 
 Capitation fees under section 109 (now levied at the rate of 8 
 annas per head) Es. 54,975-3-0, Depot receipts Es. 5,460-2-9, and 
 Contractors' license fees Es. 3,148. The heaviest items on the other
 
 Chap. III.] FOEM OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 ^33 
 
 side of the account were Depot charges Es. 8,680-10-4, Supphes Sections. 
 and Services Rs. 8,625-9-4, Clerks and servants Us'. 8,453-10-8, p^v 
 Inspectors, Embarkation Agents, etc.. Us. 5,782-6-1, Grants to ^^°''^^' 
 dispensaries Es. 5,530, TraveUing allowances Es. 5,081-1-0, and 
 Miscellaneous Rs. 3,774-15-10. In addition to the above, Es. 
 9,591-5-3 were transferred to the Bengal portion of the fund, which 
 showed a deficit to that extent. 
 
 SECTION 5.— PUBLIC WORKS. 
 154. For the more efficient administration of the Public Works 
 Department in Assam, it was found necessary, 
 
 OrganisatiDn of the „ , , -fo/>r> i /^ • • 
 
 department. ^s tar bacK as Ibbb, to vest the Commissioner 
 
 with the powers of a Local Administration, 
 subordinate to the Government of Bengal. But his authority to 
 sanction expenditure was then limited to works the cost of which 
 did not exceed Es. 5,000. The Superintending Engineer was at 
 the same time invested locally with the powers of a Chief Engineer, 
 and was appointed Secretary to the Commissioner in the Public 
 Works Department. On the formation of the Chief Commissioner- 
 ship, therefore, the organisation of the Public Works Department 
 was already in some measure adapted for a separate Administration. 
 The transfer of Sylhet and Cachar to Assam added an executive 
 charge to [the three already existing in the Brahmaputra Valley ; 
 and a fifth was created on the transfer of the headquarters of the 
 Administration to Shillong, when important public works in the 
 public buildings which had to be erected, and the roads which had 
 to be made, were thereby rendered necessary. 
 
 Until the end of the official year 1881-82, the organisation of the 
 Public Works Department in the province underwent little change. 
 The districts of Sylhet and Cachar constituted the Sylhet Division ; 
 Godlpdra, the Gdro Hills,* and a portion of Kdmrup the Lower 
 Assam Division ; the remainder of Kdmrup with the Khdsi Hills the 
 Shillong Division ; Darrang, Nowgong, and part of Sibsdgar the 
 Central Assam Division ; and Lakhimpur and the remainder of 
 
 * In the Gaio Ilills, public works are directly under the Deputy Commissioner, who is 
 assisted in carrying them out by an upper subordinate of the Public Works Department.
 
 134 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap, III, 
 
 Sections, gibg^aar the Upper Assam Division. After the close of the Naga 
 Public Hills expedition of 1879-80, these hills were made into a separate 
 division. In 1882 the Public Works executive divisions were 
 made conterminous with the civil districts of the province, and the 
 Eno-ineer establishment was increased accordingly. These changes 
 were synchronous in their effect with a large transfer to the 
 charge of Local Boards of works which had theretofore been 
 classed as Provincial ; and it was at the same time ruled that the 
 officers of the Public Works Department in each district were not 
 only responsible for the due execution of Imperial and Provincial 
 Works, but were also (except in the hill districts, where Local 
 Boards do not exist) to act as assistants to the Chairmen of Local 
 Boards for carrying out works under the Local Boards' control. 
 It will be explained in the next section that many of the works 
 made over to Local Boards in 1882 were afterwards found to be 
 less effectively administered than they were when classed as 
 Provincial, and that they were consequently again made over to 
 the direct control of the Pubhc Works Department. Experience 
 also showed that the position assigned to Executive Engineers in 
 the arrano-ements of 1882 was not altogether satisfactory. It was 
 therefore decided to sever their connection with local works, 
 except as regards works definitely made over to them for execution 
 by the Boards and the duty of assisting the Boards with their 
 advice on professional matters when called upon to do so ; and as 
 the sphere of their duties was thus considerably restricted, it was 
 decided to revert in part to the distribution of Public Works 
 charges which obtained prior to 1882. Kdmrup and Goalpiira 
 were combined into one charge under the name of the Lower Assam 
 Division, and Darrang and Nowgong were amalgamated to form the 
 Central Assam Division. The other districts remained, as previously, 
 in charge of separate Engineers, These orders took effect in 
 1889-90. 
 
 The only changes that have since been made are the for- 
 mation of a new division in the North Lushai Hills, and the 
 temporary appointment of a special officer, as Superintendent 
 of Works, with a sanctioned staff of Executive and Assistant
 
 Chap. III.] 
 
 FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 135 
 
 Roads. 
 
 District. 
 
 Imperial roads. 
 
 Provincial roads. 
 
 Local roads. 
 
 Metalled. 
 
 Unmetalled. 
 
 Metalled. 
 
 Unmetalled. 
 
 Metalled. 
 
 Unmetalled. 
 
 Cachar 
 
 Sylhct 
 
 Lower Assam 
 
 Central „ 
 
 Sibsdgar .. 
 
 Lakhimpnr 
 
 Kh4si and Jaintia Hills 
 
 KAga Hills 
 
 G4ro „ 
 
 Nlchugnard-Manipur Road Circle 
 
 North Lushai Hills . . 
 
 
 Miles. 
 H 
 
 3| 
 
 Miles. 
 i 
 63 
 
 H 
 
 7Ci 
 165 
 
 Miles, 
 
 
 6 
 
 Miles. 
 144 
 97 
 448 
 293 
 174 
 205 
 
 382f 
 193| 
 
 125 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Mil^ 
 U 
 5i 
 6- 
 8' 
 4 
 32J 
 
 s. 
 
 8 
 
 li 
 
 81 
 9 
 
 Total 
 
 lU 
 
 snj 
 
 112 
 
 2,1 683^ 
 
 
 3,0991=5^ 
 
 From an administrative standpoint, the most important roads 
 are the new mihtary road from Golaghat to Manipur, the Assam 
 
 Public 
 Works. 
 
 Engineers, to supervise the construction of the Kohima-Manipur Section 5. 
 road. 
 
 155. The facilities for communication by water which are pro- 
 vided by the river system of the Brahma- 
 putra and Surma Valleys have been already 
 alluded to. Communication by land is less easy. When the 
 British occupied the province, roads were practically unknown, for, 
 although the remains of ancient embankments (chief amongst 
 which is the Gosain Kamala Ali, which stretches from Eangpur 
 to Sadiya) bear witness to the existence of numerous roads at 
 some period of the past, the anarchy which preceded the annexa- 
 tion of the country by the Company had been so great and so 
 prolonged, that they had been allowed to fall into utter disrepair, 
 and were of little or no use to travellers. During the early period 
 of British rule very little was done to improve matters ; but since 
 1861 a more active policy has found favour, and considerable 
 sums are now spent annually on the construction of new roads 
 and the maintenance of those already in existence. The mileage 
 under roads in each district of the province is detailed below :
 
 Works. 
 
 136 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. HU 
 
 Section 5. Trunk road, and the hill road which connects Shillong, the head- 
 Pubiic quarters of the z\dministration, with the Brahmaputra at 
 Gauhati. For local requirements, the short feeder roads, which 
 connect the centres of trade in the interior with the muJchs or 
 stations at which the river steamers stop, are by far the most 
 useful. A notable feature in the statement given above is the 
 very small proportion of metalled as compared with unmetalled 
 roads. Two reasons may be given to account for this, firstly, 
 that the requirements of the province in the matter of communica- 
 tions are still so great that many more miles of road must be 
 constructed before any large amount of money can be spared for 
 improving those already in existence ; and, secondly, that the soil 
 is alluvial, and stones for metalling would consequently have, as 
 a rule, to be brought from distances so great as to make the cost 
 involved in doing so prohibitive. The fact that in some parts, 
 particularly in the Surma Valle}", communication by water com- 
 petes with communication by road during the rainy season is, 
 another reason why less money is expended on roads in these 
 tracts than would otherwise be necessary. 
 
 156. Owing partly to the excellent water carriage available 
 and partly to the backward nature of the 
 
 Railways. . . , 
 
 country, railway enterprise has not hitherto 
 made much progress. But signs of a new condition of things are 
 not wanting. Within the last ten years three small lines have 
 been constructed, viz., the Dibrugarh-Sadiya Eailway (77'5 miles) 
 in Lakhimpur, the Jorhdt-Kokilamukh line (28'40 miles) in Sibsagar, 
 and the Theria-Companyganj line (8| miles) in Sylliet. Of these, 
 the firstmentioned was constructed by the Assam Eailways and 
 Trading Company with a State guarantee ; the other two are 
 purely State Eailways, constructed by Government without the 
 intervention of private capitalists. An attempt to extend the last- 
 mentioned line from Theriaghat at the foot of the Shillong plateau 
 to Cherrapunji at its summit, by means of a series of inclines, was 
 unsuccessful ; but the plains portion is still worked. It more than 
 pays for the cost of its upkeej), aud it is not unlikely that it 
 will, sooner or later, be extended to Chhatak on the Surma river.
 
 Chap. 111.] rOHM OF ADMINISTRATION. 1,37 
 
 But the most important railway project which Assam has yet Section 5. 
 seen still remains to be mentioned. Between the 3'ears 1882 and ^"^^/'^ 
 
 ^ ^ . Works. 
 
 1886, a railway survey party was engaged in Assam in making 
 a survey with a view to laying down a line connecting this 
 province with Bengal. The route followed by this survey runs 
 from Chittagong through the south of the Sylhet district to Badar- 
 pur in Cachar, thence througli the North Cachar Hills to Lumding, 
 near Dimapur, and from Lumding, via Golaghat, to Dibrugarh, 
 with a branch line from Lumding to Grauhati.* A survey of the 
 country between Gauhati and Dhubri had been carried out some 
 years previously, when the Eastern Bengal State Railway was 
 under construction. It was lono^ a matter of discussioiL whether 
 greater advantages might be expected to ensue from a railway 
 along the route surve3"ed in 1882-1886, or from a line running 
 laterally along the Brahmaputra Valley between Dibrugarh and 
 a point on the Eastern Bengal State Railway, thus connecting the 
 whole of the northern portion of the province with the existing 
 railway system of Bengal. For some years no practical result 
 supervened, as want of funds prevented the construction of a line 
 at the expense of the State, and negotiations with private capital- 
 ists were not successful. During the year 1891-92, however, a 
 company was at last formed to construct a railway along the former 
 of the two routes described above, subject to a guarantee by the 
 State, and work was commenced in November 1891. It is hoped 
 that the line, when finished, will be the means of largely opening 
 out the province ; but, as some years must elapse before the 
 construction of the railway can be completed, speculation as to 
 the consequences which may be expected to result from it would 
 be premature. 
 
 157. The annual assignment to the province for Imperial Public 
 _ . , TTT , Works varies from year to year, the o'rant 
 
 Imperial Works. . / ./ ' ^ o 
 
 being fixed according to the requirements 
 
 * A line between Mymensinf^h and GaubAti throiigb tbo Garo Hills was also 
 surveyed, and found to be practicable for a railway, but at a cost so great as to be 
 prohibitive.
 
 138 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. 111. 
 
 Section 6. of the time. The grants for the last three years, together with the 
 Local Self- expenditure, are shown below : 
 
 Government 
 
 Imperial (utlay. 
 
 1890-91. 
 
 1891-92. 
 
 189 
 
 2-93. 
 
 Finnl 
 grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Final 
 
 grant. 
 
 E.xppndi- 
 
 ture. 
 
 Final 
 grant. 
 
 1,08,400 
 8,41,2j0 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Military Works 
 Civil 
 
 Rs. 
 
 2,07,600 
 17,100 
 
 Rs. 
 
 2.09,586 
 16,064 
 
 Rs. 
 1,04,100 
 3,47,700 
 
 Rs. 
 99,536 
 3,23,594 
 
 Rs. 
 96.541 
 7,74,736 
 
 Total 
 
 2,24,700 
 
 2,25,650 
 
 4,51,800 
 
 4,23,130 
 
 9,49,600 
 
 8,71,277 
 
 158. The Provincial assignment for Public Works is fixed 
 annually by the Chief Commissioner. The 
 grants for the years 1890-91, 1891-92, and 
 1892-93, as compared with the expenditure, 
 
 Provincial 
 Works. 
 
 Public 
 
 are given below 
 
 
 1890-91. 
 
 1891-92. 
 
 1892-9.S. 
 
 
 Final 
 grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Final 
 grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Fir.al 
 grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Civil Works . . 
 
 12,16.000 
 
 11,43.705 
 
 11.38.000 
 
 10,49,895 
 
 13,76,000 
 
 13.01,03) 
 
 Jorhat State Eailway, Capital 
 
 15,000 
 
 11,871 
 
 4,000 
 
 2.725 
 
 So.OqO 
 
 37,319 
 
 Cherra-Comranyganj State Railway, 
 Capital. 
 
 4.670 
 
 4,042 
 
 —400 
 
 23 
 
 6,000 
 
 4,46* 
 
 Jorhat State Railway, Revenue 
 
 57.000 
 
 67.971 
 
 60.n00 
 
 60,908 
 
 60,000 
 
 64,950 
 
 Cherra-Companyganj State Railway, 
 Revenue. 
 
 19,000 
 
 19.171 
 
 19,500 
 
 19,093 
 
 17,000 
 
 17,503 
 
 Subsidised Railways 
 
 1.01,000 
 
 1,01,130 
 
 1.01,000 
 
 1,00,700 
 
 1,01,000 
 
 1,00,404 
 
 Total 
 
 14,12,670 
 
 13,37,890 
 
 13,22,100 
 
 12,33,311 
 
 15,90,000 
 
 15,15,664 
 
 This is exclusive of expenditure on public works by Local 
 Boards, figures for which will be found in the next section. 
 
 SECTION 6.— LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT. 
 159. Besides the agency of Government officers, much assist- 
 ance is given to the administration of the pro- 
 Assain^ ^^'^^ '" viucc by local bodics, who administer funds 
 raised under special enactments or placed at
 
 Chap. III.] FORM OF ADiMINISTRATION. 1 39 
 
 their disposal by tlie Chief Commissioner. These are either muni- Section 6. 
 cipahties for town areas, or Local Boards for the district at LocaTself- 
 
 laro"e Government. 
 
 160. The municipalities are the older institutions. Under 
 this general name are included — (1) Munici- 
 
 Miniicipalities. ,. . ^ „ ^ ,^. ^ 
 
 palities properly so called ; (2) Stations, whose 
 administration is less independent than that of the first named ; 
 and {3) Unions, or towns where a rate is assessed by a panchayat 
 for the purpose of providing funds for local improvements- 
 Of these, Sylhet, Gauhati, and Dibrugarh are municipalities 
 under Act III (B C.) of 1884 ; the others are all constituted 
 under the provisions of Act V (B.C.) of 1876 ; Silchar, Dhubri, 
 Goalpara, and Barpeta being second-class Municipalities ; Shillong 
 and Sibsdgar, Stations ; and Habiganj, Jorhat, and Golaghat, 
 Unions. 
 
 In the municipalities of Sylhet, Gauhati, and Dibrugarh the 
 elective system is in full force, and rules for the conduct of elections 
 have been framed under section 15 of Act III (B.C.) of 1884. A 
 system of election has also been introduced, at the instance of the 
 ratepayers, for the choice of members to sit on the Committees at 
 GotUpdra and Silchar. The official members of all municipal 
 institutions are very few in number ; and although the Chairmen are 
 officials in all cases except that of the Sylhet Municipality, the Vice- 
 Chairmen are usually non-officials. 
 
 161. These bodies derive their income partly from taxation 
 and partly from other sources. The taxation 
 
 Municipal income. ^ , ^ . ..,., . ^ • n • i c 
 
 levied m municipalities is cliieny m the term 
 of a tax on persons or buildings, a latrine tax, and a water-rate (in 
 Gauhdti) ; in stations the taxation is a house assessment, and in 
 unions a chaukidari tax. Other small items of taxation are taxes 
 on animals and wheeled vehicles. These taxes are levied under 
 the provisions of the Act under which each municipality, etc., is 
 constituted. No octroi or other duties are taken anywhere in the 
 province. Of the other sources of income, the most important are 
 the receipts from ferries [levied under the provisions of sections 
 148-156 of Act III (B.C.) of 1884, or sections 1S9-147 of Act V
 
 140 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 111. 
 
 Sectiox 6. (B.C.) (f 1S7G, as the case may be] from municipal pounds, tlie 
 Local Self- Incouie fi'om municipal markets, and the assignments from Provin- 
 Government. ^-^^ ^^_^j Local Funds enjoyed by several municipahties. The last 
 item consists of grants made in commutation of the land revenue 
 of the town areas, which in the early days of tlie province was 
 allowed to be appropriated to the improvement of the towns. In 
 1892-93, municipalities enjoyed an income of Es. 1,76,511-2-0, of 
 which Es. 8,728-9-0 were derived from taxation and Es. 89,221-9 
 from other sources. The total expenditure during the same year 
 amounted to Es. 1,52,916-3. Some account of the working of 
 municipal bodies will be found in Part II 13 of the General Adminis- 
 tration Eeport, Chapter III, Section 8. 
 
 162. The Local Boards are constituted under the Assam Local 
 Eates Eegulation, 1879. They exist in the 
 Local Boards. ^-^^^^ plains districts only, the hill districts not 
 
 being sufhciently advanced to admit of their establishment. By 
 the ?iegulation a rate may be levied of one anna on every rupee of 
 annual value of the land in these eight districts, and the rate so 
 levied forms the chief item in the income of the Local Boards. 
 Prior to May 1882, these Boards were charged with the administra- 
 tion of primary education, the district post, and repairs of district 
 roads and general improvements, the funds to meet these heads of 
 expenditure being provided from five-eighths of the local rate, 
 ferries (excluding a few retained as Provincial), rents, and other 
 miscellaneous items of income, and the surplus receipts from 
 pounds. 
 
 In 1882, the functions of the District Committees were 
 enlarged by the transfer to their control of grants-in-aid to all 
 schools except high schools, grants to dispensaries, fairs, rewards 
 for the destruction of wild beasts, the cost of the establishments 
 for collecting the local rate, circuit-houses and staging bungalows, 
 grants to municipahties, and almost all the pubhc works thereto- 
 fore classed as Provincial. To meet these charges, the Provincial 
 grants, previously allotted for them, were made over to the 
 Local Boards, tosfether with the three-fifths d the local rate 
 which had formerly been credited to provincial funds. The
 
 Chap. III.] FORM OF ADMINISTEATION. I4I 
 
 Public Works establishments were transferred to " Local," and Section 6. 
 so also were most of the Sub-Inspectors of Schools in plains ^^^^^ ^^^-_ 
 
 districts. Government. 
 
 The effect of these orders was to place under Local Boards 
 the entire control of all local expenditure, except that immediately 
 connected with the administration of the province. It was soon 
 seen that the change was too radical, and the policy of subsequent 
 years up till 1890 Avas to reduce in some degree the too extended 
 functions of the Boards by withdrawing from their control the 
 management of matters of Provincial, rather than of strictly Local, 
 interest. In the first place (in 1884), the charges on account of 
 the professional establishment of Executive and Assistant Engineers 
 and such of their subordinate officers as were borne on the list of 
 the Public Works Department, were retransferred to the Provincial 
 budget. At the same time the construction and repairs of 
 treasuries, jails, circuit-houses, churches, cemeteries, floating dak 
 bungalows, and cutcherries at headquarters stations were again 
 classed as Provincial works. 
 
 Three years later the construction and repairs of similar 
 buildings at subdivisions were made a Provincial charge, and so 
 also were dak bungalows (as distinguished from rest-houses) and 
 grants to municipalities. In the same j^ear, the Sub-Inspectors of 
 Schools, who had been made Local in 1882, were again brought on 
 to the Provincial list. Finally, in 1890, the principle that Local 
 Boards should deal only with matters of purely local interest was 
 extended to that portion of Public Works which comes under 
 the denomination of " Communications." Trunk roads and their 
 feeder lines connecting them with the steamer ghats and with sub- 
 divisional stations, together with all ferries and rest-houses on such 
 roads, were made Provincial. All roads not included in the above 
 category continued to be " Local," as theretofore ; and as these 
 were of purely local importance, far greater independence was 
 conferred on Local Boards in respect to their management than 
 had been found possible when the Boards were entrusted with the 
 upkeep of roads, the importance of which was not confined to the 
 area administered by any particular Board.
 
 142 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOUT. 
 
 [Chap. 111. 
 
 Sectiox 6. At the same time, the opportunity was taken to introduce 
 Local Self- gi'eater continuity in the administration of Local Funds, by allot- 
 Goveynment. |-jj^g |q g^^^|-^ Board Provincial grants fixed for a term of years, 
 instead of an annually varying amount. On the expiry of the 
 term for which these grants had been made (in 1893), the wants of 
 each Board were carefully considered and new grants were 
 allotted ; but, instead of these grants being absolutely fixed, it was 
 arranged that they should be increased annually by 2 per cent, 
 in order to meet o-rowinf^ wants. Tliis arrans^ement will continue 
 in force until 1898, when the amount of the different grants will 
 again be revised and a fresh allotment will be made. The total 
 income of Local Boards in 1892-93 was Rs. 11,57,920, of which 
 Hs. 7,15,184 represent the receipts from local sources of income, 
 and Rs. 1,89,783 the Provincial grants. The expenditure in the 
 same year amounted to Rs. 9,02,146, of which Rs. 6,13,235 
 represent the expenditure on local public works. In the following 
 statement the expenditure by the Local Boards on public works 
 for the past three years is shown : 
 
 
 1890-91. 
 
 1891-92. 
 
 1S92-93. 
 
 Local Fund outlay. 
 
 Final grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Final grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 ture. 
 
 Final grant. 
 
 Expendi- 
 tnre. 
 
 Original Works — 
 
 Civil Buildings 
 
 Communications 
 
 Miscellaneous Public Improvf- 
 meuts 
 
 Rs. 
 
 2,800 
 2,23,900 
 
 62,000 
 
 Rs. 
 
 3,191 
 1,78,348 
 
 32,413 
 
 Rs. 
 
 2,005 
 2,51,053 
 
 43,310 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1,113 
 2,10,171 
 
 30,4-22 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1,040 
 3,10,300 
 
 45,195 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1,066 
 2,97,681 
 
 34,688 
 
 Total .. 
 
 2,78,700 
 
 l.GOO 
 2,21,900 
 
 12,500 
 
 2,30,000 
 
 4,500 
 47,800 
 
 2,13,952 
 
 2,96,368 
 
 2,41,736 
 
 3,56,535 
 
 3,33,435 
 
 Repairs — 
 
 Civil Buildings 
 
 Communications 
 
 Miscellaneous Public Improve- 
 ments . . 
 
 1,3G0 
 2,00,71 G 
 
 12,357 
 
 1,727 
 2,16,625 
 
 18,157 
 
 1,529 
 2,13,272 
 
 1G,564 
 
 2,33:) 
 2,23,393 
 
 19,6G8 
 
 2,238 
 2,17,171 
 
 14,537 
 
 Total 
 
 2,14,433 
 
 2,36,509 
 
 2,31,366 
 
 2,45,391 
 
 2,33,946 
 
 Tools and Plant, 
 
 Establishment 
 
 Suspense 
 
 3,439 
 42,23S 
 
 2,23 » 
 49,893 
 
 45,945 
 
 49,0 74 
 
 45,864 
 
 Grand total 
 
 6,S7,000 4,74,062 
 
 6,85,000 
 
 6,19,046 
 
 6,61,000 6,13,236
 
 Chap. I IK] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 1 43 
 
 163. Prior to 1882 tlie administration of Local Funds within Section 6. 
 a district had been vested in a District Com- ucai Seif- 
 
 Constitution of Boards. i, T ^ l. i -^f Government. 
 
 mittee, with subordniate branch committees 
 in each subdivision. In that year the subdivision was made the 
 unit of administration for Local Boards, each Board being entirely 
 self-contained and independent. At the same time an attempt was 
 made to introduce the elective principle for the selection of mem- 
 bers, instead of the system of nomination which had previously been 
 followed. 
 
 It was decided that election should be the normal mode of 
 appointment of representatives of the tea interest, who were to form 
 half the non-official strength of all Boards in districts where that 
 interest was important. An attempt was also made to select, by 
 means of election, the representatives of the native community in 
 Kdmriip, Sibsrigar, and Sylhet; but the success met with in these 
 districts has not been such as to encourage the extension of the 
 elective system to the other districts in which there are Local 
 Boards. In the latter, therefore, the native members are still 
 appointed by the Chief Commissioner on the recommendation 
 of the Deputy Commissioner. Non-official members, whether 
 elected or nominated, hold office for two years. 
 
 Concurrently with the above changes, the number of officials 
 on the committees was reduced considerably, and there are now 
 on the average only three or four official members of each Board. 
 The Chairmen are still, in all cases, officials, it being considered that 
 for the present their guidance and supervision can most profitably 
 be exercised from within, rather than from without, the Boards; 
 but, although they preside at the Board meetings and are the 
 executive officers of the committees, they have no vote, except 
 a casting one when members are equally divided. 
 
 164. Local Boards are required to meet not less than four times 
 a vear for the purpose of transacting]^ such 
 
 Procedure. '' , ^ , , . ^ , . , -, , . 
 
 business as may be laid before them by their 
 executive officers, the Chairmen. For the more important branches 
 of their administration (public works, education, and medical and 
 sanitation), sub-committees are appointed, who are supposed to
 
 144 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT, [Chap. Ul. 
 
 Section 7. meet moiitlily and to refer important matters for the consideration 
 Finance, of the full Board. 
 
 One of the most important duties of the Boards is the prepara- 
 tion of the annual budget, which is submitted in October. The 
 works are entered therein in the order of their importance, but no 
 work can be entered until the administrative sanction of the Chief 
 Commissioner has been accorded to it. 
 
 Formerly, the Executive Engineer was the servant of the 
 Board, and was responsible for carrying out its undertakings. But 
 this arrangement was not altogether satisfactory, and in 1890, 
 when the separation of Provincial from Local works was effected, 
 the opportunity was taken to place the relations between the 
 Boards on the one side, and the officers of the Public Works 
 Department on the other, on a more definite basis. Greater in- 
 dependence was given to the Boards as regards the selection of the 
 agency for the execution of works not requiring professional skill ; 
 but it was ruled that when a work was once made over to the 
 Executive Engineer, he was to be allowed to carry it out in his 
 own way, subject to the necessity of furnishing the Board with 
 information regarding its progress, and of taking up each work in 
 the order of importance indicated by the Board. It was proposed 
 to make over a subordinate officer of tlie Public Works Department 
 to each Board for the supervision of such works as it might decide 
 to execute without the aid of the Executive Engineer ; but it was sub- 
 sequently found that the Provincial establishment was not large 
 enough to provide every Board with such an officer, and it was 
 therefore decided (in 1892) that each Board should engage and pay 
 for its own staff. It was afterwards ruled that all appointments to 
 the engineering staff require the sanction of the Chief Commissioner, 
 and a fixed scale was laid down showing the maximum scale of 
 establishment permissible for each Board. 
 
 SECTION 7.— FINANCE. 
 
 165. The year 1892-93 was the first of a new contract between 
 the Provincial and Imperial Governments. 
 
 'rovincial contract. ^ , 
 
 The province was formed in 1874, and it
 
 Chap. Ill.l FOUM OF ADMINISTRATION. I45 
 
 will be convenient to divide the period from that year to the year Sectiox;. 
 under review into four sections corresponding with the terms of Finance. 
 the different contracts, viz., (1) from 1874 to March 1878, (2) 
 from 1878-79 to 1881-82, (3) from 1882-83 to 1886-87, and (4) 
 from 1887-88 to 1891-92. 
 
 (1) When the province w^as formed, in 1874, it took over its 
 proportional share of the then subsisting Provincial contract of 
 Bengal, the principle of which was that certain heads of expendi- 
 ture were handed over to the control of the Local Government, 
 together with the resources for meeting them, consisting partly 
 of the receipts under the same heads and partly of a fixed consoli- 
 dated allotment from the Imperial revenues. Any deficit w^as to 
 be made good by the Local Government, and any surplus was to 
 be applied to Provincial purposes. 
 
 (2) From the beginning of 1878-79 a second contract was 
 made upon a more extended basis. Certain heads of revenue w^ere 
 handed over, with their charges, completely to the control of the 
 Local Administration, and the principle was introduced of Provin- 
 cial responsibility for works undertaken for Local and Provincial 
 purposes. Under this arrancjement, the province received the 
 whole revenues from Excise, Provincial Plates, Stamps, Eegistra- 
 tion, Law and Justice, Police, Education, and a few minor heads, 
 together with 20 per cent, of the Land He venue, and undertook 
 the whole responsibility for the charges of these departments, 
 besides those for Administration and Provincial Public Works. 
 
 (3) The principle of the contract of 1882-83 differed from that 
 of the previous one, chiefly in the following points : — Instead of 
 Provincial revenues taking the whole receipts and charges under 
 certain heads, these were equally divided between Imperial and 
 Provincial. The only heads formerly Provincial which remained 
 so were Provincial Eates, Post Office {i.e., the District Post only), 
 Law and Justice, Police, Education, Medical, Stationery and Print- 
 ing ; the revenue yielding Departments of Excise, Stamps, and 
 Eegistration, formerly entirely Provincial, were shared equally 
 between Provincial and Imperial both under receipts and charges ; 
 and Forests, formerly entirely Imperial, was added to the shared 
 
 u
 
 H6 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION EEPORT. [Chap. HI. 
 
 ECTioN 7 heads. As this left the province in deficit, an equiUbrium was 
 Finance, re-estabhshed by allotting to Provincial Funds, in addition to the 
 above resources, a fixed percentage of the Land Eevenue sufficient, 
 in the year of contract, to adjust the account. This proportion 
 was a little over 63 per cent. Land Eevenue charges were shared 
 m the same proportion as receipts. There remained wholly Ln- 
 perial only Opium (cost price) and some small miscellaneous receipts* 
 and, under charges, Interest, Assignments, and Compensation, the 
 Offices of Account, Ecclesiastical and Political charges, a few 
 other miscellaneous heads, and Imperial Public Works. 
 
 (4) The year 1887-88 was the first of a new quinquennial con- 
 tract. This contract differed from the last in several respects, 
 principally as regards revenue. These differences were: — (1) The 
 grant to the Local Administration of the whole of the Land 
 Revenue, instead of only a percentao-e, as in the last contract, 
 subject to the contribution of a certain fixed sum to Imperial 
 revenues, so that the Local Administration enjoyed the whole of 
 any increase in the land revenue of the province during the cur- 
 rency of the contract ; (2) the percentages of the Stamps and 
 Excise revenues made over for Provincial uses were 75 and 25, 
 respective!}^, instead of 50 in the last contract ; (3) the grant of a 
 moiety of the revenue from Assessed Taxes for Provincial uses, 
 whereas in the last contract the revenue from this source was 
 reserved for Imperial purposes. Under the expenditure heads, 
 the charges on account of " Survey and settlement " and " Charges 
 on account of land revenue collections " (two heads of account 
 subordinate to the general head of Land Revenue) and those on 
 account of Stamps and Excise were shared between the Imperial 
 and the Provincial Governments to the same extent as the revenues 
 were shared. This was also the principle in the last contract, but 
 ' the percentages were not the same. A moiety of the expenditure 
 upon " Assessed Taxes " now became a Provincial charge, and 
 tlie political expenditure in the province, which was formerly an 
 Imperial charge, was transferred to the Provincial side of the 
 account. The new contract provided for a scale of expenditure 
 amounting to Rs. 49,08,572, and the revenues and receipts made
 
 Chap. III.J FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. I47 
 
 over to the Provincial Government were estimated to cover tins Section 7. 
 expenditure exactly. In the previous contract the revenues and Finance. 
 receipts made over to Provincial uses were estimated to exceed the 
 scale of expenditure provided for in the contract by Rs. 1,09,000. 
 
 This contract expired on the 31st March 1892. During its 
 currency several alterations were made, which affected the distri- 
 bution of revenue and expenditure between Imperial and Provin- 
 cial, the principal of which were that Marine and Political charges 
 were transferred from the Imperial to the Provincial budget ; that 
 Imperial made a grant to the province of Rs. 1,82,500 on account 
 of Capital expenditure on the Cherra-Companyganj and Jorhat 
 State Railways ; and that Assam made a special contribution to 
 Imperial of one lakh of rupees out of the seventy-four lakhs which 
 the Imperial Government demanded from Provincial Administrations. 
 
 The contract was also considerably affected by the grant to 
 Provincial revenues of the amount of extra expenditure incurred 
 by Assam owing to the Lusliai outbreaks of 1890 and 1891. The 
 progress of the revenue and expenditure of the province during 
 the period of this contract was shown in considerable detail on 
 pages 119-124 of the Provincial General Administration Report 
 for 1891-92, and may be thus summarised : 
 
 The contract provided for an annual expenditure of Rs. 
 47,40,000, or a total for the five years of Rs. 2,37,00,000, and 
 revenue sufficient to meet that sum was provided in the contract, the 
 estimated annual excess, Rs. 13,12,000, being treated as a contri- 
 bution from Provincial to Imperial. The actual Provincial receipts 
 during the five years aggregated Rs. 2,62,40,000, or an excess over 
 the contract of Rs. 25,40,000. The expenditure exceeded the con- 
 tract allotment by Rs. 18,65,000. The Provincial opening balance 
 on the 1st April 1887 was Rs. 6,84,000, and at the close of the 
 contract, on the 31st March 1892, the balance was Rs. 13,59,000. 
 
 The total Civil Receipts surplus over the contract was Rs. 
 15,96,000, mainly due to increase in the Land Revenue (lis. 
 12,50,000) and in Forest Receipts (Rs. 2,81,000). The receipts 
 under Jails and Police at no time came near the contract estimate^ 
 The increase in Civil expenditure under the heads included in
 
 Finance. 
 
 148 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 c direct demands on the revenue was almost entirely in the Forest 
 
 bECTlON 7. '' 
 
 expenditure. The cost of the Civil Departments was Es. 8,99,000 
 more than the contract allotment, but much of this was due to the 
 transfer of Marine and Political expenditure to Provincial, and to 
 extra expenditure in the North Lushai Hills, all of which was met 
 by a corresponding reduction in the contribution made to Imperial 
 by Provincial. 
 
 A satisfactory feature in the finance of the province during this 
 period was the continually decreasing cost of collecting the land 
 revenue, due to the gradual substitution of tahsilddrs, as revenue 
 collecting agents, for the mauzadars, who were paid by commis- 
 sion on the amounts of their collections. 
 
 The amount spent on Public Works out of the profits that 
 accrued to the Local Administration on the terms of the contract, 
 ?'.£?,, in addition to the contract allotment, was Es. 8,01,000. 
 
 This contract came to an end on the 31st March 1892. In the 
 estimates for the new contract, the expenditure, which was based 
 on the revised estimates of 1891-92, was taken at Es. 52^80,000 ; 
 and as the receipts worked out to Es. 54,53,000, the Government 
 of India proposed to resume the difference of Es. 1,73,000 per 
 annum. Subsequently, however, it was decided not to resume this 
 surplus, but to leave the province in the same financial position 
 as under the contract which came to an end on the 31st March 
 1892. The following figures were, therefore, adopted: 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Revenue, excluding adjustments -•• ... 65^36,000 
 
 Adjustments through the Land lievenue head ... 10,83,000 
 
 Total Provincial Revenue ... ... ... 54,53,000 
 
 Total Provincial Expenditure ... ... 54,53,000 
 
 The main features of the new contract were (1) that all interpro- 
 vincial adjustments ceased ; the charges paid by other provinces on 
 account of Assam, and vice versd, were taken into account in fixing 
 the expenditure, and it was decided that such charges as had been 
 paid during the previous contract by one province on account of
 
 Chap. HI] FORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 149 
 
 the other should continue to be so paid, but that no claim should Section 7. 
 be made by either province for reimbursement; (2) the whole of Finance. 
 the Land Eevenue receipts were allowed to remain Provincial, 
 subject to a lump adjustment in favour of Imperial revenues ; (3) 
 certain changes of classification were made, as shown below, 
 which slightly altered the figures adopted at first for the contract ; 
 (4) the new contract was a consolidated one, and not a collection 
 of separate contracts for each Provincial head, and therefore no 
 separate amounts were stated for each head of Provincial revenue 
 and expenditure. 
 
 The lump contribution to Imperial was finally fixed at Es. 
 11,27,000, thus : 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Expenditure ... ... ... ... 54,53,000 
 
 Compensation to Provincial for change of classifi- 
 cation of charges of the office of the Inspector 
 General of Police, &c., formerly charged to divided 
 heads, but now to be charged to General Adminis- 
 tration, a head wholly Provincial ... ... + 4,000 
 
 Compensation to Imperial for Comptroller's office 
 
 Provincial establishment now to be made Imperial — 5,000 
 
 Ctmpensation to Imperial for charge of plain paper 
 used with court-fee stamps to the divided head 
 " Stamps," instead of to'the wholly Provincial head 
 "Stationery and Printing" ... ... — 2,000 
 
 P eduction of charges formerly debited inter-provin- 
 
 cially to Assam, now to be borne by other provinces — 41,000 
 
 Expenditure thus revised ... ... ... 54,09,000 
 
 Kevenue ... ... ... ... 65,36,000 
 
 Contribution, Provincial to Imperial ... 11,27,000 
 
 Subsequently, a question arose as to the claim to the increase 
 in Land Kevenue, not estimated for in the contract, due to the 
 re-assessment of the Assam Valley districts, amounting to Es.
 
 150 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section 7. 7,59,000 a year. In settling this question, the terms of the 
 Finance. Contract under which a certain sum was allotted for expenditure 
 in the Lushai Hills were also amended. The actual amount of the 
 expenditure in 1891-92 was taken as the assignment in the 
 contract for Lushai charges, viz.., Pis. 3,56,000 per annum, and 
 it was settled that, to meet any excess over that amount of the 
 charges in the portion of the Lushai country now under the 
 control of the Chief Commissioner of Assam, an equivalent portion 
 of the excess of Land Eevenue over the amount now to be allotted 
 to Assam should be made wholly Provincial. 
 
 Listead, therefore, of the whole of the Land Eevenue being 
 Provincial, it was decided that the ordinary increase should be 
 taken at Rs. 66,000 per annum, and that the Provincial claim 
 should be limited in — 
 
 Us. 
 1893-94 ... ... ... ... to 47,74,000 
 
 1894-95 ... ... ... ... „ 48,40,000 
 
 1895-96 ... ... ... ... „ 49,06,000 
 
 1896-97 ... ... ... ... „ 49,72,000 
 
 Of the excess over these amounts, a sum equivalent to the 
 excess of the actual charges in the North Lushai country over 
 Es. 3,56,000 and of the actual charges in the South Lushai country 
 (when that tract was transferred to Assam) over the assignment 
 which might be transferred from Bengal with the territory, would 
 also be wholly Provincial, and that of the remainder one-fourth 
 would be Provincial. 
 
 166. Exclusive of the receipts of purely Imperial Departments 
 
 (Post Office, Telegraph, Military, and Imperial 
 
 Total revenues of the PubUc Works), the acrfrrefrate revenue now 
 
 province. '' or^ o 
 
 (1892-93) derived from the province is nearly 
 105 lakhs of rupees. The principal heads are Land Eevenue (47J 
 lakhs). Opium (4 lakhs), Stamps (8 lakhs). Excise (26 lakhs), Pro- 
 vincial Eates (5^- lakhs), Assessed Taxes (2^ lakhs). Forest {Z\ 
 lakhs), Eegistration (i lakh), and Tributes {\ lakh). The receipts 
 by Civil Departments aggregate about 5 lakhs, and Public Works 
 receipts, including receipts for Ferries, 2-J lakhs. Since 1882-83
 
 Chap. in. J rORM OF ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 151 
 
 the revenue lias risen from 81^ to 105 lakhs, or by nearly 29 per ^. 
 
 cent. Land Eevenue and Excise show the most marked increase, ^'"^"^^• 
 8J and G lakhs respectively. The item under THbutes is a receipt 
 from the Manipur State, and appears for the first time in the ac- 
 counts of this province. The receipts under Assessed Taxes, being 
 recoveries under Act II of 1886, also constitute a new feature. 
 
 167. The ordinary Civil expenditure is now 47^ lakhs, and the 
 
 Public Works Provincial and Local expendi- 
 Tctal expenditure of ture about 2U laklis, or about 69 lakhs in 
 
 Ihe province. 
 
 all, leaving a surplus of 36 lakhs as the con- 
 tribution of the province to the general expenses of the Empire. Of 
 the Civil expenditure (47^ lakhs), about 13 lakhs represent direct 
 demands upon the revenue, such as Cost of Collection, Refunds, 
 Assignments and Compensations, &c., about 32 lakhs represent 
 salaries and expenses of the Civil Departments, including General 
 Administration, and about 2^ laklis are expended in Pensions, 
 Stationery and Printing, and other miscellaneous charges. 
 
 168. The receipts and expenditure of the Imperial Depart- 
 
 ments (Post Office, Telegraph, Military, Ma- 
 Surplus how disposed j.jj-^e^ r^^^ Imperial Public Works) aggre- 
 gate, in round figures, 42 and 32 lakhs, re- 
 spectively, as compared with 18 and 20 lakhs, respectively, in 1882- 
 83. The increase in the receipts is almost entirely under Post 
 Office, and is due to expansion of money order and savings banks 
 transactions. The excess expenditure is chiefly under PublicWorks. 
 The Provincial surplus (36 lakhs), and the net receipts of the 
 Imperial Departments (10 laklis) aggregate 46 lakhs. This is remit- 
 ted to Calcutta by means of currency note remittances and supply 
 bills granted on Assam treasuries, to the agents of tea planters and 
 others. Notes of the higher denominations accumulate largely in 
 the Assam treasuries. They are imported by planters and Mar- 
 ■wari traders, and find their way into the treasury as revenue either 
 through revenue collectors (mauzadars) or purchasers of opium 
 and excise license-holders. There are no banking establishments 
 in Assam. Nearly 29 lakhs of these notes were remitted to 
 .Calcutta in 1892-93. The supply bill payments amounted during
 
 152 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. III. 
 
 Section 7. the same year to upwards of 45 lakhs, and about 16 lakhs in coin 
 Finance. Were placed at the Comptroller General's disposal at Calcutta by 
 means of transfers to currency chests. By this means money 
 which was not required in Assam was placed in currency in Assam, 
 the equivalent required in other provinces being withdrawn from 
 currency and placed at the disposal of Government for treasury 
 purposes, thus saving all charges of remittance. Accommodation 
 was thus offered to the commercial public in Assam and in 
 Calcutta to the extent of 90 lakhs, the amount being made up of 
 the local surplus, 46 lakhs, supplemented by the issue of bills upon 
 other provinces, about 31 lakhs, and by remittances from Calcutta 
 and withdrawals from the currency chests, 13 lakhs, equivalent 
 sums being placed in currency chests in other provinces where 
 coin was not immediately required. 
 
 For bills issued upon Assam a premium of J per cent, is 
 realised by Government ; those issued by Assam are granted at 
 par, except in the case of bills in favour of Messrs, Macneill and 
 Co., the Elvers Steam Navigation Company's Agents at Dhubri, 
 for their earnings paid into that treasury, upon which a premium 
 of a quarter per cent, is levied. 
 
 169- Dividing the revenues and expenditure between Imperial, 
 
 Provincial, and Local in accordance with the 
 
 Provincial revenue ^emis of the current contract, the annual 
 
 and expenditure. 
 
 revenue of Provincial and Local Funds in 
 1892-93 aggregate, in round figures, about 64j lakhs, and the ex- 
 V penditure 66 lakhs. The expenditure exceeds the receipts, in 
 
 consequence of the permission, granted by the Government of 
 India, to the Local Administration to utilise on Provincial Public 
 Works about five lakhs from the accumulated Provincial 
 balances. 
 
 The following are the chief heads of expenditure in round 
 numbers : 
 
 Rs. 
 Direct demand on the revenues (collection, &c.) ... 11,20,000 
 Administration ... ... ... ... 2^48,000 
 
 Law and Justice — Courts of law ... ... 5,44,000
 
 Chap. Ill] FORM OF ADMINISTRAIION. . I 53 
 
 Es. 
 
 Law and Justice— Jails ... ... 85,000 
 
 Police ... ... ... ... ll,G(i,O00 
 
 Marine ... ... ... ... 99,000 
 
 Education ... ... ••• ... 3,39,000 
 
 Medical ... ... ... ... 2,76,000 
 
 Political ... ... ... ... 2,68,000 
 
 Public Works ... ... ... ... 21,50,000 
 
 Since 1882-83 the Assam portion of the Inland Labour Trans- 
 port Fund has been transferred from Bengal (in 1884). The Local 
 income and expenditure included in the above figures are Es. 
 9,69,000 and Rs. 9,59,000 respectively, of which the portions per- 
 taining to the Liland Labour Transport Fund are Pis. 64,000 and 
 Rs. 57,000 respectively, the remainder representing transactions 
 of the nineteen Local Boards, which exist in the eight plains dis- 
 tricts of tlie province. There has been no change in the heads of 
 receipts and expenditure entrusted to these bodies, but there have 
 been several transfers between Provincial and Local, cliiefly in the 
 expenditure upon Public Works, which have resulted in a reduc- 
 tion of the amount of Provincial contribution to the Local Boards 
 and of the Local Boards' expenditure. In 1882-83 each Local 
 Board received from Provincial varying amounts sufficient to 
 cover the difference between the Local income and Local expen- 
 diture. Each Board now receives from Provincial a fixed annual 
 contribution, plus or minus the amount of its closing balance, i.e., 
 of the surplus or deficit of the penultimate year. The balances 
 are taken in the accounts as lapsing to Provincial at the end of 
 the year, and are regranted as contributions. 
 
 170. The Local Funds, which are excluded from the general 
 Excluded Local Funds. accounts, are the following : 
 
 Section j. 
 Finance. 
 
 (1) Municipal Funds. 
 
 (2) Cantonment Funds. 
 
 (3) Town Funds. 
 (4j Williamson Educational En- 
 dowment Funds. 
 
 Of these, the first has been described in the preceding section, 
 and the last has also been mentioned above in paragraph 124. 
 
 X
 
 154 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Character of Land Tenures and System of Settlement 
 
 and Survey. 
 
 SE CTION 1.— LA ND TENURES. 
 
 Section i. 171. The Ordinary land tenures in Assam vary considerably in 
 Land r.. • • . , , ■ difl'erent parts of the province. Distinct 
 
 y. Division of the subject. ^ 
 
 ""'^^' systems of tenure are found in — 
 
 (1) Assam Proper, (3) Sylliet, 
 
 (2) Goalpara, (4) Cachar, 
 
 (5) the hill districts, 
 
 "while several varieties of special waste land tenures granted 
 by Government at different periods exist in all the plains dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 172- There are three main classes of ordinary tenure in 
 
 the Assam Valley exclusive of Goalpara, 
 
 A.smn Proper raiyai- ^iz., raiyatwdvi, nisf-Miivoj, 2iXidildkhiraj, The 
 
 wari, tenure. ' ./ ^ J y J' 
 
 original raiyatiodri tenure is of the simplest 
 character: the raiyat holds on annual or decennial lease from the 
 Government, being free to relinquish the whole or any part of his 
 holding or to take up new lands, provided that notice is given to 
 the revenue olFicers at the proper time of the year. In 1870 a set 
 of rules for the encouragement of ten-year (instead of annual) 
 leases was sanctioned by the Bengal Government, expressly 
 declaring that holdings so settled should be heritable and trans- 
 ferable, on condition of the transfer being registered in the Deputy 
 Commissioner's office, while holders on annual patfa were left 
 without any legal assurance on these points. The principle of these 
 rules was afterwards embodied in the Land and lievenue Regula- 
 tion of 1886, which confers a permanent, heritable, and transferable 
 right on persons holding land under a decennial lease, but recog-
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 1 55 
 
 nizes no rights beyond those expressed in the lease in the case of Se ction ' i. 
 annual tenants. The Eules of 1870 remained practically inopera- Land 
 tivft until 1883, when they were recast, and a general system of 
 ten-year settlements was introduced in all parts of the Assam Valley, 
 where the cultivation and occupation of land are of a permanent 
 character.* The large tracts of land, however, consisting chiefly 
 of the chaporl, or inundated tracts along the rivers, and the thinly- 
 peopled country under the hills, where only shifting cultivation is 
 practised, were left to the system of annual settlements, as the only 
 one adapted to their peculiar circumstances. In the five districts 
 of Assam Proper, the bulk of the more permanently cultivated land 
 is, therefore, now held under a ten-year settlement, during the 
 currency of which die raiyat is guaranteed against enhancement of 
 the revenue rates. He is at liberty to relinquish any portion of 
 his holding that consists of entire fields, and to take up new lands ; 
 while he will receive compensation from Government for any lands 
 taken up for a public purpose. The rest of the area, where a 
 fluctuating system of cultivation prevails, is resettled annually on 
 the basis of actual occupation ; and if dispossessed by Government 
 for a public purpose, the raiyat is only entitled to compensation for 
 the value of trees, houses, crops, &c., actually standing on the land 
 at the time of its resumption, but not to compensation for the land 
 itself. 
 
 173. Chamuas are said to have originated in the early days of 
 British administration, when raiyats sometimes 
 
 Chamuas a.ndkhirai-1-Juils. -, i • ■, c 
 
 made over their leases to some person 01 
 standing in the neighbourliood, and paid their revenue to him in 
 order to avoid the exactions of the inauzaddrs. An estate thus 
 formed was called a chamiia, and the chamuaddr was allowed the 
 privilege of paying direct into the Government treasury. The only 
 chamua still remaining is situated in the Barpeta subdivision. 
 
 There is one estate called a klidt in Kamriip and another in 
 
 * Although nominally decennial, all snch settlements are fixed so as to expire in the 
 same year, so that only those settlements which are made in the first year of the term are 
 actually made for ten years. All decennial leases now being issued will expire in the 
 year 1903, so that leases issued in 1893-94 will be for a term of ten years, those issued in 
 1894-95 for nine years, and so on. 
 
 X 2
 
 Tenures. 
 
 156 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. {C'CiSi^. IV. 
 
 Section i. Nowgong, while in Lakliimpur there are two khirdj-khat^. The 
 Lajtd owners of these estates, hke the chamuaddr of Barpeta, pay their 
 revenue direct into the Government treasury instead of through the 
 mauzaddr. Except for this privilege, there is nothing to distinguish 
 the holders of these tenures from ordinary raiyats. Their estates are 
 mostly cultivated by sub-tenants, who pay a grain rent of half the 
 produce of their fields {ddhyd), or, where cash is taken, the 
 Government rates, except in the more densely-peopled parts, where 
 land is specially valuable. Where the Government rates only are 
 paid, the landlord's profit consists in the command of his tenants' 
 services for supplies, carriage, and house-building, and for reaping 
 and harvesting his crops, and in such occasional contributions as 
 he is able to levy. 
 
 174. The history of the nisf-khirdi tenure in Assam is a curious 
 example of the manner in which rights in 
 
 Nisf-khirdi and lokhirdi in . • it -i , 
 
 estates. land are sometimes allowed to grow up. 
 
 Former rulers of the country had granted 
 certain lands rent free for religious and other purposes (that is, 
 had assigned to persons or institutions the Government right to 
 the revenue, then taken mostly in labour, of these lands). The 
 last Ahom ruler, however, Chandra Ivanta Singh, imposed on the 
 lands in question a tax called kliarikdtdna, of 6 annas a pura (a 
 measure of four bighas), which continued to be levied by the 
 Burmese invaders after their conquest of the country. When Assam 
 became British by conquest, all these grants were held to have 
 lapsed ; but Mr. Scott retained the moderate assessment which he 
 found in force upon them, adding later on 2 annas a pui^a, so that 
 the whole assessment came, as left by him, to 8 annas a pura. In 
 1834 the Government directed that a full enquiry should be made 
 into all claims to hold land rent free, as debottar, dharmottar, or on 
 any other plea, throughout the districts of Assam. Captain Bogle 
 was appointed to make this enquiry, subject to the control and orders 
 of the Commissioner, Captain Jenkins. Another officer, Captain 
 Matthie, was also similarly employed. At the same time the 
 following principles were laid down for the guidance of these officers : 
 (1) All rights to hold land free of assessment founded on grants
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 157 
 
 by any former Government were to be considered as cancelled ; Section i, 
 
 and it was pointed out that all claims for restoration to any Umd 
 
 such tenures could rest only on the indulgence of Govern- ^^'"^^«-^- 
 ment. 
 
 (2) All lands found to be held in excess of what was held and 
 possessed on Z^o?i(2 yic/e grants prior to the Burmese conquest, or 
 for services still performed, as well as all lands held for services 
 no longer performed, w^ere to be assessed at full rates. 
 
 (3) All lands held on bona fide grants before the Burmese 
 conquest, or for services still performed, were to be reported to 
 Government ; on receipt of the report, special orders would be 
 issued on each case. 
 
 (4) Captain Jenkins might in his discretion suspend the orders 
 for bringing any particular land on full rates ; but he was to 
 submit his reasons for the consideration of Government. 
 
 (5) Pending the lakhiraj enquiry, Mr. Scott's moderate rates 
 were to be levied as before on all lands claimed as lakhiraj 
 (whether as dehottar, brahmottar, dharmottar, or on whatever plea) 
 until brought under assessment at full rates, or until orders to the 
 contrary were received from Government. 
 
 The work was commenced in 1834, but was not concluded till 
 1860, and in the lapse of time these orders were altogether forgotten. 
 Instead of referring the cases which came before him for the orders 
 of Government, General Jenkins dealt with them in a manner 
 which was not authorised by his instructions. He drew a distinc- 
 tion between dehottar, or temple lands, and other grants, such as 
 brahmottar (personal grants to Brahmans for religious service), 
 dharmottar (grants to religious communities other than temples, or 
 for pious uses), &c. In the case of the first, when he found the 
 grants to be bond fide and valid, he confirmed them as revenue free, 
 without, as he was ordered, referring the case to superior authority. 
 In all other cases oihond Rde and valid grants, he simply confirmed 
 the grantee in possession, and directed that, as ordered in his in- 
 structions, the land should be assessed as before, i.e., at Mr. Scott's 
 favourable rates of 8 annas a pM?^a, pending the Qnal orders of
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section- I. Government on the ^Yllole question. Where the hxnd held was not 
 Ta'^d found to be lield under a bond fide and vahd grant, it was resumed 
 Tenures. ^^^^ settled at full rates, which in those days were Ee. 1 a jmra. 
 But no reference was ever made to Government on the conclusion of 
 the proceedings ; and thus until 1861, when the revenue rates 
 were raised throughout Assam, the second class of lands continued 
 to be assessed at rates which, though this was not expressly in- 
 tended, were, as a matter of fact, half the rates prevailing for 
 other lands. 
 
 The question what was to be done with these lands was not 
 again stirred till 1372, when a long correspondence began, which 
 was not finally closed till 1879. It was considered by the Govern- 
 ment of India that the grantees having so long been suffered to 
 hold at half rates, it would not be judicious to make any alteration 
 in their status ; and so General Jenkins' unauthorised action was 
 condoned. These half-rate holders were at that time called, 
 equally with the revenue-free holders, Idkhirdjddrs. The term 
 nisf-khirdjddr was adopted in 1871, as a more accurate de- 
 scription of their status as landholders liable to be assessed at only 
 half the current rates of revenue, whatever these may happen to 
 be. 
 
 A nisf-hhirdjddr enjo3"s the further privilege of paying for the 
 waste land of his estate onl}^ one-eighth of the rate assessed on 
 ordinary rwpit land in the neighbourhood. Nisf-kliirdj estates 
 generally are settled for a term of ten years throughout the Brah- 
 maputra Valley. 
 
 Three-fourths of the total number of nisf-hhivdj estates are 
 situated in the district of Kamrup and date from the last period of 
 Ahom rule, when the seat of Government had been transferred from 
 GarhgaoD to Gauhdti, and the Ahom kings gave away lands whole- 
 sale with all the zeal of recent converts to Hinduism. The Idkldrdj 
 or dehottar grants, on the other hand, are usually of older date, the 
 most ancient being ascribed to kings Dharmapal and Vanamdla, 
 who are said to have reigned between 1100 and 1200 A.D. 
 
 These estates are, like the chamuas and khirdj-Ichdts already 
 mentioned, ordinarily cultivated by sub-tenants, who, when their
 
 Te mires. 
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 159 
 
 superior landlord is (as is generally the case) a religious institution, Sectiox i. 
 are known as paiks or hliakats of the temple or chaitra ; they usually Land 
 pay only the Government rates as rent, but are in addition bound 
 to do service for their, superior landlord. 
 
 175. The history of the permaijently-settled portion of Goalpara 
 ,, , has been eiven above (paragraphs 80 and 
 
 Goalpara. ^ . Vi o r 
 
 81). It consists of nineteen permanently- 
 settled estates and eight small temporarily-settled holdings. These 
 between them cover the whole district, excluding the Eastern Duars. 
 Twelve of the nineteen permanently-settled estates are those 
 of the border Chaudhuris described in paragraph 89. The remaining 
 seven consist of lands held originally revenue free on invalid titles? 
 which were resumed in consequence, and settled at :\,jama fixed in 
 perpetuity. The eight temporarily-settled estates include five chars, 
 which are farmed yearly to the highest bidder. Of the remaining 
 three, two are resumed Idkhiraj, and the third was acquired by 
 Government as a free gift from the zemindar. 
 
 176. The Eastern Duars comprise five separate tracts, viz., 
 
 ^ , Biini, Sidli, Chirano', Eiplm, and Guma. The 
 
 Eastern Duars. ox 
 
 last three are the sole property of Government, 
 and are managed on the same system as the raiyaticdri tracts of 
 Assam Proper, the only difference being that cultivation is entirely 
 on annual leases, and that the revenue rates are lower than those 
 prevailing in Assam. Bijni and Sidli, with the exception of tli3 
 submontane forests wdiich have been excluded from them and 
 brought under conservancy, are the estates of the Etijas of the 
 same names. But they are at present managed by Government on 
 the same terms as the remaining three Duars, a fixed percentage of 
 the revenue realised being paid over to the zemindars. 
 
 177- The land tenures in the district of Sylliet (excluding 
 
 Jaintia, which was not annexed to the district 
 
 SylLet. . ' 
 
 until 1835) present a remarkable contrast to 
 those of all the districts of permanently-settled Bengal except 
 Chittagong. In no other district was the permanent-settlement 
 preceded, as in these, by a survey ; in no other district were the 
 zemindars passed over at that settlement in favour of the superior
 
 l6o ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section- i. raiyats or middlemen called mirasdars or taluqddrs* (c/. the Cliitta- 
 2^ goni? tarafdars). The consequence of the survey is that all lands 
 Tenures. ^^i^\^\y^ the Surveyed portion of the district which were not settled 
 in 1791-92, the date of the decennial settlement, and have not 
 since been specially settled in perpetuity, are the property of 
 Government and held under temporary settlement. The result of 
 the settlement having been made with a large number of middle- 
 men is that while in the districts of permaneutly-settled Bengal 
 estates are counted by tens or hundreds, in Sylhet they are counted 
 by thousands, and the individual revenue of each estate is generally 
 very small. Of 49,946 permanently-settled estates at the close of 
 the 3'ears 1892-93, only 469 paid a revenue of over Es. 100, and 
 20,621 paid under one rupee. Thus, Sylhet is distinguished (1) by 
 the large proportion of its area which is not permanently settled, and 
 (2) by the extremely small payments of revenue due from individual 
 estates, which make the collection (in the absence of ynufassal 
 revenue establishments, entertained nowhere in permanently-settled 
 districts) a peculiarly difficult and complicated task. 
 
 178. The permanently-settled tenures of Sylhet are all held on 
 the same conditions, but have received the 
 
 Permanently-s ettled . ^ ^ . . . 
 
 tenures. nani8s given below with reterence to their 
 
 revenue history : 
 
 (1) Dassana, estates included in the decennial settlement of 
 1791-92, which in 1793 became permanent ; in 1892-93 these 
 numbered 25,967, and paid a revenue of Es. 3,16,838. 
 
 (2) Bdzyajti Ddimi, lands resumed by the Special Commis- 
 sioner appointed under Eegulation III of 1828, and then permanently 
 settled. Number 23,028 ; revenue Es. 39,605. Of these, 33 estates 
 paying a revenue of Es. 402 are in the Jaintia parganas. 
 
 (3) Ildin lands settled permanently (see below under tempora- 
 rily-settled estates). Number 9 ; revenue Es. 26. 
 
 ** The above statement docs not apply to (1) parganas Taraf, Bamai, and Putijiiri, 
 forniing zila Laskarpur in the Ilabiganj subdivision, whicli were transferred to Sylhet 
 from the Dacca and Mymensingh districts after the assessment for the decennial settle- 
 ment had been effected and (2) certain parganas in the Sunumganj subdivision which 
 could not be surveyed on account of difficulties with the Khasis. In other parts of Sylhet 
 also, the settlement was occasionally made with the zemindars, and not with the raiyats.
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. idl 
 
 ^4) Khds Ddimi, permanently-settled estates purchased by Section i. 
 Government at sales for arrears of revenue and sold again as Land 
 permanently-settled. Number 4.'^5 ; revenue Rs. 5,782. 
 
 (5) Hdldbcidi. The term hdldhddi literally means "recently 
 cultivated, " but in Sylliet it is applied to all lands not included 
 in the decennial settlement of 1791-92. The so-called hdldbddi 
 (also known as dbddi or jawjal dbddi) pattas or sanads were 
 granted between the ^^ears 1791 and i8u7. They contained no 
 express limitation of the term of settlement, and in 1869 were 
 held by Government to have been settlements in perpetuity. 
 Number of estates 474 ; revenue Es. 2,767. 
 
 (6) Khds hdldbddi, estates belonging to class (5) whi(ih, having 
 been bought in by Government at sales for arrears of revenue 
 have been resettled permanently. Number 31 ; revenue Es. 1,337. 
 
 (7) Permanently -settled loaste land grants. The proprietors of 
 three hdldbddi estates paying a revenue of Es. 9-5-3 claimed a large 
 tract in the Eaghunandan hills. Their claims were compromised 
 by the grant in perjDctuity of two estates covering an area of 1,659 
 acres and paying a revenue of Es. 9-6-0. 
 
 (8) Dhali Miijrai, mahdls exempted from assessment on 
 condition of the holders furnishing dhali servants for the Sylhet 
 Collectorate. At present two such servants are furnished. There 
 are 41 such estates in Sylhet, covering an area of 377 acres. 
 
 179. The temporarily-settled estates of Sylhet Proper are also 
 rn ., .~^ A known under different names, but by far the 
 
 Temporanly-s e 1 1 1 e d ' -J 
 
 tenures. most extcusive class is that called ildm. In 
 
 consequence of the success met with in Behar in bringing under 
 assessment land not included in the decennial settlement which 
 afterwards became permanent, the pargana pdtwdris were, in 
 1802, directed to prepare and submit schedules of lands in their 
 respective parganas, which had not been included in that 
 settlement. On receipt of these schedules, the Collector issued 
 proclamations {ildms) inviting claimants to any of the lands to 
 come forward ; but no one appeared to claim them. These lands 
 have thus acquired the name of ildm or proclaimed lands. During 
 the years 1829 to 1834, these ildm lands were surveyed, and in 
 
 V
 
 iSa ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. 1>^^ 
 
 Section i. jg^^^^ those that were found cultivated were settled with the occu- 
 Land pants if willinfT to engaf^e ; otherwise they were farmed. The term 
 
 Tenures. ^ o o o ' ^ ^ 
 
 of the first settlement was ten years for cultivated and fifteen years 
 for jungle lands, and it was subsequently renewed on its expiry for 
 successive further periods. In 18G9, a systematic survey was 
 commenced, and revised rules of settlement and a form of patta 
 were drawn out. These rules were again revised in 1875 and 
 modified in 1876. The resettlement commenced in 1871, and was 
 practically concluded in 1881. On resettlement, all waste lands in 
 excess of one-fifth of the cultivated area of an estate were, as a 
 rule, excluded from the settlement. In order to protect the rights of 
 Government in these excluded lands, and to prevent encroachment 
 by the neighbouring permanent settlement-holders, a special form of 
 farming lease was sanctioned in 1889, Holders of these leases have 
 no right to resettlement. Holders of ilcim pattas, on the other 
 hand, have a permanent and heritable right of occupancy subject to 
 payment of the revenue assessed and to acceptance of the terms of 
 settlement. But, as the proprietary right vests in Government, 
 they have no title to mdlikdna if they refuse to engage. The last 
 settlement of ildm lands in zilas Parkul and Latu, which expired 
 on 31st March 1893, has been extended for one year. The settle- 
 ment in the rest of the district will expire on different dates 
 between 1st April 1894 and 31st March 1896. There are 3,262 
 ildm estates, with a total area of 97,571 acres.* 
 
 So much of the ildm area as was not included in the settlement 
 of 1835 and subsequent years has been entered in the waste land 
 register as waste at the disposal of Government ; much of it has 
 been taken up by tea planters on the tenures to be described in the 
 next section. 
 
 The rest of the temporarily-settled area in Sylhet falls apart 
 into two divisions : first, the small tenures settled on the same prin- 
 ciple as ildm lands, but different in their origin ; and, secondly, the 
 areas held kltds by Government, in which, instead of makinir over 
 definitely the use and occupancy of the land to a settlement-holder 
 
 ■* Exclusive of ildm lands in parganas Pratabgarli and Egarasati, whicli have been 
 cadaatrally surveyed.
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENTTEES^ ^TTIEMENT, StTRVET. 1 63 
 
 who may eventually become a middleman, the Government has re- Section i. 
 tained the management in its own hands, and deals directly with the Land 
 cultivators. The first class consists of 2,428 mahdls covering an area 
 of 24,214 acres, and technically known by the following names: 
 
 (1) Ncinkdr patwdrigari. — Lands formerly held by the pargana 
 pdtwdris as ndnkdr, i.e., in lieu of salary. The pdtwdris were 
 abohshed in 1833, and the lands were ordered to be assessed in 1835. 
 
 (2) Char-bhardt. — Alluvial accretions, which in Sylhet all belong 
 to the State. 
 
 (3) Bil-hhardt. — The silted-up beds of hils, which were excluded 
 from the permanent settlement because they were then useless. 
 
 (4) Izdd. — Surplus lands discovered after the permanent 
 settlement (but not formally proclaimed as the ildm lands were), 
 and thus not included in it. 
 
 (5) Resumed revenue- free land. — Resumed because found to be 
 held on invalid titles. 
 
 (6) Khds. — ^The khds lands in Sylhet are, for the most part, 
 originally ildm estates, the settlement of which has for various 
 reasons broken down ; in some the holders as a body refused to 
 accept resettlement with joint responsibility ; in some, Government 
 has bought in the estate at sales for arrears of revenue ; in some 
 the settlement has been cancelled for default inpayment of revenue. 
 These estates are, for the most part, situated in the Karimganj 
 subdivision of the Sylhet district, which contains a large area of 
 waste land stretching south to the Tippera Hills. They are 
 managed by the tahsilddrs of the Pratabgarh and Hakaluki 
 tahsils upon principles in general similar to the raiyatwdri settle- 
 ment of Assam Proper. Certain fixed rates are' laid down, and 
 raiyats are free to take up land when they please at those rates, 
 after application to the tahsilddr. The Mas lands in the Pratdb- 
 garh tahsil have been cadastrally surveyed. 
 
 In addition to the above, the term ''khds''' includes- also petty 
 permanently-settled estates of httle value, bought in by Govern- 
 ment at sales for arrears of revenue and not resettled' in perpetuity. 
 
 A full account of the last settlement of the estates in classes (1) 
 to (5) and of the petty estates in class (6) will be found- in
 
 164 ASSAM AD^IINISTRATION REPORT. Chap. IV. 
 
 S«cTio;j I. paragraph 51 of the Administration Eeport for 1880-81. This 
 Land settlement will expire in 190G-7. 
 
 180. The Jaintia parganas have, since they first came under 
 
 , . ,. British rule, been temporarily settled.* The 
 
 Jaintia parganas. 5 r j 
 
 first rej?ular settlement was made in 1838-40, 
 when the tract was professionally surveyed and measured. It was 
 made for a term of five years, at the end of which it was further 
 extended for ten years, and then again extended, so that the 
 settlement of the whole area expired in 185G. In that year the 
 whole of Jaintia was resettled, without remeasurement, for twenty 
 years. This settlement expired in 1876, when a nev/ settlement was 
 begun, which, owing to errors in the classification and assessment of 
 land, was not finally completed until 1882. The term of settlement 
 will expire in 1894, and resettlement operations are no^ in pro- 
 gress, the tract having been cadastrally surveyed for this purpose*. 
 
 181, Besides these permanently and temporarily settled 
 
 estates in Sylhet, there are, as in other 
 
 Ld^^/ra; estates. . ti 7,77. ,• r. 
 
 districts, valid iakliira] or revenue-iree estates* 
 There are in all 11,489 revenue-free estates, with an area of 41,914 
 acres, including — 
 
 (1) 178 grants, which were declared valid after resumption 
 proceedings under Eegulations II of 1819 and III of 1828. 
 
 (2) 6,345 petty grants, mostly under 10 bighas in area, which 
 were exempted from assessment under order of the Bengal Govern- 
 ment in 1841. 
 
 (3) Kasha Sylhet. — These estates are nominally all less than 10 
 bighas in extent, but many, as a matter of fact, greatly exceed 
 this area. This anomaly probably originated through fraud, but 
 it is hard, if not impossible, to rectify it now. Eesumption 
 proceedings were initiated many years ago, but the cases were 
 struck off for no apparent reason. The number of these estates 
 has been returned as 2,554, with an area of 4,560 acres. f 
 
 ° With the exception of 33 permanently-settled and 29 revenue-free estates. The 
 former consist of lands claimed as revenue-free, but resumed by the Special Commissicmer 
 appointed under Regulation III of 1828 and subsequently permanently settled. 
 
 f These figures, wliich are taken from a chitha drawn up by a former Collector for the 
 pyrpose of aaeeesing chaukidiri tax, are only approximate.
 
 Chap. IV.] i^AND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, STJRYEY. l6^ 
 
 (4) 2,412 redeemed estates, consisting of ildm estates paying Se ction i. 
 a revenue of Ee. 1 and under, which were sold at auction revenue Land 
 
 16)1 TiY&S 
 
 free and other estates redeemed on payment of twenty or twenty- 
 five times the annual revenue. 
 
 182. In the plains portion of Cachar there is, excluding the 
 
 Cachar. 
 
 waste land grants, but one form of revenue- 
 
 paying tenure, that known as mirdsddri. 
 The peculiarity of the system as found in this district is that joint 
 responsibility for the revenue prevails among all the holders of 
 a mahdl, who are usually numerous. In this district, on the 
 margin of cultivation and settlement, it has been the custom from 
 the days of the native rulers to the present time for bodies of 
 cultivators, often consisting of persons of quite different castes, 
 and even of combinations of Hindus, Musalmans, and hillmen, to 
 join together in a coparcenary body in obtaining the settlement 
 of new land. The Government deals with them as a single holder, 
 and they arrange among themselves the distribution of the revenue 
 payable, the joint responsibility, however, remaining. This system 
 is a curious survival of primitive conditions which is now tending 
 to break up, though division of responsibility is not yet formally 
 recognised in Cachar. Whether in long-settled mahdls, or in new 
 allotments of waste (the latter being known as jVm^a/^z^n grants 
 and given on a progressive assessment), the niirdsddri tenure is, 
 in face of Government, the same. The cultivators have a perma- 
 nent, heritable, and transferable right of use and occupancy of the 
 land, subject to payment of the revenue assessed and to acceptance 
 of the terms of settlement. The settlement of Cachar, like that of 
 the temporarily-settled lands in Sylhet, is for a term of years. The 
 existing settlement, which is for a term of fifteen years, will expire 
 on the 31st March 1898.* 
 
 There are a few Idkhirdj or revenue free estates in Cachar, 
 being the grants held by dependents of the old royal family, or 
 dating from the time of native rule. These are known as bakhsha 
 
 •* The Jangalburi Rules have since been be repealed, so far as futui'e applications for 
 land are concerned, by settlement rules framed for the Surma Valley under sections 12 
 and 29 of the Land and Revenue Regulation. The diaft of these rules does not provide 
 for the settlement of waste land at progressive rates,
 
 l66 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section i. j^^^^jg^ ^^(j ^j-g revenue-free only so long as they remain in posses- 
 Land gJQ^ ^f the grantee and his heirs ; when alienated, they are liable 
 
 Tenures. ^ 
 
 to assessment like other mirdsddri lands. 
 
 183. In the hill districts there is no land , revenue settlement 
 properly so called, except in a few isolated 
 I lb nc p. tracts. The strip of plains land which en- 
 
 closes the Gdro Hills on three sides is managed on the system of 
 settlement which obtains in Assam Proper, save in one portion, 
 where the zemindars of Mechpdra hold certain land as part of their 
 permanently-settled estates, and manage it themselves. The terms 
 of tenure are similar to those of the annual pa ^^a -holders of Assam. 
 In the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, a class of land known as rajhdli, in 
 the Jaintia Hills subdivision, has since the year 1886 been assessed 
 to land revenue under special rules, the rate charged being 10 annas 
 per bigha. In the Naga Hills district there is also some land in 
 the Nambar forest, which is held on annual joaiia. In the rest of 
 these districts Government does not assess the land, but the houses. 
 Each village, however, in the Garo, Khdsi and Jaintia, and Naga 
 Hills has its own known lands, in which rights of private owner- 
 ship' are recognised to a degree which seems surprising in so 
 primitive a state of society. The system of cultivation by ^/A^m, 
 which prevails throughout the greater part of this area, demands 
 lonc' periods of rest during which the land becomes reclothed 
 with forest; and it is often difficult to believe that what 
 seems an uncared-for wilderness is really the jealously-guarded 
 private property of a clan, family, or village. But the case is so ; 
 and no quarrels have been more enduring or more bitter among 
 these people than those relating to land. The customs of land 
 tenure among these primitive races are often strangely complicated 
 and full of interest ; but they have as yet been insufficiently 
 explored, and it is impossible to describe them at length here. The 
 practice of tidxing houses, instead of assessing the land, prevails 
 also in certain remote parts of the plains districts, such as- the 
 North Cachar subdivision and the Mikir Hills in Nowgong, while 
 from the Miris in Lakhimpur and the Tipperas in Sylhet a 
 poll-tax is collected in lieu of.land.revenue.
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SUIIVET. 167 
 
 SECTION 2.— IF AST E LAND TENURES. 
 
 184. In a province like Assam, thinly peopled and sparsely Section 2. 
 cultivated, with a boundless extent of waste, Waste Land 
 o/3e knd if AsSr.*' inviting new settlers, the terms upon which 
 
 land is allotted for extension of cultivation 
 have always naturally been a subject of much consideration. The 
 discovery of indigenous tea in Assam and of the possibility of 
 growing this important staple on a large scale in the plains 
 portion of the province, has given a special impetus to the taking 
 up of waste, and the various rules which have from time to time 
 been issued have generally had the extension of tea cultivation in 
 view. 
 
 165. It is not intended in this section to deal with the ordinary 
 
 tenures, common to all revenue-paying lands 
 
 Waste taken up on or- |^ ^j^g district, on which land under tea, like 
 
 dinary tenures. ' 
 
 that under any other crop, may be held. 
 There is a considerable extent of land in Assam Proper, amounting 
 at present to 86,382 acres, held by planters under the ordinary 
 raiyatwdri leases described above, the greater part of which is 
 under tea, and in Cachar the mirdsddri tenure is the favourite form 
 in which land is now taken up for tea cultivation. The jangatburi 
 or reclamation lease in this district, which is allotted to any ap- 
 plicant whose appropriation of the land will not prejudicially affect 
 existing rights, gives a lease at favourable rates for twenty years, 
 for the first two years of which the land is revenue free, for the 
 next four it is assessed at 3 annas an acre, for the next four at 6 
 annas, and for the remaining ten at 12 annas, after which the land 
 is assessable at the ordinary district rates for lands of similar 
 description. 
 
 186. ITie following is an account of the special terms under 
 
 „ . , which waste land grants are held from Govern- 
 
 ment in the various districts of the province* 
 
 Only one of these systems, ^;^V., the Thirty-years' Lease Rules, is 
 
 now actually in force for new applications ; but grants made under
 
 i68 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section 2. all of tlie prior rules actually exist, and are governed by the con- 
 Waste Land ditions in force at tlie time when they were given. 
 
 I. The first special grant rules were those of the Gth March 
 • 1808, and related to Assam Proper only. No grant was to be 
 
 made of a less extent than 100 acres, or of a greater extent than 
 10,000 acres. One-fourth of the entire area was to be under 
 cultivation by the expiration of the fifth year from the date of 
 grant, on failure of which the whole grant washable to resumption. 
 One -fourth of the grant was to be held in perpetuity revenue free. 
 On the remaining three-fourths no revenue was to be assessed for the 
 first five years if the land was under grass, ten years if under reeds 
 and high grass, and twenty 3^ears if under forest ; at the expiry of 
 this term, revenue was to be assessed at 9 annas per acre for the 
 next three years, after which the rate was to be for twenty-two 
 years Ee. 1-2 an acre. At the close of this period (the thirtieth 
 year in the case of grants of grass lands, thirty-fifth in the case of 
 reed lands, and forty-fifth in the case of forest lands), the three- 
 fourths liable to assessment were to be assessed, at the option of 
 the grantee, either at the market value of one-fourth of the 
 produce of the land, or at the average rate of revenue paid by 
 rice lands in the district where the grant was situated ; the revenue 
 was thereafter to be adjusted in the same manner at the end of 
 every term of twenty-one years. 
 
 Very few grants under these rules still exist. There are now 
 only two in Kamriip and sixteen in Sibsagar, with a total area of 
 5,533 acres. 
 
 II. The next rules were those for leasehold grants of the 23rd 
 October 1854, commonly called the Old Assam Eules. Under 
 these rules, no grant was to be less than 500 acres in extent 
 (afterwards reduced to 200 acres, or even 100 acres in special 
 cases). One-fourth of the grant was exempted from assessment in 
 perpetuity, and the remaining three-fourths were granted revenue- 
 free for fifteen years, to be assessed thereafter at 3 annas an acre 
 for ten years, and at G annas an acre for seventy-four years more, 
 making a whole term of ninety-nine years ; after which the grant 
 Was to be subject to resurvey and settlement " at such moderate
 
 Chap. IV.] lAKD TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 169 
 
 assessment as might seem proper to tlie Government of the day Sk ctiqn 2. 
 the proprietary right remaining with the grantee's representatives W^^^^ Land 
 under the conditions generally ajDplicable to the owners of the 
 estates not permanently-settled." One-eighth of the grant was to be 
 cleared and rendered fit for cultivation in five years, one-fourth 
 in ten years, one-half in twenty years, and three-fourths by the 
 expiration of the tiiirtieth year ; and the entire grant was declared 
 to be liable to resumption in case of the non-fulfilment of these 
 ^conditions. The grants were transferable, subject to registration of 
 transfer in the Deputy Commissioner's office. These rules were 
 extended to Sylhet and Cachar in 1856, and were in force until 
 1861, when they were superseded by rules for grants in fee-simple, 
 which at the same time allowed holders of leasehold grants under 
 the prior rules to redeem their revenue payments, on condition 
 that the stipulated area had been duly cleared, at twenty years' 
 purchase of the revenue at the time payable. This permission is still 
 in force, and has been largely taken advantage of. Two hundred and 
 seventy-one grants, with an area of 238,206 acres, have thus been 
 redeemed, and 36 grants, with an area of 35,451 acres (most of 
 which are in Cachar), remain upon the original terms. 
 
 III. To these succeeded a new policy, that of disposing of land 
 in fee-simple. The first fee-simple rules were those issued by Lord 
 Canning in October 1861. The Secretary of State took objection 
 to some of their provisions, and a fresh set of rules was issued on 
 the 30th August 1862. The rules issued by Lord Canning provided 
 for the disposal of the land to the applicant at fixed rates, rangincp 
 •from Es. 2-8 to Es. 5 per acre. The rules of August 1862 
 provided that the lot should be put up to auction. Grants were 
 to be limited, except under special circumstances, to an area of 
 3,000 acres. In each case the grant was ordinarily to be compact, 
 including no more than one tract of land in a ring fence. The upset 
 price was to be not less than Es. 2-8 an acre, and in exceptional 
 localities it might be as high as Rs. 10. Provision was made for 
 the survey of lands previous to sale, and for the demarcation of 
 proper boundaries where applicants for unsurveyed lands were 
 for special reasons, put in possession prior to survey, and also for 
 
 55
 
 jyo assa:m administratiox report. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section 2. ^]^q protection of proprietary or occupancy rights in the kinds 
 Waste land apphed for. The purcliase-mone}^ was to he paid either at once or 
 by instahnents. In the latter case, a portion of the purchase-money, 
 not less than 10 per cent., was to be paid at the time of sale, and 
 the balance within ten years of that date, with interest at 10 per 
 cent, per annum on the portion remaining unpaid. Default of 
 payment of interest or purchase-money rendered the grant liable 
 to re-sale. 
 
 These rules were in force till August 1872, when the Lieutenant 
 Governor of Bengal stopped further grants under them, pending 
 revision of the rules. 
 
 IV. Eevised fee-simple rules were issued in February 1874 
 just before the constitution of the province as a separate Adminis- 
 tration, which raised the upset price of land sold to Es. 8 per acre, 
 and made more careful provision for accurate identification of the 
 land, and for consideration of existing rights and claims, before its 
 disposal. These rules continued in force till April 1876. 
 
 There now exist in the province 319 fee-simple grants (exclud- 
 ing redeemed leasehold grants already mentioned), covering an 
 area of 192,734 acres. 
 
 V. The existing special rules under which applications for waste 
 land for the cultivation of tea, coffee, or timber trees are dealt with, 
 were originally issued in April 1876, and were revised and re-issued 
 under sections 12 and 29 of the Land and Kevenue Eegulation in 
 1887. The land is leased (for thirty years) at progressive rates, 
 and the lease is put up for auction sale, but only among applicants 
 prior to its advertisement in the Gazette^ at an upset price of Ee. 1 
 per acre, under the provisions of Act XXIII of 1SG3. The 
 progressive rates are as follows : 
 
 For the first two years ... ... revenue free. 
 
 „ next four „ ... ... 3 annas an acre. 
 
 » » four „ ... ... 6 „ „ 
 
 „ „ ten „ ... ... o „ „ 
 
 „ „ ten „ ... ... 1 rupee „ 
 
 After the expiration of the last mentioned term, the land is to 
 be assessed under the laws in force, " provided that no portion of
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SUHVEY. 1^! 
 
 the said land shall at an}^ time be assessed at a rate higher than Section a. 
 that then pa3^able on the most highly-assessed lands in the said Wasteland 
 district, cultiva.ed with rice, pulses, or other ordinary agricul- ««"^«*- 
 tural produce," The grantee is required to pay the revenue 
 punctually on the due date ; to devote the land only to the 
 special crops for cultivating which it is granted ; to personally 
 reside in the district, or have an agent residing there ; to 
 erect, and maintain in repair, proper boundary marks ; not 
 voluntarily to alienate any portion of the land, unless the estate is 
 transferred as a whole ; and to give notice to the Deputy Commis- 
 sioner of all such transfers. On breach of any of these conditions, 
 the concession of the favourable rates of assessment on which the 
 land is held is liable to be withdrawn, and the estate is liable to be 
 assessed at the ordinary district rates. There were altogether, at 
 the end of 1892-93, 645 estates, covering 244,011 acres, held on 
 this tenure in Assam. 
 
 Mention should here be made of a special tenure, compounded 
 of the lease under the rules of April 1876 and the terms on which 
 ildm land is held in the district, on which certain tea planters have 
 been allowed to hold land for tea in South Sylhet. When the ildm 
 resettlement was in progress in this district, it was found that several 
 planters had recently acquired considerable areas of waste land 
 held under ikbn pattas. One of the rules of the ildm settlement was 
 that waste land within the boundaries of the ijatta which exceeded 
 the proportion of one-fifth of the cultivated area should be cut off 
 and resumed by Government. But it was precisely in order to 
 obtain this waste land that tea planters had acquired the ildm 
 pattas. A compromise was, therefore, made in 1879. The. land 
 already under tea was assessed at Re. 1-8 per acre ; of the waste, 
 an area equal to one-fifth of the cultivated area was allowed at 8 
 annas an acre ; and the rest was permitted to be held on the terms 
 and at the rates specified in the waste land rules of 1876. There 
 are 61 such estates in Sylhet, with an area of 2G,317 acres. 
 
 From the above summ-ary it will be seen that from 1838 to 
 1861 the principle on which waste lands were granted for tea 
 cultivation was that they should be held on a leasehold tenure for
 
 172 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Se ction 3. \ong terms at low rates of assessment, the cultivation of the land 
 ■System of heiug secured by stringent conditions as to clearance; from 1S61 
 
 Survey and -in-z^i t t tic p t 
 
 Settlement, to lb<D the policj was to alienate land tree ol revenue demand, 
 and without any clearance conditions ; while from 1876 to date 
 the principle of leases has again been reverted to, but this time 
 without any special stipnlations as to the area to be brought under 
 cultivation within the term of lease. The total area held on these 
 special terms for tea cultivation in the province is no less than 
 992,598 acres, or 1,550*93 square miles. 
 
 SECTION 3.— SYSTEM OF SURVEY AND SETTLEMENT. 
 
 187. The nature of the raiyatwdri tenure in the Assam Valley 
 
 has already been described. Estates held 
 Settlements in Assam ^^^ annual lease are resettled every year. 
 
 Proper. -^ '' ' 
 
 while the ten-year settlements undergo no 
 alteration during the length of their term, save such as may be 
 caused by the raiyat's relinquishing some fields of his holding, and 
 such relinquishments are naturally less common in decennially- 
 settled lands, where the nature of the cultivation affords some 
 guarantee of permanence, than in those tracts where the system of 
 annual settlements continues to prevail. In either case settlement 
 is preceded by measurement, which, like the assessment, is effected 
 by the tahsildar or mauzadar with the help of his subordinate 
 officials, called mandals. The position and duties of these officers 
 have already been prescribed {ante., paragraph 109). A mauza is, 
 as already explained, a defined revenue circle averaging 11 "589 
 square miles (though the area varies exceedingly in different parts 
 of the same district), while a mandal's charge averages nearly 20 
 square miles of gross area. These figures include unoccupied waste, 
 of which most parts of the valley contain an enormous extent, 
 and waste land grants, with which a mauzadar has nothing to do. 
 Excluding these, the average assessed area under a mauzadar is 
 about 7,023 acres, and that in charge of a mandal about 1,986 acres. 
 
 188. The old system of making these measurements was by 
 
 measuring up the four sides of the field with 
 a 30 -foot chain and multiplying together the
 
 Chap. IV.j LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 1 7;^ 
 
 mean lens^tli and breadth tlius ascertained. The result of this Section 3. 
 method was usually to give areas in excess of the reality, but this System of 
 tendency was more than compensated by the omission to measure settUment. 
 up the gradual extensions of cultivation which take place on the 
 edges of waste. This system is still followed in tracts which have 
 not yet come under survey ; but whenever the land has been 
 cadastrally surveyed, its place has been taken by a regular survey. 
 All new fields are connected with permanent points (prisms, theo- 
 dolite stations, and the like), and are carefully plotted on the 
 village map, old and permanent cultivation being distinguished 
 from lands newly taken up by the use of different coloured lines. 
 In all cases alike the area is recorded in terms of bighas, kdthas, ^ 
 B,ndilessas, a biglta (14,400 square feet) being equivalent to 5 kdthas 
 and 20 lessas. The registers in which the results of the measure- 
 ments are recorded are two in number, — a field register or jamd- 
 bandi, and a dag chit ha or revenue roll. The former shows the 
 number borne by each field in the mandal's circle, the raiyat's name, 
 the area and the class of soil ; in non-cadastral tracts the bounda- 
 ries and dimensions are also entered. The jamdbandi is a record 
 of the fields constituting each raiyat's holdings, their area, soil class, 
 and assessment. Separate dag chithas and jamdbandis are main- 
 tained for lands held on annual and lands held on decennial leases. 
 These measurements are made, and registers kept, by the mandals, 
 who answer to the pdtwdris of other parts of India, and of whom 
 there are usually three or four in a mauza. 
 
 189. In the five upper districts of the Brahmaputra Valley, the 
 soil is divided into three main classes,— bastL 
 rupit, R.nd.fai'ingdti. The first mentioned is the 
 land on which the raiyat's house stands, with the garden enclosure 
 around it ; rupit land is that on which the winter crop of trans- 
 planted rice (sail) is grown, as well as the low swampy lands 
 devoted to the cultivation of bao ; the term Jaringdti denotes the 
 higher and lighter soils which produce dhu or summer rice, sugar- 
 cane, mustard, oil- seeds, and other crops. 
 
 Until the present year, no attempt had ever been made to proceed 
 further in the direction of classification. Advantage has now been
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 class. 
 
 class. 
 
 Es. a. 
 
 Rs. a. 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 4 per biff ha. 
 
 1 
 
 12 „ 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 i 74 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section 3. taken of the expiry of the decennial leases to revise the assessment ; 
 System of and, while securing to Government its fair share of the increased 
 
 SettUment. ^^^^^"^^ of the produce, to introduce a more equitable system of clas- 
 sification. The main classes of soil already mentioned have each 
 been divided into three sub-classes, the revenue payable on each 
 being" as follows : 
 
 First 
 class. 
 
 Rs. n. 
 Ba8ti ... ... 2 
 
 Rnpit -.. ... 14 
 
 Farinffdti ... ... 10 
 
 The considerations taken into account in classifying land into 
 these sub-classes are the demand for land as shown by the density 
 of population and the proportion of settled to total area, etc., the 
 productiveness of the soil, and the facilities for disposing of the 
 crops-. Special rates have been sanctioned for lands held by tea 
 planters, and also for lands newly taken up. 
 
 In the Eastern Duurs no attempt has yet been made to go 
 beyond the old three-fold classification of biist', jiipit, mid fa ri)2gdti. 
 The rates current in that tract are basti and rupit 8 annas and 
 Jariiigati 4 annas per higha. 
 
 190. The settlement year begins on the 1st April, and the 
 
 tahsildar or mauzadar is responsible for see- 
 Settlement statement. . ,,,.,, , -r^ 
 
 mg that all his books are sent to the Deputy 
 
 Commissioner (or in subdivisions to the subdi visional officer) on 
 the date fixed by them (usually about July). The accuracy of the 
 assessments is checked in the Deputy Commissioner's office, and a 
 settlement statement is then prepared and submitted to the Com- 
 missioner for conhrmation. Each raiyat or occupier of the land 
 receives a patta for his holding, and executes a kabuliyat in 
 exchange, binding himself to pay the Grovernment revenue. The 
 pattas are issued under the signature of the Deputy Commissioner, 
 or subdivisional officer, or, in the case of tahsils, the tahsildar. 
 
 The settlement above described is called the main or regular 
 settlement of the year, and includes all lands taken up for cul- 
 tivation in the first half of the year to which it relates. A
 
 Chap. IV,] LAND I'ENUIIES, SETTLEltfENT, SURVEY. 1 75 
 
 supplementary settlement, however, is needed, in order to assess Section- 3. 
 the lands which are broken up for oil-seeds and pulses in Septem- System of 
 ber and October, when the floods subside. The measurements for slttUnient. 
 this purpose are conducted during the winter months ; the papers 
 of the dariabadi or supplementary settlement are filed before the 
 close of the financial year ; and the settlements are reported to the 
 Commissioner for confirmation in the same manner as the main 
 settlements concluded in the July preceding. In the following- 
 year these dariabadi lands come into the main settlement. 
 
 The revenue is paid in two instalments of three-fifths in 
 November and two-fifths in February ; but dariabadi lands, beino- 
 settled too late for the November instalment, pay the whole year's 
 revenue in a lump sum in February.* 
 
 191. In paragraph 188 reference has been made to the cadas- 
 tral survey. Prior to 1883, maps showing 
 
 Cadastral suivey. ,-, ^r r • i -n ti , • ^ 
 
 the cultivation m each village did not exist, 
 and the only record of the fields occupied by the raiyats was that 
 contained in the mandal's dag chillia and jauidbandi. It was then 
 decided, wherever practicable, to replace this inaccurate system by 
 the exact record of a regular survey, and with this object operations 
 were commenced by a professional survey party in November 
 1883. During the cold weather of 1883-84, 228 square miles were 
 cadastrally surveyed in Kamrup, and between that year and 1890- 
 91 the whole of the more permanent and densely cultivated tracts 
 in the five upper districts of the valley (consisting in all of 4^460 
 square miles) were brought under survey. As the survey 
 progressed, steps were taken to ensure the proper maintenance of 
 the maps and other records by increasing the number of Sub- 
 Deputy Collectors (there is now one of these officers in each sub- 
 division), who are held directly responsible for all survey and 
 settlement operations by appointing a new class of officers known as 
 supervisor kdnungos, whose duty it is to be constantly on the move» 
 checking the work done by the mandals and training those whose 
 knowledge is deficient ; and, lastly, by improving the status of the 
 
 * In certain maiizay, where tlie cultivation of mustard is considerable, the whole 
 revenue is paid in one instalment, on the 15ih February.
 
 176 
 
 ASSAM ADM^^^STRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. IV. 
 
 SECTION'S- mandals themselves. Formerly, the latter were all paid at a 
 Sylt^iof tuiiform rate of Rs. 6 per month ; now they are divided into three 
 %memni grades drawing Es. 12, Ks. 9 and Rs. 6 respectively, and promotion 
 to the higher grades is made directly dependent on their quali- 
 fications as surveyors. 
 
 The principal statistics connected with the cadastral survey 
 are set forth in the following statement : 
 
 
 V, 
 
 
 
 Cost. 
 
 
 3 
 
 I'ercentage of 
 increase 
 
 3 
 
 >. 
 
 t-t 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 73 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 "o 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 Locality suiveyod. 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 (O 
 
 C 0) 
 
 a 
 
 •^ P. 
 
 ce g 
 = 8 
 
 1 
 
 c '3 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 _o 
 '> 
 
 a 
 
 p. 
 
 
 g; 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 5H 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 H " 
 
 - 
 
 
 '-' 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 
 Bs. 
 
 Rs. a. 
 
 P- 
 
 Rs. 
 
 
 
 1883-84 .. 
 
 Nine mauzas in Kamrilp 
 
 i2S-19 
 
 1,13,635 
 
 497 15 
 
 9 
 
 6,005* 
 
 4-24 
 
 5-23 
 
 1884- 
 
 85' .. 
 
 Twenty-one ditto 
 
 478-57 
 
 1,61,229 
 
 336 14 
 
 4 
 
 8,347* 
 
 3-29 
 
 5-18 
 
 1885- 
 
 86 .. 
 
 Twenty-two ditto 
 
 468-51 
 
 1,30,46.- 
 
 278 7 
 
 6 
 
 13,307* 
 
 6-63 
 
 10-20 
 
 1886 
 
 87 .. 
 
 Thirty-six mauzas in Mangaldni . . 
 
 647-02 
 
 1.53,159 
 
 279 15 
 
 9 
 
 976t 
 
 0-39 
 
 0-04 
 
 1887 
 
 88 .. 
 
 Twenty-five ditto in Nowgong . . 
 
 586-59 
 
 1,42,981 
 
 243 12 
 
 
 
 29,523t 
 
 9-41 
 
 20-65 
 
 1888 
 
 89 .. 
 
 Thirty-two manzas in Sibsagar .. 
 
 656-9!) 
 
 1,48,-291 
 
 225 11 
 
 5 
 
 68,51(it 
 
 17-04 
 
 46-20 
 
 1889 
 
 -90 .. 
 
 Thirty two ditto 
 
 713--19 
 
 1,29,875 
 
 182 
 
 5 
 
 29,482t 
 
 12-69 
 
 22-70 
 
 1890-91 .. 
 
 Twenty-four mauzas in KiVmriip 
 and r.owgon-' and two mauzas 
 (in part) in Darrang (.^ince trans- 
 ferred to Nowgong; .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 781-00 
 
 1,24,999 
 
 160 
 
 9 
 
 tl8.152t 
 
 10'83 
 
 14-62 
 
 The main features brought out by this statement are the 
 annually decreasing cost of survey operations and the large 
 variations from year to year in the increase of revenue resulting 
 therefrom. Taken as a whole, the survey has produced a total 
 increase of revenue amounting to Rs. 1,74,301, which represents 
 7-94 per cent, on the original revenue and 15' 6 7 per cent, on 
 the cost of the operations. It must, however, be remembered that 
 
 * Calculated both on the Ichirui and the ninf-hhirdj areas. 
 
 + Calculated on /c//ira/ area only, as the mauzadars' figures for nisf-khirdj area are 
 not avaiUilile, and therefore the increase thereon cannot be ascertained. 
 
 + In calculating the increase, the area of live mauzas of Kainni]) (Barpeta) and one 
 tnauza of Nowgong have been excluded, as the niauzadars' figures for these areas 
 xe not available.
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 1 77 
 
 these fiizures do not take into account tlie normal increase in Section 3. 
 revenue that would in any case have taken place, nor the fact that Syste?n of 
 revised definitions of basti and rupit land, which were issued while slulem&rit. 
 the survey was in progress, would in any case have produced a 
 considerable ccain under the head of reclassification ; neither do 
 they allow for the increased cost of survey and settlement opera- 
 tions due to the necessity of maintaining the more elaborate system 
 which the survey has inaugurated. But, even after making allow- 
 ance for all this, it must be conceded that the operations have 
 proved a fair financial success ; and it must, moreover, be borne 
 in mind that the more powerful supervising staff now placed at the 
 disposal of district officers, together with the increased facilities for 
 checking afforded by the survey maps, will be of permanent 
 benefit to the revenue by making it almost impossible for concealed 
 cultivation to exist in the area over which the survey has extended. 
 
 The work of the professional party has now come to an end, 
 as no tracts remain of sufficient extent and cultivation to render 
 it profitable to carry out their survey through this expensive 
 agency. Bat it has been the steady policy of Government 
 throughout the course of the survey to employ as many mandals 
 as possible as amins, and thereby to secure a trained staff in every 
 district ; and it is now intended to utilise the services of these men 
 for the gradual extension of the surveyed area wherever there is 
 sufficient cultivation to render this course desirable. Small areas 
 will be selected annually in each district for survey by trained 
 mandals from adjacent mauzas, under the supervision of the Sub- 
 Deputy Collector and the supervisor kdnungo of the circle ; and by 
 these means, in course of time, the whole of the cultivated area in 
 the Brahmaputra Valley will be brought under cadastral survey.* 
 
 192. In Sylhet the temporarily-settled portions, as already 
 g ,, explained, consist of the Jaintia parganas and 
 
 the ildm and other miscellaneous mahdls not 
 included in the permanent settlement. 
 
 * The practicability of this scheme has been proved by an experimental survey at 
 Barpeta, where 111 square miles were surveyed by the ordinary revenue s'aff al a total 
 cost of Rs. 50-45 per square mile. 
 
 2 A
 
 lyS ASSA3I ADMINISTRATION EEPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section- 3. 193. The history of the Jaintia settlement has already been 
 System of ^. . i)artlv i>-iven. In l-SoS-lO a cadastral or 
 
 Suy-npv n'n,1 Settlement in Jaiiitia. ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Settlement- proiessional kliasra survey was made or these 
 
 parganas, and the maps of this survey formed the basis, with 
 additional surveys by amins where fresh land had beea taken up, 
 of the resettlement made in 1856. At this settlement, the rates of 
 assessment were determined on local enquiry by the Settlement 
 Officer and his subordinates, according to the nature of the soil 
 and its capabilities. The rates varied from 2 annas 6 pie to 
 Re. 1-0-3 per acre ; but these rates were pitched extremely low in 
 consequence of the successful opposition of the cultivators to the 
 imposition of any higher assessment. 
 
 This settlement expired in 1876 ; but, owing to errors commit- 
 ted in the classification and assessment of the land, the new settle- 
 ment was not finalh'' completed until 1882. A survey and re- 
 assessment are now beinsf carried out with a view to the introduc- 
 tion of a new settlement for ten years from the 1st April 1892. 
 For this purpose, land is divided into four main classes, — (1) 
 homestead, (2) cultivation, (3) fallow, and (4) waste. The seven- 
 teen parganas, covering an area of 459 square miles, are further 
 divided into homogeneous net profit tracts, after taking into consi- 
 deration the productiveness of the soil, cost of cultivation, proximity 
 to markets, liability to ravages by wild beasts, &c. In each of 
 these tracts the four main classes of land are subdivi led into four 
 sub-classes, called first, second, third, and fourth class homestead, 
 cultivation, &c. Differential rates are fixed for these sub-classes 
 in each homogeneous circle, the ultimate result for all the parganas 
 taken together being that homestead land bears six diflerent rates 
 of assessment, varying from 10 annas to 3 annas 9 pie per higha ; 
 cultivation (seven rates), varying from 7 annas to 2 annas 7^ 
 pie; fallow (seven rates), varying from 2 annas to 9 pie ; and 
 jungle (eight rates), varying from 1 anna to 44 pie per higha. 
 
 194. Ihe resettlement of ildm and other miscellaneous tem- 
 poraril3'-settled estates in Svlhet has been 
 
 7Z(im and niiscfllaneons . " , . -, otfr. i 
 
 tcniporaiily-sottled oh- Conducted Under rules sanctioned m lb7o by 
 ^^^^^' the Govermnent of India. Before settlement,
 
 Chap. IV.] LAND TENURES, SETTLEMENT, SURVEY. 179 
 
 the lands were measured with chahi and compass by native Sections. 
 amins, a plan of the estate on the scale of IG inches to the System of 
 
 ' -t _ _ iiHrvey and 
 
 mile was prepared, and the area was calculated in both bighas and Settlement. 
 acres. These measurements were tested by the Settlement Deputy 
 Collector. The rates of assessment have not been scientifically 
 determined with reference to the advantages of situation or 
 productivity of the soil, but were fixed in each case by the Settle- 
 ment Officer (himself a zeminddr of the district) with regard to the 
 rates paid by cultivators for similar lands in the neighbourhood. 
 From these rates, a deduction of 15 per cent, was made to cover 
 cost of collection and risks, and the remainder was fixed as the 
 assessment of the mahdls. The resultant assessment is considerably 
 in excess of the former revenue derived from these mahdls, but is 
 not, so far as can be judged, in itself burdensome, being considerably 
 lower in its incidence than the revenue rates, which are found to be 
 paid with ease in the more backward and less civilised districts of 
 the Assam Valley. These settlements will all expire in 1907 A.D. 
 195. The last settlement of the Pratabgarh tahsil was effected 
 in 1881-83, the previous one having broken 
 
 Pratabgarh tahsil. ^ ^ • t n ^ 
 
 down, owing to the rates havmg been lixed 
 at too hiixh a fif^ure. At this settlement, the land was divided into 
 four classes (homestead, dqfasal, ekfasal, and chetia), the rates 
 varying from Ee. 1 to 7 annas per acre. This settlement expired 
 in 1887, since which time it has been extended from year to year, 
 pending a fresh survey which is now at last approaching comple- 
 tion. For the purposes of this settlement, the land has been divided 
 into ten classes, some of which are again divided into first and second 
 sub-classes, according to the productiveness of the soil. The rates 
 per bigha* which have been proposed vary from 3 annas to Re. 1-2-0. 
 198. The first regular settlement of Cachar was made in 1 838- 
 39 for a term of five years, and was based 
 on a somewhat imperfect survey. In 1841-42 
 the district was surveyed on the same plan as the adjacent Jain^ia 
 parganas. The cultivated land in the several mauzas was survey- 
 ed field by field, and so much of the uncultivated area as seemed 
 likely to come under cultivation was also surveyed and divided 
 
 * 3-025 highas = 1 acre. 
 
 Cachar.
 
 l8o ASSAM ADMINISTEATION REPORT. [Chap. IV. 
 
 Section- 3. into numbered dihjs or plots, the intention being that, as cultivation 
 Syite/n of extended, these plots should afford the means of determining its 
 Seuhnient ^^^^ ^^^ ^ basis for a detailed map of its area. In 18-43-44 a re- 
 settlement, based upon this survej^, was made for fifteen years. 
 Then followed the settlement of 1859, made for twenty years, which 
 expired in 1879. This also was based on the survey of 1841-42, 
 the fresh cultivation vsince that was made being measured up by 
 native amins. The land was divided into two classes, called awwal 
 and duam respectively ; and within these classes it was ranged, 
 according to situation, distance from navigable rivers, and exposure 
 to the ravages of wild beasts, in four grades. The local measure of 
 land in Cacliar is the hdl, or plough (also called by the Arabic 
 name hidbah), which is equal to 4*82 acres ; and the rates imposed 
 varied from Es. 3-8 to Es. 3-0 for first-grade land to Ks. 2 to 
 Ee. 1-8 for fourth grade. Waste land producing thatching-grass 
 and reeds, -which are valuable products in the densely-peopled 
 Surma Valley, was settled at the full rates of revenue charged 
 for cultivated land in the neighbourhood. Forest jungle, which 
 required much clearing, was settled for three 3'ears revenue-free, 
 and then at a progressive jama, rising to the full rates charged for 
 adjacent lands at the end of the term, twenty years. 
 
 197- On the expiry of this settlement, a fresh survey was made, 
 
 and a settlement was effected for fifteen years, 
 
 years in 1879-84!^ ^^^ whicli extends up to 31st Marcli 1898. For 
 
 the purpose of this settlement the three 
 fiscal divisions, known as the Katigora tahsil, the Ilaihikandi tahsil, 
 and the sadr tahsil, were dealt with separately. In each tahsil the 
 soil was divided into four classes, viz.^ homestead, cultivation, tea, 
 and waste, and each class was again subdivided into four circles, 
 the constitution of the circles being based on a consideration of the 
 productiveness of the soil, the facility or otherwise of communica- 
 tion, the liability to inundation, the exposure to the ravages of wild 
 animals, and the proximity to dense forests. 
 
 The rates fixed at this assessment vary from Es. 8-4 to Es. 4-12 
 per hcH for homestead land, from Es. 7-2 to Es. 3-12 for cultivation, 
 and from Es. 7-2 to Es. 6-0 for tea. Waste was assessed at a 
 uniform rate of Ee. 1 per hul.
 
 Chap, v.] CIVIL DIVISIONS OF BEITISH TERRITORY. 
 
 I8l 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 VIL 
 
 Civil Divisions of Britisli Territory. 
 
 198. The province of Assam is divided, for administrative pur- ex- 
 poses, into twelve districts, viz., the six dis- ^^^^^^°^^- 
 di^4sTc^'s^^ adininistrative ^ricts of the Brahmaputra Valley, the two 
 
 districts of the Surma Valley, and the four hill 
 districts. These districts, their administrative headquarters, the 
 subdivisions into which tlie}^ are divided, their area, and their popu- 
 lation according to the census of February 1891, are shown below: 
 
 Name of district. 
 
 Headquarters. 
 
 Subdivisions. 
 
 Area, m 
 square lailes. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Surma Valley — 
 Cachar 
 
 Silchar .. .. | 
 
 r 
 
 Sylhet . . . . < 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 L 
 
 Dhubri . . . . | 
 Gauhati . . . . j 
 
 Silchar 
 Hailak:'indi 
 
 Total 
 
 North Sylhet . . 
 Karimganj . . . . 
 South Sylhet . . 
 Habiganj 
 Sunamganj 
 
 Total 
 
 Dhnbri 
 Goalpara 
 
 Total 
 
 Gauhuti 
 Barpeta 
 
 Total 
 
 1,952 
 
 620 
 
 267,673 
 99,869 
 
 
 2,472 
 
 367,542 
 
 Sylhet 
 
 1,018. 
 
 1,122 
 828 
 937 
 
 1,509 
 
 482,341 
 334,633 
 365,373 
 508,854 
 413,331 
 
 
 5,114 
 
 2,154,593 
 
 Total Snrma Valley 
 
 7,88G 
 
 2,522,135 
 
 Brahmaputra Valley — 
 Goalpara 
 
 2,384 
 1,570 
 
 317,781 
 134,523 
 
 
 3,954 
 
 45i,304 
 
 Kdmriip 
 
 2,353 
 
 1,307 
 
 498,544 
 135,705 
 
 
 3,6G0 
 
 634,249
 
 I«2 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Civil 
 Divisions. 
 
 Name of district. 
 
 Headquarters. 
 
 Subdivisions. 
 
 Area m 
 squai'e miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Darrang 
 
 Te/.pur . . .A 
 
 Nowgong.. 
 Sibsigar . . . • < 
 
 Dibrugarh . . j 
 
 Tura 
 
 Sliillong.. ..| 
 
 Kohima .. 
 
 Gnnjong .. 
 Aijal 
 
 Tezpnr 
 Mangaldai 
 
 Total 
 
 Sibs.igar 
 
 Jorhat 
 
 Golaghdt 
 
 Total 
 
 Dibrugarh* 
 North Lakhimpur 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 Shillong 
 Jowai 
 
 Total 
 
 Kohima 
 Mokokchang . . 
 
 Total ... 
 
 2,173 
 
 1,245 
 
 125.637 
 182,124 
 
 
 3,418 
 
 307.761 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 3,2jS 
 
 344,141 
 
 Sibsagar 
 
 890 
 918 
 947 
 
 160,304 
 181.152 
 
 115,818 
 
 
 '2,S55 
 
 457,274 
 
 Lathimpur . . 
 
 2,5G3 
 1,161 
 
 li)0,619 
 63,434 
 
 • 
 
 3,724 
 
 254,053 
 
 Total Brahmaputra Valley 
 
 20,869 
 
 2,449,782 
 
 mil Districts— 
 Giro Hills .. 
 
 3,270 
 
 121,570 
 
 Khisi and Jaintia Hills.. 
 
 3,055 
 2,086 
 
 133,383 
 64,521 
 
 
 6,041 
 
 197,S04 
 
 Ndga Hills .. 
 
 5,110 
 
 600 
 
 96,451 
 26,416 
 
 
 5,710 
 
 122,867 
 
 North Cachart 
 
 1,728 
 
 18,941 
 
 North Lushai Hillst 
 
 ."s.r.HO 
 
 ■1 3,631 
 
 Total Hill districts 
 
 20,249 
 
 504,916 
 
 Grand total .. 
 
 ■1!),0(I4 
 
 5,476,833 
 
 * Including Saliya. 
 
 + North Cachar is really a subdivision of Cacliar, but is here shown as a separate district for the reasons 
 Stated in the foot-n')to to paragraph 1. 
 
 t The area and population shown against " North Luthai Hills" arc only estimates.
 
 Chap, v.] CIVIL DIVISIONS OF BRITISH TERRITORY. 183 
 
 At each headquarters station there is a Deputy Commissioner '^'^'ii' 
 and at each subdivisional station other than that of the head- 
 quarters subdivision an Assistant or Extra Assistant Commissioner, 
 or, in one or two cases, a j^ohce officer. 
 
 The six districts of the Brahmaputra Valley constitute the 
 charge of the Commissioner of the Assam Valley Districts, whose 
 headquarters are at Gaulniti. 
 
 199. In the eight plains districts and the Khc4si and Jaintia 
 T3 ,. ,. . . Hills the area is further subdivided into 
 
 rulice divisions. 
 
 tlianas, or jurisdictions of poUce stations. 
 There are 46 thana areas in these districts. Some of the larc^er 
 thanas are again divided into outposts, of which there are 58 in 
 the province. These areas, though they originally define police 
 jurisdiction, are convenient for other purposes : thus, the jurisdic- 
 tion of the munsifs in Sylhet is arranged by thanas ; the registra- 
 tion sub-districts are similarly arranged; Muhammadan Marriai?e 
 Eegistrars and Kazis in the Surma Valley are also appointed for 
 thana and outpost areas. 
 
 200. In Assam Proper and the Eastern Duars the district is 
 
 , . . portioned out for revenue purposes into 
 
 Revenue divisions. 
 
 mauzas. The average area of these mauzas 
 is 115-89 square miles. They thus correspond in size rather to the 
 pargana or tappa than to the mauza of Upper India. In Assam there 
 is little cohesion in the village society, and almost nothing which 
 represents the complex social organization of the North-Western 
 Provinces or the Punjab. Hamlets of a few houses are scattered 
 about the whole mauza area ; and though the boundaries of the 
 lands recognised as belonfyini:^ to a particular villao-e are in some 
 districts {e.g., parts of Kamriip) known to the people, they do not 
 imply any definite appropriation of the soil to that village ; an3^one 
 applying for it can settle upon Government waste wherever it is 
 situated. 
 
 Formerly, each of these mauzas was under a mauzadar or reve- 
 nue contractor (see paragraph 109 ante) ; but since 1882 the 
 tahsildari system has been partially introduced into Kamriip, 
 Darrang, Nowgong, and Sibsagar, each tnhsil being under a tahsil-
 
 1 84 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 
 Civil 
 division's. 
 
 dar paid bv salary and not by commission, and consisting of a 
 collection of from three to eleven of the old mauzas. This system 
 is still being extended as opportunity occurs, and the entire dis- 
 appearance of the old mauzadari system is now only a matter of 
 time. The following statement shows the extent to which mauzas 
 have already been amalgamated into tahsils : 
 
 
 Area, 
 
 Revenne. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 Already included in tahsils. 
 
 Xot inclnded in tahsils. 
 
 Dis'rict. 
 
 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Revenne. 
 
 "o 
 
 Area, 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 "o 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Rs, 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Bs. 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Ss. 
 
 
 Kamrup 
 
 2,342,400 
 
 9,79,317 
 
 72 
 
 1,693,497-6 
 
 8.46,276 
 
 65 
 
 648,902 4 
 
 1,33.071 
 
 7 
 
 Darrang . . 
 
 2,187.690 
 
 4.96,682 
 
 51 
 
 526,361-6 
 
 2,78,586 
 
 35 
 
 1,661,328-4 
 
 2,18,096 
 
 16 
 
 Nowgong .. 
 
 2,084,936 
 
 5,41,144 
 
 3S 
 
 265,433-6 
 
 2,16,099 
 
 13 
 
 1,819,502-4 
 
 3,25,045 
 
 23 
 
 Sibsagar . . 
 
 1,806,188 
 
 8,72,484 
 
 50 
 
 316,096 
 
 2,66,975 
 
 14 
 
 1,490,092 
 
 6,05,509 
 
 36 
 
 In Sylhet and the plains of Cacliar, as well as in permanently- 
 settled Goalpdra, the ordinary revenue division into parganas, 
 which dates from times prior to British rule, is in force. In the 
 two former districts, however, these parganas are very small, and 
 much interlaced one with another. In Sylhet, there are 186 par- 
 ganas, so that their average area is less than 29 square miles ; 15 
 are less than one square mile, and 42 are more than one and less 
 than two square miles. In the plains of Cachar there are 24 and 
 in Goalpara 19 parganas, the last representing separately-settled 
 estates of the permanent settlement. 
 
 These parganas are grouped, in Sylhet and Caohar, into larger 
 areas for the purposes of revenue payment. In Sylhet these areas 
 are called zilas, of which there are ten, besides the Jaintia parganas, 
 which latter are divided into two tahsils or collection areas. The 
 zilas are made up of parganas, and the revenue is paid at each 
 subdivisional headquarters for the zilas included in its jurisdiction. 
 In the Jaintia parganas there are two collecting centres, one at 
 Kauairghat, and the other at Sylhet, In Cachar, the plains portion
 
 Chap, v.] CIVIL DIVISIONS OF BRITISH TERIIITORY. 1 85 
 
 of the* district is divided into three tahsils, the offices of which are Civil 
 
 ... Divisions. 
 
 located at Silchar, Haihikaiidi, and Katigora. 
 
 In the hiU districts different divisions for revenue purposes 
 prevail. In the Garo Hills, the strip of plains land which surrounds 
 the hill area on three sides is managed by two mauzadars, who, 
 however, are not contractors, as in Assam, but officers on a fixed 
 salary. The hill area is also portioned out into five mauzas ; but 
 the mauzadar here is merely the superior officer who receives the 
 house tax from the lashkars, or Garo headmen of groups of villages. 
 These a^ain collect from the lakma or nokma, the head and 
 representative of each village. 
 
 In the Khasi Hills, as already mentioned, there is not much 
 British territory, the area being generally included in the States of 
 the Khasi Seims, Sardars, Longdohs, or other petty chiefs. Only 
 25 villages, or groups of villages, are British, and these pay house 
 tax through a villacfe headman. In the Jaintia Hills there are 19 
 circles of villages, each of which is managed by a dolloi or head- 
 man, who collects the house tax and pays it in, receiving com- 
 mission. There are, besides, four Sardarships, the management of 
 which is hereditary, the headmen being Kuki or Mikir chiefs. 
 
 In North Cachar, the assessment and collection of house tax 
 were formerly carried out by a special tahsil establishment, but 
 this has been replaced since 1884 by mauzadars, who are remu- 
 nerated by a commission of ten per cent., and occupy much the 
 same position .as the mauzadar in the Brahmaputra Valley. 
 
 In the Naga Hills, part of the district is in charge of mauzadars 
 (the Mikir and Eengma Hills and the land revenue paying villages 
 in the Nambar forest), and in part (the Angami, Rengma, Sema, 
 Lhota, Ao, and Kacha ISTaga villages on the main range) the house 
 tax is collected by village headmen, called lamhdrdars, who receive 
 a commission varying from 12^ to 20 per cent. 
 
 2 B
 
 1 86 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VI. 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 Details of the last Census {1891). 
 
 Census. 201. The last census of Assam was taken on the 26th February 
 
 1891 in all those portions of the province in 
 
 Manner of taking the ^^^^.^-^^ .^. ^^.^^ synchronous, that is tO Say, 
 census. ./ ' •' ' 
 
 throughout the plains and in some parts of 
 the hill districts. In the greater portion of the latter a more 
 gradual enumeration was carried out, but the total number of 
 persons included in the non-synchronous returns amounted only 
 to about 400,000, or less than 8 per cent, of the total population. 
 A census was taken of Manipur, but all papers connected therewith 
 were destroyed in the disturbances which took place in the 
 following March, and no statistics are, therefore, available for that 
 State. In the North Lushai Hills the Civil and Military popula- 
 tion was censused on the 26th February, while, for the Lushais; 
 an estimate of the population was prepared by the Political Officer, 
 based on enquiries made by him during his tours. The figures 
 furnished for the last mentioned tract are, of course, only approxi- 
 mate, but it is believed that they are very fairly accurate. The 
 report and tables were issued in June 1892, or about fifteen 
 months after the census was taken. A brief summary of some of 
 the more important results is given below. 
 
 202. As stated in the last chapter, the area of the province 
 is about 49,004 square miles, and the popu- 
 
 Area and dcnsitj". 
 
 lation 5,476,833, or on the average 111 
 persons per square mile, which is less than in any other part 
 of India, except only .in Burma and Coorg. The details of the
 
 Chap, VI.] 
 
 DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 
 
 187 
 
 population in each district are shown in the following state- Census. 
 ment : 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 District. 
 
 a 
 1 
 
 n 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 "3 
 p. 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 i. . 
 
 1 
 
 ft 
 
 a i 
 
 -3 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 So 
 
 3 => 
 
 Cacliar (plains) 
 
 2,472 
 
 367,542 
 
 148-6 
 
 4-4 
 
 89-09 
 
 Sylhet ... ... ... 
 
 5,414 
 
 2,154,593 
 
 397-9 
 
 4-9 
 
 95-70 
 
 Goalpara... 
 
 3,954 
 
 452,304 
 
 114-3 
 
 6-5 
 
 91-14 
 
 Kdmriip ... 
 
 3,660 
 
 634,249 
 
 173-2 
 
 5-0 
 
 97-56 
 
 Darrang ... 
 
 3,418 
 
 307,761 
 
 90-0 
 
 4-8 
 
 90-70 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 3,258 
 
 344,141 
 
 105-6 
 
 5-1 
 
 93-56 
 
 Sibsagar ... 
 
 2,855 
 
 457,274 
 
 160-1 
 
 4-6 
 
 89-74 
 
 Lakhimpur 
 
 3,724 
 
 254,053 
 
 68-2 
 
 4-5 
 
 86-25 
 
 North Cachar 
 
 1,728 
 
 18,941 
 
 10-9 
 
 5-0 
 
 103-53 
 
 Kaga Hills 
 
 5,710 
 
 122,867 
 
 21-5 
 
 3-5 
 
 97-53 
 
 Khasi and Jaintia Hills 
 
 6,041 
 
 197,904 
 
 32-7 
 
 5-0 
 
 109-18 
 
 Garo Hills 
 
 3,270 
 
 121,570 
 
 37-1 
 
 5-0 
 
 98-60 
 
 North Lushai 
 
 3,500 
 
 r 2,0440^ 
 
 i 41,590t] 
 
 12-4 
 
 5-0 
 
 91-05 
 
 Total 
 
 49,004 
 
 5,476,833 
 
 1110 
 
 4-8 
 
 94-23 
 
 <* Civil and Military. 
 
 t Estimated.
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTi^ATION REPORT. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Census. The KliAsi and Jaiiitia and the Niiga Hills districts stand first 
 
 in respect of area ; but they consist, to a large extent, of rocky 
 and unculturable uplands, and their population is consequently 
 sparse. Their combined area is double that of Yorkshire, but 
 they contain only about one-ninth of the population of tliat 
 county. The next largest district is Sylhet, which contains very 
 nearly two-fifths of the total population of the province. AYitli 
 the exception of a large belt of jungle at the foot of the hills 
 along the southern boundary and of a smaller similar tract towards 
 the north, the whole of the district is very densely peopled. It is 
 equal in area to Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland, and West- 
 moreland ; its population is larger by 33 per cent, than that 
 of these four counties taken together. The next district, Goalpdra, 
 is about the size of North Wales, and is equally densely peopled. 
 Lakhimpur comes next in size, and then Kdmryp, with an area 
 equal to that of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, but only 
 about 70 per cent, of the combined population of these counties. 
 The smallest district in the province is North Cachar, which is 
 somewhat larger than Somersetshire, but has less than 4 per cent, 
 of its population.* As a general rule, it may be said that the 
 density of the population is greatest in the west, and decreases 
 gradually towards the east, the main reason for this result 
 ajDparently being that in the days of native rule the eastern districts 
 suffered more from wars and a disturbed frontier than those further 
 west. 
 
 203. For census purposes a house was defined to be " the 
 homestead where the members of one family 
 
 Ilouses and house room. ^ ^ ^ 
 
 reside under a common head with their 
 servants," That the definition Avas well understood is shown by 
 the great uniformity in the average number of persons per house 
 returned in the difTerent districts. With the exception of the 
 Naga Hills and Goalpdra, the average in all districts lies between 
 
 • North Cachar is adniiiiiKtratively a subdivision of the Cachar dis-trict, hut, OM'ing 
 to the wide physical and ethnological differences between it and the plains portion of 
 Cachar, it was treated as a separate district for the purposes of the census.
 
 Chap. VI. J DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 189 
 
 5-0 in Kdmriip, Sylhet, ard three out of the four hill districts, Census. 
 and 5 "3 in Nowgong, where the figures are higher than they 
 otherwise would be, owing to the great number of Mikirs living 
 in the district, amongst whom it is customary for large groups 
 of relatives to reside tosjether under a common roof. The mate- 
 rials of which houses are constructed in Assam are extremely 
 plentiful, and can be got everywhere at a very trifling cost ; in fact, 
 in most parts they cost nothing more than the labour involved 
 in cutting them and bringing them to the homestead. So far, 
 therefore, as their houses are concerned, the condition of the 
 people is one of great comfort, and overcrowding is practically 
 unknown. 
 
 204. The number of males exceeds that of females in every 
 district except the Khdsi and Jaintia Hills 
 
 Proportions 01 the sexes. ^ 
 
 and North Cachar, which are peopled mainly 
 by aboriginal tribes. In the Ndga Hills and the Garo Hills districts 
 the preponderance of males is very slight, and is due entirely to 
 the Hindu and Musalman population. In the province generally, 
 not only does the number of males exceed that of females, but 
 this excess is more marked now than it was in 1881, males havino- 
 increased by 316,000, or 12-62 per cent., and females by 279,407, 
 or 11*75 per cent. The explanation of these figures will be found 
 in the fact that amongst the immigrant population males largely 
 outnumber females. In 1881 there was a foreign-born population 
 of 280,609, viz., males 163,664, and females 116,945. The total 
 foreign-born population now numbers 510,672, including 297,301 
 males and 213,371 females, that is to say, the excess of immigrant 
 males over females is greater by 37,211 than it was in 1881. 
 Excluding immigrants, 50-79 out of every 100 persons are males 
 and 49-21 are females.
 
 190 
 
 ASSAM AD]MINISTRATIOX REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 C2NSU5. 
 
 205. The statement below displays some of tlie most prominent 
 facts regarding the distribution of the popu- 
 lation over towns and villag^es : 
 
 Towns and villages. 
 
 Cachar (plains) 
 
 Sylhet 
 
 Oo&lpira 
 
 Kamrup 
 
 Darrang 
 
 Kowgong 
 
 SibsAgar 
 
 Lathimpur .. 
 
 Korth Cachar .. 
 
 Kiiga Hills .. 
 
 Khdsi and Jaiiitia Hills 
 
 GAro Hills .. 
 
 Nortli Lnsbai Hills 
 
 Total 
 
 Towns. 
 
 7,523 
 
 27,305 
 
 20,159 
 
 Villages, 
 
 3-1 
 
 4,011 1-3 
 
 4,815 
 
 9,876 
 
 1,781 
 
 fi,720 
 
 102,074 
 
 638 
 
 C,J15 
 
 1,098 
 
 1,565 
 
 Mr:: 
 
 fcoto 
 
 360,019 
 
 2,127.28 
 
 442,039 
 
 614,090 
 
 1,116 303,750 
 
 339,320 
 
 2-1 
 
 1,306 
 
 1,329 
 
 1,005 
 
 17,142 
 
 447,655 
 
 244,177 
 
 18,941 
 
 121,086 
 
 191,184 
 
 121,570 
 
 43,631 
 
 980 
 
 575 
 
 98-8 
 
 330 
 
 97-8 
 
 411 
 
 9G-9 
 
 404 
 
 98-7 
 
 275 
 
 98-7 
 
 378 
 
 97-9 
 
 349 
 
 96-2 
 
 324 
 
 100-0 
 
 90 
 
 98-6 
 
 191 
 
 96-7 
 
 148 
 
 100-0 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 1504-5 
 
 98-2 
 
 313-54 
 
 2,475 
 
 2,300 
 
 1,491 
 
 1,958 
 
 2,291 
 
 1,395 
 
 3,043 
 
 5,260 
 
 5,701 
 
 2,90il 
 
 2,082 
 
 0-98
 
 Chap. VI.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. I9I 
 
 The urban population is extremely small, being only TS per Census. 
 cent, of the total population of the province. The corresponding 
 percentage in Bengal amounts to 5"3, in Bombay to 17'8, and in 
 England and Wales to 66"6. The reasons for the absence of 
 large towns in x^ssam are that the country is still very sparsely 
 populated ; there are no large industries to encourage the growth 
 of towns, and the main occupation of the great bulk of the people 
 is- agriculture. The figures regarding the number of villages are 
 of very little statistical value, as the definition adopted for census 
 purposes in the diflerent districts was far from uniform. In the 
 cadastrally-surveyed portions of the Brahmaputra Valley and 
 Cachar, the area which formed the revenue survey village was 
 taken as a " village "; elsewhere it was taken to be a group of 
 houses bearing a separate name, outlying hamlets being included 
 in, or excluded from, the parent village according to the require- 
 ments of the work of enumeration. The total number of " villages '' 
 returned is 17,160, and the average population per village is 
 319. Nearly half of the population reside in villages containing 
 from 200 to 499 persons, and nearly half of the remainder in 
 villages containing more than 500 and less than 1,000; 13 per 
 cent, of the people live in hamlets, where there are less than 
 200 persons, and only 19 per cent, in places of which the 
 population exceeds 1,000.
 
 192 
 
 ASSA31 ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 Cexsus. ^ 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 .r-l 
 
 
 C3 
 
 •• 
 
 • f— 4 
 
 !Z3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 rt 
 
 
 H) 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 'B 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 
 !-J 
 
 rn 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 CI) 
 
 r-l 
 
 t-« 
 
 02 
 
 ^ 
 
 -1-3 
 
 a) 
 
 C3 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 -i-i 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 -<-> 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 ^-3 
 
 M 
 
 
 O) 
 
 n^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 O) 
 
 Ph 
 
 r^ 
 
 rH 
 
 H 
 
 0) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 . 
 
 C5 
 
 <rn 
 
 -^J 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 !> 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'i' 
 
 
 
 <-i 
 
 »o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Oi 
 
 1—1 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 1-H 
 
 CS 
 
 
 
 
 
 •saonTAOJcI 
 
 00 
 
 do 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 (M 
 
 ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ,1^ 
 
 OS 
 
 OJ 
 
 tn 
 
 jaq^to 'tuojj 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 1—1 
 01 
 
 CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 Oi 
 
 : ^^ 
 
 
 c- 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 1-1 
 be 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 .+ 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 J 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 I>1 
 
 ■r-l 
 
 
 CD 1 
 
 
 •c 
 
 s 
 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 '^ 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 ■^ 
 
 CO 
 
 qi 
 
 CO 
 
 c- 1 
 
 ■^ 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 •sjoajsip 
 
 c^ 
 
 ijl 
 
 10 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 C-1 
 
 >b 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 >~i 
 
 Jamo uiojj 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 ■rr 
 
 CO 
 1—1 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 I— 1 
 
 : <^' 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 ._^ 
 
 00 
 
 CO 1 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 <io 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 (M 
 
 
 <N 
 
 t^ 
 
 t;- 
 
 >P 
 
 t- 1 
 
 c^ 
 
 *c 
 
 
 ■ujoq-puisiQ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 + 
 
 UO 
 
 -5f 
 
 00 
 
 
 t- 
 
 <?CI 
 
 (M 
 
 >Jo 
 
 6i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 .+ 
 
 * + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 ,_, 
 
 Oi 
 
 (M 
 
 lO 
 
 t^ 1 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 *-H 
 
 •* 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 -* 
 
 q-1 
 
 00 
 
 OS 1 
 
 cp 
 
 (S 
 
 
 —■ 
 
 lb 
 
 as 
 
 T-H 
 
 t— 1 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 ■rH 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 4h 
 
 
 
 ,tj 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IM 
 
 ^ 
 
 . 1-H 
 
 l-H 
 
 1—* 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 ■ + 
 
 + 
 
 + 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 CJ5 
 
 uo 
 
 i>- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 -* 
 
 tO 
 
 oc 
 
 CO 
 
 -«ti 
 
 l-H 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 eo 
 
 CO 
 
 
 " 
 
 '330niA0.T(I 
 
 w 
 
 (M^ 
 
 crs^ 
 
 00 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^i. 
 
 10 
 
 t^ 
 
 : c« 
 
 CN_ 
 
 f— 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •\ 
 
 
 fl 
 
 Jaqio nicJ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ^_( 
 
 (Tl 
 
 »o 
 
 co" 
 
 05" 
 
 (>r 
 
 0" 
 
 o-T 
 
 00 
 
 vO 
 
 
 es 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 •* 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 C^ 
 
 CO 
 
 <M 
 
 ~o5 
 
 C5 
 
 C5 
 
 t>- 
 
 cc 
 
 r~i 
 
 
 £ 
 
 •s?oinsip 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 C5 
 
 ^ 
 
 t-- 
 
 CO 
 
 (M 
 
 1-H 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 C^ 
 
 C5 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 eo_^ 
 
 co_ 
 
 CD 
 
 CO^ 
 
 : t-^ 
 
 C-l^ 
 
 0C3^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 Jiaqto mo'jj 
 
 '^^ 
 
 »o 
 
 
 c? 
 
 00" 
 
 CO 
 
 eo" 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 t>r 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '•O 
 
 c" 
 
 
 
 ^_i 
 
 '^ 
 
 CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 OJ 
 
 c^ 
 
 CO 
 
 !>• 
 
 T— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 (M 
 
 05 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 t^ 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 o_ 
 
 (M^ 
 
 CO^ 
 
 y—t 
 
 c^ 
 
 1—1 
 
 -<*< 
 
 CO 
 
 0^ 
 
 OS 
 
 CS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 p. 
 
 
 •njoq-^OKHsia 
 
 0" 
 
 <m" 
 
 C^ 
 
 co" 
 
 -— . 
 
 c-^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 >o 
 
 »o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 Ofl 
 
 oa 
 
 CO 
 
 »o 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 r-^ 
 
 05_ 
 
 ■>* 
 
 CD 
 
 (M 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 1—1 
 
 T-l 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Oi 
 
 (M 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 •^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 t>- 
 
 t^ 
 
 era 
 
 CO 
 
 ^J" 
 
 •M 
 
 
 
 .-7 
 
 t-;^ 
 
 
 
 C<J^ 
 
 Ci^ 
 
 co^ 
 
 10 
 
 (M 
 
 00^ 
 
 eo 
 
 w 
 
 O) 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 eo" 
 
 en 
 
 CO" 
 
 '^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 o~ 
 
 (j^ 
 
 05 
 
 crs 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Ci 
 
 CO 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 t- 
 
 
 t- 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 o\ 
 
 C5 
 
 rl* 
 
 CO 
 
 (M 
 
 CO 
 
 OQ 
 
 T-H 
 
 1— t 
 
 I— 1 
 
 t>;^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 CO 
 
 eo 
 
 OS 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ 
 
 CO 
 
 -■M 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 •SOOIHAOjd 
 
 Ci 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 y-l 
 
 OS 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 t^ 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 
 c— 
 
 o_ 
 
 rH 
 
 ^ 
 
 C-^ 
 
 00 
 
 o> 
 
 t- 
 
 : cq^ 
 
 0^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 jaqjo uioaji 
 
 of 
 
 lO" 
 
 >o 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 Oi 
 
 0" 
 
 (M" 
 
 00" 
 
 ^" 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 r— 1 
 
 "<*< 
 
 l-H 
 
 T— t 
 
 T— 4 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 
 
 7— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 t— 1 
 
 
 
 
 (M 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 m 
 
 >o 
 
 ^- 
 
 '^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 CO 
 
 CTS 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 C^' 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 Oi 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 vO 
 
 IC 
 
 UO 
 
 
 •S^OLHSlp 
 
 co^ 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 t-^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 o_ 
 
 •<*i 
 
 : co^ 
 
 CX3_ 
 
 0^ 
 
 • 
 
 
 Joq^o uiojj; 
 
 xO 
 
 lO' 
 
 10 
 
 CO 
 
 t-." 
 
 t-" 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 co" 
 
 iC 
 
 t-^ 
 
 CI 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 
 ■<5< 
 
 
 r-H 
 
 
 
 
 OI 
 
 c" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '"' 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 .^ 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 (M 
 
 OS 
 
 IC 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 «o 
 
 CO 
 
 Oi 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 C<1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 CO 
 
 -*-> 
 
 
 
 CO^ 
 
 CO^ 
 
 00^ 
 
 
 <M^ 
 
 ■^^ 
 
 (M 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 cO__ 
 
 >o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 •uioq-lou^sTa 
 
 S 
 
 eo" 
 
 ■1— 1 
 
 CO 
 
 *--i 
 
 Oi 
 
 -^" 
 
 >* 
 
 • 1— t 
 
 t-" 
 
 OS 
 
 CI. 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 >o 
 
 
 »o 
 
 CO 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 ■<* 
 
 CO 
 
 cq 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 1-H 
 
 
 1—1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CI 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ci 
 
 ,_, 
 
 1-H 
 
 -* 
 
 CO 
 
 ■* 
 
 
 
 I— 1 
 
 
 
 
 T? 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 CO 
 
 ■<* 
 
 t- 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 t- 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 10 
 
 lO 
 
 CO 
 
 (M 
 
 t^ 
 
 T-J_ 
 
 (N 
 
 
 
 OS^ 
 
 10 
 
 CO, 
 
 
 
 eS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t>." 
 
 ■«? 
 
 c<r 
 
 -* 
 
 t>r 
 
 ^^ 
 
 t-" 
 
 '*" 
 
 r t-^ 
 
 I— 1 
 
 T— < 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 lO 
 
 »o. 
 
 05 
 
 (M 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 ■<1< 
 
 (N 
 
 T-( 
 
 1— < 
 
 (M^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 (n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0" 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 
 . 
 
 : 03 
 
 . 
 
 03 03 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 §4* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'ri 
 
 
 T^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -M 
 
 
 
 ■j^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 « bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 ».< 
 
 M S 
 
 
 "5 ° 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 C8 
 
 a, 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 bo 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 be 
 m 
 
 3 
 ft 
 
 a 
 
 IS 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^-'^ 
 
 
 
 
 t> 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 P 
 
 S^i 
 
 in 
 
 h-l 
 
 ^2; M 
 
 a 
 
 EH
 
 Chap. VI.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 1 93 
 
 The general result of the statistics for the diflerent districts Census. 
 appears to be that the population of the eastern portion of the 
 province is advancing far more rapidly than that of the western 
 districts. The natural increase in Cachar is more than three times 
 as great as in Sylhet. In the Brahmaputra Valley, Goalpdra shows 
 a considerable decrease in its natural population, and so also 
 does Kdmrup, though to a less extent. The population of Darrang 
 is stationary, that of Nowgong is growing at the rate of 10 per 
 thousand per annum, and that of Sibsdgar at the annual rate of 
 11 '5 per thousand, while in Lakhimpur the rate reaches 17 '3 per 
 thousand, which is approximately the same as in Cachar, the 
 eastern district of the Surma Valley. The growth of the popula- 
 tion in the hill districts cannot be stated with any degree of 
 accuracy. The total increase in the people of the province is 
 contributed to by all districts except Kdmriip and the North Cachar 
 subdivision, where there is a decrease of 10,711 and 1,179, respect- 
 ively, due, in the former case, to the prevalence of hdla-azdi\ 
 which also accounts for the comparatively small increase in Goal- 
 pdra, and, in the latter, to the migrations of Kachdris and other 
 tribes. The largest additions to the population are in Sylhet 
 (185,584), Sibsdgar (87,000), Lakhimpur (74,160), and Cachar 
 .plains (73,804). The largest percentage of increase is in Lakhim- 
 pur (41-22), Sibsdgar (23-49), and Cachar (25-12), in all of which 
 districts immigration, due to the extension of the tea industry, 
 accounts for the greater part of the excess of the present figures 
 over those of 1881. Excluding the Ndga Ilills, where the increase 
 is mainly dne to the inclusion of the newly-formed Mokok- 
 chang subdivision, the Khdsi and Jaintia Hills district furnishes 
 the largest proportional increase (16*85 per cent.) amongst 
 the districts in which tea is not largely cultivated. The 
 population of the lower portion of the Brahmaputra Valley, 
 where the land is not very favourable to tea cultivation, and 
 which has, moreover, suffered considerably from kdla-azar, 
 has been stationary, the nominal increase in Godlpdra and 
 Mangaldai being more than counterbalanced by the decrease in 
 Kdmrup. 
 
 2 c
 
 194 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Census. 207. The increase in the number of immigrants from other 
 
 provinces is remarkable. The number of 
 graSon!*"^^ '°" '^" ^"^'' persous bom elsewhere is 510,672, against 
 
 280,710 in 1881, being an increase of nearly 
 82 per cent, in the course of the decade. It has been estimated 
 that out of the total number of immigrants, about 424,000, or 83 
 per cent., are probably persons who originally came to the province 
 as garden coolies, and that of the remainder, some 61,000, or 
 nearly 12 per cent., are cultivators from adjacent districts of 
 Bengal. The Census Superintendent calculates that, on the aver- 
 age, an annual immigration of close upon 39,000 persons must 
 have taken place, in order to keep up the number of immigrants 
 censused in Assam in 1881 and to produce the increase over that 
 number which has been recorded at the present census. 
 
 The loss to the province by emigration during the inter-censal 
 interval has been very slight. The total number of persons born 
 in Assam who were censused in other provinces in 1881 was 
 41,038, and the number has now risen to 43,611, so that the 
 net increase of persons born in the province, who have emigrated 
 during the decade, over the number of such persons who were 
 absent in 1881, but have since returned, is only 2,573. The total 
 net emigration of persons born in Assam is, therefore, represented 
 by this figure, |;Zi<5 the number required to keep up the 
 emigrant population of 1881, which, at the assumed death-rate 
 of 35 per thousand, would involve an annual exodus of 1,687 
 persons.
 
 Chap. VI.] 
 
 DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 
 
 195 
 
 o 
 
 'So 
 
 r 1 
 
 u 
 
 rd 
 
 bO 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
 ^13 
 
 
 f-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ci 
 
 
 p3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -4-^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 7i 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 rd 
 
 
 -U 
 
 
 «+-! 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 .. 
 
 
 • 1-1 
 
 
 
 r— ( 
 
 r^ 
 
 <D 
 
 • r-l 
 
 ri-i 
 
 
 a 
 
 • i-H 
 
 OJ 
 
 '^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 fcl) 
 
 r-H 
 
 
 H 
 
 02 
 
 
 i-< 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 rP 
 
 Census. 
 
 T-l CO 
 
 U5 r-l 
 
 ^ ,-H I— I •<# 
 
 M 
 
 u bo 
 
 ►4 
 
 05 
 
 00^ o^ 
 
 y—l iO 
 
 OS »— 1 
 
 ,-1 r-( N 
 
 1^ O M 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 03 
 
 • 
 
 ^ X 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ■ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 w ■<=^ 
 
 
 fcO 
 
 d 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 xn 
 
 s 
 
 
 45 
 
 orth Lushai 
 Military.) 
 orth Lushai 
 
 P 
 
 ;zi 
 
 CO 
 
 t-1 
 
 ;2; 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 'i^ ;z5
 
 Census. 
 
 196 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION KEPOET. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Speaking generally, it may be said that nearly 55 per cent, of 
 the total population profess the Hindu religion, that 2 7 '09 are 
 Muhammadans, 0'30 Christians, and 0"14 Buddhists, while 17'70 
 per cent, consist of persons whose tenets have been described as 
 Animistic. Under the head " Others " are included the Jains, 
 who are all immigrants, and also a few Theists and Agnostics. 
 The Hindu religion predominates most largely in Sibsdgar and 
 Lakhimpur, where the influence of the Vaishnava Gosains is 
 greatest. It includes amongst its adherents more than half the 
 population of Cacliar, Ka,mrup, Darrang, and Nowgong, and slightly 
 less than half of the people living in Sylhet and Godlpdra. In the 
 hill districts, the number of Hindus is nominal. The prevalence 
 of the Muhammadan religion is precisely that which one would 
 expect from the previous history of the province. Musalmans 
 constitute slightly more than half of the population of Sylhet and 
 very nearly one-third of the population of the Cachar and Goalpdra 
 districts. Higher up the Brahmaputra Valley, the proportion of 
 Musalmans steadily decreases, while in the hill districts the 
 number is almost nominal. There has been very little change 
 during the decade in the proportion which Musalmans bear to the 
 total population. In 1881 the percentage was 26-98, and it is now 
 27*09. The primitive beliefs of the different Mongolian tribes 
 have been classed together under one head, " Animistic," partly 
 because too little is known about them to enable any more minute 
 classification to be adopted, and partly because their general 
 characteristics are everywhere much the same. The following 
 description of them is taken from the last Census Eeport : 
 
 There is a vague but very general belief in some one omnipotent being, 
 who is well disposed towards men, and whom, therefore, there is no necessity 
 for propitiating. Then come a number of evil spirits, who are ill-disposed 
 towards human beings, and to whose malevolent interference are ascribed 
 all the woes which afflict mankind. To them, therefore, sacrifices must be 
 offered. Ihese malevolent spirits are sylvan deities, spirits of the trees 
 the rocks and the streams, and sometimes also of the tribal ancestors. 
 There is no regular priesthood, but some persons are supposed to be better 
 endowed with the power of divination than others. When a calamity occurs, 
 one or more of these diviners, shamans, or soothsayers, is called on to
 
 Chap. VI.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CEXSUS. 
 
 197 
 
 ascertain the particular demon who is offended, and who requires to be Census. 
 pacified by a sacrifice. This is done either by devil-dancing, when the 
 diviner works himself into a paroxysm of drunkenness and excitement, and 
 then holds converse with the unseen spirits around him, or by the exami- 
 nation of omens, — eggs, grains of rice, or the entrails of a fowl. There 
 is a profound belief in omens of all sorts ; no journey is undertaken unless 
 it is ascertained that the fates are propitious, while persons who have started 
 on a journey will turn back, should adverse omens be met with on the way. 
 One peculiarity in connection with their sacrifices may be mentioned. On 
 all necessary occasions goats, fowls, and other animals are offered to the 
 gods ; but it is always assumed that the latter will be contented -oith the 
 blood and entrails ; the flesh is divided amongst the sacrificer and his friends, 
 the presiding soothsayer usually getting the lion's share. 
 
 The great majority of the people in the hill districts are still 
 animistic, and so also are from 20 to 30 per cent, of the popula- 
 tion of Kamriip, Darrang, and Nowgong. Elsewhere the number 
 are comparatively small, owing to the proselytising influence of 
 Hinduism, which has almost efl'aced the identity of the non- Aryan 
 constituents of the Surma Valley population, and is rapidly doing 
 the same in Upper Assam, where the Yaisnava Gosains are 
 especially active, and the observances which they enforce in the 
 case of new converts are few^ and light. Owing to defects in the 
 form in which information on the subject was collected in 1881, 
 it is impossible to furnish figures to show at what rate the process 
 of conversion is proceeding to-day, but there is no doubt that it is 
 steadily going on.
 
 198 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. 
 
 [Chap. VI. 
 
 Census. ij^he fio-ures for Christians are given in greater detail below 
 
 
 
 I^ 
 
 umber of Christians, 
 
 
 
 Percentage on 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 
 1891, 
 
 
 total population* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Europeans 
 
 and 
 Eurasians, 
 
 Natives, 
 
 Europeans and Eurasians, 
 
 Natives. 
 
 1881, 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 Toial. 
 
 Eaiopeans. 
 
 Eurasians, 
 
 Cachar (plains) 
 
 201 
 
 476 
 
 321 
 
 273 
 
 48 
 
 488 
 
 ■26 
 
 •22 
 
 Sylhet 
 
 115 
 
 264 
 
 387 
 
 278 
 
 109 
 
 256 
 
 •01 
 
 •02 
 
 Goalpara 
 
 121 
 
 392 
 
 85 
 
 52 
 
 33 
 
 1,547 
 
 •11 
 
 •36 
 
 Kamriip 
 
 101 
 
 265 
 
 72 
 
 62 
 
 20 
 
 876 
 
 •05 
 
 •14 
 
 Darrang 
 
 136 
 
 235 
 
 207 
 
 183 
 
 24 
 
 642 
 
 •13 
 
 •27 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 50 
 
 204 
 
 63 
 
 63 
 
 
 854 
 
 •08 
 
 •12 
 
 Bibsdgar 
 
 342 
 
 462 
 
 317 
 
 274 
 
 43 
 
 1,048 
 
 •21 
 
 •29 
 
 Lakhimpiir 
 
 227 
 
 610 
 
 363 
 
 305 
 
 53 
 
 1,243 
 
 •46 
 
 •63 
 
 Korth Cachar 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 •• 
 
 
 •• 
 
 •005 
 
 NagaHiU3 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 
 211 
 
 •02 
 
 •18 
 
 Khdsi and Jaintia Hills 
 
 212 
 
 1,895 
 
 203 
 
 164 
 
 39 
 
 6,941 
 
 V24 
 
 3'60 
 
 Garo Hills 
 
 14 
 
 656 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 1,154 
 
 •61 
 
 •97 
 
 North Lushai Hills (Civil and 
 Military) 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 2 
 
 " 
 
 •73 
 
 Total for the Province 
 
 1,631 
 
 5,462 
 
 2,082 
 
 1,699 
 
 383 
 
 14,762 
 
 •14 
 
 •30 
 
 In Assam there are several^ missions. Judging by their 
 results, the most important of these is that of the Welsh Calvinistic 
 Methodists already referred to, who for many years past have been 
 working amongst the Khasis. This race appears to be more than 
 usually receptive of Christianity, and the number of Christians 
 amongst them has risen from 1,895 in 1881 to 6,941 at the census 
 taken two years ago. The next missions to be mentioned are those 
 of the American Baptists, who have stations at Tura, Gauhdti, 
 Nowtromx, Sibsti^ar, and Mokokcham?. A fair amount of success 
 has attended their efiorts, and the number of native Baptists now
 
 Chap. VI.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 
 
 199 
 
 reported amounts to 3,718, against 1,475 at the previous census. Census. 
 The greater part of the increase is found in Godlpara and the Garo 
 Hills. In Nowgong the number is almost |^stationary, the increase 
 during the last ten years being only 29, or less than three new 
 converts a year. Next, in point of numbers, come the missions of 
 the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, whose converts have 
 risen from 640 to 1,324. There is a small colony of Sonthals of 
 the Lutheran Church in Goalpdra ; but this is rather a settlement 
 of persons converted to Christianity elsewhere than a centre of 
 mission work in the generally accepted use of the term. The total 
 number of native Christians has risen during the last ten years 
 from 5,462 to 14,762. A small proportion of the increase is due 
 to the immigration of Christian Uriyas and Sonthals, but by far 
 the greater part is the result of the labours of the missionaries of 
 different denominations within the province. 
 
 The other religions may be dismissed in a few words. The 
 persons shown as Bhuddhists in Sibsagar, Lakhimpur, and the 
 Naga Hills are chiefly the descendants of persons who immigrated 
 from the Hukong valley about a hundred years ago ; those in 
 Kamrup and Darrang are Bhutias, of whom numbers visit these 
 districts every cold weather ; and those in Goalpara and the Gdro 
 Hills are the relics of the Burmese occupation at the beginning of 
 the century. 
 
 209. The age statistics have been discussed in the Census 
 Beport, and it would be superfluous to 
 reproduce them here. It will suffice to say that 
 an examination of the fii^ures recorded seems to indicate a birth- 
 rate of 49 and a death-rate of 42 per thousand, and an average 
 duration of life of rather less than 24 years ; but the age returns 
 are so unreliable that it would be unsafe to accept these figures as 
 anything more than a rough approximation to the truth. 
 Assuming that men are fit for work between the aoje of 15 and 59, 
 and women from 15 to 44, it has been calculated that 63 per cent. 
 of the male and 46 per cent, of the female population of the 
 province are capable of adding to the material prosperity of the 
 community.
 
 200 
 
 ASSAM AD3IINISTRATI0N REPORT. 
 
 [Chap, VI. 
 
 Census. g-j^Q. The proportion of the married, single, and widowed of 
 
 each sex per ten thousand of the population in 
 the different districts is as follows : 
 
 Mariia2-e. 
 
 
 Unmarried. 
 
 Ma 
 
 ried. 
 
 ^Yidowed. 
 
 Distiict. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females, 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Cachar (plains) 
 
 5,337-0 
 
 4,040-5 
 
 4,326-7 
 
 4,489-7 
 
 336-3 
 
 1,469-8 
 
 Sylhct 
 
 5,832-1 
 
 3,786-9 
 
 3,849-3 
 
 4,147-2 
 
 318-6 
 
 2,065-9 
 
 Godlpara 
 
 5,2841 
 
 3,838-2 
 
 4,368-3 
 
 4,261-7 
 
 317-6 
 
 1,897-1 
 
 Kamr\ip 
 
 5,020-2 
 
 4,273-4 
 
 3,911-4 
 
 3,996-6 
 
 468-4 
 
 1,730-0 
 
 Darrang 
 
 5,353-4 
 
 4,379-1 
 
 4,059-8 
 
 4,228-8 
 
 586-8 
 
 1,3921 
 
 Nowgong 
 
 5,827-4 
 
 4,864-3 
 
 3,679-9 
 
 3,833-6 
 
 492-7 
 
 1,272 1 
 
 SibsAgar 
 
 5,607-1 
 
 4,701-4 
 
 3,768-5 
 
 4,081-7 
 
 624-4 
 
 1,213-9 
 
 Liikhimpur 
 
 5,405-9 
 
 4,620-9 
 
 4,019-1 
 
 4,246-0 
 
 575-0 
 
 1.133-1 
 
 North Cachar 
 
 5,867-2 
 
 5,0732 
 
 3,759-9 
 
 3,517-4 
 
 872-9 
 
 1,409-4 
 
 Naga Hills 
 
 5,031-7 
 
 4,196-1 
 
 4,421-5 
 
 4,493-5 
 
 546-8 
 
 1,310-4, 
 
 Khasi and Jaintia Hills 
 
 5,637-7 
 
 4,663-0 
 
 3,978-4 
 
 3,953-7 
 
 3S3-0 
 
 l,3S.3-3 
 
 Garo Hills 
 
 5,262-9 
 
 4,289-1 
 
 4,503-9 
 
 4,880-6 
 
 233-2 
 
 850-3 
 
 Nortb Lushai Hills (Civil and 
 Military) 
 
 5,283-8 
 
 4,094-1 
 
 4.505-8 
 5,029-9 
 
 4,970-1 
 
 210-4 
 2,010-1 
 
 .... 
 
 Total ot the Province 
 
 5,905-5 
 
 7,959-8 
 
 The proportions of the married, single, and widowed at the 
 different age periods and amongst the various religions have been 
 fully discussed in the Census Report, and it is unnecessary to 
 discuss the subject further here. 
 
 211. The census returns deal with four infirmities, — insanity, 
 Infirmities. dcaf-mutism, blindness, and leprosy. 
 
 
 
 
 Total number afflicted. 
 
 
 Average number 
 
 of I'ersons of whom 
 
 one is afflicted. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s§ 
 
 Infirmity. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1881. 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^.2 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 
 
 
 Insanity 
 
 3,022 
 
 1.737 
 
 1.285 
 
 1,518 
 
 919 
 
 599 
 
 1,798-5 
 
 4 
 
 3,215-6 
 
 74 
 
 Deaf-mutism .. 
 
 4,681 
 
 2.683 
 
 1.998 
 
 2.578 
 
 1,639 
 
 939 
 
 1,161-1 
 
 1,893-4 
 
 74 
 
 Blindness 
 
 5,832 
 
 8,031 
 
 2,801 
 
 3.210 
 
 1.846 
 
 1,364 
 
 931-9 
 
 1,520-6 
 
 92 
 
 Leprosy 
 
 6,727 
 
 5.128 
 
 1.599 
 
 3,313 
 
 2,408 
 
 905 
 
 807-9 
 
 1,472-9 
 
 31 
 
 The large increase in the total number of persons afflicted is 
 attributed to better enumeration and a more perfect system of
 
 Chap. Vl.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 201 
 
 tabulation, rather than to any spread of these infirmities during Census. 
 the decade. The figures for insanity and leprosy show that these 
 infirmities are more prevalent in Assam than in most parts of India, 
 but the number of the insane is nevertheless far lower than that 
 recorded in European countries. The proportion of deaf-mutes is 
 much the same in Assam as in other Indian provinces, while that 
 of the blind is considerably smaller, the reasons for the latter 
 result being apparently the dampness of the climate and a less 
 general prevalence of small-pox. 
 
 The high proportion of lepers is somewhat unexpected ; the 
 liability of the people to this loathsome complaint was first noticed 
 in a report by the Civil Surgeon of Sibsdgar to ^Ir. Mills, on his 
 visit to the province in 1853. 
 
 212. The census returns display a great variety of language. 
 The province is peopled by numerous differ- 
 
 Languages. ., -, ., ^ 
 
 ent tribes, and each tribe has its own pe- 
 culiar dialect. The list of languages is further swollen by the various 
 tongues spoken by the large immigrant population. The indi- 
 genous languages may all be classed under four main families, 
 between the individual members of which verbal and grammatical 
 resemblances are sufficiently numerous, and the difierences are, 
 generally speaking, not more marked than one would have 
 anticipated from the former isolation of the difierent tribes and the 
 fact that their languages are, as a rule, unwritten. First come two 
 languages of the Aryan family, Bengali and Assamese, the former 
 being spoken by some two and three quarter millions of people, 
 residing chiefly in the Surma Valley and Goalpdra, while the latter 
 is the parent tongue of nearly one and a half millions in the five 
 upper districts of the Brahmaputra Valley. Next to be mentioned 
 is the Assam branch of the great family of Tibeto-Burman languages, 
 which, with the exception of the small Khasi family, includes all 
 the tongues spoken by the Non-Aryan tribes whose residence in 
 the province dates from pre-historic times. More than 800,000 
 persons still speak languages of this stock, chief amongst which 
 may be reckoned Kachari, spoken by 200,000 persons, Garo, spoken 
 by 120,000, and Manipuri^ by 72,000. These languages have been 
 
 2 D *
 
 20 2 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Census, classified into groups, of wliicli, so far as our knowledge at present 
 extends, that known as the Bodo group is the most homogeneous, 
 and at the same time the largest, containing, as it does, more than 
 half the total number of persons returned as speaking one or other 
 of the Tibeto-Assam languages. One of the most interesting 
 pieces of information derived from the returns of the last census 
 is the proof afforded us that these languages, especially those of the 
 Bodo group, are rapidly dying out. Two Bodo dialects (Moran 
 and Chutiya) have entirely disappeared from the realms of spoken 
 speech ; and Koch, Eabha, Kachari, and Lalung are also showing 
 signs of a rapidly approaching extinction. It is only in the hills, 
 where contact with other languages is very slight, that these dialects 
 still retain their hold over the tribes to which they belong. The 
 Khasi family, referred to above, consists of Khdsi and three allied 
 dialects (Synteng, Dyko, and Langam), which are spoken in all by 
 over 178,000 people. This family is noteworthy as being altogether 
 distinct from the Tibeto-Burman dialects spoken from the tribes 
 around it, and in fact from all other non- Aryan languages in India. 
 No allied language is known anywhere, except perhaps that spoken 
 in Anam. The only family remaining to be referred to is the Shan, 
 of which several dialects are spoken in this province by people whose 
 ancestors immigrated within comparatively recent years. The older 
 Shdn settlers (the Ahoms and many of the Noras) have abandoned 
 their ancestral forms of speech, and now ta Ik Assamese, while the 
 Turungs, another Shan tribe, speak the language of the Singphos. 
 213. The number of castes and tribes returned at the census 
 is very great, and only a very brief reference 
 can be made to the subject here. The 
 following table shows the strength of the professional classes under 
 which the castes were tabulated : 
 
 
 Class, 
 
 
 Strength, 
 
 Percentage on 
 total population. 
 
 Class 
 
 A.— Agricultural ... 
 
 
 2,465,767 
 
 45-02 
 
 
 B. — Professional ... 
 
 ... 
 
 245,669 
 
 4-43 
 
 
 C. — Commercial ... 
 
 
 11,086 
 
 •20 
 
 
 D. — Artizan 
 
 . . . 
 
 1,089,632 
 
 2004 
 
 
 E. — Vagrant and minor 
 
 artizan s 
 
 24,671 
 
 •47 
 
 
 F. — Kaces and nationahties ... 
 
 1,598,418 
 
 29-40
 
 Chap. VI.] DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 2O3 
 
 Each class was subdivided into groups, but space forbids a Census. 
 detailed examination of the scheme. It may, however, be said 
 that the most numerous Hindu castes included in class A are the 
 Kalita (222,606), Halwa Das (143,536), Koch and Eajbansi 
 (377,807), Kewat (91,129), and Kaibartta (67,324), and that the 
 aboriginal hill tribes, which number in all 1,188,974, are also 
 classified under the same head. Chief amongst these tribes are the 
 Kacharis (243,378), the Gdros (119,754), the Khasis (117,891), the 
 Mikirs (94,829), the Meches (70,201), the Chutiyas (87,691), 
 the Eabhas (69,774), the Ldlungs (52,423), the Syntengs (51,739), 
 and the different Ndga tribes, numbering in all 102,085. Class B 
 includes 102,569 Brahmans, 92,395 Kayasthas, and 23,739 Ganaks. 
 Class C is almost entirely composed of immigrants belonging to the 
 different Baniya castes. In class D, group 40 — '* Fishermen, Boat- 
 men, and Palki bearers " — is numerically the most important ; it 
 includes 205,053 Doms, 180,539 Chanddls, and 58,100 Mdhimals, 
 the last mentioned being a Musalman fishing caste of Sylhet. 
 Other important castes in class D are the following : 
 
 Jugi 
 
 Shaha 
 
 Bhuimali 
 
 Teli 
 
 Napit 
 
 Kamar 
 
 Kumar 
 
 Dhoba 
 
 177,746 
 51,971 
 50,940 
 35,624 
 32,989 
 29,654 
 25,441 
 24,299 
 
 In class F have been included — non-Asiatic foreigners (1,698) 
 [amongst whom Enghsh (1,381) and Europeans unspecified (237) 
 are the most numerous], Eurasians (383), Christian converts 
 (14,756), and "non-Indian Asiatic races" (1,573,237). The last 
 mentioned group is artificially swollen by the inclusion in it of all 
 Musalmans who described themselves as Sheikh (1,377,015), Saiad 
 (12,127), Moghal (2,126), or Pdthdn (13,088). It is weU known
 
 204 
 
 ASSAM ADMINISTHATION EEPORT. 
 
 [Chap. VI, 
 
 Census. ^]^^^ ^|^q ^^^g^ majority of tlie persons tlius returned have no foreign 
 blood in their veins, and are simply natives of the country, who 
 have assumed these titles on conversion to Muhammadanism ; and 
 it would, therefore, have been more correct ethnologically, had these 
 persons been classified under some other head. Their entry under 
 this head was made under instructions laid down for the whole of 
 India by the Census Commissioner. It should be mentioned that 
 the Ahoms (153,528), Khamtis (3,040), and other tribes of Shan 
 extraction have been included in this class, as the country from 
 which their ancestors emigrated lies outside the British boundary. 
 214. The occupations returned at the census were classified 
 under seven classes, twenty-four orders, and 
 ccupa ion. seventy-seven sub-orders. The following 
 
 statement exhibits the distribution of the people per 1,000 over 
 the seven main classes in the province generally, in town and 
 country and in the three principal divisions, — the Surma Valley 
 the Brahmaputra Valley, and the hill districts : 
 
 Class. 
 
 Total population. 
 
 Surma 
 Valley. 
 
 Brahma- 
 putra 
 Valley. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hill 
 
 districts 
 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 Town. 
 
 Country. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 A— Government 
 
 8-49 
 
 131-69 
 
 6-13 
 
 1063 
 
 5-32 
 
 U-15 
 
 B — Pasture and agriculture .. 
 
 777-85 
 
 13102 
 
 790-23 
 
 699-79 
 
 849-51 
 
 823-83 
 
 C— Personal and domestic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 services 
 
 16-37 
 
 94-31 
 
 14-88 
 
 22-30 
 
 12-14 
 
 6-49 
 
 D— Preparation and supply of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 material substances 
 
 127-38 
 
 368-88 
 
 122-75 
 
 184-27 
 
 81-96 
 
 57-82 
 
 B— Commerca 
 
 16-26 
 
 112-54 
 
 14-42 
 
 20-95 
 
 13-23 
 
 6-81 
 
 F— Professions 
 
 1910 
 
 73-15 
 
 18-07 
 
 28-09 
 
 12-87 
 
 4-18 
 
 G— Indefinite occupation 
 
 34-55 
 
 88-41 
 
 83-52 
 
 34-07 
 
 25-18 
 
 86-72 
 
 Total ., 
 
 1,000 
 
 1.000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 Taking the province as a whole, 777 persons in every 1,000, 
 or nearly four-fifths of the total population, derive their support 
 directly from agriculture, and 127, or rather more than one-eighth, 
 from the preparation and supply of material substances. Only 
 19 per thousand are returned as belonging to the professional 
 class, and only 16 to the commercial. The proportion of persons 
 supported by personal and domestic services is also 16 per 1,000. 
 Government employment supports 8 per 1,000.
 
 Chap. VI.] 
 
 DETAILS OF THE LAST CENSUS. 
 
 205 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 number 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 of persons 
 
 
 
 number 
 
 in each 
 
 Number 
 
 Class. 
 
 of persons 
 
 class 
 
 in l.OUO 
 
 
 in each 
 
 combined 
 
 persons. 
 
 
 class. 
 
 with 
 agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 
 A— Government 
 
 46,144 
 
 16,653 
 
 860-89 
 
 B — Pasture and agriculture 
 
 15,625 
 
 2,578 
 
 166-05 
 
 C — Personal services 
 
 88,989 
 
 28,916 
 
 324 ■;t4 
 
 D — Preparation :ind supply 
 
 
 
 
 of material substances 
 
 692,312 
 
 335,973 
 
 485-29 
 
 E — Commerce, transport. 
 
 
 
 
 and storage 
 
 88,393 
 
 30.506 
 
 345-12 
 
 F — Profcsfii.ns 
 
 I08,«;i8 
 
 4-2,405 
 
 408-37 
 
 G — Indefinite and inde- 
 
 187,785 
 
 23,709 
 
 126-25 
 
 pendent . . 
 
 
 
 
 Total.. 
 
 1.222.986 
 
 480,740 
 
 39308 
 
 In the proportional statement given in tlie margin, persons Census. 
 
 who combine agriculture 
 "with some other non-agri- 
 cultural occupation have 
 been shown under the latter. 
 The number of persons in 
 each class who combine the 
 occupation under which 
 they have been classified 
 witli some means of liveU- 
 hood connected with the 
 soil, and the proportion 
 which they bear to tlie toial 
 strength of the class, are 
 shown in the margin. More than a third of the persons employed 
 under Government, in commercial pursuits, and in the profession, 
 are also partly dependent for their subsistence upon agriculture, 
 and the same reijiark is true of nearly half the total number of 
 persons in class D. Out of the total population shown as follow- 
 ing non- agricultural occupations, no' less than 480,740, or 39 per 
 cent., derive a portion of their sustenance from cultivation. If 
 these be added to those already shown under " Agriculture " in 
 the table, the number of persons connected with the soil rises to 
 4,692,997, or 86'34 per cent, of the total population. Assuming 
 that, on the whole, these persons are supported by agriculture and 
 their other occupations in equal proportions, the former is found 
 to be the means of subsistence of 82*2 per cent, of the people. 
 
 Turning to the distribution by classes in the three main divi- 
 sions of the province, the proportion of persons supported by 
 Government service is highest in the hill districts, where the 
 regiments and police battalions form a comparatively large 
 proportion of the population, and is next highest in the Surma 
 Valley, where out of a total of 26,568 persons in this class, 18,155 
 are members of the rural police force and their families. 
 
 The proportion of persons whose occupations are purely agricul- 
 tural is highest in the Brahmaputra Valley, where it amounts to
 
 2o6 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION KEPOHT. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Census. 849 per thousand. In the hill districts, it is somewhat lower, 
 owing to the figures for the Khdsi and Jaintia Hills, where a large 
 number of persons were returned as general labourers. It is 
 lowest in the Surma Valley, which is the most advanced portion 
 of the province, and in which the smaller number of agriculturists 
 is partly due to a larger number of persons engaged in the prepara- 
 tion and supply of material substances, and partly to the fact that 
 many cultivators follow also other occupations, and have thus been 
 entered under the latter. 
 
 Next to the large proportion of cultivators, the primitive 
 condition of the people of this province is best illustrated by the 
 exceptionally small number of persons engaged on personal and 
 domestic services. In the hill districts only 6 persons per thousand, 
 and in the Brahmaputra Valley only 12 per thousand, derive 
 their support from this source, while in Sylhet and Cachar the ratio 
 only rises to 22 per thousand. 
 
 The number of persons engaged in the preparation and supply 
 of material substances is 184 per thousand in the Surma Valley ; 
 in the Brahmaputra Valley it falls to 81, and in the hill districts 
 to 57 per thousand. 
 
 The commercial and professional classes are small everywhere 
 but are better represented in Sylhet and Cachar than in the 
 Brahmaputra Valley, and in the latter than in the hill districts.
 
 Chap. VIIJ.' FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 207 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 Frontier Relations and Feudatory States. 
 
 215. The only Feudatory States with which the Assam Frontier 
 
 4 1 • • • 1 T • 1 1 • Relations. 
 
 Administration has pohtical relations are 
 
 Feudatory States. . . , 
 
 Manipur and the petty States in the Khdsi 
 Hills, Of the latter, sufficient has already been said in Chap- 
 ter II, Section 5, of this report. A list of these States, their 
 population, revenue, and the names of their rulers will be found 
 among the statistical tables appended (Part I, Tables Bl 
 and 2). 
 
 216. Manipur is a protected State lying between Burma on the 
 
 east, the Naga Hills on the north, Cachar on 
 the west, and the Lushai Hills and the 
 country of the Sukte Kukis on the south. It is almost entirely a 
 hill country, the exception being the valley of Manipur in its 
 centre. Its area is between 7,000 and 8,000 square miles, and 
 its population, according to the census of 1881,* 221,070 souls. 
 Of these, 85,288 are returned as hill tribes, the remainder being 
 by religion Hindu or Muhammadan, and consisting of the popula- 
 tion of the valley of Manipur, in which is vsituated the capital of 
 the State. The claim of the Manipuris to be Hindus, however, 
 rests on no better foundation than the same claim on the part of 
 Ahoms, Kacharis, or Tipperas (with all of whom the Manipur 
 ruling family has intermarried) ; and while their features clearly 
 show that they belong to the Indo-Chinese stock, their language 
 is closely allied to those of the Kuki tribes which border them on 
 the south. f 
 
 * It was explained in the last chapter that the records of the Census taken in Manipur 
 in 1891 were destroyed during the disturbances of the following March. 
 
 •f Although the above ia true of the present people of Manipur, there is some reason 
 for believing that this territory was the road by which Hindu influence from the west was 
 first brought to bear upon the Burmese races of the Irrawaddy Valley (see Phayre, 
 " History of Burma," pages 3, 4, and 15).
 
 2o3 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Frontier The kingdom of Maiiipur first emerges from obscurity as a 
 
 RELATION'S. Qgjgi^|3o^^i, and ally of the Shdn kingdom of Pong, which had its 
 capital at Mogaung. The regalia of the royal family are said to 
 have been bestowed by king Komba of Pong, who at the same 
 time added the valley of Khambat to Manipur. In 1714 a Naga, 
 named Pamheiba, became Edja of Manipur, and adopted 
 Hinduism, taking the name of Gharib Kawaz. His people followed 
 his example, and since that date have been conspicuous for the 
 rigidity with which they observe the rules of caste and ceremonial 
 purity. Gharib Nawaz, during his reign of forty years, was 
 eno-ao-ed in constant warfare with Burma, and this state of things 
 continued during those of his successors. Manipur was frequently 
 invaded by the Burmese, whose last occupation of the country 
 beo-an in 1819. The three Manipuri princes, Mdrjit, Chaurjit, and 
 Gambhir Singh, were compelled to escape to Cachar, which 
 country, as has already been related, they occupied. With them 
 laro-e numbers of Manipuris emigrated, and many of their 
 descendants, together with emigrants of later date, are still to be 
 found in Cachar and Sylhet. 
 
 When war was declared against Burma by the British Govern- 
 ment in 1824, and the Burmese had been expelled from Cachar, 
 assistance in arms and money was given by the Company to 
 Gambhir Singh in an attempt to recover possession of Manipur. 
 In this he was successful, occupying not only the valley in which 
 the capital is situated, but also the Kubo Valley down to the 
 Nino-thi or Chindwin river, lying to the east of the former bounda- 
 ries of the State, and peopled by Shdns (called Kabau in Manipuri). 
 The treaty of Yandabu with Burma, executed in February 1826, 
 declared (article II) that should Gambhir Singh desire to return 
 to Manipur, he should be recognised by the king of Ava as lUja 
 thereof. 
 
 Gambhir Singh being thus established on the throne, the levy 
 with which he had effected the reconquest of his country was 
 placed under the management of two British officers, and supplied 
 with ammunition, and also with pay, by the British Government. 
 In 1833 the British Government agreed to annex to Manipur the
 
 Chap VII. ] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 209 
 
 ranges of hills on the west, between the eastern and western bends Frontier 
 
 . . . . . Rll\tions. 
 
 of the Barak, giving that State the line of the Jiri and the western 
 bend of the Barak as its boundary, on condition that the Raja 
 removed all obstructions to trade between his State and Cachar, 
 kept in repair the road between Manipur and British territory, 
 and promised to assist the Government, in the event of war with 
 Burma, both with carriage and with troops. In 1834 Gambhir 
 Singh died, and his death was followed by the regency of Nar 
 Singh, his minister, and a great grandson of Gharib Nawaz, on 
 behalf of the dead king's son, Chandra Kirti Singh, then one year 
 old. In the same year, the British Government decided to restore 
 the Kubo Valley to Burma, the Government of which had never 
 ceased to remonstrate against its separation from that country^ 
 The valley was given back, and a new boundary laid down in the 
 presence of British Commissioners by an agreement dated the 9th 
 January 1834, and at the same time the British Government 
 bound itself to pay a monthly stipend of Rs. 500 to the Eaja of 
 Manipur in compensation for its loss. In 1835 the assistance 
 formerly given to the Manipur levy was withdrawn, and a Political 
 •Agent was appointed to reside at Manipur. 
 
 In 1844 the Queen Dowager, widow of Gambhir Singh and 
 mother of Chandra Kirti, attempted to poison Nar Singh, the 
 Eegent ; her attempt failed, and she fled from the country with 
 her son. Nar Snigh then assumed the raj in his own name, and 
 ruled till his death in 1850. He was succeeded by his brother 
 Debendra Singh ; but this prince ruled for only three months, 
 Chandra Kirti Singh, with the help of Nar Singh's three sons 
 succeeding in ejecting him and recovering possession of the 
 throne. 'J'his was followed by some disorder in the State ; but in 
 February 1851 the Government of India decided upon recognising 
 the succession of Chandra Kirti Singh, fruaranteeincf the raj to him 
 and his descendants, and preventing, by force of arms if necessary, 
 any attempts by rival chiefs to dislodge him. 
 
 In 1851 Debendra Singh's and Nar Singh's sons attempted a 
 rising. In 1852 another attempt occurred, led by Kanhai Singh, 
 son of Marjit, Gambhir Singh's brother. In 1857 some of the 
 
 2 E
 
 2IO ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOET. [Chap, VII. 
 
 Frontier rebellious sepoys from Cliittagong, wlio had found tlieir way to 
 
 Relations. ,, 
 
 Cacliar, were used by one Narendrajit, a younger son of Chaurjit, 
 to raise a disturbance. Narendrajit was transported. In 1859 
 Maipdk, a descendant of Gharib Nawaz, invaded tlie valley, but 
 was defeated and fled. In 1862 he again, in conjunction with 
 another Eajputra, named Khaifa Singh, headed an attack, and 
 penetrated to the Eaja's palace, where he was captured. Kanhai 
 Singh made another attempt in 18G5, when his followers were 
 attacked and dispersed by British troops and police. Another 
 raid was perpetrated by Gokul Singh, a younger son of Debendra 
 Singh, in 1866. His enterprise failed, like the rest, but he escaped 
 for the time. He was captured in 1868, tried in Cacliar, and 
 sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. 
 
 In the Naga w^ar of 1879 the Mahardja of Manipur distinguish- 
 ed himself by rendering loyal assistance to the British Government. 
 He furnished a force, which under the leadership of the Political 
 Ageiit, Tolonel (now Sir James) Johnstone, raised the siege of 
 Koliima by the Nagas, and prevented a great catastrophe. In 
 recognition of this service the Government of India bestowed upon 
 the Mahdraja Chandra Kirti Singh the dignity of K.C.S.I. Another 
 series of events, which gave occasion for much correspondence, 
 was the raids of certain Kukis known as Chasads on the eastern 
 frontier of Manipur territory. It was believed that these raids 
 were abetted by the Shdn Tsawbwa, or chief of Samjok in the 
 Kubo Valley ; and, as there was much indehniteness in the frontier 
 north of the Kubo Valley proper as set forth in the agreement of 
 1 834, it was determined by the Government of India to send a 
 Commission to define and demarcate the boundary of Manipur in 
 this direction. This task was accomplished in the cold weather 
 of 1881-82, and the Burmese Government (who were invited to 
 co-operate in the demarcation, but did not do so) were informed 
 that the boundary so laid down would be maintained by the 
 Government of India. The raiding Kukis, who were favoured in 
 their enterprise by the uncertainty of the frontier, were found to be 
 settled within Manipur territory, and some of them were induced 
 to move further in, and were thus brought under stricter control.
 
 Chap. VII,] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 211 
 
 On the death of Chandra Kirti Singh in 1886, Bara Chauba Frontier 
 the eldest son of Nar Singh, who had been Maharaja from 1844 
 to 1850, made an attempt to get possession of the gadi^ but was 
 eventually defeated by a detachment of the Cachar Military Police, 
 after which he gave himself up, and was deported with his 
 relatives to Hazaribac^h. 
 
 The last event to be recorded in the history of this State is 
 the terrible disaster which took place in March 1891. In Septem- 
 ber 18yO the Mahdnija Sura Chandra Singh was driven from his 
 palace by his two youngest brothers, at the instigation of the 
 Senapati, Tekendrajit Singh, and took refuge with the Political 
 Agent. Notwithstanding the advice given by the latter, he 
 declared his intention of abdicating, and left Manipur for Brinda-- 
 ban. On reaching British territory, he repudiated any intention 
 of abdicating, and requested the assistance of the Government of 
 India to regain the gadi. The Government of India, after duly 
 considering the matter, decided that the Jubraj should be confirmed 
 as Raja, but that the turbulent Senapati should be removed from 
 Manipur. To carry out this decision, Mr. Quinton, who was 
 then Chief Commissioner, proceeded to Manipur early in 1891 with 
 an escort, and ordered the Senapati to surrender himself. This 
 he refused to do. Troops were sent to arrest him in his house 
 in the palace enclosure. They were fiercely attacked by the 
 Manipuris, and the engagement continued until the evening, wlien 
 an armistice was agreed to, and firing temporarily ceased. The 
 Chief Commissioner and four other officers were then induced, 
 under a promise of safe conduct, to enter the " Pat " and 
 hold a Darbar in the Darbar hall at the entrance to the Pidja's 
 citadel. No agreement being found possible, the oSicers started 
 to return to the Residency ; but on the way the crowd closed in 
 on them, and the Political Agent, Mr. Grimwood, was fatally 
 speared and Lieutenant Simpson severely wounded. The Chief 
 Commissioner and his companions were then kept prisoners for 
 two hours, after which they were marched to the green space in 
 front of the dragons, and there beheaded by the public execu- 
 tioner. The attack on the Residency was then resumed, and the
 
 2 1 2 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VIF. 
 
 Froxtiek defenders, tliinking it untenable, retreated to Cacliar. These 
 * events took place on the 2^111 March. On the 27th April the 
 place Tras entered b}^ three columns of British troops, marching 
 from Silchar, Koliima, and Tammu. Ihe Eegent and his brothers 
 had fled the night before, together with the Tangkhul Major, the 
 Senapati, and other persons implicated in the outrage, but all were 
 subsequently captured. The Senapati, Tangkhul Major, and some 
 others were sentenced to death and executed, and the Eegent and 
 his brothers were transported for life. The future of the State 
 had then to be considered, and it was eventually decided by the 
 Gcjvernment of India to regrant the State and to place upon the 
 throne a j'outh named Chura Chand, a scion of a collateral line. 
 During his minority the administration of the State is to be con- 
 ducted by the Political Agent, and numerous reforms, including 
 the introduction of better judicial tribunals, the abolition of the 
 system of lalup, or forced labour, etc., have already been effected. 
 
 The Political Agent in Manipur was till 1879 only partly under 
 the control of the Chief Commissioner, with whom he corresponded 
 only in regard to matters connected with Assam and its frontier, 
 but in that year he was made directly subordinate to the Chief 
 Commissioner. On the regrant of the State in 1891, his designation 
 was changed to " Political Agent and Superintendent of the State. " 
 217. The frontier States and tribes which adjoin the province 
 
 Frontier States and tribes. ^^ ^^^^^^^' Commencing at the north-west cor- 
 ner, are the followinij;' : 
 
 (1) Bhutan, 
 
 {i) Ehutias subject to Thibet, 
 
 (3) Independent Bhutias, 
 
 (4) Akas, 
 
 (5) Dafla«, 
 
 (6) Miris, 
 
 (7) Abors, 
 
 (8) Mishmis, 
 
 (9) Khamtis, 
 
 (10) Singpbos, 
 
 (11) Ncl^ras, 
 (bere Manipur intervenes, 
 
 and tben follow) — 
 
 (12) Lusbais, and 
 
 (13) HillTippera. 
 
 218. With the Deb Eaja of Bhutan the Chief Commissioner, 
 
 ■gjjy^^j^ has now no direct relations. Whenever it 
 
 may be necessary to communicate with him,
 
 Chap. VU] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 213 
 
 this is (lone tliroiigli die Commissioner of Koch Bihar, a copy of Frontier 
 
 ,1 . . ' . , , . 1 ^ Relations. 
 
 the communication beini^^ sent at the same time to the Government 
 of liengal. Akhough this State adjoins Assam to the north of the 
 districts of Goalpara, Kdmrup, and Darrang, as far east as the 
 Doishdm river, no official intercourse other than complimentary 
 interviews with local officials is kept up. 
 
 On the conquest of Assam, tlie northern portion of Kdmrup, 
 consisting of the Bijni, Chappakamar, Chappaguri, Banska, and 
 Garkaha Duars was found in possession of Bhutia chiefs, who 
 paid a tribute of Es. 3,049 yearly to the Assam Eajas. 'Jo the 
 east of the Bornadi the two Duars of Khalim? and Buriiruma were 
 held by the Bhutias for eight months of the year, and by the 
 Assam Eaja for the remaining four (the rainy season). The pay- 
 ment of tribute by the Bhutia Jungpens during the first fifteen 
 years of our rule was very irregular, and the frontier was conti- 
 nually harassed by dacoities and outrages perpetrated on our sub- 
 jects, which necessitated frequent armed reprisals. At last, in 
 1841, it was determined (since the possession of these tracts by 
 the Bhutias was of recent date) to resume the Dudrs, and bring 
 them under British management, paying to the Bhutan Govern- 
 ment an annual sum of Es. 10,000 as compensation for their loss. 
 This sum was regularly paid until the outbreak of the Bhutan war 
 in 1864, when it was stopped, and the seven Assam Duars (as 
 well as the five Eastern Duars north of Goalpara, by name 
 Guma, Eipu, Chirang, Sidli, and Bijni, and the seven Western 
 Dudrs north of Koch Bihar, were finally annexed to British territory. 
 At the same time the Fort of Diwangiri and its neighbourhood, 
 which commands the passage down to the bazars of Kdmrup, was 
 occupied and retained as British territory. 
 
 The Bhutias come dowm during the cold weather for pasture 
 and trade into the north of Kdmriip and western Darrancf, but few 
 of them appear to visit the thinly-peopled submontane tract of 
 Godlpdra. Most of their trade is done at Subankhata, Kumori 
 Kata, and Genbdri in the Kdmrup district south of Dewangiri, 
 and at Ghagrapara in Darrang. There are a few Bhutia settle- 
 ments in British territory at the foot of the hills, but their condi-
 
 214 ASSAM AD:\nNISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. VII' 
 
 Frontier tion is not very prosperous, and they seem to be a survival of the 
 ■ old days of Bhutia supremacy, rather than the beginning of a more 
 extended immigration. 
 
 During their visits to the plains it is not uncommon to hear 
 of exactions made by the Bhutias visiting the Kamrup district, 
 who take advantage of the timorous nature of the villagers to 
 force upon them chillies and salt and extort in exchange large 
 quantities of rice and other articles. These exactions have of 
 late become so bad that it has been found necessary to place an 
 additional guard at Kakolabari, the cost of which is deducted from 
 the posa of the Eaja. 
 
 21q. The Bhutias of the Kan^pdra Dudr, which lies east 
 of Bhutan Proper and extends from the 
 
 Bhutias subject to Thibet. -r\ • i it-. 
 
 Doisham to the Eota river, are dependent 
 upon Towang, which is a dependency of the Government of Lhassa- 
 The chiefs of this Duar, called the Sat Rajas, used, like their neigh- 
 bours of Bhutan Proper, to levy dues from the inhabitants of the 
 adjoining plains. In 1844 their claims were bought out by the 
 British Government on payment of an annual sum of Es, 5,000. 
 Our relations with these people since the composition of 1844 have 
 only once been disturbed. In 1852 one of the Gelongs, or Thibet- 
 an officials appointed from Lhassa to supervise the local chiefs, 
 having some misunderstanding with his superiors, fled to British 
 territory. His surrender was peremptorily demanded by the autho- 
 rities of Lhassa, and a Thibetan army moved towards the frontier. 
 A British force was assembled at Udalijuri, with two suns. But no 
 hostihties actually occurred ; the Thibetans retired, the fugitive 
 Gelong was removed to Gauhati, and the Dudr was reopened for 
 trade. This pass is specially interesting, as it is the only place in 
 many hundred miles of Himdlaydn barrier where the British power 
 is in actual contact with Thibet. The hillmen, including Thibetans 
 from the higher ranges, resort in considerable numbers during the 
 cold weather through this Dudr to the annual fair at Udalguri, 
 which lies due south of the gap through which the Dhansiri river 
 issues from the hills.
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 2 1$ 
 
 Exactions, similar to those referred to in the last para^fraph Fi^o^-'tier 
 
 lor Relations. 
 
 have occasionally been reported ; but these acts of oppression are 
 now comparatively rare. Owing to the fall in the price of salt 
 imported from England, the Bhutias find their trade less profitable 
 than it used to be, and the number who visit the plains is decreas- 
 ing every year. 
 
 220. Next to these Bhutias subject to Towang come the Sat 
 
 Eajas of Charduar, chiefs who live at villages 
 
 Independent Bhutias. i\ i i i ^ r i i • t-» , "^z • 
 
 called by the people ot the plains Ftuprai- 
 gaon and ShergAon. They claim to be independent of Towang, and 
 rule the face of the hills from the Rota to the Diputa river. The 
 Thebengia Bhutias are a distinct race and live several days' 
 journey into the hills, but they used, in conjunction with the 
 Sat Edjas, to levy contributions from the people of the adjacent 
 plains. Erom 1839 to 1844 these people were excluded from the 
 plains by the British Government, in punishment for outrages com- 
 mitted bv them. On their submittinc^ and executinof a formal 
 agreement to refrain from aggressions, they received annual pen- 
 sions, — the Shergdon and Ruprdigdon Bhutias of Rs. 2,526-7 a year, 
 and the Thebengia Bhutias of Rs. 145-13-6. They come down 
 annually to receive their pensions at Tezpur. They also hold an 
 annual fair at a place beyond British territor}'-, in the gorge of the 
 Belsiri river, called Daimdra, where some trade is done with the 
 people of the plains, which is registered by a police post at the 
 boundary pillar on the frontier. 
 
 221. Next to the Bhutias come the Akas, who occupy the 
 
 sub-Himalayan region as far east as the 
 
 issue of tlie Khari-Dikarai river. This 
 
 tribe is divided into two sections, called by the Assamese 
 
 the Hazdrikhoas and the Kapahchors.* The former rec3ived a 
 
 ♦ The first of these names probably indicates that a thousand gots of pails, or indi- 
 vidual groups of revenue-payers, was set aside to provide a stipend for the tribe : kiwa 
 (eater) is the usual Assamese termination, indicating tliat a person is supported f -om 
 the revenues of any place or people. Kapuhchor means cotton-thief, this cla-s of Akas 
 being famous for their night attacks, in which they lurked in the cotton-fieldg with a 
 primitive sort of dark lantern, waiting their opportunity.
 
 2l6 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Frontier ^jo^w * or stipend, from tlie Assam Rajas, and tlie latter levied 
 ' contributions without having any such title. Both tribes are 
 believed to be very limited in number ; but to the north of them is 
 an allied race called the Mijis, of whose strength nothing certain is 
 known. Though small, however, this tribe has a great reputation 
 for violence and audacity. For many years Tdgi Rdja, the chief 
 of the Kapahchor Akas, gave us much trouble by his robberies 
 and murders in the plains. In 1829 he was captured, and lodged 
 for four years in the Gauhati jail. In 1832 he was released, in 
 the hope that he had learnt a lesson, and would be quiet in future ; 
 but he immediately resumed his attacks, and in 1835 massacred 
 all the inhabitants of the British village and police outpost of 
 Balipara. For seven years after this he evaded capture-, his tribe 
 remaining outlawed in the hills. At length, in 1842, he surren- 
 dered, and it was decided to use his influence with the other chiefs 
 to secure the peace of the border. An agreement was made, under 
 which the Kapahchor Aka chiefs receive Es. 520 a year as pen- 
 sion. The Hazarikhoas receive a pension of Rs. 180. Both tribes 
 have certain small areas of land in the plains allotted to them for 
 cultivation. The Kapahchors threatened in 1875 to give trouble, 
 claiming an extensive tract of forest and other land on the Bharali 
 river, which was cut off by the demarcation of the boundary in 
 1874-75. Nothing further occurred at the time, and the new 
 boundary was quietly accepted. 
 
 This dispute, however, coupled with one or two other grievances 
 of a very minor nature, is believed to have been the cause of the 
 acts of aggression which resulted in the expedition of 1883-84. 
 In Ot'tober 1883, Lakhidhar mauzadar, who had visited the village 
 of Medhi, the Kapahchor Aka chief, to ask him to supply articles 
 for the Calcutta Exhibition and to send down a man and a woman 
 
 * Tlic word ^:)o.sa or jmcha ( •'(5! ) litei ally means a collection or subsciiption for a 
 common purpose ; it is probably connected with the word pnnch (live), and recalls the 
 Mahratta chanlh, <>r fourth. Tlic word is still well understood in this sense in Upper 
 Assam. In its special sense of payment to a hill tribe, it strictly denotes the subscription 
 which the \illafre raised in order to mr;et the customary demands of their visitors from 
 the hills, in other words, blackmail. It is not properly applicable to a fixed stipend, 
 paid, as in these cases, by Government in accordance with treaty ; but it has now come 
 to include such stipends.
 
 Chap. VII.] FKONTIEll llELATIONS, ETC. 2 1 7 
 
 to be modelled there, was forcibly detained, and shortly afterwards Frontier 
 
 ' '' -I p p Relations, 
 
 Medhi's brother, Chandi, carried off a clerk and forest ranger trom 
 BaHpara. A punitive expedition was despatched, and Medhi's 
 village was occupied, the Akas taking refuge in the jungle. They 
 gave up their captives (except Lakhidhar, who had died) and 
 sent in some rifles and other articles which they had carried off; 
 but the chiefs themselves did not come in before tlie departure of 
 the troops, which took place only fourteen days after their arrival' 
 and appears to have been somewhat premature. The expedition 
 was followed by a blockade of the frontier, which was maintained 
 until 1888, when the Aka chiefs appeared before the Deputy 
 Commissioner and tendered their submission. Since that time they 
 are reported to have been perfectly well behaved and contented. 
 222. Next to the Akas come the Dafl as, who, with the Hill Miris 
 and the Abors, occupy the whole of the rest 
 of the sub-Himdlaydn hills until the Mishmi 
 country is reached. These three races speak languages which are 
 said to be mutually intelligible, and they are evidently, though 
 differing in arms and style of dress, nearly akin. The Daflas and 
 Miris were, hke the Akas, in receipt of f>05a5, or pensionary allowance, 
 under the Assam Government, as a condition of their refraining 
 from aggression on the northern tracts of Darrang and Lakhimpur, 
 and these allowances have been continued by the British Govern- 
 ment. There are two divisions of the Daflas, one called the Paschim, 
 or Western, Daflas, and the other the Tagin Daflas, who live to 
 the east of these. For many years the Daflas have been quiet 
 neighbours. Previous to 1837 their raids on the frontier were 
 numerous, but in that year the system of annual pensions was 
 settled. The only occasion since then when they have given 
 trouble was in 1872 and 1873, when the Tagin Daflas broke the peace 
 on two occasions by seizing some plains Daflas who were believed by 
 them to have caused sickness in the hills. These outrages were 
 punished first by a blockade ; on this proving ineffectual in obtain- 
 ing the surrender of the captives, an expedition was sent into the 
 hills north of the Dikhrang river in the cold weather of 1874-75, 
 which was followed by the release of the prisoners and the 
 
 2 F
 
 2i8 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Frontier Submission of the tribe. Since then our relations with the Dallas 
 Relations, j^^^,^ }^een peaceful. Considerable numbers of this people, whose 
 superstitions in regard to sickness and witchcraft lead them to 
 frequent attacks by one village upon another, have settled in the 
 plains of Darrang and Lakhimpur as Government ryots. The last 
 census showed 1,137 Daflas as settled in these districts, against 
 549 in 1881 and 418 in 1872. 
 
 223. The Miris are a quiet and inoffensive race. They receive 
 an annual allowance in money, salt, and rum 
 
 Miris. 
 
 from the North Lakhimpur treasury. It is 
 believed that they stand in some sort of servile relation to the 
 Abors, to avoid which large numbers of this people have settled 
 in Upper Assam as British subjects. In the plains they still 
 preserve their customs of building houses on piles, and of cultivat- 
 ino- hy j hum ; they are expert and fearless boatmen, and always 
 settle on the banks of a river. Eetaining their own language 
 among themselves, they also speak Assamese, to which is due the 
 name by which they are known in Assam (Miri, or Mili, meaning 
 go-between or interpreter), as they act as a channel of communica- 
 tion with the Abors of the hills. The total number of Miris 
 settled in Assam is 37,430, of whom all except about 3,000 are 
 found in Sibsdgar and Lakhimpur. 
 
 224. The Abors, who call themselves P^ddm {Abor being an 
 , Assamese word designating an independent, 
 
 remote, and unknown savage), occupy the 
 hills east of the Miris as far as the Dibong river. They bear a 
 very different character from the latter, and the want of popula- 
 tion on the north bank of the Brahmaputra from opposite 
 Dibrugarh to Sadiya is chiefly due to dread of their raids. Their 
 principal villages are in the hills about the course of the Diliong, 
 but several recent settlements have been founded in the plains. 
 Murders and outrages committed by them on Government ryots, 
 in some cases close to the headquarters station of Dibrugarh, have 
 led to several punitive expeditions. In 1858 one was sent to punish 
 the massacre of a Bihia village by the Bor Meyong Abors, but was 
 not successful in its object. In 1859 a second expedition was sent.
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER EELATIONSj ETC. 219 
 
 and met with better fortune. In 18G1 another massacre of Bihias, frontier 
 a few miles from Dibrugarh, on the south side of the Brahmaputra, Relation's. 
 occurred. This was followed by preparations for establishing a line 
 of outposts along the north bank of the Brahmaputra, connected 
 by a road, to guard against such attacks in future. The Abors 
 appear to have been impressed by these operations. They made 
 overtures, which were responded to, and a meeting took place in 
 November 1862 between them and the Deputy Commissioner. A 
 treaty was arranged with eight communities of the tribe, promis- 
 ing them, on condition of good behaviour, an annual allowance 
 of iron hoes, salt, rum, opium, and tobacco. Later, in November 
 1862 and in January 1863, some other powerful villages made 
 similar as^reements. The last concluded was made with the 
 remaining communities in April 1866. All these agreements recite 
 that the British territory extends to the foot of the hills. The 
 allowance to the tribe is paid at the Darbdr held annually at Sadiya ; 
 but on several occasions the Abors have held sulkily aloof, and 
 have not presented themselves at the Darbar. 
 
 In 1881 it was apprehended that certain villages of Abors, who 
 had expressed an intention to cross the Dibong river and settle 
 upon the hills beneath those occupied by the Chuhkdta Mishmis, 
 would carry their hostihties with the latter tribe into British 
 territory, and cut them off from access to Sadiya. The execution 
 of this plan was prevented by the despatch of a mixed force of 
 troops and police to occupy the post of Nizamghat, where the 
 Dibong river issues from the hills north of Sadiya, and another 
 lower down, opposite the Abor village of Bomjur. 
 
 In 1889 two Meyong villages combined to decoy four British 
 subjects, Miris, beyond the Inner Line, where they murdered them, 
 the object apparently being to establish a claim iovposa. A fine of 20 
 mithans was imposed upon them, and the whole of the Passi and 
 Meyong Abor frontier was blockaded pendinpj payment. The fine was 
 paid in less than a year, and no trouble has since been given by this 
 tribe. 
 
 225. The Mishmis, who occupy the hills from the Dibong to 
 the Brahmakund in the north-eastern corner 
 of the valley, are divided into three tribes,
 
 R£LATIONS. 
 
 2 20 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VU. 
 
 Frontier called respectively the Chulikata or crop-haired Mishmis, the Tain 
 or Digaru Mishmis, and the Mizhu or Midhi Mishmis. The first 
 named have on several occasions attacked Khdmti settlements in 
 the neighbourhood of Sadiya, and have threatened to give trouble. 
 Of late years, however, they have become embroiled with the Abors, 
 and have looked to the British Government for protection and 
 assistance. They resort in considerable numbers to the Sadiya 
 fair, and are active traders. The Digdru Mishmis are a qtiiet, 
 inoffensive people, and act as guides to the pilgrims to the Brahma- 
 kund. Of the Mizhu or Midhi Mishmis, who are the most remote 
 of the three, we know little. In 1854 two French priests, M. M. 
 Krick and Bourry, who endeavoured to pass through their country 
 from Assam to Thibet, were murdered by a party of these Mishmis 
 under a chief named Kai-i-sha. This outrac^e was aveng^ed in 
 February 1855 by an expedition under Lieutenant Eden, who with 
 20 Assam Light Infantry and 40 Khamti volunteers reached 
 Kai-i-sha's village, stormed it, and took the murderer prisoner. 
 In December 1885, Mr. F. J. Needham, Assistant Political Officer 
 at Sadiya, accompanied by Captain E. II. Molesworth, Commandant 
 of Military Police, and three police orderlies, succeeded in penetrat- 
 ing through the Mizhu Mishmi country and in entering the Thibetan 
 province of Zayul, and thereby establishing the identity of the 
 Sanpo with the Dibong. 
 
 The Chulikata Mishmis were blockaded from 1884 to 1887 in 
 consequence of the murder of an Assamese at Dikrang in revenge, 
 it is said, for the death of a Chulikata chief, Lako, on his return 
 from the Calcutta Exhibition, for which the superstitious tribesmen 
 believed the British Government to be responsible. The blockade 
 was raised in 1887 on the payment of a fine of Es. 2,000. 
 
 None of the Mishmi tribes receive any jiosa^ nor do formal 
 treaties or aojreements with them exist. 
 
 226. The Khamtis settled about Sadiya have already been 
 
 Khimtis mentioned in paragraph 75 of this report. 
 
 They are immigrants from a Shfln State beyond 
 
 the Pjitkoi range, formerly tributary to Burma, and known to the 
 
 Assamese as Bor Kluimti, They are of the same race as the 
 
 Ahoms, but differ from the latter in being Buddhists. They are
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER llELATIONS, ETC. 22 1 
 
 a literary and cultivated people, and much more civilised than Froxtier 
 
 •^ . . ^ ^ . Relations. 
 
 any of their neighbours, not excluding the Assamese. They first 
 settled in Sadiya during the latter part of the eighteenth century. 
 When the Burmese were expelled from Assam, the Khdrati Gohain, 
 or chief of Sadiya, executed an agreement of allegiance to the 
 British Government, and Sadiya was selected as the residence of 
 the Political Agent in Upper Assam. In 1839, after the death of 
 the Khamti chief, with whom we made the agreement, the Khdmtis of 
 Sadiya suddenly rose, and massacred the Political Agent, Colonel 
 White, and many of his guards and attendants. A war folio ,ved, 
 ending in the transportation of the Khdmti chief's son and his 
 followers to a distant part of British territory. In 1843 some chiefs 
 of this race were again allowed to settle about Sadiya ; and in 
 1850 a new immigration from Bor Khamti took place. The Khamtis 
 living about Sadiya and Saikwa are British ryots, and pay reve- 
 nue. Those living on the Tengapc4ni beyond the Inner Line acknow- 
 ledge allegiance to the British Government, but pay no revenue. 
 A small force of 24i men, known as the Khamti Volunteers, are em- 
 ployed for the protection of the villages about Sadiya. They 
 receive a trifling yearly pay from (jovernment, and have been 
 supplied with muskets and ammunition. They patrol the paths to 
 the north and east of Sadiya by which the Mishmis come down to 
 that place. This force is gradually being abolished, and no new 
 appointments are being made to replace losses by death, &c. The 
 last census showed 3,040 Khamtis to be resident in Assam. 
 
 227. The Phakials, or Pliake, are said to have left Mogaung for 
 Assam about 17G0 A. D., immediately after the 
 
 Phakials and lurungs. ^ ^ ^ "^ 
 
 subjugation cf that province by Alomphra. 
 Colonel Hannay tells us that, prior to their immigration into this 
 province, they were resident on the banks of the Turungpani, and 
 were thus apparently near neighboursof the Turungs. On reaching 
 Assam, they at first settled on the banks of the Buri Dihing, whence 
 they were brought by the Ahoms, and settled near Jorhdt. When the 
 Burmese invaded Assam, they and other Shan tribes were ordered 
 by the Burmese authorities to return to Mogaung, and they had 
 got as far as their old settlement on the Buri Dihing when the 
 province was taken by the British.
 
 222 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. Vll. 
 
 Frontier Their lancruasje closely resembles that of the other northern 
 
 Relations. o o ./ 
 
 Shuns. Like the Khamtis and Turungs, they are Buddhists. They 
 seldom marry outside their own community ; and, as this is very 
 small, their physique is said to be deteriorating. They are adepts 
 in the art of dyeing. The total strength of the Phakidls is only 
 565 ; all of whom are found in the Sadr subdivision of the Lakhim- 
 pur district. 
 
 The Turungs immigrated into the province less than seventy 
 years ago. Their own tradition is that they originally came from 
 Mungmang Khaosang on the north-east of Upper Burma, and set- 
 tled on the Turungpani, whence the name by which they are now 
 known. While there, they received an invitation from the Noras, 
 who had preceded them and settled near Jorhat, and in conse- 
 quence they started across the Patkoi en route for the Brahmaputra 
 Valley. They were, however, taken prisoners by the Singphos 
 and made to work as slaves, in which condition they remained for 
 five years. They were released by Captain Neufville, along with 
 nearly 6,000 Assamese slaves, in 1825, and continued their journey 
 to the Jorhat subdivision, where they are still settled. 
 
 228- The Singphos, who live intermixed with the Khamtis on 
 the New and Old Dihings, the Tenojapani, 
 
 Singphos. . ° . » i ' 
 
 and themountams beyond, are, like the latter, 
 but an outlier of the main population of the same race who occupy 
 in force the hilly country between the Patkoi and Chindwin river, 
 where they are nominally subject to Burma. To the Burmese they 
 are known as Ralchye7ift, and Shigpho is but the word in their lan- 
 guage meaning " man." They are, apparently, from what is known 
 of their language, related to the Nfiga tribes in their neighbour- 
 hood, to whom, however, they stand distinctly in the position of 
 masters and superiors ; where brought in contact with the 
 Khamtis they have borrowed something of the civilisation and out- 
 ward appearance of the latter, and have also in some cases been 
 converted to Buddhism. They are, however, probably quite 
 distinct by race. 
 
 The Singphos are recent arrivals in Assam, having made their 
 appearance at the head of the valley during the troubles of Kdja 
 Gaurindth Singh with the Moamarids about 1793. It was through
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC, 223 
 
 their country that tlie Burmese invaders passed into Assam in 1818 Frontier 
 
 *' ^, ^ Relations. 
 
 and 1822 ; and the ravages of the Singphos, added to those of the 
 
 Burmese, contributed greatly to the depopulation of the Matak 
 country and Sibsagar. When Assam was conquered from tlie 
 Burmese, the chiefs of the Singphos, after several engagements with 
 our troops, tendered their allegiance, and entered into agreements 
 not to disturb the peace of the frontier. Great numbers of Assamese 
 slaves, who had been carried off by them in the early years 
 of the century, were released, and the wealth and power of the 
 tribe were in this manner much reduced. In 1839 they joined the 
 Khamtis in their attack on Sadiya ; but by 1842 they had again 
 been brought to acknowledge their subjection. Many of the 
 Singpho immigrants, with whom agreements were made in 1826, 
 have since retired across the frontier into Hukou"'. 
 
 The Duaniiis, or Singpho-Assamese half-breeds (so called from 
 the Assamese dudn = language, because they act as interpreters), 
 are the offspring of the intercourse between these slaves and their 
 captors. They are chiefly settled along the Buri or Old Dihing, 
 and are quiet subjects. 
 
 The now universal habit of opium-eating is believed to have con- 
 tributed largely to the present quiet attitude of the Singphos and 
 Khdmtis. The chiefs of these people meet annually at the full 
 moon of Magh (in the end of January or beginning of February) 
 at Sadiya to present themselves, with the chiefs of the Mishmi and 
 Abor tribes, before the Political Officer, who receives their offerings, 
 and gives them in return small presents. They pay no revenue 
 except where settled within the Inner Line. 
 
 229. The tribes known to the Assamese as Nagas stretch un- 
 interruptedly from the P4tkoi alonor the south- 
 
 Nagaa. . - , . . 
 
 ern frontier of the Lakhimpur and Sibsagar 
 districts, to the valley of the Dhansiri and North Cachar. Of the 
 Nagasin the British district of the Naga Hills (the Angamis, Kacha 
 Ncigas, Eengmas, Semas, Lhotas, and Aos) mention has already been 
 made. Our relations with the remaining tribes are conducted 
 through the Deputy Commissioners of Dibrugarh and Sibsagar. 
 From the Tirdp river eastward to the Patkoi, the Nagas are com-
 
 224 ASSAM iVDMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. Vll. 
 
 Froxtier pietely in subjection to the Singplios, and are apparently a very 
 quiet race. West of tliis point begins a succession of groups of 
 villa"-es known to the Assamese by the names of the passes or Dudrs 
 throuf^h which their inhabitants resort to the plains,— as the Ndm- 
 sdm^ias, Bordudrias, Panidudrias, Mithonias, Banpheras, Jobokas, 
 Bhitarndmsangias, Jdtungias, Tdblungias, Assiringias, etc. The 
 outer tribes of this region are in constant communication with the 
 plains, and in the times of the Assam Edjas used to make annual 
 offerings of elephants' tusks and other such articles. They do a 
 considerable trade in cotton and other hill produce, and carry back 
 larcre quantities of salt and rice. The inner tribes, known to the 
 Assamese as Abors, or wild men, are kept from access to the plains 
 by these outer or Bori (subject, civihsed) Ndgas, who thus keep the 
 carrying trade in their own hands. Besides, for purposes of trade, 
 these outer Nagas come down in considerable numbers to labour in 
 tea plantations and on roads during the cold weather. Unlike the 
 Ano-amis, Semds, and Lhotds, who are intensely democratic in their 
 social economy, many of the Eastern Ndgas appear to acknowledge 
 the authority of Edjas and minor chiefs among themselves. 
 
 With the internal affairs of these people we hardly meddle at 
 all ; but they are prohibited from carrying their quarrels into the 
 settled British territory, and, if they do so, are tried and punished 
 by our courts. On this frontier, a system prevails by which 
 the Na""as of each group have allotted to them certain Assamese 
 a^^ents, called kotokis, who manage small plots of revenue-free land 
 called Nciga khdts, on behalf of the tribes. When the attendance 
 of the chiefs in the hills is required for any purpose, they are sum- 
 moned through these kotokis. If satisfaction for robberies and 
 other outrages is not in this way obtained, theDudr or pass through 
 which the tribe visits the plains is blocked, and no one is allowed to 
 come down or go up. This system has rarely failed to secure 
 reparation : and, on the whole, the conduct of the Ndgas on this 
 frontier, when left to themselves, has been peaceable and quiet, 
 so far as the settled lands of the plains are concerned. Among 
 themselves, however, their feuds are incessant, and are only com- 
 posed to break out anew. The easternmost tribes of Bordudrias
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 225 
 
 and Ndmsdnofias have thus been prosecutmf^r a quarrel for over fifty Frontier 
 
 ,. ,. ii-iiir Relations. 
 
 years, each group taking, when it can, the hves and heads of some 
 of the others. With these feuds it has not been our pohcy to 
 meddle, though attempts have occasionally been made to mediate 
 between contending tribes. 
 
 The Nciga country up to the Ptitkoi range is nominally British 
 territory by inheritance from the rulers of Assam and by our trea- 
 ties with Burma. It has from time to time been explored by survey 
 parties, and on one of these occasions, in February 1875, a party sent 
 into the hills south of Jaipur was treacherously attacked at Ninu, 
 a village four marches from the plains up the valley of the Disang, 
 and Lieutenant Holcombe, the Assistant Commissioner accompany- 
 ing the party, with eighty coolies and followers, was killed. Captain 
 Badgley, the survey officer, and fifty others being wounded. This 
 was followed by a punitive expedition, by which the villages which 
 took part in the massacre were attacked and destroyed. During 
 the same season the survey party in the western Naga Hills was 
 attacked by Ndgas ; and in December 1875 Captain Butler, the 
 Political Agent, who was accompanying the survey party, was 
 again attacked near the Lhota Niiga village of Pangti, and received 
 a wound of which he died a few days later. The village was at 
 once destroyed by the force which accompanied the survey 
 party. 
 
 230. Passing by the British district of the Naga Hills and 
 
 Manipur already described, we come to 
 
 the country of the Lushai Kukis lying south 
 of Cachar. 
 
 From the earliest period of which we have any knowledge, the 
 
 hills lying to the south of Manipur, Cachar, and eastern Sylliet 
 
 have been inhabited by various tribes known to the Bengalis by 
 
 the common name of Kukis. These tribes have always, so far 
 
 as we know, been divided into numerous families, each family 
 
 acknowledging a chief or ruling house, and these houses being 
 
 generally engaged in warfare with one another. Each village had 
 
 its chief, whose object it was to extend the fame and power of his 
 
 village by fighting with his neighbours. As among the Garos and 
 
 2 G
 
 2.26 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPOHT. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Frostier otlier wild tribes ill tilis part of India, the gathering of heads was 
 ELATioNs. ^j^^ QJ^ject of many of these attacks and of raids upon the adjacent 
 plains. During the weak rule of the last E^jas of Cachar, the 
 valleys in the south of that district were almost depopulated by 
 attacks from these hillmen, and at the same time the district began 
 to be invaded by refugee bodies of Kukis who had been driven out 
 of their own country by more powerful chiefs, and sought protection 
 from the rulers of Cachar. Many of these communities settled 
 across the Bardil in North Cachar, where they were comparatively 
 safe from pursuit. Those who settled in the southern hills were 
 often followed up by their conquerors and massacred. The older 
 immigrants of this period (none of whom probably date from before 
 the beginning of the present century) are known to the Kacharis 
 as " old Kukis," those who have immigrated since British rule 
 began being called the " new Kukis." Govind Chandra is said to 
 have employed Kukis in his contest with Tulardm Senapati, and 
 this no doubt increased their numbers in North Cachar. 
 
 The Kuki families whose feuds first attracted most attention, 
 and from whose raids we suffered during the first years of British 
 rule, were the Tldngams, Changsels, Thadois, and Poitus. The 
 Lushais* were not heard of until about 1840, when they made their 
 appearance on the Chattachura range, from which they were 
 driving the Poitus. Their chiefs are all descendants of Chunglunga, 
 whose successor, Lallula, had four sons, — Lalpuilena, Lalienvunga, 
 Mangpor, and Vuta. The descendants of the first mentioned are 
 the Eastern chiefs, of whom Lengkdm, LtUbura, and Poiboi are 
 names of note in our recent relations with the Lushais. Of the 
 descendants of Ldlienvunga, Lulhai may be mentioned ; of Vuta- 
 Laleya and of Mang^por-Lenkhunga, Khiilkam, Lengpunga, 
 Thdnruma, Ldlrima, and Thdngula, all of whom, with the excep- 
 
 * Liisliai is said to be derived from Z2i=head ands7ia = cut. This name is not 
 known to the people so designated, who are paid to call themselves Zlto. This name is 
 haid to "include all tlic liill tribes of this region who wear their hair in a knot resting on 
 the napo of the neck. The tribes further south and east are distinguished under the 
 generic title of Poi ; these wear the hair knotted upon the temple." Between the Lushais 
 wuil the Puis are the Howlongs and the Kamhows, and cast of the Pois are the Suktes.
 
 Chap. Vll.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 227 
 
 tion of the last mentioned, are sons or grandsons of Sukpildl, wlio Frontier 
 
 *^ Relations. 
 
 died in 1880, and wlio at the time of his death was ruler over the 
 
 whole of the Western Lushais. 
 
 The hrst atttacks upon British territory made by the Lushais 
 after their advance northwards were in November 1849, when 
 almost at the same time a party of woodcutters was massacred, a 
 village of Tipperas was burnt, and another village was plundered, 
 in the Singla valley in Sylhet, west of the Chdttachura range, and 
 an attack was made by Mora, son of Ldlienvunga, on three villages 
 of refuofee Thadoi Kukis within ten miles of the station of Silchar. 
 To punish these outrages, the first expedition was led against the 
 Lushais by Colonel Lister, who in January 1850 surprised and 
 destroyed Mora's village, situated a little way south of the great 
 peak of Nisapwi, between the Dhaleswari and the Sonai rivers. 
 This expedition secured peace for many years. The Lushais 
 gradually withdrew their advanced posts southwards, and we 
 ceased to have much communication with, or information about, 
 them. A raid was committed in 1862 on Hill Tippera and South 
 Sylhet near Adampur, which two years later was discovered to 
 have been perpetrated by Sukpihil ; but this was followed only by 
 negotiations. A meeting was held between the Deputy Commis- 
 sioner of Cachar and Sukpilal's agents, and it was arranged that 
 the captives taken should be surrendered, and that Sukpildl should 
 receive an allowance for keeping the peace of the frontier. A 
 similar arrangement was made with Vonpilal, son of Mora. But, 
 although four of the captives were surrendered, these arrange- 
 ments were never actually carried much further. In November 
 1868 the Eastern Lushais began a series of attacks on Manipur. 
 In December of the same year Sukpihil carried his feuds with the 
 Poitus into Sylhet, In January 1869 the tea garden of Nodrbdnd 
 in Cachar was plundered and burned, several coolies being killed, 
 by Ldlruma, son of Ldlpunga and brother of Poiboi. On the 14th 
 January, Diintdu, son of Vonolel and brother of Lengkdm and 
 Ldlbura, attacked the garden of Monierkhdl, which he burned and 
 plundered. In February a combined attack was made upon the 
 Kala Naga stockade in Manipur. It was determined to punish
 
 2 23 ASSAM ADMINISTJIATION REPORT. [Chap. VII. 
 
 RelSoks ^^'"^^^ outrages by an expedition, one portion of which was to go 
 up the Dhaleswari river to attack Sukpilal, and another up the 
 Sonai, while a Manipuri force was to march south and join the 
 second. The season, however, was too late for effective measures, 
 and the expedition was practically a failure. Emboldened by this 
 result, a new series of attacks was planned by the Lushais in the 
 cold weather of 1870-71. A new family now appeared on the 
 scene. While the Eastern Lushais of the family of Yonolel 
 (Ldlbura and Lengkdm, his sons, and his nephew Thondong) led 
 an attack on the Monierkhdl stockade, the Benc^ali villao^e of 
 Nagdirgrdm, and the Ndgas in Manipur, the Howlongs of Lalpitang's 
 house, who dwell south of Sukpildl's Lushais, and the western 
 Poitu Kukis raided down the Hailakdndi valley, and attacked the 
 tea garden of Alexandrapur, where they killed a number of coolies 
 and the manager, Mr Winchester, and carried off his daughter 
 and several other captives, besides much plunder. A subsequent 
 attack on a neighbouring garden, Katlacherra, was repulsed. 
 Upon this it was determined to send a thoroughly effective expedi 
 tion to march through the hills and exact reparation. Two 
 columns were despatched in the cold weather of 1871-72, one from 
 the Chittagong side, which marched northwards through the 
 country of the Sylus and Howlongs and recovered the captives 
 taken from Alexandrapur ; and the other, which advanced, vid 
 Tipaimukh, southwards into the country of Vonolel and his sons. 
 This expedition was completely successful in procuring the sub- 
 mission of the chiefs and satisfaction for the outrages ; and from 
 its termination down to 1892, no raid was made on territory under 
 the Assam Administration. 
 
 In 1889, however, a raid was made in the Chengri valley on 
 the Chittagong frontier, and a number of captives were taken, 
 whom the chiefs concerned (Lengpunga and his brother Zarok) 
 declined to release, and an expedition w^as accordingly undertaken 
 in the cold weather of 1889-90. The main column marched 
 through the Lushai Hills from Chittagong, and were met by a 
 detachment of 400 Military Police from Silchar. The captives 
 were surrendered, but Lengpunga escaped for the time. His
 
 Chap. VII.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 
 
 229 
 
 village was burnt, and tlie troops then left the country. Previous Frontier 
 to this raid, the pohcy of Government since 1872 had been to ^^^^^ions. 
 maintain a line of outposts connected by patrol paths, and, while 
 cultivating, as much as possible, a friendly intercourse with the 
 chiefs, to abstain from interfering in their internal affairs. It 
 was now decided to endeavour to put down raids once for all by 
 'proving our power to occupy their country and estabhshing military 
 outposts in their midst. Two such outposts (at Aijal andChangsil) 
 with a garrison of Mihtary Police were estabUshed in the portion 
 of the Lushai Hills bordering on the Cachar district, and Captain 
 Browne was deputed thither as Political Officer. For a time, the 
 Lushais appeared to have accepted the situation, and, amongst 
 other proofs of friendship, the leading chiefs attended a darbdr 
 held by Captain Browne, and killed a metna and swore an oath of 
 friendship to the British Government. But the hopes thus raised 
 were soon dissipated. Suddenly, without a word of warning, they 
 rose in a body, attacked simultaneously the stockades at Aijal and 
 Changsil, and killed Captain Browne, who was marching from 
 Saireng to Changsil with a small escort of four sepoys. This was 
 on the 10th September 1890, Three daj'-s later a relieving force 
 of 200 Military Police left Silchar under Lieutenants Swinton and 
 Tytler. Lieutenant Swinton was killed on the passage up the 
 river Dhaleswari, whereupon Lieutenant Tytler assumed command, 
 and reached Changsil and relieved the garrison under Lieutenant 
 Cole, on the 28th September. The force at Changsil was further 
 augmented by a detachment of 200 men of the 40tli Bengal In- 
 fantry under Lieutenant Watson, who arrived at Changsil on the 
 30th. Mr. McCabe, who had been deputed to Cachar on special 
 duty, reached Changsil on the 5th October 1890, and on his arrival 
 offensive operations were at once commenced, with such success that 
 within two months all but one of the Western Lushai chiefs had been 
 arrested. The three ringleaders, Khjilkdm, Lengpunga, and Thdn- 
 gula, were deported, and the others were released on payment of the 
 fines imposed on them, A few months later Khalkdm and Lengpunga 
 put an end to their existence by hanging themselves with ropes, 
 which they had surreptitiously manufactured from their clothes.
 
 230 ASSAM AmUNISTEATION EEPOET. [Chap. VII. 
 
 Frontier These ox3erations resulted in the complete pacification of the 
 ELATioNs. 2^Qj.^]^Qj,jj Lushai villages west of the Sonai river and the uncondi- 
 tional surrender of all the chiefs implicated in the rising, with the 
 exception of Thdnruma, who fled for refuge towards the east, and 
 who is still at large. At the commencement of 1891, the Lushais 
 were peacefully employed in jhihning and in rebuilding their 
 villages, many of which had been destroyed by our troops as a * 
 punishment. The feeling of insecurity which our operations had 
 occasioned was beginning to wear off, and Lushais came readily 
 to trade at the newly reopened bdzdr at Changsil and to barter 
 vegetables and live stock with the garrison of Fort Aijal, Ee- 
 quisitions for the supply of coolies to woik on roads and carry 
 stores and baggage, &c., were promptly complied with by all the 
 chiefs so requisitioned except Ldlbura, in consequence of whose 
 non-compliance, Mr. McCabe, with an escort of 100 Military Police 
 under. Lieutenant T^^tler, marched to his village, where he halted 
 for the night. Next day, as Lalbura refused to come in, Mr. 
 McCabe commenced collecting supplies and making other arrange- 
 ments for halting in the village. Shortly afterwards 300 armed 
 Lushais were observed to advance towards the north crest of the 
 hill commanding his camp. The Political Officer promptly ordered 
 them to be fired on, and at once commenced to make dispositions 
 for the defence of the camp. Before they could be completed, 
 however, the Lushais attacked the camp from all directions, and 
 set fire to the village. They were driven ofi, and the fortification 
 of the camp was then proceeded with. Stores of paddy were 
 collected from the jungle where they had been hidden by the 
 Lushais ; a bridle path from Aijal to the Sonai was pushed on with 
 great rapidity ; and a reinforcement of 100 Military Police was at 
 once sent to Mr. McCabe's assistance from Aijal. The fact was 
 recognised that it would be impossible to undertake punitive 
 measures in a satisfactory way with the small force then available, 
 and it was therefore decided to bring up 300 men of the 18th 
 Bengal Infantry from Silchar to hold Aijal and Changsil, and thus 
 enable the whole of the Military Police stationed at those places 
 to join the force with Mr. McCabe. In the meantime, skirmishing
 
 Chap. Vll.] FRONTIER RELATIONS, ETC. 23 1 
 
 parties were sent out daily to disperse the Lushais in the neighbour- ^^^^'^^^^^_ 
 hood of the camp, and search for further stores of paddy. The 
 Lushais soon found that it was hopeless to try to take the camp, 
 and confined themselves to ambuscading small parties. 
 
 Encpiries showed that Ldlbura was assisted in his rising by all 
 the Lushais east of the Sonai, and also probably by the Howlongs ; 
 but that the Western Lushais had profited by the lesson taught 
 them in the previous year, and had stood aloof. The attack at 
 Ldlbura took place on 1st March 1892. On the 10th April, the 
 punitive force, consisting of 225 men of the Military Police and 
 75 of the 18tli Bengal Infantry under Captain Loch, left Aijal. 
 Ldlruya, Poiboi, Ldlhai, Bungteya, Maite, and other villages were 
 occupied in turn, and all the chiefs submitted, except Ldlbura, 
 who fled, accompanied by only twenty followers, to the impenetrable 
 jungles on the Manipur frontier. These operations were followed 
 by the complete submission of the Eastern Lushais, who now, like 
 the Lushais west of the Sonai, appear at last to have recognised 
 that it is far better to submit willingly to our rule than to sufier 
 the inevitable consequences of fighting against it. 
 
 In the course of these operations, the inconvenience of dividing 
 the Lushai country amongst three Administrations — Assam, Bengal, 
 and Burma — was found to be considerable. It has now been 
 settled that the portion administered from Bengal will shortly be 
 made over to Assam. The Burma portion will, however, for»the 
 present at least, continue to be under the control of the Chief 
 Commissioner of Burma. 
 
 231. With the State of Hill Tippera this Administration has 
 no direct relations ; all communications for 
 
 Hill Tippera. i-»rirf r- t -i ■, ■, -, 
 
 the Mahardja are forwarded through the 
 Government of Bengal. The State is conterminous with Sylhet, 
 along the whole of the southern border of that district, and con- 
 siderable intercourse takes place up and down the valleys of the rivers 
 which flow northwards from the Tippera Hills. The Mahdrdja's 
 boundary was laid down on this side by a joint Commission in 
 1865-66. The Mahdrdja is the zeminddr of considerable estates in 
 Sylhet, and is to that extent subject to our revenue jurisdiction.
 
 232 ASSAM ADMINISTRATION REPORT. [Chap. VU. 
 
 Froxtier 030 111 the precedinsj parai^raplis reference has been made to 
 
 the " Inner Line." This expression denotes a 
 
 The Inner Line. ^ , , . , . ^ . • 
 
 boundary which, m accordance with the 
 poHcy to which eHect was given by Kegulation V of 1873, has 
 been laid down in certain districts as that up to which the protec- 
 tion of British authority is guaranteed, and beyond which^ except 
 by special permission, it is not lawful for British subjects to go. 
 The Inner Line Eegulation was the result of much correspondence 
 between the Government of Bengal and that of India on the subject 
 of frontier policy. It was believed that many complications were 
 caused by permitting persons from the plains to penetrate into the 
 hills or submontane forests inhabited or frequented by wild tribes, 
 where no eflective protection could be given by Government, and 
 where disputes relating to buying and selling frequently occurred. 
 At the time the Eegulation was passed, the great demand and 
 competition for India-rubber brought down by the hillmen gave 
 special prominence to these considerations : and it was decided 
 that the best way to prevent these complications was to stop, as far 
 as possible, the access of strangers to tracts where adequate control 
 could not be exercised. An Inner Line has been laid down in the 
 following districts : — In Darrang, towards the Bhutias, Akas, and 
 Daflas ; in Lakhimpur, towards the Daflas, Miris, Abors, Mishmis, 
 Khdmtis, Singphos, and Ndgas ; in SibsAgar, towards the southern 
 Ndgas ; and in Cachar, towards the Lushais. The line is marked 
 at intervals by frontier posts, held by Military Police or troops, 
 and commanding the roads of access to the tract beyond ; and 
 any person from the plains who has received permission to cross 
 the line has to present his pass at -these posts. At the close of 
 1892-93 there were 5 such outposts in the Darrang district, 4 of 
 which were manned by detachments of the Military Police and the 
 other by troops ; 13 garrisoned by Military Police in the Lakhim- 
 pur district ; one at Abhaypur in Sibsdgar garrisoned by Military 
 Police ; and 7 in Cachar, all held by troops.
 
 ASSAM SECRETAKIAT PRINTINO OFFICE (GENL.) NO. 168 — 300 — 29-4-96.
 
 MAR 9 5 ^^l 
 
 UN,VERS,TVOrCAL,.O.N,AATLOSA^^.,,3 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 OCT 2 2 19521 
 m>i 1 1 1952 
 
 j^OV 2 4 RECO 
 SEP 2 11959 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 '^^'f^ 
 
 ■^A 
 
 
 t<t(?<5 
 
 tJCO 
 
 ini. WAR g tj 
 
 Form L-9 
 
 20m-l, •42(8016) 
 
 Ui.NlV^- 
 
 ^i^^JilNlA 
 
 AT 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 t 
 
 PLEA.^ DO NOT REMOVE 
 THIS BOOK CARD ! 
 
 5 nr^ ^ 
 
 ^<!/0JIIV3JO^ 
 University Research Library 
 
 3 1158 00824 
 
 6323 
 
 AA 001 129 177 
 
 ,3i 
 
 cr.
 
 ^ 
 
 PHYSICAL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 i'ROVlNCE OF ASSAM, 
 
 (Reprinted from the Report on the Administration of the Province of Assair: 
 for the year iSgz-gs, and published by authority.) 
 
 SHILLONG : 
 riilNTED AT TUE ASSAM SECRETARIAT PRINTING OFFICE, 
 
 1896. 
 
 Price—One Runeth ,