OF 
 
 ??->
 
 E 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 Ex Lihris 
 
 SIR MICHAEL SADLER 
 
 ACQUIRED 1948 
 
 WITH THE HELP OF ALUMNI OF THE 
 
 SCHOOL OF EDUCATION 

 
 /< /^ 
 
 cO • ^ 
 
 "Su. / 
 
 '^7^
 
 Ich glaube nicht, dass ich viel eignes neues lehre, 
 
 Noch durch meiii Scherflein Witz den Schatz der Weisheit mehre. 
 
 Doch denk' ich von der Miih mir zweierlei Gewinn ; 
 
 Einmal, dass ich nun selbst an Einsicht weiter bin ; 
 
 Sodann, dass doch dadurch an mauchen Mann wird kommen 
 
 Manches, wovon er sonst gar hatte nichts vernommen, 
 
 Und auch der dritte Grund scheint wert nicht des Gelachters : 
 
 Das, wer dies Biichlein liest, derweil doch liest kein schlechters." 
 
 RUCKERT 
 
 ( Weisheit der Brahmanen).
 
 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS 
 
 BY 
 
 PROFESSOR W. REIN 
 
 DIRECTOR OF THE PEDAGOGICAL SEMINARY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF JENA 
 
 TRANSLATED BY 
 
 C. C. AND IDA J. VAN LIEW 
 WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES BY THE FORMER 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO. 
 
 Syracuse, N.Y. : C. W. BARD KEN 
 
 1803
 
 TRANSLATORS' PREFACE 
 
 
 Never in the history of education have the educa- 
 tional forces of the world been more on the alert, 
 more inspired with the desire to advance profession- 
 ally, than to-day. At a time when all society is 
 affected by the progressive and investigative spirit of 
 the age, when sociological and political problems are 
 being viewed in a new, often revolutionary, light, 
 when all classes are becoming interested not merely 
 in the welfare, the preservation of self, but also in the 
 welfare of all humanity, and when, at the same time, 
 certain powerful tendencies are constantly appearing 
 that seem to endanger society, it behoves the educator 
 not only to be progressive, but to ask himself whether 
 his work is placing that stamp upon humanity which 
 will make human individuals trustiuorthi/ reformers, 
 leaders, thinkers, voters. He has been busy during 
 the last century in raising the intellectual standard of 
 all classes, in placing knowledge and power in the 
 hands of the low as well as the high ; it now belongs 
 to his office to reflect as to what kind of weapons this 
 knowledge and this power are to become. To-day, 
 therefore, we find educators turning more and more 
 to the conception that education, both as a social and 
 a national factor, must, above all, construct character ; 
 its various aims and the forces it applies to accomplish 
 them must concentrate in character-building. In this 
 tendency we may find a partial explanation of the 
 great power which the Herbartian school of pedagog- 
 
 822155
 
 vi OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ics possesses in Germany, and the attention which it 
 is rapidly attracting in other countries. In fact, the 
 Herbartian system, in its truest significance, cannot 
 be regarded as an arbitrary, subjective creation, but as 
 the outcome of an historical development, reinforced 
 by the results of philosophic and scientific research. 
 We are occasionally told to-day that we should avoid 
 everything in education that smacks of a " system." 
 This conception rests upon the false assumption that 
 system is avoidable, a premise that we can by no means 
 grant. Every educational institution is, and must be, 
 the living exemplification of some more or less clearly- 
 defined and well-founded system. It is not a question 
 of " system or no system," but of whether the system 
 shall be clearly defined, firmly established, and har- 
 moniously articulated, or indefinite, faulty, and hence 
 inefficient. It is a question of whether the educator 
 shall be but dimly conscious of the aim of his work 
 and the means for its attainment, or whether his 
 efforts shall be reinforced and the fruits of his labour 
 increased and insured by a system of clear, definite, 
 guiding conceptions that constitute an organic whole. 
 Students of pedagogy in the past have been inclined 
 to content themselves with a study of pedagogical arts, 
 manners, and devices (the external aids of instruction), 
 and to neglect the fundamental conceptions that lend 
 inner harmony to education. System and organization, 
 however, by no means exclude progress and new light. 
 No one who has made himself thoroughly acquainted 
 with the history of the Herbartian school can ascribe 
 to it either exclusivism or lack of a progressive and 
 scientific spirit. In fact, common grounds, in the midst 
 of minor differences of opinion, have insured it a rapid
 
 translator's preface. vil 
 
 progress and an unusually prominent antl influential 
 position among modern educational movements. 
 
 Modern research in the field of the history of educa- 
 tion is characterized by two tendencies — the one seeks 
 to profit by the history of past experience and efforts, 
 the other to learn from the present achievements of 
 the educational ivorld. No country has attracted a 
 more universal attention, educationally, than Germany- 
 As Compagre says : " For two centuries Germany has 
 been the classical land of pedagogy." But it is not 
 that which is specifically German that attracts ; the 
 educational world does not desire to be Germanized, 
 but to lay claim to the general truths that the history 
 of German pedagogics presents in the work of such 
 educational reformers as Comenius, Basedow, Ratich, 
 Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Herbart. No more fruitful or 
 influential work has been accomplished in pedagogics 
 than that of Herbart and the Herbartian school. 
 
 It is the aim of this work to furnish a brief intro- 
 duction to the Herbartian pedagogics, upon whose 
 principles it is based. It presents the author's views 
 as to their modern application. Hence, it is well fitted 
 to serve as an introduction to the study of Herbart and 
 his school. Every thorough student of pedagogics, it 
 is true, must ultimately refer to the prime fountain — 
 the works of Herbart himself ; he must become his own 
 interpreter of the philosopher's words. But he cannot 
 afford to neglect the results that over fifty years of 
 development since Herbart's death have produced. 
 
 The second edition of Professor Rein's Pddagogik 
 im Grundriss (Sammlung Goschen, Stuttgart, 1893), 
 contained some essential additions and changes ; on 
 this account certain parts of the first edition, referring
 
 Vlll OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 chiefly to Part I., were omitted to make room for the 
 new. Since these omissions affected much interesting 
 material, all that both editions contain has been com- 
 bined in the translation. 
 
 The chapters upon the kinds of schools and school 
 administration refer directly to the German school 
 system, it is true ; but the problems discussed are of 
 universal interest. At present the relative interests 
 and rights of State, Church, communit}^ and family 
 in education, the relative value and the organization 
 of classical and scientific courses, the classification and 
 administration of schools, and the training of teachers, 
 are all subjects of earnest discussion among the educa- 
 tional circles of almost every civilized land. The 
 views of the author differ in some respects from exist- 
 ing practices, but his classification of schools is based 
 upon the present system, and the particulars in which 
 he differs from it have been indicated. These chapters, 
 therefore, will serve, as an additional subordinate aim, 
 to give the reader an insight into the German school 
 system, which is so much discussed to-day, and into cer- 
 tain lines of proposed reform. Here a few brief para- 
 graphs have been added for the purpose of facilitating 
 a comparison with English and American schools. 
 
 The chapters upon the succession, co-ordination (the 
 curriculum), and treatment of the material of instruc- 
 tion have also been enlarged for the purpose of 
 illustrating the general application of the principles 
 they present. The bibliographies have been retained 
 as in the original, and an attempt has been made to 
 furnish a list of the English literature that has thus 
 far appeared upon the Herbartian pedagogics. 
 
 Jena, Januunj, 1893. V. L.
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The question as to the best form or the most complete 
 system of education is obviously one of the deepest 
 and most impressive problems that engages the atten- 
 tion of everyone that stands in the midst of the 
 activity of })ublic life — the statesman and the friend 
 of the people, as well as the solitary thinker. The 
 most manifold lines of human reflection, and the most 
 diverse motives of human action, centre in education. 
 None other than such questions as : What is human 
 happiness ? — and, How may tiie rising generation be 
 led to this highest aim ? — What eflorts must society 
 make in order to approach nearer to its destiny ? 
 show the significance and difiiculty of this problem, 
 wliieh, in its social phases, is closely connected with 
 all social problems. 
 
 He who is accustomed not to content himself with 
 the surface, but to get at the bottom of a question, 
 would at first be dismayed at the mass of relations 
 that focus, as it were, at this point. At the same 
 time, however, he would soon feel the necessity of 
 finding his way out of the mass, and, above all, of 
 throwing light upon the question as to what educa- 
 tion aims at and is able to do. 
 
 This need can only be satisfied by preparing a sys- 
 tematically arranged whole that is characterized by 
 carefully developed conceptions, and suited by virtue 
 of its clearness to supply a firm foundation upon 
 which the foot may rest tranquilly in the midst of 
 contradictory opinions. 
 
 But, of course, a system is of value only to him in 
 whom it has developed. The truth that has Querdy
 
 X OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 been learned adheres to us like a false member, a false 
 tooth, or a waxen nose. The sj^stem that has merely 
 been learned has no power, and acquires no significance, 
 for the mental life. It is a lifeless fund from which 
 streams no animating warmth, no life-giving energy, 
 Only the truth that has been obtained by one's own 
 reflection resembles the natural member ; it alone 
 really belongs to us ; it penetrates our entire being, 
 elevates us, affords us certainty, insures us the full 
 power of conviction, and gives impulse to a manifold 
 activity. 
 
 Nevertheless, I undertake to present in this work 
 the outlines of a system of pedagogics. Not everyone 
 can beget each thought anew in himself. Otherwise, 
 why the collection and transmission of already ac- 
 quired intellectual treasures ? But everyone should 
 seek to enter thoroughly and heartily into that which 
 the labour of another has produced ; he should test 
 for himself in how far it can lay claim to truth, and 
 assist him in his own search for clear, stable convic- 
 tions. 
 
 In view of the brevity imposed upon the series of 
 publications^ among which this work appears, nothing 
 more than an introductory survey of the broad field of 
 education and educational work can be given. Such 
 a comprehensive survey is necessary for all those who 
 have the education of the people at heart, especially 
 for those to whom both the supervision and education 
 of the rising generation in the lower, middle, and 
 higher schools is entrusted. 
 
 With the above end in view, I present this volume. 
 May it not appear unworthy to the pedagogical in- 
 terest which prevails in our age ; may it inspire to 
 new reflections, and help to level the way for a 
 rational education among the people. 
 
 W. Rein. 
 
 Jena, 10th Awpist, 1892. 
 
 ^ Sammlung Goschen.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Translators' Preface - - - - 
 
 Author's Preface . . . - 
 
 Introduction - - - - - 
 
 Part I.— Practical Pedagogics - 
 
 (A) Of the Forms of Education 
 
 1. Home Education 
 
 2. Education in Private Boarding Schools, etc. 
 
 3. Of School Education - 
 
 (a) The People's School 
 (6) The Real-Schools 
 
 (c) The Gymnasium 
 
 (d) The Schools for Girls - 
 (5) Of School Administration - 
 
 1. School Legislation 
 
 2. School Equipment 
 
 3. School Supervision - • - 
 
 4. Preparation and Training of Teachers 
 Part II. — Theoretical Pedagogics 
 
 (A) Of the Aim of Education — Teleology 
 
 1. Conception of Education 
 
 2. Plurality of Educational Purposes 
 
 3. The Uniform Purpose 
 
 I 
 12 
 
 «s 
 
 IS 
 19 
 23 
 30 
 
 35 
 37 
 45 
 49 
 49 
 57 
 59 
 61 
 
 65 
 66 
 66 
 69 
 
 70
 
 Xll OUTLINES OF PEDAHOGICS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 (B) Of the Means ok Education— Methodology - 78 
 
 1. Theory of Instruction - - - - 86 
 
 I. General Didactics - - - - 86 
 
 1. The General Aim of Instruction - - 86 
 
 2. The Means of Instruction - - '93 
 
 (a) Selection of the Material for Instruction 93 
 
 (b) Co-ordination Do. Do. - loi 
 [Supplementary Remarks upon the Ap- 
 plication of the Historical Stages of 
 Culture and Concentration] - - 116 
 
 (c) Treatment of the Material for Instruction 135 
 [Supplementary Remarks upon the Ap- 
 plication of the Formal Steps] - 146 
 
 II. Special Didactics - - - - 158 
 
 2. Theory of Guidance - . . . 163 
 
 I. Training - - - - - - 163 
 
 II. Government of Children - - - 178 
 
 III. Physical Education - - - - 1S2 
 Literary Rf,ferences - » . , . 1S5
 
 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 According to Kant, the threat secret of the perfection 
 of human nature lies concealed in education. It is 
 delightful to imagine that human nature will always 
 be developed to something higher and better by edu- 
 cation, and that the latter may be brought into a 
 form suited to mankind. In such meditations we 
 picture to ourselves a future happier humanity. 
 How gladly Avould we dwell upon this thought that 
 once inspired Plato to exclaim : " There is nothing 
 more divine than education." Without this feeling of 
 inspiration, without such a lofty purpose ever before 
 the eyes, educators would hardly be able persistently 
 to endure the constant sacrifice that they make in 
 forcing themselves to bend the virile intellect to the 
 chikl's w^orld. They would hardly be able to over- 
 come the conception that the world will remain as it 
 is in spite of education, if they were not always ani- 
 mated by the hope that their efforts would bear rich 
 fruits in the individual and in society. 
 
 It is the thought of ennobling the human race 
 
 A
 
 2 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 which, ever and again, engages the attention of both 
 the educators and the friends of the people. 
 
 Eloquent words often portray for us how vain it is 
 to hope for better times if man himself is not bettered. 
 The cultivation of humanity must begin within man 
 himself and radiate from him to society. Wliat is 
 gained if we succeed in advancing the cultivation of 
 the soil, in enlivening the commercial and industrial 
 spirit everywhere, in giving the greatest degree of 
 perfection to the laws and statutes of countries, when 
 man himself is not worthy of inhabiting such a 
 beautiful eartli, is not able to find a heaven in it ? 
 
 In fact the idea is often directly expressed, that 
 the destiny of a nation, its prime as well as its de- 
 cay, depends almost entirely upon the education that 
 falls to the lot of its youth. Friedrich the Great 
 also did reverence to this thought in the words : 
 " He who considers mankind good, does not under- 
 stand the human race ; for mankind left to himself is 
 brutal. Only education is able to ennoble him." 
 The same conception is also emphasized by the philo- 
 sopher of Konigsberg ^ in the following proposition : 
 " Man can only become human through education. 
 He is nothing except what education makes of him." 
 
 In view of such opinions it seems to be easily con- 
 ceivable that new efforts are constantly being made 
 to clarify, explain, and arrange the manifold views as 
 to the purpose, means, and methods of education, and to 
 condense them into a form which, in accordance with 
 the saying of the above-mentioned sage, is suited to 
 mankind. It is explicable why one is never tired of 
 proclaiming that that people is mightiest and happi- 
 ~ 1 KsLiit.—Ts. ~~
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 est wliich, in accordance with this form of education, 
 has attained the deepest and broadest culture, ex- 
 tending even to the lowest strata of society ; that it 
 is invincible b}'- its neighbours, and either envied by 
 its contemporaries or regarded as an illustrious 
 example for their imitation. 
 
 And we certainly do not reason thus unjustly ; for 
 the historical power of education asserts itself very 
 perceptibly whenever new thoughts are to be infused 
 into the life and character of a new generation. 
 
 Hence, one might easily be tempted to overrate the 
 power of education when he sees that the most dis- 
 tinguished intellects expect everything of it. But 
 the facts of everyday life admonish us to be discreet. 
 Do we not constantly see both children and nations 
 that fall far short of the ideal which educators have 
 sketched for them, and again, others without special 
 preparation who, following solely their own inward 
 impulse, and even under the most adverse external 
 circumstances, advance nobly and raise themselves far 
 above the stratum from which they started ? In 
 some cases, therefore, we meet with retrogression in 
 defiance of all education, in others, progress by virtue 
 of self-power. But what becomes of the improve- 
 ment of all humanity, what of that enchanting vision 
 of the human race made happier by an education that 
 is arranged with a definite aim ? 
 
 It would obviously be quite wrong to attempt to 
 question the power of education in general because it 
 has not always achieved either in individuals or in 
 entire generations that which it had in view. With- 
 out doubt Nature and the world do much more for 
 those who are to be educated than education itself, as
 
 4 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 a rule, can boast of accomplishing. But on the other 
 hand it cannot be disputed that those evil influences 
 in Nature and the world which also assail the edu- 
 cable individual, may likewise be met effectively by a 
 systematically arranged education. And this view is 
 also deeply rooted in the common consciousness of 
 society. Would the family and society otherwise 
 devote such profound interest and such constant care 
 and encouragement to an institution of whose in^ 
 efficiency everyone was sufficiently convinced ? How 
 often one hears the complaint among the events of 
 everyday life that the wreck of some young human 
 being is the consequence of a wrong or deficient 
 education I 
 
 How often very conspicuous deficiencies are ex- 
 cused by the faulty method of education ! On the 
 contrary, also, we often meet with the expression of 
 pessimistic views which agree with the words of 
 Horace, " Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque re- 
 curret " — " Though you drive out Nature with a pitch- 
 fork, yet will she always return." 
 
 Opinions vacillate between these two extremes. 
 At one time all results are ascribed to necessity, 
 Nature, or heredity ; at another to freedom, art, or 
 individual acquisition. Society, not to be misled by 
 this strife, takes its stand in favour of education, for 
 it will not leave the development of the rising gene- 
 ration to chance. Hence it has organized a great 
 variety of institutions and schools in which to prepare 
 its youth for the various positions and tasks of life. 
 
 If the families, above all, care for the education of 
 the single individual, the schools on their part should 
 preserve and impart the inherited blessings of civiliza-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 tion, those priceless treasures upon which thousands 
 of years have hiboured. They should strive to de- 
 velop efficient members of society, that the people 
 may never be lacking in national power, nor the 
 Church in worshippers of the Divine. This position 
 of the schools among human institutions is based upon 
 the conception of a gradual moral inspiration of society 
 as the highest stage of moral development which it 
 must strive to attain. 
 
 Upon this highest stage of development the com- 
 munity would appear as truly morally inspired. All 
 society is, then, pervaded b}^ a clear insight into the 
 ethical ideas which govern the entire social body, and 
 inspired by a firm will to obey this insight, to present 
 a symmetrical and, as far as possible, complete em- 
 bodiment of the moral ideas, as the loftiest mission of 
 life. In order gradually to approach this ideal of a 
 moi'ally inspired community, various institutions are 
 necessary. The indispensable foundation of all moral 
 progress is a thorough, firmly established, legal order. 
 Without this society becomes alarmed and disordered, 
 and either labours but little or not at all. The inter- 
 dependence of the various activities of life, the fitting 
 division of labour is effected only upon a strictly legal 
 basis. At first, therefore, society exists in the form of 
 a legal community for the purpose of bringing about 
 the complete realization of the idea of rights within 
 the entire body. In conjunction with a well-perfected 
 system of rewards and punishments, it aims to remove 
 from social life, as far as possible, those elements that 
 are repugnant to human nature — strife and the in- 
 fringement of personal rights; and to leave no evil 
 deeds unpunished nor good deeds unrewarded. Pro-
 
 6 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ceeding upon this foundation, the administrative 
 system can undertake to provide abundantly for the 
 material wants in order to engender that social dis- 
 position which is necessary for all scientific and 
 artistic production, and to place at disposal the 
 means by which various institutions may be main- 
 tained. The establishment and care of the latter is 
 the task of the educational system, which could not 
 exist without the above-mentioned social regulations, 
 but which on the other hand pays society a liberal in- 
 terest upon all that it has received from them. In 
 that it generally nourishes a sturdy sense of law, order, 
 and justice, and cultivates the sense of right, it raises 
 the mere legal community up to a higher plane upon 
 which strife, infringement of rights and deeds of rough 
 violence are abominated. The influence of culture 
 shows itself to be just as beneficent in its efiects upon 
 the system of rewards and punishments, for a higher 
 culture ennobles and refines the reward, and tempers 
 the punishments. It also affects the administrative 
 system by awakening an insight into the beauty of 
 benevolence, and thereby gradually developing the 
 public sympathy for the mutual interests of societ}^ 
 and a readiness to make sacrifice on their behalf ; it 
 stamps upon all a conviction that every thorough and 
 lasting reform in social life is to be sought only in the 
 constant, systematic elevation of the national culture. 
 Only from this starting-point can the highest form of 
 social life, the permanent moral inspiration of society, 
 be gradually approached. 
 
 Such a systematic and well-planned education of 
 both the individual and the entire social body becomes 
 so much the more necessary in proportion as those in-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 fluencos are stronger which, as the occult coadjutors 
 of education, might endanger its success. 
 
 Both the circle of the family and that of social 
 intercourse are subjected to forces that are active in the 
 entire social bod}^, and that penetrate the entire at- 
 mosphere of human life in invisible channels. No one 
 knows whence these currents, these ideas arise ; but 
 they are there. They influence the moods, the aspira- 
 tions, and the inclinations of humanity, and no one 
 however powerful can withdraw himself from their 
 effects ; no sovereign's command makes its way into 
 their depths. They are often born of a genius to be 
 seized upon by the multitude that soon forgets their 
 author ; then the power of the thought that has thus 
 become active in the masses again impels the in- 
 dividual to energetic resolutions : in this manner 
 it is constantly describing a remarkable circle. Orig- 
 inating with those that are highly gifted, these 
 thoughts permeate all society, reaching, in fact, not 
 only its adult members, but also through these its 
 youth, and appearing again in other highly gifted in- 
 dividuals in whom they will perhaps have been 
 elevated to a definite form. 
 
 Whether the power of these dominant ideas is 
 greater in the individual, or in the body of individuals 
 as a whole, is a matter of indifference here. Be that 
 as it may, it cannot be denied that their effect upon the 
 one is manifested in a reciprocal action upon the other, 
 and that their influence upon the younger generation is 
 indisputable. When the older generation has lost its 
 moral elasticity, it will not seem astonishing if the 
 succeeding generation seeks to surpass its ancestors 
 in sensuality and in the race after material posses-
 
 8 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 sions. Both the spirit of the family and the spirit of 
 society, working together either in harmony or in strife, 
 act uninterruptedly upon the formation of the youthful 
 minds, and influence them either for evil or for good. 
 
 Besides these factors, two especial institutions, both 
 of which are strong and accustomed to rule, seek to 
 obtain possession of the youth. Both endeavour to 
 test their strength for the purpose of determining in 
 how far they can draw the educational establishments 
 of the people into their power. These two institu- 
 tions are the Church and the State. The former 
 desires to educate faithful members, the latter obedi- 
 ent citizens. Since something always depends upon 
 the foundation that is laid, each desires to direct the 
 education of the youth conformably to its own judg- 
 ment, in accordance with the well-known maxim : 
 " He who has the youth has the future." 
 
 In either case education will receive a very definite 
 and fixed stamp. At one time we shall hear of the 
 State system of pedagogy, at another time of the 
 Church system of pedagogy. Each will have its 
 various shades according to the different conceptions 
 and the different constitutions of the State or the 
 Church. For example, in the past, education by the 
 State has received special forms in the organization 
 of the ancient State, or in certain philosophical 
 systems, such as that of Plato or Fichte. Education 
 by the Church has received a very marked character 
 in the pedagogics of the Jesuits. 
 
 Of all powers that would take possession of edu- 
 cation, State and Church are the most influential. 
 But if we review once more the series of educational 
 forces — Nature, family, social intercourse, the ten-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 deucies manifested in the spirit of the times, the 
 political and ecclesiastical constitution of societ}^ — we 
 shall find that they aftect education in part occultly 
 and without being conscious of the end in view, in 
 part in a designedl}^ systematic way. To the occult 
 coadjutors of education belong without doubt the 
 tendencies manifested in the spirit of the age, social 
 intercourse, and Nature. The education of the youth 
 will be controlled in a designedly sj^stematic manner 
 b}'^ the famil}', the Church, and the State. Each one 
 of these will exercise a determinative influence ; each 
 will endeavour to mould the rising youth according to 
 its own views. No prudent and intelligent person 
 would dispute the right of the family to do this ; but 
 this natural right is too often curtailed by the claims 
 which State and Church advance. How often these 
 two powers are at variance with one another, each 
 endeavouring; to c^ain the advantao^e over the other ! 
 Hence, from this point of view also, the great signif- 
 icance of education in the life of nations becomes 
 clearly apparent. The reflective man finds it easy to 
 explain why the friends of the people, in proportion 
 as they strive more faithfully for intellectual and 
 moral elevation, endeavour to penetrate more and 
 more deeply and permanently into the great questions 
 of education in all its phases — the ethical, the psycho- 
 logical, and the sociological. Their ej'es should be 
 open to both the occult and the visible influences to 
 which tlie growing youth arc exposed. They are, 
 therefore, forced to consider the question : Is there a 
 higher unity which possesses the power to remove the 
 opposing influences and to unite and blend the good 
 forces with itself ?
 
 10 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Will it be possible to find a form of education 
 which, in accordance with the words of Kant, is 
 suited to the needs of humanity ? Shall we ever 
 succeed in establishing an educational system which con- 
 tains no contradiction within itself, is pervaded by an 
 harmonious spirit, and is able to attract and fill with a 
 lasting inspiration the good and noble men of all nations? 
 
 Such is our hope, and such are our endeavours at 
 least ; for the thought as to what would become of 
 the rising generation if left alone at the mercy of 
 those powers, is too distressing. Would not this be 
 leaving education to chance, — which were no wiser 
 than writing- letters in tlie sand of the sea-shore ? If 
 we desire at all to lead the rising generation to a 
 higher stage of development, a direct, systematic, 
 conscious influence, such as can only result from a 
 well-pondered and firmly-established system of edu- 
 cation, must be placed over against the invisible, un- 
 conscious, but ever active influences. 
 
 The vast extent of this theme requires at first a 
 clear preparatory surve}^ Two fields of investigation 
 may be cleaidy distinguished within the entire sphere 
 of pedagogy. 
 
 1. The investigations are directed first to the actual 
 relations of life, to the arrangements for public and 
 private education, and the present usage as it has 
 developed in the course of centuries. We here enter 
 the sphere of practical pedagogics. To this subject 
 belong the questions of school legislation (school ad- 
 ministration, school equipment, school organisation, 
 etc.) of domestic and institutional education, and of 
 pedagogics as applied to the gymnasium and to the 
 common people's school.
 
 INTRODUCTION. II 
 
 2. If we inquire into the nature and conception, the 
 necessity and possibility, the limits and aims, and the 
 ways and means of education, our investigations fall 
 under the head of theoretical pedagogics. 
 
 Both divisions, the theoretical and the practical, 
 together constitute systematic pedagogics : beside the 
 latter stands historical pedagogics. If we view the 
 present system of education as a development, and 
 investigate the conditions under which this develop- 
 ment has taken place, we are occupied with historical 
 pedagogics. It belongs to tlie province of this depart- 
 ment of pedagogics to delineate the educational 
 conditions of the past, and to pursue their development 
 up to the present. 
 
 Accordingly we may fix upon the following classi- 
 fication : — 
 
 Pedagogics. 
 
 (a) Sj'stematic Pedagogics. (h) Historical Pedagogics. 
 
 I. Practical II. Theoretical 
 Pedagogics. Pedagogics. 
 
 In the following chapters we propose to give a 
 survey of the systematic- department of pedagogics, 
 and to this end we shall first enter upon the con- 
 sideration of practical pedagogics.
 
 PART I. 
 
 Practical Pedagogics. 
 
 The philosophical examination of the practical con- 
 ditions under which education may take place is 
 comprehended under the conception of practical 
 pedagogics. It aims to present and establish those 
 common laws for the conditions of education which 
 belong to a definite class. The process of education 
 is accomplished in certain concrete forms which 
 change according to the standard of the place, time, 
 and persons, and which stand in certain relations to 
 the central points of the external organization of 
 society, to the family, community, State, and Church. 
 
 It is the task of practical pedagogics to point out 
 these relations, to indicate the equilibrium of forces 
 which constitute modern society, with reference to 
 the organization of the school system, — in short, to 
 present the various forms of education under which 
 the cultivation of the rising generation is being 
 accomplished, and to reveal their best organization. 
 It aims to survey the entire system and organization 
 of education, to determine the relative position of its 
 single departments, and to set the limits between them 
 according to their purpose and form. 
 
 Practical pedagogics surveys the manifold con- 
 crete forms of life in the light of certain concep-
 
 PRACTICAL PEDAGOGICS. 1 3 
 
 tions; in inquiring into the place, ^i7)ie, and persons 
 upon which education is encumbent, it arrives at the 
 following aggroupment. 
 
 1. Education takes place in the home, in the family. 
 Here it is chiefly the 'private education of the 
 individual. 
 
 2. Education is also cared for in special private 
 institutions. Here it appears as private education in 
 'masses. 
 
 3. Education is undertaken by the public schools, 
 where it appears in the form of public education in 
 ^masses. 
 
 We meet with education in these three forms ; they 
 are to be briefly discussed in the following para- 
 graphs, that we may then consider the subject of 
 school administration in its various departments. 
 The following synopsis indicates the order in which 
 these subjects will be presented.
 
 14 
 
 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
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 (A) OF THE FORMS OF EDUCATION. 
 1. Of Home Education. 
 
 " Erzioliung ist Sache der Familien ; von da geht sie aus und 
 duhin kchrt sie grossteuteils zuriick.'' — Herhnvt. 
 
 In the education of the home there is a concentration 
 of all educative activities within the limits of a single 
 circle of life. This circle is the result of a natural 
 union based upon a common parentage, and is there- 
 fore contained within narrow bounds. Three factors 
 in particular are of importance in determining its 
 efficiency: (1) The sense of the unity and relationship 
 of all members, which arises from the common parent- 
 age. (2) The feeling of dependence upon a head of 
 the family, which is the result of daily observations as 
 to the manner in which all are supported. (8) The 
 very intimate knowledge of the younger members of 
 the family as the result of their gradual growth and 
 the familiar intercourse of the family. 
 
 Let us now consider these separate factors some- 
 what more cUjsely. 
 
 1. The chief distinctive characteristic of the family 
 is its unity. Unity and concentration are two of the 
 chief demands that are placed upon education. 
 Hence the family seems to be an especially favour- 
 able foothold for education. Above all it is a fact 
 which harmonizes remarkably well with the Germanic 
 sentiment that the family always appears as that 
 
 15
 
 1 6 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 relation which education should desire and further. 
 As lon:^ as a nation is ruled by this sentiment it will 
 maintain its own power and health. 
 
 The following facts show how favourable a foothold 
 the family provides for education. How speedily 
 willing eyes and ready hands are to be found in the 
 family ; how quickly the division of labour is organ- 
 ized here, not for the sake of sordid gain, but because 
 of the silent power of attraction that radiates directly 
 from the neediest members of the circle. Further- 
 more, how easily the warm atmosphere of the home 
 develops various inclinations and interests, whose 
 transplantation to the school often requires such great 
 exertions. In the family every interest springs up 
 easily and spontaneously. The j^ounger members 
 look to the older ; the entire circle observes with 
 interest the first movements of the awakening life, 
 and furthers the first trials from which definite tenden- 
 cies of the infant soul develop. Also nowhere can so 
 favourable an environment for the development of 
 sympathy and good-will be found as in the family. 
 It is just these first fundamental elements that are of 
 such great consequence in the entire after life. The 
 utmost care is often unable to compensate later in life 
 for that which was neglected in earlier years. The 
 narrow limitation of the family circle, tlie restriction 
 of the sympathy to its few members, is the most 
 natural preliminary condition for the development of 
 sympathetic interest and good- will. Also the subjec- 
 tive traits of character, introspection, and self-com- 
 mand, will hardljT' be more sure of advancement than 
 where several persons are constantly associated, where 
 they observe and judge one another with imparti-
 
 OF UOyiE EDUCATION. 1/ 
 
 alit}^, and place the common honour in the right 
 relations. 
 
 2. The unity of the family is the strongest that 
 could be conceived, because the sense of common 
 parentage, which rests upon physical presuppositions, 
 vouches for the relationship of all members. The 
 blessed effect of this relationship depends above all 
 upon the one weighty supposition that there is a 
 centre for all members of the family from which all 
 chief activities proceed, about which all else circles, 
 and by whose will the entire body is permeated and 
 governed. In these respects the small circle of the 
 family resembles very closely the greater circle of the 
 State, in so far as the latter, also, can not afford to be 
 deprived of the power which binds its members to- 
 gether and which protects each single activity, if it 
 would not be rent asunder. The members of the 
 family look confidently to the head ; and this sense of 
 dependence favours, at the same time, tlie proper re- 
 ception of that which is dearest to mankind, namely, 
 the religious feeling. If the life of the family 
 is permeated by a noble piety, a sincere religious 
 faith will take root in the hearts of the children. 
 Faithful devotion to the guide of the youth also calls 
 forth faithful devotion to Him who controls human 
 destinies, — a thought which Herbart expresses so 
 beautifully in the words : " To the child, the family 
 should be the symbol of the order in the world ; from 
 the parents one should derive by idealization the 
 characteristics of the deity." 
 
 3. In the third place, we called attention to the fact 
 that the intercourse of the family results in tlic most 
 intimate knowledge of its younger members, an ele- 
 
 u
 
 l8 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ment that is very essential for education. Accuracy 
 in the comprehension of child-natures is to the edu- 
 cator what knowledge of the soil is to the farmer. 
 This accuracy is secured by extensive intercourse 
 with the child in its earlier years much more easily 
 than later ; for the child's nature loses its transpar- 
 ency as its age increases, not because of a presup- 
 posed purpose on the part of the child to be reticent 
 and reserved, but because the gradually increasing 
 vigour of inner processes pi'oduces a shyness of con- 
 tact with strangers and the external world, and be- 
 cause it is only upon more intimate intercourse that 
 the boy is inclined to permit this inner life to be 
 scrutinized. The conditions necessary for obtaining a 
 grasp of the inner life of the child are present in the 
 family. Therefore, by way of a brief recapitulation, 
 we may well say that both the care and development 
 of the body, and the formation of the mind and char- 
 acter can thrive nowhere so well as in the domain of 
 home education. The family, as a power upon which 
 the future of a child depends, will always be one of 
 the chief subjects for consideration, both in the inner 
 and outer phases of its life, wherever the problems 
 of education demand attention. Hence, one finds it 
 easy to explain why Pestalozzi conceived the idea of 
 placing the education in the hands of the mothers. 
 We are indebted to him for the imperishable con- 
 ception that the home education lays the foundation- 
 stone of all human culture, and that the deep impres- 
 sions which the intimate relations of the family and 
 the order and customs of the home make upon the 
 development of the child, cannot be supplied by anj 
 other device. The fatal error in Rousseau's ideas la^
 
 OF BOARDING SCHOOLS, ETC. 1 9 
 
 in tbe exclusion of the parents from the education of 
 Emil, and in the attempt to concentrate all the edu- 
 cative power in the teacher. He despaired of being 
 able to establish uniformitj^ and consistency in the 
 plan and organization of education otherwise than by 
 the separation of the family and the school. The 
 knot which Rousseau cut, a more judicious theory of 
 education seeks to untie. The education of the chil- 
 dren will always remain the holiest and highest of all 
 family duties. The welfare, civilization, and culture 
 of a people depend essentially upon the degree of 
 success that attends the education in the homes. The 
 family principle is the point at which both the re- 
 ligious and educational life of a people centres, and 
 about which it revolves. It is a force in comparison 
 with which every sovereign's command appears 
 powerless. 
 
 2. Of Education in Certain Institutions that aim 
 to take the 'place of the Family for the time being. 
 
 The boarding school represents, as it were, an en- 
 larged family. It has, in fact, certain essential 
 characteristics in common with the family, but differs 
 from the latter so greatly that one cannot properly 
 speak of a likeness between such an institution as a 
 boarding school and the family. 
 
 The boarding school cannot be a family. 
 
 1. Above all, because of the lack of that powerful 
 natural bond which is formed by common parentage, 
 consanguinity, and family love. 
 
 2. On account of the greater number of its members.
 
 20 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 The greater number rentiers penetration into the inner 
 life of each individual member more difficult. 
 
 3. The pupils are not in the boarding school during 
 their entire youth, but only during a part of it. 
 Strange circles of ideas derived in earlier years may 
 easily produce a contradiction between the views of the 
 family and those of the institution — a contradiction 
 which may prove to be a great obstruction to the pro- 
 cess of fusion. 
 
 4. Old pupils are constantly departing, and their 
 places being supplied by an influx of new ones. 
 
 Despite these obvious differences, education in the 
 boarding school will yet always find the ideal which 
 it must emulate, in the family. It must strive to be 
 able to say with Pestalozzi : " Our children are one 
 with us in heart and soul. They adhere with their 
 whole heart to all our actions. On the whole the 
 spirit of a great domestic union rules, in which, in 
 accordance with the needs of such a union, a pure, 
 paternal and fraternal sentiment shines forth every- 
 where." 
 
 Above all, it should be the aim of these special 
 educational institutions to attain correctness and con- 
 sistency in their pedagogical arrangements. In such 
 institutions physical education must combine regu- 
 larity and simplicity with physical freshness and 
 vigour for the purpose of strengthening and harden- 
 ing the muscles ; the instruction must be forcible, 
 adapted to the individual, and capable of awakening 
 interest. The guidance of the pupils must be strong 
 and benevolent, making a wise application of the cor- 
 porate element. 
 
 If the boarding schools and other similar special
 
 OF BOARDING SCHOOLS, ETC. 21 
 
 educational institutions strive to attain such a hiqh 
 aim, and are thoroughly imbued with a pedagogical 
 spirit, the saying that they are only necessary evils 
 is not tenable ; for they may really become nurseries 
 of pedagogical thought and activity, and may thus 
 render great services to science. A glance at the 
 history of pedagogy, in fact, will easily show what 
 great reforms in the sphere of education have ema- 
 nated from such private institutions. The freedom of 
 organization which these institutions have retained in 
 spite of State supervision, is able in many cases to give 
 impulse to new researches and new experiments — a 
 jirivilege which is, in fact, more and more denied 
 the establishments of the State. At all events it is 
 wrong to conclude that these institutions are warrant- 
 able, merely because, as is alleged, " the family of to- 
 day has lost the love and power for education." This 
 statement fortunately is a strong exaggeration ; for if 
 it were true that our families have deteriorated, there 
 would be little to hope for in the future of our people. 
 The motive for the separation of the children from the 
 family during a series of years does not lie merely in 
 the fact that the families have become weaker, but 
 that the relations in which they stand, especially in 
 the larger cities, have become more intense, so that 
 but little strength is left for the education of the 
 children. In this case, in view of the highly de- 
 veloped methods of transacting the affairs of life, and 
 in view of the incapacity of certain families, boarding 
 schools certainly appear to be welcome educational 
 institutions. If, however, they labour only with a 
 view of earning money, if the head of sucli an estab- 
 lishment merely proposes to accumulate property as
 
 22 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 rapidly as possible, if these institutions simply stand 
 upon the same footing with commercial interests, then 
 their pedagogical qualifications may be very justly 
 disputed. The farther they remove themselves from 
 the pedagogical ideal, so much the more questionable 
 do they render the work of education in such special 
 institutions. 
 
 Classification. 
 
 We may distinguish the different institutions that 
 aim to furnish a substitute for home education, 
 according to the various needs that have led to their 
 establishment. 
 
 1. The need of giving children a better, more 
 effective education than the paternal home is able to 
 offer under unfavourable circumstances and strained 
 relations, led to the establishment of hoarding schools 
 for the education of boys and girls. 
 
 2. Consideration of the future career led to the 
 establishment of military and clericcd schools, and 
 Qiormcd or elementary training schools for teachers. 
 
 3. The early loss of ixirents led to the foundation 
 of orphan asylums, which as benevolent institutions, 
 justify themselves. 
 
 4. Neglect of the irrimary education on account of 
 the unfortunate lot of the child required the reform 
 school, or the house of correction. 
 
 5. Those unfortunate children that have some 
 mental defect require asylums for the feeble-minded, 
 and institutions for their cure and instruction.
 
 OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. 
 
 23 
 
 G. Deficiency or ivant of one of the two higher 
 senses, requires asylums for the deaf and dumb, and 
 for the blind. 
 
 INSTITUTES THAT FURNISH A SUBSTITUTE FOR THE 
 FAMILY. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1. 
 
 9 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 Boarding 
 
 Clerical, 
 
 Orphan 
 
 Reform 
 
 Asylums for 
 
 Asylums for 
 
 Scliools for 
 
 Military and 
 
 Asylums. 
 
 Schools or 
 
 the Feeble- 
 
 the Deaf, 
 
 Boys and 
 
 Elementary 
 
 
 Houses of 
 
 minded. 
 
 Dumb, and 
 
 Girls. 
 
 Training or 
 
 
 Correction. 
 
 
 Blind. 
 
 
 Kornial 
 Schools. 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 ~' 
 
 
 Institutions for the cure and instruction 
 of the morally, mentally, or physically 
 unsound. 
 
 [Some of the above also appear as public institu- 
 tions, of course.] 
 
 8. Of School Education} 
 
 Society seeks to accomplish the task of its own 
 culture in two directions : (1) by the establishment 
 and maintenance of educative ^ schools and (2) by the 
 establishment of professional schools. The former 
 seek to impart a general culture, the latter to qualify 
 one for some definite calling. The relation between 
 
 ^ School education here signifies education in the2)HhUc schools 
 as opposed to the schools that have just been described. — T's. 
 
 - In this translation the use of the words education, cdncatice, 
 and ednaUwHal, ct)nfornis closely to that of the corresponding 
 German words {erzichung, erzicherisch, erdchend, etc.). Ac- 
 cordingly, "education implies not so much the communication of 
 knowledge, as the discipline of the intellect, the establishment 
 "i the principles ;ind the regulation of tlie heart'' (Webster). — T.s.
 
 24 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the two is Jefiiied in the following fandamental pro- 
 position : No one should pass from the educative 
 school to the professional school too early, but on the 
 contrary, a comprehensive general education must 
 furnish a foundation for the special professional 
 training, that is as broad as possible and of sufficient 
 depth. If this thorough general education is not 
 furnished, the mental horizon will be prematurely 
 narrowed, and the many-sided interest blunted. As 
 an inevitable consequence, prejudiced and mechanical 
 heads are produced, and the class of society that re- 
 ceives them acquires only clumsy workmen. 
 
 To the professional schools belong the agricultural, 
 mining, industrial, and commercial schools, schools of 
 forestry, military and naval schools, normal or 
 elementary training schools for teachers, the poly- 
 technica and the universities. 
 
 The educative institutions are erected, so to speak, 
 in three different stages, which consist of the people's 
 schools,^ the middle schools, and the higher schools. 
 None of these schools aim to prepare for a special 
 calling but only to qualify one thoroughly for some 
 definite sphere of labour in society. Although, as we 
 shall see, the sphere within wdiich each imparts a 
 general education is narrower in one case or broader in 
 another, all educative schools, both the larger and the 
 smaller, the higher and the lower, still have but one 
 common aim, — to bring the human nature in the 
 ])upil to the greatest possible peifection. The desire 
 for knowledge, thought, sympathy, patriotism, and 
 religious interest should be aroused in the scholar of 
 
 1 Yolksscluile.— T'*-.
 
 OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. 25 
 
 the smallest village school just the same as in the 
 scholar of one of the higher schools. Both in the 
 lower and in the higher schools, education has recourse 
 to that circle of thought which arises from intercourse 
 with fellowmen as well as to that which arises from 
 intercourse with Nature. Where education aims to 
 cultivate the whole man, it will always have its 
 ethical and its realistic^ sides, which are mutually 
 coraplementar}^ Every educative school will en- 
 deavour to have the contemplation of religious things 
 become a necessity to the scholar, communion with 
 Nature a source of the purest joy, the society of great 
 historical personages an elevation, the devotion to 
 everything beautiful and noble a 7'e-creation, and the 
 search and struggle for clearness and truth a hearty 
 purpose. Such a general education is a pledge that, 
 despite all differences and all separation as regards 
 their calling, fellow- countrjnnen M'ill still understand, 
 support, and tolerate one another ; for they have all 
 gone forth from the educative school, w'hich is the 
 guardian of the most valuable ideal treasures of the 
 famih', community, State, and Church. The unity of 
 the educative school, therefore, lies in the common 
 purpose which it always has in view. The ditferences 
 in its orcranization arise from the various classes into 
 which society divides, in order to meet the manifold 
 needs of life. These classes which develop within the 
 large social body are usually designated as the lower, 
 middle, and upper, according to the degree of culture 
 wliich their employment in society demands. From 
 this division into civil classes arises the gradation of 
 
 ' As opposed to " humanistic." — Ts.
 
 26 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the educational system. First a clear and definite 
 sepc ration of the professional schools from the schools 
 of general culture is to be established ; the latter are 
 then to be divided into three forms, graded as follows : 
 The people's school, the real-school, and the higher 
 schools, i.e. the higher real - schools and the 
 gymnasia. 
 
 The latter aim on the one hand — higher real- 
 schools — to give a suitable preparatory education for 
 the higher institutions of technical instruction, 
 polytechnicum, schools of mining, forestry, etc.; on 
 the other hand (gymnasia), to prepare the child for 
 entrance into a learned profession by introducing him 
 to scientific work. The education which is imparted 
 in the gymnasium is historical, in so far as it goes 
 back to the sources of the national culture. In con- 
 trast with the gymnasium, the people's school is built 
 entirely upon a national basis, and serves the more 
 extensive strata of society, the working-classes in the 
 more restricted sense, — the peasant, the mechanic, etc. 
 The middle school or real -school embraces in its sphere 
 the modern European culture in order to qualify 
 thorough workmen for commerce, industry, and the 
 lower offices in the Civil Service, and thus to meet the 
 needs of the extensive middle strata of the people. 
 As the " simple real-school," it gives instruction in one 
 foreign language, and retains the scholar up to the 
 sixteenth year, while as the " higher real-school," it 
 gives instruction in two foreign languages and retains 
 the scholar up to the eighteenth year, that he may be 
 able to meet higher requirements. Particulars con- 
 cerning these forms will be given in subsequent 
 divisions. It is only necessary here to call further
 
 OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. 2/ 
 
 attention to the fact that the division of schools here 
 proposed appears as uncoiiimonly simplijied in com- 
 parison with the numerous forms of schools that are 
 now actually prevalent. Have we not now higher 
 and lower burgher- schools, upper real-schools, real- 
 gymnasiums, and real-schools, middle schools, pro- 
 gymnasiums, real-pro-gymnasiums, etc. ? Do these 
 different kinds of schools correspond to the actual, 
 distinct needs of civil society ? This would, at least, 
 be very difficult to prove. A retrospective glance at 
 the development of these numberless school species, 
 ranging from the people's school to the gymnasium, 
 would show on the contrary how insalutary the ex- 
 cessive number of these creations is, and how neces- 
 sary it is to remove them, or to transform and recon- 
 struct them into schools that do not owe their exis- 
 tence to incidental purposes, but on the contrary 
 draw their vitality from an inner right of exist- 
 ence. 
 
 How blind or how narrow-minded the school ad- 
 ministration appears when it is unable to free the 
 school and society from a " false latinity," and permits 
 an unlimited system of privileges,^ with its evils, to 
 continue. Is it pedagogically and economically justi- 
 
 ^ The expression, " unlimited system of privileges " refers to 
 the unwholesome practice that has in many cases found its way 
 into the German gymnasia, of granting certain rights in civil 
 and public life to pupils that have advanced to a certain point. 
 The privileges are graded, as it were, the greatest privileges 
 requiring the greatest number of years. For example, a youth 
 receives the right to but one year's compulsory military service 
 three years before finishing the gymnasium, and there is no 
 inducement for him to complete his course. — 2".s.
 
 28 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 fiable to send a large number of scholars into life with 
 an imperfect Latin education ? What can be the pur- 
 pose in compelling scholars to study Latin in spite of 
 the fact that they have no need of it whatever, and 
 that Latin is of no value to their culture ? The 
 history of the real-school ^ is a history of suffering. 
 That which should have been the real-school, and 
 which should impart a general education for those 
 callings that are not classed among the learned pro- 
 fessions, became a pseudo-classical school by the in- 
 troduction of Latin, and was driven into a contest 
 with the gymnasium that has struck deep wounds 
 into the national life itself, and separated the learned 
 class into two parties. 
 
 Wo can only recover from these unsound conditions 
 by the simplification and readjustment of the separate 
 educational elements in the proper lines. The trans- 
 formation, as it seems to us to be required, is presented 
 again in the following brief synopsis : — 
 
 ^ The true real-school represents the progress of realism in 
 education, i.e. it fosters sciences, mathematics, and the modern 
 languages in addition to the common branches of the people's 
 schools. The opposite tendencies are represented by the 
 gymnasium, which is devoted chiefly to the humanities, i.e. to 
 classic learning. The attempts to combine these two lines of 
 culture has given rise to the long series of school species named 
 above, which difler from one another chiefly in the proportion of 
 Latin tliat is mixed witli the course. — Ts.
 
 OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. 
 
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 [Let us make a brief comparison with the schools of the 
 two great English-speaking nations. The German people's 
 or Volk's school corresponds very closely to the English
 
 30 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 elementary school, or the American common public school. 
 The real -schools and upper real -schools in Germany 
 correspond in general to the English middle-class schools 
 of the second and third grades, and the modern first grade 
 schools, or the scientific course in the best American high 
 schools. The German gymnasium corresponds to, but 
 stands somewhat higher than, the classical first grade schools 
 of England, including the great public, most grammar and 
 proprietary schools, or the classical course in the best high 
 schools of the United States. The English and German 
 schools are also alike in separating the scholars according 
 to the sphere of life they expect to enter much earlier than 
 do the American schools. In the latter case, for example, 
 the child completes the common school before entering 
 upon classical studies in the high school, preparatory to 
 entering college. In both England and Germany, he be- 
 gins either classics or modern language much earlier. In 
 Germany, the " common substructure " that all are sup- 
 posed to receive, now generally occupies three years ; the 
 author proposes to lengthen the time to five years. In this 
 respect he and others approach somewhat nearer to the 
 American practice. On the other hand a tendency mani- 
 fests itself in America at present to apply the English and 
 German practice to some extent, and give tlie child the op- 
 portunity of commencing his philological studies earlier, 
 so as to make his college career more effective. The author 
 also deviates from the actual state of aflfairs in Germany in 
 rejecting the majority of the school species, and retaining 
 but four, which are based upon the historical development 
 of the German educational system. — V. L.] 
 
 (a) The People's School. 
 
 The conceptions of "leader" and of "the led," of 
 " the cultured" and "the common people," from which
 
 THE PEOPLES SCHOOL. U 
 
 we so often proceed, should not be intensified to arti- 
 ficial antithesis, but should be adjusted so as to pro- 
 duce a natural harmony. It is the highest purpose of 
 all individual and national education not to disunite, 
 but to reconcile, to strengthen well the feelino- of 
 national fellowship, and to awaken a consciousness 
 that in a powerful body all members must be 
 thoroughl}^ united. The distinctions of class and 
 calling vanish before this ideal aim. Only men meet 
 men ; the high and low, the rich and poor do not 
 contend with one another, but are consciously en- 
 gaged in a common national work. Therefore when 
 the question of the people's school is under discussion, 
 the conception that a gulf exists between the so- 
 called people's and the higher schools should not 
 be permitted to enter ; on the contrary, the people's 
 school should be spoken of as the broad and safe 
 foundation upon which the stately structure of the 
 entire educational system is erected. The whole 
 structure is to be conceived of as a unit, and each 
 part is to be regarded only as an organic member of 
 the whole; unjust pride should be repelled, and to 
 everyone should be awanJed the esteem that is due 
 liim as a member of the whole. Hence, from the 
 standpoint of the education of the entire people, of 
 the upper, middle, and lower strata, contempt for the 
 people's school gives evidence of very little statesman- 
 like, sociologic or political insight. 
 
 Moreover, this under-valuation is quite unwarranted 
 for the reason that the spiiere of the people's school is 
 distinguished by especial advantages. In the midst 
 of the hot contests of the present, the people's school 
 stands as an institution that is rccogniicd on all hrnds
 
 32 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 and surely and firmly established. A highly gratify- 
 ing fact ! The people's school should indeed furnish 
 the firm foundation upon which the entire structure 
 of national education is erected ; but where the 
 foundation has once been firmly and safely laid, a 
 great deal has already been accomplished. Judicious 
 statesmen and pedagogs, therefore, have, above all, 
 placed the greatest value upon the education of the 
 common people ; they have made all national progress 
 and higher culture depend upon the wholesome funda- 
 mental education of the entire body. The desire to 
 erect the educational structure from above toward 
 the foundation, bears evidence of very limited insight. 
 Whenever this is the case the endeavour to dazzle the 
 world and to be much talked about prevails over the 
 desire to promote the real welfare of the people. It 
 is true that the often toilsome labour in the people's 
 school is concealed fiom the view of the multitude ; 
 frequently only later decades express their thankful- 
 ness to the one who denied himself many a subjective 
 desire and inclination and gave himself thus to the 
 service of the people. The fact that at all times there 
 have been highly gifted men who did not consider it 
 unworthy of their energies to devote their entire 
 strength to the elevation of the people's school, has 
 contributed to that health}', steady growth of these 
 schools in which Germany rejoices. Though often 
 slighted by their contemporaries, these patriots have 
 still kept on with their retired labours, and succeeding 
 generations have thanked them for it. So many 
 valuable results have been handed down to the 
 present through their exertions, that one can speak 
 quite justly of a permanent possession and of
 
 THE TEOrLE'S SCHOOL. 33 
 
 a certain stability ami solidity of the entire 
 system. 
 
 The period of education in the people's school for 
 both bo3"s and girls includes eight school years, or 
 from the sixth to the fourteenth year of life. It is 
 then followed b}'' a coraplemental course which ex- 
 tends through two years. Tiie organization of the 
 people's school differs greatly according to the size of 
 the communit3\ Beside the ungraded, one-class,^ 
 village school stand the graded schools ia tlie cities, 
 comprising from two to eight classes. As regards the 
 course of instruction, since the stand]:)oint lias been 
 overcome that sought to keep the people in igaorance 
 under ])retence of wholesome restraint, and its re- 
 ])resentatives have come to wonder at their own 
 bratality, the normal or full number of branches has 
 been reached, including the introduction of drawing 
 and gymnastics, which are obligatory. The intro- 
 duction of manual training for boys, in botli garden 
 and workshop, is a gratifying progress, although it is 
 not 3'et by any means in that close connection with 
 the other instruction which is to be desired. In 
 general there is a strong effort to place both instruc- 
 tion and school life more thoroughly in the service of 
 education, inasmuch as the training schools for 
 tcaehers are zealously striving to keep pace with the 
 progress in peilagogies and to train competent edu- 
 cators of the people. 
 
 To be sure, a great many things that might be de- 
 sired still remain in the background. Inasnmch as 
 an education of the people which is based upon the 
 
 ^ One-class, i.e. under one teacher. — T'f.
 
 34 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 principles of the family and adheres to the exclnsive- 
 ness of personal convictions, must preserve the uni- 
 form character of the school even with respect to 
 religion, and, therefore, cannot reo^ard the joint- 
 school ^ as the ideal; it must emphasise its freedom of 
 movement within the limits of the religious confes- 
 sion, and defend itself sharply against all didactic 
 materialism. If, on the one hand, the people's school 
 gladly woT'ks hand in hand with the Church as that 
 ideal factor which is its natural ally, it must, on the 
 other hand, vigorously reject all religious guardian- 
 ship. The independence of the people's school has 
 also already been recognized in several German states, 
 and an exact separation of the sphere of the Church 
 from that of the school has been carried out to the 
 advantage of both. 
 
 Furthermore, a transformation of the training 
 schools for teachers is desirable, such as will remove 
 their mixed character, so that the general education 
 will be provided for more thoroughly before the pro- 
 fessional education begins. 
 
 Particular emphasis is to be placed upon an ar- 
 rangement of all classes of the educative school 
 according to which, during the first five years, the 
 people's school receives and educates all children from 
 all classes and conditions of life that are of school 
 age. This is what is meant by the demand that the 
 
 ^ In German " paritatische " or " Simultan-schule," a school 
 which is formed by the joint-agreement of the famiUes of all 
 confessions, wherever the village or town is too small or poor to 
 support a sepai'ate school for each confession ; the religious in- 
 struction is imparted to the children of each confession by tlie 
 respective pastor.- T"s.
 
 THE REAL-SCHOOLS. 35 
 
 people's school shall lay the foundiition for all kinds 
 of schools. After the completion of the five years' 
 elementary course the pupils separate and betake 
 themselves to the different schools, namely, the 
 people's school in its higher work, the higher city 
 school, the real school, or tlie gynmasium, all of which 
 build further upon this substructure. Such a com- 
 mon foundation as this would result in rich blessings 
 for all. Its benefits would be still further enhanced 
 if each class of scholars could be guided through the 
 different school j^ears by one and the same educator, — 
 a principle whose application in other schools would 
 prove a benefit to education. 
 
 Finally, it should also be pointed out that wher- 
 ever the families are not able to devote the necessary 
 care to their little ones on account of the struggle for 
 daily bread the kindergartens established in the 
 spirit of Pestalozzi and Fioebel are to be offered as 
 welcome institutions in which children may be taught 
 to accustom themselves to order, decorum and fitting 
 employment, and where they may begin to cultivate 
 feelings of interest in the prosperity or misfortune of 
 their fellow-beings. 
 
 (b) The Real-Schools. 
 
 As has already been shown, we distinguish two 
 forms of the real-school, a lower and a higher. The 
 former includes six, the latter nine school years.^ In 
 the former, — the simple "real-school," — one foreign 
 language is taught, either French or English ; in the 
 latter — the higher "real-school" — two foreign languages 
 
 '^ Which is the present usage, clifFering from the author's pro- 
 positions on page 20.
 
 36 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 are taught — French and English. A cei'tifieate showing 
 the course in either one of these institutions to have 
 been completed, should guarantee the right to but 
 one year's military service. Wliile the simple real- 
 school aims to impart an education exclusively for the 
 middle-class of citizens in the cities, the higher real- 
 school should prepare the child for all those callings 
 that are not learned professions (in the more restricted 
 sense), i.e. the sciences, forestry, mining, and architec- 
 ture, the higher postal service, the wholesale com- 
 mercial life, manufacturing, and the military career ; 
 they should also prepare for entrance into the training 
 school for teachers and the polyteehnicum. Those 
 who have finished the course of the higher real-school 
 should not be refused the privilege of attending the 
 universities. 
 
 The adv^antages of this organization are manifest. 
 Those callings for which Latin appears to be entirely 
 superfluous and unimportant, are provided with a pre- 
 paratory school which possesses a distinct character 
 of its own, and which corresponds best to their pur- 
 poses in each line. By this means the matter of pre- 
 paratory education ceases to be strained. The 
 gymnasiums are at once freed from all unnecessary 
 ballast, from all those scholars that never intended to 
 devote themselves to a strictly-learned profession. 
 This arrangement would be of twofold, infinite 
 benefit (1) to the scholars who no longer have to tor- 
 ment themselves with useless studies, and (2) to the 
 gymnasiums that no longer have to be troubled with 
 the reluctant pupils, who prematurely and joyfully 
 turn their backs upon the school as soon as some de- 
 finite privilege has been obtained.
 
 THE GYMNASIUM. 37 
 
 If the education of the people is to be restored again 
 to a healthy condition, the organization of the school 
 nuist also be directed into judicious, i.e. simi)le, chan- 
 nels. May this view soon prevail and the saying not 
 prove true that, "in Germany two hundred years are 
 necessary to abolish a folly — tlie lirst hundred to 
 become aware of it, and the second to remove it." 
 
 (c) The Gymnasiwini. 
 
 " Die jetzige IMenchheit siiiike unergriindlich tief, wenn 
 nicht die Jiigend durcli deu stillen Tempel der grossen alten 
 Zeiten und JNIenschen den Durcligang zu dem Jahrmarkt des 
 Lebeii3 niihine.'' 
 
 Jeax Paul. 
 
 Up to the present time the gymnasium has been 
 comparatively stable and unquestioned. Changes in 
 the chief determinative factor, the cultural ideal of 
 the educated circles, take place but very slowly. As 
 soon as they have appeared, however, they also seek 
 to make their influence felt upon the organization of 
 the school system. 
 
 It is obvious that at present hvo iwimrfid tenden- 
 cies are active, both of which are alike unfavourable 
 to the idea of the gymnasium: (1) the rapid progress 
 of the natural sciences and the strong realistic trend 
 of the time; (2) the strengthening of the natiunal 
 feeling since the re-establishment of the Empire. 
 
 In the first case the cultivation of the classic 
 languages is attacked ; it is claimed that as dead 
 languages they seem to be useless and signify only a 
 refuted ])oint of view. In the second case learned
 
 38 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 culture is to be placed only upon a national basis. 
 Both views are equally one-sided and destructive. 
 The old antithesis of humanism and realism has re- 
 appeared in all its sharpness. This contest has be- 
 come so much the mure signilicant because the deti- 
 ciencies that appear in the curriculum and instruction 
 of the gymnasium have incited even the adherents 
 and representatives of classic culture to sharp criti- 
 cism. The most important objection which has been 
 brought forward, is that the gymnasium has deterio- 
 rated to a preparatory school for classical philologists, 
 whereas it should be the preparatory educative institu- 
 tion for all learned professions, and give the pupil the 
 foundation for a deeper grasp of the national life both 
 in its individuality and in its connection with the 
 entire development of the European people. The 
 ideal province of the gymnasium must be constantly 
 and repeatedly emphazised in opposition to the utili- 
 tarian tendencies of the present. The representative 
 of such a standpoint should always be met by the 
 words of Aristotle : " Always to consider that which is 
 merely advantageous is unworthy of the free and 
 liberal-minded man." 
 
 If we review the attacks that have recently been 
 made upon the gymnasium, and the discussions con- 
 cerning its reform, we find the following objections : — 
 
 1. The physical health is compromised. Certain 
 governmental decrees are directed against the over- 
 working and straining of the eyes, it is true, but 
 without success. Physical exercises are too little 
 cultivated. 
 
 2. Much more fatal is the accusation that the
 
 THE GYMNASIUM. 39 
 
 mental health is endangered. It is claimed that the 
 evil lies, in fact, in the wrong method of instiuction, 
 ^yhich aims at a one-sided philological culture, and 
 culminates in the idea expressed in the well-known 
 saying : " The gymnasium stands or falls witli the 
 Latin composition (which has now been removed)." The 
 following points are also criticized in particular : — 
 
 (a) The grammatical stylistic element preponder- 
 ates. 
 
 (h) The miseries of the extempore composition cast 
 their dark shadows over the familj'. 
 
 (c) Serious moral injuries make their appearance ; 
 impiety and frivolity increase. 
 
 (cZ) The results in linguistic instruction are very 
 limited ; especially the results of the instruction in 
 German are very impeachable. One observes in the 
 pupils of the gymnasium more frequently than formerly 
 an awkwardness in grammatical expression and de- 
 ficiency in in'lependent judgment. 
 
 (e) There is a very apparent deficiency in the philo- 
 sophical and pedagogical culture of the teachers in 
 the gymnasium. The re([uirements in this line in the 
 " Examen pro. fac. doc." are also exceedingly limited. 
 
 But all these accusations are after all not yet 
 dangerous, for the reason that they do not threaten 
 the existence of the gymnasium. They only criticize, 
 but do not revolutionize. The latest attacks go still 
 further and are directed chiefly against the curric- 
 ulum. They claim that the exhaustive pursuit of 
 classical anti([uity is sheer nonsense ; therefore, away 
 with the dead ianfruajres. Others desire to limit the
 
 40 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 study of ancient classics to so great an extent that it 
 would amount to a dissolution of the gymnasium. 
 
 We cannot give our consent to such radical mea- 
 sures. The characteristic feature of classical culture 
 consists in adherence to the foundations upon which 
 modern culture has dev^eloped. This is necessary 
 for a deeper comprehension of the national life, 
 both in its individuality and in its connection with 
 the entire European culture. As has already been 
 shown, tbe lower strata of the nation whose task in 
 life can never consist in the furtherance of intellectual 
 culture, receive an education that is based upon the 
 national development. But the education of the 
 middle-classes preserves the connection with the 
 culture of neighbouring peoples. The education of 
 the learned circles follows the historical development 
 of culture from the classical peoples down to the pres- 
 ent. The man of learning should circumnavio-ate 
 the world of culture ; we grant him the privilege of an 
 intellectual flight to France and England ; but the 
 man of the people we retain at home. No one can 
 fitly promote the intellectual culture of the nation 
 through his own self activity, who has not acquired a 
 broad historical education. This is what the gymna- 
 sium aims to impart ; it is a necessary work. Herbai't 
 has already called our attention emphatically to the 
 fact that we must retain a firm and vigilant hold of 
 the historical chains of events by means of which we 
 trace back the origin of our culture, so that they shall 
 nob escape us. It' no other nation were to do tins, it 
 should still be the duty of the German nation both for 
 itself and for all others. But the work must be done 
 by all means if we do not wish to bring about a de-
 
 THE GYMNASIUM. 4I 
 
 terioration of the educational londition of the peoyde. 
 Whoever desires this should place himself on the side 
 of the radical utilitarians ; but he who wishes to re- 
 tain the ideal foundations of both our higher culture, 
 and the higher instruction of the youth, must take his 
 stand in favour of the maintenance of the gymnasium. 
 We certainly do not desire to maintain the gymnasium, 
 however, in its piesent management, which is evi- 
 dently suffering from certain abuses. If this were 
 not the case, the force of tlie last shock coukl not be 
 comprehended. Hence one is obliged to decide either 
 in favour of or against certain reasonable refoims, 
 which should be more thorough-going, however, than 
 the latest Prussian statutes. We should like to .see 
 these carried out in the following points : — 
 
 1. The re-organisation of the gymnasium should 
 extend first to the training of the teachers. In what 
 lines a change should be made will be shown in the 
 division entitled " Training of Teachers." 
 
 2. The elementary preparatory course, which now 
 embraces three years, is not suitable to the purpose ; 
 the pupils begin the acquisition of a foreign language 
 before they have made any respectable advance in 
 their mother tongue ; hence the necessity of providing 
 a broader foundation which shall comprise the first 
 five years of the people's school. 
 
 3. Greek must be placed in the foreground, since, 
 from a pedagogical point of view, the importance of 
 tlie lloman literatuie cannot vie in the least with 
 that of Grecian liteiature. 
 
 4. Absorption in the cuntents of the classicil work 
 sliould be tiie principal task. The grammar should
 
 42 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 not be pursued for its own sake, but only in so far as 
 it is necessary to impart an understanding of the 
 writings. 
 
 5. The fiction of "formal education"^ must be 
 given up. In general, there is no such education at 
 all ; there exist simply as many kinds of formal edu- 
 cation as there are essentially different spheres of 
 intellectual employment. 
 
 6. The Latin composition, the extempore produc- 
 tions in their present degenerate form, and the 
 translation from the mother tongue, should all be set 
 aside. The amount of time devoted to instruction in 
 languages may be considerably shortened (making 
 due allowance for the aim stated in No. 4), in order to 
 make room for other educational elements. 
 
 7. The esthetic element, which is of such funda- 
 mental importance in grasping the antique world) 
 must be brought to the front in some effective 
 manner. It is fostered by the introduction of in- 
 struction in art and drawing from the lowest to the 
 hiohest grades. 
 
 8. Physical training must be undertaken in a 
 far more effectual manner than is at present the 
 case. 
 
 9. Much more time must be granted the realistic 
 
 ^ "Formal education" or "formal culture," signifies about 
 the same as the va^ue expression, " discipline of the mind." Its 
 extreme defendants claim that the pursuit of classic studies 
 renders the intellect capable in any sphere whatever, i.e. it 
 develops all the mental faculties. It is true that the study of a 
 language renders the pursuit of other related branches easier ; 
 but it cannot be conceded that it prepares the mind directly for 
 grasping other totally irrelevant subjects. — Ts.
 
 THE GVMNASIU.M. 43 
 
 branches (natural sciences, mathematics, geography), 
 and their pursuit must be much more energetic. 
 
 10. The final or departing examination {Abiturien- 
 tenexamen) should be set aside. The jn-ivilege of 
 conferring a certificate, testifying to the completion of 
 the course, and necessary for admittance to the 
 polytechnicum, university, etc., should be granted the 
 board of teachers. 
 
 11. Freedom should also be granted the board of 
 teachers in the formation of the curriculum as to its 
 individual features, in so far as this does not conflict 
 with certain general standards. 
 
 12. The recently introduced "intermediate exam- 
 ination" {Zwischenexamcn^) should be energetically 
 opposed, in order that it may be removed as soon as 
 possible. It sunders the curriculum of one school into 
 two irreconcilable parts. 
 
 There is not space here to give sufficient grounds 
 fur the establishment of these claims. They are 
 presented, in part at least, by others, and apj)roach 
 most closely to the views that have fuund expression 
 in the German Einheits-schulverein.- (Hannover.) 
 The following outline may serve to give a summary 
 of the chief tendencies in this line of school reform : — 
 
 ^ Thi.s iutermodiate examination refers to the sy.stem o 
 privileges already mentioned on page 27 and in the accompany- 
 ing footnote. It occurs at the completion of " unter secunda," 
 three years before tlie close (jf the regular gynniasium course. — 
 Ts. 
 
 - An association for a union-school. See L. R. Klemm, 
 2'/(c JSIocemciit fur an Elnhrits-schidr in GtiiniDnj, in the 
 Jiducatioiud Ikciev, vol. i, No. 4, N. Y. — T s.
 
 44 
 
 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 
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 girls' schools. 45 
 
 ((/) The System of Girh' Sc}(Ools. 
 
 Wliile the school system for boys has exhibited a 
 remarkable abundance of organizations, we also find 
 certain diversities among the educational institutions 
 for girls, it is true, but they may all be reduced 
 essentially to three kinds of schools. The first runs 
 parallel with the people's school for boys, and closes 
 with confirmation ; the second goes far beyond this 
 goal, and corresponds to the higher city-school ^ for 
 boys ; it gives instruction in one foreign language, 
 generally French. This is an excellent arrangement 
 for educating the daughters of the cultured citizens, 
 of officials of the middle-class and of merchants, 
 although it is not yet sufficiently carried out. The 
 third kind, the higher school for girls, aims to impart a 
 higher culture by lengthening the period of attend- 
 ance at school to the sixteenth year, hy deepening the 
 instruction, and cultivating two foreign languages. 
 It is sometimes succeeded also by the seminary for 
 the training of lady teachers, as the highest grade, in 
 order that those young girls who desire may prepare 
 themselves for teaching. 
 
 The views concerning the organization, nature, and 
 aim of the higher schools for girls are comparatively 
 harmonious, although a certain tendency has recently 
 become noticeable in womens' associations to regard 
 the higher schools for girls more as institutions on a 
 level with the gymnasium. The aim, therefore, is to 
 further the development of intelligence and the amass- 
 ment of a great deal of knowledge. This tendency 
 
 ^ Bii/rqersclivJe. — T'-s-.
 
 46 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 purposes to carry learning into tlie feminine world in 
 order to render women capable of participating in as 
 many different professions and callings as possible, 
 even in those which have heretofore been exclusively 
 in the hands of the men. New spheres of activity 
 are to be opened to the energy of women ; the 
 strugi^le for existence is to be lightened. In opposi- 
 tion to this tendency, another view adheres to the 
 conviction that the girl should be educated not for 
 the world and its affairs, but for the liome and its 
 management, even if she is not refused entrance to 
 certain professions, such as that of the educator and 
 the physician. However, intellectual culture should 
 not always stand in the foreground, but rather an 
 ethical culture, and the culture of the heart. The 
 cultured classes in Germany do not need women of 
 great learning, reading, and versatility so much as, 
 in preference to all else, mothers, who possess a clear 
 insight into the world and are capable of following 
 the affairs of the husband with the keenest interest ; 
 who are stout-hearted and can animate the entire 
 family life with that warmth which is necessary for 
 a cheerful prosperity ; who devote their energies to 
 the household, rule affectionately and zealously in 
 this limited sphere, and are at the same time suffici- 
 ently strong and healthy to undertake the task. The 
 first mentioned tendenc}^ which happily has few 
 adherents among male and female teachers, is more 
 theoretical ; the latter is thoroughly practical. The 
 cultivation of the intellect is the chief aim of the 
 former ; the cultivation of the heart the highest aim 
 of the latter, wdiich does not seek knowledge for its 
 own sake, but only in so far as it enters into the
 
 r.IRLS' SCHOOLS. 47 
 
 service of a strong personal character. Without 
 doubt the second view is far more in accord with the 
 German sentiment than the first, which derives its 
 nourishment chietiy from tlieories thit are introduced 
 from abroad. Otherwise it will probably only be a 
 question of time until the German university is also 
 freely opened to very gifted young ladies for scien- 
 titic studies, especially medicine and pedagogy. 
 
 As regards the lenofth of the curriculum in the 
 hiofher schools for gii'ls, the so-called Berlin normal 
 plan fixes upon nine years in opposition to the far 
 greater number of ten-year-schools. The latter possess 
 an advantage that is not to be undervalued, in that 
 they retain the same scope of work, and hence do not 
 need to increase the amount of instruction for each 
 year as the nine-year- schools are compelled to do. 
 
 In 1872, certain well-known representatives of the 
 higher schools for girls assembled in Weimar, founded 
 an association in the interest of these schools,^ and in 
 a memorial document laid the demands of the asso- 
 ciation before the several governments of the German 
 States. For two years this association has found an 
 ally in the " Prussian association," which has under- 
 taken the special task of substituting a better course 
 of study for the Berlin plan of 18S6, and of working 
 for the legal regulation of the system of girls' schools 
 in Prussia. The German association pursues chiefly 
 the more general ideal aims ; the Prussian association 
 chiefly the practical aims. 
 
 [The above section has brought out a characteristic feature 
 of the German school. With the exception of the one-class 
 
 1 Yerein fiir hiilieve Mailchensschulcn. — T's.
 
 48 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOOICS. 
 
 village schools, the co-ediicatiou of the sexes is almost wholly 
 unkuown. The same is true in general of English schools 
 (exclusive of ScotLmd) ; whereas, in America, co-education, 
 or mixed education, is the rule. The salutary effects of 
 mixed education cannot be doubted ; the few instances, 
 where it has been tried in Germany and other countries, have 
 given the greatest satisfaction. — V. L.]
 
 (B) OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 The school admiuistiation has, in general, four 
 tasks to fulfil, viz. the foundation, maintenance 
 equipment, and supervision of the school system, in- 
 cluding the preparation of teachers for the various 
 kinds of schools. Accordingly we shall discuss — 
 
 1. ScIlooI Legislation. 
 
 The c[ue.stion of school legislation has lapsed into 
 inefilible confusion owing to the deficient grasp of the 
 situation in its objective phases, and to complication 
 with the party conflicts of politics and the Church, 
 Some reject every proposal for a reformation, at least 
 if it does not aim at assisting in a still more rigorous 
 application of their principles. But just that view- 
 has thus far been unable to obtain a hearing in public 
 transactions, which has been quietly and scientifically 
 developed in smaller circles. In fact, a pronounced 
 partiality appears even among teachers themselves, 
 in so far as they are sturdily endeavouring to place 
 themselves under the authority of the State. They 
 look to the State for the fulfilment of all tlieir desires, 
 for the elevation of their social position, and a 
 liberal income. Furthermore, certain political parties 
 give them distinctly to understand that, as soon as 
 they have attained political power, all demands made 
 
 49 D
 
 so OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 by the teaching profession shall be granted. The 
 settlement of the question, which, in fact, must be 
 regarded as a difficult one, is only still further discon- 
 certed by such egotistical endeavours. 
 
 We have to consider here a matter of no less im- 
 portance than the adjustment and impartial com- 
 bination of the claims of different factors, all of which 
 have a natui-al interest in the educational sj'stem. It 
 is not unraveling the knot, but simply severing it, 
 when the almighty power of the State is raised to 
 the throne without further ceremony, and the priv- 
 ilege of taking a self-active part in the development 
 of the school system is denied all other factors. This 
 cannot happen without damage to the interests of 
 the schools themselves, which, like all other intellectual 
 movements, thrive so much the better the greater the 
 number of active factors that participate in their 
 advancement. Without doubt, the family possesses 
 the most natural right ; next to the family stand the 
 community and the Church. It is the task of school 
 lesfislation to establish the rig-ht relation b':;tween the 
 state and these three factors. It should guarantee to 
 each individual sphere both the opportunity and a 
 sufficiently free scope for the appearance of its 
 natural interests, which, as such, are very deeply 
 rooted. All legislation which does not take natural 
 interests into consideration will sow the seeds of con- 
 stant strife, and never preserve the ardour that 
 characterizes a growing organism bearing healthy 
 fruit. 
 
 As we have already repeatedly shown, the family is 
 the natural bearer of the first and highest interests of 
 education therefore, education must proceed from
 
 SCHOOL LEGISLATION. 5 I 
 
 the family. Tlie fundamental presupposition of all 
 school legislation consists in the recognition of the 
 rights of the family in education. This right must be 
 considered before that of all other participants, and 
 the proportionate inlluence of the separate factors 
 will be determined accordingly. The organization 
 bemns with the establishment of local school com- 
 munities, or districts, which are alliances of families 
 whose members acknowledge one and the same edu- 
 cational ideal. In conjunction with the civic, State, 
 and ecclesiastical organizations of society, they are then 
 to be combined into the broader school communities 
 of the " Kreis " and " Provinz," and the School Boards 
 organized accordingly. In all cases those points at 
 which the clearly defined inlluence of the State or 
 Church is entitled to appear, are to be exactly desig- 
 nated. Such legislation secures the necessary inde- 
 pendence of the educational system, which is thus 
 placed on a level with the army, the Church, the 
 judicial department, etc.; it assures a suitable co- 
 operation of all corporate interests, and preserves the 
 national character and the sjnnpathy with the national 
 spirit far more than is possible in a school system that 
 is ruled only by its supreme authorities. Finally, 
 this form of legislation furnishes an etfective pro- 
 tection against the vicissitudes of political and social 
 partisanship. It should be further emphasized that, 
 in the furmation of the administrative system of the 
 schools, a representative assembly or board should be 
 created in every instance, beside the executive otlice, 
 e.g. the " Schulvorstand " beside the " Schulamt," the 
 " Kreisschulsynode " beside the " Kreisschulinspector," 
 the " Provinzialschulsynode " beside the " Provinzial-
 
 52 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 beliorde," the " Landesechulsynode " beside the " Min- 
 isterium." ^ 
 
 Such school legishition secures the rights of all 
 interested parties, and guarantees a healthy and 
 vigorously pulsating educational life. In place of the 
 absolute power of the State, therefore, an authority 
 should be recognized, which, although it is not 
 entirely different from the former, and has issued 
 only from the families, nevertheless depends upon 
 their co-operation. Just as the Church thrives best 
 when its families are not made silent co-workers, but 
 are allowed to take an active part in the development of 
 the religious life, so the school can only truly thrive 
 in behalf of the interests of both the family and the 
 State, when the principle of unlimited State super- 
 vision, or State omnipotence, has been given up. 
 
 The following statements set forth our views upon 
 the formation of the school system in accordance with 
 the fundamental principles presented above. 
 
 1 In general, the " Kreis," "Proviiiz," and "Land" corre- 
 spond respectively to the township, county, and State. To these 
 three is sometimes added a fourth, the "Bezirk" (see page 54), 
 which then corresponds to the township, and the "Kreis'' to a city- 
 circuit. According to the above proposition, the scliool system 
 would comprise four distinct circuits, grading from the school 
 district to the State department of culture, each with its repre- 
 sentative and executive departments, as follows : — 
 
 (A) Circuit. (B) Representative Body. (C) Executive Office. 
 
 1, School District. Schulvorstand Soliulamt. 
 
 2. Kreis. Kreisscliulsjnode. Kreisschulinspector. 
 
 3. Provinz. Provinzialschulsynode. Provinzialbehorde. 
 
 4, Land. Landesscliulsynode. Ministerium. 
 
 The reader can make the necessary comparisons with the 
 school legislation of liis State for himself. — Ts.
 
 SCHOOL LEGISLATION. 53 
 
 I. The School Co:\niuNiTv. 
 
 1. The family possesses the priinaiy and most 
 natural rio^hts, as well as obligations, in respect to the 
 education of the youth. 
 
 2. The school can only be regarded as an arrange- 
 ment made by the families for the common education 
 of their youth. An association of families possessing 
 a common school constitutes a school community. 
 
 3. The children, as members of the family who are 
 under age, belong to an ethical-religious, a civil and a 
 political community only through their connection 
 with the famil3^ The claims of the Church, of the 
 civil community and of the State upon the child, 
 therefore, can only be indirect, however great and 
 important they may be in themselves. 
 
 4. Common education implies that the families con- 
 cerned, and their professional educators, agree in the 
 most important fundamental educational principles, 
 that they are therefore concordant in matters of con- 
 science. 
 
 5. The concordance in matters of conscience, or 
 the common view of life, characteristic of the 
 various members of the school community, has 
 found expression, both historically and legally, in the 
 religious communities recognised by the State — an 
 expression that is confessional, although very much 
 in want of various reforms. It is natural that the 
 school communities, as far as their inner nature is 
 concerned, should be founded upon these religious 
 communities. The .schools that stand upon tliis ground 
 are regarded as public. 
 
 G. If families of different confessions, or dissidents.
 
 54 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 agree to ebtablish a common school, the State should 
 not refuse to recognise this so-called simultaneous or 
 joint-school as a public institution. 
 
 7. Under certain limitations to be determined by 
 the State, single individuals, families, and communities 
 of families must be permitted to establish private 
 schools, provided they are able to give sufficient 
 account of their educational principles. 
 
 8. All of the free school communities of a State 
 constitute a common State school system, whose 
 different members, from the lowest to the highest, may 
 be presented as follows : — 
 
 (a) Local school community (school district). 
 (h) School community of the Kreis (Stadt). 
 (c) School community of the Bezirk. 
 ((/) School community of the Province. 
 
 9. All publicly recognized school communities should 
 receive corporate rights, especially the right of self- 
 government. The legislation accordingly should re- 
 ceive a synodical character, in that each single school 
 community has its corresponding board of directors, 
 the Kreis and Bezirk each its special representative 
 body, the province its provincial synod, and the State 
 school system a State school sj^nod. 
 
 10. In order that the right of self-government may 
 not remain merely nominal, but become a reality from 
 the local board of school directors up to the State 
 school synod, the various bodies representing the 
 families should be invested with the necessary author- 
 ity, according to their rank ; this arrangement re- 
 cognizes tiie truth that a corporate representative 
 body can only develop life when it has some-
 
 SCHOOL LF.r.ISLATION. 55 
 
 tiling to determine. The seliool system can only 
 truly thrive unler sueh a decentriilization, for it is 
 then sustained by the work of the entire people. But 
 the State, which retains the chief rig-ht of supervision, 
 will only be the gainer by this regulation ; the same 
 is true of the Church whose influence in the repre- 
 sentative bodies of the school can obtain recognition 
 without being burdened with the odium of making 
 direct encroachments ui^on the educational system. 
 State, Church, and school should constitute a united 
 force in which the various circles of activity retain 
 their independence, and are nuitually effective and 
 sustaining. 
 
 II. The Chuech. 
 
 1. The religious communities are to recognize the 
 complete independence of the school communities that 
 have sprung up upon their foundations. Hence they 
 must relinvjuish all special rights over the school, 
 particularly the right of supervision. 
 
 2. The clergyman should be permitted to be ])resent 
 in the school at the religious instiuction. If he desires 
 to censure the same in certain particulars, he must 
 report to his superior board, which is to lay the com- 
 plaints in question before the school synod for de- 
 cision. The clergyman should not be allowed to 
 interfere directly in the curriculum and the method 
 of relifjious instruction in the school. 
 
 3. Opportunity should be given the clergy in the 
 school synod to make known their pedagogical con- 
 victions as regards the curriculum, text-l)ouks, and 
 methods of instruction.
 
 56 OUTLINFiS OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 4. The Church should be granted the privilege of 
 sending a representative to the State examination of 
 teachers, who is to he allowed a seat and voice in the 
 exarainins' board. 
 
 III. The Civil Community and the State. 
 
 1. In its external organization the school should be 
 founded upon the civil community, just as its inner 
 life should rest, so far as possible, upon religious com- 
 munities. 
 
 2. The civil community and the State assume the 
 raanasfement of the external affairs of the school 
 (construction of school buildings, appointments, 
 salaries, etc.). 
 
 3. The State is not authorized, however, to en- 
 trench upon the foundations and the nature of the 
 family. Hence it should not think of rendering the 
 school a purely State institution, i.e. it should not 
 aim to assume exclusive control of the youth for the 
 benefit of its own designs. 
 
 4. The State should have the chief right of school 
 supervision, however. It has the right to demand 
 that education and instruction shall not be neglected^ 
 that the schools shall pursue no course hostile to its 
 interests, and that they shall attain certain results 
 which are essential to its task. As regards the latter 
 it should fix upon certain minimum aims to be attained 
 by the various kinds of schools. 
 
 5. The State provides for certain educational offices 
 of supervision, which correspond to, assist, and support 
 the School Boards. They are as follows : —
 
 i:quipme>"t of schools. 57 
 
 ((I J The " Kreis '' or " Bezirksschulamt " beside 
 
 the " Kreis " or " Bezirk " board. 
 (h) The " Provinzial-Schulrat " beside the " schul- 
 
 synod " of the province. 
 (c) The " Oberschuh-at" (division for schools in 
 
 the educational department) beside the 
 
 " State-school-synod." 
 
 (). The State convenes the school synods, superin- 
 tends the interaction of all factors participating in the 
 school system, and thus provides for the uniform 
 management of the entire educational structure. 
 
 7. The State, in common with the representative 
 bodies of the various communities, governs the finan- 
 cial affairs and superintends the proper equalization 
 of the taxes that are levied for the purpose of raising 
 means. 
 
 8. The State has the right to close private schools 
 whenever they work in opposition to the national 
 interests and pursue tendencies that are dangerous to 
 the common welfare. 
 
 2. Tlie Equipment of Schools. 
 
 It is the task of the school administration above all 
 to investigate the wants of the school, and to satisfy 
 the same by means of suitable regulations. The chief 
 lines of this duty lie in the provision of schoolrooms, 
 school apparatus and teachers. 
 
 1. School hygiene gives the necessary directions as 
 to the arrangement and structure of schoolrooms. 
 Happily, the efforts of the school administration have 
 been retrieved from a misplaced economy ; in fact, the
 
 58 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 school buildings in many villages and cities are a 
 splendid ornament. Great progress is noticeaLle in 
 this direction as compared with former times ; the 
 school administrations vie with one another in their 
 endeavours to possess the best arranged school 
 buildings. 
 
 2. We also find considerable progress in the line of 
 school apparatus as compared with former times. 
 The most necessary materials for the work of instruc- 
 tion are probably everywhere supplied. Dealers in 
 school apparatus promptly furnish the supplies; school 
 museums afford an excellent survey of the abundant 
 materials for use in all departments of instruction, that 
 are now at the command of the teacher. 
 
 3. It is obvious that the greatest care of the school 
 administration is to obtain competent teachers, and to 
 retain them after they have once been employed. 
 Here the stipend undoubtedlj'- has a great in- 
 fluence. The requirement which F. A. Wolf placed 
 upon the teacher, to be always health}'' and to know 
 how to endure the severest pangs of imnger whenever 
 and wherever it is necessary, is, forsooth, a very ideal 
 requirement ; but it is difficult to see just why teachers, 
 whose very devotion to the education of the youth 
 already requires so much self-denial and the exertion 
 of all the energies, should have to make such a sacri- 
 fice. On the contrary, the energy of the educator 
 should be supported as effectually as possible by a 
 liberal stipend. A meagre salary exerts a twofold 
 harmful influence upon the teacher — (1) in so far as it 
 is the cause of troublesome restrictions, want, and 
 care, and (2) in that it drives him to supplementary 
 woik in leisure hours. The one is just as harmful as
 
 SCHOOL SUPERVISION. 59 
 
 the other, for both undermine that fundamental frame 
 of mind (joy in the profession and mental serenity) 
 without which the business of the educator cannot 
 thrive. But how shall the teacher's enthusiasm for 
 his work be retained and nourished, even when he has 
 been inspired by the lofty significance of education, if 
 neglect, want, and care are constantly associated with 
 it? The educator should by all means carry on his work 
 only because he has a sincere love for it, never from a 
 base self-interest ; there is no labour which stimulates 
 one to bear all kinds of exertion and sacrifice by 
 virtue of its inner worth and lofty signiticance more 
 than that of the educator. But one cannot live alone 
 upon the greatest inspiration and the most exalted 
 intellectual feasts ; even the nature of the most liberal 
 educator must always remain human. It seems, there- 
 fore, to be an urgent duty to adjust the social position 
 of the teacher so that it will be proportionate to the 
 importance which society ascribes to the profession of 
 the educator, ami to grant him a livelihood so am{)le 
 that all possibility of dissatisfaction with the external 
 circumstances of life is excluded from the beginning. 
 
 3. Of the Su2')ervision of Schools. 
 
 A system of forces always requires- a regulating 
 power, which, in this case, must be found in the 
 sovereignty of the State. It is the duty of the State 
 to guide and superintend the entire school system. 
 This management has, above all, to guard against 
 severity, tyranny, bureaucracy, and the tendency to 
 check spontaneity by the dictation of ready-made 
 formulas, all of which compromise the ])rosperity of the
 
 60 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 schools. Tlie French ideal, according to which the 
 Minister of Instruction could boast of being able, 
 watch in hand, to state, on any day whatever, exactly 
 whether the teachers of all the schools in all depart- 
 ments were engaged at a given moment in repetition 
 or dictation, in reading or grammar, does not accord 
 with the German nature. Here personality and in- 
 dividuality must have the free play upon which their 
 efficacy essentially depends. The management sliould 
 not be felt everywhere as an oppressive burden, but 
 as a friendly service that furthers pei'sonal efficiency. 
 Its frequent failure in this respect, however, is due 
 partly to the establishment of final examinations 
 under the supervision of the State, partly to the 
 fact that very unsuitable persons have been chosen 
 for the inspection of the schools. The development 
 of the school system brought about a custom, in accor- 
 dance with which the State availed itself of ecclesi- 
 astical authorities for the inspection of the lower and 
 middle schools. Tliis arrangement was acceptable as 
 long as the school system was still in the beginning 
 of its development. In its present condition, however, 
 the demand is imperative that tiie inspection of the 
 schools be entirely in the hands of the profession itself, 
 i.e. that only those men shall be selected for the 
 management and inspection of the schools that have 
 enjoyed a competent pedagogical training both theo- 
 retically and practically. 
 
 It should also be emphasized that, with the appoint- 
 ment of professional men to the inspection of schools 
 in the Kreis, and with the formation of smaller 
 districts, the so-called local school inspection may 
 well be dropped.
 
 TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 6 1 
 
 4. Oftlie Traininy of Teachers. 
 
 In tbis siDhere the school administration has been 
 guilty of remarkable inconsistency. More than a 
 hundred years ago it beijan to provide for the peda- 
 gogical training of teachers for the people's schools, 
 and in the last decades a great deal has been done in 
 this same line. In the meantime the universities 
 have provided more and more liberally for the scholar- 
 ship of teachers for the middle and higher schools, 
 while their preparation for the future educational 
 task itself has been totally neglected. Learning 
 appeared to be the chief thing ; pedagogical and philo- 
 sophical tiaining was regarded as something un- 
 essential. On the contrary, the learning, i.e. the 
 general culture of teachers for the people's schools 
 was neglected, while the pedagogical phase of their 
 training was much more emphasized. 
 
 This last statement already indicates in what lines 
 the reformation of the training schools M'or teachers 
 of tlie people's schools must be effected. Tlie mixed 
 character, which these institutions now bear, must be 
 removed in favour of professional culture ; the teachers' 
 seminary must be advanced to tlie position of the 
 professional schools. This presupposes, at least, that 
 the preparatory education, whicli is at present quite 
 insufficient, be considerably broadened and deepened, 
 or that the general education be acquired by finishing 
 the course of an upper real-school. The latter is to 
 be preferred. With the present condition of the 
 teachers' seminaries, neither the general culture nor 
 
 ^ Vulkssoluillehrcrseiniiiar. — T s.
 
 62 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the professional pedagogical training receive the pro- 
 per attention ; for this reason the curse of an in- 
 different culture generally clings to the position of 
 teacher in the people's school. A prudent school ad- 
 ministration should leave no stone unturned to remove 
 this reproach. 
 
 An important and progressive step has been taken 
 in Prussia as regards the pedagogical training of 
 candidates for positions in the higher schools ; a year 
 in the seminary has been introduced before the so- 
 called trial year, and seminaries have been established 
 in connection with a large number of gymnasiums 
 and real-gymnasiums. Previously the pedagogical 
 training of teachers in the higher schools of Prussia 
 had been attempted in two ways : (1) in eleven 
 practical pedagogical seminaries that are separate 
 from the university; (2) in the so-called trial year. 
 The purpose of the latter was to give the great mass 
 of candidates, who could not be admitted into the 
 pedagogical seminaries, at least one year's opportunity 
 for practical preparatory work in teaching. This 
 arrangement was early recognized as wholly in- 
 sufficient. Even as early as 1849 the general school 
 conference,^ under the direction of the Minister von 
 Ladenburg, pronounced the trial year to be an in- 
 efficient arrangement, but only in 1S89 was a step 
 taken to supply the deficiency by the foundation of 
 seminaries in connection with the gymnasiums. 
 
 By the side of these, pedagogical seminaries should 
 be organized in the universities for the purpose of 
 training both the teachers that will labour neither in 
 
 ^ Laudesscliulconferenz. — T's.
 
 TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 63 
 
 the people's schools nor in the gymnasinins {i.e. 
 teachers for real-schools, teachers' seminaries, higher 
 girls schools, etc.), and the theologians and school 
 inspectors. But there are other important reasons 
 for the establishment of pedagogical seminaries in the 
 universities. 
 
 In general the separation of so important a sphere 
 as the science of education from the living forces of 
 the university, where all the other chief phases of 
 the national culture are carefully nurtured, can 
 certainly be only a detriment to the national develop- 
 ment. There is hardly a sphere of labour whose thrift 
 is more easily endangered by mere mechanical con- 
 formity to existing practices than that of the schools, 
 if one places any value whatever upon the fresh, 
 energetic, and independent spirit that should pervade 
 them. A judicious school administration will have 
 no dread of such a spirit, but will rather value it 
 highly, because the thrift and success of the education 
 of tlie 3-outh depends upon the strength of this living 
 spirit. Wherever it has become extinct we shall 
 watch in vain for that fresh, strong, active race that 
 rejoices in and is desirous of work, and of which we 
 stand in so much need. Who would doubt, however, 
 that the cultivation of such an active spirit will thrive 
 best where the freedom of science flourishes? Who 
 would not regard the organization of [)edagogicaI 
 institutes in the universities just as desirable as the 
 establishment of seminaries for teachers in connection 
 with the gymnasiums? The former, under the pro- 
 tection of the freedom of science, should become 
 central points for the cultivation of scientific peda- 
 gogics. From them the gymnasium seminaries — which.
 
 64 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 as members of the State school system, can never 
 enjoy the same freedom of movement, "will receive 
 their most effective stimulation and reinvigoration. 
 Hence, if fresh life is to be developed in the teachers' 
 seminaries for both the gymnasiums and the people's 
 schools, the source of noui-ishment in the universities 
 must not be obstructed, but properly opened. 
 
 [The above section upon school administration, although 
 applied directly to German needs, still touches upon pro- 
 blems of universal interest. Most prominent among these 
 is that of the relative power of the ftimily, State, and Church 
 in determining the character of the educational system. 
 In Germany the Church has always possessed great power 
 in educational matters, for the growth of the present school 
 system dates from the first efforts of Luther in behalf of 
 elementary instruction. Its power has waned but little, 
 for the schools are largely confessional, and religious ia- 
 structiou is imparted in all educative schools. The con- 
 dition was similar in England up to 1870 ; many of the 
 schools either are still in the hands of Church communities, 
 or were originally founded by the Church. Instruction in 
 religion is the rule. In America the Church has no direct 
 influence vipon the public schools ; religious instruction is 
 not imj)arted in them. In all of these countries the rights 
 of the Church and State in education are prominent edu- 
 cational topics. — V. L.]
 
 PART ir. 
 
 Theoretical Pedagogics. 
 
 As we have already seen, practical pedagoorics can- 
 not dispense with the aid of two fundamental sciences, 
 social ethics and social psycholog}^ Theoretical peda- 
 gogics is likewise directed to these same two sciences, 
 but in the form of individual ethics and individual 
 psycholog}^ 
 
 The first task which presents itself is to show how 
 the aim of education is to be derived from ethics. 
 This is the task of teleolog}^ As soon as the ends 
 which education has to fulfil, are known, the next 
 question is that of the means by which these aims are 
 to be reached. This question must be decided by that 
 science which treats of the laws to which the inner 
 life of man conforms, viz. psychology. It is, therefore, 
 the task of methodology to show how the choice, 
 arrangement and preparation of the intellectual food 
 may be adapteJ to the psychical laws. 
 
 Accordingly, we have the following outline : — 
 
 Theoretical Pedagogics. 
 
 (A) Tlioory of the purpose of (B) Theory of the means of 
 
 e(lucati(jn. Teleology. education. Methodology. 
 
 (Ethic*.) (FsychoUxjij ) 
 
 65 i:
 
 66 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 (ft) Teleology. 
 
 When the educator reflects as to what lie shall 
 make of his pupil with reference to human society, 
 the first thought that suggests itself is to investigate 
 the conception of education for the purpose of gaining 
 some hints as to its aim. 
 
 Unfortunately, one does not advance very far by 
 this means. The investigation of the conception of 
 education, however, reveals certain real features that 
 are present in the reflections of everyone. But that 
 very little progress can be made by beginning in this 
 manner becomes apparent at once when we briefly 
 review these features : — 
 
 1. In the first place, we find that education takes 
 place only with mankind, a fact wdiich Rosenkranz 
 sums up in the following words : — " Man is educated 
 by man for humanity." 
 
 2. We know that education does not extend to 
 adults, but is confined to the children. The latter 
 are cared for by their elders. Wherever children are 
 left to themselves, no education takes place. 
 
 3. By investigating the conception of education, we 
 learn that the educative activity must be systematic 
 and well arranged, if it is to succeed. Hence Waitz 
 said, " Education is tlie systematic exertion of an in- 
 fluence upon the inner life of another while it is yet 
 educable." 
 
 4. The psychical condition of the pupil should not 
 be influenced merely during the activity of the edu- 
 cator, but should attain a permanent form ; neither 
 should it be afiected in spite of, or in conflict with,
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 6/ 
 
 his influence. The training which the one that is 
 being educated receives through education should 
 acquire a certain stability and durability. 
 
 These thoughts are all very good, but we have not 
 been brought one step nearer the solution of our 
 question, for no hint whatever is contained in the 
 conception of education itself as to what form the 
 character of the pupil should attain, or what training 
 he should receive. 
 
 Since the conception of education itself is not able 
 to give definite but only general suggestions, the next 
 thought is to turn to history in order to learn what 
 the true purpose of education is. In so doing, how- 
 ever, one may easily fall into Scylla while trjdng to 
 avoid Charybdis. Shall the educator follow Rousseau 
 and educate a man of nature in the midst of civilized 
 men ? In so doing, as Herbart has shown, we should 
 simply repeat from the beginning the entire series of 
 evils that have already been surmounted. Moreover, 
 it would give the educator as much trouble to make 
 a living in such a heterogeneous society as in after 
 life the one whom he had educated. Or shall we turn 
 to Locke and prepare the pupil for the world, which 
 is customarily in league with worldlings ? We should 
 then arrive at the standpoint of Basedow, and aim. to 
 educate the pupil so that he would become a truly 
 useful member of human society. Of course we 
 should always be harassed with the secret doubt as to 
 whether this is the ideal pur[)ose after all, and whether 
 we are not at times directly enjoined to place the 
 pupil at variance with the usage and customary deal- 
 ings of the world. If we reflect that an endless career 
 is open to man for his improvement, we realize that
 
 68 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 only that education whose aims ai'e alwaj's the liisfhest, 
 can hope to reach the loft}' goals that mark this 
 career. 
 
 Therefore, an ideal aim must be present in the 
 mind of the educator. Possibly he can obtain infor- 
 mation and help from Pestalozzi, whose nature 
 evinced such ideal tendencies. Pestalozzi wished the 
 welfare of mankind to be sought in harmonious 
 cultivation of all powers. If one only knew what is 
 to be understood by a multiplicity of mental powers, 
 and what is meant by the harmony of various 
 powers. These phrases sound very attractive, but 
 give little satisfaction. The purely formal aims 
 of education will appeal just as little to the educator : 
 " Educate the pupil to independence ; " or, " educate 
 the pupil to be his own educator ; " or, " educate the 
 child so that it will become better than its educator " 
 (Hermann and Dorothea, Hector and Astyanax in 
 the Iliad). Such and similar attempts to fix the 
 purpose of education are abundant in the history of 
 pedagogy ; but they do not bring us nearer the goal. 
 In their formal character they do not say, for example, 
 of what kind the independence shall be, what content 
 it shall have, what aims it shall have in view, or in 
 what directions its course shall lie. For the pupil 
 that has become independent can use his freedom 
 rightly for good just as well as misuse it for evil. 
 
 If the purpose of education is to possess any real 
 worth, it must, above all else, be of a concrete nature ; 
 it must indicate the content of the mental training. 
 We have just become acquainted with several formu- 
 lations wdiich fulfil this condition, as, for example, the 
 eudcmonistic principle of Locke and the philanthro-
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 69 
 
 pists, Rousseau's principle of conformity to nature, and 
 the humanistic principle of Pestalozzi, Herder, Lessinsj, 
 and others, which culminates in the demand for a 
 " true humanity." To these we can readily add the 
 rationalistic principle, which aims at rationality, 
 enlightenment, and intellectual culture ; the orthodox 
 Christian principle, which demands that man, who 
 was created in the image of Gud but lost tln-ough 
 sin, be redeemed (Palmer), and the pietistic principle 
 of Spener, Francke, and Zinzendorf, which aspires to 
 piety and godliness. 
 
 Without doubt there is an abundance of exami)les 
 from which the educator can choose to his heart's con- 
 tent. But, as is well known, he who has the choice 
 also has the vexation that accompanies it.^ The 
 desire to attain a firm standpoint \ery soon makes 
 itself felt. How shall he succeed in finding the lofty 
 standpoint upon which he can base his decision with 
 complete inner harmony and contentment, when 
 history submits several aims of education, all of 
 which seem to him to be equally valuable and 
 expedient ? Perhaps he can overcome the difficulty 
 by combining these various aims, thus arriving at a 
 plurality of educational purposes which, taken 
 together, are to determine the activity of the edu- 
 cator. Does not the attempt to do justice to all the 
 different standpoints appear to be a happy solution of 
 the difficulty ? Is it not advisable, in accordance with 
 the well-known receipt : " Test everything and retain 
 the best," to select and arrange a scries of aims from 
 that which is correct in the different tendencies? 
 
 ^ The German proverb is, " Wer die W'alil liat, luit audi die 
 Qiml."— rs.
 
 70 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Thus, for example, let the religious aim be selected 
 from the theological sphere, the taste for nature and 
 simplicity from Rousseau ; from Locke and Basedow the 
 regard for one's skill and ability as a useful member 
 of, and active participant in, human society ; from 
 Pestalozzi and the humanists the expansion of one's 
 view of life, so that at some future time the pupil 
 can say with Terence : " Nihil humani a me alienum 
 puto."' 
 
 All this might be very good, were it not for the 
 fact that such a series of aims resemble a mere 
 collection or mass of unordered subordinate thoughts 
 that happen to be pertinent, rather than a well- 
 organized system of properly derived conceptions that 
 are held tog'ether by some internal bond, and tliat 
 may be subsumed under one supreme purpose. 
 
 Accordingly, wo are justified in maintaining that 
 we should not be content with a multiplicity of edu- 
 cational aims, which undoubtedly correspond to 
 different phases of human activity, but should pass on 
 to a paramount point of view which commands the 
 entire sphere. 
 
 Unity of the plan is inconceivable without unity of 
 the aim. We can only hope to master the situation 
 when the plan of education appears as a system 
 of forces which, for years, always pursue one and the 
 same end. If the work of the pedagog is ever to be 
 regarded as, in all respects, a single compact whole, it 
 must also be possible to conceive of the task of edu- 
 cation as a unit. Although it is self-evident that the 
 complexity of the work of education requires a multi- 
 plicity of aims, it is at the same time just as necessary 
 that the multiplicity of aims, offered by experience, be
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. ;i 
 
 subsumed under one chief, supreme, educational pur- 
 pose. The sovereign power of" such an aim secures the 
 unity of the pedagogical activity. The need of uni- 
 formit}^ is satistied, the educator is free to devote his 
 energies uninterruptedly to a concentrated activity, 
 in spite of the promptings of a crude empiricism and 
 erroneous theories. All single educational activities 
 must find their support and centre in a single thought 
 which governs them all ; no isolated means of edu- 
 cation, as such, can be regarded as of any value, except 
 as it receives its worth and significance through certain 
 definite relations which it bears to all other means and 
 to the paramount educational aim. Education can 
 make no use of chief and subordinate purposes which 
 have to make mutual concessions, but only of a single 
 supreme purpose which may be subdivided into a 
 system of subordinate purposes; the latter, on their 
 part, must be so inter-related as to constitute the 
 necessary ste[)S in the attainment of the former. 
 
 We recollect that this uniform purpose is to be 
 found with the aid of ethical investigations. It 
 appears therefore, that, in order to obtain exact in- 
 formation as to the educational purpose which we 
 desire to establish, we must now turn to ethics. 
 
 But a new difficulty arises at once. To ivliat ethics 
 should pliilosophical y)edagogy turn ? In which form 
 of ethics should it seek its foundation ? Should it 
 agree with Schleicrniacher in giving up the attempt 
 to attach itself to a definite system of ethics, because 
 there is no system that is recognized by all, and do 
 well to content itself with a general, unsatisfactory 
 answer ? This is not our standpoint. Although it is 
 to be granted that no ethical system is 3''et recognized
 
 72 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 by everybody, there cannot be any duubt for a mo- 
 ment, however, that but one sjroup of ethical systems 
 should be considered by the educator ; this is the 
 group oC ethical systems whicli exclude from the 
 besfinninor eudemonism in anv form. Eudemonism, 
 in whatever form it appears, harbours great dangers. 
 Hence, the conclusion is unavoidable that every ethi- 
 cal system which represents eudemonism, either 
 covertly or openly, is useless for education. Further- 
 more, a positive utilitarianism which condemns every- 
 thing with the utmost contempt that is not directly 
 applicable and useful, is alwa3's allied with eude- 
 monism. Utilitarianism, however, only creates the 
 new danger that all ideal pursuits will be gradually 
 crowded into the background. This would be fol- 
 lowed by the appearance of a general moral torpidity 
 which would render both society and the individual 
 incapable of all higher inspiration, cut off every 
 possibility of cultivating pure ethical characters, and 
 entirely dim the vision for the appreciation of the 
 ideall}^ beautiful and good. 
 
 Hence, if the educator desires to place only an 
 ideal aim in view as the goal toward which to aspire, 
 he should not hesitate ; he can only have recourse to 
 a system of ethics which does not seek the value of 
 moral endeavour in the object to which it is directed, 
 but in the moral inclinations, in the activity of the 
 will itself. This ideal standpoint seems to have 
 found a clear expression in the ethical system of 
 Herbart which, as the doctrine of the ethical ideas, 
 has been developed upon the foundation obtained 
 through Kant. 
 
 This ethics excludes entirely all relative estimation
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 73 
 
 of worth, i.e. all estimation which values the will for 
 the sake of some desired effect, for the sake of some 
 gain. Even the opposers of the Herbartian ethics 
 willingly recognize its grandeur. A S3'stem of ethics, 
 they say, which is undertaken with pure devotion to 
 the nature of its problems, which regards the morally 
 beautiful as the highest, sublimest, and noblest end, 
 — an ethics which, like that of Plato, cannot conceive 
 how anyone can behold the morall}^ beautiful without 
 being deeply moved and inspired, which regards it as 
 a matter of course, that that which is morally beau- 
 tiful will receive tlie absolute approval of all, — such 
 an ethics will always attract and hold ti'uly ethical 
 minds, despite all differences of presentation and all 
 deviations in fundamental views. On account of its 
 ideal character it will always exercise its power of 
 attraction especially upon educators who desii-e to 
 pursue an ideal educational purpose. It will not fail 
 to be of assistance to anyone who desires to sketch an 
 ethical ideal that can serve the educator as a supreme 
 eduational purpose, — an ideal whose realization in 
 the pupil must be his chief task. 
 
 Neither knowledge, nor goods, nor external actions 
 are good in themselves, but only a good will. It 
 must be the person's own will, developed by insight 
 into the absolutely binding validity of the moral law 
 or the absolute beauty of the moral ideal. The Her- 
 bartian ethics sketches five of these ethical ideas : 
 the idea of inner freedom, the idea of completeness 
 (efficiency of the will), the idea of goodwill, the idea 
 of rights, and the idea of equity. Tiie idea of inner 
 freedom signifies the harmony of the activity of the 
 will with the practical insight, or conscience. The
 
 74 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 individual will must correspond exactly to the latter, 
 and execute whatever it presents. The idea of com- 
 pleteness or of the efficiency of the will demands the 
 many-sidedness, energy, concentration, and the pro- 
 gress of the will. The idea of goodwill manifests 
 itself in unselfish devotion to the welfare and a prac- 
 tical sympathy for the woe of others. The idea of 
 rights culminates in the demand to avoid strife 
 (mutual recognition of rights). Finally, the idea of 
 equity looks to the impartial adjustment of the 
 relations between human right and wrong. These 
 ideas, combined in the unity of consciousness, consti- 
 tute in their totality the ideal personality. This 
 ideal consists, therefore, of a number of model " pic- 
 tures of the will," which possess an absolute value 
 and are independent of all desires. If they not only 
 appear isolatedly in a human being, but permeate 
 every state of his mind and heart, if they determine 
 his guiding principles and the actions that proceed 
 from them, then he is an embodiment of the ideal 
 personality. Then the same man of character is to 
 be recognized in every outward manifestation, and in 
 all the walks of life. Wherever this constant har- 
 mony of the individual with the totality of ethical 
 ideas appears, we speak of " moral strength of char- 
 acter." Wherever the intellectual life of man de- 
 velops to a strong personal character in which the 
 rational, the noble, the beautiful, and the moral — in 
 general the logical, esthetic, and moral activity — • 
 triumphs over the merely mechanical processes in the 
 human soul, then the highest and most signiticant 
 stage of human educability is revealed. 
 
 If Kant and Herbart are rioht in claiming that the
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 75 
 
 will is the proper object of all etliical valuation, it 
 certainly follows that tlie ethical culture of the U'ill 
 must be regarded as the highest purpose of education. 
 If one aims to cultivate a good, constant will in the 
 pupil, the absolute value of the educational end which 
 he has in view cannot be questioned. This aim is 
 revealed to us, furthermore, by an idealistic ethics 
 which in general presents the highest necessary and 
 universal purpose that should actuate human beings. 
 It also furnishes theoretical pedagogics with its 
 highest point of view in considering the question of 
 the pupil's destiny. From the empirical idea of 
 education we had already determined that a per- 
 manent form must be created in the inner life of the 
 pupil ; we now know upon the grounds of ethics what 
 the nature of this mental form shall be. We can, 
 therefore, place the following proposition at the head 
 of our final conclusions : The educator should so 
 educate his pupil that his future personality will be 
 in keeping with the ideal human personality. 
 
 The aim of moral training then is nothing less than 
 to make the ideas of the right and the good, in all 
 their sharpness and purity, the proper objects of the 
 will, and to render the real inmost content of the 
 character, the essence of the personality, capable of 
 self-determination in accordance with these ideas and 
 without regard to any other possible purposes. But 
 the aim of education appears to be reached when the 
 personality is constantly intent upon bringing its 
 actual volition into correspondence with the ideal 
 activity of the will, when it uninterruptedly inspects 
 its own volitional acts for the purpose of determining 
 whether they were made to accord ^itli the moral
 
 yd OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ideas out of pure love for morality, and whether as 
 much morality was always willed and practised as 
 the ideals demanded or permitted. 
 
 Hence the question of the unity of the educational 
 auii is to be answered by referring to the ethical 
 ideal of human personality that should be attained in 
 the pupil. The doctrine of moral personality is the 
 doctrine of the education of man within human 
 society. 
 
 Every individual, whom the systematic efforts of 
 the educator have brought near to the ideal of per- 
 sonality, who has learned to recognize the i^ractical 
 ethical ideas as the standards that should determine 
 his inclinat"ons and his actions, will be able with this 
 preparation to participate best in bringing about the 
 realization of the moi'al aims that are to be attained 
 by the broader circles of society. Thus equipped he 
 will take part most energetically in the moral eleva- 
 tion of human society, so that the demands of moral- 
 ity rather than the maxims of wisdom shall be re- 
 cognized. 
 
 The child that has been educated in accordance 
 with ethical standards, upon entering the circle of 
 adult life, will of couise often find himself at variance 
 with the views which ]»revail thei'e ; for the motives 
 of the larger or smaller circles of society are only too 
 often determined not by ideal, but by very material 
 points of view. But is it to be regarded as a disad- 
 vantage if the pupil meets such egoistical tendencies 
 with the power of a better insight, and the courage of 
 better convictions ? How is society to be led to 
 higher aims otherwise than by the gradual increase 
 of the number of individuals who do not bend and
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 77 
 
 become subservient to the dominant tendencies of the 
 mass without further thought, but who, on the con- 
 trar}^ seek to suppress them whenever they rest upon 
 immoral motives ? He who takes the actual moral 
 status of societ}^ as a model upon which to construct 
 his educational ideal, will have to include in the bar- 
 gain a f^reat deal that is immoral beside the moral, 
 for the existing moral condition of a people only 
 signifies a certain teraporaiy stage of development 
 that is constantly changing. He who seeks absolute 
 standards may, indeed, regard the moral status of 
 society from a descriptive point of view ; he may ex- 
 plain it and define it in all its phases, but he can only 
 make use of it as a foundation upon which to de- 
 monstrate the necessity of higher standards and ideals 
 that are independent of all fluctuations. These ideals, 
 that are valid for both individual and societ)'-, furnish 
 the absolute standards as opposed to the relative 
 standards that have developed in the existing cu-^tom. 
 Ever3'thing depends upon whether one is convinced 
 that the human race may be led up to higher aims. 
 He who will do this must not place these aims too 
 low. However flatteringly lesser aims, such as use- 
 fulness in human society, happiness, etc., recom- 
 mend themselves to the great mass, moral elasticity 
 will disappear if an ideal does not prevail that is 
 ardently grasped by all, and which both the in- 
 dividual and the entire body of society should strive 
 to attain with the a])plication of all their energies and 
 means. Society would then find itself dissolved into 
 a mass of egoists, stiivinij to overreach one another 
 in the mutual contest, and seeking gratification as the 
 hiirhest aim of earthlv life. The harmonizing centre
 
 78 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 for both the individual and society can only consist 
 in the struggle after a common supreme aim which all 
 recognize as the true purpose ; otherwise moral torpid- 
 ness will render both the individual and society in- 
 capable of all hiorher inspiration, and cut off all 
 possibility of cultivating pure moral characters and 
 noble, morally elevated communities. 
 
 {a) Methodology. 
 
 After an educational aim of absolute value has been 
 established and placed at the head of the entire 
 system, our attention is next to be directed to the 
 possibility of realizing this aim. 
 
 In fact, one of the first thoughts wliich occurs to us 
 in this connection is that the belief in a moral order- 
 ing of the world vouches for the possibility of building 
 moral character ; but if on the other hand this belief 
 is confirmed by a scientific foundation, if the possi- 
 bility of influencing the youthful mind is psychologi- 
 cally demonstrated, the activity of the educator should, 
 without doubt, gain greater stability and inherent 
 certainty. 
 
 But the question as to the possibility of improve- 
 ment does not depend alone upon the investigation of 
 the human mind, but also directly upon the view of 
 the world that has been developed by the individual 
 or by some social body. If the crude foims of a false 
 determinism exclude the fundamental pedagogical 
 conception of the educability of the child, or if certain
 
 THEORETICAL PEDACIOGICS. 79 
 
 philosophical systems cannot support this conception 
 M-ithout contradicting their own principles (as, for ex- 
 ample, the systems of non-determinism which declare 
 the will to be free in the sense that it is able to 
 pursue a course which is in direct opposition to 
 determining causes), the incompatibility of such views 
 with pedagogical views is very apparent. If the 
 possibility of a casual relation between the educator 
 and the educated is entirely excluded, if the intel- 
 lectual states of the pupil are regarded as either 
 permanently determined from the beginning, or vol- 
 untarily changeable at any moment, education must 
 appear as an impossibility and every attempt to 
 educate as vain. 
 
 The opposite extreme finds expression in the words 
 of Fichte : " If you would have any influence over man 
 ^ou must do more than merely talk to him, you must 
 make him — make him so that it is impossible for him 
 to will otherwise than 3-011 wish him to will." This 
 reminds us of the view of Helvetius who ascribed to 
 education an unbounded power over the pupil. 
 According to his theory the pupil is entirely the pro- 
 duct of the effects which education produces upon 
 him. Even his volition, according to Helvetius, is 
 entirely determined by it. Therefore, if education 
 is active in the right way, the pupil 'must become 
 whatever it aims to make of him. It would be fortu- 
 nate for the educator if this were true, if he could 
 assure himself that the soul of the pupil is a tabula 
 rasa upon whicli he might write whatever his highest 
 educational ideal demands, or if he could fashion it as 
 easily as soft wax can be moulded in the hands of the 
 sculptor. But the old saying : " Non ex quovis ligno
 
 80 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 tit Mercurius" would be sufficient to shake his coiitl- 
 deiice. Experience could give him still further warn- 
 ing and prevent him from thus overestimating tire 
 power of education. 
 
 However, it is without doubt to be preferred that 
 the educator overestimate his power over the pupil 
 than underestimate it. But in considering the possi- 
 bility, extent and limit of education, he will always be 
 inclined to shift hither and thither, pi-eferring now 
 this view, now that, as long as he does not appeal to 
 fsychology for information upon the fundamental 
 question that is of importance to education, namely, 
 the question concerning the intellectual constitution 
 or the mental capacities of man. Of course he caimot 
 expect a concordant answer from all psychologists ; 
 and in view of the obscurity which still prevails in 
 this sphere, the different views as to the nature of the 
 human soul and the extraordinary difficulty with 
 wdnch the empirical method of investigation meets, 
 an absolutely indubitable explanation can hardly be 
 expected. On the other hand the educator may rely 
 upon a psychology that does not contradict empiiical 
 facts, but which demonstrates the possibility of in- 
 fluencing the formation of the youthful mind so 
 plainly that he can establish his methods with confi- 
 dence and expect success. 
 
 Let us now ask : what ways and means are offered 
 the educator for advancing the pupil toward the 
 supreme end of education ? The answer usually 
 comprehends two means, training and instruction. 
 This distinction results naturally. The characteristic 
 feature of instruction lies in tlie fact that teacher and 
 pupil are engaged in comn.on upon a third object
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 8 1 
 
 while training deals directly with the pupil.^ To the 
 latter, therefore, has been ascribed the task of directly 
 influencing the pupil on the side of the formation of 
 character. Training educates the pupil to fear God, 
 to obey and to speak the truth ; it accustoms him to 
 reserve his power and to practice self-denial. It is 
 said that the strongest motives that actuate the will 
 arise from love and desire ; hence the observation, 
 direction, and animation of the child's inclinations 
 belontr to the most important offices of the educator. 
 The child is also dependent upon example in the de- 
 velopment and puritication oi his feelings. The early 
 habituation to a fixed order of life, to a regulated 
 activity, vouchsafes for advancement and abundant 
 blessings ; here again the personal example of the 
 teacher exerts a deep influence. In this manner a 
 foundation of common views and moral convictions is 
 imperceptibly laid, not by means of doctrines or ideas, 
 but by means of the life itself and the personal inter- 
 course between the teacher and the pupil. Accord- 
 ingly the personality of the educator proves to be the 
 most effective element in the moral training of the 
 youth. By this same means also Plato solved the 
 much discussed question of the educability of the 
 youth thus, " Virtue can only be taught by virtue, in 
 that the living exemplitication of it awakens love and 
 
 ^ " Unterricht " and " Zucht " correspond very closely to the 
 English terms, "Instruction'' and "Training.'' It is well to 
 bear in mind that a sharj) distinction is made in the use of the 
 German terms, " Erziehung," "Unterricht," "Zucht'' and 
 " Regierung,'' a distinction which of course must here be 
 transferred to the corresponding English terms, Education, 
 
 I'
 
 82 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the desire to emulate." If one were to ascribe every- 
 thinoj to personal influence, however, lie would have 
 to sketch an ideal picture of the educator and perfect 
 a catechism of directions as to how the teacher must 
 be constituted in order to do justice to his hif^h office. 
 In fact not a few pedagogical works contain delinea- 
 tions of this kind, which hold before the educator, as 
 it were, a sort of mirror in order that he may recognize 
 of what he stands in need and what he must acquire 
 in order to be able to discharge the duties of his 
 calling. 
 
 Wherever this conception predominates and every- 
 thing is left to the direct personal influence of the 
 educator upon the pupil, it is self-evident that the 
 second mentioned means of education — instruction — 
 will remain in the background. Apart from the re- 
 ligious instruction, which by virtue of its very content 
 is expected to exert an influence upon the will and 
 disposition of the pupil, the different subjects of in- 
 struction jmrsue an independent end, namely, the 
 accumulation of a definite amount of knowledge and 
 facilit3^ in order that the pupil may be able to pro- 
 vide for himself in the future. This last view coire- 
 sponds to a widespread conception among families. 
 How often the teacher is regarded not as an educator, 
 
 Instruction, Training, Government. The latter therefore 
 should always be understood in the sense indicated by the text. 
 (See also footnote, page 23.) "Zucht" has recently been rendered 
 " Discipline "; although there can be little objection to the term 
 philologically, its use in this sense is likely to create confusion 
 owing to the fact that the German writers distinguish sharply 
 between "Disciplin'' and "Zucht." In either language "Dis- 
 cipline" is far too ambiguous. — Ts.
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 83 
 
 but merely as a school-keeper. How often the 
 notion is directly expressed : We — that is the parents, 
 the families — provide for the education ; you — that 
 is the teachers, the schools — provide for the instruc- 
 tion. Family and scliool, training and instruction, 
 according to this view, appear to be entirely discon- 
 nected factors, each one of which pursues its own 
 independent task. 
 
 But such a conception is untenable from the stand- 
 point of scientific pedagogics; for how can instruction 
 be regarded as a means for the attainment of the 
 supreme end of education if it serves no other pur- 
 po.se than that of preparing the child for usefulness 
 in life ? If this is the only business of instruction 
 one does not need to trouble himself at all as to 
 whether it v/ill make others better or worse. In this 
 case, that schoolmaster will be in the greatest de- 
 mand who can place the scholar most surely and 
 pleasantl}' in possession of the desired attainments. 
 But such instruction does not accord with the con- 
 ception of education. It has no connection whatever 
 with moral training. This connection can only be 
 brought about by phxcing the two means of educa- 
 tion in ]-elation to the supreme educational end. If 
 one makes preparation for usefulness in life, i.e. 
 utility, the purpose of instruction, he places the 
 utilitarian principle on the same level with the 
 ethical ; that which has a relative value is placed 
 beside that which has an absolute value. All de- 
 velopment of mental power and facility in acquisi- 
 tion, every accomjilishment according to their very 
 nature, can enter just as well into the service of im- 
 moralit}' as of morality. In the second case one
 
 84 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 must attribute a certain value to the instruction that 
 developed these facilities ; in the first case it must be 
 denied. Hence, if one were to cultivate a knowledge 
 of the useful and the power to apply it merely for 
 their own sake, he would always be uncertain as to 
 whether he served a worthy or objectionable end. 
 We are, therefore, compelled to subordinate the aim 
 of instruction to the supreme aim of education as 
 required by ethics, and thus to place instruction 
 by the side of training as an equally qualified 
 factor. 
 
 Education and instruction must both make it their 
 chief aim gradually to develop a system of ethical 
 maxims in the pupil. These ethical maxims should 
 comprehend the entire volitional activit}^, and be 
 united and apperceived by certain chief universal 
 principles, just as the individual concept is embraced 
 and apperceived by the general concept. When this 
 is the case the inner life of man receives that uniform 
 stamp which we distinguish as a moral-religious 
 character. In such a character one circle of thought 
 is the supreme law -giver. Tins is the moral- 
 religious circle of thou<rht which asserts itself not 
 only now and then on especially ceremonial occasions, 
 but everywhere and at all times, which, as an in- 
 visible, apperceiving force, guides tlie will, the inclina- 
 tions, and the actions. 
 
 In conclusion, we may sura up the means of educa- 
 tion in the following outline : —
 
 THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 85 
 
 Methodology. 
 
 1. Theory of Guidance. 2, Theory of Instruction. 
 
 {Hodc'jdks.) {Didactics.) 
 
 (a) Theory of INIoral Training. (a) General Didactics. 
 
 (b) Theory of Government. (b) Special Didactics. 
 
 We turn next to the theory of instruction.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 This subject sub-divides into two departments — 
 General and Special Didactics. 
 
 General Didactics treats of : — 
 
 1. The aim of instruction in general. 
 
 2. The choice, | of the 
 
 3. The arrangement (connection), r material for 
 
 4. The treatment, ) instruction. 
 
 Special Didactics treats of : — 
 
 1. The aim of the separate branches of instruction 
 in their relation to the general aim of instruction. 
 
 ^ „, , . \ of the material 
 
 2. The choice, ,- ^ for instruction 
 
 3. The arrangement (connection). \.^ ^^^^^ ^.^ ^^ 
 
 4. The treatment, ) ^^.^^^^^^ 
 
 I. General Didactics. 
 
 1. TJte Aim of Instruction. 
 
 According to Kant, the normal education of man 
 should not begin directly with the improvement of 
 the morals but with the metamorphosis of the senti- 
 ments and with the foundation of the character. 
 Herbart, who attaches the chief importance to the 
 development of the circle of thought, agrees with this 
 view. And why should instruction not educate, since 
 
 all wishes, desires, purposes, and resolutions proceed 
 
 86
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. Sy 
 
 from tlic circle of thought, — in fact, were thoughts 
 originally, — and since, futthermore, their energ}' is 
 entirely dependent upon the help or hinderanco 
 which they experience among the other thoughts ? 
 
 But if the formation of moral character, the culti- 
 vation of virtue, is to be placed as the aim at the 
 head of the educational sj'stem, how is the aim of 
 instruction to be formulated ? 
 
 If it is true that the worth of man is founded not 
 upon his knowledge, but upon his will, all learning 
 must bear some relation to the end of education so 
 that it shall be of some value to the future character 
 of the pupil, in so far as his will is elevated, invigo- 
 rated, and rendered efficient. Accordingly, all know- 
 ledge and power that are imparted by an educative 
 instruction (i.e. instruction that makes for character),^ 
 must at the same time, directly or indirectly, serve 
 the formation of the moral religious character. 
 
 The aim of instruction, accordingly, coincides directly 
 with the aim of the formation of character. 
 
 Bat in order that the educator may see how this is 
 possible, how the will may be influenced by instruc- 
 tion, psychology must give some more exact informa- 
 tion as to the nature and origin of the ivlll. It must 
 be shown undei- what conditions the activity of the 
 will is developed from the circle of thought. The 
 educator aims to form the pupil's circle of thought by 
 
 '^ '* Erziehender Unterricht " (educative iustructiiiii) is a 
 specifically pedagogical expression belonging to the Herbartian 
 system. It cainiot be better defined than as " instruction that 
 makes for character." See De Garmo, The Bcrbartian >S'i/s- 
 toa of Ftd. (ii.) in the Edncatwiial Eevieio, vol. i, No. 3, 
 N. Y.-T.'.s.
 
 88 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 means of instruction, in order thus to ^et control of 
 the will, i.e. in order to give it a moral tendency as 
 prescribed by the educational aim. It must be 
 shown, therefore, how this is possible. This is the 
 task of the following brief outlines. 
 
 There are three chief forms of tlte psychical life, re- 
 presentation,^ feeling (the emotional life), and aspira- 
 tion or desire. These are class conceptions under 
 which the various phenomena of the psychical life 
 may be comprehended conveniently and synoptically. 
 They designate neither tliree souls, three faculties, 
 nor three isolated powers of the soul. 
 
 The representations constitute the elements of the 
 psychical life. Feelings and desires are special modi- 
 fications that result from the conjunction of certain 
 representations in consciousness. Feelings and de- 
 sires are not independent entities that exist apart 
 from the representations or ideas. The ideas, feelings, 
 and desires of a human being are very closely connected. 
 Especially is there no volition independent of jjsychi- 
 cal representation, i.e. external to the mass of ideas or 
 external to knowing. It is true that we find ideas 
 in the inner life with which no feelings, no desires 
 are associated ; but we never find feelings and desires 
 that do not stand in connection with certain ideas or 
 sensations, although the latter may be more or less 
 obscure. Separated from all ideas and conceived of 
 as isolated, the will is nothing. The activity of the 
 will is rooted in and proceeds from the mass of 
 thoughts. Volition is a condition into which the 
 
 ^ Representation (" Vorstellen ") includes all the jisychical 
 states that represent to the consciousness, as it were, some con- 
 tent, such as a sensation, perception, idea, concept, etc. — Ts,
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 89 
 
 ideas are brought by some definite cause or occasion. 
 If this is true, instruction may also acquire power ; 
 it also influences the will by the development and 
 manipulation of the mass of ideas. Thus the aim of 
 education coincides, harmonizes with the aim of in- 
 struction ; the one proceeds from the other. Instruc- 
 tion must so form the circle of thought that volitional 
 activity will develop from it. 
 
 But how does this take place ? Not all knowledge 
 produces volition. The latter is a mental activity of 
 a peculiar kind, a new starting-point in the develop- 
 ment of the activity of the soul. Volition, it is true, 
 has its roots in the circle of thought, but it only 
 proceeds from the latter under certain conditions. 
 What are these conditions ? 
 
 Knowledge is frequently only a dormant store of 
 facts that are in themselves apathetic; in other words, 
 it is merely a fund of finished, quite clear ideas. As 
 long as this is the case no volitional activity can be 
 developed from it. If volition is to proceed from this 
 knowledge it cannot remain such an inanimate fund ; 
 on the contrary, mere knowing must be effected in a 
 twofold wa}^ ; the knowledge must penetrate into 
 the sphere of the disposition, (1) as something that is 
 felt, (2) as something enlivening. When this is the 
 case, then that mental condition, which we call in- 
 terest, is present. 
 
 The aim of instruction may accordingly be defined 
 as the training of the circle of thought by means of 
 the interest, so as to render it capable of volition. 
 (Knowledge — interest — volition.) The interest should 
 not be one-sided ; otherwise one-sidedness of the per- 
 sonality en.sues, a condition that is at variance with
 
 90 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 £fenuine morality. The latter demands that a strong 
 personal character shall cultivate a many-sided in- 
 terest. This many-sidedness comprises six classes of 
 interests which may be divided into two groups of 
 three each. We arrive at this classification by means 
 of the following considerations : — 
 
 The human intellect places itself, so to speak, 
 before the objects with which it is occupied and 
 views them as something foreign to itself; or it 
 o-rasps them just as it conceives of itself, as members 
 of the world, of its world, and thus stands in mutual 
 intercourse with them. To the mind, accordingly, 
 they are either objects of knowledge or intercourse. 
 
 In the first case we have to deal in part with the con- 
 ception and observation of objects in their manifold- 
 ness (empirical interest), in part with the knowledge 
 of their mutual dependency and with a reflective ex- 
 amination of the same (speculative interest), in part 
 with a judgment of them in accordance with the 
 standards of the good and beautiful (esthetic interest). 
 In the second case we have to do with the mutucd 
 intercourse or association eitherwith animate beings or 
 with beings which we conceive of as possessed of souls. 
 We either devote ourselves to them as individual 
 beings with whom we are in harmony, in whose weal 
 and woe we participate, and in whose conditions we 
 place ourselves (sympathetic interest^, or we turn our 
 interest to the entire body and share and live through 
 its fortunes (social interest). But the feeling of 
 dependence, of impotency, which we have when [)laced 
 face to face with destiny and the Incomprehensible, 
 the lono-ing for a balancing of the relations between 
 the actual and the ideal, produce the religious interest.
 
 THE THEORY OE INSTRUCTION. 
 
 91 
 
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 CD OQ 
 
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 The aim of instruction, therefore, is not the produc- 
 tion of a many-sided knowledi,ro, but of a many-sided 
 interest. At the same time those facts of knowledo-e
 
 92 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 and those facilities of which the pupil has future need in 
 the execution and furtherance of the practical purposes 
 of his life, fall to him of themselves ; yet tdilitarian 
 considerations should never stand in the forej^jround. 
 The genuine, direct interest should never be repressed 
 by an indirect interest. At the same time, the in- 
 struction must take care that the idea of the good 
 retain command in the inner life of the pupil, that it 
 retain its prominence in the midst of the other con- 
 tents of consciousness. Instruction, therefore, must 
 give the will the moral tendency ; the scholar should 
 learn to discriminate between possessions according to 
 their true value ; he should see that it is just the 
 sensual pleasures and possessions that are most sought, 
 but of the least value ; he should learn to regard 
 mental possessions as of the most worth, and to recog- 
 nize that the want of that most valuable of all 
 possessions — a good conscience — destroys the value of 
 all others. 
 
 Hence the effect of instruction is tridy educative 
 when it 
 
 1. Produces a deeply-rooted, many-sided, permanent 
 interest in the pupil ; 
 
 2. When it insures the necessary energy for the 
 moral-religious interest, and at the same time 
 
 3. Vouches for the unity of the consciousness as 
 the basis for the development of a strong personal 
 character. 
 
 This is the highest aim of instruction when conceived 
 of as in the service of the formation of character. ^ 
 
 1 An excellent and somewhat more extensive, theoretical and 
 practical presentation of the subject of "Interest" may be found 
 in 0. A. M'Murry's General Method, chap. iii.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 93 
 
 2. Hie means by ivhich. the Aim of Inst ruction is 
 to be realized. 
 
 (a) The Selection of the Subject-matter of Instruction. 
 
 Without doubt the next most important question 
 i"or him who aims to educate through instruction, i.e. 
 to create an interest, is what material or what ideas 
 shall be introduced to the youthful mind ? The great 
 question of the selection of subject-matter takes a 
 prominent place in didactic considerations. In under- 
 taking the selection of subject-matter we must pro- 
 ceed from our aim, the awakening of the many-sided 
 interest, in order to obtain a scientilically established 
 series. The tiist maxim may be formulated as 
 follows : Only tliat should be subject-matter of in- 
 struction which is able to awaken and chain the 
 interest of the scholars. Only such material should 
 be chosen as must necessarily awaken a spontaneous, 
 permanent interest in every child of normal, mental 
 endowments. The interest only has a real value for 
 education when it arises spontaneously in the pupil, 
 accompanies him through his school life as a perma- 
 nent mental activity, and still inspires him after his 
 school years as a vital power that will always aug- 
 ment. But the preliminary, psychological condition 
 that must characterize all ideas capable of producing 
 interest upon entering the circle of thought, is 
 similarity; there must be a close affinity between 
 them and other ideas that are already possessed and 
 that are expecting them, as it were. This condition 
 requires the most exact consideration of each particular
 
 94 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 stage of apperception. This is a demand which 
 Goethe expressed in the words : " One could be 
 genuinely 'esthetic-didactic' if he could pass with his 
 scholars before all that is worth feeling, or if he 
 could bring it before them exactly at the moment in 
 which it culminates and when they are most highly 
 sensitive." 
 
 Let us compare this with another passage from 
 Goethe : " The human mind receives nothing which 
 does not suit it." Here we are directed to select the 
 mental nourishment exactly in accordance with the 
 existing capacity of the cliild's mind to receive and 
 digest it — a fundamental principle that has long since 
 been applied in the sphere of physical training. 
 
 As the first condition for the selection of material, 
 we may grant the following proposition : Only that 
 material wliicli corresponds to the child's power of 
 comprehension, i.e. to liis particular stage of apper- 
 ception, will be able to excite a deeply-rooted lasting 
 interest in him. But this provision alone does not 
 suffice ; for one might suppose that in order to select 
 suitable material lie has but to collect from the entire 
 literature of the world, from the cultural attainments 
 which the various peoples of the earth have stored up, 
 all that is exactly suited to the needs of an educative 
 instruction. Accordingly, if one is merely intent upon 
 selecting that which is adapted to the child's power 
 of comprehension, Greek and Roman ingredients would 
 be found beside Egyptian and Chinese, modern ele- 
 ments beside the antique, and national beside the 
 foreign. Apart from the fact that this method of 
 procedure would result in a remarkably miscellaneous 
 collection, it would also work in direct opposition to
 
 THE THEORY OE INSTRUCTION. 95 
 
 a second principle that is included in the conception 
 of the moral character. At some future time the 
 pui)il must be able to be active in life ; he must 
 participate self- actively in the tasks wliich the present 
 places upon him. TJiis present, in fact, is not that of 
 any people M-hatsoever: it is the present of liis people 
 — at least as lone: as mankind is still divided into a 
 number of individually different nations. But in 
 order to be able to take an independent part in the 
 modern activity of his people, he must first learn to 
 grasp this present itself propetly in all its tendencies. 
 Hence arises the second requirement for the educator : 
 Observe the present cultural standpoint of the people 
 and seek to have a right understanding of it in all its 
 phases developed in the pupil, in order that he may 
 learn to find for himself that sphere of labour which 
 he intends to enter as a moral personality. 
 
 This demand would also be quite right if the first- 
 mentioned requirement that has just been established, 
 and which enjoins that the child's power of compre- 
 hension be taken into consideration, did not run 
 directly in opposition to it. For the present of a 
 cultivated peoj)le — and only such a people can be 
 taken into account here — presents such complicated 
 relations that it would be utterly absurd to attempt 
 to nourish the child's intellect upon it. One would 
 very soon find that the interest of the child can never 
 develop on material wdiich contains too many difti- 
 culties, because of a complicatcness that the work of 
 centuries has wrourjht. This would cndanircr the 
 result of instruction from the be2;inninor and work in 
 direct opposition to its aim. 
 
 L;t us now recollect that the present rests upon
 
 96 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the past ; that he who desires to effect some lasting 
 good for the future must join it on to the present, 
 which is to be understood alone through the past. 
 
 These considerations turn us back from the com- 
 plicated relations of the present that are more difficult 
 to grasp, to past times that are more sim[)le, more 
 easily understood and, at the same time, more easily 
 adaptable to the conceptive power of the young mind. 
 From this standpoint the material for the educative 
 instruction should be sought in the development of the 
 national culture, which is to be followed in its chief 
 eras. It should be presented from its very beginnings, 
 i.e. from the point at which a constant progress is 
 apparent, up to the p]"esent. Tliis ])rinciple, which 
 agreeably to its content we may call the principle of 
 liistorical culture, also harmonizes, as we shall see at 
 once, with the psychological requirement that the sub- 
 ject-matter in each case correspond to the child's stage 
 of apperception. The material and ih.Q formal points 
 of view coincide. A people does not stand at once 
 upon a definite height of culture ; centuries of zealous 
 and unwearied labour are necessary before the height 
 can be reached. It must climb up from lower to ever 
 higher stages ; it must pass from simpler to ever 
 more complicated relations in order to satisfy the 
 bent for improvement and the realization of the 
 kingdom of God upon earth. And the individual, the 
 same as the people, rises in his development from lower 
 to ever higher stages, from simpler to ever richer mental 
 contents, if only his ideal tendency be not smothered 
 by material sensuality or by the feeling that he has 
 already attained a fine height. Thus we must accept 
 on the one hand hidorlcal, on the other hand indi-
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 97 
 
 ridual, stao-es o£ development or apperception. It is 
 obvious that if the two series — the historical, with its 
 various cultural materials, and the personal, with its 
 manifold ideas, wishes, and desires — can be brought 
 successfully and accurately into harmony with each 
 other, one can undoubtedly get control of the scholar's 
 interest, because by this means the psychological con- 
 ditions would be best established. The development 
 of the individual is nourished on the development of 
 the whole. Whenever a subject can claim the height of 
 interest, it enters into the circle of thought ; being 
 expected, it is welcome, and the direct interest makes 
 its appearance provided the educator possesses the 
 necessary art of instruction. As a matter of course, 
 the most careful selection of material is useless when 
 there is a lack of skill. But this careful selection of 
 subject-matter will give the educator unsuspected 
 assistance as soon as he understands it. How often 
 the teacher toils over less worthy material, and the 
 interest refuses to appear in the youthful soul. Con- 
 versely, what a relief for the teacher whenever the 
 material with which he is occupied is congenial 
 to the child's mind, when it enters just at the 
 moment it is actuall}'' expected and is greeted as a 
 welcome guest in whom one becomes more and more 
 interested. 
 
 We find that this idea of the analogy between the 
 individual and general development of humanity is a 
 common possession of the best and most noted in- 
 tellects. It appears, for example, in the works of the 
 literary heroes Lessing, Herder, Goethe and Schiller ; 
 Avith the philosophers Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, 
 Comte ; with the theologians Clement of Alexandria,
 
 98 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Augustine, Schleiermacher ; with the Darwinists 
 Huxley and Spencer ; with the classical philologists 
 F. A. Wolf, Niethammer, Dissen, Llibker ; with th 
 pedagogs Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, Diesterweg, 
 Herbart, Ziller and others. 
 
 From the large number of voices let us select but 
 two, Goethe and Kant. The former said : " Although 
 the world in general advances, the youth must alwaj^s 
 start again from the beginning and, as an individual, 
 traverse the epochs of the world's culture." The latter 
 points out that the education of the individual should 
 imitate the culture of mankind in general, as de- 
 veloped in its various generations. 
 
 This thought of Kant's and Goethe's only needs to 
 be cleared from its hyperbolic presentation and 
 brought into harmony with the conditions of instruc- 
 tion. One cannot undertake to impart a world culture, 
 for no one knows where it is to be had, but only to 
 pi'ovide wholesome and digestible nourishment for 
 the pupil's interest by introducing him to the develop- 
 ment of the national life. Hence we must under- 
 take an analysis of the national circle of thought ; 
 this alone is the determinative factor in the organiza- 
 tion of the material for an educative instruction. 
 The series of subject-matter for the educative in- 
 struction is to be drawn first of all from the develop^- 
 ment of the national culture. At the same time the 
 opportunity will offer itself for many a glance at the 
 history of other nations in so far as their fortunes are 
 connected with those of the fatherland. 
 
 The cream of these periods of development, as it is 
 preserved in science and art, constitutes the subject- 
 matter of an educative instruction. The chief content
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 99 
 
 of these historical series must now be condensed, con- 
 centrated, embraced under t3'|ncal, but at the same 
 time classical foruis, and offered as nourishment for 
 the development of the youtliful mind. In this con- 
 nection it is well to note tliat these t3'pes are not to 
 be presented in broken, disconnected pieces or bits, 
 but in large connected masses. Moral power is tlie 
 effect of large, unbroken masses of thought ; in these 
 alone can a strong interest be developed. A great 
 deal will have been gained as soon as the attention of 
 the educator has been drawn from the vague and 
 scanty materials of instruction to the great classical 
 materials, and his eye been opened to their buoyant 
 didactic power. 
 
 This will have been accomplished as soon as he 
 conforms to a scheme for the selection of material, 
 which, upon the ground of the preceding investiga- 
 tions, we may sum up in the following propositions. 
 The choice of material for tlie educative instruction 
 presupposes a twofold preliminary work. 
 
 1. The jpsychological ivork. Its task is to establish 
 the stages of development of the individual mind 
 from both the theoretical and the pi'actical stand- 
 points. 
 
 2. The historical ^philosophical ivorh. Its task is 
 clearly to define and sura up the chief eras in the 
 historical development of the people. 
 
 These two preliminary tasks are then succeeded by 
 
 3. The work of tlie pedagog. Both series — the in- 
 dividual and the general — must be brought into 
 harmony with one another. The individual mind 
 must traverse the entire historical development in a 
 rapid, concentrated manner by means of the material
 
 100 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 which the national growth has produced. The in- 
 dividual must thus be prepared, as a moral character, 
 to comprehend at some future time the height which 
 the present has reached, and to take part independ- 
 entl}^ in its tasks, however modest his position in 
 life. 
 
 In this way the educator must endeavour to 
 establish a complete regularity in the succession of 
 the subject-matter which coi'responds to all require- 
 ments. This natural and unbroken succession of 
 material is the most radical means for rendering in- 
 struction properly efficient, and for freeing the curric- 
 ulum from all caprice in the clioice of matter. 
 
 At the same time the educator must always keep 
 the following propositions in mind : — 
 
 1. The development of the national culture can 
 only produce permanent interest in the developing 
 human being, in so far as it is presented and grasped 
 in the light of the ethical judgment. For this reason 
 we choose the chronological ascent from the older 
 and simpler to the newer, more complicated stages 
 and relations. 
 
 2. Classical presentations that are accessible to the 
 youth must form the basis of these studies. Periods 
 that no master described, whose spirit no poet 
 breathed, are of little value to education (Herbart). 
 Only classical presentations invite the pupil to return 
 to the treasures that never cease to reward him, and 
 that till him with interest and inspiration. It is only 
 through such sources that the past speaks to the pres- 
 ent with a clear, distinct voice. 
 
 3. Large, entire and connected portions of a subject 
 are alone able to arouse a sufficiently deep interest in
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. lOI 
 
 the youthful mind, to keep it permanently on the 
 alert, and thus to effect the formation of cbaracter. 
 
 We may close this subject with a brief summary. 
 The developing human being can only take an interest 
 in and comprehend the gwiuth of his people ; the 
 pupil can only be brought gradually to an under- 
 standing of the present and its tasks, and his own 
 method of thought be established at the same time, 
 by successive absorption in the chief stages of the 
 national progress of the past, in so far as they are at 
 liand in classical presentations. This ascending series 
 of the chief historical stages can rely upon a correspond- 
 ing series of stages in the development of the inner life 
 of the mipil, and hence upon his deepest interest. 
 
 It should, therefore, be the first aim of instruction 
 to make a selection of material in accordance with the 
 historical principle (stages of culture).^ 
 
 (6) The Go-ordination of Material for Instruction. 
 The Connection of the Branches of Instruction. 
 Concentration. 
 
 Following the principle that has just been estab- 
 lished for the selection of matter, a thorough analysis 
 of the entire material for instruction furnishes us 
 with several series which run co-ordinately and 
 present the different phases of the national educa- 
 tional activity. Thus we have the religious and 
 moral series of development, the series of profane 
 history, the esthetic or artistic scries, the linguistic 
 series, the series of the natural sciences and geography, 
 
 1 See also C. A. McMurry's Guneml Method, chap, iv., and the 
 supplenieutuiy ieiuiirk.s begiuniiiy uu [niLje IIG uf this wuik. — T's.
 
 102 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the mathematical series, etc. It should be the office 
 of these series to present the chief eras in the 
 development of the single sciences as it has taken 
 place within the nation. Accordingly, as many 
 separate branches would be subjects of instruction as 
 there are phases in the cultural activity of the 
 nation. 
 
 Without doubt an enormous amount of the most 
 diverse ideas have been stored up in these series ; 
 they constitute a heterogeneous mass that is brought 
 from the market of life where it is distributed among 
 many forces, into the laboratory of tlie school in a 
 concentrated form. Will not the school succumb under 
 the burden ? 
 
 This question has very often been answered in the 
 affirmative, but no one has been able to suggest how 
 the evil can be met; or, if any plan was advanced, its 
 demands still remained very general. Let us consider 
 the following statements for example : " All con- 
 ceivable expedients should be devised in order that 
 time and energy may be economized and an intensity 
 in the results of instruction be attained, through 
 unity in the foundations, association of related 
 materials and the combination of mutually com- 
 plementary elements. When one finds in certain 
 courses of stud}^ history of the Middle Ages, read- 
 ing from Herodotus, geography of America, and 
 German literature since Lessing, side by side at the 
 same time, he ought to be glad if, in accordance with 
 the old custom, the youth does not trouble itself much 
 about some of these favours, but, withdrawing its in- 
 terest from them, devotes its energies to the indepen- 
 dent cultivation of some special portion of the field of
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. IO3 
 
 instruction." This is undoubtedly true ; but it is 
 hardly to be designated as a healthy condition. On 
 the contrary, it is our duty to convert the confusa 
 varietas ledionum into an ordinata varietas. 
 
 But how is this to be done ? The history of 
 didactics shows various attempts to apply a concentra- 
 tion of instruction, — for we are accustomed to 
 desijrnate the connection of the branches of instruction 
 by this name. All of these attempts, however, have 
 thus far been able to accomplish so little of universal 
 validity, that the name " concentration " has been 
 brought into no slight miscredit. Hence the confusa 
 varietas ledionum is still the rule in the majority of 
 our schools ; but it is nevertheless by no means right. 
 Such a conglomeration of subjects in the plan of in- 
 struction places the most insurmountable obstacles in 
 the way of educative instruction. The task of the 
 educator, briefly expressed, must be to convert this 
 aggregate into a systematic plan of instruction. Two 
 requirements urge him to the attempt: (1) an ethical, 
 (2) a psychological. 
 
 The ethical requirement demands that the educator 
 endeavour to collect the forces of the pupil, in order 
 that they shall not be trifled away, but through their 
 concentration result in an energetic and powerful 
 activity. No moral character is conceivable without 
 such concentration of forces. But if the pupil is to 
 undertake the concentration of his power, we must 
 provide, above all, that the circle of thought be as 
 compact as possible, and not disconnected. 
 
 Psychology teaches in what manner the unity of 
 the person develop.s. The person, i.e. the ego, is not 
 an original, but a dcvelo))ing entity; hence, it is also a
 
 104 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 changeable being. The ego is a psychical phenomenon, 
 namely, the becoming conscious of a lively and con- 
 stant interaction within the more or less invisible 
 complex of ideas ; in other words, it is the conscious- 
 ness of the inter-relation of all our ideas, and the 
 psychical conditions that arise from them. The 
 inherent ground for the inter-relation of all our mani- 
 fold ideas, for their synthesis, as it were, at one point, 
 the ego-idea, must be sought in the simplicity of the 
 soul, which strives to unite all psychical contents that 
 are not separated 1)7 antithetical and arrestive intlu- 
 ences. The soul is self -active as a concentrative force 
 in opposition to the manifoldness of impressions and 
 influences that are furnished by experience and inter- 
 course. 
 
 But the constructive activity of the youthful mind 
 is overestimated, if one assumes that it would of itself 
 establish the connections between the manifold circles 
 of ideas. In fact, even in adult persons the concen- 
 trative power of the soul is often not strong enough 
 to produce unity of consciousness as the basis for a 
 uniform personal activity. Where a large number of 
 entirely different and disconnected ideas have been 
 developed, real unity of the person based upon the 
 unity of the consciousness is impossible. Without 
 this unity, howevei', a character is inconceivable. 
 Unity of consciousness is the primitive foundation of 
 character. Instruction, therefore, must be directed 
 towards establishing this foundation ; it must further 
 the concentrative power of the soul by means of its 
 various arrangements. It should never place obstacles 
 in the way, an error which occurs whenever hetero- 
 fjeneous ideas are brouu'ht into the consciousness at
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 1 05 
 
 the same time and then (quietly left to their fate. 
 Hence, after a reguhir succession of subject-matter 
 has been established in accordance with the histori- 
 cal stages of culture, the next task is to provide an 
 equally well-arranged co-ordination of the various 
 materials for instruction. 
 
 The thought may now occur to us to lighten this 
 task of co-ordination by abandoning the cultivation of 
 certain circles of ideas from the beginning. But it 
 must also be possible to establish a harmonious con- 
 nection between the unity of the person and the 
 plurality of the branches of instruction even when 
 all the necessary educational elements are retained. 
 If one were to strike out a certain number of instru- 
 ments from a symphony, the work of art would be 
 destroyed. The efficiency of instruction will be im- 
 paired in the same way if certain essential educational 
 elements are not included in the curriculum. 
 
 These thoughts recall certain words from the en- 
 clyclopedia of Stoy.^ Here it reads on page 11, 
 " Instruction can hardly be thought of more perti- 
 nentl}'' than when compared to a symphony in which, 
 in fact, at different times, single voices take the lead 
 with the 'motivo,' then retire and make place for 
 others, and finally all together unite harmoniously in 
 one grand stream." 
 
 We can only agree with this simile in part ; for in 
 the educative school the ideas should, by all means, 
 be combined into a unity that contains no contradic- 
 tions. The disharmonies that must occur — as for 
 example, when the teacher of natural science sneers 
 
 ^ Stuy, EucyMopO'dic dcr radaijixji};. — Ts.
 
 I06 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 at religious ideas, and, conversely, when the teacher of 
 religion abhors the investigations of natural science as 
 the work of the devil — such disharmonies should not 
 by any means be brought into the youthful mind, for 
 the reason that they destroy the unity of the circle of 
 thought. Such work runs in direct opposition to the 
 purposes of educative instruction. Thus far the com- 
 parison is suitable. But it is incorrect that the 
 separate branches of instruction in the educative 
 school should alternately stand in the foreground, in 
 the same manner that the various voices in the sym- 
 phony precede one another with the theme. The 
 maxim, "One thing after another," is, in general, wrong, 
 because it is not compatible with the principles of 
 educative instruction.^ 
 
 An examination of the educational value of the 
 single branches shows at once that those studies are 
 to be given the preference in the instruction of the 
 school, which work directly for the attainment of the 
 educational aim, and which, by virtue of the content 
 they convey to the pupil, are able to meet the demand 
 for a valuable circle of thought in which the moral- 
 religious interests predominate. 
 
 ^ This statement is not intended by the author to signify 
 that all possible branches of study are to be pursued synchroni- 
 cally. It by no means precludes tlie possibility of introducing 
 one language, for example, after another, or of arranging the 
 elementary science-instruction so that the various sciences are 
 treated at the most favourable moments as regards the season 
 of the year, their dependence upon one another, etc. Neither 
 does it preclude the gradual introduction of studies in propor- 
 tion to the growing capacity of the child. It is to be vnider- 
 stood rather as referring to the general classes of material, — 
 historical branches, language, art, science, mathematics, etc. — T's.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I07 
 
 I£ one keeps the supreme purpose of education iu 
 mind, the branches of learninc^ may be easily and 
 distinctly ranked in accordance with their peda- 
 gogical importance. 
 
 This conclusion is by no means intended to express 
 an undervaluation of any of the single sciences ; but 
 it by all means aims at a correct proportionment of 
 the amount which they ma}- contribute to the forma- 
 tion of the youthful mind and character. Above all, 
 the predominence of linguistic studies is thus also 
 reduced to the proper limit, and the fiction of 
 " formal education," ^ which still haunts many minds, 
 but which rests upon just as crude a conception of 
 the intellectual life as the hypothesis of materialism, 
 is removed, or, at least, placed within bounds. Occu- 
 pation with the symbols of ideas (language) is 
 certainly of undoubted value for all future use of such 
 symbols (for example, in the acquirement of another 
 language), but indeed for nothing else. Furthermore, 
 the acknowledgment of this fact is at present con- 
 stantly spreading, so that one ma}' assume that the 
 true significance of the so-called " formal education " 
 will soon be placed everywhere in the right light. 
 None of the branches of instruction can be regarded 
 as a universal means, the intense pursuit of which 
 could develop the formal power for mastering all 
 other series of material On the contrar}', they should 
 all be taken equally into consideration, if the genuine, 
 many-sidedness of interest is to be obtained. The 
 only question is, how shall this be accomplished ? 
 The problem which is to be solved may be briefly 
 stated once more in the following sentences : — 
 1 See page 42, footnote.
 
 I08 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 The centre of the educator's activity is the de- 
 veloping personality of the pupil to which the mani- 
 fold interests must always be referred. Now, how is 
 the concentration of the branches of instruction to 
 be subordinated to tJiis concentration, whose centre is 
 the developing character of the pupil. 
 
 We have already spoken of those branches of in- 
 struction that introduce the "leading motivo " (" Leit- 
 motif") of education. They comprise the material 
 that is directed especially toward the training of the 
 disposition. These take the most prominent position, 
 since it is their purpose to place a weighty and con- 
 nected mass of thoughts and inclinations in the mind 
 and heart. These ideas should be of such weight, 
 and have so many points of contact with every new 
 thought which may appear, that nothing can pass by, 
 no new combination of thoughts can take place with- 
 out reckoning wath this centre of the circle of 
 thouofht. 
 
 THE FIRST GROUP OF BRANCHES. 
 
 1. The material for the training of the disposition^ 
 is drawn from three series ; (1) from the religious 
 material (from biblical and ecclesiastical history) ; (2) 
 from profane history ; (3) from literature. The latter, 
 however, will only appear as a special, independent 
 branch in the higher educational schools. Between 
 these three series tlicre must be a reciprocal relation, 
 an inner connection. This connection is at once 
 
 1 Gesinnungsstoff.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. IO9 
 
 vouched fur by tlie arrangement of the material in 
 accordance with the historical development of culture 
 in so far as it may be followed in its religious, social 
 and ethical phases. Thus the historical })rinciple of 
 culture and the psychological principle coincide. 
 
 2. The above-mentioned material for the training 
 of the disposition is supplemented by the branches of 
 art ; for example, drawing and singing, both of which 
 are directed chiefly to the nurture of the esthetic 
 interest. The close relationship that exists between 
 the ethical and the esthetical, insures these branches 
 a position next to those that train the disposition ; 
 their content is naturally and closely related to that 
 of the historical branches fiom which they receive 
 the necessary hints as to the selection and arrange- 
 ment of material. 
 
 3. To this group belong also the languages, wdiich 
 constitute the formal side of the historical material. 
 All historical records, in fact the cultural develop- 
 ment of a people, is stored up chiefly in its great 
 literary monuments. From these we draw the 
 artistic aim, the ability to make the linguistic ex- 
 pression the interpreter of the thoughts of the inner 
 life. At the same time also the interest is awakened 
 in the language itself, as a very characteristic and 
 significant creation of man. In this sense the teach- 
 ing of language appears as a branch of the humanistic 
 instruction, i.e. as a branch of the historical instruc- 
 tion. But in the educative school the language is only 
 a Tiieans to an end, not the reverse. Grannnatical 
 instruction can claim no independent position as do 
 the philological sciences in the universit}^ 
 
 This closes the first group of l)rar)ches, which wc
 
 no OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 may designate as the historical group. It possesses a 
 certain ascendency ; for wherever we have to deal 
 with the formation of an ethical personality, a circle 
 of ideas capable of supporting a moral character must 
 occupy the central place in the entire world of 
 thought. If it is true that the precedence is due to 
 the ethical ideas as the forces which determine the 
 personality of man, material which directly serves in 
 the production of these ideas can also claim the 
 precedence. 
 
 THE SECOND GROUP OF BRANCHES. 
 
 The second rjrowp of branches of instruction in- 
 cludes the natural sciences. An analysis of the 
 elements of culture shows us that the work of man- 
 kind is directed on the one hand to the ideal sphere — 
 i.e. to religion, mental sciences and art — on the other 
 hand to the investigation of nature. Accordingly 
 these two large groups of material may be summed 
 up under the phrases — life of nature and life of man- 
 kind. 
 
 We arrive at a similar result by analyzing the 
 child's circle of thought, which, as already emphasized, 
 develops partly through experience, partly through 
 intercourse. The child draws experiences ^ from the 
 
 1 
 
 The author here makes an important distinction between 
 "Erfahrung" and "Umgang," for the sake of brevity and clear- 
 ness, which must also be transferred to the corresponding 
 English words, "experience" and "intercourse." The dis- 
 tinction oritcinated witli Herbart. — Ts.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 objects of its environment. It enjoys intercourse 
 with its parents, brothers and sisters, and phiymates. 
 Experience refers to the domain of nature ; inter- 
 course to that of human Hfe. Instruction supple- 
 ments both of these sources and is also divided into 
 two chief lines ; it enlarges the actual human inter- 
 course by means of an ideal intercourse with the 
 men of fiction and history ; it enlarges the experience 
 of the pupil in the domain of nature by leading him 
 to make observations, collections, experiments, descrip- 
 tions, etc., and at the same time works over this 
 experience in its formal phase as regards form and 
 number. 
 
 The Circle of Thought. 
 
 (A; Experience. 
 
 Things of the environment. 
 
 Nature. 
 
 Knowledge, 
 
 Broadening of experience. 
 
 Natural sciences. 
 
 Realistic direction. 
 
 (B) Intercourse. 
 
 Men of the environment. 
 
 Life. 
 
 Symi:)athy. 
 
 Broadening of intercourse. 
 
 Historical branches. 
 
 Humanistic direction. 
 
 The two directions fuse in the general education furnished in 
 the educative schools. 
 
 To the second group, which we designate as the 
 natural science group, belong the natural sciences in 
 the more restricted sense, geography and finally ma- 
 thematics, the branch that re])resetits the formal side 
 of science.
 
 112 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Thus we have obtained a twofold division of the 
 branches of instruction and the circle of thouoht. If 
 one were to content himself with this result, the 
 question of concentration would have to accept only 
 a partial solution ; one would abandon the uniform 
 effect of the branches of instruction and therewith 
 also the production of a uniform circle of thought. 
 The pupil would constantly incline now more to the 
 one, now more to the other side, according to the 
 fluctuations of the interest But nothing is more 
 dangerous fur the character than to be constantly 
 thrown about hither and thither from one circle of 
 thought to another without being able to sura them 
 up in a higher reflection. A theory of the course of 
 instruction which contents itself with this twofold 
 division would give clear evidence of its own incapa- 
 city to effect a uniform organization of the branches 
 of instruction. 
 
 Therefore one is compelled to investigate the further 
 question as to how the second group of subjects is to 
 be arranged with reference to the first group so as to 
 produce a higher, more complete uuity. Geogrcqjhy, as 
 an associative science, is the first to offer its services 
 in answering this question. It is the natural com- 
 panion of the instruction in history, in that it under- 
 takes to treat the countries in the succession in which 
 they have appeared to the intellectual sphere of man- 
 kind. Hence, it presents, in a condensed form, the 
 histury of discoveries. The connection of the branches 
 of natural science with the historical series proves to 
 be more difiicult. In this case the investigations may 
 often be connected unconstrainedly with the treatment 
 of geographical objects, in order to furnish the latter
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. II 3 
 
 the necessary supplementary support. Thus, to cite 
 an example, the investigation of the Alpine ilora and 
 fauna could be placed beside the geographical treat- 
 ment of the Alps. On the other hand, we should 
 also consider that the life in Nature may also be vie^Yed 
 from the standpoint of human purposes. The will 
 places itself in relation to things of Nature in order 
 to bring them into the service of man. Human 
 activity experiences limitations from two sides ; it is 
 limited (1) by the ethical ideas, and (2) by the nature 
 of things. This obligation to the moral ideas limits 
 the ijurposes of action ; restriction by the nature 
 of things limits the means of action. On the other 
 hand, these two spheres contain aids to human activity 
 as well as limitations. In the education of the will 
 both must be brought to the pupil's consciousness ; he 
 must acquire (1) an understanding of those limita- 
 tions and aids that are based upon the ethical 
 ideas, (2) an understanding of the limitations and aids 
 that depend upon the relations of things in Nature. 
 
 The first is the office of the instruction that especi- 
 ally trains the disposition. The latter is the office of 
 instruction in natural sciences. Thus both series, 
 both the chief groups, unite in that higher reflec- 
 tion at which the education of the disposition aims. 
 Both series, taken together, furnish the materials for 
 the pictures of culture which should be viewed both 
 from the standpoint of their time and that of the 
 pupil, and should chain his interest as a constant 
 ascemling series. 
 
 Thus we have sketched in the rough the plan of 
 concentration for the curriculum of an educative 
 instruction. 
 
 H
 
 114 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 In this plan all the elements are represented that 
 should be considered in the formation of the cur- 
 riculum : — 
 
 1. The ultimate moral and religious purpose. 
 
 2. The harmonious psychological and historical 
 
 gradation of the instruction. 
 
 3. The correlation of the various materials of in- 
 
 struction. 
 
 Organized in accordance with this programme, 
 instruction may become an unbroken educational 
 force, comparable to organic matter. And yet plans 
 of instruction are constantly being created by the 
 mere artless collection of the series of material ; cur- 
 ricula are constantly being prepared in which merely 
 the matter to be treated is considered, but not the 
 question as to w^hat materials will be co-ordinated in 
 the application of the plan, nor how they may be con- 
 nected. A sort of educational atomism is apparent 
 here, which has taken hold of the work of instruction 
 and thinks it can produce an organic structure by the 
 mere accumulation and piling up of material, a living 
 being by the mere mechanical co-ordination of forces. 
 In contrast with this tendency we may cite the thought 
 of Plato's, that the branches of learning should always 
 be viewed in their connection and understood accord- 
 ing to their relationship. 
 
 The following summary may serve to render this 
 relationship clear once more.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
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 Il6 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ZlLLER.1 
 
 1. Group. 2. Group. 3. Group. 
 
 1. Historical Series. 1. Languages. L Geography. 
 
 2. Natural Science. 2. ISlathematics. 2. Turning. 
 
 (Drawiiig). 3. Technical Occupa- 
 
 tions. 
 4. Singing. 
 
 Stipplementary remarks on the a2)]>lication of the in'eceding 
 sections (a) and (6).- 
 
 Our system has thus far fixed upon its educational aim 
 (character-building) and the aim of its instruction (the 
 many-sided interest), and has entered upon the considera- 
 tion of the means of instruction. Here the Herbartiau 
 school distinguishes three great principles — the historical 
 stages of cultuir, concentration, and the formal ste2}s of in- 
 
 1 It is very apparent that the first of these three classifications is 
 based upon a clear principle, and one that may be derived directly 
 from Herbart's own views. The second and third do not seem to 
 have souglit a logical principle of classification, but merely to have 
 adopted an arbitrary grouping that would serve practical purposes. 
 There can be no doubt that Herbart always had two main groups in 
 view— the historical and the scientific. See also C. A. McMurry's 
 General Method, chap. ii. — Ts. 
 
 - The object of these supplementary remarks is to give some 
 conception of the application of ideas that, especially in their 
 practical phases, are more or less new to the English and 
 American teacher. The intention, therefore, is only to supply a 
 guide to the general application ; proposals for any single case 
 can only be made where all the circumstances are known. The 
 special applications, therefore, would necessarily differ among 
 themselves according to their different circumstances. Wher- 
 ever specific propositions are made, they are intended to be 
 suggestive rather than determinative. — V. L.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. IT/ 
 
 struction. The first two of these three prhiciiilcs, \\\t\\ 
 which we are coucerued here, have been theoretically and 
 psychologically established in the preceding pages. It is 
 now our task to inquire somewhat more minutely into their 
 general practical application, for the question now occurs to 
 us at once : Can these principles be applied I One can only 
 obtain an answer to this question (1) by referring to 
 attempts already made to apply these principles and sum- 
 ming up their results, {'2) by testing their applicability for 
 himself. A conclusive and convincing answer, either ^)?*o or 
 con, cannot be had until both means have been employed. 
 The following statements are based upon curricula^ ar- 
 ranged in accordance with the aforesaid principles, and 
 upon extended observations of their successful, practical ap- 
 plication. 
 
 In our further investigations we shall endeavour to keep 
 in mind the aim both of education and instruction as already 
 established. We have already seen (page 99) that there 
 are three tasks to be performed in laying out the course of 
 study : — (1) The stages of development in the child's mind 
 are to be determined, (2) the national stages of develop- 
 ment, the national eras, are to be determined, and (3) the 
 latter are to be placed, so far as possible, parallel to, and in 
 harmony with, the former. As a result of these pre- 
 liminary works, the couise of study already referred to, 
 which is arranged only for the eight years of the people's 
 school, presents the following summary of material for the 
 historical instruction : — - 
 
 ^ Tlieorie und Praxis des Voll<ssclinlunterrichts, by Prof. 
 Dr. W. Rein, A. Pickel, and E. Scheller, Leipzig. 
 
 - It is almost impossible to protluce an adequate translation 
 of the German term, " Gesinnungsunterricht," which is used 
 liere. "Historical instruction" has, therefore, been used 
 above, and must be understood in the more restricted sense.
 
 Il8 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 1. 
 
 School Year 
 
 2. 
 
 )> )) 
 
 3. 
 
 )) J) 
 
 4. 
 
 )) J) 
 
 5. 
 
 )) )) 
 
 6. 
 
 )) )) 
 
 f- 
 
 
 i . 
 
 )) J5 
 
 8. 
 
 :) 1) 
 
 Marchen. 
 
 Robinson. 
 
 Sacred Series. Profane Series. 
 
 Patriarchs and Moses. Thiiringer Tales. 
 Juck'es and Kino-s. Nibelungen Tales. 
 
 Life of Christ. 
 
 Christianizing. 
 
 Kaiser-period. 
 Paul. Reformation. 
 
 Luther. Catechism. Nationalization. 
 
 As may be seen, the historical instruction bifurcates after 
 the first two years into a sacred and profane series ; but the 
 division is merely external. A glance at the corresponding 
 materials for each year (which are here highly generalized) 
 in the two series, shows that they harmonize internally with 
 remarkable accuracy. The uuity is preserved. This ar- 
 rangement of material refers only to the time at which the 
 various periods are methodically treated. It by no means 
 excludes the possibility of the child's hearing of Christ in 
 the first four years, for example ; numerous opportunities 
 are at hand (Christmas, Sunday, devotions, etc.) to provide 
 for this necessary part of the earliest training. Here we 
 have to do merely with the gradual general development of 
 the child's conceptions of sacred and profane events for the 
 sake of their uniform and harmonious effect upon his char- 
 acter. Neither is all that may be included under each one 
 of these general headings undertaken. Only enough is 
 brought before the child in well-chosen " pictures of the will," 
 to preseut the period in its essential characteristic features. 
 Here the culture and good common sense of the teacher 
 are in demand. Let us notice further that certain general 
 features of development are apparent, showing that this is 
 not merely a chance parallelism. For example, a glance at 
 the industrial phases of national life presented in these two 
 historical series reveals the following typical stages : — 1,
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. II9 
 
 Hunter's life ; 2, Xomadic life; grazing is a new occupation 
 of man; lower animal life enters into the service of man ; 
 3, Agricultural life ; 4, Development of retail trade and 
 small industries ; 5, Development of wholesale trade, foreign 
 commerce, and great industries ; growth of great cities. 
 The lines cannot be sharply drawn between these several 
 stages ; natural development seldom displays marked signs 
 of transition. We simply find the development of certain 
 industrial phases predominant at certain periods in the 
 history of a nation. A similar comparison may be applied 
 to the cultural development. 
 
 In the same way we find certain psychological changes 
 that correspond in general to the psychical development 
 of the child. In the first six years of its life the child's 
 psycliical development consists chiefly in conscious reception 
 and reproduction ; it is occupied with its numberless sense- 
 perceptions of the outer world and learns its mother 
 tongue. Comparison, thought, are as yet primitive. This 
 period includes also the years of the kindergarten. At the 
 time the child enters school, his imagination is beginning 
 to show signs of lively development ; he longs for fairy 
 tales ; he is like the people that has risen above the stage 
 of mere sensual impression, and is beginning to develop a 
 national imagination, and hence a culture. Its first literary 
 treasures will be highly imaginative. His will, as yet, ex- 
 periences no severe conflicts. He still relies entirely upon 
 his childish trust. At a later stage the mechanical memory 
 appears in its most marked phase ; the childish imagination 
 continues active. As in the first school years, he is still 
 eager for wondrous tales, and his mental possessions continue 
 to increase. But he often finds his will coming into un- 
 pleasant conflict with other wills both in his games and in 
 his work. He mubt learn the bitter lesson of subjugation 
 to the will of the whole. 
 
 A further stage finds the lunlerstauding struggling to
 
 120 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 rise, to gain control over the mass of material in possession 
 of the mechanical memory. There is a strong desire to 
 create something with one's own hands. Independence is 
 beginning to develop, for the child is getting control over its 
 will. There is still often a lack of perseverance in complet- 
 ing the tasks that have been independently and voluntarily 
 vindertaken. 
 
 The closing stage of childliood is characterized by rapid 
 strides toward the predominance of the understanding. 
 New things are viewed in the light of old mental possessions. 
 The ability to judge correctly is greater. The will is still 
 furtlier vinder control. It determines tlie actions of the 
 individual in accordance with his moral ideas, his principles, 
 his conscience. 
 
 Thus we have characterized in very rough, brief outlines 
 the development of the child in his first fourteen years of life. 
 Let us repeat again that neither these stages nor their in- 
 dividual features are fixed. They vary in different natures ; 
 they frequently overlap, and the transition from one stage 
 to another is of course imperceptible. So far as an approxi- 
 mate estimate can be made, each one of the four stages 
 beginning with the sixth school year may be regarded as 
 corresponding to two of the eight school years. We have 
 simply characterized the child in general at several different 
 times in its life for the purpose of comparing his develop- 
 ment with that of a people. A glance in comparison at the 
 above series of historical material shows an undoubted 
 analogy with the development of the child, and demonstrates 
 that the material thus chosen is suitable for the child's 
 mind. Let us not make the mistake, however, of expecting 
 too much from this comparison, tliis analogy. It is sufficient 
 to guide us ; it is all that could be expected ; but it is not 
 complete, for if this were possible all individuality whatever 
 would be removed. What, then, is the general result? 
 We have a series of material for use in the historical in-
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 121 
 
 struction that coi-respoiids to mental development of the 
 child in general, that is suited to liis powers at each stage, 
 and that gives him a survey of the historical development of 
 his people, culminating at the time he enters a maturer life. 
 
 The first two years constitute a sort of preliminary course, 
 in wliich the imaginative element predominates. The 
 following six years present, in general, a gradual national 
 development from superstition, ignorance and unruly will- 
 power to enlightenment, understanding and the joint-will of 
 a good government. Tliis development is analogous to 
 that just traced in the child. The entire series contains 
 rich ethical material, whose proper treatment {see page 135) 
 cannot fail to develop a moral content in the child's mind. 
 Can anyone doubt that this arrangement, which provides 
 for a gradual ethical, social, and national development of 
 the child, extending through his entire school life in one 
 unbroken stream, could be otherwise than effective 1 Does 
 it not bear a great contrast to the usual arrangement of the 
 curriculum, in which the guiding principles have seemed to 
 bo merely to find material for each grade that was easy 
 enough for the child at that age, and to satisfy the demands 
 of both tradition and the popular novelties 1 
 
 What effect this principle of succession in the curriculum 
 will have upon other branches we shall consider shortly. 
 Let us next consider some of the most noteworthy objections 
 that have been made to the above principle. 
 
 1. Sticklers for chrunology will object that the chrono- 
 logical order is not preserved. But what teacher of history 
 that is master and not slave of his subject was ever able to 
 preserve the chronological order ? Nor is this "a prerequisite. 
 Let us remember that that which is psychologically near to 
 the child is not always chronologically near him. The 
 psychologically near must have the preference. Again, the 
 historical development is by no means disturbed if the 
 changes in chronological order do not extend over too large
 
 122 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 periods. This development would be violated by a change in 
 the chronological order of distinct, purely historical periods, 
 but not in the order of events that have a common char- 
 acter, and that belong to the same epoch. 
 
 2. It must be acknowledged that the principle of historical 
 development is directly opposed to what has been termed 
 the principle of "concentric circles," which is to be dis- 
 tinguished sharply from "concentric instruction," or "con- 
 centration " in tlie Herbartian sense. The principle of con- 
 centric circles has been very influential in the past. It aims 
 to give the child the simplest elements of all branches in 
 the first school years, and then to repeat the work on a larger, 
 maturer scale in tlie last years. Sometimes the same sub- 
 ject is treated from its foundation up in this manner three 
 times. Behold the "primary geography," the "inter- 
 mediate geography," and the " higher geography" ! This 
 method of procedure is incompatible with the historical 
 stages. It has but one psychological fact upon which it is 
 based, a fact that by no means renders it imperative. It is 
 an attem[)t to take the steady development of the child 
 into consideration. The child's powers grow ; his unfolding 
 understanding is capable of seeing facts in a newer and 
 broader light. How can this be possible if he passes over a 
 sul^ject, or a part of a subject, but once and only in his 
 earlier years] We at once answer, this is a problem that 
 depends upon the art of the teacher. The Herbartian peda- 
 gogics is, in general, opposed to giving the child a certain 
 mental content, and then allowing it to rest. It aims to keep 
 the entire mental content alive by producing constant 
 relations between the old and the new. In fact, it has a 
 specific term for old ideas, viz. " apperceiving concepts." 
 These familiar mental possessions are constantly in demand 
 when the child is acquiring new circles of thought. But 
 that is not the only result of their constant activity. They 
 themselves steadily grow and deepen in the liglit of the
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 1 23 
 
 newer material, and with the cliild's unfolding uudorsiand- 
 ing.^ Again, practice supplies the necessary support to the 
 memory. Thus the principle of historical stages meets iu a 
 ma<;h more satisfactory way the demand made upon the 
 curriculum by the child's mental development. The material 
 for each grade is treated in a manner suited to the mental 
 status of the pupil. The old is broadened, deepened, and 
 renewed in the light of the new. At the same time, the 
 treatment of the subject-matter is reinforced in this work of 
 maturing old circles of thought, by the course of study itself, 
 for the latter presents a regular series of material, whose con- 
 tent becomes more mature as the mental horizon of the child 
 broadens. But what can we advance from our own stand- 
 point against the so-called principles of concentric circles 1 
 
 1. One of its well-known effects is the dampening of the 
 interest. Too often it requires the pupil to repeat processes, 
 with which he is already familiar, for the sake of the mere 
 repetition. 
 
 2. Again, it constantly breaks up old series of ideas and 
 requires the formation of new, a revolutionary process that 
 is more or less disturbing to the psychical life. So far as 
 possible the work of instruction should be so arranged as to 
 produce little waste iu the fortiiaticm of fixed series of ideas. 
 It is very evident that the principle of concentric circles 
 (which, happily, is rapidly losing its power) is also the cause 
 of a great waste of time. It is a principle which we cannot 
 afford to make the determinative factor in the formation of 
 the curriculum, especially at a time when numberless new 
 demands, the out-growths of a higher civilization, are being 
 constantly placed upon the schools. 
 
 3. The attempt to give the child an epitome or general 
 survey of each branch in his earlier years inevitably results 
 in feeding him upon dry, uncomprehendcd generalities. It 
 
 1 Compare the supplementary remark on the Formal Steps, 
 page 146.
 
 124 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 cuts off tlie jw.ssibilitj of cxiltivating careful observation and 
 perception in the very years when the child is most receptive 
 for the individual impressions of his environment, and when 
 he should be laying up a store of particular facts from which 
 to draw careful and more mature generalizations. 
 
 A fourth objection will be noticed wlien we come to con- 
 sider the subject of concentration. 
 
 Thus far we have only considered the historical instruction 
 of a curriculum arranged for the common schools of the 
 country in which this movement originated. We now ask, 
 are these principles applicable elsewhere, i.e. are they general 
 principles ? Leaving the sacred series of the historical in- 
 struction as it stands (for, in case religious instruction were 
 imparted in the schools, it would remain essentially the same, 
 with slight changes, of course, in tlie last year as regards 
 the reformation), let us attempt to make the application 
 elsewhere, in a general way, for the sake of illustration. 
 We are not making a study of any national pedagogical 
 principles, but of principles that are capable of application 
 anywhere, if one but takes the different circumstances dulj"- 
 into consideration. As this volume is addressed to English 
 readers, we cannot do better, perhaps, than to view the 
 principles briefly in the light of their possible application in 
 the schools of English-speaking nations. We shall only 
 attempt this in the most general manner, for as has already 
 been emphasized, the curriculum should receive a different 
 stamp as to its particulars, according to the location of the 
 school. 
 
 The two years' preliminary course could remain the same. 
 The choice of tales (fables) for the first year would depend 
 largely upon the locality in which the children lived. They 
 should, so far as possible, be peculiar to his people, or better, 
 to his state or community. They should be classical, and their 
 contents should not be purely and wildly imaginative, but 
 ethically valuable as well. Robinson Crusoe is a common
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 12$ 
 
 literary treasure of tlie English-speaking nations. But its 
 educational value was first recognized by Kousseau, a 
 Frenchman, and systematically applied by Ziller, a German 
 JTerbartian. Anyone who has read Robinson (and who has 
 not?) and who will reflect for a moment upon the vast 
 amount of elementary ideas upon geography, zoology, botany, 
 art, society, etc., that it contains, will see at once that this 
 is just the material for the second year, when these same 
 elementary ideas are beginning to unfold somewhat more 
 definitely in the child. The most recent experiments with 
 this material depart somewhat from Defoe's narrative, in 
 that after Robinson reaches the island, he is made to ac- 
 complish everything he can for himself with the raw materials 
 of Nature before he discovers the ship. His rude clothes, 
 weapons, pottery, cave, and labouring implements present 
 to the child the first step in the history of culture and art. 
 The comparison that follows when he discovers the ship, 
 and has the gun, the powder, the axe, saw, and hammer, the 
 cloth and the books of civilization at his command, is one 
 that ai'ouses the deepest and most permanent interest, and 
 gives the child a valuable mental content. 
 
 This preliminar}'^ work might be followed in English 
 schools by some such material as this : ^ 3rd year, Old 
 English Lt^gends, characteristic of the earliest days, which 
 may be chosen without a strict regard to chronology ; they 
 would, above all, include the legends of Iving Arthur and 
 the Hound Table, Robin Hood, etc. 4th and 5tli years. 
 The Settlement of England, as presented in its legends 
 (See Freeman's Old English History), The Anglo-Saxon 
 Forefathers, the Danes, and The Christianization of 
 England (Egbert, Alfred, Canute, Augustine, Paullinus, 
 Duustan, etc). 6th year, Great English Kings, from 
 William the Conqueror to the War of the Hoses. 7th year, 
 
 ' For suggestions here I am iudeljted to J. J. Fiudlay, fonnei'ly 
 headmaster of Wesley College in Sheflield.
 
 126 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery to 1763. 8th 
 year, Development of Modern England. ^ 
 
 The arrangement of the historical series presents greater 
 difficulties for the Ameincan school, for the reason that the 
 national development of the United States can only be 
 correctly regarded as a continuance of certain tendencies 
 more or less manifest in England since the time of the 
 Magna Charta. But the difficulty is not entirely insur- 
 mountable. All of the material necessary is at hand. 
 After the preliminary course of two years, the child has 
 already heard of the savage in Robinson. The transition is 
 natural to a few Indian legends. In them he learns of the 
 original inhabitants of his country. Soon the Indian meets 
 the white man, and the child is introduced to a series of 
 pioneer stories, beginning with those first which lie closest 
 to his circle of thought. - This material would occupy the 
 3rd and 4th years. The question is then brought to the 
 child's mind, — whence these white men, whose coming has 
 brought such changes to the land and its former inhabitants? 
 The answer to this question must be sought in the history 
 of discovery and exploration, — a step backward chronologi- 
 cally, but a step forward to the child. Then follows the 
 history of settlement and colonial history, two more school 
 yeai's (5 and 6) being required for the whole. The last two 
 years would then be devoted to the Revolution and the 
 Constitutional period. "" 
 
 ' Among the abumlauce of literature that may be used as reading 
 matter in concentration upon the historical material, may be men- 
 tioned Readings from English History, by J. R. Green, M.A., LL.D., 
 and Historical Ballads, by Charlotte M. Youge. 
 
 - Pioneer History Stories for the Third and Fourth Grades, by 
 C. A. McMurry. 
 
 3 Since writing the above I have read the propositions of Dr. 
 Charles A. McMurry, in his Oeneral Method, which coincide in the 
 main with my suggestions. The latter were originally sketched 
 somewhat more fully with the kind assistance of my countryman, A. 
 C. Rishcl of Chicago. It seems to me that use should by all means
 
 THE THEORY OF IXSTRUCTIOX. 12/ 
 
 The ubove suggestions are sufficient to give the reader 
 some idea of a general application. He can compare them 
 with that which precedes, and enter into the particulars as 
 regards material for himself. 
 
 It will be asked, does this not introduce the child to 
 history too earl}-? We answer, No. Experience has de- 
 monstrated that there is no brancli of instruction capable of 
 arousing a deeper or more lasting interest in the child, when 
 properly treated, than history. When the historical series 
 is adapted to the child's stage of apperception from the first 
 year and presents a gradual development, there is no danger 
 tliat the child will not be able to grasp or be attracted by 
 the events of history, providing they are presented with a 
 fair degree of skill ; he begins iu any case with the simpler 
 relations and advances to the more complicated. 
 
 Concentration. — What effect will this arrangement of the 
 historical instruction have upon the formation of the cur- 
 riculum as regards the other branches of instruction? We 
 cm answer this question by reference to the principle of 
 concentration, which has already been established theoreti- 
 cally. Let us consider it briefly in its practical phases. It 
 has been very aptly said ^ that " the psychological basis for 
 the principle of concentration is to be found in the activity 
 of apperception," and that on this account concentration in 
 the curriculum and in the instruction is at the same time 
 most efficient aid in obtaining the child's permanent and 
 penetrating interest. We have already heard that " the 
 developing personality of the pupil is a centre to which 
 manifold interests must always be referred." This can mean 
 nothing less than that the mind is active as an apperceiving 
 
 be made of the pure Indian legends, and that this material, leading 
 to the life of the pioneer with whom the Indian comes in contact, is 
 fitted for the 3rd school year. 
 
 1 See W. T. Harris in Public School Journal, Bloomingtoii, 111., 
 vol. xi., Xos. 2 ami .3.
 
 128 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 force ; it recognizes, identifies, assimilates as a unit, a 
 centre. The pedagogical principle, therefore, that is based 
 on this psychical activity', we call concentration. According 
 to this principle, the various branches should be united to a 
 whole in the curriculum ; according to it the instruction 
 should be carried on. 
 
 For the sake of clearness one may distinguish two forms 
 of concentration : (1) Concentration in the curriculum and 
 (2) concentration in instruction. Both forms of concentra- 
 tion take into consideration, — (a) the previous instruction 
 and (b) the life, environment, and experiences outside of the 
 school. 
 
 We make use of past instruction in concentration when 
 we compare Robinson with Boone, Africa with South America, 
 when we solve one geometrical problem with the assistance 
 of others previously solved ; we make use of the child's 
 environment in concentration when we read, " The snow 
 had begun in the gloaming, etc.," at some appropriate time 
 after a snowfall, not in July, when we present a rural, 
 descriptive, heroic, or historical poem to the child, just at 
 the moment when he can see and feel its fitness (Authors' 
 Birthdays), and when we draw upon his knowledge of the 
 surrounding country, of its points of historical, industrial 
 or geographical interest for apperceiving concepts. 
 
 Let us consider first concentration in the curriculum. 
 The objection has often been made that if the historical 
 stages are to be valid, all branches should be arranged 
 accordingly, and that this would necessitate the teaching of 
 alchemy before chemistry, astrology before astronomy, etc. 
 This would be very true if we had to do with history in 
 these cases. But we have not. The principle of the 
 historical stages is applicable to all of the historical branches 
 without difficulty. As regards other branches we are only 
 concerned with truth as we see it to-day. If this truth 
 bears a relation to the child's life it is capable of being
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 1 29 
 
 brought into harmony with the historical instruction of the 
 school. The historical material is intended not only to 
 impart knowledge, but also, above all, to develop the child's 
 character through his ideas. It therefore stands in close 
 relation to the child's own personality all through the 
 common school course. Hence it must form the centre of 
 all instruction. To the historical series as a centre the 
 other branches are to be referred. Their relations to the 
 life and work of man must be made clear to the child. He 
 must be conscious of the fact that all knowledge bears a 
 very definite relation to man and his affairs. Here concen- 
 tration enters the field. Let us not harbour the erroneous 
 idea that the other branches are now to lose their identity, 
 to become mere puppets in the hands of the historical 
 instruction. By no means ; each necessary branch will 
 retain its distinctive character, receive its distinct portion of 
 time in the daily plan, and be allowed to pursue its own 
 specific aim, in so far as it serves and does not violate the 
 supreme aim of education and instruction. Let us now 
 take the separate branches in order, for the purpose of 
 seeing how they may be concentrated. We begin with the 
 historical branches. The historical series in the more 
 restricted sense has already been discussed. After it has 
 been laid out to suit the school and the circumstances the 
 next branch to be considered would be — 
 
 Literature and Reading, — In the last few decades a great 
 deal has been written for children in the English tongue, 
 A number of writers have turned their attention to historical 
 subjects and have produced much that should be turned to 
 account in the school. Besides this newer material, the 
 older classical literary treasures contain much that is 
 within the grasp of the child, especially in the last school 
 years. Thus, with the exception of the first two years, by a 
 careful selection of material, the reading of the child can be 
 rnHe to bear upon his hi.-torical studies. Thus, too, his 
 
 1
 
 130 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 knowledge of the subject is enriched and very often his 
 memory refreshed. In the first two years the child is oc- 
 cupied with the task of learning to read. Yet even here, as 
 soon as a little facility has been attained, concentration can 
 help him. The fairy tales, fables and Robinson can be had in 
 sufficiently simple form. But we must not forget that the 
 child is exinriencing real life at the same time that he is 
 learning. His holidays and national celebrations, the 
 changes and events of nature, the events of his native place 
 also furnish numerous occasions that should guide the 
 teacher in bringing home to the child the circumstances 
 which called forth some literary treasure. 
 
 Singing. — After considering the concenti-ation of reading, 
 it is not difficult to understand how singing is to be con- 
 centrated. Here, above all, the national songs come into 
 requisition ; their meaning should be made the more signi- 
 ficant to the child through their relation to the historical 
 material. As before, the environment of the child is an- 
 other determinative factor in the selection of material. In 
 all cases, as a matter of course, the child's facility, which is 
 but a means to an end, must be taken into due consideration. 
 
 Drawing. — In the first school year the child begins to 
 practice that form of drawing which the Germans so aptly 
 designate as '•' Malen " or " Malendes Zeichnen." For want 
 of a better term we may call it roxigh sketching. He depicts 
 in the rough his conception of the object he sees. It is one 
 of the tasks in which he is freest, in which he creates at 
 will. This rough sketching is kept up throughout the 
 entire course, gradually improving in character, and enter- 
 ing into the service of geography, science, mathematics, and 
 even history. Its use is to bring the unfolding concepts of 
 the child to light, where he can see them, as it were, to 
 simplify the objects of perception, and to illustrate. In 
 this phase, drawing is chiefly a concentrative means. But 
 its sphere does not stop here. Early in the school course
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I3I 
 
 the child is introduced to exact drawing. Here teachers in 
 the European States have a great advantage over those iu 
 America, The architectural structures that are to be found 
 in almost every village and city of civilized Europe furnish 
 the most abundant objective material from which to pro- 
 ceed. The churclies, cloisters, public buildings, castles and 
 palaces of Kurope, even in a ruined state, contain all the 
 artistic forms that can be found in any drawing course. 
 Iu addition to this, the histox'y of art is contained in them. 
 The teacher can, with ease, so arrange the drawing lessons of 
 the pupil that they present tlie development of art in its 
 chief epochs, parallel to the epochs of history. At all events, 
 where possible, the work should be started with the in- 
 spection of a work of architecture. A single church v.'ill 
 furnish material enough for months of work. Thus, in two 
 important lines, drawing may be made one of the most 
 valuable and helpful concomitants of the historical instruc- 
 tion. What has been said of drawing is also true of model- 
 ling. The very best results of both are to be found in the 
 esthetic culture of the child. This esthetic culture is only 
 to be had by a study of the historical development of art, 
 chiefly as displayed in the treasures of architecture. If a 
 nation is too young to have passed through these stages 
 itself, its modern structures and art treasures should be 
 analyzed with a view to bringing out the original forms and 
 styles upon which the whole is based. 
 
 Language. — AVe have already shown how literature and 
 reading may be concentrated to the historical instruction. 
 The further instruction in language has reference merely to 
 facility in speaking and writing. A properlj'-directed his- 
 torical instruction, beginning with the first and closing with 
 the eighth school year, is the most important and effective 
 means for developing facility in speaking. The material 
 deals chiefly with narrative, which always gives the pupil 
 less difficulty than almost any other form of discourse. The
 
 132 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 grammatical studies should be conuected with the text that 
 is placed in the hands of the pupil. The content of some 
 literary selection forms the objective material for the child's 
 gi-ammatical perception. From it he derives his gram- 
 matical system. Work in composition should draw upon the 
 different series of material ; above all, let it beware of 
 selecting its subjects at random from spheres that are 
 entirely foreign both to the child's life and environment, and 
 to his present and past instruction. 
 
 Geography should bear the closest possible relations to 
 the historical instruction. The very nature of the subject 
 facilitates concentration. The history of one's own nation 
 not only treats of the one people, but constantly reveals 
 points of contact with other lands. These points of contact 
 give occasion for the geographical study of these countries. 
 Nor need this princiijle of selection disturb the systematic 
 development of the branch in the least. The points of con- 
 tact are so numerous that the most suitable moment for 
 introducing the child to each sphere can easily be found. 
 When he hears of the ideas and deeds of Columbus, for 
 example, he is at once interested in attaining a deeper in- 
 sight into the mathematical relations of the earth. If his 
 mind is at this time mature enough, this is the time to open 
 the subject ; if not, some other natural and suitable time 
 may be chosen. It is also quite in keeping with the prin- 
 ciple of concentration to postpone political geography until 
 the last school years. At this time the child is occiipied 
 with modern history, and the opportunity is favourable for 
 taking another view of the world in its political aspect. 
 This is of especial importance to him as a future citizen. 
 The development of the last century has brought his 
 country more than ever in contact with the entire world. 
 This contact reveals to him the true standing of his nation. 
 Mathematics and the Science. — These branches are more 
 difficult to concentrate than those previously mentioned.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 133 
 
 Still conceutratiou is here possible aud beneficial. A large 
 share of the work of conceutratiou is accomplished in the 
 instruction, as we shall shortly demonstrate. Otherwise 
 these branches are to be considered as the bearers of 
 kuowledge that euter into the service of man. This fact is 
 brought to the pupil's consciousness by drawing upou the 
 various, already concentrated series for the concrete material 
 of mathematical problems, for example. If such a problem 
 opens a "method-whole" the child understands its connec- 
 tion with life, and the demands of concentration are satisfied, 
 the unity is preserved. In the same way some fact that 
 has appeared in the historical series, or in one of the other 
 series with which it is concentrated, gives the impulse for 
 scientific investigations. Both mathematics and science, 
 however, should find a centre for their work in the life and 
 environment of the child, for here the objective material is 
 found, upon which the entire instruction should be based. 
 
 Thus far, we have not prepared a curriculum of in- 
 struction, but have merely indicated how its historical 
 centre might be selected and the plan of concentration 
 applied. Let us now consider " concentration in instruc- 
 tion" in its broadest application. AVhen the child enters 
 upon a new subject, its coiuiection with the whole should be 
 made clear to him at once. In stating the aim of the lesson, 
 for example, the teacher refers directly to the bund that 
 unites the. geographical study of a certain land with the 
 historical work. In the majority of cases the wide-awake 
 pupil is able to state the connection without assistance. In 
 the same way a thousand lines may be drawn that show 
 the complete interrelation of all the child's tasks. As soon 
 as the bond is perceived, however, the subject of instruction 
 pursues its own course. Furthermore, the teacher who is 
 alive to the importance of concentration must be tliorouglily 
 acquainted with the environment and life of the child, and 
 make a constant use of the objects that are known to the
 
 134 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 child wherever they will aid apperception. He also arranges 
 his school-walks and journeys so that they will accord with 
 Jind further the work of instruction He never forgets that 
 tlie child has been acquiring facts of all kinds from the 
 time of his birth, and that these facts constitute the apper- 
 ceiving concepts for the new. Concentration furnishes a 
 strong argument for advancing the teacher from grade to 
 grade with his scholars. There can be no doubt that he is 
 best fitted to teach the child who not only understands his 
 nature in general, but also has an intimate knowledge of 
 the specific contents of his mind. 
 
 In closing, let us consider for a moment some of the ad- 
 vantages which a course of study, arranged in accordance 
 with these principles, offers in addition to those already dis- 
 cussed in preceding chapters. First, the curriculum is 
 relieved of a great deal of pressure, due to the old habit of 
 unnecessarily reviewing entire subjects merely for the sake 
 of review. These principles provide for the refreshing of 
 the old, but demand constant progress in instruction. This 
 by no means excludes term or yearly reviews, but merely 
 tlie old plan of elementary, intermediate, and higher courses 
 in the same branch in the common school. But what is to 
 become of the vast amount of work that has been devoted 
 to the preparation of text-books on the old planl We 
 answer, if the teacher is master, and not slave of his text- 
 book, they can still be serviceable to him. Upon what 
 principle is the old system of five or six readers based, for 
 example? What demands that the teacher shall slavishly 
 drive his pupil through each reader from the beginning to end 
 without regard to the fitness of the material, or to a suitable 
 order 1 But, to follow out this example, these readers con- 
 tain much valuable material ; the teacher must follow a 
 higher ideal and select the literature, not the book. This 
 is true of any branch. Therefore, time is gained for the 
 increasing demands which modern civilization places upon
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTIOX. I 35 
 
 the school, by setting aside useless repetition. Again, one 
 of the subordinate aims of education is to train patriotic 
 citizens. The historical instruction, which forms the centre 
 of the entire school life, is better able to satisfy this demand 
 than any artificial means. This plan of instruction also 
 constantly enlivens the interest of the child because it con- 
 stantly fosters the acquisition of related knowledge. 
 
 The historical stages and concentration in their eftect 
 upon the course of study must appeal to those who prepare 
 the latter. Concentration, however, can always be of use 
 to the teacher in practice. He can only make use of the 
 historical stages at present, in so far as they do not conflict 
 with that which the present curriculum prescribes. The 
 above illustrations will suffice to show how the application 
 may be made in general ; the individual application must 
 be left to the reflection and study of the teacher. 
 
 Exhaustive data as to the application of the principles of 
 concentration and the historical stages of cultiu-e for any 
 other schools than those in which they were first applied and 
 have been worked out in detail, cannot be given until the 
 attempt has been made to apply them in other fields. It 
 will not be necessary here to indicate how they may be, or 
 have been, applied in the higher class of educative schools 
 that prepare for the higher professional studies. If the 
 child enters upon its classical and linguistic studies season- 
 ably and before the years of childhood have been brought to 
 a close, the history of general culture can be presented to 
 him in the same way that the child of an eight-year common 
 School passes through the history of his nation's culture. — 
 V. L. 
 
 (c) Treatment of the Subject-matter. 
 
 After the proper material has been chosen and 
 suitably arranged, the next task is to present it to the
 
 136 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 scholars, so that it shall become their permanent 
 possession. 
 
 The systematic treatment of the subject of instruc- 
 tion is generally comprehended under the name of 
 " method " in the more restricted sense of the word. 
 The view of Herder, who said : " Every teacher must 
 have his own method ; he must have created it him- 
 self throucrh his own intelligence, or it is of no advan- 
 tage to him," is, in fact, widespread, but fundamentally 
 false. A confusion of the concepts, metliod, and 
 manner, lies at the basis of this proposition, for there 
 can be only one method. As Comenius has alread}' 
 said : " There is but one natural method for all 
 sciences, arts, and languages." This is true if we 
 accept the hypothesis that the human soul works 
 according to definite laws, if we grant the supposition 
 that psychical processes conform to laws the same as 
 physical. According to this supposition there can be 
 but one natural method of instruction, viz. that 
 which conforms exactly to the laws of the human 
 mind and makes all its arrangements accordingly. 
 
 Therefore, he who is in possession of knowledge 
 and insight into the laws of psychical life, can also 
 obtain possession of the right method of instruction. 
 Hence it follows that the natural method can only be 
 regarded as an idea, as a goal that is placed before 
 us ; for who would boast that he possesses a psycho- 
 logical insight which spreads out before him the 
 workings of the human mind as plainly as if they 
 were the w^orkings of an ingenious machine in a 
 factory ? " Vous voulez mecaniser I'education," said 
 Glayre to Pestalozzi; and, as Pestalozzi himself said, 
 " He hit the nail upon the head." Over-zealous
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I 37 
 
 disciples have boasted that Pestalozzi actually mechan- 
 ised education, i.e. he understood the development of 
 human nature in accordance with its organic laws, 
 even in the entire range of its being, relations and 
 activity, and constructed the educational machine and 
 set it in action accordingly. 
 
 But this laudation of the PestaU^zzian universal 
 method not only resulted in subjecting the endeavours 
 of Pestalozzi himself to tlie sharpest criticism, but 
 the spirited disciples of naturalism in instruction were 
 newly strengthened in their aversion to all methods. 
 But the truth must, nevertlieless, be advanced against 
 these scorners of all method ; even the most happily 
 constituted nature, the teacher by divine grace, is not 
 restricted nor rendered ineffective by the directions 
 of method ; on the contraty, his activit}^ is promoted 
 and insured of its effectiveness. But the objection 
 that the one natural method has, in fact, not yet been 
 found, and perhaps never will be found, within any 
 imaginable time, may easily be removed by reference 
 to the fact that the pedagogical labours of the past 
 have produced results of great value to the work of 
 instruction, which no teacher can neglect with im- 
 punity. No one will assume that the liighest stage 
 in the development of method has been reached 
 thereby ; everyone will admit that the newer direc- 
 tions signify only one step further on the way that 
 leads to the highest goal, viz. the finding of the one 
 natural method of teaching. 
 
 The latter, in as far as it is known at present, may 
 be sketched in a few words. 
 
 We met with two sharply antithetical views as to 
 the choice of material — formalism and idealism. The
 
 138 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 former inscribed so-called " formal education " on its 
 banner. The material of instruction was only a 
 means to an end, viz. the formation of the under- 
 standing. The latter insists upon a valuable content 
 in the material and upon the education of the disposi- 
 tions. There are also two sharply antithetical views 
 as regards the methodical treatment of the subject- 
 matter — (1) didactic materialism and (2) psycho- 
 logical realism. The former aims at tlie acquisition 
 of as much knowledge as possible in the school, the 
 latter at the methodical treatment of as much material 
 as is thoroughly consistent with mental health. 
 
 Didactic materialism marks the lowest stage of 
 method in instruction. The pupil is compelled, 
 whether he will or not, to work his way into the 
 subject. That which is required of the mental power 
 of the adult is also simply demanded of the boy's 
 brain. This is the conception that ruled throughout 
 the entire Middle Ages. The method of procedure in 
 instruction conformed exclusively to the nature of the 
 object of instruction, not to the nature of the one 
 learning. The first isolated eflfbrts to develop the 
 subject of method appeared with Raticli and Comenius, 
 and were directed toward treating and presenting the 
 material of instruction with some reference to the 
 mind of the scholar. The eighteenth century, a 
 veritable century of pedagogy, brought to light a 
 series of pedagogical systems (as afterwards in philo- 
 sophy) which attracted the attention of people in all 
 stations of life, and permeated all literature. The 
 first of these efforts went to the extreme in that their 
 devotees (philanthropists) sought to shorten, sweeten, 
 and flavour the work of learning. The chief en-
 
 THE THEORY OE INSTRUCTION. 139 
 
 deavours of Pestalozzi and his disciples aimed to 
 divide the subject of instruction in accordance with 
 the needs of the pupil, and unfold and steel the power 
 of the scholar on the material thus prepared. The 
 movement which Pestalozzi started was so strong 
 that it has made the following age what may he 
 termed the age of so-called methods. The newer 
 didactics seeks to remove this biased preference for 
 method and to advance the development of the curric- 
 ulum ; hence it would also do justice to the single 
 educational elements themselves, and attribute to 
 them an inherent value 
 
 Recent didactics, however, has permitted an un- 
 common simplification to enttr into the subject of 
 method as compared with the constant desire and 
 rage for methods that charactei ized former years. It 
 has thoroughly cleared away everything that had 
 falsely assumed the name of method, and has produced 
 a theory which, in its simplicity and clearness, 
 parallels the true w^ork of art, whose naturalness and 
 siinplicit}' never lead one to suspect what pains and 
 what application it has cost the producer. The so- 
 called Socratic, rational, developing, catechetic, de- 
 monstrative, practical, mechanical methods, etc., have 
 been cleared aw^ay. Whatever recommends itself in 
 these conceptions as independent method, must now 
 take a more modest and befitting rank as a didactic 
 form subordinate to the whole ; in fact, even those 
 didactic forms which Herbart recognised as real 
 methods, viz. the analytic and synthetic, must be 
 combined to a systematic whole, or surrender their 
 independence. 
 
 The great advantage of the newer methodics con-
 
 140 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 sists in the fact that theory has found the way for 
 practice. Formerly, the great majority of teachers, 
 even among Herbart's pupils, wondered at the net- 
 work of abstract conceptions to be found in his 
 Allgemeine Pddagogik without knowing what use to 
 make of them. This apparent labyrinth of concepts 
 was first transformed by Professor Ziller of Leipzig 
 into a theory which can actually direct the practice of 
 instruction in the right course by means of a series of 
 practical and adaptable imperatives. 
 
 That the intellectual constitution of the pupil must 
 be taken into consideration as the chief determinative 
 factor in the treatment of the material has already 
 been repeatedly emphasized : for one is led at once 
 into darkness and error as soon as he ceases to deduce 
 the principles upon which he bases his method from 
 the psychical process in the soul of the child. But by 
 following the directions which this process gives, he 
 arrives at a definite articulation of the instruction 
 which corresponds to the growing interest of the 
 pupil. This necessity for a clear, definite articulation 
 of the instruction, based upon psychological grounds, 
 is aptly set forth in the familiar words of Quintilian : 
 " Pour water rapidly into a vessel with a narrow neck, 
 and little enters ; pour slowly, and but little at a 
 time, and the vessel is finally filled." The " how much 
 at a time " would, in general, be difficult to determine, 
 since the individuality of the pupil and the nature of 
 the material must be consulted. If the educator, how- 
 ever, inspects the material that has been laid out for a 
 longer period of time (and he must do this if he does 
 not wish to be dependent upon chance), he must first 
 consider the division and arrangement of these
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I4I 
 
 connected masses into smaller wholes, such as may be 
 treated with the pupil in a complete normal process 
 of abstraction. Such a portion w^e designate as a 
 " method- whole " ^ or " method-unit." 
 
 After the method-wholes within a single branch of 
 instruction have been fixed upon, the treatment of 
 material then begins by presenting the aim - of the 
 lesson ; it is intended to give the thoughts of the 
 pupil a definite tendency, and to arouse his expecta- 
 tion. It puts the pupil in mind of known things and 
 processes, and opens to him at the same time a vision 
 of something that is new, and as 3'et unknown. The 
 statement of the aim of the lesson, therefore, calls old 
 ideas into consciousness, whose activity is indis- 
 pensable^ for the understanding and assimilation of 
 the new, and directs the will of the pupil to the 
 solution of a problem to which he must devote all his 
 energies. But it is of great value to the educative 
 influence of the instruction, if the pupil alwaj^s knows 
 what he is after, if his intellectual activity assumes 
 from the beginning that impress of icork (in that it 
 strives to attain a definite aim) which distinguishes it 
 plainly from any definite iilay. The pupil engages 
 in play as an end in itself ; but he does not work for 
 the sake of working nor to fill up the time, but in the 
 hope of solving a problem that attracts and chains his 
 attention. The statement of the aim of a lesson has 
 achieved its purpose, if it has led the pupil from the 
 beginning to regard the task that is to be accomplished 
 as important. The formulation of the aim is, there- 
 
 ' Seu De Carmo's Esscntiah of Method, p. 75-77. 
 
 - To be di.stinguibhtd, of course, from aim of iustructiou.
 
 142 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 fore, neither an entirely easy task nor a matter of 
 indifference. 
 
 If the aim of the lesson has been rightly put, it 
 produces a flood of thoughts in the pupil at once. 
 This is above all essential, if one expects to produce 
 clear percepts from which to deduce accurate notions. 
 In fact, the process of learning may be summed up in 
 these two activities. From the percept to the concept 
 or notion — this is the truth which Pestalozzi as clearly 
 recognized and expressed as Kant, who said : " Per- 
 ceptions without general notions are blind ; general 
 notions without perceptions are empty." The percept 
 is a product of both external and internal observation ; 
 the notion which cannot arise directly from the senses 
 is a product of thought. Therefore the educator 
 must provide himself with definite answers to the tw^o 
 following questions : — 
 
 1. How do we obtain clear, distinct percepts ? 
 
 2. How do we obtain clear, distinct notions ? 
 Psychology alone gives an answer. It teaches us 
 
 that the first question finds its solution in the process 
 of apperception, the second in the process of abstrac- 
 tion. 
 
 Method of Teaching. 
 
 Percept. Concept or Notion. 
 
 Apperception. Abstraction. 
 
 (Lange, "tjber Apperzep- (Dorpfeld, "Denken und 
 
 tion.") 1 Gedachtnis.") 
 
 Abstraction is only possible upon the ground of 
 
 See Bibliographies.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 1 43 
 
 experience wliich constantly presents to us material 
 in the form of single, entirely individual, concrete 
 facts. The broader the concrete substratum, the 
 more successful will be the formation of notions. 
 Very often one must content himself with psychical 
 or individual concepts, where there were not sufficient 
 number of examples for perception at hand to intro- 
 duce a normal process of abstraction. The formation 
 of logical concepts is in general a very slow and 
 gradual process, which never fully conies to a close 
 during a lifetime. 
 
 Now, wherever notions arc to be formcl, a natural 
 method of instruction always conforms to tliis normal 
 process. In so far as the method of teaching succeeds 
 in imitating the normal process of concept-formation, 
 so far is it healthy, simple, and natural. In so far as 
 instruction departs from this process, it becomes 
 involved in unnaturalness, subtilities and abnormal 
 methods of procedure. Wherever a method proceeds 
 in accordance with the nature of the human mind, 
 genuine interest will appear spontaneously and faith- 
 fully accompany and further the instruction ; wher- 
 ever the educator does not trouble himself about the 
 psychological conditions of learning, he will alwaj'S 
 need artificial aids to incite the attention and be a 
 match for the pui)il. 
 
 If the scholar works under pressure, if he feels 
 learning to be a burden, there can be no mental 
 growth. It is otherwise where free interest prevails ; 
 then everything goes easily, teacher and pupils work 
 with a will and experience sincere joy in their labour. 
 This is only possible, however, by means of an exact 
 psychical adaptation and adjustment of the method
 
 144 OUTLINES OF TEDAGOGICS. 
 
 to the youthful moods and ideas. Nature makes no 
 leaps ; neither should an instruction that proceeds in 
 accordance with Nature. 
 
 Wherever the psychical conditions, individual per- 
 ceptions and general notions, are kept in view, wher- 
 ever one proceeds in accordance with the growth and 
 condensation of concepts from percepts, the method of 
 instruction will consist of two successive stages. 
 Within a method-whole, some concrete material of 
 knowledge, be it external or internal, will always be 
 presented for the perception of the pupil ; then 
 follows the transformation of this material into con- 
 cepts. Both processes subdivide into two steps : the 
 process of apperception into (1) the preparation of 
 necessary, related, already known material, and (2) 
 the presentation of the new ideas ; the process of 
 abstraction into (1) the comparison of all known 
 cases, and (2) the extraction of the essential and the 
 generally valid. A final step then provides for the 
 necessary application of the knowledge that it may 
 become ability, power, which is always at command. 
 Accordingly the " theory of the formal steps of in- 
 struction " distinguishes five steps, as shown by the 
 following synopsis : —
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
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 t46 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 The above outlines present certain diversities in the 
 use of terras, but all have their individual advan- 
 tages. A careful and thorough comparison of the 
 terms used by different writers, therefore, cannot fail 
 to throw a great deal of light upon the steps them- 
 selves. Most of the terms are, to some extent, self- 
 explanatory ; but they are by no means sufficient in 
 themselves to give an adequate, thorough conception 
 of their significance and application. It may be well, 
 however, to emphasize that Analysis (as used by Her- 
 bart and Ziller) denotes merely analysis of the ideas 
 already present in the child's mind, that are related to 
 the new material. Synthens is the apperception of 
 the new through the old. Together they produce 
 " Clearness of the Particulars." System is Classifica- 
 tion, and Method is Function or Application. — V. L. 
 
 Supplementary Remarhs upon the Formal Steps of Instruction. 
 
 This Herbartian principle is perhaps the most directly 
 applicable of the three principles that refer especially to 
 the material of instruction, because it deals with the inde- 
 pendent class-work of the teacher, and does not necessarily 
 conflict with any of the prescribed or traditional forms of 
 the curriculum. Its psychological foundation, and general 
 and theoretical phases have just been sutficieutly presented. 
 We shall now briefly consider the formal steps of instruction 
 ia their practical application. In so doing let us keep in 
 mind the different terms by which they are known, since all 
 possess a certain merit and are more or less suggestive. As 
 a rule, however, we shall do well to use the terms Prepara- 
 tion, Presentation, Association, Generalizatio!i (including 
 Classification), and Application, keeping constantly in mind 
 that the first two are steps of the first chief stage, Appercep- 
 tion, the next two, steps in the second chief stage, Abstraction.
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I47 
 
 The approximate material for each year's work has been 
 fixed upon in the curricuhim. In this respect the teacher 
 is necessarily somewhat limited. Within these limits, how- 
 ever, he should be granted abundant freedom ; his first 
 task, accordingly, is to divide the subject-matter for the 
 year into a series of suitable method-wholes as set fortli on 
 page 140-41. The criterion of a well-chosen methodical unit 
 is the single, chief, general truth which is embodied in its 
 content. Its treatment requires a regular process of 
 generalization. It is not so many pages of the text-book, 
 nor so many problems, nor even a single chapter or subject 
 as presented by the writer. All that the book contains 
 aside from that which is necessary to complete each new, 
 chief process of generalization, belongs to the fifth step, 
 practice and ai^plication. Hence the task of fixing xipon 
 the methodical units is one that requires care and reflection. 
 The sum of the method-wholes represents the total result 
 that is to be attained within a given time. The compass of 
 each method-whole, as regards time, cannot in general be 
 determined. Let us, above all, beware of attempting to 
 run through the five steps in each single hour or recitation. 
 It is impossible to state, in general, whether the method- 
 whole will occupy one, two, three, or more hours. This de- 
 pends upon the branch of instruction and the development 
 of the child. A method-whole in arithmetic, geometry, or 
 physics, may often be completed in an hour, while one in 
 geography, history, or language, may occupy several hours. 
 The child will undoubtedly find less ditliculty with the 
 work in science, for example, after he has become accus- 
 tomed to investigation. 
 
 The teacher's next task is to present the material con- 
 tained in the method-whole to the pupil. The question 
 arises at once, what is the most suitable way in which to 
 introduce the work 1 The Herbartian practice generally 
 places the " statement of the aim " at the head of the work
 
 148 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 upon each method-whole, a usage that is in direct opposi- 
 tion to the old practice of plunging straight into the 
 subject-matter. But very often the method-wholes comprise 
 the work of several days' recitation or several hours. In 
 this case, after the statement of the maui aim for the 
 entire method-whole, it is necessa'y to present in succeed- 
 ing hours, subordinate or partial aims, or hour-aims. The 
 psychological considerations that demnnd the statement of 
 the aim have been sufSciently stated on page 141. The 
 statement of the aim of the lesson may be (1) a sentence 
 which simply sets forth what the work of the new method- 
 whole or of the ensuing hour will cover; (2) a question to 
 which the teacher expects no answer, but which serves at 
 once to give a certain tendency to the pupil's thoughts ; (3) a 
 problem or example which introduces some new mathe- 
 matical or scientific method-whole containing a general 
 truth at wliich tiie child is to arrive by the processes of 
 apperception and abstraction. 
 
 Tlie statement of the aim of the lesson is one of the 
 pedagogical tasks in which the teacher should show the 
 greatest skill, tact, originality, and freedom from fixed 
 mechanical forms. Often the interest and success of an 
 entire recitation depend uj^on the apt statement of the aim 
 of the lesson. Accordingly, certain general rules must be 
 observed. The statement of the aim must be simple and 
 easily comprehensible. It shonld contain no unknown ex- 
 pressions or words, much less unknown conceptions. The 
 statement of the aim must have a concrete content, and 
 should never be merely formal ; this is the point in which 
 the teacher is most likely to err. For example, " We shall 
 continue reading to-day where we left off yesterday," is 
 absolutely fruitless and purposeless. Better, " To-day we 
 shall see what became of Robinson after he was cast upon 
 the island." The latter brings the child's thoughts at once 
 to the required focus. Thoughts foreign to the work in
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I49 
 
 hand are suppressed, and ouly related ideas busy the child's 
 mind. This is the effect of tlie concrete content in the aim. 
 The aim should be neither too scantily nor too broadly 
 stated. In the first case the children still remain in- 
 different ; in the second case the grasping of the ehief point 
 is rendered more difficult, and there is great danger that 
 the pupils will anticipate too much. The statement of the 
 lesson-aim should place the pupil in a state of expectation. 
 If it is the chief aim of a complete method-whole it should 
 be so formulated that a preliminary discussion of the 
 method-whole may naturally follow. In this case also it 
 should bring the connection with the historical series either 
 directly or indirectly to the child's consciousness, as de- 
 manded by the principle of concentration. As a rule the 
 chief aim of a method-whole should be given first by the 
 teacher, while the subordinate aims will generally come 
 spontaneously from the children and require but little 
 correction. This privilege, at least, should never be denied 
 them. The statement of the aim should be at the begin- 
 ning of the hour or recitation, never after the recitation has 
 begun. A new aim should not be introduced in the middle 
 of the hour ; that stated at the commencement of the 
 recitation should comprehend the entire work of the lesson. 
 Eepetition of the aim is generally necessary, at least once. 
 But the teacher should avoid unnecessary repetitions. A 
 glance at the class will tell him when the aim has taken 
 effect and its object been attained. If the aim introduces a 
 method-whole it is followed at once by the firat step. 
 
 Preparation. — Prepai'ation proceeds at once from some 
 concei'tion contained in the aim. It analyzes the mental 
 content of the child for the purpose of getting at the pos- 
 sible ideas upon the subject in hand that are already pre- 
 sent in the child's mind. The purpose of preparation, 
 therefore, is subservient to that of apperception ; it aims to 
 prepare the way for the acquisition of tlie ne^' hy calling up
 
 150 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 and ordering the related old. Hence preparation is analytic, 
 while the following step, presentation, is synthetic. The 
 two steps are to be clearly separated, however, for if they 
 are constantly co??i-mingled during the instruction, the pro- 
 cess of thought is checked and disturbed, the process of 
 apperception does not achieve the desirable degree of clear- 
 ness. This separation of preparation from presentation, 
 however, does not exclude the possibility of dividing each 
 into corresponding subdivisions, where the preparation would 
 otherwise be too extended, an arrangement that is exceed- 
 ingly necessary and advantageous when the method-whole 
 deals with long narratives or descriptions. Accordingly in 
 such cases as a method-whole in history, literature, 
 geography, etc., well-defined portions of preparation may 
 precede a corresponding portion of presentation. Another 
 exception to the complete separation of preparation from 
 presentation may be the "developing presentation" de- 
 scribed on page 153. 
 
 Directly upon the statement and repetition of the aim, 
 therefore, the teacher calls upon his pupils to relate what 
 they already know of the subject. Sometimes a question 
 or two will be necessary to set them to reflecting more 
 deeply. It is far better, at first, to let the pupil be as inde- 
 pendent as possible in the matter. If he is disposed to tell 
 all he knows about the matter at once, he should not be 
 interfered with, even though the order of his narrative is 
 bad. If his instruction is properly directed from the 
 moment he enters school, he will gradually acquire any 
 orderly habit in speaking. But in the preparation let him 
 be free. In behalf of unity in the circle of thought, the 
 teacher should always aim to work with connected series of 
 ideas, rather than with disconnected, single ideas. Fur this 
 reason the stickler for questioning is a dangerous being to 
 the child's power of independent, connected thought and 
 expression. After one pupil has fully expressed himself,
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTIOX. !$[ 
 
 Others may add. whatever they can to the general stock. A 
 few questious on the part of the teacher serve to cast out 
 whatever the different pupils may have mentioned that is 
 foreign to the subject, and to call out a more definite ex- 
 pression on the points that were insufficiently i*eproduced. 
 The preparation may then be concluded by the orderly re- 
 petition of all that has been accepted. Here the teacher 
 will do well to require the child to observe order and good 
 expression as strictly as is consistent with the development 
 of the child. 
 
 The preparation is generally longer in such branches as 
 history, geography, reading, and shorter in such branches 
 as geometry, arithmetic, botany, etc. It should cover so 
 far as possible the entire content of the method-whole ; but 
 new material should not be drawn in with the old before 
 the step of presentation ; otherwise the expectation and in- 
 terest are weakened. This demand, however, should not 
 suppress the child's inclination freely to anticipate, and to 
 construct in his own mind a picture of what is to follow. 
 This picture may or may not harmonize with the reality, 
 but both agreement and contrast are favourable to the pro- 
 cess of acquisition. In order that the circle of thought 
 may be thoroughly analyzed with reference to the new 
 material about to be presented, exhaustive and extended 
 considerations should be permitted. Non-essentials do not 
 disturb the preparation, and can be finally eliminated. 
 The child's ability at " rough-slfetching " should be brought 
 into action in the reproduction of his mental possessions 
 wherever practicable. 
 
 Presentation. — After the orderly repetition of the material 
 brought to light in the preparation, the instruction proceeds 
 to the work of jtresenting tlie new. The material to be 
 presented in a single method-whole cannot be assimilated 
 by the child in a mass. The law of successive clearness^ re- 
 
 1 See De Garmo, EnieJitialu of Method, p. 40.
 
 152 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 quires that it be pi'esented and assimilated in well-defined 
 portions. Hence the material contained in each method- 
 whole must be subdivided by certain suitable points of rest, 
 each portion constituting in itself a unit. The points of 
 rest give opportuuity for absorption and reflection.^ Each 
 portion is to be treated separately and followed immediately 
 by a connected reproduction. Only after the latter has 
 taken place should a familiar discussion of the material take 
 place. Here the teacher takes the opportunity to correct 
 false impressions, throw light upon the dark points that 
 appear during reproduction, and call for a statement of 
 omissions from others. Each distinct portion of material 
 may then be summed up under some appropriate heading, 
 which at the close of the hour may be entered in a blank 
 book kept for the purpose. The completion of nil the several 
 parts of a method-whole calls for a brief total reproduction. 
 The method of presentation is, of course, diSerent for 
 different branches. If the material appears in the form of a 
 narrative, the latter should be free, objective, spirited, and 
 adapted to the child's feeling. If the subject under con- 
 sideration belongs to the strictly historical series, the total 
 presentation and reproduction should be followed by a dis- 
 cussion directed by the teacher's questions for the purpose 
 of drawing out the child's judgment upon the valuable 
 ethical or esthetic relations contained in the method-whole. 
 The child is led to a deeper insight into the true meaning 
 and nature of events, an insight that must, of course, cor- 
 respond to his own stage of development. If the aim of 
 education in general, and of the historical series in partic- 
 ular, is not to be forgotten, this training of the child's 
 ethical judgment through the historical should never be 
 neglected nor superficially attempted. It is a task that re- 
 quires the utmost care on the part of the teacher. This 
 process of absorption, this deepening of the insight, should 
 ^ Vertiefung and Besinnuiig (Herbart).
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I 53 
 
 never be introduced before the entire material of the 
 historical method-whole has been presented. An ethical 
 judgment can only be impartially developed when all the 
 facts are known ; otherwise the child's natural tendency to 
 hasty judgment is fostered. The teacher should never 
 allow the process of reflection and absorption to lapse into 
 mere, dry, superficial moralizing. 
 
 In geography and the natural sciences presentation con- 
 sists chiefly in observation and investigation of the subject 
 of instruction, followed by a reproduction of the results of 
 investigation. The child should be gradually accustomed 
 to observe a fitting order in making his observations and to 
 reproduce their results connectedly. Here, too, the headings 
 are of great importance and must be chosen with a view to 
 ater condensation and classification, In mathematics, 
 presentation consists in the development of the solution of a 
 typical concrete problem and the repetition of the solution. 
 The initial problem must then be followed by others of the 
 same nature, in order that a natural process of generaliza- 
 tion may follow. 
 
 In general, two forms of presentation may be distinguished, 
 (1) the narrative presentation and (2) the developing pre- 
 sentation. ^ The latter requires the greater skill on the 
 part of the teacher. Tlie former is most useful in historical 
 instruction, where the material is either related by the 
 teaclier or read from the book. But it is a poor form for 
 universal application. It cannot sufficiently call out the 
 self-activity of the pupil, especially in such branches as the 
 natural sciences, language, and mathematics. The develop- 
 ing presentation is applicable in all branches, and when 
 skilfully handled gives the most satisfactory results. It is 
 the only form in which the presentation may be blended, as 
 
 1 " Erziihlend darstellend " and "entwickclnd darstfllend." The 
 latter is now generally known as niciely " darHtellciid."
 
 154 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 it were, with the first step, preparation. It leads the child 
 to construct the desired results from his own experiences and 
 from that which his observations and reflection present to him. 
 Here the teacher is the guide of tlie pupil in his endeavours 
 at self-instruction. One danger, however, must be carefully 
 avoided ; the developing presentation should never lapse into 
 a mere chain of leading questions. He applies the developing 
 form of presentation best, who questions the least. An oc- 
 casional question is unavoidable, and, indeed, desirable. A 
 single remark or word on the part of the teacher should suffice 
 to put the pupil on the right track when he has gone astray. 
 
 Keproduction should be free and originally expressed on 
 the part of the pupil. The teacher should avoid interrupting 
 the child's flow of thought except in cases of urgent necessity. 
 The number of reproductions should be suflBcient to insure 
 that the material has been well impressed. Presentation, 
 the same as preparation, shoiild make constant use of rough 
 sketching. The course of presentation is essentially the 
 same whether a book is used or not. If the presentation is 
 made through the book, tlie work may be studied after 
 having been first before the class as a whole. In either 
 case, where the presentation occupies several hours, each 
 hour should be opened after the statement of the aim with 
 the repetition of the previous day's work. 
 
 Association. — The third step (the first of abstraction) 
 begins with the repetition of the synthetic material and its 
 comparison and association with the old. This association, 
 however, should not take place idly and without a plan. 
 Only valuable associations, such as subserve the aim of the 
 method-whole, are permissible. Especial value is to be 
 attached to associations by means of which the child 
 is finally brought to abstract the general truths contained 
 in the concrete material of the method-whole. All observed 
 cases are compared and their like elements noted. The new 
 historical event is compared with the old and tlie similarity
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. I 55 
 
 clearly ex|jressed. Oue form, country, process, character, 
 or event is compared with another. 
 
 The compared objects must always be known ; especially 
 fruitful is the comparison with objects from the child's own 
 environment, intercourse, or experience. As can be readily 
 seen, the third step, association^ is followed closely and im- 
 mediately by 
 
 Generalization {Classification). — The two steps, in fact, 
 belong to one process, abstraction. Generalization first 
 provides for the clear formation of the notional, of the 
 concept. It brings the process of abstraction to completion. 
 This requires (1) the separation of the notional from the 
 concrete; (2) the formulation of the statement of the 
 notional in language ; (3) the placing of the concept thus 
 attained in its proper place in already formed series of con- 
 cepts (system), i.e. its classification; (-i) the repetition and 
 fastening of the concept. The latter includes the wiiting of 
 the concept in the form of rules, maxims, etc., in a so-called 
 system-book, with illustrations as examples where necessary. 
 Where several subordinate associations or generalizations are 
 to be drawn from the method-whole beside the main truth, 
 as may frequently occur, each association should be followed 
 directly by the corresponding generalization without the 
 intervention of other associations. 
 
 The law, truth, or rule, i.e. the notional, is to be brought 
 out by skilful questions, and sharply and completely 
 separated from the concrete material, so that it is independ- 
 ent of all individual ideas or concepts. The notional is, in 
 fact, not separated from the concrete so much as dis- 
 tinguished from it, fur it is still dependent upon and 
 connected with the latter. In the historical scries the 
 notional generally finds expression in an esthetical, ethical, 
 social, or political maxim ; in mathematics and language it 
 culminates in a rule, and in science in the establishment of 
 genera, families, etc., in classification, and in forundas. In
 
 156 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 buth science and geography the fourth step presents iu a 
 brief and concise form the essential generalized results of 
 the observations. Tlie drawing of an exact map presents the 
 best geographical system. We see therefore that in estab- 
 lishing the system of classification, the fourth step must 
 constantly refer to past method-wholes ; in fact, classification 
 is frequently possible only after several method-wholes have 
 been completed. When the general truth, maxim, or formula 
 has once been obtained the next step is 
 
 Application. — This step has a twofold end in view : (1) 
 the knowledge must obtain a certain degree of stability and 
 mobility so that the mind shall be capable of commanding 
 its services at will ; (2) it must be diligently exercised upon 
 practical questions, so that the child associates its use with 
 the needs of life. There are various exercises of this kind. 
 Tlie series of ideas or concepts may be repeated forward and 
 backward, from different starting-points and under different 
 circumstances. The child may be required to descend from 
 the concept to the individual perceptions (deduction) and 
 vice versa (induction). In the case of the historical 
 instruction examples may be gathered from history or the 
 child's life wliich either conform or do not conform to a 
 • 'iven maxim. In the various branches of language-in- 
 struction, examples may be sought that conform to some 
 grammatical rule, and conversely the pupil may determino 
 which rule governs a given form, etc. Written and spoken 
 exercises conform to the grammatical system which he has 
 thus far attained. In mathematics and the natural sciences, 
 the geometric, arithmetical, and physical formulas and laws 
 may be applied in solving practical problems and tasks, or 
 a pliysical apparatus may be drawn to conform to certain 
 o'iven conditions. In geograpliy a general map may be 
 sketched from memory, or commercial, physical and political 
 facts applied in imaginary cases. 
 
 Because of their formal nature the formal steps of in-
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 15/ 
 
 stniction have a universal application. Herbavt himself 
 said : " These rules are universal, and must be followed in 
 all instruction without exception." But let us not begin to 
 be fearful that our freedom and individuality in instruction 
 are to be infringed by conforming to steps that bear tlie 
 often dreaded term, " formal," and that claim a universal 
 validity. They are simply guides that show how instruc- 
 tion must conform to the mental jjrocesses of the child in 
 acquiring knowledge. The knowledge is not acquired until 
 these steps have been taken, eitiier consciously or uncon- 
 sciously, skilfully or unskilfully, on the part of the teacher. 
 The successful teacher, therefore, will find that the formal 
 steps accord with much of his past practice, and that a 
 clear and systematic knowledge of their requirements will 
 render his future labours more fruitful. But let us em- 
 phasize once more that, within the inevitable psychical laws, 
 the formal steps of instruction guarautee the teacher a 
 far-sighted individuality and a rational freedom, such as 
 slavish conformity to any other more specific method can 
 never furnish. He is at liberty to determine their appli- 
 cation to suit the needs of each single branch and to har- 
 monize with the age and capacity of his pupils. Within 
 each single step he is free to apply a great variety of devices 
 and subordinated methods, to give free play to his ingenuity, 
 and hence to relieve the monotony of instruction whenever 
 it appeal's. 
 
 In closing, let us call attention to the fact that the 
 formal steps stand in the closest relation to tlie historical 
 stages and conceutration. The three principles constitute 
 a complete whole. The })sychological bond that unites 
 tliem may be found in the requirements of apperception. 
 But even in the absence of the first two principles, either 
 partly or entirely, the formal steps of instruction will be 
 found applicable.-^ — V. L.] 
 
 1 Compare C. A, McMurry's General Method, chapters v., vi.,
 
 158 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 ir. Special Didactics. 
 
 It is the task of special didactics to point out how 
 the underlying principles of- general didactics affect 
 the organization of each single branch. Special 
 didactics is entirely dependent on general didactics. 
 This dependency must be carried out ; it must le 
 everywhere apparent ; it must be evident even 
 in the smallest part. Only under this condi- 
 tion can we claim to possess a system — a well- 
 arranged organism. Only then do we arrive at a 
 scientifically established theory of instruction, leave 
 the standpoint of subjective caprice, and approach a 
 knowledge of objective truth. Without the firm sub- 
 structure, such as is vouched for by the results of 
 general didactics, special didactics becomes exceed- 
 ingly volatile, and scatters in as many fragments as 
 there are subjects and ways of instruction. 
 
 If, as some think and claim, every branch of in- 
 struction is to develop its own course, its own methods, 
 we shall finally be confronted by a motley miscellany 
 which would present manifold ways in which man 
 seeks to press on to the knowledge of things, it is 
 true, but which sets the nature, growth, and develop- 
 ment of the youthful mind aside. But one should 
 not conceive that the characteristic features of the 
 branches of knowledge are to be extinguished, sup- 
 pressed, or crowded out by subjecting the principles 
 of special didactics to those of general didactics. By 
 no means, — this attempt would be just as useless as 
 foolish. The ways of professional science and school 
 science are very different. Here also the deeply-
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. 159 
 
 rooted distinction between the special sciences in their 
 professional aspect and the sciences in the schools be- 
 comes glaringly apparent. Above all, a sharp distinc- 
 tion must be made ; the ways winch scientific research 
 pursues in the ditterent spheres, the methods by means 
 of wliich the man of learning seeks to invade the 
 kingdom of the unknown and the unexplored, cannot 
 be the same in all respects as those wliich must guide 
 the youthful mind that it may obtain an education. 
 Therefore, he who aims to determine the course of 
 procedure for each branch in the school by proceeding 
 in accordance with the method of scientiHc^research, 
 will always find himself in the closest touch and most 
 intimate accord with the results of science, it is true, 
 but will always conflict with the psj'chological condi- 
 tions under which the youthful mind is accustomed to 
 perform its functions. If one has science alone in 
 view, he argues the acquisition of knowledge merely 
 from the standpoint of the scientific subject, without 
 regard to psj^chical i)rocesses in the individual. And 
 yet one must proceed from the latter if he wishes to 
 educate, from the former only if he merely wishes to 
 penetrate into the knowledge of things and disseminate 
 science. 
 
 Therefore, the fundamental method to be applied 
 does not indicate the nature of the science 
 but the nature of the mind. General didactics 
 teaches the general conditions under which the 
 educator can so regulate the instruction of the 
 youth that it shall be educative. It presents the 
 princi|)les to which the course of oacli separate 
 branch must conform, but without neglecting the 
 I eculiar nature of the latter, even in the least. The
 
 l6o OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 principles remain, under all circumstances, the same. 
 If they are true, they are, as fundamental laws of the 
 human mind, eternal and unchangeable, the same as 
 fundamental laws of Nature in general. But in the 
 application to different materials their conformation 
 changes, although their nature remains the same. 
 Therefore, it is only correct to submit the methodical 
 treatment of each subject of instruction to the respec- 
 tive special science when the latter at the same time 
 accepts the underlying pedagogical principles as its 
 universal guiding standard'^. 
 
 The latter, it is true, are not recognized by all as 
 conclusive, either because the historical-philosophical 
 foundations are doubted, or the psychological supposi- 
 tions in their metaphysical and empirical phases cen- 
 sured, or because some will not allow themselves to 
 have anything to do with pedagogy in general, and 
 expect from it only an enfeeblement, an obscuration 
 of the specitic character of science, which must, above 
 all, be retained. But we also recognize the latter 
 claim in full. Scientitic truth sliould never be sacri- 
 ficed to some pre-conceived, theoretical, pedagogical 
 arrangement, but the science ia its professional char- 
 acter should never stand in the foreground ; it must 
 be subject to the authority of the general laws that 
 lie at the foundation of didactics. Even with this re- 
 striction there is still scope enough to quiet all fears 
 that violence may be done to the individual sciences 
 between the wheels of the pedagogical mill. 
 
 Special didactics, also, should never indulge in the 
 illusion that it is able alone to provide for the organic 
 construction of the separate branches of study; it 
 must alwajT-s be referred to the assistance of the exact
 
 THE THEORY OF INSTRUCTION. l6l 
 
 science, although, of course, it must not leave its task 
 to the latter alone. The danger of an endless sunder- 
 ing, or of an entirely one-sided prosecution of studies 
 lies but too near; didactics which gathers the scattered, 
 unites the separate, and harmonizes the antithetical 
 elements, must always be heard. Pedagogical didac- 
 tics appears in the midst of the present great and con- 
 stantly increasing differentiation and specialization of 
 the sciences as a gatherer ; with calm reflection, and 
 free from all scientific factions, it extracts, accepts 
 and applies those assured results of science that are 
 necessary for the education of the youth, and always 
 keeps the whole in view, in spite of all details that 
 draw the attention into byways. From this stand- 
 point the task of special didactics appears in truth as 
 a great and difficult one. The different rays from the 
 various departments of knowledge focus here ; com- 
 prehended under common points of view, they present 
 a whole, a system, an order which does not desire to 
 point out new roads for exact science (although this is 
 by no means excluded), so much as to place the pupil 
 in possession of a reliable mental content, and the 
 proper method of its acquisition. 
 
 One should never forget that pedagogics and didac- 
 tics are scientific subjects, and not mere facilities, as 
 it were, that could be drilled in ; they are scientific 
 subjects in so far as they rest upon fundamental con- 
 ceptions. These underlying ideas are fundamental, 
 for they are based upon ethical, historical-philoso- 
 phical, and psychological reflections. The methodical 
 treatment of the separate branches, accordingly, can 
 only be submitted to the care of the special sciences 
 when the latter, armed with an exact knowledge of 
 
 L
 
 1 62 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 the subject, adapt their didactic treatment to the 
 fundamental ideas, and thus become the necessary 
 comj^lement of general and special didactics. The 
 latter, which are concerned with a large number of 
 subjects, can never enter into the details as thoroughly 
 as each branch of science does for itself. Under the 
 above-mentioned condition we bid the co-operation of 
 the special sciences welcome. On the other hand, 
 whenever they attempt to free themselves from the 
 general foundation for the purpose of building inde- 
 pendently, we regard the work as fatal, because it 
 creates a chaos of disconnected precepts that mutually 
 check, if they do not entirely remove, one another's 
 effects. 
 
 Just as the proposition : " Every teacher must have 
 his own method," is valid only in a certain sense as 
 regards the personality of the teacher, so the pro- 
 position : " Each branch of instruction has its own 
 method," has only a very limited validity. In either 
 case one is far from true science, which refers both 
 the personality of the teacher and the individual 
 sciences as soon as they enter into the service of 
 education, to the psychical laws that lie at the 
 foundation of the development of the youthful mind. 
 No natural education whatever is conceivable with- 
 out a careful consideration of these laws.
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 
 
 We generally distinguisli two departments in the 
 subject of guidance: (1) The theory of training 
 (moral training) and (*2) the theory of government. 
 Government comprehends more the outer, training 
 more the inner measures for guidance ; the former is 
 directed to the present, the latter looks to the future ; 
 the former will above all else effect external order, 
 such as ever}'- well-regulated community, and hence 
 also the school community, requires ; the latter aims 
 to produce some effect upon the disposition, and to 
 provide for the formation of character. This in- 
 fluence is the essential factor, in com])arison with 
 which all those measures that are not directly con- 
 nected with the formation of the disposition and 
 character seem to be of less importance. These latter 
 are comprehended under the term, " government," the 
 former under the term, " training." In practice the 
 measures adopted by both often coincide ; in this 
 case the boundary between them is unnoticcable. 
 Theoretically, however, it is of value to the educator 
 to be able to review his measures suitably, to judge 
 of their range, and to be prepared to make the finest 
 distinctions. 
 
 I. Theory of Training. 
 
 If the instruction is managed in the manner above 
 
 described, its influence upon the education of the will 
 
 and hence upon the formation of the character may 
 
 163
 
 164 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 become very effective. But even if the instruction 
 lias met all the requirements placed upon it, the 
 school has not yet by any means discharged its ap- 
 pointed task. The work of instruction is, in fact, 
 prominent, but it is not the only task. 
 
 It is assisted by guidance, the educative activity 
 in the narrower sense, which constitutes an effective 
 aid in attaining the proposed end. The indirect 
 formation of character should find an efficient sup- 
 port in the direct. " Educate so that the pupil will 
 guide himself, choosing the good and rejecting the 
 evil ; " this, according to Herbart, is the formation of 
 moral character. The elevation to a self-conscious 
 personality should without doubt be effected in the 
 disposition of the pupil through his own activity ; it 
 would be folly for the educator to attempt to create 
 the very essence of the power that underlies this 
 self-conscious elevation. But he must hold it possible 
 to place the power which is already at hand, and 
 which is necessarily true to its own nature, in such a 
 condition that it can be relied upon to accomplish the 
 moral elevation of the individual. The educator 
 must regard it as the chief office of his endeavours to 
 bring about, establish, and further the permanent 
 activity of this power. 
 
 We proceed from the thought that the activity of 
 the will is to receive a definite tendency toward the 
 good. The educator should provide that all future 
 activity of the will bears the stamp of a personality 
 that has placed its volition exclusively in the service 
 of the moral ideas. The ultimate aim of education is 
 directed to the formation of an ethical character. 
 Character is not an original fruit of the intellectual
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. I65 
 
 life ; neither is it one that ripens easily or under all 
 circumstances. Otherwise, why should this fruit be 
 so rare ? 
 
 The educator must investigate exactly the condi- 
 tions under which a character, especially a moral 
 character develops. Here psychology is an important 
 aid to him. The central point of moral development 
 is the formation of maxims, of practical principles. 
 We determine the degree of one's culture by that 
 which he considers as bidden or forbidden, by his 
 maxims. That man stands upon the lowest stage of 
 culture whose maxims are only maxims of sensual 
 gratification, who seeks merely the sensually pleasur- 
 able, avoids merely the sensually disagreeable. We 
 regard the maxims of wisdom, of the useful, of the 
 becoming, of the fitting and unfitting as standing 
 upon a higher plane. The moral maxims that have 
 to do with the will itself without regard to foreign 
 motives, and the sum of whose contents we call con- 
 science or practical insight, stand upon the highest plane. 
 
 Now the diflferent maxims may agree with or con- 
 tradict one another. If the latter is the case, that 
 maxim will be followed which has the greatest power 
 in the mind. A contest, a reflective comparison of 
 the worth of the various principles, precedes the de- 
 cision. Thus by degrees an order or system of the 
 maxims is produced. The consistency and uniformity 
 of the will, which constitute the essence of character, 
 rest upon the subjection of the entire volitional activity 
 to this system. A character whose supreme prin- 
 ciples are the moral ideas, and which, therefore, sub- 
 jects its entire volition to the voice of conscience, is a 
 moral character. We distinguish two phases: (1)
 
 l66 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 single acts of the will, or a manifold volition produced 
 by the desires ; (2) a general volition, i.e. a volition 
 that is self- developing in the mass of apperceived 
 ideas. The former is that which is determinable, the 
 latter is that which determines ; the former is the 06- 
 jective, the latter the subjective phase of the character. 
 This distinction is important for training. 
 
 The first presupposition is that efficiency and 
 vigour of the will, of the inner activity, be present. 
 The instruction seeks to secure this efficiency by the 
 presentation of numerous " pictures of the will " in 
 ideal intercourse, history, literature, etc. But can the 
 task of training be based upon this work ? Here it 
 would seem as if human power were powerless to do 
 or make, and must be content to look on. But this is 
 not the case. It is true that education itself can 
 make no alterations so far as inherited physical and 
 intellectual disposition is concerned, but it will still be 
 able to prevent evil influences, just as the educator is 
 able to accomplish a great deal that at first appeared 
 impossible as regards the pupil's position and manner 
 of life. Many wishes and inclinations to whose grati- 
 fication the mode of life has accustomed the child, 
 many aspirations and sentiments wdiich have their 
 foundation in the conditions under which he growls 
 up or in the distinctive views of his class, appear in- 
 eradicable ; and yet, through the determinative in- 
 fluence of the educator a great deal can be checked 
 and removed. Desire and love for a great many 
 things can be generated. In fact, instruction will 
 also be helpful here by means of that which it teaches 
 the child ; but although it succeeds in convincing the 
 pupil of the untenableness of its prejudices and as-
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 167 
 
 pirations, the newly acquired ideas will still often be 
 insufficiently powerful to suppress certain evils to 
 which the scholar has been accustomed from child- 
 hood. In this case the measures necessary for train- 
 ing must come to the aid of instruction. Of course, 
 both instruction and training are sometimes compelled 
 to give up trying to counteract successfully the more 
 powerful conditions and obstructions over which they 
 have no control ; these gave the pupil's will a tendency 
 which runs counter to the purpose of education before 
 instruction and training began, and their influence 
 never ceases. The educator has no power whatever 
 over these forces that are in part invisible ; he cannot 
 control the occult coadjutors of education. If ■ they 
 are mightier than the systematic measures of the 
 educator, he can only hope that unforeseen events and 
 changes will enter the inner and outer life of the 
 child and overpower everything in the disposition 
 which opposes his efforts. Many a one has been con- 
 verted only by the harsh blows of fortune, by an 
 unsuspected radical change of his condition in life, 
 by an intimate friendship, by absorption in religious 
 thoughts and feelings, by great convulsing events. It 
 is the business of the educator to avail himself of 
 such occurrences in the life of the pupil as long as he 
 stands at his side, and to provide that the convulsion 
 of the child's inner life lead to a transfurmation in 
 accordance with the purpose of education, and that 
 the influence of the experience be made as deep and 
 lasting as possible. 
 
 We shall now consider the measures to be under- 
 taken by training in this direction somewhat more 
 closely.
 
 l68 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 As we have said before, the objective bide of the 
 character appears first; accordingly the care of the 
 educator must be directed to the cultivation of an 
 efficient objective will. Hence it is necessary to give 
 opportunity for various actions that correspond to the 
 moral law. We are not speaking in favour of a vast 
 deal of activity, but of a systematic regular activity, 
 be it at first only in play. The regimen of the 
 family with its occupations, commissions, mutual 
 services, etc., offer an especially favourable oppor- 
 tunity ; but there is also no lack of opportunities for 
 various activities, and hence for training the will in 
 the school life. Here we have in mind the school 
 works and all tlie activities which a well-arranged 
 school life brings with it. These various activities, 
 although often apparently insignificant, are institu- 
 ted for the sake of their educative value, and clothed 
 with some official dignity in order to make them 
 more effective. We have also in mind the works in 
 the school garden and the school workshop. Here 
 every successful act constitutes a source of future 
 volition and action ; for tiie successful deed is at the 
 same time a school for the courage. Althougfh the 
 way appears shorter, the task easier to a child of 
 courage, the educator still knows that evil spirits 
 have freer play in the spiritless, faint-hearted, 
 cowardly dispositions, and on this account regards 
 courage as a welcome companion in his work. 
 
 Just as the educational effect of the home is greater 
 in proportion to the constancy of its regimen, so also 
 the school not only has the means of developing the 
 virtues of love of order, punctuality, and diligence, by 
 the constancy of its order and the regularity of its
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 169 
 
 life, but also becomes thereby a school of the will. 
 That which the school is able to accomplish as regards 
 the development of fixed habits, however, appears 
 small in comparison with the influence of the home. 
 On the other hand, it controls another means that is 
 of special importance for our purpose, viz. the school 
 community. Although in the family common joy and 
 common woe, common work and common recreation 
 exercise a great influence upon the formation of the 
 child's view of life and the tendency of the w^ill, an 
 influence which, be it injurious or beneficial, continues 
 to be efiective throughout the entire life, — the narroiv 
 limitations of the family life often contrast so sharply 
 with the gaiety and diversity in the w^orld that a 
 direct transition from the one to the other implies 
 great dangers. Here the school oft'ers itself as mediator 
 between these two extremes, as an institution that 
 presents in a form adapted to the youth a sort of 
 imitation of the future social life. The larger circle 
 of companions of the same age, wdiom the pupil finds 
 in the school, will make the latter a fit institution to 
 effect the transition from the family to the world. 
 Furthermore, if tiie full strength of character can only 
 be acquired in the stream of life, the initial steps 
 toward its acquirement are most suitably taken in a 
 circle which stands mid-w^ay between the family and 
 the great circle of human society. This is the school 
 community in wdiich there is no lack of the frictions 
 so necessary for the formation of character. Here, 
 especially, one finds that active intercourse upon the 
 playground, in the gymnasium, during rambles and 
 excursions, on liolidays and at celebrations, which 
 calls out the child's own activity, a result so important
 
 1/0 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 for the training of the will. Many errors will be 
 more easily removed here than in the family. \\ hen 
 on these occasions the arrogant and stubborn youth is 
 left unnoticed, the vain and visionary one shamed, the 
 proud humbled, tlie thoughtlessly awkward derided, 
 the lazy hustled along, the timid encouraged, and the 
 delicate hardened, the effect of such educational 
 measures is so much the more forcible because their 
 application was spontaneous. It is true that real 
 errors may also develop in this social life (as, for 
 example, the mischievous nature that finds pleasure in 
 renderinof others uncomfortable or ridiculous, or the 
 one that is ambitious to place himself in the fore- 
 ground), but this is no ground against emphasizing 
 the importance of just this educational factor, for 
 various means of eradicating such errors are at the 
 command of the judicious teacher. Let us now con- 
 sider, furthermore, that the life of the school 
 community com, els the individual to subordinate 
 himself to the interests of the whole, that the lively 
 feeling of fellowship does not permit the errors of in- 
 tolerance, dogmatism, lust of power and selfishness to 
 prevail. By fostering this feeling, the child is also 
 prepared for the intercourse of after-life, in which the 
 individual only finds his proper place when he feels 
 that he is a member of various larger and smaller 
 social communities, in w^hich he only fulfils his task in 
 life by participating in the interests and endeavours 
 of his contemporaries according to the measure of his 
 power, not by retiring in selfish narrow-mindedness. 
 The school educates for civil life, in that it educates 
 for the school life ; its effect is that of a united whole, 
 which it is. The individual should attach himself to
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. if I 
 
 this whole ; he must subordinate himself to the entire 
 body and take his proper place as one of its members. 
 The school is to the scholar a state, a small corporate 
 body, which he can understand and survey at a glance, 
 in whose service he learns how one should serve the 
 whole and feel himself in harmony with the wliole, 
 how the entire body stands higher and is of much 
 more worth and importance than the individual with 
 his pretentions claims, than the ego with its selfish- 
 ness. Therefore, in the school there are no exclusive 
 privileges, no exceptions, no partial preferences ! 
 
 The ideal to which the school must aspire, is the 
 fusion of the school community to a united ethical 
 personality, whose head is the educator or the com- 
 munity of educators. All those impulses will also be 
 felt here that constantly' incite the individual as a 
 member of an ethical community ; above all, the 
 sympathetic feelings, which constitute the foundation 
 of genuine benevolence, and a common spirit, which 
 will be of a moral nature if the community stands in 
 the right relations to the educator. The better ele 
 ments will then obtain the control and hold the bad 
 elements in check. Of course, if the educator has not 
 understood how to bring about the proper confidential 
 relations between himself and his pupils, the state of 
 affairs is reversed in that he is regarded as the natural 
 enemy of youth. In this way a great many errors 
 arise which threaten to reverse the educational effect. 
 Here it becomes evident how important a part the 
 personality of the educator plays. One may say, in 
 fact, that the entire educational centre of gravity lies 
 in the perscmality of the teacher. If he is candid and 
 true, conscientious and competent, consistent and just.
 
 172 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 if he has command of himself in all situations and in 
 all cases, if he is neither malicious nor inclined to 
 anger, in short, if he is a complete man, the dark 
 forces cannot thrive in the community of the school. 
 Thus it becomes clearly evident that it would be a 
 foolish undertaking to attempt an ethical education 
 merely with the aid of instruction. The character of 
 the teacher, his example in judging and acting, his 
 conduct both in doin^^ and permitting, are of such 
 great significance that even the most carefully devised 
 method is unable to remove or balance the errors and 
 defects in the personality of the educator. Unin- 
 terruptedly and unintentionally, as Ziller has shown, 
 the example of the educator exerts either an elevating 
 or a depressive influence upon the inner life of each 
 individual pupil. The silent force of his influence is 
 almost as important as the force of those relations 
 under whose combined efl'ect ethical personality de- 
 velops ; hence, it surely is not surpassed by the forma- 
 tive influence of the instruction, in so far as the will 
 and the disp )sition of the pupil are concerned. Tiiis 
 appreciation of the force of personality, however, 
 should produce neither an under-valuation of method- 
 ical practice, nor a contempt for all pedagogical 
 reflections ; on the contrary, the two factors are of 
 equal value. No natural educator is so gifted through 
 divine favour from the beginning, as to be able to 
 reach the highest results entirely without the aid of 
 all methodical schooling, and there will never be a 
 method so wonderful as to be able to supplant the 
 power of strong personality. Therefore, the educator 
 who undertakes his office in earnest will constantly 
 direct his attention to the perfection of the method of
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 173 
 
 instruction, and at the same time labour to develop 
 and perfect his own personalit}^, because so many 
 factors that are important for the success of direct 
 education, depend upon his conduct, his example and 
 his appearance. There are still other devices at the 
 command of the educator for awakening, fostering, 
 and preserving a healthy spirit and life in the com- 
 munity of the school and which furnish an especially 
 advantageous approach to the hearts of the children. 
 These are the school celebrations and holidays, the 
 school- ivalJcs and school -journeys. Their value is 
 exceedingly great. In the first place, they offer many 
 opportunities for the self -activity of the pupil ; then 
 they also give opportunity for the exchange of other 
 thoughts than those with which the instruction is 
 occupied. Common joys, recreations and exertions 
 not only unite teacher and scholars, but also strengthen 
 the fellowship of the school companions. 
 
 Still another form of school observance is of especial 
 importance because it is of great value in the forma- 
 tion of the ethical will. Morality will necessarily 
 remain a wretched plant of unnatural growth if its 
 religious consecration is wanting, if it is not fostered 
 and nourished by a trust in God. But as the religious 
 interest finds not only its expression, but also its 
 nourishment in the religious services of the com- 
 munity, so also regular school devotions that are in 
 unison with the feelings and aspirations of the child's 
 heart may be effective in furthering his religious and 
 moral life. 
 
 Those means that have thus far been discussed and 
 fixed upon as necessary measures of guidance in the 
 formation of character, affect chiefly its objective side.
 
 174 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 They extend only to the single acts of the will that 
 are called forth by the educative influence, and whose 
 effect upon the formation of character is greater the 
 less these acts are isolated, the more their power is 
 strengthened by habit. Now, if the subjective side of 
 the character, a general volitional activity rooted in 
 the prevailing circle of thought, develop spontaneously 
 in accordance with the laws of the mental life from 
 the single acts of the will, the education should not 
 neglect this process of abstraction. 
 
 That which the objective phase of the character 
 has gained by a systematic and intelligent guidance, 
 by watchful and constructive care, is at first only the 
 result of a foreign influence. When the pupil has 
 been brought to rej^ard his own moral culture as a 
 serious and important afiair, training and instruction 
 in combination with the child's growing knowledge of 
 the world, can cause a moral fervour to penetrate his 
 entire circle of thought ; they can, then, provide that 
 the pupil's idea of the moral order of the world be 
 constantly associated on the one hand with his 
 religious ideas, on the other hand with his introspec- 
 tion. Then training may withdraw, and the further 
 development of the character be safely left to the 
 pupil's own work. 
 
 The following synopsis gives a brief review of the 
 arrangements which training may institute and carry 
 into effect to further the culture of an ethical will. 
 
 Arrangement of the ScJiool Life as Sustained by a 
 Common Interest. 
 
 1. School devotions and religious services for 
 children.
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 1/5 
 
 2. Scliool celebrations of all kinds. 
 
 3. School-walks and school-journeys. 
 
 4. Offices or duties (various functions to be per- 
 formed in the garden, workshop, schoolroom and school 
 library). 
 
 5. The preparation of character sketches (Individu- 
 alization). ^ 
 
 The perfection of the personality should, and must 
 be the work of one's own insiu;ht and free choice, as 
 has already been emphasized. As long as this is not 
 the case there is no guarantee that other, newer, and 
 perhaps more powerful influences than the former 
 will not suddenly overthrow all that has been 
 attained. This is to be prevented by the cultivation 
 of the subjective side of the character ; the moral 
 maxims should attain such a mastery in the soul of 
 the pupil that everything is measured by them But 
 the firm establishment of the practical principles, of 
 course, will only be reached in the period of inde- 
 pendent action, a period that lies beyond the range 
 of school education. The educator, therefore, can 
 only exert a limited influence upon its formation. 
 He can prepare the way and lay the foundation ; but 
 the acquisition of the subjective, moral character, as a 
 fixed possession, is the result of eveiy man's own 
 labour. How could it be otherwise ? Here we have 
 to do with an internal process of development which 
 advances but slowly and which never entirely 
 terminates even in the noblest and best character. 
 
 The subjective phase of the adult character appears 
 in the form of firm principles as opposed to the con- 
 
 1 ^Vhich rests entirely in the hands of the teacher, of course.
 
 ^76 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 fused host of desires and resolutions. But it requires a 
 long process of development. The imperceptible 
 beginnings are made in the first moments of the 
 incipient self-observation. From this time on, pre- 
 cepts and rules appear, which correspond to the 
 importance of the previous inclinations, habits, and 
 activities ; in proportion as the education progresses 
 these precepts become universal maxims or general 
 rules for all future cases. Thus, reflection brings the 
 process of generalization and subsumption into 
 activity by means of which the individual's own 
 body of laws in the form of a system of principles 
 develops naturally to a greater universality. 
 
 Is it not natural that training should always be 
 vigilant and ready to accompany with council and 
 deed the important formations that take place in the 
 inner life of the pupil in accordance with natural 
 laws ? Is it not a common experience that maxims 
 and the requirements of the moral laws are often well 
 understood but gain no influence over the will? Does 
 not the pupil easily go astray because the deed that 
 has once succeeded but too easily becomes the source 
 of another similar act of the will ? He who has often 
 so successfully gained his point in pursuing a certain 
 advantage, who has often enjoyed the reputation of 
 wisdom by following some seductive precedent, who, 
 under favourable circumstances, has often found the 
 right help through bad intercourse, can easily become 
 a different person as to his inclinations and purposes 
 than the educator desires. But very little is required 
 to debase the inner, moral standard, so that the 
 maxims of wisdom receive the first place, the moral 
 disposition the second place. The guidance of the
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 177 
 
 educator can overcome this danger by furnishing 
 protection and support, by appealing to the con- 
 science of the child and providing that the moral 
 ideas gradually obtain command over him. 
 
 The chief condition for a proper guidance is a right 
 relation between educator and pupil. The necessary 
 corrections of the child's judgments, estimations and 
 requests must always be regarded and received as a 
 service of friendship, but not as an officious invasion. 
 Otherwise the effect is entirely lost ; reserve and re- 
 tirement are the immediate consequence. Of course 
 different natures are very differently endowed as 
 regards their ability for self-observation and self- 
 government ; therefore, for the same reason the 
 activity of the educator is also very different in each 
 case. It is difficult to give the educator definite 
 directions, simply because the number of individual 
 cases is so great ; because the same measure may pro- 
 duce a very different effect at different times. 
 
 By way of summary we may say with Herbart — 
 (1) Training should restrain. Where the memory of 
 the will is deficient, where thoughtlessness takes its 
 place, it is necessary to give stability to the pupil. 
 He must know that he cannot go beyond certain 
 limits; he must have a lively feeling that he possesses 
 something in the satisfaction of his teacher which he 
 will not willingly lose. (2) Training should exert a 
 determinative influence. It should cause the pupil to 
 choose, not the educator. (3) Training should regu- 
 late, i.e. the educator should not leave the pupil 
 entirely to himself as soon as he begins to reflect 
 upon acts that are permitted and not permitted. 
 Training must take measures to prevent a false doter--
 
 I^-S OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 niination. He who lightly establishes his precepts 
 must be made to feel how difficult it is to act in 
 accordance with them. 
 
 All this presupposes a constant, intimate intercourse 
 between educator and pupil. The educator must 
 understand how to bend his intellect to the world of 
 the children ; he must acquire sympathy for the in- 
 clinations, wishes, and moods of the little ones ; he 
 must think, feel and will with them ; then he can 
 succeed in guiding and educating them. But the 
 guidance of the teacher has achieved a great deal 
 when the pupil has reached the point at which he 
 fears nothing more than to find himself, upon inner 
 self-examination, despicable and reprehensible in his 
 own eyes, when he endeavours to bring his will into 
 accord with the moral law, so that he cannot help 
 despising himself if he does not obey. 
 
 II. The Government of Children. 
 
 Government comprehends the system of measures 
 by which the expressions and actions that do not 
 issue from the hearts of the children are restrained 
 and guided so as not to disturb the educative work of 
 instruction and training. All the pure impulses of 
 an unbridled natural power, of a wild impetuosity, 
 must often be held in check by much stronger means 
 than certain intense manifestations of the pupil's will, 
 which are very important in themselves, but require 
 a much more delicate handling. The measures that 
 are taken for government, aim above all to create and 
 preserve order. All incivilities, all disturbances, all 
 disorders should be removed; in fact, if possible, they
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 179 
 
 should not appear at all, but should be nipped in the 
 bud. If the will of the child is not to receive an uncom- 
 panionable tendency, he thould be made to feel early 
 and constantly the restraint which every individual 
 within a community must bear. Government, there- 
 fore, aims to attain no direct end whatever in the 
 mind of the child, but will only produce order ; it 
 aims to be felt as a power that is concerned with 
 nothing farther than the enforcement of its measures. 
 For this purpose various measures are at command 
 which may be classed — (1) as those that prevent dis- 
 order, and (2) as those that suppress disorder. To 
 the former belong, above all, the suitable occupation 
 of the children. If they are well employed, if the 
 proper change between work and recreation takes 
 place, their thoughts are generally far from disturb- 
 ance. Furthermore, a suitable supervision will be 
 able to nip many disorders in the bud. For the 
 removal of disorders that have already arisen, the 
 reprimand, the threat and the punishment are at tlie 
 disposal of the educator. 
 
 Experience shows that wc cannot get along in 
 education luithout piinishinent. A glance at the 
 history of education teaches wdiat an important part 
 it played in former times, when it was almost re- 
 garded as the only means of education. With the 
 progress of humanity there has been an incicase of 
 tlie efforts to use that mians of education most spar- 
 ingly which is the most powerful, but hence least 
 free from danger. 
 
 This tendency is to be welcomed, because the spar- 
 ing use of punishments increases their efficacy while 
 their continual application, often without a clear
 
 l80 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 motive, only serves to blunt the effect. The purpose 
 of punishment lies entirely within in the educational 
 system ; it should help educate ; it should combat the 
 errors which the child commits. By breaking through 
 the natural course of inner activity in some impres- 
 sive way, it compels the mind of the child to reflect 
 upon itself, and this is its purpose. It desires to pro- 
 duce introspection in the one who has been punished, 
 to make him sufficiently attentive to that which is 
 taking place within his inner life. Here he must find 
 that the punishment was deserved. When this is the 
 case the punishment is properly effective and leads to 
 improvement, if the further activity of the educator 
 supplements it by preventing two great temptations, 
 and by supporting and encouraging higher interests. 
 Since the efficacy of the punishment rests upon the 
 disturbance of the emotional life that it produces, on 
 that account it should never become a daily or 
 common occurrence. Every mere repetition finds the 
 emotional life duller ; the pupil is already prepared 
 for it, expects it ; it can impart no significant im- 
 pulse to his train of thoughts. Therefore every 
 punishment must be adapted to the individual char- 
 acter of each pupil ; time and attendant circumstances 
 must also be taken into account. On the other hand 
 we may say that the rareness with which the educator 
 is compelled to have recourse to the severer forms of 
 punishment, affords a safe standard by which to 
 estimate his art. The better the education is, so much 
 ihe more may the punishment be dispensed with. 
 Tiierefore the first law to be established here may be 
 stated as follows : One must educate so that he will 
 need to use punishment as little as possible.
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. l8l 
 
 But even the most careful education cannot with- 
 hold all evil from the heart of the child. Especially 
 the energetic natures cannot be educated to obey 
 freely without punishments. Free obedience, which 
 leads to moral independence, consists in the proper 
 insight into that which is bidden, and the will to 
 think and act in accordance with this insight. Ac- 
 cordingly, two kinds of punishments may be dis- 
 tinguished : (1) punishment which increases the in- 
 sight, punishment as a warning ; (2) punishment 
 which influences the ivill, the moral punishment. 
 
 With these two forms of punishment is associated 
 a third, namely, punishment which is applied merely 
 for the purpose of discouraging certain acts. All aim 
 to produce unconditional obedience in the pupil. But 
 while government aims primarily only at submission 
 on the part of the pupil, in that it does not attempt to 
 act with the aid of underlying motives at all, training 
 seeks to effect free obedience ; it softens the harshness 
 of the government in that it connects obedience 
 closely wnth the child's own will. 
 
 Above all, education must proceed uniformly and 
 consistently in matters of government. A quiet, firm 
 decision, permeated by love and sustained by dignity, 
 will win the hearts of the youth and guide them 
 safely. All disparity in bidding and forbidding, 
 hesitation in the matters of punishment and repri- 
 mand, will avenge themselves bitterly and prepare 
 many troubled hours for the teacher. 
 
 As soon as possible government must be dispensed 
 with, and training in connection with instruction 
 must carry on the business of education alone.
 
 1 82 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 III. Physical Education. 
 
 Among the external measures which the educator 
 must apply, are those especially which are devoted to 
 the physical education of the child. While the 
 measures for government are gradually withdrawn as 
 soon as fixed habits and fixed morals have been 
 dev^eloped, the care for the bodily growth and vigour 
 will never relax, but remain a true and vigilant co- 
 worker in the development of the child. 
 
 The multifarious business activity of the present is 
 placing increased burdens upon the body, especially 
 upon the nervous system as the medium of the mental 
 labour. On this account, the present race is especiall}' 
 admonished to retain this body in health and vigour, 
 in order that the individual may be able to meet the 
 greater demands of the present. The more we re- 
 move ourselves from the state of Nature, so much the 
 more unfavourable do the conditions for the preserva- 
 tion of the physical health appear, so much the more 
 do we lose the natural instinct for that which is of 
 advantage to us physically. This fact argues the ne- 
 cessity for the care of the public health, which should 
 extend also to the scholars. Here it appears in the 
 form of school hygiene or the theory of health in 
 school. It has nothing to do with the cure of diseases, 
 but merely with the precautions that are to be taken 
 against disease. How many individuals, later in life, 
 carry on a silent but constant battle against the de- 
 fective disposition and functional irregularity of their 
 bodies, especially of their nervous systems. How often 
 the battle is in vain, for the seeds of disease were
 
 THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 1 83 
 
 sown in early 3'outh, iucreased with 3'ears and spread 
 as long as the individual was not especially ad- 
 monished with regard to his health. 
 
 Since the health and power of the mind also depend 
 upon the physical health, because of the intimate 
 reciprocal action between body and mind, the impor- 
 tance of the bearer of the mental life shows the edu- 
 cator very forcibly that he should not neglect the care 
 of the body, if he does not desire to render the success 
 of liis work in general questionable. For although he 
 has firmly laid the foundations of moral character in 
 the soul of his pupil and cherishes the hope that the 
 latter can some day act and work as a comi)lete man 
 in the family, the community and the state, what 
 does all this avail if it has been gained at the cost of 
 bodily health ? And what is true of the individual 
 is true of the people. Of what advantage is it to a 
 nation to achieve ever so lofty an intellectual culture, 
 if the strength, health, and elasticity of the body does 
 not keep pace with it ? Must not that catastrophe 
 then occur which history exemplifies in the l\oman 
 Empire of the world,— a highly cultivated people and 
 a liighly cultivated state, shattered by the Germanic 
 tribes, who stood far behind in culture, but who could 
 throw their youthful, fresh, physical power into the 
 scales ? Hence the State education must be intent 
 upon preserving this physical energy with the aid of 
 special devices. It will accomplish nothing, however, 
 as long as the education of the single individual docs 
 not include the attentive care and thorough consider- 
 ation of the bodily growth and vigour. 
 
 Tlius a new and broad field of study and activity is 
 open to the educator. A knowledge of the most
 
 1 84 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 necessary conditions of physical thrift is required of 
 him ; in this new sphere a new science offers its 
 assistance, namely, Physiology, and especially Hygiene, 
 whose teachings as regards means of nourishment, 
 manner of living, clothing, etc., are of fundamental 
 importance to the educator. 
 
 As already mentioned, a great deal has recently 
 been accomplished in this line that is worthy of re- 
 cognition. The number of writings that have already 
 appeared upon the subject is very great. The im- 
 pulse was given by the book of the physician Lorinser, 
 1886, Z'um Schutz der Gesimdheit in den ScJnden 
 (" On the Care of Health in the Schools "). Since then, 
 the complaint that this side of education in the 
 schools has been sadly neglected has never been 
 silenced. Propositions have often been submitted for 
 remedying the evil. The literature upon the subject 
 treats (1) of the problem as a whole ; (2) of care as 
 regards the proper conditions of warmth, air, etc. 
 (schoolhouse) ; (3) of care of the power of sight and 
 ph3^sical growth (school desk). 
 
 The principles which education establishes for the 
 care of the body must be reinforced by a system 
 of gymnastic measures, free exercises, marching 
 exercises with and without song or music, and games 
 (football, base-ball, etc.), based upon anatomical and 
 physiological principles and designed to render the 
 body pliant, and as capable as possible of intercourse 
 with the outer world. 
 
 THE END.
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. 
 
 The asterisk {*) deiiotcs literature that belongs lyroperly to the 
 Herbartian School. 
 
 GENERAL PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 *Ackermann, Formale Bildung. Langensalza. 
 
 *Ackermann, Padagogische Fragen. 2d series. Dresden. 
 
 Baur, Grundzuge der Erzielmngslehre. 4th ed, Giessen, 1887. 
 
 Beneke, Erziehungs und Unterrichtslehre. 2 vols., 3d ed. Berlin, 
 1864. 
 
 Bohm, Praktische Erzielmngslehre. 2d ed. Munich, 1890. 
 
 Praktische Unterrichtslehre. 2d ed. 75., 1890. 
 
 Dilthey, Ueber die MGglichkeit einer allgemeingiiltigen piidagog. 
 "Wissenschaft. Berlin, 1888. 
 
 *Frick-j\Ieier, Sammlung piidag. Abhandlungen. Halle. 
 
 Griife, AUgem. Padagogik. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1845. 
 
 Hegel's Ansichten iiber Erziehung und Unterricht. .3 T., hrsg. v, 
 Thaulow. Kiel, 1835. 
 
 *Herbart, Piidagog. Schriften, hrsg. v. Willmaun. 2 vols. Leipzig. 
 
 Jacoby, Allgemeine Padagogik. Gotha, 1883. 
 
 Israel, Sammlung selten gewordener padagog. Schriften. Zschopau. 
 
 Kehrbach, ISIonunienta Germani;\3 pajdagogica. Berlin. 
 
 Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fiir deutsche Erziehungs - u. 
 
 Schulgeschichte. Vol. i. Berlin, 1891. 
 
 *Kern, Grundriss der Padagogik. 4th ed. Berlin, 1887. 
 
 *Lindner, Encyklopiid. Haudbuch der Erziehungskunde. Vienna 
 1884. 
 
 AUgem. Erzielmngslehre. 7th ed. /I'v., 1890. 
 
 Allgem. Unterrichtslehre. 7th ed. 76., 1890. 
 
 Nieineyer, Grundsiitze der Erziehung und des Unterrichts. Ed. by 
 Rein. Langensalza. 
 
 Palmer, Evangel. Padagogik. 5th ed. SttUfgart, 1882. 
 
 *Rein, Padagog. Studien ; alte Folge. 2 vols. Vieima. 
 
 Neue Folge (since 1880). Dresden. 
 
 Richter, Neudrucke padagog. Schriften. Leipzig. 
 
 Jean Paul, Levana. Ed. by Lange. Langensalza. 
 
 Levana for English readers. Ed. by Susan Wood, B.Sc. Lon- 
 
 don : Swan Sonnenschein & Co. 1887. 
 
 Rosenkranz, Die Piidagogik als System. Kijnig><herg , 1848. Trans- 
 lated by Anna C. Brackett. (The sub. tit. Philosophy of 
 Education.) Vol. I. of the International Educ. Series. Ed. 
 by Dr. W. T. Harris. 
 
 Sander, Lexikon der Padagogik. 2d ed. Breslau, 1889. 
 
 ♦Schiller, Handbuch der prakt. Padagogik. 2d cd. Leipzig, 1889. 
 
 185
 
 1 86 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Schleiermacher, Padagog. Scliriften, hrsg. v. Platz. Laiujenmha. 
 
 Schmid, Encyklopiidie des ges. Erziehungs-und UnteiTichtswesens. 
 2d ed. Gotha. 
 
 ScbwarzCurtmann, Lehrbuch der Erziehungs-und Unterrichtslehre. 
 7tli ed. HeAdelberq, 1866. 
 
 Schreber, Das Buch der Erziehung. Leipzig. 
 
 *8toy, Encyklopiidie der Padagogik. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1878. 
 
 *Strumpell, Psychologische Padagogik. Leipzig, 1880. 
 
 — - Padagogische Pathologie. Leipzig, 1890. 
 
 *\Vaitz, Allgem. Padagogik, lirsg. v. Willmann. 3d ed. Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 *Willmann, Didaktik. 2 vols. Brunswick, 1882-89. 
 
 *Ziller, Einleitung in die allg Padagogik. Leipzig, 1856. Allg. 
 Padagogik. .3d ed., hrsg. v. Just. Leipzig. 
 
 *ZiIler-Vogt, Jahrbiicher des Verein fsiir wiss. Padagogik. 24 vols. 
 Dresden. 
 
 Pedagogical Classics. 
 
 1. Beyer's Bibliothek. Langensalza. 
 
 2. Lindner, Padagog. Klassiker. Vieniia. 
 
 3. Richter's Bibliothek. Leipzig. 
 
 I. PRACTICAL PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 (A) The Forms of Education, 
 
 1. Home Pedagogics. 
 
 * Acker mann, Die hausliche Erziehung. Langensalza, 1888. 
 Riehl, Die Fainilie. Stuttgart. 
 *Stoy, Hauspadagogik. Leipzig, 1855. 
 
 *Truper, Die Familienrechte an der Erziehung. 2d ed. Langen- 
 salza, 1892. 
 
 2. Special Educatioxal Institutions. 
 
 Schinid, Encyklopiidie : Alumnat und Erziehungsanstalt. 
 
 Education of the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Hill, Der gegenwiirtige Zustand des Taubstumraenunterrichts. Essen, 
 
 1886. 
 Matthias Vatter, Zeitschrist fiir Taubst.-u. Blindenanstalten ; since 
 
 1855. Frankfurt. 
 *Oelihvein, Meine Erfahrungen u. Ansichteu iiber das Wesen der 
 
 Vier-uud Schwachsinnigen, etc. ]Yeimar, 1883. 
 Schmid, Encyklopadie IX. 
 Walther, Gesciiichte des Taubstummenbildungswesens. Leipzig, 
 
 1883. 
 Walther u. Topler, Bliitter fiir Taubstumnienbildung. Berlin, 
 
 1887. "
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. 1 87 
 
 Education of the Blind. 
 
 Fuchs, Die Ursacheu unii die Verhiitung der Bliudheit. Wiesbaden, 
 
 1SS5. 
 Knie, Auleitung zur zwechmiissigen Behandlung blinder Kinder. 4th 
 
 ed. BerUn, 1851. 
 Meeker, Der Blindenfreund ; since 18S0. Diiren. 
 Merle, Soder, Sengelmann, Das Blinden - Idioten - u. Taubstum- 
 
 menbildungswesen. Nordcn, 1SS7. 
 Pablasek, Die Blindenanstalten. Vienna, 1876. 
 Ruppert, Ueber Erziehung, Unterricht u. Versorgung d. Blinden. 
 
 Munich, 1877. 
 
 Edwation of Idiot ■'9. 
 
 Brandes, Der Idiotismus und die Idiotenanstalten. Hanover,^ 1862. 
 Emminghaus, Die psychischen Storungen im Kindesalter. Tiihin- 
 
 rjen, 1887. 
 Foerster, Der geistig Zuriickgebliebene u. seine Pflege. Bresden- 
 
 Blanewitz, 1888. 
 Griesiuger, Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten. 
 
 4th ed. Brunswick, 1876. 
 Knapp, Beobachtungen iiber Idioteu-und Kretinen-Anstalten und 
 
 deren Resultate. Graz, 1879. 
 
 Besuch von Idiotenanstalten, etc. G)'az, 1881. 
 
 Laehr, Die Idiotenanstalten Deutschlands. Berlin, 1874. 
 Zeitschrift fiir Idiotenwesen. Dresden; since 1881. 
 
 Reformatories. 
 
 Busch, Monatsschrift fiir innere Mission. Gutersloh, 1880. 
 
 Hiibner, Heilpadagog. Zeitschrift. Vienna, 1871. 
 
 Jung, Knabenhort. Munich, 1885. 
 
 Oetker, Ueber Erziehungsanstalten fiir verwahrloste Kinder. Berlin, 
 
 1879. 
 Ranke. Griindung,UnterhaltHng u. Leitungvon Knppen, Bewahran- 
 
 stalten, etc. 7th ed. Elberfeld, 1886. 
 Wichern-Henske, Schmid's Eucyklopiidie VII. 2d ed. 1886. 
 
 3. School Education. 
 (rt) The People's Schools. 
 
 Bock, Wegweiser. 4th ed. Breslau, 1869. 
 
 Denzel, Eiuleitung in die Erziehungs-und Unterrichtslehre. 3 parts. 
 Stuttgart, 1825-35. 
 
 Diesterweg, Wegweiser. 5th ed. Essen. 
 
 *Dorpfeld, Zwei piidagogische Gutachten. Gutersloh, 1877. 
 
 Griife, Die deutsche Volksschule. 3d ed. Leipzig. 
 
 Harniscli, Handbuch fiir das deutsche Volksschulwesen. 3d ed. 
 Breslau, 1839. 
 
 Heppe. Gcschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesena. 5 vols. Gotha, 
 1858-60. 
 
 Kahle, (^ruudziige der evang. Volksschulcrziehung. 5th ed. Bres- 
 lau, 1882.
 
 1 88 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Kehr, Die Praxis der S^'olksschnle. lOth ed. Gotha. 
 
 Keller, Geschichte des preussischen Volksschulwesens. Berlin, 1873. 
 
 Kellner, Volksschulkunde. 6th ed. £ssen. 
 
 *Leutz, Lehrbuch der Erziehung und des Unterrichts. 2d ed. 
 Tauberbischofoheirn, 1887. 
 
 Liiben-Dittes, Jahresbericht ; since 1848. Leipzig. 
 
 Ostermann-Wegener, Lehrbuch der Piidagogik. 2d ed. Olden- 
 burg, 1886. 
 
 *Ranitzsch, Der Unterricht in der Volksschule. Weimar, 1888. 
 
 Schneider, Volksschulewesen und Lehrerbildung in Preussen. Ber- 
 lin, 1875. 
 
 Schneider und v. Bremen, Das Volksschulwesen im Preuss. Staate. 
 Gesetze und Verordnungen. Berlin, 1886. 
 
 Schumann, Lehrbuch der Piidagogik. 5th ed. Hanover. 
 
 Zerrenner, Grundsatze der Schulerziehung. 2d ed. Magdeburg, 
 1833. 
 
 [b] The Middle Schools (Burgher and Real-Schools). 
 
 Bartholomiius, Die Mittelschule. Gotha, 1887. 
 
 Dillmann, Das Realgymnasiuni. Stuttgart, 1884. 
 
 *Dorpfeld, Der Mittelstand und die Mittelschule. Barmen, 1853. 
 
 Hofmann, Ueber die Einrichtung ofFentlicher Mittelschulen in 
 
 Berlin. Berlin, 1869. 
 *Mager, Die deutsche Biirgerschule 1840. Ed. by Eberhardt. 
 
 Langensalza. 
 Ostendorf, Volksschule, Biirgerschule und hohere Schule. Dimel- 
 
 dorf, 1872. 
 *Otto, Der deutsche Biirgerstand und die deutsche Biirgerschule. 
 
 Leipzig, 1871. 
 Piidagogisches Archiv ; since 1858. Stettin. 
 Richter, Das hohere biirgerliche Scliulwesen in seiner geschichtlichen 
 
 Entwidlung. 5th No. Schriften d. d. Einheitsschulvereins. 
 
 Hanover, 1889. 
 Scheibert, Das Wesen und die Stellung der hiJh. Biirgerschule. 
 
 Berlin, 1848. 
 Spilleke, Gesammelte Schulschriften. Berlin, 1825. 
 Vogel, Ueber die Idee und die Einrichtung einer hbh. Biirger-oder 
 
 Realschule. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1839. 
 *G. Wiget, Theorie und Praxis des Realschulunterrichts. St. Gallen, 
 
 1889. 
 Zeitschrift fiir Realschul wesen ; since 1876. Vienna. 
 Zentralorgan fiir die luteressen des Realschul wesens ; since 1872. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 (c) Gymnasium. 
 
 Dbderlein, Reden und Aufsatze. 4 vols. Erlangen, 1843-59. 
 *Frick-Meier, Lehrproben und Lehrgiinge. Halle. 
 
 Hirzel, Vorlesungen iiber Gymnasialpadagogik. Tubingen, 1876. 
 
 .Jahn-Fleckeisen, JahrbiicherfiirPhilologie und Padagogik. Leipzig. 
 
 Kapp, Fragmente aus einer neuen Bearbeitung der Gymnasialpada- 
 gogik. Arnsberg, 1848. 
 *Kern-U. J. Miiller, Zeitschrift fiir das Gyranasialwesen. Berlin,
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. 1 89 
 
 Nagelsbach, Gj-mnasialpadagogik. Erlangen, 1862. 
 Reiuhardt, Die Frankfurter Lehrpliine. Frank/urf, 1892. 
 Rethwisch, Jahresberichte iiber das hulicre Schulwesen. Berlin. 
 Rilnier, Blatter fiii- das Bayerisehe Gyinnasialwesen. Munich. 
 Rcinne, Das Unterichtswesen des preussischeu Staates. 2 vols. 
 
 Berlin, 1855. 
 Roth, Gvmnasialpadagogik. Stuttgart, 1865. 
 •Schiller,' Handbuch der prakt. Piidagogik. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1889. 
 Schmidt, Gymnasialpadagogik. Kvthen, 1857. 
 Schrader, Erziehungs-und Uiiterrichtslehre. 2d ed. Berlin, 1873. 
 Thaulow, Die Gymnasialpadagogik im Grundriss. Kiel, 1858. 
 Uhlig, Gymnasium. Heidelberg. 
 Wiese, Das hi3here Schulwesen in Preussen. 3 vols. Berlin, 
 
 1864-74. 
 Wiese, Verordnungen und Gesetze. 3d ed. 1886-88. 
 Fr. A. Wolf, Consilia scholastica. By Korte. Quedlinhurg und 
 
 Leipzig, 1S35. 
 Zentralblatt fiir die ges. Unterrichtsverwaltung in Preussen ; since 
 
 1859. 
 
 (d) Girls' Schools. 
 
 I'uchner, Tochterschule oder Fachschule. Berlin, 1873. 
 Buchner, Gegenwart und Zukunft der huh. Miidchenschule : Piida- 
 
 gog. Studien of Rein. 3d No. Viemia, 1 876 ; Grenzboten, 
 
 1891. 
 *H. Grosse, Zur Reform des hoh. Madchenschulwesens, in : Richter, 
 
 Der prakt. Schulmann, vol. 37, 1888. Leijizig. 
 Hessel-Dorr, Die Miidchenschule. Zeitschrift fiir das gesarate 
 
 Madchenschuhvesen ; since 1888. Bonn. 
 *Krusche, Uebersicht der Litteratur iiber weibliche Erziehung und 
 
 Bildung in Deutschland von 1700-1886. Leipzig, 1887. 
 Niildecke, Von \Veimar bis Berlin. Leipzig, 1886. 
 Schornstein-Buclmer, Zeitschrift fiir weibl. Bildung ; since 1873. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 
 (B) School Admixstbation. 
 1. School Legislation. 
 
 *Barth, Die Reform der Gesellchaft durch Neubelebung des Gemein- 
 dewesens. Leipzig, 1885. 
 
 *Dorpfeld, Die freie Schulgemeinde und ihre Anstalten auf dem 
 Boden der freien Kirche im freien Staate. GiUersloh, 1863. 
 
 *Dorpfeld, Die drei Grundgebrechen der hergebrachteu Schulver- 
 fassungen, etc. Elherfeld, 1869. 
 
 *Durpfeld, Ein Beitrag der Leidensgeschichte der Volksschule nebst 
 VorschlJigen zur Reform der Schulverwaltung. 2d ed. Bar- 
 men, 1883. 
 
 *Durpfeld, Das Fundamentstiick einer gerechten, gesunden, freien 
 und friedlichen Schulverfassung. Hilchenbach, 1892. 
 Fichte, Reden an die deutsche Nation. 
 
 (Ed. by Prof. Vogt, Langtmalza.) 
 
 *Herbart, Ueber Erziehung unter oU'entlicher Mitwirkung. 1810. 
 W. v. Humboldt, Ueber olfentliche Staatserziehuug.
 
 190 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 Katzer, Die Trennung der Schule von cler Kirche nacli ihren Prin- 
 
 zipieii beurteilb. Pima, 1872. 
 Lorenz v. Stein. Verwaltungslehre. 5 vols. Stuttgart. 
 *Mager, Piidagog. Revue. VI. -XVII. Band; XIX. Band. 
 
 (Bruchstiicke aus einer deutschen Scholastik. ) 
 *Mager, Die deutsche Biirgerschiile. 
 
 (Ed. l)y Eberhardt, I.avgensaha.) 
 *Rein, Zur Schulgesetzgebung. Deut.sciie Rundschau. April No. 
 1892. (Comp. Grenzboten : Erziehung und Sozialismus. 
 No. 24, 1891.) 
 *Rolle, Die Selbstandigkeit der Schule inmitten von Staat und 
 Kirche : Padag. Studien of Rein, 1SS9. No. 4. 
 Schleiermacher, Ueber den Beruf des Staates zur Erziehung. 
 
 (Verhandlungen der Berliner A kademie, 1814.) 
 Schrader, Die Verfassung der hiih. Schulen. 3d ed. Berlin, 1889. 
 Schwarz, Die Schulen. Leipzig, 1832. 
 *Triiper, Die Familienrechte an der offentlichen Erziehung. 2d 
 
 ed. Langensalza, 1892. 
 *Triiper, Die Schule und die sozialen Fragen unserer Zeit. 3 Nos. 
 Giltersloh, 1890. 
 
 2. Equipment of Schools. 
 
 Baginsky, Schulhygiene. 2d ed. Stuttgart, 1883. 
 
 Cohn, Hygiene des Auges. Vienna, 1883. 
 
 Gartner, Leitfaden der Hygiene. Berlin, 1892. 
 
 Heine, Ueber Anschauungstnittel. Berlin, 1882. 
 
 Jiitting, Geschichte des Riickschritts in der Dotation, der preuss. 
 
 Volksschule. Leipzig, 1870. 
 Jiitting, Die ungeniigende Besoldung der preuss, Volksschullehrei'. 
 
 Berlin, 1889, 
 Kopp, Illustr. Hand und Nachschlagebuch der vorziiglichsten Lehr- 
 
 und Veranschaulichungsmittel. Bensheim. 
 *Piltz, Thiiring. Schulinuseum. Jena. 
 Schroder, Lehrmittelkatalog. Leipzig. 
 
 Zwez, Das Schulhaus und dessen innere Einrichtung. 2d ed. 
 Weimar. 
 
 3. Supervision of Schools. 
 
 *D6rpfeld, Leidensgeschichte der Volksschule. 2d ed. Barmen, 
 1882 
 Pollack, Die Schulaufsicht. Leipzig, 1888. 
 Zillessen, Nochmals die Schulaiifsichtsfrage. Giltersloh, 1886. 
 
 4. Preparation of Teachers. 
 
 [a) Seminaries /or Teachers in the People's Schools. 
 
 See the exhaustive literary references in Niemeyer's Grundsiitze der 
 Erziehung und des Unterrichts. Ed. of Rein. Langensalza, 
 3d vol., p. 92.
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. I9I 
 
 •Andreii, Ziir inneren Eiitwicklungsgeschiclite der deutschen Lelirer- 
 
 bildungsaustalteii. Kaiserslauttni, 1890-91 to 1891-92. 
 
 Kaufniann-Hartenstein, Zur Leiirerbildungsfrage. Solofhnrn, 1889. 
 
 Kehr-ychuppa, Piidagogische Bliitter fiir Lehrerbildung iind Lehrer- 
 
 bildungsanstalten ; since 1872. Gothct. 
 
 *Rein, Ueber die Organisation der Lelirerbildung in Deutschland. 
 
 Piidagog. Studien, 1881. 4th No. Dresden. 
 *Stoy, Organisation des Lehrerseminars. Leipzig, 1869. 
 Schneider, Volksschullehrer-Seminar. Schmid's Eucyklopiidie. 
 
 (6) Un iversity-Seminaries. 
 
 *Brzoska, Die Notwendigkeit piidagog. Seminare auf der Univer- 
 
 sitat und ihre zweckmaszige Eiiirichtung. 2d ed. by Rein. 
 
 Leipzig, 1887. 
 
 (For Bibliography v. p. 205 s,qq.) 
 *Frick, Seminar, praeceptorum. Halle, 1883. 
 *Rein, Ueber padagog. Universitiits-Seminare. Neue d. Schule, 
 
 4-5 Nos. 
 *Rein, Die Ausbildung fiir d. Lehramt an hoher. Schulen. Grenz- 
 
 boten, 1890. 8th No. 
 *Rein, Aus dem Piid. Univers. -Seminare zu Jena. Nos. 1-4. 
 
 Langen.'iaha. 
 *Von Sallwiirk, Das Staatsseminar. Gotha, 1890. 
 *Schiller, Padagog. Seminarien f. d. huh. Lehramt. Leipzig, 1890. 
 *V"ogt, Das padagog. Universitats-Seminar. LeiprAg, 1884. 
 Voss, Vorbildung zuin huheren Lehramt. Halle^ 1889. 
 *Zange, Gymnasial-Seminare und die padagog. Ausbildung der 
 
 Kandidaten des hiih. Scliulamts. 5th No. by Frick-Meyer : 
 
 Sammlung padagog. Abhandlungen. Halle, 1890. 
 
 II. THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 (A) The Fundamental Sciences of Pedagogics. 
 
 I. Ethics. 
 
 *Flugel, Das Ich und die sittlichen Ideen im Leben der Volker. 
 
 2d ed. Langen-salza. 
 *Fliigel, Die Sittenlehre .Jesu. 2d ed. Langensaha. 
 *Hartenstein, Die Grundl)egriffe der eth. Wissensch. Leipzig, 1844. 
 *Herbart, Allgem. prakt. Philosophic. Ed. by Hartenstein, vol. 
 
 8 ; (k'samtausgabe, l)y Kehrbach, vol. 4. Langensaha, 
 •Nahlowsky, Praktische Pliilosophie. 2d ed. Leipzig. 1885. 
 
 Paulsen, System der Ethik. 2d ed. Berlin, 1891. 
 ♦Steintlial, Allgem. Ethik. Berlin, 1885. 
 
 Wundt, Ethik. Leipzig, 1886. 
 *Ziller, Allgem. philos. Ethik. 2d ed. I.angem^aha, 1886.
 
 192 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 II. Psychology. 
 
 *BalIaiiff, Die Gruudlehren der Psychologie. 2d ed. COtken, 1890. 
 *D()rpfeld, Deiiken und Gediichtnis. 3d ed. Gutersloh. 
 *Drobiseh, Emp. Psychologie. Leipzig, 1843. 
 
 Fechner, Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik. Leipzig, 
 1882. 
 *Fliigel, Die Seelenfrage. 2d ed. Cothen, 1884. 
 
 Goltz, Buch der Kindheit. Berlin, 1847. 
 *Hartmann, Die Analyse des kindl. Gedankenkreises. Annaherg, 
 
 1885. 
 *Lange, Ueber Apperzeption. 4th ed. Plauen. See English 
 
 References, page 198. 
 *Lazariis, Das Leben der Seele. 3d ed. Berlin. 
 
 Lotze, Medizin. Psychologie. Leipzig, 1852. 
 *Lukens, Die Vorstellungsreihen ii. ihre padagog. Bedeutung. 
 
 Gillerdoh, 1892. 
 *Mannel, Ueber Abstraktion, Gutersloh. 
 *Nahlowsky, Das Gefiihlsleben. 2d ed. Leipzig, 1884. 
 Prayer, Die Seele des Kiudes. 3d ed. Leipzig. Translated by H. 
 W. Brown. See Vol. vii., "The Senses and the Will," and 
 Vol. ix, "The Development of the Intellect," in the Inter- 
 national Edition Series, edited by Dr. W. T. Harris. 
 *Schoel, J. Fr., Herbarts philos. Lehre von der Religion. Dresden, 
 1884. 
 Sigismund, Die Familie als Schule der Natur. Leipzig, 1857. 
 Sigismuud, Kind und Welt. Braunschweig, 1856. 
 *Striinipell, Gedanken iiber Religion u. relig. Probleme. Leipzig, 
 
 1888. 
 *Volkmann, Lehrbuch der Psychologie. 3d ed. Cothen. 
 Wundt, Grundziige der physiol. Psychologie. 2d ed. Leipzig, 
 
 1880. 
 Ziehen, Leitfaden der Physiologischen Psychologie. Jena, 1891. 
 Translated by C. C. Van Liew and Dr. 0. W. Beyer [suh. tit. 
 Introduction to Physiological Psychology). London : Swan 
 Sonnenscheiu & Co. 1892. 
 
 (B) Aid-Science of Pedagogics : Physiology. 
 
 Baginsky, Handbuch der Schulhygiene. 3d ed. Stuttgart, 1883. 
 
 Burgerstein, Gesundheitspflege. l^iejina, 1887. 
 
 Dornbliith, Die Gesundheitspflege der Schuljugend. Stuttgart, 
 
 1892. 
 Gartner, Leitfaden der Hygiene. Berlin, 1892. 
 Janke, Grundriss der Schulhygiene. Hamburg, 1890. 
 Klencke, Schuldiiitetik. Leipzig, 1871. 
 Kotelmann, Zeitschrift fiir Gesundheitspflege. Hamburg and 
 
 Leipzig. 
 Siegert, Die Schulkrankheiten. Leipzig, 1887. 
 Spencer, Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. London^ 
 
 1861. New ed. 1883.
 
 LITERARY REFE^RENCES. 193 
 
 (.-/) Teleology (see Ethics). 
 
 (B) METiioDOLOiJY (see Psyciiolouy). 
 
 I. General Didactics. 
 
 *Dr>rpfeLl, Der dulakt. Materialismus. 2d ed. Gnfcrsloh. 
 *Durpfeld, GriiniUinieii einci- Tlieorie des Lehrplans. Gut(r-<loh. 
 ♦Willmami, Didaktik als Bilduiigslehre. 2 vols. Bruii.^^irid; 1889. 
 *\Villiiiann, Piidagog. Vortriige. 2d ed. Leipzii/, 1886. 
 *Ziller, Grundlegung ziir Lelire vom erz. Unterricht. 2d ed. by 
 Vogt. Leipziij, 1884. 
 
 1. Aims of Instruction. 
 
 *Grossler, Das vielseitige Interesse. Eislehen, 188.3. 
 
 *Vieth, Darf vielseitiges Interesse als Unterrichtsziel hiiigestellt 
 
 werden ? Koijasen, 1 886. 
 *Walsemann, Das Interesse. Hanover, 1SS4. 
 
 2. Means of Instruction. 
 (rt) Choice of Material. 
 
 *Rein, Gesiiinungsunt. und Kulturgeschichte : Padagog. Studien, 
 
 1888, 2d No. Dresden. 
 *v. Sallwiirck, Gesinnungsuiit. ii. Kulturgeschichte. Langennaha, 
 
 1887. 
 Vaihinger, Naturforschung und Schule. Leipzig, 1889. 
 
 (IJibliographies in the Notes.) 
 
 (b) Oonnection of Branches. 
 
 *Ackermann, Ueber Koiizcntration : Piidag Fragen, 1st series, 
 
 Dresden. 
 *Dorpfeld, Zwei dringl. Reformen im Real und Sprachunt. Outers- 
 
 loh, 1883. 
 *Loo3, Der osterr Gyinnasiallehrplan im Lichte der Kouzentration. 
 
 Vienna, 1892. 
 *Merian-Genast, Ausfiihrungen zum Lehrplan. Jena, 1892. 
 *Rein, Pickel, Scheller, 1 heorie u. Praxis. 1st vol. 4th cd. 
 
 Leipzig. 
 Richter, Die Konzentration des Unterrichts. Leipzig, 186r>. 
 *Willmaiin, Piid. Vortriige. 2d ed. Leip)zig. 
 
 (c) Treatment of Material. 
 
 *01eichmann, Ueber Herbart's Lehre von den fornialcn Stufen. 
 
 2d ed. Langensalza, 1892, 
 *Reich, Die Theorie der Formalstufen. Langensalza, 1 889, 
 
 N
 
 194 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 K. Richter, Die Herbart-Zillerschenformalen Stufen, etc. Leipzig, 
 
 1888 
 *Th. ^Yiget, Die formalen Stufen. 4th ed. Chiy>; 1892. 
 
 II. Special Didactics. 
 
 *Frick-Meier, Lelirproben und Lehrgange. Halle. 
 *Jahrbiicher des Vereins fiii- w. I'adagogik. Dresden, 
 
 Kehr, Gescliiclite der MethoJik. 4 vols. 2d cd. Gotha. 
 
 Nacke-Liiben-Dittes, Padag. Jaliresbericht. Leipziij. 
 *Rein, Pickel, Scheller, Theorie und Praxis des Volksschulunterrichts, 
 etc. Vols, i.-viii. 4th ed. Leipzig. 
 
 Rethwiscli, Jahresberichte iiber das hoh. Schulwesen. Berlin. 
 *Schiller, Haudbuch der prakt. Fiidagogik. 2d ed. Leipzig. 
 *Ziller-Berguer, Materialien zur spez. Piidagogik. Dreaden, 1886. 
 
 1. Instruction in Religiox. 
 
 *Durpfeld, Eiii christl.-piidag. Protest. Gatersloh, 1869. 
 Kirchner, Zur Reform des Relig. -Unterr. Berlin, 1877. 
 Landfermann, Der ev. Relig. -Unterr. in den Gyninasien. Franlcfurt, 
 
 1846. 
 *Reukauf, Piiilos. Begrundiing des Lehrplans des ev. Rel.-Unt. an 
 
 hoh. Schulen. Langensalza, 1892. 
 Ritschl, Unt. in der christl. Religion. 2d ed. Bonn, 1881. 
 *Staiide, Prapai'ationen zu den bibl. (k-sch. des alten und nenen 
 
 Testaments. 3 vols., 5th ed. Dresden 
 *Thriindorf, Die Behandlungdes Religionsunterrichts. Langensalza, 
 
 1887. 
 *Thrandorf, Kirchengeschichtl. Lesebuch. Dresden, 1888. 
 *Thrandorf, Der Religionsunterricht. (Priiparationen.) Dresd&n, 
 
 1890. 
 Wiese, Der Religionsunterr. an hoh. Lehranstalten. 1890. 
 Zeitschrift fxir den Religionsunterricht. Berlin. 
 
 2. HiSTOKY. 
 
 Biedermann, Der Geschichtsunt. in der Schule. Brunswick, 1890. 
 Biedermann, Der Gesch.-Unt. Biesbaden, 1885. 
 Campe, Geschichte und Unt. in der Geschichte. Leipzig, 1859. 
 *Ddrpfeld, Repetitorium der Gesellschaftfikunde und Begleitwort. 
 
 2d ed. Gatersloh, 1890. 
 *Eberhard, Ueber Gesch.-Unt. Piidag. Studien. 4th No. Vienna. 
 Herbst, Zur Frage liber den (JeschichtsUnt. Maintz, 1869, and 
 
 Maintz, 1877. 
 Jiiger, Bemerkungen iiber geschichtl. Unt. 2d ed. Maintz, 1882. 
 LiJbcll, Grundzlige einer Methodik des geschichtl. Unt. Leipzig, 
 
 1847. 
 Miqu6l, Beitrage, etc. Aurich And Lee7'S, 1847. 
 Peter, Der Geschichtsunt. auf Gyninasien. Halh, 1849. 
 Richter, Die Kulturgeschichte. Gotha, 1887.
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. 195 
 
 *Staude-G6pfert, Priiparationeii zur deutschen Geschichte. Dresden, 
 
 1890. 
 *Willmatm, Der elem. Gesch.-Unt. Leipzig, 187'2. 
 *Wohlrabe, Friipaiatioiien zu profangesch, Qiielleustoffen. Gotha, 
 
 1SS7. 
 *Zillig, Der Geschichtsunt. XIV. Jahibuch d. Vereins f. w. Puda- 
 
 gogik. 
 
 3. Drawixg. 
 
 riinzer, Lehrbuch des Zeiclienunterrichts. 3d ed. Leipzig, 188-2. 
 *Menard, Der ZeichenunterrLcht. Netivned. 
 *Otto-Rein, Piidagog. Zeicheulehre. 3d ed. Weimar, 1885. 
 *Rein, Geschichte des Zeichenunt. 2d ed. Gotha, 1889. 
 *Rein, Der Zeichenunteiricht im Gymnasium. Hanover, 1SS9. 
 Stuhlmaun, Der Zeichenunteiricht. Hamburg. 
 
 4. Singing. 
 
 *Helm, Gesangunterricht in " Theorie und Praxis." Vols. I— VIII. 
 Leipzig. 
 
 5. Instrcctiox in Language, 
 
 *Mager, Die genet. Methode des schulmassigen Unterrichts in frem- 
 
 den Spiachen und Litteraturen. 3d ed. Zurich, 1846. 
 *Mager, Moderne Hunianitiitsstudien. 3 Nos. Zurich. 
 
 (a) German. 
 
 *Bliedner, Schillerlesebuch, Dresden. 
 
 *Eberhardt, Die Poesie in der Volksschule. 3 vols., 3d ed. Langtn- 
 
 salza, 1886. 
 Hiecke, Der deutsche Unt. auf deutschen Gymnasien. Leipzig, 1842. 
 Hildebrand, Voni deutschen Sprachunt. 4th ed. Leipzig, 1890. 
 Laas, Der deutsche Unterr. auf hoh. Lehranstalten. Berlin, 1872. 
 Lehmanu, Der deutsche Unt. Berlin, 1890. 
 Linde, Die .\J uttersprache im Elenientarunt. Leipzig, 1892. 
 Lyon, Zeitschrift fiir den deutschen Unterricht. Leipzig. 
 *Stoy, Der deutsche Spracliunt. 3d ed. I'ie/ma, 1868. 
 
 (6) Other Foreign Languages. 
 
 *Batgen, Zur Neugestaltung des franziis. Unt. Eisenach, 1886. 
 
 *Giinther, Der Lateinunt. XIII. Jahrbuch d. V. f. w. Pfld. 
 Dresden. 
 
 Hoffmann, Neugestaltnng des griech. Unterrichts. Gottingen, 1889. 
 
 Perthes, Zur Pv,eform des latein. Unterrichts, Berlin, 1875. 
 
 V. Roden, Inwiefern muss der Spracliuuterricht umkehren ? Mar- 
 burg, 1890. 
 
 Victor, Phonetische Studien. Marburg. 
 
 Victor, Quousque Tandem. Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren.
 
 196 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 
 
 6. Geography. 
 
 Finger, Heimatkunde. 4th ed. Berlin, 1876. 
 *Heiland, Das geographisclie Zeichnen. Dresden, 1S87. 
 Lehtnann, Das Kartenzeichiien im geogr. Unt. Halle, 1891. 
 Lehmann, Voiiesungen iiber Hilssniittel u. Methods des geogr. Unt. 
 
 Halle. 
 *Matzat, Methodik des geogr. Unt. Berlin, 18SG. 
 Seibert, Zeitschrift fiir Schulgeographie. 
 
 7. Natural Sciences. 
 
 *Beyer, Die Naturvvissenschaften in der Erziehungsschule. Leipzig, 
 
 1885. 
 *Conrad, Priiparationen f. d. Physik-Unterricht. Dref^den, 1889. 
 *DorpfeId, Repetitor. d. naturkundl u. humanist. Unt. .3d ed. 
 
 Giiterdoh. 
 Junge, Naturgeschichte. Vol. I., 2d ed., 1891. Vol. II., 1891. 
 
 Kid and Liepzig. 
 Poske, Zeitschrift fiir chem. und physikal. Unt. 
 *Schleichert, Anleitg. zu botan. Beobachtungen, etc. Langenmha, 
 
 1891. 
 Zopf, Der naturwissenschaftl. Unt. auf Gymnasien. Breslau, 1887. 
 
 8. Mathematics. 
 
 *Falke, Propadeutik der Geometrie. Leipzig, 1869. 
 
 *Fresenius, Die psycholog. Grundlagen der Raumwissenschaft. 
 
 Wiediaden, 1868. 
 *Freseniiis, Raunilehre. Frankfurt, 1861. 
 *Hartmann, Handbuch des Rechenunterrichts. Hildhurghausen, 
 
 1889. 
 Hoflmann, Zeitschrift f. d. inathemat. Unterricht. Leipzig. 
 *Pickel, Die Geometrie der Volksschule. 16th ed. Dresden. 
 Schellbach, Inhalt iind Bedeiitung des mathem. u. physik. Unt. auf 
 
 unsern Gymnasien. Berlin, 1887. 
 Wittstein, Die Methode des niatheniat. Unt. Hanover, 1879. 
 
 9. Manual Training. 
 
 *Barth-Niederley, Des d. Knaben Handwerkbuch. 5th ed. Leipzig, 
 
 1882. 
 *Barth-Niederley, Die Schiilerwerkstatt. LeijKig, 1882. 
 Rissmann, Geschichte des Handfertigkeitsunt. in Deutschland. 
 
 Gotha, 1882. 
 V. Schenkendortr, Verein fiir Knaljcnliandarbeit. Gorlilz. 
 Schwab, Der Schulgarten. 4th ed. 1876. 
 
 10. Turning. 
 
 Eitner, Jngendspiele. Gorlitz. 
 
 Euler, Geschichte des Tuniunt. Golha.
 
 LITERARY REFERENCES. 197 
 
 Euler-Eckler, Monatsscluift fiir das Tunnvesen ; since 1SS2. Berlin. 
 *Haiismann, Das Turnen in tier Volksehule. 4tii e<l. W<-'nnar. 
 Kupfermann, Tiinmnterricht unci Jiigendspicle. Br^dau, 18S4. 
 V. Schenkendorff u. Sclimidt, Ueber Jugend-u. Volkspiele. Han- 
 over-Linden, 1892. 
 
 THEORY OF GUIDANCE. 
 
 1. Trainixo. 
 
 Bach, Wanderuugen, Turnfahrten, SchiileiTeiscn. 2d ed. 
 *Barth, Ueber den Umgang. 3d ed. Lau;i>umlza. 
 *Kindergottesdienst, Ev. Schulbl. von Dorpfeld, 1887 u. 1888 ; 
 
 Erziehungsschule von Barth. II., 9. 
 Fr. Scholz, Die Cliarakterf elder des Kindes. Leipzig, 1891. 
 *Scholz, Schulreisen. Aus dem piidagog. Universitiits-Sennnar. 
 
 3d No. Lanijensalza, 1890. 
 Schubert, Ueber Schulfeiern. Langcnsaha, 1892. 
 Siegert, Problematische Kindesnaturen. Kreuznach and Leipzig, 
 
 1889. 
 *Striimpell, Die padag. Pathologie. Leipzig, 1890. 
 
 2. Government of Children. 
 
 Emminghaus, Die phj-sischen Sturungen des Kindesalters. Ttlhingrn, 
 
 1887 
 *Xahlo\vsk*y, Ueber Herbarts reforniator. Beruf. Zeitschrift f. 
 
 exakte Philosophie, VII., 391-97. 
 *Rein, Eegierung, Untcrricht u. Zucht. Piidag. Studien. 1st No., 
 
 3d ed. Vienna. 
 *Stoy, Haus- und Schulpolizei. Berlin, 1856. 
 *Ziller, Regierung der Kinder. Leipzig, 1857. 
 
 THE ENGLISH LITERATURE ON THE HERBARTIAN 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 The following references contain the majority of what has been 
 written in English upon the subject of the Herbartian pedagogics. 
 No attempt has been made to refer to works outside of this field, as 
 do the literary references in the original. The English-speaking 
 pedagog will, of course, have a more or less thorough aciiuaint- 
 ance with the already extensive English literature on the subject of 
 Pedagogy in general. He has but to refer to such sources as the 
 BMioqraphy of Education (Boston, 18S6J, by G. S. Hall and J. M. 
 Mansfield, and the " Bibliography of Pedagogy" in Sonnenschem s 
 Cyclopedia of Education (Third ed. 1892), to obtain the most com- 
 
 O
 
 198 OUTLINES OF rEDAGOGICS. 
 
 prehensive and accui-ate directions to tlie literature of every possible 
 department of education, or to Dr. W. T. Harris's Tcarhn-s Course 
 of P7-ofessio7U(I Ecadmg for Home WorJc and Beculhir/ Circles, for a 
 general, profitable course of reading. The following list will be of 
 service to those who desire to become more familiar with the rising 
 Herbartian views : — 
 
 Brown, G. P. : What is Interest? in Fuhlic SchoolJoiirnal, vol. xii., 
 No. 1., Bloomington, 111. 
 
 De Garmo, Dr. Charles: Essentials of Method, Boston, 1889 ; Ethi- 
 cal Training in the Public Schools ; Am. Academy of Pol. and 
 Soc. Science, publication No. 49, Philadelphia ; Language 
 Work below the High Schools, Bloomington, III., since 1887 ; 
 The Herbartian System of Pedagogics, in the Educational 
 Review, New York, vol. i., Nos. 1, 3, and 5 ; The Relation of 
 Instruction to Will Training, in the publications of the Am. 
 Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1890; What does Apperception Mean? in 
 the Public School Journal, vol. x.. No. 11, 1891, Bloomington, 
 III. ; A Popular View of Apperception, Public School Journal, 
 vol. xii., No. 3, Bloomington, III. ; Coordination of Studies, 
 Ed. Kev., vol. iv., No. 5 ; The Educational Value of Natural 
 Science in Elementary Schools, in Ed. Papers by III. Science 
 Teachers, L, 1889-90. 
 
 Donaldson : Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and 
 England, Edinburgh, 1874, mentions Ziller's work briefly and 
 favourably. 
 
 Douglas, C. H. : Certain Views of Herbart on Mathematics and 
 Natural Science, Ed. Rcriew, vol. iii.. No. 5. 
 
 Findlay, J. J.: Herbartian Literature in English, School and College, 
 October and November, 1892. 
 
 Hall, Dr. H. : Notes of the German Schools, contains references' to 
 Herbart. 
 
 Harris, Dr. W. T. : Apperception Defined, and Apperception verstis 
 Perception, in the Public School Journal, vol xi., Nos. 2 
 and 5. 
 
 Herbart : The Science of Education, and The .Esthetic Revelation 
 of the World, translated by Henry M. and Emmie Felkin 
 — Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1892. 
 
 Herbart : Psychology, translated by Miss M. K. Smith, Interna- 
 tional Ed. Series, New York, 1891. 
 
 Klemm, L. R. : European Schools, mentions the Herbartian Peda- 
 gogics, and gives some criticism. International Ed. Series, 
 New York. 
 
 Lange : Ueber Apperception, translated by the Herbart Club in 
 Amei'ica, Boston, 1892. 
 
 Lindner : Empirical Psychology, translated by Dr Charles De 
 Garmo, New York, 1890. 
 
 Lukeri'!, Dr. H. T. : Herbart's Psychological Basis of Teaching, 
 Part II. of Th. B. Noss's Outlines of Psychology and Pedagogy, 
 Pittsburg, 1890. 
 
 McMurry, Dr. Charles A. : The Elements of Genera Method based 
 on the Principles of Herbart, Bloomington, III., 1892 ; A Geo-
 
 LITERARY RF.FEREXCES. 199 
 
 graphy Plan for the Grades of tlie Common Scliools, and 
 Pioneer History Stories for tlie .'^rd and 4tli (irade, IVhtonn, 
 Minn., 1891 ; How to Conduct the Recitation, Teachers' 
 Manuals, Xo. 13, Stv: York and Chicago. 
 
 McMurry, Dr. Frank: The Moral Value of Fairy Tales and Ima- 
 ginative Literature for Children, in Public School Journal, 
 Bloomimjton, III., vol, x., Xo. 11, and vol. xi. , X^o. 3; Rela- 
 lation of Sciences to tlie other Studies, in Ed. Faper^i by 
 III. Science Teachers, i., 1889-90, Peoria. III.; Value of Herb. 
 Ped. for Xormal Schools in Proceedings of Nat. Ed. Assoc, for 
 1892. 
 
 P-rince, J. P. : Methods in German Schools, mentions the Herbartian 
 Pedagogics briefly, and gives some criticism. 
 
 Rihot, T. : German Psychology of To-day, contains a digest of Her- 
 bart's psychology, Xeio York, 1880. 
 
 Salmon, Lucy M. : The Teaching of History in the Elementary 
 Schools, Ed: Rerieio, New York, vol. i., Xo. 5, contains brief 
 reference to the principles of the historical stages of culture 
 and concentration. 
 
 Smith, Margaret K. : Herbart's Life, three articles in the Neiv Eng- 
 land Journal of Education, 18S9. 
 
 Van Lieu:, C. C: Life of Herbart and Development of his Peda- 
 gogical Doctrines — Swan Sonnenschein & Co., London, 1893. 
 
 Ward: Article in the Encyclopo'diu, Britannica on Herbart, im- 
 portant psychologically. 
 
 A number of other articles and reviews might be mentioned that 
 refer to Herbart's works or to Herbartian ideas. As yet Herbart is 
 poorly represented in English Histories of Pedagogics. 
 
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