UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES
 
 THE 
 
 CLAIMS 
 
 EXAMINED AIU- 
 
 REFUTED BIT AROTOMCENT, 
 
 THE CONFESSIONS OF SCHOLARS. 
 
 BY "RUMFORD." 
 
 BOSTON : 
 PRINTED BY MUNROE AND FRANCIS, 4 CORNHTIX 
 
 AUGUSTA 1824.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chap. I. Presumptions and arguments in favour of the languages. 
 Chap. II. On the languages as regards the use of English words. 
 
 Chap. Ill as regards English Grammar. 
 
 Chap. IV as regards style. 
 
 Chap. V as a source of knowledge. 
 
 Chap. VI. . . . . . . as a mental exercise. 
 
 Chap. VII as a resource, and a help to modern 
 
 tongues. 
 
 Chap. VIII as regards the professions. 
 
 Chap. IX. Some account of ancient prosody, so called. 
 Chap. X. Concluding remarks. 
 Appendix, containing Notes and extracts.
 
 Stack 
 Annex 
 
 / oo 3 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 IN the all important concerns of education, the prevailing 
 scheme of study, both here and in Europe, appears to involve 
 a species and a degree of inconsistency wholly unaccount- 
 able. 
 
 During the 16th and 17th centuries, while Grecian philoso- 
 >. phy was in vogue, the reign of error was indeed, beyond 
 5 measure, more extensive ; but it was more consistent Prin- 
 m ciple and practice went together The dogmas of Aristotle 
 ^j passing then for the first principles of science, the empire of 
 authority was universal ; and mental subjugation, as it was 
 unfelt, was unsuspected. The attention then paid to ancient 
 a language, as the natural avenue to ancient wisdom, was but a 
 part of the general delusion and harmonized with it. In the 
 <* system as a whole, however erroneous, there was a congruity 
 and a fitness well calculated both to dazzle and deceive ; and 
 it did deceive for many a generation. But what is the state 
 of things in our day ? Ancient philosophy is altogether ex- 
 ploded. In no one department of science, physical or meta- 
 physical, political or moral, are the ancients looked up to as 
 suitable guides. Their principles, it is true, were not invaria- 
 ble wrong, and their doctrines often were accidentally right ; 
 but their general theories, on all subjects, have long been re- 
 nounced by common consent, as being either visionary, or in- 
 adequate, or ill adapted to the state of the world as we now 
 find it. 
 
 Nor is this any disparagement to those who were called to 
 think and act at earlier periods. When the progress of 
 knowledge is recorded, though but imperfectly, each generation 
 begins its career with better helps it takes its departure from 
 a more advanced point and as this process has been going on 
 ever since the art of writing was first invented, more especial- 
 ly since the art of printing, the present race of men must pos- 
 sess by many degrees a larger fund of intelligence than their 
 remote ancestors, though nowise superior perhaps by nature. 
 To travel over the ground of ancient learning does really seem 
 then like going over our alphabet at the age of manhood. 
 
 397485
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The most passionate admirer of antiquity cannot deny that 
 in our day knowledge is incomparably more accurate, more 
 extensive, and what is better still, of a more practical char- 
 acter. Starting as it does from observation and experi- 
 ment instead of speculation and conjecture, it rests on a more 
 substantial foundation Hence men deceive themselves much 
 less. What now passes for knowledge, is, in a far greater 
 proportion than formerly, really such. Not that the world is 
 free from doubt and hypothesis, for of these there is yet 
 abundance and always will be. Nor are the minds of men 
 exempt from delusion ; for though less frequent, it is in some 
 cases quite as predominant. Of this, the actual state of edu- 
 cation is at once the most striking example, and the most effi- 
 cient cause. What greater infatuation can be imagined than 
 that of retaining the languages as an indispensable branch of 
 education, at a time when every thing they exclusively con- 
 tain is admitted to have lost its value. Yet at this very day 
 the dialects of Greece and Rome are taught with scarcely less 
 enthusiasm than at the period when they were believed to be 
 the only possible source of information. Classical' partialities, 
 for many years expelled our halls of science, still loiter in our 
 schools. Homer and Virgil, Plato and Cicero are still the 
 charm still the precious rosary, by which every youthful as- 
 pirant is taught to count his lessons, and appreciate his mental 
 stock. And worst of all, ancient Prosody, that farce of far- 
 ces, still wins the prize. Now here, if I mistake not, is a force 
 of delusion unmatched by any thing even of the T6th centu- 
 ry an incongruity which no past age could equal, and no fu- 
 ture perhaps ever believe. 
 
 From a train of reflections similar to the foregoing, the au- 
 thor of the following pages was long ago persuaded that the 
 dead languages were far from meriting, and far from compen- 
 sating, the time, the attention, or the expence now bestowed 
 on them. The arguments used in their behalf he was con- 
 vinced must be fallacious. These impressions, so far from 
 having abated by any thing he has since heard, or seen, or 
 read, have gained new force in all respects. 
 
 With a view of bringing the matter into discussion, the 
 greater portion of what is here contained was published last 
 autumn under the form of Essays, in the Boston Centinel ; 
 hoping by that means to draw from those, who seem governed 
 by a contrary persuasion, a lucid, methodical and argumenta- 
 tive exposition of the subject as viewed on their side. But 
 this expectation was not realized. A defence of the reign-
 
 PRETACE. 5 
 
 ii>g system was indeed commenced by two writers in two dif- 
 ferent papers, but soon abandoned ; though not without an 
 eloquent appeal, on the part of one, to the official guardians 
 of ancient learning, to take up its defence, and rescue it from 
 so awkward a posture yet nothing more has appeared.* 
 
 The object in now publishing the substance of those papers 
 under a new form, with some additions, is to avail of a differ- 
 ent path of circulation, and thus give the argument a greater 
 chance of being fully refuted, if it merits such a fate ; or being 
 more read and reflected upon, should it deserve a better. 
 One chance especially it may have in its present shape, which 
 is that of being handled by our periodical writers ; and this 
 perhaps would be as good a way as any of bringing the mat- 
 ter fairly into debate. The habits, talents, and turn of thought, 
 among this class of writers, render them perfectly aufuit, on, 
 such questions ; and if the case be manageable, they will net 
 wait long for an invitation. 
 
 But however well, or however ill, the course of reasoning; 
 here pursued may pass the ordeal of public judgment, to 
 apologize for inviting attention to this or any other topic of 
 general interest, would be almost an insult to the spirit of the 
 age. It is our good fortune to live in times, when nothing is 
 held too sacred to be brought to the test of reason ; and truth 
 may be followed in any direction, without stopping to inquire 
 through whose fields it might lead us. If any one perceives, or 
 thinks he perceives, either a latent defect or a pernicious ten- 
 dency in prevailing habits, customs, or modes of thinking, he 
 is at least justified, perhaps in some measure obligated, to state 
 his argument, and submit the case to the decision of others. 
 I am aware however that there are some prejudices too dear 
 to be abandoned without a sigh ; and persons maybe imagined 
 so peculiarly situated that the stronger the argument, the less 
 welcome the doctrine ; yet whoever might attempt to excite 
 alarm at the consequences, would show by that very attempt 
 that he lives at least half a century too late. 
 
 Education, considered in all its influences, is perhaps the 
 most important subject, next to religion, that can occupy the 
 human mind ; being in some sort the basis, the substratum of 
 that whole mass of habits, feelings, and opinions, which go to 
 constitute character, as well national as individual. And yet 7 
 it is made the subject of mature reflection with very few 
 though often a casual topic of conversation. It is but too 
 
 The reader may see an extract from this appeal in the Appendiv.
 
 6 PREFACE. 
 
 common a failing among parents, even intelligent parents, to 
 distrust their own ability to judge of the proper objects of 
 study, especially as regards the languages. Nine out of ten 
 may perhaps be truly said to have no independent opinion of 
 their own, deduced from data and reasonings of their own. 
 From this cause chiefly, aided however by others, the whole 
 management of school affairs has long been in the hands of 
 certain classes of men, respectable unquestionably, and well 
 informed but still, men whose partialities have in some meas- 
 ure become fixed by their own early studies, and by subse- 
 quent habits a good portion of whom being also in office un- 
 der the system, may well be content to keep things as they 
 are. 
 
 With regard to the importance of the dead languages, faith 
 has floated long enough on loose unscrutinized assumptions, 
 those therefore by whose patronage they are upheld may now 
 very reasonably be called upon for a systematic justification 
 of this sort of study, in the manner and extent now practised. 
 If it can be defended, they will rejoice in any opportunity, 
 however presented, for removing the doubts of others doubts 
 they may be assured much oftener concealed than expressed 
 At all events, the cause can never suffer for want of cham- 
 pions there are pens enough in its service, and good will 
 enough. 
 
 To me, however, the system appears wholly indefensible ; 
 and I have little doubt of satisfying every attentive reader 
 that at any rate the common grounds of defence will not 
 avail. The chief embarrassment lies in the nature of the sub- 
 ject wholly incapable of being disposed of briefly, yet too 
 little attractive to sustain attention at least without other 
 graces than are at my command. But when it is considered 
 what enormous sums of money, to say nothing of the much 
 greater value of time, are constantly and often inconveniently 
 lavished on Greek and Latin, it may be hoped that parents, 
 if no others, will listen with some degree of patience to an at- 
 tempt to prove (what is seriously believed the truth) that all 
 this may be saved without any disadvantage to their children, 
 nay, with a positive benefit to them. 
 
 The reader may be assured, if that will be any comfort to 
 him, that a learned disquisition is not to be aimed at, and for a 
 very good reason, as he may guess ; but so far is it from being 
 needful, the subject is already not a little obscured by the mist 
 of erudition. The endeavour will be to disperse the mist, and 
 make the matter intelligible to plain unlettered common sense.
 
 PREFACE. 7 
 
 Classical men, it may be feared, will be disappointed in every 
 way no flowers of rhetoric no sprigs of classical allusion 
 and not a single line in compliment to ancient learning but 
 as to novelty, they will find one kind of it abundant enough 
 opinions, reasonings and quotations will be of quite another 
 complexion to what they are accustomed. It is not conceded 
 however, that scholars are at all more likely to form a correct 
 judgment on such topics, than any other intelligent men who 
 may choose to investigate for themselves, and draw their own 
 conclusions. One of the best vouchers for correctness of 
 opinion is freedom from all previous bias, in which respect 
 other men have greatly the advantage and if the reflecting 
 portion of the community could once be prevailed upon to 
 think really for themselves in these matters, I am inclined to 
 believe that many academic notions, now current, would soon 
 lose their effect. 
 
 Indeed, to take things even as we find them, the classical 
 scheme may be said to rest quite as much on fashion as on 
 any settled persuasion of its benefit. " It is surprising (says 
 Dr. Gilchrist in his book on Etymolgy) that so few have per- 
 ceived how destructive to intellect the prevailing system of 
 classical education is ; or rather that so few have had courage to 
 avow if." Now here is pointed out one of the principal causes 
 that has operated to keep these studies in vogue. It is not so 
 much the universality of belief in their efficacy, as the want 
 of sufficient independence, on the part of those who doubt, 
 to declare their real sentiments. It is very apparent that 
 classical learning has long been on the decline in Europe, not- 
 withstanding its far more intimate connexion, in numberless 
 ways, with the government, the church, and in short the 
 whole structure of society, than it has now, or ever has had. 
 in this country. Here, there is certainly no decline ; but 
 yet here, as well as there, a considerable portion of those who 
 have gone through the regular course, think by no means 
 highly of it, and this they often confess under the rose the 
 mischief is, they az*e deterred from a free expression of their 
 thoughts, by the overwhelming influence of established insti- 
 tutions. It is gratifying to observe that in England at least, a 
 more manly tone is of Inte becoming prevalent, of which the 
 reader will find some specimens, well deserving his perusal, 
 here printed in the appendix. They are taken from period- 
 ical works of some celebrity ; which being uniformly con- 
 ducted by scholars of note, it is scholars themselves who 
 speak in the pages referred to and as the same remark will
 
 8 PREFACE. 
 
 apply to nine tenths of all the quotations I have thought pro- 
 per to introduce in the course of the argument, it is perfectly 
 fair, in short almost unavoidable, to consider all these, as far 
 as they go, as so many concessions made by an opponent. In- 
 deed, in any other light, few would have been admitted ; for 
 to appeal to authority in argumentative discussions is always 
 a sort of pctitio principii, or in common parlance, begging the 
 question. 
 
 Before closing these prefatory remarks, already long 
 enough, I beg leave to say a few words on the manner in 
 which the inquiry is pursued, at this time and before not 
 however in a literary point of view, for I hold the art of 
 writing, or in other words, the facings and trimmings of litera- 
 ry composition, at too cheap a rate to feel any solicitude on 
 that score. But it has been hinted by more than one, whose 
 opinion on the general subject accords sufficiently well with 
 my own, that a sort of sneering air pervades the whole, at 
 which offence may very likely be taken. As to this, the read- 
 er must bear in mind, in justice to the writer, that when schol- 
 ars are spoken of, reference is made abstractly to their scholar- 
 ship for which having really no great respect, it would have 
 been a breach of candour to counterfeit what 1 could not feel. 
 Whether Dr. Watts be right in saying that " a mere scholar is 
 but a contemptible sort of thing in the world" is perhaps doubt- 
 ful, at least as to this country ; but what we all know is, that 
 for the active, purposes of life, he is for the most part a very help- 
 less sort of thing. Nevertheless when this species of learning 
 is allied to valuable acquisitions of other kinds, as it often is ; 
 and especially when properly kept under, as it sometimes is ; 
 I may with perfect consistency, and actually do entertain a 
 sincere regard for its possessor, though none for the object 
 possessed. Classical learning, as I view it, adds nothing to the 
 merit of any man ; nor on the other hand can it subtract any 
 thing. If those who make scholarship their hobby, feel hurt 
 at any thing contained in these pages (which by the way is 
 not very likely) no apology would answer any purpose ; and 
 as to the far larger portion, as I believe them to be, who wear 
 their robe loosely, as a mere dress of fashion ; their real sen- 
 timent, could we get at it, would differ from mine, there is 
 reason to believe, much less them is generally supposed.
 
 CLASSICAL LEARNING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Presumptions in favour of the dead languages considered their 
 alleged advantages stated. 
 
 THE advocates of classical learning often contend, and with 
 apparent gravity, that its utility is no longer a debateable 
 point that such strong presumptions may be shown in its fa- 
 vour as ought to supersede all farther inquiry into its merits. 
 It is presumable, say they, that a branch of instruction, which 
 has continued for many centuries, and been so generally ap- 
 proved, must possess intrinsic value, and should therefore be 
 entitled to a distinguished place in every system of liberal 
 education. This to be sure is a handy way of proving a 
 thing useful ; but it will not bear examination. The inference 
 they would draw, though plausible enough at first view, will, 
 on a little reflection, be found to rest on a twofold assumption, 
 which the experience of all ages might refute. It supposes 
 that any species of knowledge, or course of tuition, that was 
 found advantageous in early periods of the world, must nec- 
 essarily be so in all subsequent periods ; and it supposes like- 
 wise that whatever obtains general assent must have truth 
 and value for its basis. But the slightest acquaintance with 
 the history of human society, and human knowledge, might 
 lead us to distrust either branch of the hypothesis. As re- 
 gards the first, that what was useful in former times must be 
 useful now, so far from being founded on proof, it is even de- 
 void of probability. For it would seem much more likely, 
 antecedent to all observation, that when important changes 
 2
 
 10 CHAPTER I. 
 
 have occurred in the condition of mankind, a corresponding 
 change becomes expedient in matters of instruction. Not on- 
 ly maj the value of different branches of knowledge have al- 
 tered materially, but others before wholly unknown, yet of 
 inestimable importance to the comforts and happiness of men, 
 may have been brought into life ; which indeed is actually 
 the case in our day. In a progressive age therefore the 
 chance always is, that systems of long standing are not pre- 
 cisely such as the period requires; and habit, in such an age, 
 becomes a dead weight, which, if not cast off, must inevitably 
 retard the progress. Education indeed, if wholly unfettered 
 by prejudice, would naturally keep pace with the mutations 
 incident to society, otherwise there could be nothing rational 
 about it. And is it supposable that the industrious and en- 
 terprising men of our day, or even the professional and scien- 
 tific, are best fitted for pursuing their several vocations by the 
 school learning of antiquity the learning of an age as unlike 
 our own in character as it is remote in time ? 
 
 But the argument I now oppose is almost too frivolous to 
 need an elaborate examination. Do those who hold such 
 language mean to insist, that the practice of ages long passed 
 by is alone competent authority for us ? If they do, then, in- 
 stead of confining their patronage to the dead languages, they 
 ought, if they would be consistent, to revive a Ichy my, astrolo- 
 gy, necromancy, scholastic philosophy, and a thousand other 
 fooleries and nonentities, which the common sense of mankind 
 has long since exploded. This whole train of follies, one as 
 much as another, have an equal right, under this argument, to 
 protection and encouragement. Consequently, either the doc- 
 trine has no validity whatever, or each and every one of the 
 impostures just mentioned should again take rank at our seats 
 of learning an alternative that may well be left with such 
 reasoners to choose as they list. 
 
 With regard to the other notion, that a prevailing favoura- 
 ble opinion is adequate proof of intrinsic excellence ; I admit 
 it to be presumptive proof, but nothing more for most certain- 
 ly neither sound philosophy, nor subsequent experience, has 
 invariably justified public sentiment. Many are the sources 
 of error, and many the causes that may combine to fasten it 
 upon the world. The influence of education and of habit, 
 the proneness to imitation, the veneration for antiquity, and in- 
 numerable others, separately or collectively, may operate to 
 this end. Hence it is, that in topics of this nature, moralists 
 as well as metaphysicians have ever found inexhaustible
 
 CHAPTER I. 11 
 
 themes both for speculation and admonition. Nor could any 
 thing better deserve their most serious meditation ; for here 
 lie the germs of numberless prejudices. When causes like 
 these, having a deep foundation in human nature, have co-op- 
 erated to perpetuate either a speculative doctrine or a practi- 
 cal line of conduct, their combined efficacy has been truly 
 surprising. What monstrous errors, both of theory and prac- 
 tice, have, in different periods of the world, controlled the 
 minds and guided the actions of men, not only for years, but 
 even centuries in succession errors so pernicious in their 
 tendency, and, once dispelled, so manifest too, as to create as- 
 tonishment they should ever have prevailed. Whoever has 
 turned over the page of history will find many examples of 
 this nature press on his recollection. 
 
 We need not remount, in search of apt illustrations, to those 
 periods, which by force of custom we call the brilliant eras 
 of Greece and Rome ; but during which, in truth, the whole 
 body of philosophy and the whole course of practice were 
 little else than error and superstition ; nor shall I advert to 
 the evanescent subtleties of monkish metaphysics, which the 
 schoolmen of the 12th and 13th centuries imposed on the 
 world as real knowledge. It is directly to our purpose, how- 
 ever, to call to mind another delusion, immediately relating to 
 education, which took its rise or rather was revived about the 
 same period, and unhappily maintained its ascendency through 
 many ages, quite down to our own times ; I mean Syllogistic 
 Logic. The intricate web of sophistry, to which the method 
 of syllogism owed its origin, was so ingeniously wrought by 
 Aristotle, that soon after the revival of his philosophy, the 
 method was adopted in all the Schools, Colleges, and other 
 literary institutions, as the grand, or rather the only efficient 
 instrument for eliciting truth or detecting error in every de- 
 partment of knowledge. Yet modern reasoners have proved 
 to demonstration (particularly Locke, Reid, and Stewart,) that 
 this system of logic, with all its " wild meanders of mood and 
 figure," can furnish no clue whatever to those intermediate 
 ideas, which, in every argumentative process, constitute the 
 proof. In short, as a mode of investigation, it is manifestly 
 useless, and has been so considered by every writer of the 
 last half century, with the single exception, as far as I know, 
 of the author of two volumes on Rhetoric and Oratory. He 
 indeed seems strangely fascinated with this splendid bubble of 
 the Stagyrite ; which, as Lord Kames well observes, is " beau- 
 tiful in form and colours, but empty within." Such as the
 
 12 CHAPTER I. 
 
 scheme was, however, with all its absurdity and all its formal 
 pedantry, the world regarded it for ages, under sanction of 
 the schools, as the only path to knowledge. Here then was a 
 branch of instruction, of so imposing an aspect, as to take 
 precedence of all others in academic institutions, for several 
 generations after its futility had been completely exposed. Is 
 it possible to have a case more in point ?* 
 
 Nor have such mistakes by any means been confined to 
 subjects purely speculative. The records of physical sci- 
 ence, of astronomy, chemistry, geography, agriculture, me- 
 chanics, and in short every branch, furnish not less numerous 
 nor less striking memorials of human fallibility Nay, in mat- 
 ters still more practical, in commerce, where men profess to 
 be guided exclusively by observation and experiment, as 
 their polar stars, hypothesis has often triumphed in despite 
 even of common sense. For a long course of years, as we 
 all know, the only criterion of advantageous commerce was 
 thought to consist in the balance of trade ; and it is quite with- 
 in our own times, that this mistaken theory has been exploded. 
 So likewise on notions equally delusive, was founded the self- 
 ish system of exclusion and restriction which for ages past 
 has most injuriously abridged the mercantile intercourse of 
 nations ; and here too, as far at least as Europe is concerned, 
 we perceive at last the force of error rapidly giving way un- 
 der a more liberal and much wiser policy. In matters of this 
 kind, where some of us, perhaps, feel more at home, we can 
 better realize the progress of knowledge we can almost dis- 
 cern the precise manner, in which, sooner or later, the light of 
 reason chases away the fog of prejudice. 
 
 * It may reasonably create astonishment with all who are not aware to what 
 lengths classic faith will sometimes push on its devotees, to find this relic of 
 vain philosophy still the object of adoration. 'I he opinion of the author above 
 alluded to is not more singular, however, than the manner in which it is con- 
 veyed. Speaking of syllogism, he says, " It is enough for me to believe it the 
 most compendious and most irresistible process of reason that the human mind 
 has ever discovered ; and having the express authority of Aristotle for exclud- 
 ing it from the ways and moans of oratory, 1 need not enter into the scrutiny 
 how far it may be useful elsewhere." What ! Aristotle exclude from oratory 
 " the most irresistible process of reason ?" a process too of his own inven- 
 tion ? The ancient sage must really have been a very droll fellow ; and his 
 disciple also a little bit of a wag. Seriously however, if oratory be addressed 
 to our rational faculties, why interdict the best mode of reasoning ? Jf it be 
 not so addressed, why write two volumes to sel forth its excellence ? (see vol. 
 2. page 37.) I am Tiappy to see that Professor Hedge, in his unpretending, 
 yet very judicious little book, estimates the thing differently and much more 
 philosophically.
 
 CHAPTER I. 13 
 
 Of all infatuations, however, none are more astonishing than 
 the absurd and revolting superstitions, which have marked 
 the course of man in his religious rites and tenets degrading 
 often the human character to the brute, the divine to the hu- 
 man. 
 
 The sort of opinions and practices to which we have just 
 adverted, it may be remarked, were always errors, at what- 
 ever period they may have been in vogue. There never was 
 a time when any of them were true, just or expedient. Be- 
 sides these, however, there have no doubt been doctrines, cus- 
 toms, and habits of other kinds, which at certain epochs were 
 well adapted to existing circumstances, and for a while there- 
 fore were just or proper yet, owing to some change in the 
 ever-varying state of human society, became at length preju- 
 dicial and it is a common observation, that, from the very 
 nature of habit, such things will often continue long after 
 their justifying causes or motives have ceased. "Men retain 
 the errors of their infancy, their country and the age in which 
 they live, (says a French writer) long after the truths neces- 
 sary to the removal of those errors are acknowledged." 
 Whether classical studies belong to the former or the latter 
 description of customs, it is not needful to determine. It may 
 be they really were useful in the early periods of modern Eu- 
 rope ; though even this, to my mind, is not very apparent. 
 Whether so or not, no man, it is presumed, will go so far as to 
 maintain that the time can never arrive when they may be 
 spared but if such a period be possible, it may now be pres- 
 ent ; and what proof have we that it is not ? At any rate, 
 the slightest glance at the history of mankind is enough to 
 convince us that implicit confidence should never be reposed 
 in the truth of any theory, or the propriety of any custom 
 merely because it has reigned long and obtained general as- 
 sent. Even in the present age we have no right to think our- 
 selves infallible ; for with all the light that advanced know- 
 ledge and improved science diffuse around, what can insure 
 us against error, should education, custom, and the spirit of 
 imitation conspire to impose it. 
 
 While therefore we are bound to regard with suitable re- 
 spect whatever is ancient and of long standing, it no less be- 
 hoves us on the other hand to be watchful against any undue 
 bias from this source. A reverence for antiquity is indeed so 
 natural and so common, giving rise at the same time to preju- 
 dices so numerous, that the learned and candid Dr. Watts, 
 in his book on Logic, has not only classed it among the springs
 
 14 CHAPTER I. 
 
 of false judgment, but dwells on it with peculiar emphasis 
 and repeated cautions. The following quotations* have a di- 
 rect application to our subject : " It is custom (says he) and 
 not reason that sends every boy to school to learn the Roman 
 Poets, and begin a little acquaintance with Greek before he is 
 bound out an apprentice." Again he says, " This business of 
 fashion has a most powerful influence on our judgment ; for it 
 employs the two strong engines, fear and shame, to operate on 
 our understandings with unhappy success. We are ashamed 
 to believe or profess any unfashionable opinion in philoso- 
 phy." " We pay deference to the opinions of others merely 
 because they lived two thousand years before us ; and even the 
 trifles and impertinences that have the mark of antiquity up- 
 on them, are reverenced for this reason, because they came 
 from the ancients." He further remarks, " to believe in all 
 things as our predecessors did is the ready way to keep man- 
 kind in an everlasting state of infancy." Finally, he says in 
 another book,t " If we would find out the truth, we must in 
 many cases dare to deviate from the long beaten track, and 
 venture to think with a free and unbiased liberty." With 
 similar independence of sentiment, that great detecter of an- 
 cient sophistry, Locke, observes " some will not admit an 
 opinion not authorized by men of old who were then all gi- 
 ants in knowledge. Nothing is to be put into the scale of 
 truth which has not the stamp of Greece or Rome upon it ; 
 and it is scarcely allowed that since those days men have 
 been able to see, think or write."J So too my Lord Chester- 
 field, who surely cannot be accused of classical antipathies : 
 " We are really so prejudiced by our education, that as the 
 ancients deified their heroes, so we deify their madmen, of 
 which, with all due regard to antiquity, I take Leonidas and 
 Curtius to be two distinguished ones."|| The class of preju- 
 dices of which we are now speaking is also finely satirized 
 by Pope, 
 
 " Authors, like coins, grow dear as they grow old ; 
 But 'tis the rust we value, not the gold." 
 
 Such then are the sentiments of men who knew how to ap- 
 
 * Watts's Logic, part 2. chap. 3. sec. 4. 
 t Watts on the Mind, part 2. chap. 4. 
 t Locke on the Understanding, sec. 24. 
 i| Chesterfield's Selected Letters, page 97.
 
 CHAPTER I. 15 
 
 preciate the potent influence of fashion, education and author- 
 ity, in matters of opinion. 
 
 It would no doubt be always an instructive, and sometimes 
 an amusing exercise, to investigate the causes that have orig- 
 inated, or given permanence to any prevailing custom ; but as 
 this can never be considered an indispensable preliminary to 
 a discussion of its real merits, we may well avoid on the pre- 
 sent occasion so extensive a field of research. This remark 
 naturally points our attention more directly to the subject pro- 
 posed for consideration. 
 
 That Latin and Greek are eminently useful, in some way 
 or other, is a belief taken up so early in life, that no man is 
 able to say how or when he came by it. The notion is imbi- 
 bed almost in infancy ; and ever after, in school, in college, 
 in society at large, its echo meets our ear ; and thus it passes 
 as a self-evident axiom requiring neither proof nor authority. 
 All seem to partake the impression, though few ever think of 
 assigning to themselves any reason at all, and none I believe 
 could assign a good one. 
 
 So numerous indeed are the pleasing associations by which 
 these studies are surrounded, and so extensive the influence 
 of literary institutions in which they are pursued, that one 
 may be thought almost to commit a sacrilege in doubting their 
 utility. Yet could we regard them, divested of all imaginary 
 charms and excellences ; they might appear perhaps quite 
 unworthy the homage they have received. In short, the im- 
 portance attached to them might exhibit possibly another in- 
 stance of those wide-spread and lasting delusions, that have so 
 often reigned unsuspected, and for this very reason unexamin- 
 ed. In this light, as I believe, the matter will sooner or later 
 appear to all. 
 
 Numberless are the encomiums, incidental and special, 
 which the studies here objected to have received from the 
 pens of the learned ; while in the transient conversations of so- 
 cial life, they gather a daily tribute of praise and admiration. 
 But commendation of the latter kind being more frequently 
 the offspring of fashion, than reflection, and seldom supported 
 by any show of reasoning, to the former we must refer, if we 
 would wish to know the kind or degree of utility ascribed to 
 such studies. Unfortunately, however, their eulogists among 
 writers have been almost as vague as among talkers. The 
 most definite of any perhaps are, Dr. Beattie in his essay on 
 classical learning, Dr. Gregory in an essay on the same sub- 
 ject, and those celebrated teachers Drs. Barrow and Knox in
 
 16 CUAPTKtt 1. 
 
 their ample volumes on education all learned men, though 
 each of them abounding, as we shall see, in occasional confes- 
 sions quite at variance with their theories. The substance of 
 all the arguments advanced by these writers, or as far as I 
 know, by others, may be embraced in the following proposi- 
 tions : 
 
 1st. That the true signification of numerous English words 
 can be learnt only by appealing to Latin. 
 
 2d. That an acquaintance with the structure of the dead 
 languages leads to a more accurate grammatical knowledge 
 of our own. 
 
 3d. That a familiarity with the ancient classics imparts an 
 elegance and gives a polish to English composition, unattaina- 
 ble by other means. 
 
 4th. That ancient writings contain a fund of valuable know- 
 ledge, to which the mere English reader has no access. 
 
 5th. That they open an inexhaustible source of rational 
 and elegant amusement for leisure hours, and thus wean us 
 from recreations less innocent, or less praiseworthy. 
 
 6th. That these studies afford a salutary exercise of the 
 mental faculties, induce habits of application, and occupy a 
 period of youth which could not otherwise be advantageously 
 employed. 
 
 Such are the recommendations most frequently urged in 
 behalf of classical studies ; and if the reader will reflect up- 
 on it, he will find that all he has ever heard said on that side, 
 or at least all that has had any weight in his mind, will fall 
 under one or the other of these heads. Not that they em- 
 brace all, strictly speaking ; for so boundless is modern grati- 
 tude that scarcely any excellence, real or imaginary, but has 
 been accounted for in that way. Mr. Knox, indeed, seems to 
 think that every thing desirable will follow in the train ; and 
 that taste, religion, virtue, and even the liberties of mankind 
 are intimately connected with the support of ancient learning. 
 The last North American Review also contains something of 
 this stamp. In an article on classical learning we find all the 
 old grounds neglected ; and the writer flutters away over 
 fields entirely new, and so nimbly as rarely to be got sight of. 
 If a reader can catch him anywhere, it must be at one of these 
 points that some foreign literature is indispensable, and any 
 but the classics would endanger our literary independence 
 that they are faithful assistants of creative genius, (though by 
 the way Knox admits their barrenness of invention) thatas we 
 have no ancient monuments in this country, no ruins, no
 
 CHAPTER I. 17 
 
 specimens of art, no Roman jurisprudence, we must fain take 
 their language or nothing which as any one may perceive is 
 begging the question all the way through. But such extrava- 
 gance is the legitimate object of ridicule, not of argument. 
 The preceding six propositions (or arguments if you please to 
 call them) it is intended to treat successively, and as far as 
 possible specifically. And in doing this I expect to satisfy 
 the reader, that if classical learning is destined still to triumph 
 (in reason I mean) the victory must be won under new ban- 
 ners. 
 
 It would be nowise difficult to show at the outset, that my 
 sentiments on this subject, though counter to the main stream 
 of opinion, are far from being entirely new that in many re- 
 spects they have found advocates among such men as Bacon, 
 Locke, Kames, Priestley, Sheridan and many others of high 
 standing in literature and science. Volumes might be filled 
 with quotations of this tendency. I shall here offer but two, 
 and those from writers yet more recent, and whose sentiments 
 are yet more distinctly expressed. Mr. Heron, whose clas- 
 sical attainments no one can doubt, expresses himself, in his 
 " Letters on Literature" as follows u One of the most glar- 
 ing defects in the present state of pedantic science (by which 
 he means the science of education) is the great time wasted in 
 acquiring the dead languages, which in nine cases out of ten 
 are of no use to the child, but in fact are quite neglected and 
 forgotten by him in a few months after he leaves the school. 
 Perfection of folly, to waste the precious years of human life 
 in learning useless languages."* Again, speaking of such a 
 student, he says, " his being a man all his life is of no conse- 
 quence, provided he is a scholar for a few years prejudice, 
 prejudice ! when will the happy period arrive that human 
 kind will break thy detestable shackles, only strong from the 
 weakness of the wearer." My next citation is from a spirited 
 essay against the prevailing system, written by the late cele- 
 brated Dr. Rush of Philadelphia, about forty years since 
 " The expulsion of Latin and Greek from our schools would 
 produce a revolution in science and in human affairs Tbat 
 nation which shall first shake off the fetters of those ancient 
 languages, will advance further in knowledge and in happi- 
 ness, in twenty years, than any nation in Europe has done in a 
 hundred. 1 '! This anticipation of the Doctor's appears to me to 
 
 * Heron's Lt-tters, page 348. 
 t Rush's Essay.
 
 18 CHAPTER I. 
 
 be a conclusion of sound philosophy ; resulting from a compre- 
 hensive view of things, and from a just comparison of the 
 sort of knowledge required by the existing circumstances of 
 the world, contrasted with the deficiency as well as the de- 
 fects of the reigning system a system, to the whole of which 
 might very properly be applied the reflections of a learned 
 Professor on certain parts of it " we call to mind (says he) 
 that this weighty chain of prescription was forged in other 
 times and under other circumstances ; why then should we 
 hesitate in refusing to drag it after us any longer, now that a 
 change has taken place ?"* It must be confessed, however, 
 that the efficacy of all past attempts to stem the torrent of 
 prejudice has been small ; and although in the present in- 
 stance it may be still less, there is yet some consolation in the 
 belief, grounded on various indications, that the lapse of an- 
 other half century will witness a radical change of public 
 sentiment in this respect. 
 
 If it be wondered, that such a prediction should be hazard- 
 ed at a moment when all our classical seminaries are gradual- 
 ly expanding under the bright sunshine of public patronage, 
 and private munificence ; let it be remembered, it was at the 
 very acme of papal supremacy that Luther and his coadjutors 
 arose, and by a bold appeal to men's reason, rent asunder 
 the fetters of mental bondage, and laid prostrate the Romish 
 tiara. It is indeed when error is most triumphant that it is 
 most felt, and then is precisely the time to expect its over- 
 throw. The moon can be eclipsed only at her full. It must 
 not be imagined, however, that the author of these remarks so 
 wofully mistakes his own powers as to fancy that he is to be 
 the instrument of a similar revolution in matters of education. 
 He is under no such illusion yet there is a chance of awak- 
 ening attention, and thus stimulating others who are equal to 
 the task ; and of such he believes there are not a few. No 
 doubt the prepossessions by which the existing system is sus- 
 tained are as tenacious as they are numerous, and run through 
 every vein of society ; yet to overcome them would require 
 by no means the genius, nor the learning, though perhaps it 
 might all the perseverance, that fell to the lot of the illustrious 
 reformer in religion. The consequences of such a change 
 would, in my opinion, be no less beneficial to the best inter- 
 ests of society. 
 
 * North American Review, TO!, llth. page 211.
 
 CHAPTER II. 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 TJie dead languages, no guide to the signification of English 
 
 words. 
 
 HAVING offered such preliminary remarks as seemed 
 appropriate, we now come into closer contact with the spe- 
 cific? arguments usually advanced on the side of classical stu- 
 dies. Of those arguments none perhaps is so uniformly in- 
 sisted upon as this that great aid may thence be obtained for 
 determining the true import of English words yet nothing, I 
 venture to say, can be more fallacious. That a doctrine so 
 industriously promulgated should have made its way into the 
 minds even of well informed people, is not indeed to be won- 
 dered at ; but we may well be surprised to find it sanctioned 
 by scholars, whose acquaintance with classic tongues should 
 have taught them better. This sanction is the more extraor- 
 dinary, and indeed quite unaccountable, since it is well known 
 that the higher grade of philological writers men in whom 
 were united the attainments of the linguist, metaphysician, 
 and logician all admit that no foreign language whatever 
 can be of any avail in this respect. The authorities that 
 might be appealed to on this head would be conclusive ; not 
 however by the mere influence of names, for that should 
 weigh little ; but by the cogency of their reasonings. In- 
 deed every man, who has maturely considered the nature 
 and use of words as conventional signs of ideas, would con- 
 cede the point at once ; for signs, to be conventional, must re- 
 ceive their signification from common consent. But as many 
 persons, possibly the majority, have never turned their 
 thoughts this way, the subject must be gone into at some 
 length, and viewed in various lights, in order to convince such 
 persons that foreign tongues can have no agency in the case. 
 But in the first place I would call the reader's attention to 
 the manner in which the claims of scholarship are usually 
 set forth. Often it consists of nothing more than some gene- 
 ral assertion, that such or such good effects is produced. But 
 the more usual way perhaps is to adopt a phraseology wholly 
 indeterminate, which, though implying much, may easily find
 
 20 CHAPTER II. 
 
 in its own vagueness a safeguard against any decisive refuta- 
 tion. Sometimes however the thing is managed in another 
 way a proposition is laid down in terms sufficiently distinct, 
 and is argued upon ; but afterwards certain exceptions, quali- 
 fications, and explanations are admitted, of such a nature as 
 to destroy its whole force. To illustrate, we may take what 
 Dr. Gregory says on the very topic now in hand In his es- 
 say before referred to, he relies on bare assertion, as follows, 
 " It is impossible (says he) to know the full force, the correct 
 application of words, without in some degree, being acquaint- 
 ed with their source." But in his Letters, where the topic is 
 more enlarged upon, he proceeds after the manner last descri- 
 bed. He begins at page 40 in this way, " one of the princi- 
 pal advantages of the dead languages is, that it acquaints us 
 with the etymology of the many words derived from them, 
 and this is often the most certain guide to their correct appli- 
 cation." We see here, that the Dr. is a little cautious at the 
 very beginning but observe how the proposition is frittered 
 away afterwards " Etymology (he says on the same page) 
 will only lead us to the literal sense," which sense, by the 
 way, every reader knows, is only one out of many. On the 
 next page he adds, " The true command of language is at 
 last only to be gained by a diligent perusal of The best au- 
 thors," meaning, evidently from the context, English authors. 
 Finally he tells us, three pages farther on, with regard to the 
 choice of words, " Consult (says he) the best authors, and 
 observe their different applications. The original sense is not 
 always a certain guide in the use of common words, though, if 
 nicely attended to, it will sometimes help us to the reasons of 
 their application." Now the reader will clearly perceive, that 
 if due allowance be made for these explanations, the original 
 proposition has entirely vanished ; and etymology, on sum- 
 ming up the account, is not worth a straw But I proceed to 
 argument. 
 
 That the dead languages can be of no avail, may be made 
 apparent in various ways : In the first place it is evident, 
 with regard to a great number of words, that, as their origin is 
 unknown, a resort to the parent tongue would be impossible. 
 With regard to all others it would be deceptive, because not a 
 term we use bears precisely the same signification with us, as 
 in the language whence it was taken. Scarcely a word could 
 be named, of Latin derivation, which has not gained some 
 new meaning (in general many) unknown to the Romans ; 
 and converselj r , not one perhaps but has lost some of its an-
 
 CHAPTER II. 21 
 
 cient acceptations. In fact by far the larger portion of such 
 words, having come to us not directly but mediately through 
 the French, experienced no inconsiderable change of mean- 
 ing on their passage. So that the French use much more 
 nearly coincides with ours than the Latin does yet who ever 
 advised studying French for this purpose ? 
 
 Another thing to be considered is (which those who insist 
 on sending us back to Latin seem wholly to overlook) that in 
 Latin, as in all other languages, words are used in various 
 senses ; and how are we to choose ? 
 
 Again, if the import of terms in the parent tongue be the 
 proper standard for us, why are we referred to English Dic- 
 tionaries ? Why not to Latin, French, Anglo-Saxon, or Ger- 
 man ? Or why does JOHNSON illustrate his definitions by quo- 
 tations from English authors and not from Latin ? Surely if 
 etymology be the true guide, that great lexicographer was 
 capitally mistaken in the whole scheme of his work we 
 ought indeed to set him down as a lunatic, and consign his book 
 to future generations, under the persuasion that about five cen- 
 turies hence, according to this theory, it will be nearly old 
 enough to be serviceable. 
 
 But the futility of this etymological doctrine will appear 
 more glaring, by considering the ultimate principle on which 
 it rests, and whither it would lead us. This principle is, that 
 the first use of a word, whencesoever it sprang, must regulate 
 all its subsequent applications consequently we must mount 
 up to the original source, if we would ascertain the true import. 
 That we can stop no where short of this, when once we leave 
 our own boundaries, will be evident from the following reflec- 
 tion : that the word whose meaning we seek may possibly 
 not be original in the language whence we have taken it, and 
 may, for all we know, be as doubtfully applied there as in our 
 own. If therefore any such term can be traced to the Latin, we 
 must next inquire how it came there ; and this probably would 
 refer us to the Greek. But there the case may be the same 
 and we should be sent to some more eastern dialect, and so on 
 for as the Greeks were indebted to eastern nations for most 
 of their knowledge and science, so were they also in a good 
 measure for their language, even to their very alphabet. But 
 suppose, if you please, that in ascending this stream of pedi- 
 gree, we reach its source, and thus ascertain in what tongue a 
 word took its rise ; the next step is to seek for the original 
 signification in which it was used (for the plain reason that all 
 others may be wrong) and this most certainly could never be
 
 22 CHAPTER II. 
 
 found. Consequently we should be no nearer the object of 
 pursuit at the end than at the beginning of our labours ; and 
 should return from the chase of this ignis fatuus, bewildered 
 and deceived. Such then being the probable and even nec- 
 essary result of etymological researches, how unphilosophic- 
 al, how utterly futile must be the doctrine we now oppose. 
 Let us make however one supposition more let us suppose a 
 man so miraculously gifted as to be able to discover the orig- 
 inal sense, strictly speaking, of a few words ; and that he 
 were to construct a sentence with reference to that sense ; 
 what would be the eeffect ? why simply this, that no other 
 mortal living could guess its meaning. 
 
 Lest this course of reasoning, however, should not be equal- 
 ly convincing to all, I beg leave to place the subject in yet 
 another light. It will be readily allowed that not more than 
 one in ten among us knows any thing of the dead languages, 
 nor one in a hundred is familiar with them. In such a state 
 of things it follows unavoidably either that ninety-nine out of 
 the hundred talk and write habitually without understanding 
 each other at all that is to say we " gabble like things most 
 brutish ;" or else we have some criterion in regard to signifi- 
 cation independent of Latin or Greek. But we find by daily 
 experience that we do understand each other those who are 
 not scholars just as well as those who are consequently the 
 standard of meaning must exist in our own language and no 
 where else. This standard is custom or good usage, as exem- 
 plified in approved English authors ; and it has been so re- 
 cognized by all writers on grammar arid criticism for many 
 years past. That such is and must be the only standard is 
 ably set forth in Dr. CAMPBELL'S " Philosophy of Rhetoric"* 
 and in various other established works. 
 
 The diversified significations thus assigned by usage, have, 
 with infinite labour, been sought out by lexicographers, and 
 methodically compiled in the form of dictionaries where 
 lies our first resort. If in any case we are not satisfied with 
 their decisions we may ultimately appeal to authors of repute 
 in our own language ; but in no case whatever to Latin or any 
 foreign tongue. There might be thought perhaps at first view, 
 to be exceptions to this rule, in woros recently introduced ; 
 since fashion, it would seem, is never tired of borrowing from 
 the French, and pedantry seldom satisfied without something 
 
 * Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. B. 2. chap. 1.
 
 CHAPTER II. 23 
 
 new from the Latin. But in truth, even in these cases we 
 could never feel sure of getting at the sense intended, by re- 
 sorting to other tongues ; for any man, who would be pedant 
 enough to use words entirely new without at the same time 
 defining their sense in plain English, we may rely upon it. 
 would be fool enough to use them improperly. 
 
 If I thought it probable the foregoing reasonings would yet 
 leave many readers unsatisfied, the subject might be elucida- 
 ted in divers other ways, especially by showing how common 
 a thing it is for a derivative word to differ materially in sense 
 from its radical, even when this radical is of native origin. 
 Besides, have not most of our words many and distinct signi- 
 fications, some even forty or fifty ? Is not their origin in 
 numberless cases disputed ? Is not a large portion, perhaps 
 the greater portion of them, used metaphorically ? Are they 
 not, both in force and import, singularly modified by the con- 
 text ? But the arguments against this whimsical doctrine are 
 so numerous and so various it would be almost an endless, and 
 I imagine quite a superfluous task to pursue them any farther. 
 The truth is, however admirable a contrivance language may 
 seem to be, in the eye of philosophy as a means of expres- 
 sing the subtle operations of mind it is really a much less 
 perfect thing than is commonly supposed. The principal index 
 to signification, and the principal source of all variety, is con- 
 nexion. A word separately taken, since it may be the sign of 
 several, indeed many, different ideas, could seldom or never 
 suggest any thing definite ; but place it in a sentence, and the 
 context will enable us with little or no hesitation to attach the 
 idea intended. Hence words, by themselves, can hardly be 
 said to be pictures of thought, though in combination they 
 certainly are so to a sufficient degree of precision for all or- 
 dinary purposes. We talk (says Stewart) of the mechanisn of 
 speech, but are apt to forget the far more wonderful mechan- 
 ism which it puts into action behind the scene. Whoever 
 may wish to see this curious branch of the subject illustrated 
 in a manner equally beautiful and philosophical will find it in 
 Dugald Stewart's 5th Essay. 
 
 Finally, to have a more distinct conception, both of the fol- 
 ly and the danger of seeking beyond the customary use of 
 language for the meaning of words, let one but consider a mo- 
 ment what would be the effect of interpreting our /eras on 
 that principle. It would require no gift of prophecy to fore- 
 see that in less than one year after such a system began to 
 operate, the whole structure of society would be completely
 
 22 CHAPTER II. 
 
 found. Consequently we should be no nearer the object of 
 pursuit at the end than at the beginning of our labours ; and 
 should return from the chase of this ignis fatuus, bewildered 
 and deceived. Such then being the probable and even nec- 
 essary result of etymological researches, how unphilosophic- 
 al, howr utterly futile must be the doctrine we now oppose. 
 Let us make however one supposition more let us suppose a 
 man so miraculously gifted as to be able to discover the orig- 
 inal sense, strictly speaking, of a few words ; and that he 
 were to construct a sentence with reference to that sense ; 
 what would be the eeffect ? why simply this, that no other 
 mortal living could guess its meaning. 
 
 Lest this course of reasoning, however, should not be equal- 
 ly convincing to all, I beg leave to place the subject in yet 
 another light. It will be readily allowed that not more than 
 one in ten among us knows any thing of the dead languages, 
 nor one in a hundred is familiar with them. In such a state 
 of things it follows unavoidably either that ninety-nine out of 
 the hundred talk and write habitually without understanding 
 each other at all that is to say we " gabble like things most 
 brutish ;" or else we have some criterion in regard to signifi- 
 cation independent of Latin or Greek. But we find by daily 
 experience that we do understand each other those who are 
 not scholars just as well as those who are consequently the 
 standard of meaning must exist in our own language and no 
 where else. This standard is custom or good usage, as exem- 
 plified in approved English authors ; and it has been so re- 
 cognized by all writers on grammar and criticism for many 
 years past. That such is and must be the only standard is 
 ably set forth in Dr. CAMPBELL'S " Philosophy of Rhetoric"* 
 and in various other established works. 
 
 The diversified significations thus assigned by usage, have, 
 with infinite labour, been sought out by lexicographers, and 
 methodically compiled in the form of dictionaries where 
 lies our first resort. If in any case we are not satisfied with 
 their decisions we may ultimately appeal to authors of repute 
 in our own language ; but in no case whatever to Latin or any 
 foreign tongue. There might be thought perhaps at first view, 
 to be exceptions to this rule, in words recently introduced ; 
 since fashion, it would seem, is never tired of borrowing from 
 the French, and pedantry seldom satisfied without something 
 
 * Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. B. 2. chap. 1.
 
 CHAPTER ir. 23 
 
 new from the Latin. But in truth, even in these cases we 
 could never feel sure of getting at the sense intended, by re- 
 sorting to other tongues ; for any man, who would be pedant 
 enough to use words entirely new without at the same time 
 defining their sense in plain English, we may rely upon it, 
 would be fool enough to use them improperly. 
 
 If I thought it probable the foregoing reasonings would yet 
 leave many readers unsatisfied, the subject might be elucida- 
 ted in divers other ways, especially by showing how common 
 a thing it is for a derivative word to differ materially in sense 
 from its radical, even when this radical is of native origin. 
 Besides, have not most of our words many and distinct signi- 
 fications, some even forty or fifty ? Is not their origin in 
 numberless cases disputed ? Is not a large portion, perhaps 
 the greater portion of them, used metaphorically ? Are they 
 not, both in force and import, singularly modified by the con- 
 text ? But the arguments against this whimsical doctrine are 
 so numerous and so various it would be almost an endless, and 
 I imagine quite a superfluous task to pursue them any farther. 
 The truth is, however admirable a contrivance language may 
 seem to be, in the eye of philosophy as a means of expres- 
 sing the subtle operations of mind it is really a much less 
 perfect thing than is commonly supposed. The principal index 
 to signification, and the principal source of all variety, is con- 
 nexion. A word separately taken, since it may be the sign of 
 several, indeed many, different ideas, could seldom or never 
 suggest any thing definite ; but place it in a sentence, and the 
 context will enable us with little or no hesitation to attach the 
 idea intended. Hence words, by themselves, can hardly be 
 said to be pictures of thought, though in combination they 
 certainly are so to a sufficient degree of precision for all or- 
 dinary purposes. We talk (says Stewart) of the mechanisn of 
 speech, but are apt to forget the far more wonderful mechan- 
 ism which it puts into action behind the scene. "Whoever 
 may wish to see this curious branch of the subject illustrated 
 in a manner equally beautiful and philosophical will find it in 
 Dugald Stewart's 5th Essay. 
 
 Finally, to have a more distinct conception, both of the fol- 
 ly and the danger of seeking beyond the customary use of 
 language for the meaning of words, let one but consider a mo- 
 ment what would be the effect of interpreting our lazos on 
 that principle. It would require no gift of prophecy to fore- 
 see that in less than one year after such a system began to 
 operate, the whole structure of society would be completely
 
 26 t'lIAPTER II. 
 
 can serve at best to throw an amusing light on the laws which 
 regulate the operation of human fancy." To which he adds, 
 " Etymology, if systematically adopted as a test of propriety, 
 would lead to the rejection of all our ordinary modes of 
 speaking," 
 
 Stewart indeed goes the length of affirming that such re- 
 searches are positively injurious. " 1 have hardly met (says 
 he) with a single individual habitually addicted to them, who 
 wrote his own language with ease and elegance." Some may 
 say perhaps that this is going too far ; but certainly that pro- 
 found metaphysician is not in the habit of thinking superfi- 
 cially or writing carelessly on any subject In support of 
 the idea that etymology is worse than useless, he quotes the 
 sentiments of a French author, which are still more emphatic- 
 ally expressed, and which in substance are as follow : " It is 
 so rare that the etymology of a word coincides with its true 
 acceptation, that this sort of research cannot be justified by 
 the pretext that the sense may thereby be made more certain. 
 Those writers who are acquainted with the greatest number 
 of tongues are the very ones that make the most mistakes. 
 Too attentive to ancient signification, they forget the actual 
 import, and disregard those shades of meaning which give 
 grace and energy to composition."* 
 
 In my judgment the French critic has described the effect 
 of such studies most happily. Nothing I believe is more 
 common among those who ponder much on Greek and Latin, 
 than to overlook those " shades of meaning" here spoken of. 
 To mention but one or two out of numberless cases. How 
 else could a learned Professor cast a most unmerited stigma 
 on God's chosen servant David, by calling him a " notorious 
 personage," intending only that he was a noted one ? How 
 else could that pink of scholars, the author of Hermes, by a 
 mistake of the same nature but reverse effect, convey a praise 
 when he meant a reproach, by designating the Goths (I think 
 it was) " illustrious barbarians ?" To the same cause too 
 should be ascribed the phraseology, as it formerly stood, of 
 the English liturgy, " Prevent us, O Lord in all our doings, &c." 
 Now in these, and a thousand similar instances, if Latin be 
 the standard, scholars are certainly right ; but if good usage 
 or common acceptation is to direct us, (I submit to the read- 
 er's judgment,) it is equally certain they are wrong. Of all 
 
 Stewart's 5th Essay.
 
 CHAPTER If. 27 
 
 books extant none is better fitted for teaching a nice discrim- 
 ination in the use of words than " Crabbe's Synonymes," the 
 whole of which from beginning to end is one continued illus- 
 tration of the maxim that custom, not derivation, is the only 
 safe guide. Crabbe, it is true, after stating the origin of a 
 word, often gives a definition resulting from that origin ; as 
 may be seen by the word desert on his very first page. But 
 it is easy to perceive in this as in most other cases, that not 
 one of his various applications is conformable to the definition. 
 In fact he never intends by those derivations to influence pre- 
 sent use. He knows indeed much better ; and in his book on 
 education has explicitly stated a contrary opinion. " The 
 present existing signification of words (says he) can be deriv- 
 ed from no source so well as the most general acceptation 
 they may be found to have received among men at present. 
 Remote etymology is therefore of very little use except to 
 show us the mechanism and origin of language." Thus then 
 we have not only the express declaration of this indefatigable 
 philologist, but also his entire book of more than a thousand 
 pages, altogether in our favour. 
 
 To the foregoing authorities may be added one other, near- 
 er home, whose opinion evidently does not differ I mean Mr. 
 John Pickering. From the whole tenor of the Essay, pre- 
 fixed to his Vocabulary, especially from what is said at the 
 1 1th page, it is plain he considers present use as the only pro- 
 per standard in the application of words. Accordingly, in 
 examining some two or three hundred words in relation to 
 meaning, he brings them to the test of dictionaries and estab- 
 lished writers, without reference in a single instance, as far 
 as I perceive, to any exotic standard. 
 
 It would be easy to cite many others on the same side ; 
 but it seems unnecessary. I desire the reader only to bear 
 in mind that I have here quoted nothing casual, incidental, or 
 obscure ; but the deliberate sentiments of philosophic writers 
 of writers unsurpassed by any in the whole compass of 
 English literature. 
 
 What then shall we say to Dr.Knox,who persists in affirming 
 that " mere English scholars incur great danger of misapply- 
 ing words derived from Greek and Latin ?" What shall we 
 say to a learned Professor, who tells us that some words can- 
 not be used in a peculiarly correct sense without understanding 
 Greek ?* Or what shall we say to hundreds of others, who 
 
 * North Am. Rev. vol. 2. new leries, p. 210.
 
 28 CHAPTER II. 
 
 do their best to propagate the same scholastic doctrine ? 
 Shall we suppose them ignorant of the true standard of mean- 
 ing? Shall we believe that in their own practice they throw 
 aside their Johnson and their Walker, and appeal to Ains- 
 worth and Schrevelius ? Or shall we suppose that they have 
 a system to uphold, which requires that the importance of 
 Greek and Latin should be maintained ? 
 
 One might be led to think from the general tenor of Slew- 
 art's strictures on the ingenious and amusing work of Tooke, 
 that he considered one of that author's objects to be to estab- 
 lish etymology as the proper means, and ancient use as the 
 proper criterion for determining the actual meaning of words. 
 There are, to be sure, many passages in that masterly disqui- 
 sition, which might seem to justify the supposition ; yet it 
 is extremely difficult to believe either that Stewart really so 
 construed it, or that such was Tooke's intention. If it was, 
 his book becomes a greater curiosity still ; for never did a 
 writer so completely frustrate his own design. He exhibits 
 to us in the clearest light, and by a multitude of examples, 
 the precise manner in which a single Anglo-Saxon word, by 
 successive changes of application and of orthography, has 
 supplied to our present language a variety of terms differing 
 most remarkably, both in form and import, from each other, 
 as well as from their common original. Tooke's researches, 
 therefore, furnish of themselves the most transcendant proof 
 of the futility of etymology in this respect ; and had it been 
 certain the reader would have taken my advice in referring to 
 his writings, I should have been content to rest the cause on 
 them alone without a single word in addition. 
 
 On the whole, I cannot but think that when the arguments, 
 illustrations, and authorities here adduced are maturely con- 
 sidered, they will be found to involve such various and forci- 
 ble objections against the doctrine they were designed to 
 combat, as fully to satisfy even those who have never before 
 attended to matters of this kind ; and as to the learned, they 
 already understand the thing too well to join issue on this 
 score. If the reader be in fact convinced by what has been 
 offered, 1 would then beg him to reflect how extensively the 
 error in question has spread, and how firmly it has maintain- 
 ed its influence how constantly it is employed in recommen- 
 dation of classical studies, and how much it has been counte- 
 nanced by scholars. With all this before him, he may be- 
 come perhaps somewhat sceptical whether other arguments in 
 behalf of such studies, to which he has hitherto lent a willing 
 ear, may not be equally vulnerable.
 
 CHAPTER III. 29 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 The languages no help to English Grammar. 
 
 THAT an acquaintance with the dead languages, especially 
 the Latin, is of use in imparting a more thorough grammatical 
 knowledge of our vernacular tongue, is an opinion coextensive 
 with that which formed the subject of the last chapter ; though 
 if possible a still greater fallacy. The most remarkable cir- 
 cumstances connected with this error appears to me to be, 
 that there are hundreds of men, and we may add women, 
 vrho, without any classical learning, understand their own lan- 
 guage to a sufficient degree of accuracy ; who might exhibit 
 volumes of epistolary correspondence free from any mistakes 
 of magnitude who moreover are perfectly conscious of ade- 
 quate proficiency in this respect yet who believe, or talk as if 
 they believed, that every tning depends on Greek and Latin. 
 That scholars should often be under such a delusion is not half 
 so extraordinary ; because having been led by their very 
 scholarship to investigate philosophically their native speech, 
 they are naturally enough seduced into a belief that it was 
 Latin which taught them English, though the most it ever did, 
 or could do, was to suggest the study. This effect unques- 
 tionably is often produced, and the effect is a good one ; but 
 certainly no sound reason can be given why French or Italian 
 should not do as much, or more, and with less sacrifice either 
 of time or labour. Besides which, the end may be attained, 
 as I shall show, quite as well, if not better, without the aid of 
 any foreign language whatever. 
 
 The notion that classical pursuits may be serviceable in 
 this way, has been countenanced, we all know, by innumera- 
 ble desultory writers on the subject of language ; and yet 
 not one has ever given an explanation of the kind of aid they 
 can supply. It has indeed been no where distinctly maintain- 
 ed, of late years, at least, that a man after having diligently 
 studied the best English works on grammar, would be able ei- 
 ther to speak or write better English, by superadding the know- 
 ledge of any foreign idiom. But though not definitely asserted, 
 the idea is perpetually inculcated under every form of indeter-
 
 30 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 minate phraseology, by all scholars, and by most teachers. 
 And yet several of the most industrious labourers in the classic 
 vineyard, so far from promising a harvest of this kind, have 
 even discouraged such expectations. Dr. Gregory, for exam- 
 ple candidly admits that Greek and Latin have no such effect ; 
 and a writer of high standing in scholarship (quoted in the in- 
 troduction of Ross's Greek Grammar) confesses not only that 
 the structure of our language may be well understood, but 
 that a man may " compose in English with force, elegance, 
 and precision, without classical learning." This admirer 
 of the classics seems to rest the cause principally on the ar- 
 gument refuted in the last chapter. 
 
 If it were true indeed, that the knowledge of other tongues 
 had any efficacy in respect of grammar, we should most nat- 
 urally expect it from those which have the strongest analogy 
 to our own ; and in this view, almost every dialect now spok- 
 en in Europe might claim an advantage over Latin for be- 
 tween that and English there is no affinity whatever. English 
 is the simplest form of speech prevailing in Europe ; whereas 
 Latin is far more complicated than any of them. Latin also 
 is the most transpositive language known, exceeding perhaps 
 in this respect even the Greek while ours on the contrary is 
 the least so of all. In short, between English and Latin there 
 is a striking, a total dissimilarity pervading their whole struc- 
 ture. 
 
 But it may be well perhaps, for the information of those 
 who have never attended to Latin, (whose time, 1 should hope, 
 has been better employed,) to enter a little into detail ; be- 
 cause persons of this description, by adopting the opinions of 
 others without any limitation, are the most apt of any to over- 
 rate the advantage of such studies. To this end we may first 
 observe, that in Latin, all the important species of words (or 
 parts of speech as called in grammar,) such as nouns, pro- 
 nouns, verbs, and adjectives, undergo numerous changes of 
 form according to the manner in which they are used. A Latin 
 noiw, for instance, has six cases, technically so called, which 
 are distinguished for the most part by different terminations, 
 serving to denote a few among the numberless relations that 
 may subsist between the idea expressed by the noun and oth- 
 er ideas embraced in the sentence. In this way Latin nouns 
 usually display six or eight variations of form. But in Eng- 
 lish all such relations are expressed, with one exception only, 
 not by variations of the noun itself, but by separate words, 
 bearing the name of prepositions, which effect the same ob-
 
 CHAPTER III. 31 
 
 ject with much less ambiguity. In like manner Latin pronouns 
 have six cases with corresponding changes, and usually in ad- 
 dition to these, several other changes to mark the gender ; 
 whereas English pronouns do not vary a quarter so much nor 
 in the same way. To give but one example, our pronoun 
 this changes only to these ; while the Latin word of similar 
 import has no less than fifteen different terminations. With 
 regard to adjectives, they retain with us precisely the same 
 form, whatever be the gender, or case, or number ; but in 
 Latin most of them vary from six to twelve different ways. 
 There are no words however, that undergo so many mutations 
 as -verbs ; and here the contrast between the two languages is 
 very remarkable. Latin verbs, in marking the time and mode 
 of action, and in superadding other collateral ideas, travel 
 through a prodigious circle of inflexions exhibiting seldom 
 less than seventy or eighty variations, and in general consid- 
 erably over a hundred. Our verbs, on the contrary, admit 
 only four or five changes of this kind, and then call to their 
 aid ten or twelve short auxiliary verbs, by help of which they 
 are able to express not only an equal but much greater num- 
 ber of accessory ideas, and that too with far nicer discrimina- 
 tion than is practicable in Latin. 
 
 From the foregoing sketch of the more conspicuous and 
 distinguishing features of the two languages, it may easily be 
 seen that Latin proceeds on the plan of combining several re- 
 lated ideas in one word English, on that of separating those 
 ideas, and expressing them by distinct words. Without stop- 
 ping here to discuss the comparative advantages of these dif- 
 ferent modes of speech, on the score either of facility, precis- 
 ion, or elegance, I shall only offer an opinion that ours upon 
 the whole is decidedly superior ; and whoever will take the 
 trouble of perusing carefully and impartially the celebrated 
 essay of Dr. Smith on this subject ; or the excellent treatise 
 in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, under the head of language, 
 or even the inferior article under a similar title in Rees', I ven- 
 ture to say, will coincide in that opinion. However, the prin- 
 ciples on which the two languages are respectively construct- 
 ed, and according to which they must be used, being so rad- 
 ically different, not to say repugnant ; and grammar being 
 nothing more, as admitted by a//, than those same principles 
 embodied and digested in the form of rules, those rules cannot 
 in such a case possibly resemble each other, nor of course af- 
 ford any reciprocal aid. This conclusion would be readily 
 assented to by any sensible unprejudiced man. even though
 
 32 CHAPTER III. 
 
 his knowledge extended no farther than the points above 
 stated. But let him spend an hour or two over the Latin 
 grammar, (which would be quite enough for the purpose,) and 
 his conviction would be amazingly strengthened. He would 
 soon see that out of about sixty rules in that syntax, only 
 three or four could in any shape take effect in our language 
 while all the rest would be of no more avail than the rules 
 of Algebra or Mechanics. Indeed, let him but imagine them 
 placed in an English grammar, and he would at once say they 
 were mere jargon. On the other hand, if he cast his eye 
 over our own syntax, he could select at most five or six rules 
 out of twenty odd, that could be even partially applied to 
 Latin ; the remainder being wholly intractable. Here then 
 we have new and abundant evidence, that whatever else Latin 
 may do for us, it can never teach us English Grammar. 
 
 As to Greek, it is unnecessary to say any thing, since its 
 grammatical forms are well known to be yet more complex, 
 and therefore more unlike our own. Dr. Campbell's remark 
 is then perfectly true, that " English has little or no affinity 
 either to Latin or Greek." 
 
 But to place the matter in a somewhat different light, what 
 do we really learn, let me ask, in acquiring other languages ? 
 Nothing more, most certainly, than new words and new modes 
 of combining them we learn only another manner of expres- 
 sing the same idea. To be sure, after some progress is made, 
 and foreign books can be read understandingly, then of 
 course, whatever information they may contain is opened to 
 us ; the importance of which, as far as classic tongues are 
 concerned, will be discussed hereafter. At first, however, 
 the acquisition is evidently limited, as just mentioned, to new 
 expressions, equivalent in meaning to others before known 
 but though equivalent, they are wholly different, and can 
 never be used, if we wish to be understood. Now it is quite 
 impossible to conceive how knowledge of this description is 
 to assist us in the right application of words and phrases al- 
 ready familiar. A man conversant with the mechanism of a 
 watch who knows how all its parts are fashioned and con- 
 nected who sees whence the moving power is derived, and 
 how it is conveyed, would comprehend the instrument nowise 
 the better by inspecting a steam engine, and finding every 
 thing to be different. Just so is it with the English student. 
 If he has thoroughly mastered the rules that govern his own 
 language, as established by custom, and compiled by gramma- 
 rians, (which can be done only by consulting these authori-
 
 CIIAPTKR III. 33 
 
 ties) he would have not a whit the better conception of them 
 by learning those of any other tongue, or of all others put 
 together. Such a recourse indeed would more naturally tend 
 to mislead, or at any rate to confuse It would much resemble 
 the whimsical expedient fabulously related of Demosthenes, 
 who, it is said, filled his mouth with pebbles to assist his articu- 
 lation. 
 
 The numerous traits of discordance already noticed, as ex- 
 isting between Latin and English, though by no means all a 
 close inspection might detect, would yet suffice, I have little 
 doubt, to convince any one who would give his mind to the 
 subject, that Latin can be of no service. But the great diffi- 
 culty lies in inducing people to reflect on the subject. The 
 larger portion, even of well informed men, do but follow the 
 opinion of others in most things relating to education. 
 
 The measure before alluded to, of comparing the syntax of 
 the two languages, would after all afford the best as well as 
 the easiest test that 'could be adopted ; and if parents would 
 only take the trouble to do this, (which would really occupy 
 but an hour or two) they would be convinced that the ques- 
 tion lies quite within the scope of plain common sense ; while 
 at the same time they would perceive the utter absurdity of 
 supposing that we speak good English only by indulgence of 
 the Latin. However, even without any such comparison, 
 and even setting aside all the foregoing representations as par- 
 tial or exaggerated, no matter in what degree, the following 
 conclusions would seem, in any view of the case, both una- 
 voidable and irresistible ; that when proper attention has 
 been paid to our own language, Latin rules and forms of 
 speech, as far as they agree with ours, must be altogether su- 
 perfluous ; and as far as they do not agree they cannot be 
 availed of ; consequently, in either case they must be useless. 
 This I think can hardly be evaded. 
 
 There was a time, it is very true, when grammar could not 
 be learnt but through the medium of ancient tongues, or from 
 the practice of speech in society ; when no books of elemen- 
 tary instruction in English existed ; when in short our mother 
 tongue was in a state of complete vassalage to Latin; and 
 during that period the argument before us had some weight. 
 Now, however, the rudiments of our language are displayed 
 in forms almost as numerous as the stars in the sky every 
 year producing some new compilation. It is indeed astonish- 
 ing what a variety of aspects a language so little complex
 
 34 CHAPTER III. 
 
 may be made to assume rivalling almost the endless diversi- 
 ty of combinations which pass before the eye in that beauti- 
 ful instrument of Brewster's. But as all the books to which 
 we now allude teach English by direct means, teach it intel- 
 ligibly, and teach it thoroughly, there is no ground whatever 
 for the pretence that Latin is any longer necessary, or 
 even advantageous. 
 
 Nor would this conclusion be at all weakened, ns I believe, 
 by appealing to experience whether in comparing the profi- 
 ciency of students at school, or the compositions of authors. 
 As far as my observation has extended (and 1 certainly have 
 not been backward in inquiry j lads educated at Latin schools, 
 public or private, do not evince in general a better acquaint- 
 ance with English grammar than others perhaps not even so 
 good ; and it is no uncommon thing to hear parents express 
 surprise at their children knowing so little of their own lan- 
 guage. Complaints of this sort we know are not rare. For 
 my own part I have no doubt whatever, if an examination 
 was instituted between a dozen boys, after being three years 
 at a good English school, and an equal number after an equal 
 time at the Latin, that the former would discover a more 
 philosophical and also a more accurate knowledge of their na- 
 tive tongue. It is to the purpose also to remark, that the two 
 celebrated teachers formerly spoken of (Barrow and Knox,) 
 though theoretically ascribing to classical studies an effect al- 
 most magical, both confess that many of their pupils who 
 had distinguished themselves in Latin were quite inaccurate 
 in vernacular composition. Experience, therefore, as far as 
 relates to youth, tends to confirm our doctrine rather than 
 confute it. 
 
 If, on the other hand, a comparison were made among au- 
 thors, my belief is, that the writings of men skilled in classic 
 tongues would not be found peculiarly exempt from grammat- 
 ical imperfections. Were it not invidious, we might adduce 
 in proof the productions of several eminent scholars of our 
 own country, who, excellent as they unquestionably are in 
 various respects, are certainly not the best models of gram- 
 mar. It might indeed be justly remarked of more than one 
 as Mr. Tooke remarks of Harris, " I say that a little more re- 
 flection and a great deal less reading a little more attention to 
 common sense and less blind prejudice for Greek commenta- 
 tors, would have made him a much better grammarian." 
 Then as regards the celebrated scholars of England, whole 
 volumes might be filled with extracts of bad grammar. In-
 
 CHAPTER III. 36 
 
 deed, whoever will take the pains to look over Lowth's, Mur- 
 ray's, and other books on this subject, may see many hun- 
 dred such examples already collected by them to illustrate 
 their rules of syntax. I shall refer, in addition, only to a few 
 passages from Mitford's history of Greece, (and Mitford is a 
 first rate scholar,) most severely and justly censured in No. 
 49 of the Quarterly Review passages which exhibit not only 
 the worst grammar, but the worst style imaginable : And if 
 any body will produce me a school boy of fourteen years old, 
 who can write no better, 1 will undertake to prove that for 
 every hour spent on English, he has devoted ten to Latin. 
 When, therefore, we hear the votaries and panegyrists of an- 
 cient learning expatiate on its efficacy in making skilful gram- 
 marians, we must bear in mind that they have in view a de- 
 gree of perfection which they themselves do not attain a 
 perfection, moreover, not indispensable either to fame or ex- 
 cellence. In fact, the grammatical refinement that many talk 
 about, is an end hardly worth aiming at, whatever be the pro- 
 per means. Such petty niceties have at best a low degree of 
 merit. Numberless books of extensive utility, and even su- 
 perior worth, have been written without their aid for where 
 good sense abounds they are not missed ; and where that is 
 wanting, the utmost grammatical precision, even with elegance 
 of style conjoined, will never secure a lasting reputation. 
 These observations however are by no means intended to 
 discourage a strict adherence to the genuine idiom of our na- 
 tive tongue ; every departure from which is in reality a cor- 
 ruption. They refer only to little punctilios, on the impor- 
 tance of which many a pedant will descant most volubly ; 
 who yet entirely neglects them both in speaking and writing. 
 The considerations, thus far submitted, involve only the ob- 
 jection of innlility and the consequent loss of time implied 
 thereby : But objections do not stop here : There is much 
 reason to believe that Latin stands in a position not merely neu- 
 tral, but actually hostile to grammatical purity. The follow- 
 ing extract from the preface to Johnson's dictionary is fraught 
 with sound sense : " A mixture of two languages (says he) 
 will produce a third distinct from both ; and they will always 
 be mixed, when the chief part of education, and the most con- 
 spicuous accomplishment is skill in ancient or in foreign 
 tongues. He that has long studied another language will find 
 its words and combinations crowd upon his memory ; and 
 haste and negligence, refinement and affectation, will obtrude 
 borrowed terms and exotic expressions." Now this is per-
 
 3d) CHAPTER III. 
 
 feclly true, and goes the full length of saying that Latin is in- 
 jurious ; for when a foreign mode of speech is thus familiar 
 to the mind, it will inevitably, though perhaps imperceptibly, 
 blend itself with our own, and modify our forms of expres- 
 sion. Could the innovation be restricted to single words, it 
 might be harmless, or nearly so ; but when combinations thus 
 intrude, they necessarily infringe on the very structure of 
 language, and cannot fail to be mischievous anomalies become 
 multiplied, and grammar confused. Such most certainly is 
 the tendency ; perhaps the necessary effect. Hence, in point 
 of accuracy at least, the study of ancient tongues is not sim- 
 ply useless, but something worse. 
 
 But after all, should any one still hesitate to allow the inde- 
 pendence of our language to the full extent here described, I 
 beg him to consult, not indeed any casual writer, but certainly 
 any didactic author, who has treated systematically on this 
 particular topic. The opinions of such authors are indeed 
 so uniform, and founded on such incontrovertible arguments, 
 that it is really one of the most singular things of the age 
 that doubt should still exist. And this is the more extraordi- 
 nary, since the very men who are most frequently appealed 
 to, as believing in the efficacy of Latin and Greek, may often 
 be found pursuing a train of reasoning which shows them to 
 be under no such mistake. In a review of Barrett's Gram- 
 mar, ascribed to Professor Everett, we read a series of re- 
 marks (found here in the Appendix) on the structure of the 
 dead languages as compared with ours, from which the conclu- 
 sion is unavoidable that in his -view, Latin, so far from doing 
 good, has done much positive harm that, distorted as English 
 Grammar has always been, and is yet, by Latin forms, we are 
 at this very time teaching our children little else, to use his 
 own words, than " Latin and Greek in disguise."* 
 
 So also Mr. Pickering, as we have every reason to believe, 
 both from his writings and his good sense, is exempt from the 
 popular delusion. To say nothing of the general spirit of his 
 amusing book before mentioned, he introduces, on a contested 
 point of construction, the following quotation from Dr. Camp- 
 bell : " The argument from etymology is here of no value, 
 because taken from the use of another language. If by the 
 same rule we were to regulate all nouns and verbs of Latin 
 original, our present syntax would be overturned.^ 
 
 * See note A at the end. 
 
 i Pickering's Vocabulary, page 41.
 
 CHAPTER III. 37 
 
 Now by all this we may see that on the topic of grammar, 
 as on most others, our better scholars understand the thing 
 well enough, though they may not feel authorised to break in 
 on the established system, by a free avowal of their senti- 
 ments. In the minds of many of them probably, the prevail- 
 ing notion on this subject has long been regarded, what Dr. 
 Ash does not scruple to call it, a vulgar error.* 
 
 To conclude, whoever will take the trouble to investigate 
 the case, will find that every philosophical writer on gram- 
 mar, without a single exception, instead of grounding his pre- 
 cepts on the Latin idiom, refers expressly to custom, such as 
 obtains among reputable English authors, as the only means of 
 determining what is proper or improper in the use of language. 
 Lowth, Murray, Campbell, Johnson, and in short the whole 
 circle of authorities, concur in this as a leading principle, and 
 thus justify in effect, the main doctrine we have endeavoured 
 to elucidate. " Grammar rules (says Rees) have no other 
 foundation than the practice of those who speak and write 
 the language." Let scholars then say what they please; the 
 notion that Greek or Latin can in any way operate as an aux- 
 iliary to English grammar, is alike unsupported by good au- 
 thority, or by sound philosophy. It is altogether a classical 
 prejudice a mere dogma of the schools. 
 
 It has now been made, I presume, sufficiently obvious, that the 
 proper use of our own language is not to be learnt from an- 
 cient tongues. Whence then, some may ask, has arisen the 
 contrary impression, so prevalent, and so tenacious ? I have 
 before observed that it is no part of our duty to trace an er- 
 roneous sentiment to its source. Whatever its origin, if it be 
 proved a fallacy, our case is made out. But as an attempt to 
 account for the favourable opinion of classical learning on this 
 score, may unfold some of the principal causes of its high repu- 
 tation in other respects, I am tempted to stray a little into this 
 inquiry. Such an inquiry cannot be wholly devoid of inter- 
 est ; neither is it difficult of solution. The matter will be al- 
 ready half explained if we call to mind the circumstance of 
 all our old grammars being fashioned after the Latin exem- 
 plar. Our early grammarians, who were certainly more of 
 scholars than philosophers, and much better Latin scholars 
 than English, finding already in use an elaborate scheme 
 adapted to the Latin tongue, and presuming, too hastily, that 
 a scheme so much admired would be the best pattern for us, 
 
 * Preface to Ash's Grammar. 
 
 397485
 
 38 CHAPTER III. 
 
 adopted at once all its technical terras, and as far as possible 
 its forms and classifications ; thereby forcing our language 
 under restraints and shackles, to which its genius was wholly 
 repugnant. It is unquestionably true, as Dr. Wilson well ob- 
 serves, that if the names of modes, tenses, and cases, had not 
 been taken from the ancients, our elementary books would 
 never have been burdened with them to the ridiculous extent 
 they formerly were ; and all writers seem now agreed that a 
 scientific knowledge of the language was for years, or rather 
 for ages, greatly retarded by that unfortunate attachment to 
 the Latin model. 
 
 Things remained in this state for a long space of time, till 
 at length Dr. Lovvth turned his attention to the subject ; and 
 by a little work of his own, about fifty years ago, presented a 
 more rational, because a more simple, view of his native 
 tongue. He saw plainly that nothing but classic prejudice 
 had so long held us in the trammels of the Latin ; for he says 
 explicitly in his preface, that " what is called learning, or an 
 acquaintance with ancient authors" will not help us in the 
 least. 
 
 It is a very extraordinary yet well known fact, that down 
 nearly to the period last mentioned, English grammar formed 
 no part of a regular education. It was not taught separately, 
 nor by rule ; but only incidentally, as it stood connected with, 
 and illustrative of the Latin. What were at that time and are 
 now called grammar schools in England, were founded for 
 purposes of instruction exclusively in the dead languages 
 then considered almost the only thing worth knowing. The 
 vernacular tongue was never admitted within their walls, nor 
 is it at this day. The cause of all this however is not very 
 mysterious. The great schools and colleges, owing as they 
 did, if not their origin, at least all their extension and splen- 
 dour, to classic predilection, lent their whole influence (power- 
 ful indeed it has been) to foster those partialities on which 
 alone their support depended. A special article in their 
 creed was, that the dead languages constitute the only proper 
 foundation for an accurate knowledge of English ; and that if 
 those were thoroughly learnt at school or college,- the latter 
 might be attained any where and at any lime. So assiduous- 
 ly were notions of this sort propagated by some thousands of 
 graduates annually emerging from academic groves, that in 
 course of time they became diffused through every stream 
 and rivulet of society Hence the total neglect of the ver- 
 nacular tongue, which, from being thought unworthy of culti-
 
 CHAPTER III. 39 
 
 vation, or even of analysis, was kept in a state of rudeness 
 altogether anomalous amid the general improvements of the 
 age. " Nothing was learnt (says Elphinstone, in alluding to 
 the schools of that period) that was not Greek or Latin nor 
 could aught be grammar but the grammar of those languages." 
 To crown the whole, not only were the elements of English 
 to be learnt, if learnt at all, through the medium of Latin ; 
 but even the grammar rules of Latin were written and taught 
 in Latin words ; and to make the absurdity yet more glaring, 
 those rules were many of them in Latin -verse. If the reader 
 will believe it, this same preposterous mode of teaching Latin 
 continues to this day in the three great schools of England, 
 where it is held fast bound by ancient forms and statutes, 
 though long since expelled, by the dictates of common sense, 
 from every private establishment in the kingdom and it is 
 this very mode which Dr. Knox applauds so extravagantly, 
 in his book on education, as the perfection of mental disci- 
 pline. 
 
 It would be impossible, perhaps, to point out another so sig- 
 nal example of bigotry in matters of education, since the 
 world began ; though to the eye of posterity, the veneration 
 prevailing in our day for classical learning, may seem a par- 
 allel. The ancients themselves, enchained as they were by 
 prejudices of almost every kind, are by no means chargeable 
 with the egregious error of neglecting their own language for 
 the study of others the principles and structure of their ver- 
 nacular tongue were ever the first and chief object of youth- 
 ful instruction. 
 
 The remarkable degree of infatuation just alluded to, seems 
 to us, at the distance of little more than half a century, scarce- 
 ly credible Yet is it matter of history, and might teach a 
 salutary lesson if we chose to read it. There can be no won- 
 der, under the circumstance described, that English was ex- 
 cluded from the public schools ; nor is it surprising that al- 
 though numberless writers must have analysed the language 
 for their own purposes of authorship, none were induced to 
 compile a rational system of rules for the use of others. The 
 formularies on the Latin model, beforementioned, went little 
 farther than the classification and derivation of words ; and 
 thus while English grammar was groaning under the weight of 
 Latin encumbrances, its syntax was not even reduced to 
 rules. We see also that till within a few years of our own 
 time, it was taught in no other way and for no other purpose 
 than to explain the Latin. Now here surely was a powerful
 
 40 CHAPTER III. 
 
 cause, if not alone a sufficient one, for the supposed influence 
 of the Roman tongue. 
 
 Since the period when Lowth wrote, Priestley, Murray, 
 and numberless others, have presented the subject under new 
 and various forms retrenching many classic superfluities and 
 abounding in explanatory observations ; yet all too much re- 
 sembling some imperfect cast from the Latin mould. In none 
 do we find that degree of simplicity, nor those peculiar char- 
 acteristics of the English idiom, which, since Tooke's re- 
 searches, we had every reason to expect which Mr. 
 Everett has so well imagined, and might, if he chose, so well 
 supply. In short, a good English grammar is yet a desidera- 
 tum. Among the few who have thrown off all scholas- 
 tic bias and examined the thing philosophically, is the Rev. 
 Dr. Wilson of Philadelphia, whose learned essay on gram- 
 matical science exhibits in high relief the singular contrast 
 between the Latin and our own. A more thorough, ingenious, 
 and in all respects satisfactory work, is perhaps no where to 
 be found. Mr. Noah Webster is another, who has pursued 
 his reseaches in this walk of literature, quite unfettered by 
 authority. His excellent dissertations contain abundant proof 
 that English has in reality little or nothing in common with 
 the Latin. These two writers may be very advantageously 
 consulted by any who wish to investigate the subject more 
 closely as also an admirable treatise in the Edin. Ency. un- 
 der the head of Grammar. 
 
 The next cause I shall mention as having contributed to 
 give an importance to Latin in this respect, is the circumstance 
 that many of our words had their origin in that language. 
 From this single circumstance it was natural enough to infer, 
 on a superficial view, and unquestionably it has been by thou- 
 sands, that our grammar likewise must be derived from the 
 Latin ; or at any rate must, somehow or other, be dependant 
 thereon : But nothing could be more delusive than such an 
 inference. It is bottomed on the idea, that, in adopting new 
 words, we must adopt at the same time new modes of com- 
 bining them, which is altogether preposterous. If such a 
 practice were followed, the scheme of every modern tongue 
 would be reduced to a perfect chaos to a heterogeneous as- 
 semblage of discordant combinations totally unsusceptible of 
 rule or method. Indeed there could be no such thing as gram- 
 mar in a language so made up, any more than there could be 
 law in a country where every new emigrant was permitted to 
 bring a new code. To ascribe any influence to Latin, there-
 
 CHAPTER III. 41 
 
 fore, from a notion of this kind, was engrafting one error on a 
 still greater one a morbid scion on a rotten stock. 
 
 But the utility of the dead languages in point of grammar, 
 as far as the idea is entertained by men of letters particularly, 
 is not unfrequently founded on a fallacy of yet another kind. 
 They think that no language can be well understood without 
 some knowledge of what is termed universal or philosophical 
 grammar an unfortunate appellation, to be sure, where phi- 
 losophy has had so little to do. This science, if indeed it de- 
 serve the name, lies deep in metaphysics. Its object is to in- 
 vestigate the circumstances which gave rise to the diversified 
 structure of different dialects ; and further, to ascertain both 
 the abstract nature of their several species of words, and the 
 sort of relation that subsists between them. The ultimate end 
 is to discover by these means what general principles, if any, 
 are common to all languages. Speculations of this nature 
 have no less occupied the minds of modern than of ancient 
 philologists. But their inquiries being chiefly confined to the 
 learned tongues, and those of modern Europe, have been too 
 limited to elicit general truths their induction has been 
 grounded on much too narrow a basis : Accordingly, many 
 principles deduced by them as universal, fail entirely on ap- 
 plication to dialects more recently analysed a fact sufficient- 
 ly evinced by the forms of speech (to say nothing of other 
 examples) existing among the aborigines of our own country, 
 as lately displayed in various publications. These forms of 
 speech not only exhibit features altogether unknown in culti- 
 vated tongues, but, what was less to be expected, they possess 
 powers, it would seem, in many respects superior. The multi- 
 form inflexions of Greek and Latin, hitherto the delight of schol- 
 ars, and the result, as they ha veal ways said, of matchless ingenu- 
 ity and refinement, dwindle to nothing in comparison. Now 
 the discovery of such unlooked-for peculiarities, such more 
 than classical excellences, affords reasonable ground to an- 
 ticipate, that in proportion as inquiries of this nature are ex- 
 tended, what were supposed to be universal principles will 
 gradually disappear, and at length perhaps entirely vanish. 
 So that universal grammar, which for more than two thousand 
 years has puzzled the minds of the studious, may prove in 
 the sequel, a mere nonentity. Ere long, perhaps, it will de- 
 scend to the same tomb of oblivion with the philosopher's 
 stone, and the grand panacea but with this difference in 
 their history, that these were always believed to exist though 
 6
 
 ^2 CHAPTER ill. 
 
 never found, while that was thought to be found, yet never ex- 
 isted. A writer in the North American Review, sensible, ap- 
 parently, that scholarship has run wild in this field of specula- 
 tion, acknowledges " we have much to learn on the subject 
 of universal grammar ;" but according to my notions, all we 
 have to learn is, that there is no such thing. Dr. Wilson does 
 not hesitate to call it a chimera and Campbell says much 
 the same.* 
 
 Perhaps, however, some would contend that the object of 
 this science is to determine as well the points wherein lan- 
 guages differ, as wheiein they agree. If, indeed, this be the 
 case, or as far as it is, no science was ever in a more flourish- 
 ing state. 
 
 It was, unquestionably, those assumed universal principles, 
 on which we have just remarked, which Dr. Beattie had in 
 mind (and so with other writers) in saying that " the gram- 
 matical art cannot be so well learnt from modern as from an- 
 cient tongues. 1 ' But as in fact there are few principles of that 
 nature, probably none at all, the expression becomes nugatory 
 nor would it be true, if there were ever so many because 
 whatever principle be universal, must of course be found in 
 our language as in all others. The Doctor's notion therefore 
 is, in either view, but a sprig of error plucked from the clas- 
 sic stock. 
 
 There is yet another circumstance by which the idea of 
 classic aid, in respect of grammar, has been greatly strength- 
 ened. It is an excellent remark of Bishop Kurd's, and none 
 the worse for wanting novelty, that " the source of bad crit- 
 icism, as universally of bad philosophy, is the abuse of 
 words." Much akin, if not precisely the same, is the influ- 
 ence of terms the real, though secret origin of mistakes innu- 
 merable in all departments of science, and in this among the 
 rest. The term grammar, having been appropriated to de- 
 note that systematic arrangement of the elements of speech, 
 and that assemblage of rules, which teach its proper use, 
 men have been led to believe that the thing itself must in all 
 cases be the same, or nearly so. But this is a great mistake 
 Grammar is one thing in Latin, another in Greek, and a still 
 different thing in English, and every other dialect. In some 
 languages, indeed, the Chinese for example, the very phrases 
 we use in grammatical treatises (modes, tenses, cases, &c.) 
 
 * Campbell's Rhetoric, B. 1. chap. 4.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 43 
 
 which make so great a figure in Latin, and have caused so 
 much confusion in English, would be totally without meaning ; 
 because nothing there exists to which they could be applied. 
 The grammatical art is in fact a distinct thing in every lan- 
 guage ; often, no doubt, having many points of resemblance, 
 but quite as often, none at all. 
 
 To the various causes here enumerated, several others might 
 be added ; but every reflecting reader must ere this be fully 
 satisfied, that the prevailing classical opinion on this subject, 
 may be abundantly accounted for without supposing it has 
 any foundation in truth. He may at the same time see a lit- 
 tle how it is that a whole system has been entailed on the pres- 
 ent generation, which even to our grandsires must have been 
 an onerous burthen. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The dead languages no benefit to style. 
 
 THE topic next proposed for consideration is the alleged 
 tendency of the languages to infuse grace and elegance into 
 English composition ; or as the phrase goes to give a polish to 
 our English. 
 
 This idea under one form or another we find almost invari- 
 ably appended to every notice of the classic tongues ; and 
 it is done with less scruple, because the constituents of style 
 being in their very nature occult, and perhaps undefinable, 
 any thing may be either affirmed or denied of it, without 
 much hazard. To discover the ultimate principles of beauty 
 in any class of objects, natural or artificial, has hitherto baf- 
 fled the most ingenious and most philosophic inquirers ; and 
 in all that relates to style, their failure has been more com- 
 plete than perhaps any where else. But I would ask the 
 reader if it ever has been explained to him, in what way 
 Latin carries on the polishing operation. For my part I have 
 never had the good fortune to hear or see any thing satisfac- 
 tory on this head ; though not for want of search or inquiry. 
 But let us endeavour to ascertain what the argument really 
 means, and how far it is valid. The word polish, as also its
 
 44 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 synonyme refine (the favourite terms on such occasions) we all 
 know have only a metaphorical application to language; and 
 their meaning is to improve, or make better. With regard to 
 improvement, every body knows that in point of copiousness 
 our language is indebted for its unrivalled superiority, to 
 many others, and to Latin among the rest. For the last cen- 
 tury, however, few new obligations have been incurred, and 
 in future there is likely to be still less. English has long been 
 equally copious with the Latin, and indeed much more so. 
 
 What is meant by the argument in question, is not that our 
 style may be improved by the adoption of new words, for 
 this is now deemed inadmissible, except in extraordinary 
 cases. It is meant only, as we may presume, that a familiar- 
 ity with Latin will enable us to use our own language, such as 
 it is, with more propriety and elegance a desideratum no 
 doubt ; though in what way Latin is to teach this better use 
 of English, 1 would very willingly be informed. One thing 
 that may be confidently affirmed is, that the promised amel- 
 ioration cannot consist in a nicer adaptation of words to ideas ; 
 for it has been already proved, that the true import of words, 
 in any of their various applications, cannot be sought for in 
 Latin. As little can it consist in a more suitable or more ele- 
 gant arrangement ; for this falls within the province of our 
 grammar, which has been likewise shown to be quite inde- 
 pendent of the Roman tongue, and remarkably dissimilar. 
 It is therefore, neither in the choice of terms, nor in their col- 
 location, that Latin can help us. But it is precisely on these 
 two particulars and on nothing else, that perspicuity, force, 
 and accuracy, wholly depend. And does not elegance, I 
 may ask, and every other quality of style depend on the 
 same ? If not, I should be glad to know of what elements 
 they are composed. In my view of the subject, the question 
 of style is very nearly settled by the preceding discussions on 
 grammar and etymology. 
 
 Let us see, however, what are the means by which ancient 
 tongues are said to effect the supposed improvement. To take 
 the words of one of their warmest admirers, it is done " by 
 imbibing the spirit, and by imitating the beauties and the har- 
 mony of ancient writers." This is the sort of phraseology 
 commonly used. But classical men certainly ought to know, 
 and those who mingle the smallest portion of philosophy with 
 their scholarship do know, that what are esteemed beauties in 
 the dialects of Greece and Rome, cannot, for the most part, 
 be imitated in modern tongues ; nor even those of one mod-
 
 CHAPTER IV. 45 
 
 ern language by another. This I say, is, or ought to be, 
 known to scholars. It was well known to their great file 
 leader, Dr. Knox, and is candidly acknowledged by him in 
 his Essays, though very likely not in his book on education. 
 " The matter (says he) may be preserved, the ideas exhibited 
 but the manner, the style, the beauties of diction, which 
 constitute more than half the excellence of the classics, can 
 seldom be transferred to modern tongues."* The inflections of 
 Latin words, so prodigiously admired by some folks, it is evi- 
 dently out of our power to imitate, for we have nothing like 
 them. The most that is feasible, is to copy the Latin mode 
 of arrangement ; and this we see often accomplished, though 
 always attended with the same constraint and awkwardness 
 as mimicry of personal manners. In no case can it be grace- 
 ful, and as far as indulged in, just so far will ease, elegance, 
 and taste, desert the English page. Every semblance of 
 beauty will vanish, and it will be well if much of the sense do 
 not vanish likewise. Let any one read a dozen pages in 
 Gordon's translation of Tacitus, and he will see the folly of 
 that species of imitation. To give those unacquainted with 
 the subject some idea of the Latin form of sentence, we may 
 take the following specimen from the work just named " To 
 Pallus, who was by Claudius declared to be the deviser of 
 the scheme, the ornaments of the pretorship, and three hun- 
 dred thousand crowns, were adjudged by Bareas Soranus, con- 
 sul designed." Or this, " still to be seen are the Roman 
 standards in the German groves, there by me hung up." Or 
 the following from a translation of Homer ; " Tepolenius, the 
 race of Hercules, brave in battle and great in arms, nine 
 ships led to Troy, with magnanimous Rhodians filled." Well 
 may Tytler, in his elegant essay on translation, call this barba- 
 rous yet in nothing but such cruel distortion of sentence can 
 either Latin or Greek be imitated. It is hardly possible to 
 conceive that the case admits of any thing more ; and surely 
 to dress up English after this fashion, is like attiring a modern 
 belle in the ruff and stays of Queen Elizabeth, or a modern 
 soldier in a coat of armour. If however more be practica- 
 ble and at the same time expedient, scholars will be kind 
 enough, I hope, to tell us in plain terms what it is. 
 
 On the other hand, however, it would be absurd to deny 
 that the learned languages have charms of various kinds : 
 
 * Knox's Essay, No. 159.
 
 46 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 though we may safely say that to discern and relish them, re- 
 quires a proficiency that not one in a hundred attains at Col- 
 lege, nor one out of ten who pursue the study in after years. 
 The fact is, each and every language may boast of some traits 
 of perfection, not found in so great a degree, or not at all, in 
 any other. Each has peculiar forms of construction, which 
 strike a foreign student agreeably, chiefly because they are 
 novel ; because he sees the same end accomplished by new 
 means by an apparatus entirely different from his own. 
 This pleasing effect, according to Sir W. Jones, is greater from 
 the Sanscrit, than from Greek or Latin ; and for that reason, 
 it may be, more than for any other, he thought it superior to 
 both. He thought the same of the Arabic, as others again 
 have of the Persian. So also that eminent linguist, Mr. Du- 
 ponceau, is enraptured with the native idiom of the Delaware 
 Indians, which superabounds, it seems, in beauty or novelty 
 of the true classic mould. " The Greek is admired (says he) 
 for its compounds, but what are they to those of the In- 
 dians ?" Indeed, if a systematic structure, highly compound- 
 ed and inflected, be admitted the criterion of abstract beauty, 
 (as scholars have generally contended,) classic tongues will 
 bear no comparison with the unpolished dialect of our tawny 
 inhabitants of the forest, or even that of the sooty tribes of 
 Africa. Nor could these perhaps, vie at all with the written 
 language of China.* But in all such cases, I conceive novel- 
 ty to be the leading principle by which the taste of a foreigner 
 is excited. As viewed by a native, the graces of languages 
 are referable to various other principles, and more important 
 ones, especially that of association ; though novelty perhaps 
 will always come in for a share. 
 
 Adverting again for a moment to imitation now and then 
 some over-zealous defender of the system will carry the joke 
 so far as to tell us that we should follow the ancients in their 
 manner of thinking but the fate of Aristotle's syllogisms, and 
 Plato's phantasms is a loud warning against the advice of such 
 enthusiasts. 
 
 With regard in the next place, to the harmony of classic 
 tongues, nothing is more extraordinary than to see this so con- 
 stantly held up as exquisite and unrivalled, when scholars 
 themselves are not agreed even in what it consists. This very 
 harmony, strange as it may seem, has been the source of per- 
 
 See Note B. in the Appendix.
 
 CHAPTEU IY. 47 
 
 petual discord among the learned ever since the revival of let- 
 ters. They know neither what it is, nor what it was : some 
 say it depended on length of syllables ; some on accent ; oth- 
 ers say on both ; and others again on neither. But, as it 
 happens, all admit it was a very different thing from what we 
 realize and admire in modern tongues, and depending, as Mr. 
 Adams observes, on different principles. How then, in the 
 name of common sense, can it be imitated in English ? It is 
 well known, indeed, that the whole scheme of Prosody taught 
 in our schools, and which boys are compelled to learn, (as far 
 as its inherent mystery, and absurdity will permit) is a mere 
 hypothesis and we know further, that in the opinion of those 
 who have examined it most thoroughly, and written most 
 ably, it is a false hypothesis. Not to enlarge on the topic 
 here, I would merely ask how it is possible so much as to con- 
 ceive of such a quality as harmony, where the true pronun- 
 ciation and sound of a language are confessedly lost, without 
 a vestige remaining. And further, such mighty pretensions 
 to harmony are nowise reconcileable with another branch of 
 the same system the received theory I mean, of ancient ac- 
 cents for if this theory be true, (which by the way I do not 
 believe a word of) those languages, instead of being melodi- 
 ous, must have been the most miserable sing-song that ever 
 was spoken. Be all this as it may, however, there is not the 
 least reason to suppose, that Horner or Virgil had at their 
 command any greater resources in this way than Pope or 
 Racine or that they used what they had with any better 
 effect. 
 
 But because modern tongues are incapable of exhibiting 
 beauties of a similar kind, are we hence to infer that taste is 
 excluded ? By no means. Their powers are yet more ex- 
 tensive, and their graces more pleasing, as is evinced by num- 
 berless productions in our own language. Pope's Iliad, for 
 example, contains a thousand captivating charms of expres- 
 sion which not Homer himself could have displayed in Greek, 
 nor Virgil in Latin. Do we want authority for this opinion ? 
 we have it, among others, from the pen of an elegant crit- 
 ical writer on the subject of translation. " It would be end- 
 less (says he) to point out all the instances in which Pope has 
 improved on the thought and the expression of the original. 
 Even its highest beauties receive additional lustre from the 
 pen of this admirable translator." Dr. Gregory also remarks 
 on this same version, that it is " richer in every poetic beauty 
 than the original." Quotations of a similar character relating
 
 48 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 to various modern writers, both in poetry and prose, might be 
 multiplied almost indefinitely. The whole matter in debate 
 too is susceptible of a much fuller elucidation than our limits 
 will permit. 
 
 Now that poetry has been touched upon, we may glance a 
 moment at the effect of classical studies on poetic imagination 
 and the following extract from Bishop Hurd's Essays will 
 place the matter in its proper light. The author is speaking 
 of the natural proneness to take a tincture from the writers we 
 are accustomed to read, and he makes these reflections : 
 " Hence a certain constrained, and unoriginal air, in some de- 
 gree or other, in every genius thoroughly disciplined by a 
 course of learned education which by the way leads to a 
 question not very absurd in itself, however paradoxical it may 
 seem, viz. whether the usual forms of learning be not rather 
 injurious to the true poet, than really assisting him."* This 
 question, he goes on to debate at too great length to be here 
 copied ; but the conclusion at which he arrives, (the great 
 point for us) is, that such studies are absolutely injurious and 
 among his reasons, the principal one is, (which the reader 
 will keep in mind I hope) that the powers of invention are 
 checked by the perpetual exercise of memory. He instances 
 in particular, the poetic genius of Addison, as suffering from 
 this cause, and so no doubt it did. Indeed, the effect is vis- 
 ible in a large majority of modern poets; who instead of giv- 
 ing wing to imagination, and rambling freely through the re- 
 gions of fancy, have contented themselves with hovering 
 around the ancient votaries of Apollo with culling out their 
 petty conceits, and grouping them anew. Nor is Hurd alone 
 in this opinion. Those great German critics, Brucker, and 
 Schlegel, the French critic, Sismonde, with many more, have 
 reasoned after the same manner ; and we have Spence's au- 
 thority for saying that Pope " thought himself in some re- 
 spects better for not having had a regular education."! And 
 yet, strange as it may seem, we find a learned professor of 
 our time, urging the necessity of going deeper into Greek for 
 the very purpose of " obtaining for our country a higher 
 classical and poetical character." (North American Review, 
 No. 28. page 213.) 
 
 Let us turn now to some arguments on the classic side, of a 
 more practical nature. 
 
 * Kurd's Works, vol. 2. page 220. 
 t Spence's Anecdotes.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 4$ 
 
 There is one circumstance so emphatically dwelt upon in 
 proof of the refining properties of Latin, as to deserve par- 
 ticular attention which is, that the major part of those who 
 have written well in English, have been more or less acquaint- 
 ed with classic tongues. This, as a mere fact, may be con- 
 ceded, yet the conclusion usually drawn from it denied; for I 
 beg leave to ask if the same may not be said of bad writers, 
 as well as of good ; and which, 1 pray you, are the most nu- 
 merous ? If the bad predominate, as many think, the influ- 
 ence is by no means favourable to scholarship ; for the chance 
 is they would have done better without it. Indeed, several 
 might be named, whose genius and acquirements were such 
 as would assuredly have placed them high on the roll of fame, 
 had they not wilfully neglected the cultivation of taste, in their 
 native idiom, to chase the phantom on classic ground. 
 
 In some departments of literature, that of belles-lettres par- 
 ticularly, no doubt the most celebrated authors were adepts in 
 Greek and Latin. But it should be remembered, at the same 
 time, that they were men endowed by nature with extraordi- 
 nary talents that their minds were enriched, besides, with 
 varied and extensive acquired knowledge ; and that it is this 
 knowledge and those talents which give value to their works, 
 and celebrity to their names, infinitely more than elegance of 
 language, or the graces of composition. Nor should it be 
 forgotten that among this very class of productions there are 
 many, in the paths of romance, deservedly of high repute, 
 whose authors received no varnish from Cicero or Virgil. 
 Among the wwlagtical, indeed, may be ranked some of the 
 most captivating novelists and dramatists of any age or coun- 
 try such as Richardson, Inchbald, Radclifle, Burney, Edge- 
 worth, (to say nothing of Shakspeare,) and many others 
 whose superiors we should vainly seek, 1 fear, in the endless 
 catalogues of collegiate graduates. The case is the same in 
 various other branches of science and learning. 
 
 Nevertheless, it may be true in the main, that a good Eng- 
 lish style is usually accompanied with some portion of clas- 
 sical learning : But admitting the proposition ; yet its converse 
 that those who are skilled in ancient tongues can always 
 acquit themselves well in their own is very far from being 
 true ; as might be shown by a long list of exceptions. This 
 however ought to be true according to theory. Nor does it 
 follow, even when these attainments are found conjoined, that 
 one is the cause and the other the effect'. Both may be, and 
 7
 
 50 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 it is reasonable to suppose they are, concurrent effects refer- 
 rable to a common cause. They result jointly, 1 conceive, 
 from the operation of favourable circumstances on a mind by 
 nature acute and capacious. Such a mind, so circumstanced, 
 is naturally stimulated by curiosity, (the inseparable adjunct 
 of genius,) to grasp at every thing within its reach, \\here- 
 ever its possessor be located, here or in Europe, classical 
 studies not only soon fall in his way, but are almost forced 
 upon him by the fashion of the times. Of the dead langua- 
 ges, therefore, he makes an early acquisition, though never a 
 rapid one : Simultaneously or successively, other branches 
 are diligently pursued ; his native tongue is critically analy- 
 sed ; till at length a rich and diversified stock of knowledge is 
 amassed ; and in this way he becomes a proficient, both in 
 science and learning. It is not that ancient languages have re- 
 fined his own ; but the whole has been alike matured by the 
 same eager desire to attain, and the same sagacity to compre- 
 hend. This, in all probability, is the true cause, most certain- 
 ly an adequate one, of the coincidence alluded to ; and when 
 the effect may be accounted for in a manner so natural and 
 satisfactory, why should we strive to explain it by a mysteri- 
 ous tutorship of Latin over English, of which no one can 
 form a distinct conception ? 
 
 But in my opinion too much weight has been attached to 
 the circumstance of so few good w riters (comparatively speak- 
 ing) having been known to the world, who were not cla^sir.al- 
 ly educated. For in the first place, the number of surh w ho 
 hare written well, may in point of fact be greatly underrated ; 
 and secondly, as to those who can write well, this is obviously 
 a matter of conjecture only. Thousands, no doubt, have si- 
 lently descended to the tomb, whose intellectual powers, if 
 called into action, might have at once delighted and instructed 
 mankind. How many " mute inglorious Miltons" now rest 
 in their graves we shall never know. Besides, the world is 
 seldom anxious to learn the history and education of authors, 
 unless it be such as have displayed a wide scope of know- 
 ledge, or uncommon penetration. Hence numbers, possess- 
 ing equal, if not superior, merit in respect of style merely, 
 may have passed quite unnoticed. 
 
 Perhaps, however, some judgment may be formed on this 
 head in another way. Let any one survey the circle of his 
 acquaintance, and he probably will find among them many in- 
 dividuals of both sexes, in whose epistolary and other manu- 
 script performances, subjects have been treated not only with
 
 CHAPTER IV. 51 
 
 ability, but in a suitable, agreeable, and even elegant manner. 
 He might call to mind also many good specimens in print, on 
 fugitive topics, by persons who were strangers to Latin ; and 
 in the muses' domain particularly, numerous effusions, not 
 simply neat, but polished too, from the pens of females. He 
 might point likewise to a successful bard of our own, who, 
 though not one of the alumni, has thrice borne off the prize 
 before a whole phalanx of regular bred expectants. Or 
 finally, he might refer to the pages of our leading critical jour- 
 nal, in which one of the best essays for the last two years, 
 perhaps the very best, in style as well as talent, was the tran- 
 sient effort of an unclassical penman of a mind, however, im- 
 proved by better means than conjugating Latin verbs, or mea- 
 suring Latin verses.* By this sort of survey, any one might 
 be convinced that, among those who have not had what is call- 
 ed a liberal education, the number is far greater than is gen- 
 erally imagined, who are able, when they choose, to ex- 
 press just and pertinent thoughts in forcible and elegant dic- 
 tion and what is this if it be not good writing? 
 
 There is a well merited compliment of Dr. Gregory's as 
 regards the sex, which comes directly in aid of our argument; 
 for it is the good fortune of the ladies, generally speaking, to 
 be exempt from the drudgery of classical studies. " The 
 style of female authors (says he) flows easier, and is common- 
 ly more harmonious than that of professed scholars." As a 
 general remark, it is just We have a notable exception, how- 
 ever, in Miss Se ward's Memoirs of Darwin a style of composi- 
 tion so stiff, so awkward, and so highly latinised, as to exempli- 
 fy fully another observation of the same critic, that " pedantry 
 more frequently misleads us than any other cause." Wheth- 
 er the fair authoress was familiar with the tongues of other 
 times, we are not informed. But, manifestly, she knew the 
 characteristic of a Latin sentence to be inversion ; and by 
 endeavouring to mimic this in her native speech, has made a 
 willing sacrifice of ease, of grace, and what is worse, of per- 
 spicuity. 
 
 The object in these latter remarks, was to call to mind the 
 fact, that many writers have arrived at eminence without any 
 obligation to the languages ; and at the same time to suggest, 
 that hundreds of others may have been amply qualified, yet 
 have not chosen to appear before the public. These points, 
 
 * See North Am. Rev. Oct. 1822. Article 18, written by a merchant of this 
 city.
 
 52 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 however, need not be much insisted upon. The case imposes 
 no necessity of adducing authors of this description, equal ei- 
 ther in number or fame, to their classic rivals. We may allow 
 a considerable disparity in both these respects ; and can as- 
 sign a sufficient cause, apart from the languages. It is well 
 known to he our custom here, as in Europe, to select for lit- 
 erary promotion those children to whom nature has been most 
 bountiful the motive for which, whether justifiable or not, is 
 as natural as it is obvious. Accordingly, the youth placed 
 under classic tuition unquestionably possess, on the average, 
 the strongest minds in addition to which (it is important to 
 remark) they are better taught in all other branches, as well 
 as in the languages. Furthermore, while their companions 
 are culled off to new employments at the age of 14 or Jo, 
 these prosecute their studies to 1 8 or 20 a period of life in- 
 comparably more propitious to the accumulation of knowledge 
 than the playful years of bo> hood. All things thus co-opera- 
 ting in their favour, these youth constitute, in every sense of 
 the phrase, a corps cPclite. Is it then extraordinary they 
 should make better writers ? Can we expect the same ex- 
 ploits from common soldiers as from picked troops ; or look 
 for an equal product from field husbandry as from garden til- 
 lage ? 1 may add too, for no one will doubt the fact, that 
 the very notions so long prevalent on this subject, have ope- 
 rated to discourage most others from making any attempts at 
 authorship, at any time of life. 
 
 Taking all these things into view, we surely need not be at 
 a loss to account for the high standing of classical men in the 
 republic of letters. Nay more, where such manifold advan- 
 tages have concurred, we might reasonably expect a greater 
 effect than is actually found ; and that no greater is witnessed 
 can perhaps be explained in no other way than by supposing 
 that the confused ideas obtained through Greek and Latin 
 perplex the mind, and thus obstruct that expansion of genius 
 which would naturally keep pace with the accumulation of 
 general knowledge. In my belief this is really the tendency 
 of classical studies ; and however numerous may be the ex- 
 amples of men thus educated, who have made themselves 
 conspicuous as authors, they have succeeded, probably, not in 
 consequence of such learning, but in spite of it. 
 
 Another favourite expedient to evince the efficacy of an- 
 cient learning in ameliorating the taste and the judgment, is 
 to refer us to some celebrated English writer as a case in 
 point. Among them all, Addison. is more frequently selected
 
 CHAPTER IV. 53 
 
 for this purpose, than any other ; and he, poor man, has been 
 roundly accused of plucking all the fairest flowers in the clas- 
 sic garden. But whatever were his robberies in this way, the 
 blossoms of style were certainly not among them. His graces 
 of manner are all of home growth* Being, however, consum- 
 mately skilled in Latin, the policy has been to refer all his 
 excellence to that cause, and thus exemplify the magical ef- 
 fect of Roman models. An inference more thoroughly gra- 
 tuitous, I venture to say, was never made. 
 
 Addison is acknowledged on all hands 1o be an easy, elegant, 
 and most entertaining writer ; fully deserving, perhaps, the 
 high eulogium which Johnson, with peculiar felicily of ex- 
 pression, has penned for him. His latinity also, was no less 
 correct and elegant than his English ; but the chief merit of 
 both consists as much in the idiom of each being kept perfect- 
 ly distinct, as in any other circumstance. The change of 
 style brought about, or rather accelerated, by the taste and 
 influence of the Addisonian school, so far from being an ap- 
 proximation to the Latin manner, was effected by discarding 
 numberless uncouth turns of expression, and that stiff un- 
 graceful structure of sentence, which earlier writers had fallen 
 into by aping the ancient classics. It was by carefully avoid- 
 ing all this ; by restoring the characteristic simplicity of the 
 English idiom ; by giving scope to a fertile, yet chaste imagin- 
 ation ; and by opening the resources of a highly cultivated 
 mind ; that the author of the Spectator diffused a charm 
 through all his writings, which, while it never fails to fascinate 
 the reader, bears no resemblance to any thing we inherit from 
 antiquity. It is risking nothing to say, that no productions in 
 our language are more strictly English, or, if the expression 
 be allowed, more completely unlatinised, than those engaging 
 essays not a sentence can be found after the Latin manner. 
 If therefore, the dead languages were any benefit to Addison, 
 in respect of style, it was by teaching him what to avoid, not 
 what to imitate. 
 
 But what was the style, let me ask, of those among Addi- 
 son's predecessors, who did imitate the ancients ? Professor 
 Barron accurately describes it as follows " They disfigured 
 our language in every respect they latinised our words and 
 our terminations; and they introduced inversions so violent as 
 to render the sense often obscure, and in some cases unintelli- 
 gible."* This indeed was the fashionable manner among the 
 
 * Barren's Lectures, vol. 1. page 47.
 
 54 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 great body of English writers at one period ; and we have 
 here a farther confirmation of a former remark, that although 
 the Latin form of sentence may easily be copied, it must al- 
 ways be af the expense of almost every pleasing quality. 
 
 Indeed there is little room to doubt that this whole doctrine 
 of imitation, so unsuccessfully put in practice by the writers 
 last mentioned so servile too in its very nature yet so per- 
 tinaciously urged upon us at every turn is built entirely on 
 a false foundation. It rests on the unauthorized assumption 
 that the principles of taste, in matters of style, are universal, 
 and common to all languages; which is exactly the same mis- 
 take as before noticed in grammar. But scholars of a higher 
 cast .'that is, of stronger analytic powers,) have long been 
 aware of the fallacy ; and in many instances have taken some 
 pains to unmask it. " If we consider the works of literature 
 (says the German critic Schlegel.) by any universal theory of 
 art, there is no end to the controversy that may arise as to the 
 merits of any individual book, or of any body of literature." 
 The critical acumen of this philosophical writer is employed 
 at some length in exposing the pernicious tendency of the 
 very error in question ; and he points out various ways in 
 which the study of classic models had a most unhappy influ- 
 ence on early European writers, English as well as others 
 but above all, on the Italians.* Another critic of no less ce- 
 lebrity, Sismonde, is so entirely of the same mind that he as- 
 cribes the degeneracy of Italian literature in the 15th centu- 
 ry, to nothing else but the passionate study of the ancients, 
 which, to use his own words, " caused the neglect of their 
 own language, and took away all originality from their au- 
 thors." Italian, he says, was not cultivated for fear of spoil- 
 ing their Latin ; and thus, through neglect on one side, and 
 classic imitation on the other, gross corruption awaited it.t In 
 England also, when the classic mania was at its height, the 
 effect was precisely similar, as we have already seen by the 
 quotation from Barron. 
 
 It would seem then, the very history of literature might 
 itself admonish us, that the plan of imitation is as ruinous to 
 taste, as it is to originality. But independently of all reference 
 to facts, it needs but little reflection to convince any man that 
 the standard of taste, like that of grammar and meaning, is in 
 every language inherent, peculiar, and untransferable. It is 
 
 * Schlegel's Lectures, vol 2. pages 23, 90, and 96. 
 t Sismonde, vol. 2. page 23 and 24.
 
 CHAPTKtt IV. 56 
 
 quite time then to abandon the puerile idea of polishing Eng- 
 lish with Latin tools. We might as well believe a carpenter 
 could polish his work with the tools of a mason. There is no 
 fitness in the instrument. 
 
 It is not intended however, by any thing here said, to deny 
 that there are certain elements of beauty in literary composi- 
 tion, which being independent of language or expression, 
 might properly enough be called universal, and therefore, if 
 you will, transferable such as beauty of morals, of senti- 
 ment, of passion and the like. But unfortunately, the ancient 
 classics are in general so extremely licentious, not to say dis- 
 gusting, as to be wholly unfit either for the school or the par- 
 lour, without a severe expurgation and even then, how little 
 consistent with modern ideas of propriety. " 1 know not 
 (says Spence) what to say of one thing, that Homer makes 
 dissimulation one of the excellences of his heroes." And see 
 how he accounts for it, " but the heathen system of morality 
 (he adds) was incomplete enough to bear with this proceed- 
 ing." 
 
 But another thing, is it not quite frivolous at least, if not in- 
 congruous, to talk so much about the ancients in bulk, as mod- 
 els of style, when their respective manners are so extremely 
 various? Scarcely a point of uniformity exists among them, 
 excepting only the national idiom, which it is impossible to 
 transfuse into modern tongues, without rendering them alto- 
 gether uncouth and heterogeneous. And further, is there not 
 something very singular, and contradictory withal, in pre- 
 tending that excellence is unattainable but by imitation ; and 
 telling us in the same breath that the Grecians were no imita- 
 tors, yet excelled in every thing? One would think the very 
 inconsistency of such a theory was enough to discredit it.* 
 
 Let us, however, for one moment fall in with this theory 
 and see where it would lead us. What if there are universal 
 principles in literary composition. What if Addison and oth- 
 ers have discovered those principles, and transferred them to 
 their own pages what follows ? Most certainly this that 
 these same English masters exhibit to us the very principles 
 so much extolled ; and what is more, they teach us like- 
 wise, what never could be learnt from the ancients, themanner 
 of applying them. Now which is best, to learn an abstract 
 principle and nothing more ; or to learn, together therewith, 
 
 See note C. in the Appendix.
 
 56 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 its proper application ? This aspect of the case, seems quite as 
 conclusive against resorting to Greek and Latin as any other. 
 Or let us take the thing, by way of variety, just as scholars 
 will have it. Suppose it conceded, that the study of Latin is 
 really the best means of accomplishing the object, and even 
 the only means. No one can imagine that a slight acquaint- 
 ance with that language would answer the purpose our 
 knowledge of it, and of its writers, must be at once critical 
 and familiar. With this in mind, we must consider on the 
 other hand, that great precision, or great elegance of style, 
 cannot be important to any but professed authors ; and even to 
 them worth nothing in comparison with good sense, sound 
 judgment, and above all, a competent knowledge of their sub- 
 ject. These latter qualifications, indeed, would of themselves 
 naturally form a manner, which, though unembellished per- 
 haps, could never be had ; and if it fell short in elegance, 
 would abundantly compensate in perspicuity. Nor must it 
 be forgotten, that, in devoting so much time to the classics, 
 other studies of high value must be partially or wholly neg- 
 lected. If then, combining all these circumstances, we con- 
 trast the improvement thus derived, with the sacrifices made to 
 attain it if we compare the value of the polish with the cost 
 of the polishing instrument we could hence draw but a very 
 feeble argument indeed in favour of such a course, even for 
 literary men while as a general system, there could be no 
 favourable inference whatever. 
 
 But lastly, if we consult that class of writers who have in- 
 vestigated the elements of composition, and profess to give 
 instructions on that score, we shall find them all concurring in 
 the doctrine of an inherent standard, and in referring to approv- 
 ed models in our own language. Among the many who have 
 written with this view, we may cite Mr. Kett of Oxford a 
 staunch friend to classical studies, and a tutor at college 
 yet as independent in his opinion, as perhaps any man would 
 venture to be, so situated. With regard to style, he observes, 
 "It should consist in a compliance with general rules, and the 
 practice of polished ranks in society. Without attention to 
 some rules, without a proper discrimination between good and 
 bad, the language will degenerate, and the English tongue 
 will finally lose its value, its weight, and its lustre, by being 
 mixed with foreign words, and the alloy of learned affectation." 
 He says in another page, " In order to avoid the errors of 
 those who have been led astray by affectation and false re- 
 finement, (among whom he ranks Gibbon, for his numerous
 
 CHAPTER IV. 57 
 
 latinisms) and to form a proper opinion of the genuine Eng- 
 lish idiom, it is necessary to peruse the works of the best and 
 most approved writers." And he adds elsewhere, after nam- 
 ing several English authors, "such are the examples by which 
 our style ought to be regulated."* From these quotations it 
 is evident enough that Mr. Kelt, however abounding in classic 
 partialities, is yet sensible that the true criterion for us can 
 nowhere be found but in our own mother tongue a conclu- 
 sion, in which every inquiry, pursued on philosophical princi- 
 ples, must unavoidably terminate ; and one that rejects, as en- 
 tirely fictitious, the pretended agency of Greek and Latin. 
 It is with great propriety, therefore, that Mr. Pickering, in his 
 Vocabulary, alluding to certain English authors, subjoins 
 " such standard authors should be made the foundation of our 
 English." Mr. Pickering indeed, goes all lengths with us in 
 this matter, and quotes a distinguished transatlantic Review, 
 by way of corroboration.t At least, thus I interpret him 
 if erroneously, no one is better able than himself to state his 
 real sentiments, and the grounds on which they rest ; and no 
 one can do it in a more agreeable manner. 
 
 The reader has now before him all that was proposed to be 
 said on this topic ; and I cannot but think he will come to the 
 conclusion that the common scholastic doctrine is not to be 
 maintained on any principle of sound reasoning. 
 
 And where, after all, is the propriety of such unwearied 
 attention to the petty artifices of style, by whatever means 
 acquired, as the supporters of that doctrine insist upon. Do 
 they mean to say that mere taste, and a conformity to certain 
 arbitrary rules, are the sole, or even the chief ingredients in 
 good writing ? Has sense, and intelligence, and reflection, 
 nothing to do with it ; or is this the portion of those only who 
 worship at the shrine of Cicero and Aristotle ? 
 
 There certainly does appear to be some cause for appre- 
 hending that the characteristic of literary performances in our 
 day, will seem, to future critics, to be that of pretty writing 
 the besetting sin is manner and this perversity of judgment 
 results naturally from the prevalence of classical notions. To 
 abate the evil, our votaries of the plume would do well to 
 listen to the advice of Duncan " Whether composition (says 
 
 * Kelt's Elements, vol. 1. pages 104 to 108. 
 
 t Preface and Essay in Pickering's Vocabulary.
 
 58 CHAPTER V. 
 
 he) be grave or light, humourous or satirical, let it be re- 
 membered that beauty consists more in idea than expression; 
 and that it is not inflated language, but propriety of thought, 
 which constitutes a good writer."* They would find an ad- 
 vantage also in recurring now and then to the admonition of 
 our great English critic, that " compositions, merely pretty, 
 must have the fate of other pretty things, and be soon quitted 
 for something better ;"t that is to say, for something where 
 sense and knowledge predominate, and where style could do 
 but little good on the one hand, or little harm on the other. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Classic literature, of little value as a source of knowledge* 
 
 IT is a dominant article in the classic creed, that the lan- 
 guages open to us an inexhaustible store of knowledge. Dr. 
 Rush remarks on this point, very happily, that we seem to 
 forget the age we live in he might have added, and the age 
 also to which we are referred for instruction ; for before any 
 weight can be allowed to this argument, we must draw a veil 
 over the whole history of knowledge. But it would be whim- 
 sical enough to imagime ourselves enveloped in a cloud of ig- 
 norance merely that we may ascribe to Aristotle the honour 
 of dispersing it. What indeed can be more visionary than to 
 attempt to enlighten the present age by the glimmering rays 
 of ancient science it is like carrying a taper to Vauxhall. 
 
 But let us cast our eye back to the time when classic light 
 was restored. There was a period in the history of Europe, 
 as we all know, and a very long one, when book learning, and 
 still more book making, were entirely out of fashion. Of 
 modern works there were none ; while those of ancient 
 Greece and Rome lay concealed in convents and cloisters, un- 
 read and unsought. The minds of men, long weaned from 
 such pursuits by the operation of powerful general causes. 
 
 * Duncan's Essay on Genius, page 180, 
 t Johnson's Life of Waller.
 
 CHAPTER V. 59 
 
 political, ecclesiastical, and moral, were at length allured 
 again to literature by causes no less remarkable ; among 
 which, the invention of printing, and the reformation in mat- 
 ters of religion, effected by Luther, were the most conspicu- 
 ous. To these events, must chiefly be imputed what is term- 
 ed the revival of letters ; or in other words, the renewed taste 
 for books and literature : Cotemporary therewith, or nearly 
 so, (but whether as cause, or effect, or reciprocally both, is 
 uncertain,) was the discovery of ancient manuscripts in their 
 various secret repositories throughout Europe. By aid of 
 this discovery, the growing taste for study was no doubt pro- 
 digiously stimulated, and possibly in some measure rewarded 
 though it is far from being certain, that useful knowledge, 
 or even speculative science, was in the smallest degree ad- 
 vanced. 
 
 What may reasonably excite a doubt on this point, or rath- 
 er perhaps completely disprove it, is the well attested fact of 
 many very striking, and indeed wonderful discoveries and in- 
 ventions, having occurred antecedently to the revival of learn- 
 ing ; or at any rate, ere that learning can be supposed to 
 have had any influence far less such influence. The inven- 
 tions of paper, printing, clocks, watches, spectacles, teles- 
 copes, of the compass, of gunpowder, of arithmetical figures, 
 and many other things, are unequivocal indications that the hu- 
 man mind, however averse to literary parade, was far, very 
 far, from being inactive during what is called the middle ages. 
 Indeed, what force of genius ; what depth of reflection ; what 
 extent of knowledge too, is implied in all this ! Can the long 
 annals of Greece and Rome show any thing on a par with 
 these, I might almost say any one of these improvements ? If 
 they can, I confess my ignorance, and desire to be enlighten- 
 ed. As to the wild day-dreams of their visionary philoso- 
 phers, or the rhapsodies of their poets, orators, and histori- 
 ans, it is all quite insignificant, compared with the efficacy of 
 these discoveries, in promoting the every-day comforts of life, 
 and in ameliorating the general condition of mankind. Now 
 in all this, and much else that was accomplished about that 
 time, ancient writings had positively no agency whatever. 
 The truth is, the minds of men were already roused by other 
 causes ; ingenuity was busy at work ; and for all we know, 
 the progress of science in the two following centuries, rapid 
 as it really was, might have been incalculably more so, had 
 riot genius and industry been called off to the musty manu- 
 scripts of earlier times.
 
 80 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Mr. Harris in his Philological Inquiries, alluding to the fore- 
 mentioned admirable inventions, as he properly terms them , 
 calls it all surprising ; and so indeed, it would be on his the- 
 ory of a prevailing ignorance at that period, and even impos- 
 sible. 
 
 It is even a questionable thing if the substantial parts of 
 knowledge were lost during any portion of what are usually 
 stigmatized the dark ages- Schlegel declares his conviction 
 they were not ; and as to the era in question he remarks, 
 " Among the suddenly enriched, and intellectually fruitful 
 periods of modern Europe, the most brilliant, perhaps, was 
 that of the loth century." Why then call that a dark age ? 
 Dark it may have been, if we consider only the literary art 
 the art of displaying knowledge but luminous almost be- 
 yond description, certainly far beyond any thing the world 
 had before seen, in the brightest efforts of intellect the dis- 
 coveries in art and science. Undeniably, Europe was at 
 that very time superior in many important respects to the 
 best days of Rome or Greece. Who can believe that classic 
 nations would have made any figure by the side of a people 
 in possession of the arts above enumerated ; and possessing 
 moreover, the genius that created them. Nevertheless, a no- 
 tion has prevailed, that mankind were in a state of hopeless 
 ignorance at the revival of ancient learning ; and I am not 
 a\vare that scholars have taken the least pains to expose this 
 " hoary-headed error." 
 
 An error it most certainly was, and its origin may at least 
 be guessed at. There is in mankind a propensity to endeav- 
 our to account for every thing, and it is a fortunate one ; but 
 there is likewise a propensity to simplify causes, which often is 
 very unfortunate. These tendencies combined have led men, 
 in countless instances, to assign to some particular ostensible 
 cause, an efficacy a thousand fold greater than was just, or 
 even rational. To take an example, that political phenome- 
 non, the French revolution, was for many years, as we may 
 all remember, considered the work of half a score of able, 
 factious, and desperate demagogues. But of late the error of 
 such an opinion is clearly perceived ; and wise men of every 
 nation, and of all parties, now more justly ascribe the whole 
 to extensive moral causes, for a long time silently, yet active- 
 ly operating throughout that ill-fated country. Precisely in 
 the same way, the natural propensities alluded to, have indu- 
 ced a general belief among moderns, that the astonishing ad- 
 vances in knowledge and civilization, which characterized the
 
 CHAPTER V. 61 
 
 15th and 16th centuries, all flowed from the introduction of 
 classical learning into Europe. The whole state of things 
 then existing was thought to be explained by the tnagic-tl 
 phrase revival of learning. And the charm in some measure, 
 still operates those potent little words are still made to re- 
 solve every thing accounting not only for all that could pos- 
 si My be learnt from ancient writings, but also for many mag- 
 nificent discoveries, of which the Greeks and Romans were 
 as completely ignorant as the Choctaws or Cherokees. but 
 surely that must be a wretched philosophy, which refers ef- 
 fects so vast and so various, to the trivial circumstance of a 
 few Greek volumes being discovered, and a few Greek teach' 
 ers having fled into Italy from the East. It is in every re- 
 spect more rational to impute all this to a happy concurrence 
 of moral causes^ which, in the desire to make every thing re- 
 dound to the honour of Greece and Rome, have been much 
 too generally overlooked. But men, it seems, have willingly 
 gone blindfolded to the classic altar, that they might worship 
 with better grace. 
 
 However, at the epoch referred to, the passion for reading 
 came again into vogue; and as fashion has great sway in every 
 thing, even in the exercise of the mind, and books being then 
 scarce to a degree of which it is difficult to form an idea in 
 the present age, studious men at once became absorbed in 
 the new found treasures ; and soon after became enthusiasts. 
 All knowledge and refinement were thought to lie under cover 
 of the dead languages, and all learning (as the term is gene- 
 rally used) did lie there. The deductions of science, the 
 maxims of wisdom, and the charms of wit, were considered 
 as locked up in Greek and Latin ; and to possess the key of 
 so rich a casket might well be deemed a compensation for 
 some years of toil. Hence ancient tongues were universally 
 studied as valuable means to a valuable end. The whole 
 thing was natural enough, and possibly some good may have 
 resulted from it ; much evil most certainly has. 
 
 But if Europe, at the period in question, stood so little in 
 need of classic aid as we have described, how must it stand 
 now ? Not only has the march of mind gone on with accele- 
 rated step, but the storehouse of antiquity has been made to 
 yield up all its treasures, (if so they may be called) and there- 
 with much also of its worthless ware. At least as far back 
 as a centurj' from our times, perhaps much farther, every 
 thing valuable in ancient literature had already either been 
 translated, or culled out and incorporated in English works ;
 
 62 CHAPTER V. 
 
 and the same labour has been continued on minor topics down 
 to the present day so that now it is quite idle to pretend that 
 any thing of consequence yet remains concealed from Eng- 
 lish readers. Whatever heathen writers can teach, in any re- 
 spect useful, we no longer need their language to avail of. 
 The ore of ancient knowledge, in its original form, is now 
 therefore of little worth. The pure metal has been separated 
 and refined, and as far as it was capable, made subservient to 
 useful purposes. Why then should we spend years and years 
 in delving at the crude mass in ancient fields when all its bet- 
 ter elements are found in our own territories, without alloy, 
 and with little trouble. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, the unwearied industry of schol- 
 ars, in bringing to light every thing really estimable in the 
 productions of classic times, their gleanings have furnished 
 but a small part, an exceedingly small part, of the mass of 
 wisdom embodied, and digested in modern literature. This 
 I had thought of showing, by drawing a brief comparison be- 
 tween the ancients and moderns in the more important 
 branches of science and learning but the most compendious 
 sketch that could be devised, to be at all satisfactory, would 
 spread too wide for the present occasion. It may suffice to 
 say, that no view of this kind could fail to exhibit the com- 
 plete ascendency of the modern world. This indeed is not 
 denied. It is not pretended that either Greece or Rome could 
 at all approach, in the sum total of useful productive know- 
 ledge, or even of speculative. Dr. Knox himself, whatever 
 language he may hold as tutor, admits all this as an essayist. 
 " A man (says he) may have read the best Greek and Latin 
 authors, and scarcely have one just and truly philosophical 
 idead of the orb on which he lives, or its natural and artifi- 
 cial productions." And again, " In useful science, and in nat- 
 ural philosophy, the ancients fall so far short as not to bear a 
 comparison."* In fact, so immense is the difference, that it 
 would be quite on the safe side to affirm, that every boy in his 
 teens may now be in possession of a greater amount of profit- 
 able knowledge, than fell to the lot of the seven wise men of 
 Greece and as to the unprofitable, it can well be spared. 
 The only wonder is, that fully sensible of the astonishing 
 change, as we all are, a system of education should still be 
 tolerated, which imposes a dreary pilgrimage through the 
 
 * Knox's Essays, No. 22 and 69.
 
 CHAPTER V. 63 
 
 wilderness of antiquity, to seek what no one believes can be 
 found. 
 
 Very frequently, however, and very naturally under these 
 circumstances, classical men expatiate on the importance of 
 certain accomplishments, in which, they say, the ancients ex- 
 celled. So far am 1 from stopping to contest this point, 
 though extremely doubtful, I should freely allow not only all 
 they assert, but as much more as they may choose to claim of 
 that nature. Useful attainments are so immeasurably superior 
 to what is simply amusing or ornamental, that the latter is not 
 even worth computing. To take the words of one, who, be- 
 sides scholarship, has many better things to boast of, " For it 
 is not the parade of learning, like the display of an elegant 
 philosophical apparatus, that we are called to admire, but the 
 useful application of that learning." And Cicero himself (a 
 good authority with some people) was aware of this " Know- 
 ledge (says he) that is applicable to no useful purpose cannot 
 deserve the name of wisdom." And he is right enough, for of 
 such knowledge, one might say what has been said of skepti- 
 cism, that it is the science of knowing nothing. In short, learn- 
 ing that cannot be applied, is like money that will not pass 
 with millions in his coffer, a man would still be a pauper. 
 
 And yet there are men, who, from long indulgence in habits 
 of antiquarian research, are led to believe that classical pur- 
 suits, unlike all others, should not be measured by the scale 
 of utility. An ingenious writer on the pronunciation of Greek, 
 assures us, that scholars will not stop to inquire if such disqui- 
 sitions be useful ; and for this he is complimented, or intended 
 to be, in the North Am. Rev. as displaying " the genuine spi- 
 rit of scholarship." Without pretending to judge in the case, 
 I have only to say that it may be scholarship, and it may be 
 genuine ; but I must be excused in adding it is not philosophy. 
 Another set of scholars, however, it is but fair to state, hold 
 utility to be not so bad a thing " The uses of a thing (says 
 the Literary Gazette, No. 4.) begin to be the measure of its 
 value ; and it is not a little in praise of the intellectual condi- 
 tion of the world, that it has done something towards estab- 
 lishing the great truth which lies at the bottom of all wisdom 
 that no knowledge is valuable, no acquisition worth making, 
 and no action of body or mind good, but as they subserve the 
 actual interests of humanity, &c." Now all this, though rath- 
 er verbose, is sound philosophy philosophy too, of a descrip- 
 tion, that, if once brought into full play, would soon conduct 
 to the tomb a long retinue of academic whims and prejudices.
 
 64 C1IAPTEU V. 
 
 In matters of study, more even than any others, the well 
 known motto, cui tono, should never he out of sight. Utility 
 once discarded, what test shall we have; whatotuer could we 
 have ? But to resume. 
 
 So vast have been the accessions of knowledge in latter 
 ages, yet so regular the progress, that even the- period when 
 ancient learning ceased to be useful, seems itself almost lost in 
 the shades of antiquity. Infinitely more than Greece or 
 Rome ever knew, has long been embraced in every language 
 of modern Europe ; and not only so, but is there expounded 
 in a manner far more satisfactory. 
 
 All this is unquestionably true, and cannot be gainsayed. 
 On the other hand, however, we must not withhold from anti- 
 quity its just meed of applause. Every age and every peo- 
 ple have done something for posterity. The Egyptians, Gre- 
 cians, Romans, and far more than either, the Arabians, have 
 transmitted certain arts and sciences in a state of considera- 
 ble advancement ; of which our ancestors of modern Europe 
 (those same Gothic people so much reviled by scholars) very 
 wisely availed themselves. This mass of knowledge they 
 perfected, and handed down to us ; together with many new 
 branches, originated and matured by themselves, as also a 
 brilliant train of inventions of peculiar excellence. But ob- 
 serve, it would have been just as rational in them to overlook 
 the science of Arabia, Rome, or Greece, and seek intelligence 
 among the relics of earlier nations, as it would now be in us 
 to neglect the full treasury of modern tongues, and betake 
 ourselves to Greek and Latin. The cases are exactly paral- 
 lel. Nor should it ever be forgotten, in speaking of our Go- 
 thic ancestors, that we owe to them, and to them exclusively, 
 several leading principles and features in social life, of inesti- 
 mable value to our present happiness ; as likewise the renun- 
 ciation of many abominable practices and traits of character, 
 by which the classic age was brutalized. Among such things 
 it may suffice to mention here the restoration of the female 
 sex to its proper standing in society the abolition, nearly 
 entire, of domestic slavery, tenfold more inhuman among the 
 Greeks and Romans, than in the West Indies, or elsewhere, 
 at any period many valuable maxims and customs in the 
 science of government and above all, that bulwark of our 
 personal rights and liberties, the trial by jury. From these 
 ameliorations, aided by the benign influence of Christianity, 
 has resulted a state of society and of manners, compared to 
 which, the classic age was truly barbarous. And yet, merely
 
 CHAPTER V. G5 
 
 because the Greeks and Romans were a literary people, with 
 something of a taste for the fine arts, the fashion among book- 
 ish men has always been, in repugnance to every principle of 
 justice, to lavish their praise on them, while they have loaded 
 with abuse those Gothic nations of the middle period, who 
 have bequeathed us a far richer inheritance. But this is part 
 of the game. 
 
 Modern systems of knowledge, for reasons assigned, have a 
 a claim to our preference, founded on the most rational 
 grounds. At the same time, however, if we are desirous to 
 learn the state of science in former ages, the labour of trans- 
 lators has placed this likewise within our reach, and freed us 
 from the danger of being misled by the ambiguities of a for- 
 eign and complicated language. It is worth remarking too 
 that a version in the vernacular tongue is attended by anoth- 
 er advantage, founded on the very nature of the human mind, 
 which yet perhaps has not received the attention it deserves. 
 It is this, that as we all think through the medium of our na- 
 tive speech, whatever ideas are imbibed through the same 
 channel are retained by more numerous as well as more pow- 
 erful associations ; and hence are always more at our com- 
 mand. 
 
 But it is curious to observe how men, interested in the reign- 
 ing system, cry out against the unfaithfulness of translations, 
 and how little consistent they are on this point. They talk of 
 it as a thing for the most part impracticable to clothe becom- 
 ingly a classic thought in modern dress, and always as some- 
 what irreverent to tear off the vesture of antiquity. Mr. 
 Kelt seems not a little puzzled what to say on this head. He 
 allows our language to be " energetic, rich, and copious" 
 possessing withal a philosophic character of construction. He 
 confesses coo, that Latin is wanting in copiousness, and that 
 Cicero himself complained of its meagre resources. Yet in 
 the very face of these concessions, he takes some pains to in- 
 stil the belief that no translation will convey the true mean- 
 ing of the original. Barrow and Knox, as might be expect- 
 ed, rail lustily against versions of every kind, good or bad 5 
 but they rail in vain, for the image of the Latin teacher is 
 visible in every page. 
 
 Here a reflection presents itself, of which all who have had 
 occasion to consult authorities on such matters will appreciate 
 the truth. It is a great misfortune that most didactic writers, 
 ">n subjects of this nature, have been men who not only lived
 
 00 1 HAl'TER V. 
 
 - under the shelter of academic bowers," but who derived 
 their emoluments from offices connected with the support of 
 ancient learning. Thus situated, a propensity on the one 
 hand to applaud classical studies ; and the dictates of truth 
 and justice on the other in restraining such applause ; have 
 often entangled them in a dilemma from which it was hardly 
 possible to escape but through vagueness or inconsistency : 
 Whence it happens that these qualities are generally conspic- 
 uous in writers of this description. In Mr. Kelt's book the 
 effect and its cause are both very discernible ; and so with 
 Barrow, Knox, and many others. When, therefore, we meet, 
 in such a writer, with sentiments or reasonings discordant 
 with each other, we may safely take to be sincere whatever 
 opposes his general doctrine still more, if it opposes his in- 
 terest ; and since every thing of this kind must have been ad- 
 mitted reluctantly, and with great caution, we may also con- 
 sider it as true. It is on these principles we proceed in the 
 ordinary affairs of life ; and the practice is founded in com- 
 mon sense. These considerations will apply exactly to many 
 of the authorities already quoted, as well as to others not 
 yet named. 
 
 But with regard to the capabilities of the English language, 
 the following extract from Campbell will show the opinion of 
 a man free from constraint of any kind, and in all respects a 
 competent judge : " The materials, (says he) which consti- 
 tute the riches of a language must always bear some propor- 
 tion to the acquisition of knowledge made by the people. 
 For this reason, I should not hesitate to pronounce that Eng- 
 lish is considerably richer than Latin, and in the main, fitter 
 for all the subtle disquisitions of philosophy and criticism."* 
 So likewise Professor Barron says of English : " In point of 
 precision and accuracy it is superior to Latin and equal to the 
 Greek." Our dictionaries too, attest its ample resources, for 
 while classic tongues exhibit only about 30,000 words each, 
 Johnson presents us near 50,000, and some other lexicograph- 
 ers many more. Thus we see how totally groundless is the 
 common scholastic dogma, that our mother tongue is poor and 
 spiritless incapable of reaching the compass of thought in 
 classic literature. It is not so ; The difficulty of translating 
 most certainly does not lie here : Whatever obstacles occur, 
 and enough there surely are, arise from the obscurity inherent 
 in ancient writings owing partly to indistinctness of idea, and 
 
 " Campbell, page 432.
 
 CHAPTER V. % 
 
 partly to an ambiguity characteristic of the language. It is 
 indeed a well known fact, that both these impediments exist 
 to a most discouraging extent they meet every student at the 
 very threshold of his labours, and attend him obstinately to 
 the close. Nothing less than extraordinary talents united to 
 the most indefatigable perseverance (such as translators have 
 usually manifested) can have any chance of surmounting thein. 
 A few perhaps of the higher grade of scholars, who, in addi- 
 tion to their collegiate course, have devoted many subsequent 
 years to the classics, may do as well by reading them in the 
 original ; but nine out often, possibly ninety-nine out of a hun- 
 dred, understand their author better in the form of translation. 
 And this is the case in poetry yet more than in prose. The un- 
 Jearned reader may then rest assured, that he loses nothing of 
 the sense by perusing Homer and Virgil in the pages of Pope 
 and Dryden ; while on the other hand, he enjoys a harmony 
 of versification, which can never be realized from the origin- 
 al, by what Mr. Pickering calls our barbarous mode of pro- 
 nouncing Greek ; or what Foster, Horsley, and fifty others 
 consider our still more barbarous practice in Latin. I would 
 only remark here, by the way, that the change of pronuncia- 
 tion, proposed by these writers respectively, would mend the 
 matter not one atom. 
 
 The very uncertainty of meaning, of which we have jwst 
 been speaking, and the depth of research thereby necessarily 
 required, are alone a sufficient reason why time should not be 
 wasted on ancient authors in the original. And as to the ex- 
 tent of the evil, no better evidence need be wished, or could 
 be had, than the confession of a laborious scholar of our vi- 
 cinity, who, with abilities worthy a higher aim, has passed at 
 least twenty years of his life between Alpha and Omega, li 
 is avowed by him, that a cloud of vagueness overshadows the 
 whole of Grecian literature and no doubt the same may be 
 said of the Roman. " The imagination faints (says he) un- 
 der the mass of illustrative learning, necessary to a perfect 
 comprehension of their works."* And again, in an Essay on 
 the study of Greek, while deploring the unceasing labours oi 
 scholarship, he tells us that " by far the greater portion have 
 given up the undertaking in utter despair."* Now all this is 
 perfectly true, though in fact nothing more than numbers had 
 already believed, and not a few before confessed. A decla- 
 ration, however, so manly and independent, considering the 
 
 * North Am. Review, No. 30, page 187 and No. 3, New Series, page 209.
 
 lit; CHAPTER V. 
 
 writer's sphere of action, should justly entitle him to our 
 warmest applause. In fact, the determination of this point 
 alone, (that little accurate information can be gained from an- 
 cient authors) by one who has been favoured with peculiar 
 opportunities of judging, since it goes far to repel every pre- 
 tension to usefulness, nearly settles the whole question ; and 
 could the public be prevailed on to use the hint as it ougm to 
 be used, by expelling all this ancient vagueness from our 
 schools, we should then indeed, owe a lasting obligation to the 
 candour of its author. I mean not, however, to insinuate that 
 such an efiect was intended ; for the disclosure may have 
 been accidental only but at any rate the truth is told, and 
 told by him. The misfortune is, that confessions of this na- 
 ture are apt to pass unheeded, merely because they are casu- 
 al ; whereas, in just reasoning, this very circumstance, by pre- 
 cluding suspicion, should entitle them to a degree of consider- 
 ation above any number of ex officio opinions, propounded 
 with the express view of upholding a system. 
 
 According to this writer's account, the classics are arrant 
 coquettes, courting admiration from all, but permitting famil- 
 iarity to none. 
 
 From causes such as have now been hinted at, the stubborn 
 problems that start up around us as we endeavour to penetrate 
 the mysteries of ancient learning, are as countless in number, 
 as they are refractory in their nature. To decypher and elu- 
 cidate has been the unprofitable occupation of thousands and 
 tens of thousands of commentators, whose lives and talents, if 
 wisely directed, might doubtless have rendered important ser- 
 vices to their fellow men. The case of Aristotle may evince 
 the truth of our present remarks. Among the philosophers 
 of old, none could boast higher renown that the subtle Stagi- 
 rite ; nor is there one who so long and so triumphantly sway- 
 ed the magic sceptre of opinion over moderns ; nor yet one 
 to whose works the superior order of scholars have so unre- 
 mittingly devoted themselves : Among these we may rank 
 the distinguished author of Hermes, and Lord Monboddo, to- 
 gether with a long list of others, both English and continental. 
 Edition after edition has been laboured, with almost pious 
 zeal, by individuals and by associations, accompanied with 
 folios of commentaries ; as if the world had no security, nor 
 mankind any hope, but what depended on a just conception 
 of heathen philosophy. 
 
 Last of all in this goodly train, comes Dr. Gillies, who pub- 
 lished a new version of that noted sage, with copious
 
 CHAPTER V. 80 
 
 lions in 1797 ; and who appears lo think himself equal (and 
 probably is so) to any of his predecessors. Now Gillies not 
 only affirms, but as many think, has proved, that Harris, Mon- 
 boddo, and Hobbes, as also Rapin, and divers French literati, 
 had grossly misunderstood their Grecian oracle on many cardi- 
 nal points. Here then we see that although whole lives, almost, 
 of the greatest critics in Europe were spent on a particular 
 author, yet the chance is, he was not understood after all ; 
 and even that he is not understood now. This may seem 
 nothing wonderful to scholars, because they know it is not un- 
 common ; but what may well surprise both them and us is, to 
 find Gillies asserting after all this, that the language of Aris- 
 totle, so far from being obscure, is the " most copious and com- 
 plete, and also the most precise and elegant ever employed by 
 any philosopher" Yet so he says. In this curious case, 
 though but one of a multitude, we see exemplified the insur- 
 mountable difficulties in ancient tongues, and a deplorable 
 misapplication of modern genius. Why then should we go 
 on, age after age, adding to the mass of time and talents al- 
 ready buried in this gulph of oblivion. 
 
 With respect to the general merits of that prince of Grecian 
 sages, they are sketched by the learned Brucker in a few 
 words, as follows : " As the result of the brief survey we 
 have taken of the philosophy of Aristotle, it may be asserted 
 that it is rather the philosophy of words than of things ; and 
 that the study of his writings tends more to perplex the un- 
 derstanding with subtle distinctions than to enlighten it with 
 real knowledge."* How completely is all this verified in 
 Aristotle's commentators. And yet, how true soever it may 
 be of him, it would scarcely be less true of the whole tribe 
 of ancient dreamers. 
 
 Whoever supposes that the usual extent of classic tuition in 
 this country will impart to the student even a tolerable un- 
 derstanding of ancient authors in the original, makes a capital 
 mistake at the very outset. To get some idea of the magni- 
 tude of the task, we have only to see what the thorough- bred 
 scholars of Europe deem requisite to its accomplishment. 
 
 Doct. Holmes, President of St. John's College, Oxford, tells 
 his pupils (who, it should be observed, usually enter that 
 University with a deeper knowledge of the languages than is 
 possessed on leaving ours) that preparatory to a collegiate 
 
 Brucker 's Hist, of Philo. by EnfielH, vol. 1. p. 307.
 
 70 UUArTEU V. 
 
 study of the classics, they must be well versed not only in 
 the languages, but in the geography, history, laws, manners, 
 customs, and I know not what else, of ancient times. Of all 
 this, he says, " we must not be ignorant if we propose the 
 classics should be of any use or benefit to us." Here we 
 have already a noble field marked out for the classic aspi- 
 rant ; but this is not half. The Doctor goes on to say that 
 " thus prepared" the classics may be advantageously read in 
 the following order: " in Latin (I quote his words) Plautus, 
 Phedrus, and Terence an hundred times" and then twenty- 
 one other authors specifically enumerated. Here we see 
 the field of ambition is somewhat enlarged. The Doctor, 
 however, adds to the list fifteen Greek writers who are like- 
 wise to he carefully attended to making altogether about 
 forty authors, whose works collectively would amount per- 
 haps to four or five hundred volumes. These are to be stu- 
 died, he says, with great care, noticing all the peculiarities of 
 each writer, both as to idea and expression ; and keeping a 
 common-place book for remarks He further enjoins that stu- 
 dents should constantly exercise themselves also in transla- 
 tions and compositions ; and takes care to caution them that 
 the study of the Scriptures must be diligently pursued at the 
 same time. Lastly, he urges, on his pupils (which seems to 
 me the only rational part of his advice) the necessity of join- 
 ing their constant prayers with his for success in this under- 
 taking. I leave it, however, to the reader to judge if any 
 thing short of a miracle could ensure the accomplishment of 
 all this, I do not say within the period of collegiate instruc- 
 tion, but within the common range of human life and yet 
 this thorough scholar assures us the classics are of no use 
 without. The question then is reduced, according to him, 
 nearly to the following shape is it the sole end of human ex- 
 istence to understand the classics ? Or, as the only other al- 
 ternative, shall we study them bui partially and not under- 
 stand them at all ? Such is the option the Doctor leaves us. 
 We add only that his view of the subject seems fully to sanc- 
 tion the plaintive tone of a former quotation that u the mind 
 faints under the mass of illustrative learning" necessary to be- 
 come a real scholar which, extravagant as it may seem, is 
 yet a solemn truth. 
 
 But apart from -ambiguity, pagan literature (original or 
 translated) considered as a source of intelligence, is embar- 
 rassed by other serious difficulties ; one is, that a large por- 
 tion of what is there related as fact, is deprived, from various
 
 CHAPTER ITV 7f 
 
 causes, of that degree of certainty, without which no one can 
 or ought to be satisfied. In historical matters this is particu- 
 larly the case so much so that the utility of the study is in a 
 great measure intercepted by a mixture of fact and fable so 
 intimate as to leave us quite in doubt what to credit or what 
 to reject. The discordancies among Roman as well as Gre- 
 cian historians even on important points, (to say nothing of 
 subordinate) relating to their own and preceding limes, are 
 no less perplexing than numerous. But were they much less 
 frequent, daily experience might still teach us that a single dis- 
 puted fact has often so close a connexion with others better 
 substantiated, that the whole becomes vitiated as legitimate 
 grounds of judgment : One link being broken, the chain is no 
 longer entire. The certainty that classic history is in some 
 measure fabulous, and the uncertainty in what degree, go far 
 to divest it of every thing that might serve as lessons of experi- 
 ence, because the essential characteristic, truth, is want- 
 ing. In short, it partakes the fiction of romance, without its 
 fascination. 
 
 History, indeed, of all kinds, considered as furnishing rules 
 of conduct, can no otherwise be regarded, generally speak- 
 ing, than as deceptive and unsafe ; for as Chesterfield, with 
 great good sense remarks, " there never was a case stated or 
 even known by any historian, with all its circumstances ; 
 which, however, ought to be known in order to be reasoned 
 from," And as to events in remote times, even their most 
 material circumstances are variously described. Ancient 
 history, therefore, will seldom serve any other purpose than 
 that of amusement ; and this too not of the most edifying 
 kind. In truth, the friends of the classics are fast dropping 
 off in this particular. Even the veteran champion, Knox, 
 who takes the field on most occasions in their defence, aban- 
 dons them here as a forlorn hope ; " Herodotus (says he) one 
 of the earliest historians, writes a romance almost as fictitious 
 as Don Quixote but not near so ingenious nor entertaining 
 and yet he is called the father of history ; he might as well 
 be called the father of lies." And again " Your true classi- 
 cal historian feels no difficulty for want of matter : when he 
 finds it nof, he makes it. n * If indeed it was important to my 
 argument to show the worthlessness of early pagan history, 
 fhe task would be nearly taken off my hands by the recorded 
 
 Kaox's Winter Evenings, 8th.
 
 72 CHAPTER V. 
 
 opinions of men, who, though brought up with all the attach- 
 ments of a classical education, became at least partially 
 weaned from its influence in after years. Two or three such 
 opinions will at any rate not come amiss : " We must consi- 
 der (says Johnson) how little real history there is I mean 
 real authentic history. That certain kings reign'd, and certain 
 battles were fought we can depend upon ; but all the colour- 
 ing, all the philosophy of history is conjecture."* Mr. Heron 
 observes on the same subject, " History is merely a species 
 of romance, founded on events that really happened ; but the 
 bare events as stated by chronologists are alone true; their 
 causes, circumstances, effects as stated by historians, depend 
 entirely on the fancy of the relater"! Or take the following 
 from a recent English periodical ; " The critical science of 
 history was not known to the ancients ; but easy or ornamen- 
 tal narration great and prominent events, boldly and strik- 
 ingly brought out by the skilful colouring of the writer, satisfi- 
 ed the demands of every reader."! Such quotations might be 
 multiplied without end. 
 
 But I go a step farther, and maintain that were every single 
 fact known and fiction entirely discarded, still ancient history 
 would be a most unsafe guide to present conduct. The axiom, 
 that like causes produce like effects, though unquestionably 
 true in the abstract, and practically available in physics, be- 
 comes almost nugatory in morals, and wholly so in politics 
 the reason for which may be found in the extreme difficulty, 
 not to say the impossibility, of appreciating either cause or 
 effect. It is another axiom, or rather common saying, (from 
 which indeed the former seems to derive its plausibility in 
 matters of history) that human nature is every where the 
 same. But this likewise is not true in any practical sense, if 
 it be true at all. Of the human character in its embryo 
 state, (if I may be allowed the expression,) that is, as man 
 comes into the world, no idea can be formed. What is meant 
 by human nature, if it means any thing, is the character of man 
 as affected by education, habit, and the numberless influences 
 attending social life. Now all this, so far from being the 
 same, we know to be every where different; and between pe- 
 riods far apart, or nations far remote, it differs astonishingly. 
 This is too plain to need illustration. Hence no sound moral- 
 
 : 
 
 * Boswell's Life of Johnson Vol. 2. p. 373. 
 
 t Heron's Letters p. 216. 
 
 t Monthlv Mag. Rev. of Cicero's late work.
 
 CHAPTER V. 73 
 
 ist or politician would venture to take any assigned cause and 
 effect as described by Thucydides or Livy and argue that an 
 effect precisely similar would now result. This would be ab- 
 surd. It is common enough, to be sure, to hear a young ora- 
 tor expatiate on something that Cesar or Pompey said or did, 
 to show us what we ought to do now. But such things are 
 merely the manoeuvres, or at best the flourishes of eloquence* 
 This sort of game, successful enough I dare say in the popu- 
 lar assemblies of Rome and Athens, where nine out of ten 
 could neither read nor write, will at most but amuse a modern 
 audience without convincing their understandings. Such 
 trickery now is always laughed at. 
 
 In descending nearer to our own times, the annals of history 
 may no doubt be consulted with more propriety, and for a 
 twofold reason because they are better authenticated, and 
 because the period treated of bears a closer analogy in man- 
 ners, laws, and customs, to the age we live in. For these rea- 
 sons a reference to events of recent date may frequently sug- 
 gest a course of conduct well adapted to present emergency. 
 Yet even modern records, to be rendered profitable, must be 
 studied and reflected upon, not simply read. 
 
 With regard to the moral tendency of historical writings 
 in general, the common idea is that they leave on the mind a 
 salutary impression. But whoever will peruse an elegant and 
 sensible dissertation on this subject in Walker's Essays 
 (Rev. Geo. Walker) we venture to say will have many doubts 
 as far at least as the ancients are concerned. The Edin- 
 burgh Reviewers have very justly characterized the whole 
 retinue of Greek and Roman story tellers as "superficial 
 teachers of wisdom and marvellously indifferent to vice and vir- 
 tue." It is a little comforting to see truth and reason thus oc- 
 casionally bursting the fetters of prejudice; and as we hail 
 their image with delight, I may be indulged in giving anoth- 
 er quotation from the pen of these same gentlemen. " The ad- 
 miration of Rome, (say they) is one of the worst heresies we 
 bring with us from school; and it cannot admit of doubt that 
 the elegance acquired from an early intercourse with ancient 
 authors is dearly purchased by the perverted notions of glory 
 and greatness generally imbibed at the same time. A zoise 
 teacher of youth will always endeavour to counteract impres- 
 sions favourable to the character of the Romans, by represent- 
 ing them in their true colors, as a selfish, perfidious, cruel, super- 
 stitious race of barbarians, endued with the scanty and doubtful 
 10
 
 74 CHAPTER V. 
 
 virtues of savage /?/e, but deformed by more than its ordinary ex- 
 cesses."* Here, reader, is a faithful picture of that celebrated 
 people, on whom many still doat with unmeasured partiality. 
 
 The essay whence this passage is taken is admirably well 
 adapted to dispel existing delusions; and it is particularly re- 
 ferred to, with equal candour and judgment, in Everett's de- 
 fence of Christianity, for this very purpose.] The sentiments 
 it contains are called by him wholesome sentiments, and very 
 properly, because they declare the truth the reader will 
 judge if they accord with what he is accustomed to hear on 
 that topic. The admirers of antiquity however need not sus- 
 pect the learned professor was about playing truant to the 
 cause. In that instance, it should be recollected, he was act- 
 ing (he part of a Christian advocate, where the dignity of his 
 subject would naturally overrule all questions of policy. 
 More recently, it must be owned, he is wont to touch the 
 classic lyre in sweetest notes of praise. Had he chosen to 
 corroborate the argument he was pursuing in the case alluded 
 to, he might have obtained an apt quotation from one equally 
 skilled in classic lore, and equally aware of the horrible vices 
 that disgraced the classic age. " How barbarous (says Bol- 
 inbroke) were those represented to be who broke the Roman 
 Empire, the Goths for example, or the Lombards; and yet 
 how much less barbarous did they appear than the Greeks 
 or Romans what prudence in their government what wis- 
 dom in their lnws."| He might have recollected also what 
 Johnson said of the Romans, that "when they were poor 
 they robbed mankind, and when they grew rich robbed one 
 another." 
 
 Such then were the Romans ; and if any one imagines the 
 Grecians, when justly represented, would appear to better ad- 
 vantage, let him peruse the last essay in No. 51, of the Quar- 
 terly Review, where he will find a portrait if possible yet 
 more disgusting. The truth really is, that of all civilized 
 people, ancient or modern, the Greeks and Romans were the 
 most morally debased, and by all odds the most politically 
 corrupt. " Their generals and officers (says Heron) were 
 abandoned to a sensuality that disgraces the very name of 
 man while Pindar, Sophocles, Eschylus, and others of their 
 learned men, were given up to a vice too black to mention."^ 
 
 * Edin. Rev. vol. 21. p. 378 &, 396. 
 f Everett's Defence, p. 437. 
 t Bolinbroke's Works vol. 4. p. 47. 
 Heron's Letters, p. 318.
 
 CHAPTER V. 75 
 
 But unfortunately, such is the system we follow that all 
 this is carefully concealed, at least for a time till the pride of 
 scholarship takes root ; and the ancients are held up to our 
 youth, during the whole course of education, as models of 
 every thing that can dignify and adorn human nature. Thus 
 we actually practise deception to induce them to leave what 
 in my judgment were better unlearned ; and thus sentiments 
 are infused the very opposite to all that is true, or fair, or 
 even wholesome. These are facts in the case, appealing di- 
 rectly to common sense as well as common honesty; and the 
 conclusions to be drawn from them are sufficiently obvious. 
 
 The defects already noticed in classic literature, of the fab- 
 ulous on one side, and the obscure on the other, could hardly 
 fail, one would think, to subtract largely from its value with 
 all who consider truth an essential ingredient. 
 
 But it may be also remarked, in continuation, that indepen- 
 dently of what is known to be fabulous, or of what is discor- 
 dant, or of what is ambiguous, there are by no means a few 
 matters of fact, so called, which, though free from these objec- 
 tions, are exposed at least to great doubt, if not total disbe- 
 lief, from their own inherent incredibility. One thing of this 
 kind, eminently curious in itself, and having been well treated 
 by a late excellent scholar, and still better philosopher of our 
 own, (yet partial enough to antiquity in all conscience) may 
 serve for illustration. I allude to the institutions of Lycurgus, 
 and their influence on the Spartan nation, as explained by 
 Fisher Ames.* As the ancient story goes, that people exhib- 
 ited a political phenomenon, unlike any thing that ever exist- 
 ed before or since the wonder of the world from that day to 
 this. It is well known that all the old writers concur in re- 
 presenting the military discipline and civil constitution estab- 
 lished by the Spartan law-giver, as having been in full force 
 over the whole free population of the State that the system 
 imposed by him was unspeakably vexatious, disgusting, and 
 tyrannical ; but at the same time such as to excite in the 
 whole community a sort of passion, as it were, for self-denial, 
 restraint, and suffering and we are further told that this last- 
 ed seven hundred years thus displaying a miracle far sur- 
 passing all others on record. Such is the view of those far- 
 famed institutes, in which, let it be observed, all classic auth- 
 ors agree. But if the reader could be persuaded to peruse 
 Mr. Ames's essay, he would be perfectly convinced that the 
 
 * Ames's Works.
 
 76 CHAPTER V. 
 
 story as a whole, however sanctioned by ancient writers, is 
 preposterous to the last degree. Jn what respect Mr. Ames's 
 solution has been anticipated by others, my own reading does 
 not inform me; but it is evidently given by him as new. Many 
 have thought the old account incredible, and Rollin among the 
 rest yet all have gone on to transcribe the whole story from 
 1'li'tarch and others as if it were perfectly true. 
 
 Mr. Ames's solution is this that the austere education and 
 rigid discipline of the Spartans, of which we have heard so 
 much, instead of extending as the ancient tale assumes to the 
 whole people, was confined to the aristocracy and the sol- 
 diery classes already existing and governing the State be- 
 fore the time of Lycurgus that the design of his code was, 
 by enuring these classes to mental exertion, to fatigue, to pri- 
 vation, and thereby making them really superior as men, to 
 fit them for the duties either of the field or the Senate ; and 
 that the object of all this was to enable them to retain more 
 securely a monopoly both of power and privilege, which they 
 had long enjoyed, but which had latterly been endangered by 
 popular commotions. This explication, by suggesting ade- 
 quate motives on the part of those who actually bore the se- 
 verities of that extraordinary scheme of laws, removes the 
 grand stumbling block by which the old story is embarrass- 
 ed ; and it so far reconciles (as Mr. Ames shows) what before 
 appeared anomalous and incredible as to win our full assent. 
 
 Lycurgus then, so far from being an enlightened and gene- 
 rous patriot, was the wily Machiavel of early times. Nothing 
 was farther from his intention than to give to the Spartan na- 
 tion a free and liberal government, for his whole ingenuity 
 was exerted in devising new plans of despotism perhaps, 
 however, he was not the less a patriot ; there was far too little 
 intelligence among the people at large, and a great deal too 
 much corruption to admit of rational freedom. At what 
 epoch indeed in Greek or Roman history, do we the find peo- 
 ple enjoying that security of person and property, and that 
 liberty of opinion and action, which we are accustomed to 
 regard as the only evidence of a free government? At no time 
 was there any thing approaching it. Sparta, it would seem 
 by this explanation, instead of being essentially a republic, 
 under a form somewhat monarchical, was always a despotic 
 aristocracy. Instead of political liberty, there was only ty- 
 ranny; and in lieu of patriotism as a ruling passion, there 
 was little else among the higher orders than ambition, selfish- 
 ness, and avarice ; while among the lower reigned ignorance,
 
 CHAPTER V. 77 
 
 slavery, and vice. Such in reality were the prominent fea- 
 tures of the Spartan character; to which, however, \vere 
 united two others, equally conspicuous in the savages of our 
 own forests ferocious valor and political cunning. Yet by 
 keeping the former traits out of sight, and unduly extolling the 
 latter, the poets and orators of other days, backed by enthu- 
 siasts of ours, have held up to view an imaginary portrait of 
 Spartan virtue, and called unceasingly on posterity to admire 
 and to imitate. 
 
 The truth of the matter is precisely what our author states 
 " Spartan virtue did not most certainly include morals'' that 
 is to say it was not virtue in any sense. Well, therefore, 
 may we apply to this and perhaps to every other Grecian 
 commonwealth, a reflection of Hume on the Romans, " so 
 depraved in private life were that people whom in their histo- 
 ries we so much admire." If there be any thing at which 
 exception might be taken in the masterly essay of Mr. Ames, it 
 is the homage inadvertently paid 1o ancient error by apologiz- 
 ing for its exposure. How severe must be the requisitions of 
 classic faith when it imposes so mortifying a task. 
 
 Now does not this Spartan fable prove that there are 
 some things on which ancient historians are in perfect accord, 
 which yet are undeserving of credit? And does it not fur- 
 ther prove that a gross absurdity has been for ages received 
 and sheltered rather than the authenticity of ancient tradi- 
 tions should be arraigned ? This, however, is but one among 
 numberless things of like nature in early history, which might 
 disclose, on near inspection, the verj seal and signature of fic- 
 tion. Nevertheless such things are constantly talked about, 
 are written, harangued, and reasoned about, as infallible 
 truths. 
 
 There is, indeed, much room to believe, that many false- 
 hoods, ascertained or suspected, are still upheld for no better 
 reason than what Bacon suggests because they supply com- 
 modious allusions. Matters of this sort, though really fables, 
 are habitually referred to as facts, either in the form of meta- 
 phor to adorn a discourse, or of simile to illustrate and thus 
 invested with the garb of truth, they are handed down from 
 age to age, like the Dutch story of the Bohon Upas, long af- 
 ter their falsity is detected. Of this nature precisely, as I 
 conceive, is the reputed conflagration in the 7th century, of 
 the famous Alexandrian library, by order, as the story runs, 
 of the Caliph Omar, on whom classical men have been pour- 
 ing out their wrath for the last half a dozen centuries. Gib-
 
 78 CHAPTER V. 
 
 bon, with several others, have treated the tale as fabulous ; 
 and Drake in his u Literary Hours," has shown there is no 
 ground to believe in any destruction of the kind.* True or false, 
 however, an allusion to this event has served the turn of many 
 an orator and many a writer, to smooth a period or balance 
 an antithesis; and 1 dare say it will continue to perform 
 these important functions, for some years to come. Of Greek 
 and Roman times, on the other hand, 1 might run over a long 
 list of convicted errors still current in our schools as genuine 
 matters of history. Upon the whole then may it not fairly be 
 asked, how can records or narrations be entitled to any 
 credit, where truth is so entangled with fiction and so difficult 
 to be separated. 
 
 Indeed, as regards even the latest portion of the classic era, 
 the very golden age of Roman literature, numerous are the 
 questions in national affairs on which we have yet to seek 
 elucidation. A writer in a late North American, who is as 
 good a scholar probably, as any of his neighbors, sums up 
 the matter as follows. " After all that has been written on 
 this subject, (the Roman government.) it is astonishing how 
 little is really known with certainty respecting it ; and how 
 many points which one woald expect to find matters of public 
 notoriety, are very imperfectly understood."t For my part, 
 however, I do not participate in this writer's astonishment. 
 When we consider the entre absence of political and statisti- 
 cal science at the period alluded to, and before the little sci- 
 ence indeed of any kind the interrupted state of communi- 
 cation between different nations, and different parts of the same 
 nation-the total want of any rapid and correct mode of diffusing 
 intelligence such as we now enjoy by aid of the press the 
 loose way of thinking then prevalent on all subjects, and the still 
 looser way of writing when we consider, in short, the scanty 
 means which classic writers possessed of ascertaining facts, 
 and the variety of inducements they may have had to misre- 
 present them, the greater wonder is, that we should know so 
 much of those ages as we really do ; or to speak more pro- 
 perly, perhaps, that we should fancy we know so much. 
 
 However, the tide of delusion is perhaps on the ebb. Al- 
 most every late inquiry into ancient history seems to have 
 expunged something from the catalogue of facts, to add to the 
 
 * Drake's Literary Hours, 33d Essay, 
 t North Am. Review, No. 40, p. 63.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 79 
 
 Scroll of fiction; and the time may come when little more 
 will be admitted as certain, with regard to the Greeks and 
 Romans, than that formerly there were people of that name; 
 that they made a great noise in the world and did a great 
 deal of mischief; that they wrote many books, which after 
 lying in obscurity for a long period, were at length revived, 
 continued in favor for several centuries, and again passed out 
 of fashion. That such will be the state of the case a hun- 
 dred years hence is not so very improbable as some may 
 imagine not more improbable, at any rate, than it was two 
 centuries ago that the philosophy of Aristotle would be over- 
 thrown. Yet the peripatetic sage has now scarely a disciple. 
 
 The various considerations that have now been submitted, 
 seem calculated, on a just estimate, to abridge materially all 
 rational confidence in the history of the pagan world ; and I 
 was induced to submit them under the persuasion that this 
 sort of reading is much too highly thought of. Whether they 
 be allowed to have any weight or not, is however quite imma- 
 terial to the main argument ; for in whatever estimation such 
 history be held, the whole of it, or nearly the whole, is 
 spread before us in plain English a form in which it may be 
 more fully comprehended even by the illiterate than by the 
 bulk of scholars in its ancient dress. 
 
 And now to conclude, I would ask the reader, what sub- 
 ject, what science, what branch of knowledge it is, on which 
 we ought now to refer back to the ancients for instruction. In 
 every thing but history, they are in fact already given up ; 
 and it would not be going to far to say that in history they 
 are scarcely worth having. At all events, for this or any 
 other purpose of information, the original language is not 
 wanted. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Classical studies not the best means of strengthening the under- 
 standing nor necessary to Jill up the lime usually devoted to 
 education. 
 
 THE next argument on the classic list which I propose to 
 examine is, that Greek and Latin afford a salutary exercise to 
 the mind and induce useful habits of application. And what 
 if it be so ? Is there any thing peculiar in this ? Who does
 
 80 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 not see that as much may be said of each, and every study 
 pursued in any of our schools, even the very lowest. 
 
 But to give the reader some idea of the common style (one 
 might even say, the approved style) of prating on this topic, 
 we may take a sample, and a pretty fair one, from the North 
 Am. Rev. (vol. 13. p. 365 ;) which, however, is only a new 
 version of sentiments often found in its earlier pages, and be- 
 fore that, in many others. The writer is speaking of the dead 
 languages as a mental exercise, and he says " We know of 
 no means compared with this for the purpose of communica- 
 ting the powers of quick and delicate discrimination, and of 
 imparting clear perceptions of words and things." To take 
 this part of the statement by itself, what does it amount to ? 
 As to things, one can hardly determine its import in this con- 
 nexion ; but at any rate, as the ancients were but superficial 
 observers of things, and much given to useless speculations of 
 every kind, we have on all subjects better sources of informa- 
 tion than their writings afford. Then as to clear perceptions 
 of words, and delicate discrimination in their use, whether of 
 Greek or Latin, it has already been proved that this, when at- 
 tained, can be of no service in English. The Reviewer goes 
 on " But in language, there are so many shades of meaning, 
 differing from each other almost imperceptibly the beauty 
 of an expression so often depends on a peculiarity in the use 
 of one word, or in the arrangement of several the distinguish- 
 ing spirit of an author, especially in a foreign tongue, is so 
 difficult to be perfectly apprehended, and that double process of 
 judgment, which consists in first ascertaining the meaning of a 
 word in its original connexion, and then selecting the corres- 
 ponding term in another language, is so constantly going on, 
 that all the powers of observation, comparison, and in short 
 whatever constitutes acquired taste, are constantly called 
 forth and exercised." 
 
 Now on all this it may be remarked in the first place, that 
 ere a student can begin the exercise here supposed, he must 
 already have learnt as much of the languages as most pupils 
 attain after 5 or G years close study in our best schools. He 
 must in fact be already something of a critic. And when he 
 has reached this point, on what are his powers of observation, 
 comparison, and taste, to be exerted ? Nothing more, as here 
 admitted, than on words and expressions in a foreign language 
 on expressions wholly unlike our own in a language too, 
 which contains, as we have already shown, no information of 
 any value not found in our own.
 
 CHAPTER YI. 81 
 
 Granting then, by way of argument, that the study of for- 
 eign idioms has all the fitness here claimed as a stimulus to 
 the intellect granting this, I say, why not take some living 
 language, and thus secure the means of enjoying a more co- 
 pious and more instructive literature ; and at the same time a 
 new medium of oral communication, which, in a multitude of 
 cases, might essentially promote the interest as well as the 
 gratification of its possessor? As a study, it would be equally 
 beneficial, and in the same way ; as a possession, incalculably 
 more useful. But the fact is, as we shall presently see, there 
 is no peculiar advantage of this kind, in the study of lan- 
 guagequite the contrary. The Reviewer indeed seems to 
 think that nothing is so desirable as to be able to practise the 
 art of decyphering of extracting some definite ideas from ob- 
 scure or ambiguous composition a doctrine, which, if assent- 
 ed to would confer on riddles and conundrums, a dignity they 
 have never yet assumed. But suppose him right in this no- 
 tion, are we obliged to travel abroad in search of obscurity ? 
 have we not enough trying examples in our mother tongue? 
 The reviewer himself, on this hypothesis, may have other 
 merit than that of good precept. 
 
 Without entering into the labyrinth of metaphysics, and 
 analyzing the various faculties of the mind, or to speak more 
 properly, its various modes of action, it is evident that exercise 
 in any shape has a tendency to enlarge its powers. No study, 
 no occupation, is without use in this respect the only ques- 
 tion relates to the degree. Nor is it worth while to inquire 
 here which of the mental faculties (to retain the common 
 phrase) stands most in need of cultivation. But since it is 
 allowed that all should be stimulated in a certain proportion, 
 and perhaps no very unequal one, a solid objection, founded 
 on this admission, will lie against the learned tongues. The 
 objection is, that such studies call into action the faculty of 
 memory almost exclusively leaving the mind in regard to its 
 other powers, quite dormant. 
 
 I am sensible, however, that the current of opinion is against 
 me. Unwearied pains are taken, and with abundant success, 
 to spread abroad the belief that classic tuition is the best pos- 
 sible discipline for youthful minds and nothing is more com- 
 mon than to hear the doctrine laid down in this very phrase- 
 ology. Yet should any one ask what is meant by discipline, 
 the explanation would seldom be intelligible ; or when it is, 
 as in the case already cited, it furnishes no argument of any 
 11
 
 82 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 force. The fact is, when language is made a juvenile study, 
 the mind is practised almost exclusively in forming those 
 trains of association which enable it to recall past ideas that 
 is to say in the process of memory whereas it should be ex- 
 ercised at least as much in comparing, discriminating, dedu- 
 cing and judging; or in other words, in eliciting new ideas, as 
 well as in reviving the old. The mental habits conducive to 
 recollection are not therefore the best adapted to invigorate 
 the understanding. Among the phenomena of thought, mem- 
 ory seems to perform but a subordinate office. It is a sort of 
 purveyor to the mental powers generally a day-labourer 
 that brings the stones and the mortar with which more skilful 
 workmen are to raise the edifice. But though a faculty riot 
 the most dignified, it is yet of excellent service, and singular 
 activity. It is incessantly at work in every thing we study, 
 and every thing we do ; and from this very circumstance it 
 gains naturally, and of itself, a vigour and promptness beyond 
 the other intellectual powers. Why then should it receive 
 any extraordinary cultivation ? A faculty so constantly at 
 task would seem to require no special culture at all. 
 
 That classical studies are of the nature here described, will 
 scarcely be denied by any who have watched the progress of 
 youthful education ; and Bishop Kurd, already referred to at 
 page 48, has pointed out the very same defects. If further 
 authority were wanted in so plain a case, I might again allude 
 to a ripe scholar in a neighbouring town, who has on several 
 occasions assisted us in the preceding pages one who not only 
 is master of the various dialects taught in our highest seminaries, 
 but who has likewise paid much attention to the philosophy of 
 language, which, as far as I know, is taught in none of them. 
 He admits explicitly that any man of a tenacious memory may 
 become an interpreter of languages* a truth corroborated al- 
 so by every day's experience, since we find that in this sort 
 of application, the brightest genius will often yield the palm 
 to dulness. In short, a rapid proficiency in Greek or Latin 
 is no indication of genius ; perhaps the reverse. It is worth 
 remarking too, that the kind of memory brought into play by 
 this means is what Stewart calls a casual memory, and is rank- 
 ed by him the lowest in point of merit. And further, not on- 
 ly does the memory rely on casual associations, but these 
 again are of a very limited nature ; so that if the intellect 
 becomes wedded to habits so circumscribed, even memory it- 
 
 * North Am. Rev. vol. 9. page 181.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 83 
 
 self is weakened in respect of other subjects for it is a great 
 mistake to suppose that practice in one way gives facility in 
 all. In short, the whole current of thought in the remem- 
 brance of words, is quite opposite to that mode of associating 
 ideas, (by resemblance and analogy) considered by all late 
 metaphysical writers, as at once denoting and creating a vig- 
 orous mind. 
 
 The objection now under consideration, has been found to 
 press so hard againt the classical system, that many have en- 
 deavoured by a bold manosuvre to convert it into a recom- 
 mendation. It is assumed that memory is really all we should 
 attempt to cultivate that nothing more can be done in youth 
 than to amass a stock of materials, to be worked up by 
 thought and reflection to some useful purpose in after years. 
 Those renowned teachers, Barrow and Knox, argue in no 
 small degree on this hypothesis ; and a writer in the Port- 
 folio, of no mean standing in scholarship, takes the ground 
 openly. " Consider (says he) the period of life usually spent 
 in this acquisition, which may be stated from 8 to 14 or 15 ; 
 what but the memory can be employed during this age ?" 
 But a theory so exceedingly degrading to the human mind is 
 fortunately altogether unsound. We all know that lads even 
 from our common schools come out at the age of 14 or 15 not 
 only with memories well furnished, but what is infinitely bet- 
 ter, with capacities quickened and improved. Thus we see, 
 that the very extravagances to which many resort for shelter 
 in avoiding the objection in question, are a further proof of its 
 validity. 
 
 But Dr. Rush well observes, " it is quite time to distinguish 
 between a scholar and a philosopher." Let us see then what 
 has been said by men of philosophic minds against whipping 
 on the memory to its utmost speed, while reason and invention 
 are palsied by inaction. Speaking of the latent state of the 
 reasoning faculty, Locke remarks as follows : " The greater 
 number are those whom the ill habit of never exerting their 
 thoughts, has disabled the powers of their minds are starved 
 by disuse, and have lost that reach and strength which nature 
 fitted them to receive from exercise." And again, " If their 
 memories retain well, one may say they have the materials of 
 knowledge, but like those for building, they are of no advan- 
 tage, if there be no use made, but to let them lie heaped up 
 together."* Shephard, in his book on Education, observes, 
 
 * Locke on the Understanding, sec. 13.
 
 84 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 " It seldom happens, that men remarkable for the extent of 
 their memory in the recollection of dates, and other minutiae, 
 are distinguished for solidity of judgment."* So too Duncan, 
 in his essay on genius : " How often do we see men load 
 their memories with facts and circumstances, with dates and 
 names, without inference or conclusion and how often do we 
 find learning consist in the servile repetition of the opinions of 
 another without the consciousness of understanding in the 
 person who adopts them."t Quotations of this nature might 
 be multiplied without end. Most writers of the higher order 
 have raised their voice against the common practice of throw- 
 ing into the miud the mere shadow of knowledge without the 
 substance. Among them all Miss Edgeworth stands pre-emi- 
 nent for cogency of reasoning against this seductive error. 
 The chief aim of her excellent treatise on Education was to 
 abolish all that parrot-like learning which formed the very es- 
 sence of preceding systems (and yet bears no small sway in 
 ours ;) and on the other hand, to give full scope to the inven- 
 tive powers, and thus qualify the pupil to think and act for 
 himself. The principles involved in the following quotation 
 from Dr. Reid, have received from her admirable pen the 
 most varied illustration " Of all the faculties of man (says 
 he) that of invention bears the highest price. It resembles 
 most the power of creation we admire the man who shows a 
 superiority in finding out the means of accomplishing an end." 
 Arnid the universality of praise called forth by the ingenious 
 disquisitions of the authoress alluded to, the North American 
 Review comes in with its tribute,! not barely commending 
 the prominent feature in her theory, but fortifying it by sev- 
 eral new reflections equally just and pertinent. Now by all 
 this and much more of like nature within our reach, it ap- 
 pears that the preference shown to memory as the leading 
 object of early tuition, is wholly unsanctioned by writers of 
 comprehensive minds and disinterested views. 
 
 The case then is this, that unless we are willing to permit 
 the reason, the judgment, the invention, the taste, with various 
 other faculties of a high order, to remain passive and unde- 
 veloped, while memory alone is improved, we shall be forced 
 to conclude that Greek and Latin are nowise entitled to the 
 supremacy they have so long enjoyed. 
 
 * Sbephard and Joyce on Education, page 247. 
 t Duncan's Essay on Genius, page 67. 
 i Vol. 2. New Series, page 357.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 85 
 
 But suppose if you please, that my reasoning on this point be 
 not admissible in its full extent, or not at all ; the objection would 
 disappear, it is true, but no adverse claim would be establish- 
 ed. Before the superior pretensions of the languages can be 
 allowed, their claims must be stated and proved ; not taken 
 upon trust. But no writer within my knowledge has ever 
 maintained even a plausible argument on the peculiar efficacy 
 of classical studies ; and my own observation leads to a very 
 different conclusion. It is not proposed, however, to go 
 through the endless ramifications of a negative argument. 1 
 wholly deny the alleged advantage of such studies, and call 
 on their advocates to specify in what it consists, or at least, to 
 inform us where an explanation may be found. 
 
 Before quitting the topic it is not amiss to remark, that F 
 am aware of the complaint here urged against the languages 
 being also applicable, though in far less degree, to other 
 branches in themselves substantially useful. Geography, His- 
 tory, English Grammar, arid several more, depend considera- 
 bly on similar habits of mind. But the evil instead of being 
 mitigated by this circumstance, is augmented, and our argu- 
 ment derives new force. If the memory is already overwork- 
 ed in studies of immediate utility, it should be relieved in such 
 as are mere accomplishments ; and the change should begin 
 where the evil is most felt, and least compensated, which un- 
 questionably is in the languages. Hence, by discarding these, 
 and substituting other exercises, requiring more originality of 
 thought, the minds of youth would receive a new energy, and 
 their acquirements would be rendered more profitable. 
 
 If the considerations now presented have any force, it fol- 
 lows that the common school exercise of committing pieces to 
 memory, and otherwise taxing that faculty so heavily, as it is 
 certainly one of the most annoying tasks imposed on children, 
 so is it one of the most useless while at the same time none 
 is more apt to beget an aversion to books, and thus lead the 
 way to slothful and idle habits. Now in Greek and Latin 
 this practice is carried to extremes ; and when early years 
 are devoted to the study, the evil is unavoidable; because the 
 mind being then too feeble to cope with the innumerable diffi- 
 culties of the case, little more can be done than to crowd the 
 memory with something resembling knowledge in hope of its 
 becoming really such at a future period. For the most part, 
 however, the whole evaporates ere the conversion is effected ; 
 new objects take possession of the mind to the exclusion of 
 former occupants ; and thus it happens that a practice found-
 
 86 CHAPTEtt VI. 
 
 cd on nothing but custom so often terminates in nothing but 
 ignorance. A change of system, therefore, in whatever way, 
 could hardly be for the worse. That most other pursuits 
 are less objectionable in this view some incomparably less 
 will not be disputed. 
 
 If the chief end of education be to unfold and invigorate 
 the intellectual powers generally and simultaneously, no stu- 
 dies are better adapted to the purpose than Mathematics and 
 Natural Philosophy ; for without enumerating the various 
 benefits resulting therefrom, it is enough to mention as one of 
 the most obvious, and certainly not the least important, that 
 by these means the mind becomes habituated to the best pos- 
 sible method of reasoning. Habits are acquired of observing, 
 investigating, comparing, and judging, worth all that the an- 
 cients, or even moderns, have laid down as a separate art un- 
 der the name of logic. It has been elegantly, though not ac- 
 curately, said of History, that it is philosophy teaching by 
 experience ; and we may with far greater propriety say of 
 Mathematics, that it is logic taught by example. " Would you 
 have a man reason well (says Locke) you must use him to it 
 betimes ; you must exercise his mind in observing the con- 
 nection of ideas and following them in a train. Nothing does 
 this better than mathematics, which, therefore, I think should 
 be taught all those who have time and opportunity not so 
 much to make them mathematicians as to make them reason- 
 able creatures." Doct. Barrow likewise remarks on this no- 
 ble science as follows : " It contributes more perhaps than 
 any other intellectual acquisition to preserve the imagination 
 in due subjection to the judgment. It is allowed to form or 
 to teach the most valuable logic ; and its definitions are the 
 natural source of precision in our ideas " (vol. 2. p. 287.) 
 This sort of study therefore, considered as a mental stimulus, 
 is obviously superior to the languages ; and so in some mea- 
 sure is almost every other. 
 
 One object of all instruction, both early and late, undoubt- 
 edly is to store the mind with useful knowledge ; but a still 
 greater object is to give it that general expansion and that 
 quickness of apprehension, which while they qualify its pos- 
 sessor to grapple with the more complex and abstruse specu- 
 lations of mature age, will fit him also for acting with prompt- 
 ness, judgment, and effect, in the busy scenes of life. Now- 
 classical studies, it is evident, furnish in. no degree this sort of 
 preparation
 
 CHAPTER VI. 87 
 
 But to turn to another argument it is pretended that the 
 term of years ordinarily dedicated to a liberal course of edu- 
 cation, cannot be well spent without includfng the languages. 
 If by this it be meant that in the manner our schools are now 
 constituted the period from eight to eighteen would not other- 
 wise be fully occupied, 1 have no great hesitation in admit- 
 ting the proposition. But what is this but saying in other 
 words that our schemes of instruction are defective a point 
 1 am as little inclined to controvert as any classical votary 
 among us. It is indeed partly on this very defect in the 
 reigning system that I ground my complaint of the languages, 
 for unquestionably it is Greek and Latin which have brought 
 things to this state by detruding other and more useful branch- 
 es of knowledge. Was it really true that no different plan 
 could be devised for affording constant and profitable exercise 
 to the minds of youth, the argument would have some validity. 
 But an idea so extravagant has never yet been distinctly 
 avowed, much less established. It would have been nearly 
 devoid of truth even at the period when classical learning was 
 revived ; and surely must be wholly so now when knowledge 
 is not only wonderfully extended in degree, but greatly mul- 
 tiplied in kind. Without stopping to controvert so preposter- 
 ous a notion, it is enough to allude, in complete refutation, to 
 the seminary at Westpoint where it has been evinced by ac- 
 tual experiment and to the satisfaction of every body, that the 
 entire term of study before mentioned may be completed, 
 and what is better, may be actively and profitably employed, 
 without bestowing any portion on the learned tongues. We 
 have also another instance, not greatly inferior, in Capt. Par- 
 tridge's Institution at Norwich, where classical studies, though 
 not actually excluded, are permitted to engross but a small share 
 of attention. Whoever will take the trouble to inspect the ample 
 schedule of useful and liberal arts and sciences taught at ei- 
 ther of these places, will see at once how extremely frivolous 
 is the pretence that suitable objects of study are yet wanting. 
 With regard to Captain Partridge's school, the admission of-' 
 Greek and Latin must be considered as subtracting consider-- 
 ably from its merit ; and we may venture to predict that un- 
 less he conforms his scheme to that of Westpoint, he will' 
 strive in vain to impart that thorough and efficient education 
 for which the latter is so justly celebrated. 
 
 However true then it may be that our plans are in general 
 too limited and inadequate, no argument can thence be drawn 
 in favour of the Languages : we have only to amend the sys-
 
 C II AFT fill >f. 
 
 tern by judiciously enlarging the circle of studies a change 
 imperatively demanded by the existing circumstances of the 
 world, and the actual state of human knowledge. The for- 
 mation of a Public School in our own metropolis for higher 
 attainments in various branches, exclusive of the languages, 
 may be regarded as an auspicious commencement of such a 
 change here; and an indication that more correct views aiv 
 becoming prevalent. In any experiment of this nature, how- 
 ever, one great desideratum is that the superintendent should 
 have full faith in its efficacy ; or at any rate, should divest 
 himself of all predilection for antiquated plans. No man who 
 really believed with a writer in the North Am. Rev. (vol. 1 3, p. 
 3G5.) that "it is preposterous to call that education tolerably 
 perfect, which is not founded on a thorough knowledge of the 
 Latin at least, if not the Greek," would be likely to give to 
 such an establishment all the effect of which it might be sus- 
 ceptible. With impressions like that, he would embark in an 
 experiment against his own judgment ; and as men seldom 
 engage cordially in what they do not approve, a scheme in- 
 trinsically good might altogether fail for want of interest on 
 the part of the master. Fortunately however, the seminary 
 in question was opened under the care of an instructer whose 
 zeal in the cause was a sufficient pledge that academic tenets 
 should have no influence; whose success under the improved 
 system was such as to furnish the best evidence against his 
 own theory ; and who knows besides as well as most of us, 
 probably much better, that the well turned compliments so of- 
 ten paid by scholars to what they call their Alma Mater, will 
 seldom bear a rigid interpretation. 
 
 The excellent establishment now alluded to merits in every 
 respect the most liberal patronage from the public ; and I see 
 no good reason why the course of tuition should not ere long 
 be made as comprehensive and as perfect as that of West- 
 point. Even on its present footing, the diversity and the impor- 
 tance of branches already taught, and well taught, are admira- 
 bly calculated to imbue the minds of youth, not indeed with 
 superficial or ornamental learning, but with substantial know- 
 ledge available in every station of life. And when the intrin- 
 sic excellence of an education, founded like this on the broad 
 basis of utility, shall be justly appreciated, the public will be 
 convinced that our cumbersome Latin system, which has 
 reigned so long and been such a greedy devourer of our mu- 
 nicipal resources, may be very advantageously lain aside. 
 Independently, however, either of the high cost or the low
 
 CHAPTER VII. 89 
 
 value of classical learning to students in general, a variety of 
 reasons might be urged against upholding the languages at 
 public expense. But it falls not within our present design to 
 dwell on> considerations relating to particular schools ; being 
 firmly persuaded that the whole system, however modified or 
 however supported, should have been long ago permitted to 
 pass away with the times and circumstances that gave it 
 birth. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Classical learning worth little as a resource ; and not much, as a 
 facility to foreign lining languages* 
 
 " THE chief advantage of a good education (says Aristotle) 
 is to teach us how to employ our leisure." A sentiment quo- 
 ted and approved by Dr. Knox ; yet like most other apho- 
 risms from the same abundant fountain of dogmatism, it is 
 wide of the truth. The object of education, justly described, 
 rather is, to qualify us for performing with propriety the oc- 
 tive duties of life, and to teach us in some measure what those 
 duties are though certainly the means of employing intervals 
 of leisure, in a rational way, should not pass unheeded. 
 
 That an acquaintance with the learned tongues may be 
 made the instrument of harmless pleasure is undeniable ; 
 but it is no less true that equal advantage attends every 
 living language, as likewise numberless other pursuits, both 
 literary and active. Whatever we contract a fancy for, may 
 of course be made subservient to our gratification. Nor is 
 there any danger now-a-days of men becoming converts to 
 Cicero's hypocritical and cynical doctrine that " all pleasure 
 is contrary to virtue.'''' 
 
 The recommendation of Greek and Latin, on the score of 
 amusement, is however but little dwelt upon ; the reason for 
 which may be found in the notoriety that ancient writers are, in 
 point of fact, but seldom resorted to for such purposes. It is 
 well known that not one in ten, perhaps not one in a hundred, 
 who labour on the classics, at school and college, have re- 
 12
 
 90 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 course to them habitually in riper years for recreation. The 
 major part, on receiving their diploma, close their books for 
 life. It is, indeed, but fair to infer, from what occurs after the 
 student's emancipation from college restraint, that in reality 
 there is nothing alluring in the classic page ; which, on the 
 contrary, still presents the repulsive aspect of a task, rather 
 than the fascination of amusement. And here, by the way, 
 we have another proof, if more were wanted, that little infor- 
 mation can be drawn from that quarter ; for by the very con- 
 stitution of our nature, the attainment of knowledge is almost 
 invariably accompanied with pleasure. Every new idea we 
 meet with in books, is a sort of discovery announced by oth- 
 ers ; and discoveries are always gratifying. 
 
 But why talk about ancient literature as a resource, when the 
 very men, who are loudest in its praise, read a hundred pages 
 of English, for one of Greek or Latin. Nay, could we take 
 a peep behind the curtain, and view even our professed schol- 
 ars at their leisure moments,. I suspect we should find, in three 
 cases out of four, Homer and Virgil slumbering on the shelf, 
 while Scott and Irving contend for preference at the reading 
 table. We should find many who will just thumb a leaf or two 
 in Horace before breakfast, and then sit down to a Scotch 
 novel for the rest of the day. Let any one inquire (confiden- 
 tially) among his learned friends, and all this will be verified. 
 We may safely conclude then that the few who evince a 
 steady attachment to ancient authors, if not more apparent 
 than real, are exceptions to the general rule ; and must be 
 characterized by something peculiar in their taste, their dis- 
 position, or their mental habits. 
 
 If then, the relish of classical dainties be so seldom durable, 
 how can it be judicious to incur such great expense in the 
 mere attempt, and perhaps an unsuccessful one, to provoke an 
 appetite ? There would seem little wisdom in confining 
 our children for eight or ten years of their lives, and at a cost, 
 perhaps, of a couple of thousand dollars, to Greek and Latin, 
 with a chance of ten to one that when they graduate, their 
 books will be handed over to a new class of students, who in 
 following a like course, are destined to exhibit the same 
 symptoms of reluctant acquisition, and willing forgetfulness. 
 Such, however, is the usual effect, and still the system con- 
 tinues which can be accounted for perhaps, in no other way 
 than by the factitious value attached to this routine of study 
 that is, by the mere eclat of a diploma.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 91 
 
 But suppose, if you will, though the odds are against it, that 
 a predilection for classical reading be really formed, the ques- 
 tion arises, in what estimation it should be held. It is allowed 
 on all hands, that those kinds of amusement deserve the pref- 
 erence, which, while they act as a pleasing and healthful ex- 
 ercise to the mind and body, contribute at the same time to 
 intellectual improvement, or influence most favourably the 
 moral character, or produce on the whole, in these or other 
 ways, the most salutary effects. Consequently, the choice of 
 employments to fill up the intermission of active duties, should 
 be determined by the benefits they superadd. Now in appor- 
 tioning a value to the dead languages on this principle, it 
 would seem, if our view of them be correct, that in reality 
 they but seldom effect the purpose of entertainment, and can 
 never effect any thing more. In point of merit, therefore, 
 they yield to divers other studies, conducive to further and 
 more valuable ends. Of this nature, for example, are the va- 
 rious branches of natural philosophy and mathematics ; 
 which, according to Dr. Aikin, " take the lead of all mental 
 pursuits in extent, variety, and dignity." Of this nature, 
 likewise, is the important doctrine of ethics, together with 
 most other liberal arts and sciences ; but above all, that no- 
 blest of sciences, agriculture. In the same class too, we may 
 rank the captivating study of natural history. Now each and 
 every one of these pursuits, has a direct application to the 
 purposes of life, which surely never can be said of the lan- 
 guages. 
 
 Furthermore, it is of the utmost consequence to consider 
 well if the modes of recreation, for which we endeavour to 
 inspire a taste, be capable of sustaining a permanent interest. 
 The human mind is proverbially fickle ; and its passions are 
 so continually at work in soliciting indulgence, that there is 
 always danger of the moral principle being overcome. Among 
 youth especially, what is proper and laudable is too often a 
 matter of only secondary inquiry ; the first question will always 
 be, is it interesting ? And here, also, classical literature fails 
 entirely. Generally speaking, (I appeal to observation,) the 
 moment emulation ceases and the strife of academic rivalship 
 is over, its relish is gone. How very different in this respect 
 are the pursuits just referred to, which are alike edifying and 
 engaging they are the source, from their very commence- 
 ment, of such genuine delight ; they requite so abundantly 
 the natural and eager curiosity of the human mind ; they fur- 
 nish at the same time so much information adapted to all situ
 
 92 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 aliens ; that when taste is once put in that train, it is not only 
 ardent but durable ; never satiated by indulgence, but gaining 
 new force as knowledge accumulates. Accordingly, it is a 
 common remark, that no researches are followed with so much 
 enthusiasm as those of natural philosophy and natural histo- 
 ry ; and for this very reason, nothing can have a more friend- 
 ly influence on the moral character, or present a stronger bar- 
 rier against temptation. 
 
 Indeed, it is pretty certain that classical studies, generally 
 speaking, offer no other allurement than the fame of scholar- 
 ship. Few ever hope to reap any pleasure from them at any 
 period ; and with those who do, the promised period seldom 
 arrives patience becomes exhausted in expectation till at 
 length the mind is willing to be employed in almost any way 
 that can afford more immediate satisfaction. If this be not 
 true, how happens it that students so joyously bid adieu to 
 their Alma Mater, nor cast " one longing lingering look be- 
 hind ?" Why else does a collegiate degree so generally ope- 
 rate like an act of divorce between a scholar and his books 
 and why is it the parties so seldom come together again in af- 
 ter life ? But I shall be accused, perhaps, of exaggeration or 
 misrepresentation. Take then the opinions of those who 
 speak from experience take the following confession from 
 what was designed to be an eulogium on classical studies : 
 " Our acquisitions (says the writer) are as unsatisfactory as 
 they are limited, and at the close of our college life we gladly 
 escape from ancient literature as from a thorny labyrinth, in 
 which we have been compelled to wander by the tyranny of 
 custom ;" (N. A. Rev. vol. 11, p. 421.) Here then we have 
 the whole truth incautiously exposed by a professed apologist 
 and a simple reader would naturally expect that one who 
 had himself been lacerated in the thorny labyrinth, would be- 
 seech his fellow mortals to shun the treacherous maze, or get 
 out as soon as possible. But this is not the game the advice 
 is, that we should enter cheerfully, and remain in it all our 
 lives. Such, however, are the inconsistences their scheme in- 
 volves ; and so far from being rare, they may be detected in 
 almost every writer who attempts to justify a course of educa- 
 tion, prevailing only in virtue of ancient title, without any 
 adaptation to the present wants of mankind. 
 
 There is yet another respect in which classical studies lose 
 incalculably compared with other recreative employments. 
 There is nothing healthful or invigorating about them ; but 
 directly the reverse. One reason, without doubt, is the ex.-
 
 CHAPTER VII. 93 
 
 treme difficulty of becoming so far master of the Greek and 
 Roman tongues, and the respective styles of their authors, as 
 to make that sort of reading agreeable grateful to the mind 
 and the feelings. Even among the most erudite scholars, the 
 number is but small who would think of taking up a classic 
 volume, as they do a drama, romance, or poem, in their na- 
 tive speech, merely for relaxation. " How many are there 
 (says Professor Brown) who willingly join in expressing ven- 
 eration for works, which they would think it a heavy burden 
 to read from beginning to end." Indeed, the sages of old 
 wear a most forbidding countenance ; their writings are, literal- 
 ly speaking, a study, and a very laborious one, all the -way 
 through. Hence, the most unremitting assiduity, and habits 
 entirely sedentary, are indispensable to success ; and these, 
 we all know, have an evident tendency to impair the bodily 
 health. As a proof, there have been not a few among the 
 shining stars of scholarship, whose eager aspirations in this 
 sterile path of learning had robbed their physical system of 
 its natural and necessary repose whose bloom of health had 
 been chased away by poring over the occult refinements of 
 Greek and Latin who in short had persevered in trimming 
 bright the midnight lamp of study till the lamp of life grew 
 dim, or was wholly extinguished. This is no chimera, for 
 we have witnessed the sad result in several melancholy exam- 
 ples. We have followed to the grave more than one ingenu- 
 ous noble minded youth, immolated on the shrine of classic 
 ambition. 
 
 It was before observed, when considering the languages as 
 a source of knowledge, that we seem to forget the age we live 
 in a remark still more pertinent in the point of view now 
 presented. Surely, those who would send us to the ancients 
 for amusement, must intentionally shut their eyes to the infi- 
 nitely greater resources of modern literature so vast, so va- 
 ried, so admirably adapted to please as well as instruct : 
 What length of life, what intensity of reading, could ever ex- 
 haust the hundredth part of the excellent books in our own 
 language to say nothing of catalogues almost equally rich in 
 every European tongue. Then with regard to the compara- 
 tive merits of ancient and modern works, far abler pens than 
 mine would fail in doing justice to the numberless traits of su- 
 periority which mark the productions of latter times. I might 
 fill almost a volume with opinions to this effect, now lying be- 
 fore me not, however, the opinions of men muffled up in 
 Greek and Latin, who, generally speaking, are but poor
 
 94 ttllAPTER VTI. 
 
 judges in such a case ; but of men whose attainments extend- 
 ed far beyond the narrow boundaries of scholarship, and 
 spread over a wide a field of science and learning. But why 
 even hint at such a comparison, when no man would be so 
 egregious a pedant as to place the ancients for a moment in 
 competition. Literature among the moderns is a splendid ed- 
 ifice, in which every species of beauty, elegance, and utility, 
 conspire to delight the eye and satisfy the understanding ; 
 ancient literature is a rude cavern, where, though here and 
 there a diamond sparkles, its general aspect is dark, rugged, 
 and unsightly. 
 
 But enough on this subject; for after all. whatever scholars 
 may say about the captivating graces of Greek and Roman 
 composition, their practice, we find, tells another story, and 
 their casual admissions confirm it. 
 
 Let us turn now to another topic meriting some attention. 
 Among the various arguments which the admirers of antiquity 
 carry in their budget, and deal out on all occasions, one is, 
 that Latin affords a mighty help in acquiring living languages. 
 The advantage of some acquaintance with living modes of 
 speech being universally acknowledged, new means have been 
 drawn from this circumstance to strengthen the classic cause. 
 We are told again and again, that Latin is worth learning 
 were it for nothing else that it is the best possible foundation 
 (as the phrase goes) for French, Spanish, &,c. that when the 
 former is once mastered, the latter are a mere pastime, and so 
 on. But while it is conceded that ancient tongues may facili- 
 tate a superficial knowledge of the modern, I maintain that even 
 this is real only in part. The apparent facility in such cases 
 is principally the effect of contrast, for almost any thing would 
 seem a relief after Greek and Latin. 
 
 At all events, the classical proficient will lose in accuracy 
 at least as much as he gains in despatch. We may remark in 
 the first place, that though the grammar of French, Spanish, 
 and Italian, have a visible analogy to the Latin, yet is it doubt- 
 ful if this very analogy, since there is no precise accordance, 
 does not more naturally induce confusion than discrimination, 
 and thus stand directly in the way of accurate knowledge. 
 However this may be, it is certain that the rules of syntax 
 (by far the most important part of grammar) are in every lan- 
 guage peculiar, and quite insusceptible of control or even 
 modification from any other. In this respect the most thor- 
 ough knowledge of Latin will go for nothing. With regard.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 95 
 
 iecondly, to the signification of words, in any modern tongue, 
 the utmost that Latin can do (for reasons already assigned) 
 would be merely to suggest hints, which though frequently ap- 
 proximating the true sense, would seldom or never exactly co- 
 incide ; and thus in effect would often lead a student wrong, 
 for once it put him right. The light shed on his path by this 
 means, being wholly deceptive, is something worse, perhaps, 
 than total darkness. Thus the matter stands on the score of 
 facility. On the score of economy, whether as to labour or 
 expense, it stands no better for the truth is, that this founda- 
 tion as it is called, (laid as one might say in Roman cement) 
 would cost more, vastly more, than the whole superstructure 
 of modern languages, when raised on their own natural and 
 appropriate bases. It cannot be denied, that one half the time 
 now spent on the learned tongues at school and college, which 
 on the average may be taken at six or eight years, would be 
 sufficient for attaining a good degree of familiarity with all the 
 principal dialects now spoken abroad a truth that will not be 
 called in question by men experienced in these matters. 
 
 There is, besides, another evil in the case of some moment 
 A student fresh from Latin has many things to unlearn he 
 must completely shake off the habit of pondering on classic 
 rules and classic analogies ; for until this be effected, he might 
 toil ever so hard on French, or Spanish, to very little purpose. 
 The plain inference from all these considerations is, that to go 
 through the usual course of classical studies, in hope of smooth- 
 ing the difficulties in modern tongues is the most injudicious 
 procedure imaginable. 
 
 These observations, I am aware, will seem almost superflu- 
 ous to those who have given any attention to the philosophy 
 of language, and are free from scholastic prepossessions. The 
 fact is, the reputed usefulness of Latin in this way, is bottom- 
 ed wholly on the two following notions that grammar is 
 much the same in all languages ; and that the standard of 
 meaning, in words derived from Latin, must be sought in the 
 parent tongue fallacies already sufficiently exposed. It sure- 
 ly is quite time to purge our theories of all such academic 
 whims. If there be any one incontrovertible proposition 
 within the whole compass of philology, it is this, that neither 
 the proper collocation of terms, nor their genuine signification, 
 in any language whatever, can be in the smallest degree af- 
 fected by imaginary or even real analogies drawn from any 
 other. All modes of speech have no doubt, certain points of
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 resemblance, and to seek out the less obvious is, I admit, a 
 very curious, and sometimes an amusing occupation ; but it 
 goes no farther; and whoever resorts to such means for per- 
 fecting his knowledge of any particular dialect, not only will 
 lose his labour, but in all probability be led astray. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 7%e dead languages considered in reference to professional men. 
 
 IN considering the subject with reference to professional 
 men, a distinction may be drawn between the dead languages, 
 and classical learning. The latter term comprehends a great 
 deal the most, and all that it includes more than the former, 
 of which some particulars will presently be noticed, has never 
 been pretended to be of any service to either of the profes- 
 sions. 
 
 As to the languages, they can be valuable no otherwise 
 than as a means of acquiring professional information. How 
 far a lawyer, a physician, or a divine, may turn them to ac- 
 count, can perhaps be accurately estimated by those only 
 who are engaged in these vocations respectively. Others, 
 however, may draw some conclusions from general princi- 
 ples and general facts. That Greek and Latin are peculiar- 
 ly beneficial to this class of men, is a persuasion of quite an- 
 cient date : coeval at least with the revival of classical litera- 
 ture ; perhaps long antecedent: And in point of fact, a com- 
 prehensive view either of law or medicine was hardly to be 
 attained in former times without the aid of Latin ; for until 
 within the last half century, this was the vehicle of public 
 medical instruction, in most, if not all, the colleges of Europe; 
 and in this language also, were recorded the proceedings of 
 English courts of law and of parliament, down to the time of 
 George the second. On our side the Atlantic, circumstances 
 were not indeed exactly the same ; but yet the habit of adopt- 
 ing English opinions and practices, gave rise to a similar rou- 
 tine of education here add to which, the custom that long 
 prevailed among writers in these departments, of putting their 
 treatises and disquisitions in a Latin dress, and the introduc- 
 tion of such writings among us, concurred to render an ac-
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 97 
 
 quaintance with that tongue at least very convenient. How 
 the Greek language came at first to be tacked on as an appen- 
 dage either to law or medicine is not easy to determine, nor 
 worth while to inquire it is enough to know that no value is 
 now ascribed to it in this view by any one. 
 
 With regard to divinity the case is not very different. The 
 preceding causes, in part, joined to several others that might 
 be mentioned, were instrumental in bringing into repute the 
 Roman tongue as a preparatory study. On the other hand, 
 Greek derived its consequence from being the supposed ori- 
 ginal language of the new testament and no doubt, if any 
 importance be assigned to that branch of theology called bib- 
 lical criticism, Greek must take a high rank. The necessity 
 of such criticism, however, either to a just conception of the 
 Christian scheme, to a lucid exposition of its precepts, or a 
 practical performance of its duties, has never yet been shown, 
 and I am persuaded never can be. So convinced of this was 
 that classic veteran Doctor Knox that he wrote his " Chris- 
 tian Philosophy" expressly to discourage speculation on du- 
 bious points, whether critical or doctrinal, as being alike un- 
 friendly to genuine Christian piety ; and in this respect, at 
 least, he manifests a deeper insight into human nature than 
 those who indulge in almost a licentious inquisitiveness about 
 passages of scripture that can never be settled, and mysteries 
 that cannot be explained. In his essays likewise, the Doctor 
 holds the same language " Neither polemical, controversial, 
 doctrinal, nor systematical divinity, (says he), seem calculat- 
 ed to answer the important ends of true religion. These ends 
 are all friendly and benign; but I believe that peace, benev- 
 olence, and purity of heart, are not at all promoted in those 
 many volumes of theology that owed their origin to contro- 
 versy, and to logical and metaphysical refinement ; these ori- 
 ginate in pride and terminate in acrimony." And in another 
 place he announces his settled opinion that " speculative and 
 polemical divinity commonly diffuse scepticism without con- 
 tributing any thing to moral reformation."* Now here is a 
 writer, eminent both as a divine and a scholar, a professed 
 advocate of the languages too who assigns to them no value 
 as an instrument of biblical criticism ; for this seems a neces- 
 sary inference from the quotations given. If we turn next to 
 Doct. Gregory, who stands precisely the same in all respects, 
 
 * Knox's Essays, 42 b 168. 
 13
 
 98 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 what are his sentiments ? We read in his very Essay in fa- 
 vour of classical learning as follows" Without wishing to ap 
 pear a lover of paradox, I cannot dissemble that 1 do not in 
 my own mind allow force to the maxim which insists on the 
 absolute necessity of classical learning in what are called the 
 professions. I confess I think it a most pernicious pedantry, 
 that would involve in any kind of mystery those sciences 
 which are most essential to human happiness. What,shall none 
 but Greek and Latin scholars be permitted to employ their 
 reason on the most necessary topics ? Admitting that there 
 ought to be men in the Christian church who should be able 
 to read the scriptures in the original languages, must every 
 plain country clergyman bean adept in languages which can- 
 not afford him the least assistance in instructing the people 
 committed to his care ?" He says likewise of such learning 
 as regards medical men " In medicine I am sure it has rather 
 impeded than advanced science." Here then is an author 
 who recommends the languages as a general study, yet makes 
 them out to be worth nothing to the professions. 
 
 But further, relative to the clergy, I should be glad to know 
 what important new lights they may yet hope to derive 
 from ancient tongues with reference to the religion we all 
 profess; and the duties of which it is the appropriate as well 
 as the avowed business of their lives to practise and enforce. 
 The received translation of the Bible exhibits every practical 
 precept of Christianity in so intelligible a shape that none can 
 misunderstand ; and if we conform our lives and conduct to 
 those precepts, it can be of little consequence what opinions 
 are embraced on disputed points of faith. It is only on spe- 
 culative points that a diversity of sentiment prevails, and these 
 being all more or less mysterious to the human mind, and 
 doubtless designed to be, it would impeach the wisdom as 
 well as benevolence of the Deity to suppose that any error 
 of belief in such matters could affect our future welfare. 
 
 It is not, however, barely in one translation of the scrip- 
 tures that the scheme of our religion is displayed ; but in sev- 
 eral ; all the productions of as great scholars as the world 
 has ever yet seen, and greater I suspect than will again ap- 
 pear. These versions, it is true, vary somewhat in phraseol- 
 ogy; and it could not be otherwise, since no two men without 
 previous concert, would clothe the same idea in exactly the 
 same words nor if they did, would it be construed alike by 
 different readers. Yet so slight are the disagreements actu- 
 ally found, that a learned professor of the orthodox sect affirms
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 99 
 
 the very worst translation of the Bible to contain every thing 
 essential to our religion an opinion in which another learned 
 writer, of a very different sect, is entirely disposed to coin- 
 cide, (see North Am. Rev. No. 34, p. 53.) What then is the 
 conclusion? why surely this, that whatever the dead lan- 
 guages may yet have in store for us, there is at any rate noth- 
 ing essential to Christianity. This moreover is the dictate of 
 common sense. In a religion designed, and so admirably 
 calculated as this is for mankind at large, the controlling 
 principles cannot lie deep ; and to say that any thing like 
 learning is necessary to discover them, is to make it a re- 
 ligion for the learned only, without any binding force on 
 others. 
 
 But is it not extraordinary that men who so emphatically 
 acknowledge the sufficiency of our common version, should 
 nevertheless inculcate the necessity of becoming proficients, 
 not only in Greek and Latin, but in Hebrew, Arabic, and an 
 endless list of cognate dialects ? This cannot fail to appear, 
 to every layman at least, a glaring inconsistency ; and yet 
 we find not so much as an attempt at explanation. How is 
 it to be accounted for ? Is time of so little value to a student 
 in divinity that he can afford to spend some years in prepar- 
 ing himself to investigate points that are unessential points 
 too, which, if by chance determined to his own satisfaction, 
 might still be viewed very differently, or at all events remain 
 doubtful, with other investigators of equal talents and learn- 
 ing? On the other hand, if the object be to qualify students 
 for carrying on the warfare of sectarian controversy (which 
 it may be feared is too often the case) so far from compensat- 
 ing for time already lost, it would only induce them to lose a 
 great deal more. 
 
 Nor is it altogether a crude surmise of Knox's that what 
 is called biblical criticism has been actually prejudicial to the 
 cause of revealed religion for not only has it detected, but 
 as the North Am. Rev. informs us, has carefully enumerated, 
 more than a hundred thousand various readings in the few 
 manuscripts extant of the New Testament alone and it is not 
 quite an idle fear, that materials are now preparing by help 
 of this same inquisitive criticising spirit, which in the hands of 
 some sagacious and persevering infidel writer, may hereafter 
 be converted into instruments of attack more alarming than 
 any the world has yet had occasion to deplore. 
 
 A clergyman's field of study as well as of duty, is surely 
 extensive enough without diving into researches so intermiria-
 
 100 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ble and so unsatisfactory it is also a much nobler field, and 
 one in which he may render tenfold the service to his fellow 
 men, as regards either their present or their future welfare. 
 " How much more important and useful to mankind (says the 
 eloquent Bennet) are the labours of that pastor, \vho, by one 
 iudicious, impassioned, and well directed discourse, appals the 
 sinner, encourages the saint, guides the perplexed, revives the 
 drooping, or condescends to cheer the bed of sickness with 
 divine consolations." 
 
 Then again, as to medical knowledge, if the languages are 
 indispensable, or even to any considerable degree beneficial, 
 how is it that out of thirty books established by our medical 
 college for the examination of students, not one is in Latin or 
 Greek, nor by a Greek or Roman author? How is it that 
 among seventy others particularly recommended to be read, 
 only one is in Latin, though there are several in French ? And 
 why then is it that French is not made a branch of preparato- 
 ry study in this profession ? As respects law, on the other 
 hand, if Latin be so very useful, how does it happen that 
 questions, depending on a critical knowledge of that lan- 
 guage, arise in our courts scarcely once an age? Or lastly, 
 in the way of query, how is it that the languages are very 
 generally neglected in all the professions so much so as to 
 seem not worth even the trouble of retaining ? Yet on look- 
 ing around us, we find this to be the case. Scholarship ap- 
 pears to die away as professional studies advance. Now if 
 the reader is able to reconcile all this with the assumed impor- 
 tance of the languages in a professional point of view, I am 
 ready to do homage to his superior sagacity. The task is 
 quite an over-match for me. 
 
 In a word, whatever explanation be given of the alliance of 
 classical learning with professional knowledge, it may be 
 clearly perceived to have grown out of circumstances not 
 now existing, and to have been perpetuated by habits, and 
 modes of thinking, founded at least as much on authority and 
 precedent as on reason. It is very true, there are a variety 
 of Latin names and phrases yet current in law and medicine; 
 but they are nothing more than terms of art, and can be 
 learnt quite us well from English books as from Latin pro- 
 bably even better, because such terms are applied not in con- 
 formity to the usual practice of the language, but in a sense 
 altogether technical. 
 
 On the whole, then, there would really appear to be some 
 ground of scepticism, whether the advantages of classical
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 101 
 
 learning, even in the professions, are anywise commensurate 
 with the time and labour necessarily consumed. For my 
 own part, I am wholly unwilling to concede that the enlight- 
 ened men who fill these departments in our time, have yet to 
 seek the principles of their science in the crude conjectures of 
 heathen philosophers. It is extremely difficult to believe that 
 the best talents of modern Europe have for many generations 
 been assiduously devoted to these sciences, and yet no pro- 
 gress been made. But if such be really the case if the 
 world is yet in a state of Egyptian darkness on these matters ; 
 or what is little better, in Grecian or Roman twilight if this 
 be the fact, certainly it is quite time we should know it ; for 
 nothing is more hazardous than misplaced confidence. 
 
 Let us admit then, (but only by way of argument) that 
 Greek and Latin have some valid pretensions in this respect 
 let us fall in with the prevailing opinion that they are use- 
 ful to professional men though not to others and I am led to 
 believe that the prevailing opinion is in fact already thus limit- 
 ed ; because, after all, the chief reason usually given by pa- 
 rents for putting their children on the languages, is, that they 
 may be prepared for engaging in professional studies should 
 they subsequently incline. Here then we take a position 
 which most readers, probably, would think a fair one, even 
 though our previous reasoning were altogether set aside ; yet 
 from these very premises a conclusion may be satisfactorily 
 deduced, if I am not mistaken, that the system now followed 
 is inexpedient and unphilosophical ; and this I proceed to 
 show : 
 
 One monstrous incongruity in the system, on this hypothe- 
 sis, is visible at the first glance ; for why should we include in 
 a general scheme of instruction what is available only in cer- 
 tain occupations ? Why confine a dozen boys for almost a 
 dozen years of their lives to Greek and Latin, in order that 
 two or three may become lawyers, physicians, or divines ? It 
 is much the same as to till and plant a field of twelve acres, 
 with the design of reaping but two or three. Yet such is our 
 practice ; and it is of so long standing, that its absurdity is 
 overlooked thus exemplifying accurately a remark of Kames, 
 that " custom and familiarity hide the defects of established 
 plans." If the principle on which we have so long proceeded 
 were presented to us in a new shape, its fallacy would be too 
 obvious to escape detection. If for instance, any one should 
 recommend that our children be employed from the age of 
 eight to fourteen in acquiring the rudiments of each and every
 
 102 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 branch of business, mechanical, agricultural, mercantile, and 
 professional, on the ground that their vocation being as jet 
 uncertain, they should be prepared for every thing, the folly 
 of the scheme would be apparent. Every body would see 
 that nine-tenths of what is thus learnt would be nearly use- 
 less. 
 
 The application of these remarks is perhaps already an- 
 ticipated, which alone would be some evidence of their ration- 
 ality. If the dead languages have only a special and not a 
 general utility, common sense requires that they be taken out 
 of the ordinary routine of education, and made a branch of 
 professional studies not to be undertaken till the profession 
 be determined. On the other hand, the general system of 
 early instruction, in which all are to participate, should in- 
 clude those parts of knowledge only (numerous enough and 
 extensive enough most certainly) of use in every walk of life, 
 and best adapted to invigorate and expand the mental facul- 
 ties. Such is the course plainly marked out by reason ; and 
 by this mode of proceeding a saving would evidently be 
 made, at the very outset, of an enormous aggregate of time and 
 labour now wasted by those to whom Greek and Latin are 
 superfluous. 
 
 But this is by no means the only advantage that might ac- 
 crue. The very students who have professional objects in 
 view, would themselves be essentially benefitted ; their field 
 of study would be narrowed to less than one half. The value 
 of learning, like every thing else, can only be measured by 
 the test of utility ; which, considered with reference to partic- 
 ular occupations, (as assumed by our hypothesis,) becomes 
 professional utility. Hence, in law or medicine, the Greek lan- 
 guage may be dispensed with ; and in divinity, there is no 
 good reason for retaining the Latin, as that was not the origin- 
 al language of any part of the Scriptures. But here perhaps, 
 we shall be stopped by the pretence that Latin is necessary 
 to understand the Greek. If so, we might call in aid the 
 opinion of a writer, a leader in the classic host, who has ar- 
 gued at some length directly to the contrary that Greek is a 
 prerequisite to Latin, and ought to be studied first. (See N. 
 A. Rev. vol. 1 1th. p. 209.) Both doctrines however are alike 
 scholastic and unphilosophical no one language is dependent 
 on another. Thus it would seem that in preparing for either 
 profession one or the other language may as well as not be 
 omitted ; and by this circumstance alone the student's labour
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 103 
 
 would be abridged one half. Is not this a saving of some im- 
 portance ? 
 
 Furthermore, keeping utility always in mind, the whole 
 time now spent in attempting to discover and relish the beau- 
 ties, the elegances, and the harmony of language, might like- 
 wise be saved : for whatever value scholars may attach to 
 these things, they are in a great measure imaginary at all 
 events, entirely useless to the professions. Edgeworth very 
 pertinently asks, " If lawyers could make Latin and Greek 
 verses with all the facility of our most renowned scholars, of 
 what use would it be to them on the bench ?" and we might 
 ask the same of physicians or clergymen. So also Schlegel 
 remarks in the same spirit, " The matter of chief importance 
 in all civilization and all literature, is not the dead treasures 
 we possess, but the living uses to which we can apply them." 
 With the " puerilities of obsolete mythology," (as Johnson 
 thought them) or the still greater puerilities of obsolete versi- 
 fication, as visionary too as it is obsolete ; neither a physician, 
 a lawyer, nor a divine, can have any thing to do. It is a spe- 
 cies of elegant trifling, (as Gregory calls it) condemned even 
 by many classical men, as unworthy the attention of scholars 
 much less should it be permitted to engross the time of 
 those whose duties require a broad scope of knowledge, dis- 
 tinct from scholarship, and quite above it. Here then, we dis- 
 card another ponderous load of difficulties by which every 
 learner is embarrassed. Now when all this is fairly taken 
 into consideration, it will be clearly perceived that a vast 
 amount of unprofitable labour may be saved to the profession- 
 al student, yet nothing of consequence be neglected. 
 
 The good effects, however, of the change proposed, I con- 
 ceive do not stop here. The very circumstance of entering 
 on the languages at a maturer age, instead of being as some 
 might think, an objection, is in reality a recommendation. A 
 young man of sixteen or seventeen, having decided on a pro- 
 fession, and being fully sensible of the importance of his 
 studies to his future success in life, would engage in them with 
 ardour he would master every thing as he goes along ; and 
 thus his acquisitions, while they are facilitated, would also be 
 more substantial. Whatever teachers may say, the dead lan- 
 guages are of all studies the least adapted to youthful minds. 
 They are proverbially dry and irksome; the reason of which 
 is that children are unable to perceive either meaning or use 
 in them. This branch of learning seems therefore to require 
 in a special manner the incitement of some interesting object
 
 104 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 in prospect, on which it has a bearing ; and this therefore is 
 the very branch that should be postponed until such a stimu- 
 lus can be i'clt. 
 
 . There is moreover another improvement of which the case 
 appears susceptible in a professional point of view. Why 
 may not a student, at the same time that he is learning the lan- 
 guage, accumulate information applicable to his destined oc- 
 cupation ? The ancient classics, it is true, will supply nothing 
 of the kind. But suppose professional books were taken as 
 text books ; would not something more be learnt than the 
 mere language ? May not rules, facts, and reasonings of a 
 professional nature be stored up in the memory just as well 
 as scraps, passages, and even whole books from ancient poets 
 and orators ? How much may be done in this way, it is not 
 for me to decide ; but in branches of knowledge depending so 
 materially on facts and precepts, it is natural to suppose a 
 great deal may be done. Nor will any one pretend that 
 Latin cannot be as well learnt in treatises on law and medicine 
 as in Cicero or Virgil. We may be told indeed, that the lan- 
 guage of such books is not the same either in style or diction 
 that it is not classical. I answer, so much the better it is 
 the very style, and the very diction a professional man would 
 stand in need of a style too, which even now he is obliged 
 sooner or later to become familiar with, if by chance he has 
 acquired the true classical taste in the first instance. I again 
 repeat, that with students of this description scholarship is not 
 the aim ; and least of all, that sort of ornamental scholarship, 
 which deals only in matters of style and taste. For these 
 reasons Latin books of modern date would seem in every way 
 preferable to the classics. It is scarcely necessary to remark 
 that the same reasons will apply to the Greek in the study of 
 divinity. 
 
 There is certainly nothing visionary in the persuasion that 
 some such plan as this would be a decided improvement in 
 professional education, since it is founded on a just distinction 
 between that sort of acquaintance with the languages, which 
 is really useful in the professions, and the more discursive 
 though less accurate knowledge of them comprised in what is 
 termed scholarship. Some people, to be sure, would have the 
 world believe that no one, without a diploma in his pocket, 
 should be listened to on these subjects ; but the reader will 
 bear in mind that most of the considerations here submitted 
 move on general principles, independent either of classical or 
 professional experience ; and he will take the liberty there-
 
 CHAPTER IX. 10$ 
 
 fore to judge for himself, whether they are sound or futile. 
 For myself, I am firmly convinced that a student at the age 
 of sixteen or seventeen, after two years application to the lan- 
 guages in the way proposed, would reap advantages seldom 
 realized by ten years toil in the usual way ; and would be in- 
 comparably better fitted for following up his studies in the 
 office either of a lawyer, a physician, or a divine. 
 
 1 have now stated the grounds of my belief, that even if the 
 languages are absolutely necessary to professional men, yet 
 the existing routine of study is not the best, and that a better 
 may be devised. Innovations, to be sure, are always liable 
 to objections they often wound the consciences of some, and 
 generally touch the pockets of others ; but improvement is 
 seldom to be attained at a cheaper rate ; and he must be little 
 conversant with the history of knowledge who has yet to 
 learn, that a reverence for antiquity and established usage has 
 perpetuated a thousand errors where innovation has created 
 one. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Some account of ancient Prosody, so called ; or the received theo* 
 ry of Greek and Latin versification its follies, deficiencies, 
 and incongruities. 
 
 THE end proposed, in devoting a few pages to this subject, 
 is not to show what ancient poetry was, for of this no idea 
 can be formed, as the reader presently will be quite satisfied 
 nor is it to explain the nature of that unspeakable harmony 
 which scholars pretend they find, perhaps think they find, in 
 ancient verse ; for that would be explaining a nonentity. 
 The object is to let parents see how foolishly and unprofitably 
 their children are employed, for no inconsiderable portion of 
 their time at Latin schools, in learning what moderns have 
 chosen to consider the true theory of ancient versificat ion. 
 
 " What voice has been so celebrated (says a Frenchwriter) 
 
 as that of the syren ; what song so much extolled as that of 
 
 the swan ;" yet it was well known, he goes on to remark, 
 
 even in times of comparative ignorance, that swans did not 
 
 14
 
 10U CUAPTEII IX* 
 
 sing ; and Pliny himself denounced it as a vulgar prejudice 
 " But the swan (he continues) is a fine bird its plumage a 
 delightful emblem of purity and innocence; and there are er- 
 rors so pleasing and so seductive that we willingly overlook 
 the deception." Just so it is, in my opinion, with those noted 
 songsters Homer and Virgil ; and the time, 1 believe, will 
 come, in season possibly to be witnessed by some of us, when 
 the enchanting music of their verse will be acknowledged a 
 mere illusion, and the present age be laughed at for its credu- 
 lity. Indeed there appear to have been at all times not a few 
 among the higher order of scholars, who have been conscious 
 of some deception in this particular. This class, however, 
 have always supported a double creed, an esoteric and an 
 exoteric one for the initiated, the other for the vulgar. In 
 their conversation, and their writings designed for general 
 readers, they have held up the idea that nothing is so capti- 
 vating, or so inspiring, as the melody of ancient verse; while 
 in disquisitions addressed to scholars themselves, controversy 
 after controversy has been carried on, not exactly whether 
 ancient poetry be or be not harmonious (for classic orthodoxy 
 would reject the statement in this form); but what comes to 
 the same thing, whether its harmony may be recognized by 
 modern ears, and of what elements it is or was composed. 
 
 It should here be remarked, that the word poetry, and its 
 analagous term poem, having been plunged deep into the abyss 
 of etymology, endless disputes have arisen on their meaning, 
 and as usual, without coming to any decision. With this 
 however we have fortunately no concern. I take it for grant- 
 ed that the pleasing effect called harmony or melody, whe- 
 ther of verse or prose, results in every language, from the 
 true vernacular pronunciation of words, selected and arrang- 
 ed in a certain order and with a view to produce that effect 
 that when thus arranged and thus pronounced, they do pro- 
 duce it that when either the arrangement is in any consid- 
 erable degree different, or when the pronunciation is so, no 
 pleasing effect can follow no harmony can be perceived. This 
 is undeniably the case in English, and we have every reason 
 to think from the very nature of things that it holds true in 
 every other language, ancient or modern for is it not repug- 
 nant to reason to suppose that Homer and Virgil arranged 
 their verse on the basis of their vernacular pronunciation, and 
 yet that harmony will result from it, however pronounced how- 
 ever read ? What then would be the use of arrangement ? 
 Can you imagine a piece of music that may be played any
 
 CHAPTER IX. 1O7 
 
 &OJE, and yet be melodious ? Every intelligent reader must 
 therefore perceive that when Greek and Latin ceased to be 
 living languages, and their true pronunciation became lost, as 
 it now confessedly is, every thing like harmony must have ex- 
 pired at the same time leaving its very nature to be supplied 
 by hypothesis, and its effect by imagination. 
 
 Nevertheless harmony is one of those ideal excellences in 
 ancient tongues, on which classic enthusiasts have taken par- 
 ticular delight in dwelling ; and thus a belief has obtained 
 among the unlearned that it has a real existence. It is there- 
 fore desirable to have it understood, if possible, what ancient 
 poetry really is, or at least what it is represented to be ; and in 
 attempting an explanation, I shall endeavour as far as practi- 
 cable to be perspicuous, even at the risk of some prolixity. 
 Yet such is the chaos of absurdity in which the subject is im- 
 mersed, there is little chance of complete success. 
 
 Among the variety of topics about which critics and philol- 
 ogists in all ages have busied themselves, few have engaged 
 more attention, and none proved more refractory, than that 
 of versification, and the sources of its harmony. Not indeed 
 that the nature and elements of metrical composition, as re- 
 gards any particular language, are really inscrutable to those 
 who are familiar with its genuine pronunciation ; for it is un- 
 questionably true, in respect of our own, that in spite of all 
 the contradiction, ambiguity, and even positive nonsense, that 
 has been written on the subject by Dr. Foster, with many 
 others before and since, its pleasing effect is at least in a suf- 
 ficient degree accounted for.* This however is comparative- 
 ly a recent thing. Had the matter originally been investigat- 
 ed without reference to ancient theories, the true sources of 
 English metre would have been more generally and much 
 sooner understood. The effect of classic authority has always 
 been to perplex every question on which it was brought to 
 bear ; and our writers having unfortunately set out on this 
 inquiry, as on numberless others, with the erroneous impres- 
 sion that ancient speculations would abridge their labour, 
 they have enveloped in a cloud of scholarship what might ea- 
 sily have been resolved by appealing to their own senses. 
 Borrowing, as they did, from Latin prosody, a long catalogue 
 of rules and phrases, they have talked incessantly, though 
 
 * To show how completely Foster's mind was dimmed by his learning-, i s 
 enough to mention that he holds English verse to have its essence in length of 
 syllables.
 
 108 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 never consistently, about acute and grave accents, about long 
 and short syllables, about dactyles, spondees, iambics, &c. 
 when in truth English verse is an utter stranger to them all, 
 and owes its melody chiefly, if not solely, to a staled recurrence 
 of syllabic emphasis. The matter is now pretty well settled, 
 through the aid of Sheridan and others, who rejected ancient 
 doctrines ; and it might have been settled centuries ago, had 
 not scholarship unluckily interfered. 
 
 With respect however to Greek and Latin poetry, the case 
 is by no means the same. This inquiry has always been, 
 among moderns, a different one in its very nature, depending 
 on different means of solution ; and it has been attended with 
 far less success, or rather with no success at all. As the ear 
 cannot assist in judging of what is called metre, or rhythmusin 
 a dead language, there is no appeal but to original authors in 
 that language, or to arguments founded on general principles ; 
 and as to Greek and Latin, the case seems at all times to have 
 been nearly hopeless. If indeed, there had been philosophy 
 enough in Rome or Athens to deduce from the subtle elements 
 of speech, the true principles of their metrical compositions ; 
 or even had their writers refrained from attempting to explain 
 what in reality they did not comprehend ; we should in either 
 case have been in a fitter state to form a judgment of their 
 versification we should have understood it better, and es- 
 teemed it less. 
 
 But as it happens, the works that have come down to us 
 are so wofully ambiguous and discordant on this head, that 
 the elements, or as Walker calls them, the efficients of Greek 
 and Latin versification, have never been known to moderns. 
 In the absence therefore of all accurate knowledge, recourse 
 has been had to hypothesis ; and a theory has been formed 
 and taught, for I know not how many centuries, as embracing 
 the true principles of classic poetry. Yet it is well known 
 that hundreds of scholars, of deserved celebrity for talents 
 and learning, have dissented from this theory, and denounced 
 it as spurious from which circumstance, and from its own in- 
 herent absurdities, it would doubtless have been long since ex- 
 ploded, but for its intimate connexion with the whole classic 
 system. And this is the more probable since the theory goes 
 no further, even in pretension, than to explain what classic 
 poetry was, without accounting in the smallest degree for the 
 harmony which moderns are said to realize in that sort of 
 reading.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 109 
 
 The scheme of ancient prosody now current in our schools 
 is built on the hypothesis just alluded to ; and ancient metre, 
 according to this scheme, is resolved entirely into length of 
 syllables, or what is technically called quantity. It consists, it 
 is said, of a certain arrangement, in some degree uniform, of 
 long and short syllables one of the former being equal to 
 two of the latter, that is to say, requiring double the time in 
 its pronunciation. Not that this comparative time is ever re- 
 garded, or could be, by moderns, but is supposed to have been 
 by the ancients. These two species of syllables variously 
 combined, taken two, three, or four together, form what the 
 ancients called feet each combination being furnished with 
 a specific name, such as dactyle, spondee, and so on, to the 
 number of about 30, as Lord Kames says, or perhaps even 1 24, 
 as Dr. Rees says.* These feet again, mixed and arranged in 
 certain ways, constituted the various kinds of verse used, or 
 at least named, by the ancients, such as Hexameter, Anapes- 
 tic, Saphic, and a multitude of others. 
 
 To make out so splendid a variety of verse, with syllables 
 appropriately arranged to accord with the given characteris- 
 tics of each distinct species of metre, might seem an impossi- 
 bility ; but the means of accommodation were correspondent, 
 and though arbitrary at first, were at length allowed, it is said, 
 by custom. Numberless syllables, for instance were laid 
 down as common, to be used either for long or short, as occa- 
 sion required. Many others, short by nature, that is to say, 
 in prose, were accounted (as Latin grammarians say) long in 
 verse. Besides this, there were other arbitrary changes, 
 (called by moderns figures in scanning,} that words underwent 
 to suit the purposes of verse ; by aid of which, sometimes a 
 syllable is cut off, or considered as null at other times, one 
 syllable is expanded into two, or two contracted to one ; long 
 are made short, and short are made long. In addition to 
 these means, there are what is called figures of diction, by 
 help of which a line may be enlarged or curtailed, either in 
 fact or by supposition. And lastly, when all this will not suf- 
 fice to resolve the verse and give it a name, Latin grammars 
 permit us in some cases to cut the line in two, and divide its 
 feet differently which by the way is stated to be sometimes 
 a positive improvement. 
 
 Now with every thing so loose and arbitrary as this (and 
 this is precisely what our grammars teach) those tasteful peo- 
 
 * See the end of the Chapter for references and quotations.
 
 110 CHAPTEB IX. 
 
 pie, the Greeks and Romans, could never have been in want 
 of verse, for they might make it out of any passage from Aris- 
 totle or Cicero. And moderns very likely may do the same, 
 provided a conformity to prosodial rules be the only test. 
 Walker indeed quotes a learned critic, who says, that with 
 such unbounded latitude, he can reduce to verse of the true 
 ancient measure, any passage from Robinson Crusoe, and he 
 actually gives a specimen. We find it stated likewise, in sev- 
 eral grammars, (Buttman's Greek for instance) besides many 
 other authorities, that the division of a verse into feet is in a 
 great measure arbitrary ; and it would be, I believe, no more 
 than the truth to say wholly arbitrary. But now for one mo- 
 ment, if Homer's lines (to take a case) may in a great measure 
 be divided into five feet, or into seven feet, what then becomes 
 of Hexameter verse, which by rule ought to have six feet ? 
 How indeed can Hexameter be distinguished from any other? 
 We may divide prose as we please, but who ever heard that 
 perse, properly so called, can be treated in this way ? Is not 
 this almost an admission that ancient verse is such only in 
 name ? But to return to the scheme. 
 
 With resources so unlimited as before mentioned, of accom- 
 modating syllables to their destined station in verse, one would 
 hardly have thought it necessary to lay down rules for deter- 
 mining what are to be called long, or what are to be called 
 short, since all this seems to be merged in a more general 
 rule, which is to place them as you please, and call it verse. 
 Latin grammarians nevertheless have furnished precepts in 
 this way to the number of about twenty ; though by no means 
 providing for all the syllables of the language, (a writer in 
 Rees says not one half) all the rest being left to be ascertained 
 from the use of the poets a method sufficiently operose, one 
 would think, considering the many thousands thus remaining 
 incog. To supply this unaccountable and gloomy deficiency, 
 the writer in Rees, just mentioned, takes great credit for hav- 
 ing deduced, after four consecutive analyses of the language 
 (no trifling affair) 157 additional rules, embracing as he says 
 every thing before undetermined so that hereafter if there 
 be any lack of skill in this favourite branch of ornamental 
 scholarship, it cannot be for lack of precept. The reader, if 
 he wishes, may see the labours of this new investigator spread 
 over the last twenty pages, under the head of Quantity in 
 Rees' Ency. The task he offers, is to be sure, rather repul- 
 sive ; but yet, unquestionably easier than to learn the 
 syllabic length of half the language merely by practice ;
 
 CHAPTER IX. Ill 
 
 and most certainly, by one means or another, the whole must 
 be learnt ere a student can distinguish verse from prose, unless 
 it be by its arrangement in lines. 
 
 Against a theory thus fanciful, several objections occur, 
 arising from general principles. The very assumption on 
 which it is built, that syllables were only of two kinds, or re- 
 ducible to two, is so entirely unphilosophical as to shake the 
 faith of almost every writer who has tried his patience on this 
 intractable subject perhaps I might say every one. All have 
 admitted, even the ancients themselves, that some exercise of 
 imagination was necessary to meet the case. It is well known 
 that in living languages syllables are various, and so nice their 
 gradation, that any classification, depending on length of 
 sound, would be visionary. Then again, the language of 
 every people having been formed long ere critics or poets ex- 
 isted, and by illiterate men, it is little short of absurdity to be- 
 lieve that syllables, as naturally and usually pronounced, 
 could with any more propriety be divided into two kinds than 
 into three, four or five. And besides, how did it happen that 
 Latin, the language of a nation populous and powerful, long 
 before the conquest of Greece (and there is no reason to sup- 
 pose its chief elements were ever changed) possessed natural- 
 ly, in length of syllables, so accurate a conformity to Greek 
 as this theory supposes, while no such quality has been dis- 
 covered in any other tongue at any period of the world. But 
 apart from all this, there is a strong presumption, as Mr. Odell 
 has shown, that mere length of syllables is, from Us very na- 
 ture, incapable of marking the rythmus in any language what- 
 ever. 
 
 Such however is the received scheme of prosody the 
 scheme sanctioned by all our academic institutions, and satis- 
 factory it would seem to the majority of scholars. If the 
 reader has never dipped into the mystery before (for notwith- 
 standing this theory and all others, the whole is still a myste- 
 ry) he may satisfy himself by taking up any Latin grammar, 
 that the account here given is a fair one. Founded as the 
 plan is, simply on syllabic quantity, it is yet so amazingly 
 complex, visionary, artificial, and arbitrary, while at the same 
 time it implies such numerous deviations from the ordinary 
 prose pronunciation of the language, even as spoken by the 
 ancients themselves, that it bears on its very front every token 
 of fallacy. " What must be our astonishment, (says Walker) 
 at this very different sound of words, arising merely from a 
 different collocation," to which he adds in another place.
 
 112 UllAl'TElt IX. 
 
 " but if this system of quantity among the ancients seem 
 strange and unaccountable, our wonder will not diminish when 
 we inquire into the nature of their accents." 
 
 But here something must be said on accent, which though 
 forming no part of the received theory of versification, is in- 
 cluded under the head of prosody, in all our grammars. That 
 accent should not form a part of the theory, is of itself a very 
 suspicious circumstance, for of so peculiar a nature was it in 
 Greek and Latin, and so controlling an element of pronuncia- 
 tion, that it must necessarily have been a principal source of 
 whatever harmony there was either in prose or verse. The 
 doctrine of accents as laid down in the books, is simply this 
 there were by name three kinds ; the acute, the grave, and the 
 circumflex. In every word of more than one syllable, one of 
 its syllables, and always the same, was pronounced in a higher 
 tone of voice, that is to say, on a higher key than the rest, 
 and this tone was called the acute accent. The grave was 
 nothing more than the absence of the acute ; or if any thing 
 more, it is not known what. As to the circumflex, it is men- 
 tioned in so obscure a way by the ancients, that moderns have 
 scarcely ventured to conjecture its nature. Bishop Horsley, 
 however, quotes an author who says it was a suffocation of 
 voice ; and if so, there is certainly some policy in leaving out 
 of view at least the circumflex, in accounting for ancient har- 
 mony. But the acute was so eminently the leading accent, as 
 often to be called simply the accent and of so much conse- 
 quence was it. that all classic writers speak of it as the most 
 conspicuous and characteristic feature in their speech. In- 
 deed, it is manifest that to sound one particular syllable in 
 each word higher than the rest, and to do this uniformly, must 
 be so striking to the ear, that every thing like metre or rhyth- 
 mus would essentially depend on the disposition of such an ac- 
 cent. The reader therefore may easily perceive that assuming 
 this to be the nature of ancient accent, as our grammars do, and 
 yet omitting it in the theory of metrical composition, is a mon- 
 strous discrepancy. Not that I believe myself that such an 
 accent ever existed, though all the big scholars have insisted 
 upon it. Speech thus modulated would have been a mere 
 chaunt, so monotonous as to be absolutely wearisome, and so 
 peculiar, that, as Odell remarks, it could never have been 
 lost yet among no modern people, not even modern Greeks, 
 is there any such thing Does it not, moreover, surpass all 
 belief, that the Romans should have had just the same accents
 
 CHAPTER IX. 113 
 
 as the Greeks, and so peculiar too ? But to return to the 
 theory. 
 
 That an hypothesis so encumbered with difficulties, should 
 have found opponents, is far less surprising than that it should 
 have found believers and for tny own part, I am not convin- 
 ced it has now, or ever has had, any believers of adult age. 
 Its avowed dissenters, we know, have been very numerous ; 
 and a variety of substitutes have been offeree, in hope of 
 arriving at something more rational and consistent but all in 
 vain perfectly in vain, as to accounting for any harmony 
 perceptible to moderns, or even to the ancients. For as 
 "Walker says, " Let us view the Greek and Latin pronuncia- 
 tion on which side we will, we must, to be consistent with their 
 own rules, feel them to be extremely monotonous," and in 
 this opinion, he adds, he is fully supported, " notwithstanding 
 all the fine things which the ancients, and even many moderns 
 say, of the variety and harmony of those languages." In 
 fact, it would be impossible to have better or more abundant 
 proof of the want of harmony in ancient verse, than is fur- 
 nished by the numerous plans proposed from time to time by 
 learned theorists, for its improvement. Nor could we have 
 more plenary evidence of the absurdity of the received 
 scheme. Of those plans, I shall briefly describe three or 
 four, in order to give the unlearned reader some idea of the 
 curious pranks that have been played, in endeavouring to re- 
 solve on rational principles, effects purely imaginary. 
 
 The doctrines of one class of prosodial heretics have been 
 minutely expounded by Dr. Foster, and Bishop Horsley. 
 These writers maintain, and plausibly enough, that the receiv- 
 ed theory, resting as it does on nothing but length of syllables, 
 is altogether deficient. To make out any harmony in ancient 
 verse, we must call in aid, say they, another element of 
 speech, namely accent, which in classic languages, as before 
 mentioned, meant /one, though with us it means emphasis. 
 Accent, they say, must be availed of if we wish to understand 
 what ancient poetry was, or hope to enjoy any pleasure from 
 it at present ; and Foster assigns to it even a greater influ- 
 ence than to quantity. They argue the matter at great 
 length deluge you with classic quotations ; and though full 
 of inconsistencies, puerilities, and contradictions, yet treat the 
 subject as skilfully as perhaps any men could do, who had no 
 means of judging. Lord Monboddo also seems to join in the 
 plan, and brings in his full quota of nonsense. But as these 
 15
 
 114 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 celebrated scholars have neglected to point out any way, in 
 which the accents can be used, doubtless for a very good rea- 
 son, all the defects so loudly condemned in the received sys- 
 tem remain just as they were they have been amply expo- 
 sed, but not corrected. In a word, their plan is no improve- 
 ment, for the simple reason that it is impracticable and in 
 point of theory equally hypothetical. Besides which, Mr. 
 Moore, and numberless others, contend that accent is wholly 
 subversive of quantity. 
 
 Another theory with which the world has been favoured by 
 the more speculative sort of unbelievers, was first broached, 
 I believe, by the famous Vossius, and was soon espoused by 
 Hennenius, Grevius, and a long train of learned men. These 
 authors are of the opinion, sanctioned they say by the an- 
 cients themselves, that accent and quantity always coincide 
 that is to say, that the accent (the acute accent I mean) falls 
 always and exclusively on long syllables; and thus by mak- 
 ing these more conspicuous or more emphatic in pronuncia- 
 tion, adds wonderfully to the force as well as the melody of 
 Roman verse. This theory, which was anterior to that be- 
 fore mentioned, was so ably supported that it made a prodi- 
 gious disturbance in the learned world, gained many converts, 
 arid may boast of numerous disciples at this very day. In- 
 deed it was principally to check the inroads made by the 
 partizans of Vossius, that Doct. Foster was induced to take up 
 the pen for though he insists himself, as we have seen, that 
 accents should be used some how or other, he rails stoutly, and 
 not always decently, against this particular mode of using 
 them, stigmatizing it as " a barbarous and perverted applica- 
 tion of them." Foster contends that accent, so far from length- 
 ening a syllable, as the German theory assumed, has directly 
 a contrary effect ; and Horsley says the same. The truth is, 
 that Vossius's scheme, like all the rest, is a mere creature of 
 the fancy. It possesses however a decided advantage, in 
 point of simplicity, both over Foster's and over the common 
 one which in a matter of this sort, where all is conjecture, 
 is no slight recommendation. 
 
 Different again from either of the foregoing, and diametri- 
 cally opposed to the prosody of our schools, is the plan re- 
 commended and perhaps originated, by that giant in Latin, 
 Doct. Bentley. This plan requires that quantity, the sole 
 constituent in the received scheme, should be wholly disre- 
 garded, and that Latin should be pronounced exclusively by 
 accent. It would seem too, from Foster's statement of it, that
 
 CHAPTER IX. 115 
 
 Bentley places the accent precisely where, in the English 
 mode of reading Latin, we commonly and naturally lay the 
 syllabic emphasis. The example given by him and copied 
 by Foster, is the four first lines of Virgil marked exac.tly in 
 that manner after which Bentley is thus quoted " He that 
 reads these verses properly and tunefully will pronounce 
 them according to these accentual marks ; and not like school 
 boys scanning them and placing the accent at the beginning 
 of each foot." This doctrine, to say the least of it, is well 
 imagined, extremely accommodating, and would save a world 
 of trouble. It is also admirably calculated to console the 
 English reader ; for though it militates directly against our 
 theory, it tallies neatly with our practice ; and flatters us with 
 the belief that an abundance of harmony may be elicited by 
 pronouncing Latin verse according to the analogy of our ver- 
 nacular speech. All we have to do is to pronounce in a high- 
 er tone (for accent, as our prosody says, was anciently tone) 
 the very same syllables we usually and naturally emphasize, 
 and we shall hit the thing exactly. Bentley indeed might per- 
 haps let us off on still easier terms; for if by accent he should 
 happen to mean emphasis (and most writers have sadly con- 
 founded them) we already pronounce, it seems, to great perfec- 
 tion, notwithstanding Doct. Foster and hundreds of others 
 have complained so bitterly. And in fact it is pretty certain that 
 such was his meaning ; for although we are told from high 
 authority (North Am. Rev. vol. llth page 215) that practis- 
 ing the rules of Greek accent, is a very material part of an 
 accurate Greek education, yet we have never heard of the 
 Greek accent being attempted by any one. At any rate, it 
 cannot be denied that Bentley's suggestion is full of good 
 sense: all parties admit the impossibility of conforming our 
 practice to the existing theory ; and surely the next best 
 thing we can do, is to take a theory that conforms to prac- 
 tice. 
 
 There is one circumstance worth mentioning here to show 
 what queer notions men have entertained on this subject 
 which is, that Scaliger was of opinion (if we can depend on 
 Foster) that the ancients themselves pronounced .in the very 
 way Bentley proposes so nicely did those knowing people 
 foresee where English readers would lay the emphasis. 
 
 The only remaining project I shall refer to, (for there is no 
 end of them) we owe to the prolific ingenuity of Lord Kames. 
 Too philosophical to be satisfied with hypotheses so purely 
 fanciful as those already described, all which, together with
 
 116 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 many others, he must have examined, his Lordship starts a 
 doctrine as bold as it was original. He sets out with affirm- 
 ing positively, what others seem only to imply, that dactyles, 
 spondees, and the whole apparatus of prosody as now taught, 
 was an artificial contrivance of grammarians merely to test 
 the accuracy of poetic composition ; and that no melody 
 whatever can be extracted by attending to such rules. In 
 lieu therefore of principles so indefinite and arbitrary, he un- 
 folds at some length as a substitute, a system of pauses, simple 
 enough and of easy application by attending to which, an- 
 cient poetry may be read, he says, with much better effect ; 
 while at the same time all the conditions of a hexameter line 
 will be fulfilled. This plan seeks no aid either from accent 
 or quantity, yet does not expressly exclude them ; so that 
 these may be availed of in whatever proportion the reader 
 pleases. One can hardly avoid feeling some surprise at the 
 boldness of this eminent critic in thus overtly and directly 
 attacking the venerable though visionary fabric of ancient 
 prosody. The same thing is done obliquely, to be sure, by 
 every succedaneuin that has been offered ; but he was the 
 first, as far I know, who recorded his protest in plain lan- 
 guage. As to the merits of his project, it must be acknow- 
 ledged to be at least as good as any before described, and to 
 be supported by arguments in some degree plausible. Walk- 
 er remarks upon it as follows " When we consider the ob- 
 scurity in which the subject is involved, and the inefficacy of 
 all preceding attempts at explanation, we cannot much won- 
 der at the view his Lordship has taken." The Edin. Ency- 
 clopedia adopts it likewise as the best account that can be 
 given of the elements of ancient verse. Nevertheless, it was 
 obviously made up for the emergency, and on the whol-e 
 is very far from being satisfactory. 
 
 The several schemes to which I have now adverted, and as 
 briefly as was possible to give any idea of them, are among 
 the more elaborate efforts made at various periods by scholars 
 themselves, either to account for the musical effect of classic 
 poetry in times of old, or to convince us it ought to be musical 
 now. Considered in the former view, they are all deplorably 
 ineffectual ; in the latter perfectly farcical. All this how- 
 ever is not the quarter part of what has been done in the 
 same way to save appearances. 
 
 There is yet one class of writers who deserve to be men- 
 tioned, were it only for the conciliating spirit they have man- 
 ifested. Mr. Primatt, with several more, apprehending sen
 
 CHAPTER IX. 117 
 
 ous consequences from the warfare raging between those not- 
 ed rivals, accent and quantity, backed on either side by a troop 
 of exasperated partizans, hit on an excellent method of hushing 
 up the dispute by compromise. His proposition was to divide the 
 empire equally between them, by allotting the domain of prose 
 to one, and the region of poetry to the other. But unfortu- 
 nately, the suggestion was by no means so kindly received by 
 either party as its fairness deserved ; and Bishop Horsley in 
 particular treated it with great contempt. 
 
 The preceding schemes, it should be remarked, are such 
 only as could boast of a class of disciples more or less nume- 
 rous. It was not worth while to notice individual opinions, or 
 I might have instanced Mr. Walker as having laid claim to 
 certain improvements and so with Mr. Harris, Mr. Fox, and 
 many others. 
 
 On this side the Atlantic, the more sober character of scho- 
 larship, joined to the want of leisure, having prevented our 
 academicians from taking any part in this ridiculous af- 
 fair, the disputes just alluded to have been little known. 
 Hence the prevailing sentiment among our critics can hardly 
 be determined ; and hence too, the scheme in vogue has kept 
 the even tenor of its way without opposition, and almost with- 
 out suspicion. We have little data even for conjecturing what 
 is thought on controverted points. Mr. Pickering, I should 
 imagine, however, is an accentuallist, and that Mr. Everett 
 for the most part takes the side of quantity. Doct. Wilson 
 evidently does not interest himself in the question and would 
 consent probably to lay the whole machinery of prosody 
 aside. The case is the same, I suspect, with Mr. Moore. 
 
 I would now beg the reader to pause for a moment, and re- 
 flect on xvhat has been stated, the correctness of which, on 
 material points, will not be called in question And I would 
 ask, can there be any thing rational in teaching a system like 
 that in use, so discordant in itself, and so much disputed by 
 men the best qualified to judge? Does the teaching of it 
 comport at all with that calm philosophic view of things, of 
 which the present age may, in most respects, so justly boast? 
 Is any useful substantial knowledge gained thereby? Cer- 
 tainly not. But the most singular fact in the case remains 
 yet to be explained which is, that the system is not in the 
 smallest degree conformed to in reading ancient poetry, as I 
 shall presently show. It is completely a dead letter. 
 
 I would first advert however to a theory of versification of 
 a totally different character from either of the preceding -
 
 118 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 one that is grounded on general principles, is alike common 
 to all languages, and terminates probably much nearer the 
 truth. 1 allude to what is suggested by Scoppa, and, as it 
 would appear from him, before then, by St. Augustine, Sac- 
 chi, and others what is further explained by Sheridan, and 
 also by Steele in his prosodia rationalis and fully developed 
 by Odell in an essay published in 1805. This last mention- 
 tioned writer treats the subject in a manner really philosophi- 
 cal. He commences with a scientific analysis of articulate 
 and of musical sounds he then investigates the audible quali- 
 ties of the dead languages, as far as those qualities are defi- 
 nitely described by ancient authors examines the views tak- 
 en of them by several of the moderns before-mentioned 
 quotes many passages from ancient poets to prove that then, 
 as well as now, syllables were of various lengths, and also 
 that their verse may be divided in various ways ; and in fine, 
 discusses elaborately the nature and elements of versification 
 in general. The result of all his reasoning, which is through- 
 out equally intelligible and philosophical, is as follows, 
 
 " As the governing principles of rythmus (says he) is there- 
 fore not to be found in length, either of notes or syllables, it 
 can only be in the emphasis in that action or affection which 
 is natural to all languages and to every species of melody, 
 and to which modern grammarians have very improperly giv- 
 en the name of accent. It is manifest therefore that what 
 has been hitherto considered a great defect and even barba- 
 rism in modern tongues, has at all times been alike inherent 
 in every language namely, that in versification the rythmus 
 depends on emphatic impulse." To this he adds, that " with- 
 out alternate emphasis and remission, the most exact pronun- 
 ciation of long and short syllables in any language, and in 
 any possible order, would be a mere unanimated syllabifica- 
 tion." 
 
 Now here we have an hypothesis in a tenfold degree more ra- 
 tional than any before alluded to ; and one that while it lowers 
 amazingly the pretensions of ancient poetry in its best estate, 
 places in their proper light those numberless imaginary charms, 
 the illusive idols of classic faith. 
 
 Let us now revert to the received scheme of prosody, for 
 the purpose of seeing how it is carried into operation, or to 
 speak more accurately, how entirely it is lain aside in prac- 
 tice. We have seen that the scheme is founded on the suppo- 
 sition that in Greek and Latin there are but two kinds of syl- 
 lables in point of length ; and also that nothing but syllabic
 
 CHAPTER IX. 119 
 
 quantity need be regarded all which however, we have 
 likewise seen, is contradicted by some of the ancient, and a 
 large majority of the best modern writers. But putting out 
 of view the inference naturally suggested by the latter cir- 
 cumstance, though sufficient of itself in an enlightened age, 
 one would think, to consign the whole to oblivion, let us see 
 what the scheme, if true, would require to make it effectual; 
 and let us compare it with our course of practice. 
 
 It is evident at first view, that to realize any harmony in 
 ancient poetry, or indeed in any poetry, something more is 
 necessary than the mere comprehension of an abstract theo- 
 ry. Homer and Virgil would never sing at so cheap a rate. 
 To be sensible of any melody in their verse, even assuming it 
 to be constructed conformably to the theory stated, it is re- 
 quisite that a reader should become so familiar with the lan- 
 guage as to decide, while he reads, that each syllable be long 
 or short according to rule, and that it be properly placed or 
 at least, that far the greater portion be so and this we may 
 venture to say is not within the power of a hundred men in 
 this country. But it is important further to observe, that even 
 this would not suffice the reader must not only know what 
 syllables are called long and what short, he must be able also 
 to attach to each in his own mind a proportionate sound, cor- 
 responding with its true length for without sound, or an asso- 
 ciated idea of sound, (of which latter we are all sensible in 
 reading English), there most certainly can be no melody. 
 Now this, we may rely upon it, no modern, of any age or 
 country, has ever been able to do, or ever pretended to do. 
 So far from any thing of this kind, it is well known to every 
 student of Latin, that in our common mode of reading it, pro- 
 sodial rules and length of syllables are never thought of the 
 pronunciation being entirely governed by the analogy of our 
 own language and Buttman acknowledges that when quanti- 
 ty is left out of view u all poetical measure is lost." But in 
 our practice, accent is neglected as much as quantity ; and 
 therefore if Doct. Foster's simile be just, that to read by eith- 
 er alone is like a man walking with one leg; to omit both is 
 certainly very much like walking without any legs at all. 
 
 It is very true, we now and then by chance place a long 
 sound coincident with rule ; but Doct. Foster laments it 
 should so seldom happen, and gives the line Tityre tu patulce, 
 &c. as an example remarking that we here make but two 
 syllables long, though our rules require seven and the same 
 thing occurs more or less in every line.
 
 120 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 And besides, each modern nation has its own peculiar man- 
 ner of reading the dead languages. The Germans have theirs, 
 which Foster calls barbarous the French have theirs, which 
 he might just as well call barbarous and the Italians have 
 their fashion. And these manners are so materially different, 
 that the people of one country can with difficulty understand 
 Latin as spoken in the other; and Monboddo says, if Cicero were 
 living, he would not understand a single word spoken by either. 
 Now this very circumstance might disclose to us, by a slight 
 effort of thought, the true state of the case which is, that 
 whatever there be of an agreeable nature in the dead lan- 
 guages, thus variously pronounced, so far from being inherent 
 in them, it is merely the harmonious cadence, vernacular with 
 each people, transferred to the language they are reading. 
 There is no other possible way to account for any melody at all. 
 And is it conceivable that this can equal in degree what each 
 nation may realize from vernacular compositions, where words 
 are chosen and arranged on metrical principles, as familiar to 
 the reader as to the writer ? It is out of the question. The 
 real fact is, that in ancient poetry there is a great deficiency of 
 pleasing cadence it is an instrument entirely out of tune 
 and to the disappointment thus felt by classical men, with 
 their Homer and their Virgil before them, must be ascribed 
 the many whimsical and abortive attempts at improvement, of 
 which I have endeavoured to give the reader some idea. 
 
 We have all heard, however, of an artificial mode of read- 
 ing among boys at school, called scanning, which is supposed 
 by people unacquainted with the subject, and even by many 
 scholars, to be a conformity to ancient pronunciation. But 
 in truth, it is no conformity, nor even an approximation. In 
 scanning, we do not so much as attempt to give to syllables the 
 length of sound assigned by rule ; and if we did it would be 
 in vain. The most that is aimed at, is to place an emphasis on, 
 syllables called long (though not long in fact) instead of em- 
 phasizing according to English analogy. But emphasis, we 
 must remember, is in its very nature a distinct thing from 
 length of sound, and can in no case produce the same effect. 
 So that in the scanning process, quantity is not marked at all 
 in its proper way, nor ancient accent marked in any way. 
 The whole theory, consequently, by which we profess to be 
 governed, is as completely abandoned in this mode of reading 
 as in the common mode. If this explanation be intelligible to 
 the unlearned reader, for whom alone it was intended, he will 
 think with me probably, that this puerile artifice of scanning,
 
 CHAPTER IX. 121 
 
 is the most ridiculous scene in the whole farce. So indeed it 
 is, and so it was viewed by Bentley, the greatest latinist of 
 modern times, as well as by Kames, to say nothing of many 
 others ; and so I dare say it is now viewed by three fourths 
 of those whose irksome duty it is to listen, day after day, to 
 this whining babble of the school-room. 
 
 I have now shown by a variety of reasoning, as well as by 
 the admission of scholars themselves, that the received scheme 
 of prosody is vague, hypothetical, anomalous, and therefore, 
 to all appearance, spurious. And I have shown further that 
 whether spurious or not, it is never in the smallest degree con- 
 formed to. 
 
 In any possible view of the subject then, one very remark- 
 able circumstance attends the case a circumstance entirely 
 unique which is, that the very theory taught with such un- 
 wearied assiduity in our schools, and there encouraged by the 
 highest honours, and the greatest rewards (literally speaking) 
 in reality explains nothing ; neither the harmony supposed to 
 have been enjoyed by the ancients, nor what is said to be en- 
 joyed by moderns. Almost every writer has confessed it to 
 be utterly incompetent to either. In the name of common 
 sense then (if common sense is to have anj r sway) what is the 
 theory for ? And do we live in an age when our most respect- 
 able seminaries countenance things of this sort ? when absur- 
 dities, at once so palpable and so puerile, are to be sanction- 
 ed, and the precious time of our youth wasted on them, mere- 
 ly because they have come down to us as a part of the sys- 
 tem ? 
 
 Dr. Gregory certainly speaks much too favourably of this 
 mass of nonsense in calling it " a species of elegant trifling," 
 it is at best a stupid and childish plaything. 
 
 While therefore it remains for parents to determine, if they 
 will any longer consent to waste their children's time on stud- 
 ies so foolish and so useless, 1 submit to the reader, whether 
 the mere fact of such a scheme forming part of the regular 
 and usual course of classical education, is not, of itself alone, 
 enough to create a suspicion that the whole system is illusory 
 in its promised advantages and objects ; and whether, in this 
 way, it does not corroborate, in some measure at least, the 
 views and reasonings presented in former chapters.. 
 
 Note of References see next page* 
 16
 
 122 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 NOTE OF REFERENCES TO CHAP. IX. 
 
 The following works, as far as any one might be inclined to 
 examine them, would be found to confirm the representations 
 here given of Ancient Poetry. Some few pages are noted as 
 bearing more particularly on important points, and as supply- 
 ing quotations. 
 
 Walker's Key, page 315 to 324334, 343. 
 
 Foster on Accent and Quantity, page 68, 53, 294, 297, 305, 
 361. 
 
 Horsley's Prosody, page 1 1, 22, 26, 55, 124. 
 
 Odell's Essay, page 131, 134, 142, 149, 174, 187. 
 
 Monboddo, vol. 2. p. 329, 330, 415. 
 
 Buttman's Grammar, p. 15, 282. 
 
 Kames's Elements, chap. 18. 
 
 Lowth's Lectures, p. 44. 
 
 Harris's Inquiries, part 2. chap. 2. 
 
 Edin. Ency. Article, Poetry. 
 
 Rees' Ency. Art. Accent Quantity Prosody Versifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Nares on Orthoepy, p. 141, 209. 
 
 Aristotle's Poetics by Pye, p. 397, 402. 
 
 Correspondence between Wakefield and Fox, p. 118. 
 
 Mitford's, Knight's, Pickering's, and Moore's Essays on the 
 pronunciation of Greek and Latin. 
 
 Beattie's Essay on Poetry, p. 278. 
 
 Scoppa's Vrais principes de Versification, p. 131, 141, 147. 
 182. 
 
 Sheridan's Lectures. 
 
 North Am. Review, No. 24, Art. 7.
 
 CHAPTER X. 123 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Concluding Remarks on the general subject. 
 
 THE several alleged advantages of classical studies, as enu- 
 merated at page 18, and embracing every thing of any conse- 
 quence, have now all been examined, and proved to be falla- 
 cious. Some persons, however, may still be inclined to think, 
 that though neither argument has any great force separately 
 taken, yet the whole together may amount to a justification, 
 of the reigning system. To this it may be answered, that 
 many fractions make but a small sum. It may be replied, fur- 
 ther, that the recommendations there specified can operate 
 collectively, but very seldom. It can happen only when an 
 acquaintance with ancient languages, and ancient authors is 
 both accurate and familiar a thing of extremely rare occur- 
 rence, and not otherwise attainable than by devoting to the 
 object many years of manhood, in addition to the usual col- 
 legiate course. And can the boon be so inestimable as to re- 
 quite a whole life of study ? 
 
 In point of fact, it is a large allowance to suppose that one 
 in a hundred perseveres to this degree. On the other hand, 
 a scholar who lays aside his books with his college robe, 
 must know far too little of the languages, (whatever these 
 might be capable of> either to improve his style to enlarge 
 his information to multiply his sources of amusement or to 
 trace the genealogy of words derived from classic tongues. 
 Here then, are four out of the half dozen every-day argu- 
 ments which have clearly nothing to do with students of 
 this description, who nevertheless compose ninety-nine of 
 every hundred. With respect to all such, no hope is left, but 
 for the employment of their time the exercise of their men- 
 tal faculties or the improvement of their grammar. Now I 
 grant that their time is employed, and to a deplorable extent. 
 I grant also, that their mind is exercised, though by no means 
 in the best way but as to English grammar, this most cer- 
 tainly could in no respect be aided by the utmost skill in for- 
 eign tongues, that ever fell to the lot of man.
 
 124 CHAPTER X. 
 
 And besides, how few whose patience holds out even as far 
 as the college. The more usual practice is to close their labours 
 at the grammar school, and then go their ways into the world, 
 one to his farm, another to his merchandize. The little they 
 have learnt was never understood ; or if understood, is soon, 
 forgotten ; and the consequence is, they carry through life the 
 mortifying recollection (participated however, by not a few of 
 deeper learning) of having wasted many a precious year on 
 studies sanctioned only by custom, to the neglect of others, 
 of which they daily and hourly feel the want. Indeed the 
 little smattering of Latin, picked up with such unceasing toil 
 at the grammar school, is quite as much as either the temper 
 or the taste of most children can bear ; and as much, it would 
 appear, as most parents desire. But such a course of pro- 
 ceeding, though by far the most usual, has been condemned 
 and ridiculed by the greater portion even of professed advo- 
 cates of classical studies, and by Dr. Knox among the rest. 
 " The time ; says he) that is usually spent on Lilly's grammar, 
 (the common Latin grammar of his day,) and in acquiring 
 just so much knowledge of Latin as may inspire a young man 
 with conceit, is certainly very ill bestowed."* The lot of 
 this class of students is really the hardest lot of all they 
 have not even the reputation of learning to solace them. 
 Those who go through their education, as the phrase is, do 
 perhaps a little better. In virtue of their diploma, they take 
 rank with scholars ; and thus the pride of scholarship be- 
 comes a partial offset, and brings in a small drop of consola- 
 tion. This is little enough to be sure ; still it is something. 
 
 But why, it may be asked, does scholarship raise her crest 
 so high ? Why do men plume themselves on acquisitions so 
 indeterminate, and so unsubstantial ? The reason, as I be- 
 lieve, simply is, because academic influence has set its seal on 
 that sort of acquisition, and fashion has attached her counter- 
 sign. It is worth remembering however, that there was a 
 time whem alchemy enjoyed the same consideration, and was 
 sustained by the same means as Greek and Latin are now ; 
 and another time when the only avenue to fame led through 
 the dreary maze of syllogistic logic. There was also a time, and 
 that too the vaunted era of Greece and Rome, when physical 
 science (the most valuable, because the most useful of human 
 
 _* Knox's 3d Essay.
 
 CHAPTER X. 12S 
 
 attainments) was literally banished from the world by this very 
 tyrant, fashion. In a word, as fashion determines most things, 
 whether in the way of adoption or exclusion, she has given 
 her passport to many a folly ; and by enlisting on its side a 
 numerous train of interested defenders, has often made her bant- 
 ling a modish personage for several generations. It is indeed 
 the very nature of established opinion, right or- wrong, to per- 
 petuate itself; for what all take to be sound, though never pro- 
 ved to be so, few will give themselves the trouble to scrutinize 
 and thus it happens that error is transmitted from age to age, 
 as it were by common consent. But can fashion, or custom 
 if you please to call it, by whatever influence upheld, be of 
 paramount authority in a rational philosophic point of view ? 
 By no means She may be summoned at any time to the bar 
 of reason, to justify her decisions ; and mis is exactly the 
 object in the present instance. 
 
 The attempt has been to show, both by argument, and by 
 the confessions of scholars themselves, that classical learning, 
 under its more usual and most specious forms of vindication, 
 is not to be justified ; and if this has been satisfactorily ac- 
 complished, it is quite enough for the purpose. To go fully 
 into the numerous collateral topics, connected by one channel 
 and another, with the general theme ; or to investigate the va- 
 riety of minor influences, that have lent their aid to the exist- 
 ing system, might have far exceeded the scope of the writer's 
 intelligence, and quite as far perhaps, the reader's patience. 
 
 Two or three things of this nature, however, may be very 
 briefly adverted to. And in the first place may be noticed 
 the close alliance that has always subsisted between the dead 
 languages and the fine arts. The extraordinary celebrity the 
 latter enjoyed during the 16th and 17th centuries, as objects 
 of taste, was of incalculable service to the former. The 
 fashion of the times ran altogether in the channel of the arts, 
 assigning the highest distinction to success in those depart- 
 ments ; and the best early models having been derived from 
 Greece and Rome, it was natural enough to look to the same- 
 source for excellence in every kind of course their language 
 must be studied, and their literature explored. Of course too, 
 the multitude of persons connected in various ways with aca- 
 demic institutions, would afford all possible patronage to the 
 arts, for sake of its reaction on ancient literature ; and while 
 this class of men on the one hand, were lavishing their enco- 
 miums on painting, sculpture, and architecture, a host of artists
 
 126 CHAPTER X. 
 
 and amateurs on the other, were no less active in magnifying 
 the advantages of classical learning. In this way have the 
 scholar and the artist reciprocated their compliments with 
 great effect, and secured a high standing for both a standing 
 in my opinion altogether unmerited, as regards the first ; and 
 in some measure so, as regards the last. 
 
 Another thing that might very properly be included in a 
 comprehensive view of the subject, would be the state of gen- 
 eral knowledge, as found in Greece and Rome, compared with 
 that of other cotcmporary, or still more ancient people. By 
 an appeal to facts brought to light of late years by philosoph- 
 ical researches into the early condition of eastern nations, 
 such a comparison might be drawn very little to the advantage 
 of the classic age. The Chinese unquestionably, were supe- 
 rior in all useful branches of knowledge at least, if not in 
 others ; and so were, or had been the Egyptians and Persians. 
 In Hindostan too, according to Sir W. Jones, and other anti- 
 quarians, science no less than art was carried quite as far as 
 in Greece, perhaps farther and the same thing occurred not 
 long after in Arabia. Yet some people seem to think that the 
 only civilization that ever smiled upon the world was horn in 
 Greece, and died in Rome which by the way, is very much 
 the notion our lads imbibe at school. 
 
 Another topic again that might well deserve some attention, 
 is the intrinsic merit of classic languages on the beauties 
 and perfections of which, scholars have never ceased to ring 
 the changes for many centuries past. Every thing that is ad- 
 mirable, in point of intellectual refinement, has been inferred 
 from modes of speech so curiously contrived. But however 
 well it may have done, at one time, to talk in such a strain ; 
 yet now, since the same peculiarities are found to exist, and 
 even to greater perfection, in every dialect of our savage 
 tribes (a coincidence, by the bye, at which Monboddo more 
 than hinted some fifty years ago) we are bound in common 
 honesty, to strike all this from our list of wonders. Never- 
 theless, the same antiquated notions still keep possession of 
 our schools ; and, by that very influence, are still buoyed up 
 on the stream of error in public opinion. 
 
 Oa the subjects just mentioned, together with many more, 
 very erroneous impressions, there is reason to believe, are yet 
 prevalent ; and in proportion as these shall be dissipated by 
 the active spirit of inquiry now abroad in the world, the props 
 and stays of the ancient fabric will fall away. My aim has
 
 CHAPTER X. 127 
 
 been levelled at its very foundation its corner stones and I 
 say now, as I said before, that either the course of reasoning 
 here pursued, must be fairly met and confuted ; or things must 
 be left to go on by the mere impetus of habit, without any ap- 
 peal to rational considerations. But when matters are 
 brought to this pass, reason is abandoned. 
 
 In closing the subject, I must be allowed to observe, that if 
 any who dip their pens at the classic fount, be roused on this 
 occasion, they should not trust too much to mere declamation, 
 or even elegant composition. As little would it help their 
 cause to cavil at the manner in which objections are urged ; 
 or to endeavour to hunt down an assailant with the hue and 
 cry of barbarism for though such expedients have often suc- 
 ceeded, it is too late in the day for all that. Nor would it 
 aught avail, to prove even to demonstration, that Greek and 
 Latin have been of essential service to the modern world ; for 
 as much may be said of numberless things now wisely aban- 
 doned. The science of heraldry, for example, was unques- 
 tionably at one time a useful study, being closely allied to the 
 tenure of property, of title, and of rank ; but as the state of 
 society became changed, heraldric learning was permitted to 
 die away, tn like manner the institutions of chivalry had no 
 doubt a powerful tendency in the 12th and 13th centuries to 
 civilize a rude unlettered age yet whoever might now advise 
 us to mount the spear and the helmet to vindicate the rights 
 of the fair, would most assuredly become a fair object of rid- 
 icule. The sex with us, thank heaven, stand in no need of 
 knights-errant to rescue them from caprice and tyranny, such 
 as they were occasionally exposed to at that period ; nor 
 from a state of forlorn seclusion, tenfold more galling, and a 
 thousand fold more degrading, like that under which they lan- 
 guished in Greek and Roman times. From classic bondage 
 they were effectually emancipated by those anti-classical peo- 
 ple, the Goths and Vandals. 
 
 Neither mode of defence, I say, above described, would be 
 any vindication of the existing system. Its advocates have a 
 more arduous task to perform. If indeed, they could make 
 it appear, that knowledge and science in all their variety, or 
 even any one important branch, is better displayed in ancient 
 than in modern tongues, it would be something to the purpose. 
 But where is the man who will advance any such pretensions? 
 However, be their claims what they may, let them be stated
 
 128 CHAPTER X. 
 
 in a definite tangible form let us no longer be deluged with 
 vague assertion and splendid panegyric. According to my 
 way of thinking, Greek and Latin have long outlived their 
 usefulness. If any really think otherwise, it is incumbent on 
 them not only to designate what valuable ends can thereby be 
 attained, but to show how they can be attained, or as scholars 
 phrase it, the modus operandi. To do less than this would 
 be doing nothing.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 JVofe A referred to at page 36. 
 
 The following Extracts are from a review of Barrett's 
 Grammar, in the North American of April, 1821. 
 
 " For mere English learners, the process (that of parsing) 
 is the more preposterous as the names of the parts of speech, 
 of most of the inflexions, and of the rules of grammar, are a 
 dead letter to them built on analogies wholly unknown to 
 them, and often grounded on the analogy of languages 
 wholly different in their structure from the English. Much of 
 our grammar is accordingly not English grammar, but rules 
 for translating Latin into English. We have but two cases in 
 our nouns, but are taught in some grammars (old ones he 
 means) that there are six. Not more than half our adjectives 
 have degrees of comparison ; and all that is strictly true 
 about the rest is, that pulcrior instead of being rendered beau- 
 tifuller, should be rendered more beautiful. In the verbs, we 
 have but one tense besides the present, and yet our English 
 grammars fit out the verb with six tenses. But to say that the 
 perfect tense of love, is / have loved, means that amavi, for 
 want of a corresponding English inflection, must be translated 
 / have loved, which by the way it does not mean more than 
 half the time. Much the same is the case with the modes ; 
 and had the Arabian Grammarians attained the ascendancy 
 in the European schools, which the Latin ones did, our verbs 
 would probably have been adorned with 28 conjugations in 
 imitation of that copious language. 
 
 "The most that can be useful in the science of English gram- 
 mar, is to have a name and a rule for all the inflections and 
 peculiarities, which really exist. But to have an English 
 tense, or an English case, for every thing analagous in Latin 
 and Greek, is to study (to teach) Latin and Greek, and not 
 English. Nor is there any greater propriety in having a first 
 and second future in English, than a first and second aorist 
 and a dual number. And since there exists, and probably will 
 17
 
 130 APPENDIX. 
 
 continue to, a strong hankering after what is called parsing, 
 we really wish some judicious teacher would have courage to 
 analyse the language as it is, and teach his children not Latin 
 and Greek grammar in disguise, but simple English." 
 
 Now all this, though a downright classical heresy, I look 
 upon to be sound sense. But the call here made on judicious 
 teachers to analyse the language as it is, and teach their child- 
 ren (their scholars too is probably meant) the true English 
 grammar, comes with not the best grace from one who sees the 
 evil, and has abundant leisure to apply himself to its correc- 
 tion. The bulk of our teachers, he well knows, are Latin 
 scholars, placed in English schools ; and it would seem from, 
 this account, entirely misplaced. Such men have no motive, 
 either from pride or interest, to lessen the reputation of Latin, 
 and this probably is the reason they are not judicious in the 
 way so much desired by the reviewer. To my knowledge, 
 however, there are teachers, acquainted only with English, 
 and who instruct only in that, fully sensible of the evil here 
 pointed out but they are men, whose office is no sinecure ; 
 whose \vhole time is absorbed, and whose body and mind are 
 wearied, by the numberless annoyances of a daily school ; 
 who have little leisure therefore, either to make books, or 
 translate them. Besides which, they are well aware that, as 
 opinion now stands, no improvement of this kind, suggested 
 by a mere English scholar, would be listened to for a moment. 
 But why does not the Professor himself become that judicious 
 teacher he really wishes should appear ? Why has not he giv- 
 en us that genuine English grammar so much wanted, instead 
 of an additional Greek grammar not wanted at all ? 
 
 Note B referred to at page 46. 
 
 What is said on the Chinese language at page 46, stands the 
 same as first printed in the newspaper ; and it was left so in 
 order that mistakes might be acknowledged. Having never 
 previously examined any Grammar, Dictionary, or other work 
 professedly designed to explain the curious structure of that 
 language, my impressions were derived from various incidental 
 notices of it, which had fallen in my way. I had supposed 
 that the ideas expressed by the more complex Chinese char- 
 acters, were compounded, like the characters themselves, of 
 others more simple, and were therefore complex ideas. I 
 had supposed likewise, that many of those characters admit- 
 ted certain changes, for the purpose of grammatical construe-
 
 APPENDIX. 131 
 
 Lion, though nowise analogous to verbal inflexions in other lan- 
 guages. 
 
 It appears, however, on reference to Marsham's Grammar, 
 which, by the way is one of the most philosophical exposi- 
 tions I ever saw of any idiom, that my impression was erro- 
 neous on both points and that I had entirely forgotten what 
 had long before been said on the subject by Monboddo, whose 
 remarks, it would seem, were pretty correct. The fact is, the 
 ideas denoted by the more complex form of Chinese symbols 
 are as simple as any others, however compounded that form 
 itself may be. Then as to grammatical construction, this de- 
 pends not in the least on inflexion, for there is no such thing j 
 but wholly on position. It appears also, and perhaps necessa- 
 rily results from the case, that the meaning of a character is 
 materially influenced by the circumstance of position, though 
 its form remains unalterably the same. One and the same 
 sign may be a verb, a noun, or any other part of speech (as 
 we should term it) according to its place in the sentence 
 which indeed often happens in our own language and more or 
 less perhaps in all. The Chinese, however, is probably the 
 only language whose grammar is wholly and exclusively re- 
 solved by position ; and it is curious to observe how admira- 
 bly well the end is accomplished by means so simple. 
 Tooke's view of the origin of particles in our vernacular idiom 
 is so fully illustrated by almost every sentence of the Chinese, 
 that had the latter been well understood in Europe a century 
 ago, his ingenious discoveries would in all probability, have 
 been by many years anticipated. It is worth remarking too, 
 that what has been termed Universal Grammar, is here com- 
 pletely at fault its universality is conclusively disproved. 
 
 From what sources were derived my own mistaken notions 
 first alluded to, is to be sure of little consequence they were 
 errors, and I willingly renounce them. One of those sources, 
 however, was unquestionably a passage from Remusat, quoted 
 both by Mr. Duponceau and Mr. Pickering, in whose essays 
 it had often met my eye, though to my present surprise, with- 
 out engaging much attention. It is as follows " It is indeed, 
 impossible (says he) to express in any language the energy of 
 those picturesque characters (the Chinese) which exhibit to 
 the eye, instead of barren and arbitrary sounds, the objects 
 themselves figured and represented by their most character- 
 istic traits, so that it would require several phrases to express 
 the signification of a single word." Now to say nothing of 
 the exceedingly inaccurate discription here given of Chinese-
 
 132 APPENDIX. 
 
 characters, one can hardly avoid inferring from the whole 
 spirit of these remarks, that the writer entertained very sin- 
 gular and very unphilosophical views of the nature of lan- 
 guage in general. For why talk of the energy of picturesque 
 characters, as if the vividnesss or the precision of the idea de- 
 pended on the form of the symbol. Why talk about barren 
 and arbitrary sounds, as if sounds or signs could, in themselves, 
 be any thing more than barren and arbitrary. Why talk 
 about objects figured and represented by their most characteristic 
 traits, as if written language, could by possibility be any 
 thing more than signs, of conventional meaning and as if 
 pictures could be better than words ! Why indeed talk about 
 sound in any way, as an object of sight ? All this, I confess, 
 is to me very extraordinary and that notions so unphiloso- 
 phical, or expressions so loose (take it as you will) should 
 have been cited without comment by the writers before 
 named, is not much less extraordinary. 
 
 Note C referred to at page 55. 
 
 Allusion is made at page 55 to the common cant of the day, 
 that the Greeks were original in every thing they did. How 
 far this was really the case in matters of literature, moderns 
 have had no means of judging, though they have not on this 
 account been less forward in deciding. It may or may not 
 be true as the Northampton teachers asserted in their prospec- 
 tus, (a somewhat clumsy performance, by the way, not- 
 withstanding their scholarship) that in tragedy and poetry the 
 Grecians "had no predecessors to imitate;" but most certain- 
 ly it is not true, though asserted with equal confidence, that 
 such was the case in philosophy. The doctrines of the an- 
 cient Academy, the Stoa, and the Lyceum, had each of them 
 their prototype, Sir W. Jones says, in India. It was a pretty 
 general practice among the Greeks, if we are to believe their 
 own story, for men of inquisitive minds to travel into Egypt 
 and elsewhere in search of knowledge; from whence they in 
 fact derived the greater part and the better part (though poor 
 enough at best) of what comes down to us as Grecian wisdom. 
 This was particularly the case with Pythagoras, who resided 
 in Egypt for many years, and carried thence a variety of 
 elementary knowledge in geometry and other subjects, no 
 small portion of which he palmed on his countrymen as origi- 
 nal discoveries. (See Brucker's history of Philsophy.) Mon- 
 boddo remarks of this noted Grecian plagiarist that he found-
 
 APPENDIX. 133 
 
 ed the wisest sect that ever existed except the Egyptian Magi. 
 But what shall we think of the teachers abovementioried 
 when they tell us that in philosophy the Grecians " have never 
 been equalled in succeeding times ?" How much superior must 
 their penetration be to that of Bacon, Descartes, Newton, 
 Locke, Stewart, and some hundreds of the like, who had come 
 to a very different conclusion. 
 
 It is also announced by those same gentlemen that "no one 
 science can be thoroughly learnt without an acquaintance 
 with the Latin tongue ; while there is none, for the study of 
 which, Greek is indispensably requisite." But here unlucki- 
 ly they come directly in contact with another learned The- 
 ban, who tells a very different story. We are assured by 
 him that Greek is " the Promethean torch to literature" and 
 that without it "all is lifeless and obscure, while its genial in- 
 fluence pervades and gives life and animation to the remotest 
 region of science." (North Am. Rev. vol. 2 new series, page 
 210.) The intelligent reader need not be informed that 
 both statements are purely hyperbolical, and noways near the 
 truth. Nor must we conclude that the real opinions of these 
 writers are wide apart the want of agreement in their dog- 
 mas may be resolved by circumstances. The former had 
 adopted Latin as a regular branch of instruction, but not 
 Greek. The latter is a Greek scholar by profession, and was 
 writing an essay to show its superior importance to Latin. 
 
 But perhaps it is never quite fair to take scholars at their 
 word on themes of this kind. They are in some sort privi- 
 leged characters. Mounted on their hobby, they often run 
 truth and common sense quite out of sight. We are not to 
 suppose these writers so low in intelligence as really to be- 
 lieve either Greek or Latin indispensable, or even materially 
 convenient, in any branch of science. They know well enough 
 that neither Greeks nor Romans had among them any thing de- 
 serving the name of science ; or at least that nothing has descend- 
 ed to our times save only some elementary truths in Geometry. 
 They know besides that modern Europe was farmore indebted 
 to the Arabians than to either that chemistry, medicine, arith- 
 metic, algebra, astronomy and many other things, even geom- 
 etry, were carried to greater perfection under the Caliphs 
 than under Pericles or Augustus though the whole together 
 is as dust to the balance compared with the splendid achieve- 
 ments of modern genius. It is well known to them that a 
 comprehensive and accurate display of every science is found 
 in living languages, and in those only all this I say is well
 
 134 APPENDIX. 
 
 known to most scholars ; and all they assert to the contrary is 
 well understood among themselves and among scientific men. 
 But the mischief of the thing is that the community at large 
 (including many well informed persons, notx:onversant however 
 in these matters) are imposed upon by this incessant flourish 
 of scholarship this perpetual stream of hyperbole poured 
 out in praise of ancient greatness. How long such habitual 
 misrepresentation is to be tolerated, I know not ; but it may 
 well become a matter of serious consideration with reflecting 
 and influential men, whether the game should any longer be 
 permitted, and whether truth and reason must forever bow 
 their head to system.
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 EXTRACTS. 
 
 The following is the extract referred to at page 5, taken 
 from a piece in the Boston Palladium, of Feb. 17, signed No 
 Innovator. In allusion to the essays in the Centinel, publish- 
 ed some time before, the writer alleges the want of leisure as 
 a reason for not answering them himself, and then makes an 
 appeal to scholars in general, as follows : 
 
 "But allow me to ask, if all who range themselves on the 
 side of learning can plead so good an excuse. Have we not 
 a host of men, distinguished alike for talents and acquire- 
 ments, to whom the subject is already familiar in all its rami- 
 fications men who are acute reasoners and polished writ- 
 ers? Have we not also a numerous train of scholars, whose 
 very office as Professors and Teachers, places them directly 
 in the post of honour, and at the same time qualifies them in a 
 peculiar manner to vindicate the cause of ancient literature? 
 Have we not, in addition, yet another set of literary men, 
 delegated expressly to watch over the concerns of education, 
 and actually superintending those municipal institutions, the 
 utility of which is now called in question ? And is it not clear- 
 ly the duty of all such men, as unquestionably it is the inter- 
 est of many of them, to repel every attack of that nature? 
 Having among us so numerous and such able advocates of 
 existing estalishments, it cannot but appear to the more hum- 
 ble votaries of Classical Learning a circumstance no less sur- 
 prising than mortifying, that doctrines should be permitted to 
 circulate, aiming at a total change of system, without the 
 slightest attempt to arrest their progress. Not a voice has 
 been raised, I am ashamed to say, to justify a course of tui- 
 tion, which, if those doctrines were really true, it would indeed 
 be idle to defend, and worse than idle to practice. How is 
 this apathy to be accounted for? Why so much shyness, 
 .why all this silence ? Do our patrons of learning flatter them- 
 selves that because the essays in question are prolix, dry and 
 argumentative, they have been little read, and can therefore 
 do but little harm ? In this I fear they are deceived. But 
 suppose they are right, is there not a point of honour in the 
 case ; and shall we shrink from any inquiry professing to be 
 a fair appeal to reason?"
 
 136 APPENDIX. 
 
 Extracts referred to at page 7. 
 
 The following is from an article on education in the West- 
 minster Review, No. 1. 
 
 " When the plan was first instituted, (the existing plan of 
 classical education in England) there was some reason for it. 
 At that period, the Greek and Latin languages contained all 
 the knowledge which the observation and experience of man- 
 kind had yet accumulated. Of science, properly so called, 
 nothing was known and therefore nothing could be taught. 
 At any rate the little that existed was to be found in ancient lan- 
 guages ; and churchmen were the only persons in the com- 
 munity who had the least pretensions to learning. But that 
 this plan should be continued in the present age, when Greek 
 and Latin do not contain the thousandth part of the informa- 
 tion which ought to be communicated, whether its importance 
 be estimated by extent or value, is sufficiently extraordinary. 
 Yet hitherto there has been no medium between studying lan- 
 guage as the principal object of education, and as part of the 
 course calculated only for the learned professions, and receiv- 
 ing no education at all. No plan of instruction has been 
 adopted for those who are to be engaged in the active busi- 
 ness of life. A gentleman who might happen to have no de- 
 sire to be a scholar must have gone without any instruction 
 whatever ; and the merchant to whom it might not have been 
 convenient to wade through "tremendous Lilly" has been 
 doomed to enter the counting house with little acquaintance 
 with the treasures of knowledge. It is no less true than la- 
 mentable, that hitherto the education proper for civil and ac- 
 tive life has been neglected ; that nothing has been done to 
 enable those who are actually to conduct the affairs of the 
 world, to carry them on in a manner worthy of the age and 
 the country in which they live, by communicating to them the 
 knowledge and the spirit of their age and country that there 
 has been no access by any man to the temple of science but 
 through the gate of language, and that the only key to it has 
 been the Westminster and Eton grammars." p. 45. 
 
 The writer then goes into the inquiry, what are the proper 
 studies for the middle class of society, by which phrase he ex- 
 plains himself to mean, as we shall see, all the intelligent class- 
 es with the exception of professional men and statesmen and 
 he unfolds his views as follows: 
 
 " Of the political and moral importance of this class, there 
 can be but one opinion It is the strength of the community
 
 APPENDIX. 137 
 
 It contains beyond comparison the greatest proportion of 
 the intelligence, industry and wealth of the state In it are 
 the heads that invent and the hands that execute the enter- 
 prise that projects, and the capital by which these projects 
 are carried into operation. The merchant, the manufacturer, 
 the mechanic, the chemist, the artist, those who discover new 
 arts and those who perfect old ones, those who extend science 
 the men in fact who think for the rest of the world and who 
 do the business of the world, are all of this class. The pro- 
 per education of this portion of the people is therefore of the 
 greatest importance to the welfare of the state. Considering 
 then their station and the nature of their pursuits, what is the 
 kind of knowledge the most desirable to communicate to 
 them what are the subjects, an acquaintance with which 
 will afford the most assistance in their occupations and the 
 greatest enjoyments in their hours of leisure? We answer 
 decidedly not an acquaintance with languages of antiquity " 
 
 The writer then enters on some considerations of little ap- 
 plication to any country but England, and returns to gene-- 
 ral remarks on the languages as follows " They have 
 nothing in common with the business of the world as it is now 
 transacted they do not form the topic of conversation in so- 
 ciety they are obsolete they have no longer a habitation 
 and a name, except in some degree in literature and they 
 possess no power of developing the faculties which is not at 
 least equalled by other branches of learning. As we have 
 already said, there can be no reason why there should not 
 be profound scholars, as well as subtle pleaders and learned 
 theologians but nothing can equal the absurdity of consum- 
 ing three fourths of the invaluable time appropriated to edu- 
 cation, in scraping together (as Milton expresses it) so much 
 miserable Greek and Latin, by persons to whom it is no man- 
 ner of use to whose pursuits it bears no kind of relation 
 who after all, acquire it so imperfectly as to derive no plea- 
 sure from it who invariably neglect it as soon as released 
 from school, and in the lapse of a few years allow every trace 
 of it to be obliterated from their memory." 
 
 The English Monthly Magazine, for March, in noticing the 
 above mentioned article in the Westminster Review, remarks 
 as follows in relation to the middling classes. 
 
 " In our opinion *not only have they no occasion for 
 such an education, (the classical) but it would be detri 1 
 18
 
 138 APPENDIX, 
 
 mental to their future happiness, because obstructive to their 
 manual or mercantile pursuits, by creating a taste for what 
 those pursuits would not permit them to cultivate. This re- 
 flection brings us to the consideration of the Reviewer's opin- 
 ion that Greek and Latin, though not destitute of value, 
 are far from being even to the higher classes, of that impor- 
 tance they have so long been allowed to assume. The Review- 
 er would have their cultivation limited to boys designed for 
 the learned professions ; and when we reflect on the time 
 necessary to their acquirement, we are strongly disposed 
 to think with him. If the almost incalculable number of hours 
 devoted to this study, be compared with the few in which 
 such acquisitions may be afterwards enjoyed if it be consi- 
 dered that now almost every information (why not every) that 
 can be obtained through the medium of the dead languages, 
 may be collected from the stores of the living that all the 
 scientific intelligence of the ancients has been communicated 
 to the moderns in their mother tongue ; and that almost all the 
 noble discoveries both in science and philosophy with which 
 literature has been enriched by modern genius and modern 
 research, is to be found in modern tongues only when, we re- 
 peat, these important facts are duly weighed, we are far from 
 feeling assured that ancient tongues are worth all the toil and 
 lime their cultivation demands." 
 
 The following is from a late French treatise on Education. 
 
 " It results from what has been said, that children should 
 never be permitted to learn words while ignorant of their 
 meaning. Let us abandon this practice of getting things by 
 heart, without attaching any ideas to them let us accustom 
 our children to think, instead of pronouncing empty sounds. 
 Rousseau was right in prohibiting his Emile from committing 
 much to memory. The great portion of time ought to be em- 
 ployed in acquiring ideas, and a small part only in learning 
 the signs to express them. I should prefer a child to have 
 ten ideas, though capable of explaining them but in one lan- 
 guage, rather than one idea, with the power of expressing it 
 in ten different dialects. It is evident that education ought 
 not to have for its principal object the study of words, espe- 
 cially in a language not to be used in after years certainly 
 practical knowledge is much better than any assemblage of 
 phrases. It is said that the genius of the ancient languages is 
 superior to modern. Admitting this, yet I do not perceive 
 that Frenchmen, who have learned Latin and Greek, write
 
 APPENDIX. 139 
 
 any better on that account. It often happens that the most 
 skilful interpreters of Greek and Latin, are surpassed in gen- 
 eral intelligence, and left far behind in the affairs of life, by 
 those who were much their inferiors at school. A mass of 
 Latin and Greek, however great, and however painfully ac- 
 quired, can give no facility, nor any habit of attention or re- 
 flection, nor any ability to distinguish oneself either as a 
 statesman, a general, a physician, or an advocate. On the 
 contrary, such studies render the mind dull and sluggish. 
 Formerly, when works of science were chiefly written in 
 Latin, a knowledge of it was necessary to the learned profes- 
 sions ; but now the case is very different ; and it is altogether 
 a mistaken respect for ancient usage that continues in use the 
 same course of studies. We say of one that he understands 
 Latin, that he has had a liberal education but is it wise to 
 rest our opinion of his merit merely on that foundation." 
 
 The following remarks are from a pamphlet printed in the 
 State of New- York, on the project of establishing a college at 
 Geneva, in that State ; and they will serve to show that opin- 
 ions are by no means so universally in favor of the languages 
 as some would have us believe. 
 
 ".Our collegiate institutions have been heretofore establish- 
 ed with the design of preparing young men for the learned 
 professions. Their course of discipline and instruction has 
 this object chiefly, and perhaps solely, in view. So obvious- 
 ly is this the case, that a young man, who after leaving col- 
 lege, turns his attention to merchandize or farming, is consid- 
 ered in a great measure as having lost four years of his time 
 (he might have said 8 years) at the most important period of 
 his life. Part and a very considerable part of his studies, 
 has no important bearing on his profession, and the habits he 
 acquires in college are in general not favourable to his future 
 pursuits. All the advantages he obtains of literary and sci- 
 entific information, might be gained under another system, 
 much more efficaciously, and at far less expence of time. 
 The proposed institution will supply this desideratum." 
 
 In the British Critic of March last, is a review of Dunlop's 
 history of Roman literature. The following observations, 
 both of the reviewer and the historian, will show us that men's 
 eyes are beginning to open a little as to the true character and 
 the concerns of the Romans. 
 
 " The singular destinies (says the reviewer) of this aston- 
 ishing people might be supposed to give to their literature an
 
 140 APPENDIX. 
 
 interest the most exalted and intense. It is however, a re- 
 markable fact, that the literary history of Rome is of all others 
 the most deficient in those qualifications which would render its 
 study interesting to the philosophic mind ; and with the excep- 
 tion of Juvenal, and Horace, Rome has scarcely a writer 
 from whom any thing can be collected, concerning the private 
 life and feelings of the Romans." As to Mr. Dunlop's idea 
 of that classic people, it may be gathered from the following 
 quotations. " On the whole (says he) they were an austere, 
 stately, and formal people their whole mode of life tended to 
 harden the heart and the feelings, and there was a rigid uni- 
 formity in their early manners ill adapted to the free work- 
 ing of the passions." " They had by degrees been accustom- 
 ed to take a barbarous delight in the most wanton displays of 
 human violence and brutality. Lions and Elephants tore 
 each other to pieces before their eyes ; and they beheld, with 
 emotions only of delight, crowds of hireling gladiators wast- 
 ing their energy, valour, and life, on the guilty arena of the 
 circus." " The language of the Romans, however excellent 
 in other respects, was but ill suited to the free expression of 
 feeling. Little attention, besides, was paid to critical learning, 
 and the cultivation of correct composition. Even so late as the 
 time of Horace, the tragic drama continued to be unsuccess- 
 ful in consequence of the illiberal education of the Roman 
 youth." The reviewer after giving these extracts and sev- 
 eral others, adds thus, " These several causes are enlarged 
 upon by Mr. Dunlop, with great ability ; and to these he adds 
 the misdirected influence of the Greek literature, which in- 
 deed is the great and fertile source, to which all those departures 
 from just taste, truth, and nature, which characterise the writings 
 of the Romans, are, ultimately referable.''' 
 
 Now here we have the sentiments of a learned writer, 
 who has undertaken to investigate philosophically the charac- 
 ter as well as the history, of Roman literature we have the 
 sentiments also of a professed English critic on the same sub- 
 ject and what is more, we have their honest sentiments. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 5 '*
 
 December. This publication, though commenced and in 
 part struck off at the date mentioned on the title page, was 
 interrupted by circumstances, which, being of no interest to 
 the reader, are here alluded to merely by way of apology 
 for rather an unusual number of typographical errors 
 And those errors being of such a nature as sometimes to ob- 
 scure the sense, and sometimes destroy it, the purchaser 
 would perhaps do well to correct them with his pen accord- 
 ing to the following list, which embraces all that have been 
 detected : 
 
 Page 3 line 21 for invariable, read invariably. 
 
 8 last line for them read than. 
 
 19 line 32 for effects read effect. 
 
 46 line 27 for languages read language. 
 
 49 line 9 for injluence read inference. 
 
 56 line 1 6 for had read bad. 
 
 75 line 6 for leave read learn. 
 
 76 line 34 for thejlnd read find the. 
 
 79 line 28 for to read too. 
 
 94 line 3 for a fold read field.
 
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