fet "f^v. Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA OATS for GRAIN and FORAGE COIT A. SUNESON MILTON D. MILLER BYRON R. HOUSTON CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL Experiment Station Extension Service CIRCULAR 481 OATS fc ^^ats are in an economically favorable position in California. A breakthrough in breeding experiments has resulted in improved yields and disease-resistant varieties. The amount of horse racing in the state, and a rapid increase in number of saddle horses near the large cities, have provided a good market for well- grown, top quality, pure oat hay and grain oats. California's oats are grown principally for forage (about 400,000 acres), usu- ally hay; a small portion is cut green and either fed as green chop or ensiled; the rest is harvested for grain (about 180,000 acres) . In some seasons, as many as 100,000 acres of wild oats are also cut for forage. Oats for grain are used almost exclu- sively for livestock feed. They are often fed whole to horses and sheep, are usu- ally ground for dairy cattle, and rolled for rabbits. Oats are also used exten- sively for poultry, usually without hull- ing. The hulls appear to be rich in food factors that check certain phases of mal- nutrition in chickens — those that induce feather picking and cannibalism. (In nu- trition experiments with rats, oat pro- teins promoted a more rapid rate of growth than did the proteins of any other grain.) Practically none of the Califor- nia oat grain crop is used for human consumption, primarily because there are no oat mills in the state. When oats are cut in the 20 per cent SEPTEMBER, 1959 THE AUTHORS: Coit A. Suneson is Associate in the Experiment Station, Department of Agronomy, Davis. Milton D. Miller is Agriculturist, Agricultural Extension, Davis. Byron R. Houston is Professor of Plant Pathology and Plant Pathologist in the Experiment Stati Da> GRAIN and FORAGE COIT A. SUNESON ■ MILTON D. MILLER ' BYRON R. HOUSTON flowering stage and properly cured, they make a very palatable and highly nutri- tious hay relished by all classes of live- stock. About 20 per cent of the oat hay crop is grown in combination with vetch or Canadian peas, providing a legume- carbonaceous forage. Oats are one of the best crops for use in the rotation system on dry-farmed barley or wheat land because they help, to reduce root rot losses. The organisms that cause "take all" and other similar root diseases in barley and wheat do not thrive on oats. In California experi- ments, and in field practice, grain yields per acre have been increased up to five- fold by incorporating oats in the dry- farm grain cropping system. As a con- sequence, oats are increasingly being incorporated into grain crop rotation systems. Production records for each of the best-known varieties of wheat, oats, and barley have bsen kept at Davis for 24 years (1934-1957). The average yields in pounds per acre, were as follows: Atlas barley, 3,025; Kanota oats, 2,586; White Federation wheat, 2,595. During three of the 24 seasons, Kanota was a complete failure from shattering, rust, or lodging. Neither barley nor wheat failed completely in any season. Oats gave the highest yield per acre in five seasons, wheat in three, and barley in 13. With the new variety, Indio, outyield- ing Kanota by an average of 28 per cent in recent tests, it is safe to expect average oat grain yields practically to equal those of barley in areas in which Indio is adapted. Oats produce satisfactory crops on a wide range of soil types, provided the soil is well-drained and reasonably fer- tile. The crop does best on clay loam or loam. Oats do well on the red terrace soils ranging from Butte County south- ward through Stanislaus County. They are also grown extensively on the adobe soils of the Montezuma Hills of Solano County. In California, oats are grown princi- pally in the central and south coast dis- tricts, and in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Climatically, oats are best adapted to the cooler, coastal regions. Hot, dry, windy weather just before heading causes blast, particularly in the common white oat varieties. Such weather during the heading and ripen- ing period causes oats to ripen prema- turely, with poorly filled grain of light bushel weight. By turning to shatter- resistant and earlier maturing red vari- eties (such as Indio and Palestine), however, growers have shown that prof- itable grain and hay yields are possible in the drier, hotter interior valleys. Oats are more susceptible to winter frost in- jury than are other small grain crops. Prolonged periods of temperatures below 22° F will kill some California varieties. The nature of the oat head (panicle) is such that it is especially vulnerable to shattering by wind. [3] How to Identify Current Oat Varieties Commercially, oats are generally clas- sified according to color of the matured, unweathered grain. The colors usually recognized are black, red, gray, yellow, and white. (Red, as referring to oats, is usually a reddish-yellow rather than a distinct red, best characterized by the variety California Red.) Oats also may be classified into three convenient botanical groups: wild oats {A vena jatua or A. barbata) ; the arid- region red oats (A. byzantina) ; and the cool- or humid-region white oats (A. sativa) . The red oat varieties tend to endure more winter frost, mature earlier, and suffer less damage by heat and drought than do the white oats. As a result, our highest yielding and best- adapted varieties are red. Currently available true white varieties are adapted only to the cool, northern mountain counties. They often produce "blasted" panicles when grown in the warm central valleys. Oat plants can be distinguished vege- tatively from other cereals by the dis- tinctive attachments of their leaves and stems. The main characteristics are the total absence of clasping auricles, a more prominent ligule, and a throat. These parts of the plant, and others, are shown on the following diagrams. A typical oat spikelet (Palestine variety) is also shown, with its main parts identified. The six leading oat varieties in Cali- fornia, described below, are listed in the order of their introduction into Cali- fornia agriculture. Coast Black History. An early introduction, once widely grown for hay. Present culture is confined to north-coastal counties. Description. Plants tall, coarse, with large leaves; very late-maturing; winter habit (poor heading from summer sow- ing). Moderately resistant to stem rust. Seeds black, heavily hulled, and gener- ally of low bushel weight. Recommended use. Only where cli- mate is cool, rainfall abundant, soil heavy, and a late-maturing hay is desirable. BLADE COLLAR (note absence of auricles) LIGULE (long) THROAT BASAL HAIRS GLUMES (outer) Oat leaf and stem. Oat spikelet (Palestine variety). [4] DIAGRAMS SHOWING SIDE VIEW OF THE COLLAR REGIONS OF OTHER GRAINS LIGULE LONG CLASPING AURICLES BARLEY LIGULE NARROW AURICLES LIGULE SHORT AURICLES (minute on older leaves) RYE WHEAT (All line drawings by Beecher Crampton, Botanist, Agronomy Herbarium, Davis.) [5] California Red History. A strain of Red Rustproof, once a dominant variety in the south central states. Numerous introductions, particularly of "Texas Red," were made. Not all present-day stocks are identical. The majority, however, trace to a mass purified stock first released by the Uni- versity of California as foundation seed in 1937. Description. Plants tall, fine- stemmed, leafy, liberally pigmented with purple; late maturing, with a rather strong winter habit. Although moder- ately resistant to stem and crown rust, California Red is the most susceptible to yellow dwarf virus of any California oat variety. Seeds generally deep-colored, prominently awned, and of medium weight. Recommended use. Better suited for hay than for grain production. Rec- ommended where winters are cold or the soils are excessively wet. Should never be sown in late winter, because of the yellow dwarf virus hazard, or where heat and drought are severe. Kanota History. A selected strain of Fulghum released by the Kansas Agricultural Ex- periment Station. Following extensive testing of Fulghum and Kanota, certified seed of Kanota was released in Cali- fornia, in 1928, where it soon became the leading variety. Recently, newer va- rieties have pushed it into a subordinate position. Description. Plants tall, coarse, sparsely leafed, and frost-hardy. Seeds are plump, tend to shatter, have only oc- casional small awns. Relatively early heading. More tolerant of yellow dwarf virus than any variety grown in California. Recommended use. Its maturity range and stiff straw make it very satis- factory for sowing with vetch. When allowed to mature for grain, crop should be windrowed to minimize shattering [6] losses. Should not be grown in areas sub- ject to rust, which often reduces quality of hay or yield of grain. Palestine History. A strain of Indian or Cal- cutta collected in Palestine during World War I, reselected at the Werribee State Research Farm in Australia, introduced to America in 1926, and first grown at Davis in 1932. First released to farmers in California in 1940. Despite extreme susceptibility to rust, Palestine has pro- duced 28 per cent higher average grain yields than Kanota, and 34 per cent more than California Red during the 1934 to 1956 period at Davis and in statewide tests from Imperial to Tehama counties. It proved to be the best variety where heat, wind, or drought are severe. Description. The earliest, shortest, and most shatter-resistant of the Cali- fornia varieties. Highly susceptible to all of the major oat diseases, and is most easily killed by frost. Kernels long, thin, with prominent awn and a high percent- age of hull. Recommended use. Useful at pres- ent only in the more arid and warmer parts of the state and where adequate supplies of Indio have not yet been accumulated. Indio will soon displace Palestine. Ventura History. Ventura was selected from the cross, Victoria-Richland x Fulton. The latter came from a Fulghum x Mark- ton cross. The U. S. Department of Agri- culture and the Kansas, Iowa, and Idaho experiment stations shared the major responsibilities in breeding Ventura. The California Experiment Station sponsored its release here in 1943. Description. Plants shorter, more leafy, and later maturing than Kanota. Seeds yellow-white, awnless, and consid- erably smaller than those of other Cali- fornia varieties. Highly resistant to most races of stem and crown rust and covered smut generally found in California; sus- ( Continued on page 10) RACHIS or CENTRAL AXIS SPIKELETS FIRST FLORET STERILE FLORET SECOND FLORET PEDICELS AWN PEDUNCLE Diagram of oat panicle, showing major parts. [7] Most oat varieties can be identified by examining the seeds and heads (panicles). This may be done with aid of a simple botanical key which describes the various parts. The diagram (p. 7) identifies the parts; the keys that follow describe each of the varieties now commercially important in California, and the wild types. Key to Cultivated Varieties: A. Hull dark-colored, lower floret with fairly well-developed basal cavity ; rachilla usually persistent to upper florets. B. Hulls black or grey Coast Black BB. Hulls brownish red to red. C. Awns weak to prominent, usually present on both the outer and inner floret. D. Awns prominent; basal hairs rather numerous; glumes long-pointed Palestine DD. Awns prominent; basal hairs sparse Indio DDD. Awns weak; basal hairs few; glumes short California Red AA. Hull light-colored, yellow to reddish-yellow ; lower florets separate by fracture ; upper florets easily separated from rachilla. B. Occasional awns on outer grain; septate basal cavity Kanota BB. No red color in hulls; awns seldom present; small seeds Ventura Left: Coast Black variety. Note black seed, basal hairs, and rachilla fractures. Right: florets of California Red, showing fracture of rachilla. (See diagram, p. 4.) Left: florets of Kanota oats, showing irregular fracture at bases of upper ones, and septate basal cavity. Right: florets of Palestine variety, showing fracture of rachilla. (See diagram, p. 4) Left: Ventura variety florets showing irregular fracture at bases of upper ones. Right: florets of Indio; arrows indicate fracture of rachilla. Key to Wild Species: The common wild oat has taller, more vigorous plants than the cultivated varieties, and strongly twisted, geniculate (bent or kneed) awns. The grain from all florets has a pronounced sucker mouth at the base, and usually a very hairy lemma. The hull color may be white, grey, red, or black. A. Lemmas (hulls) terminate in two long bristles Avena barbata A A. Lemmas terminate in two short teeth A. fatua False wild oats, or fatuoids, occasionally appear in cultivated oat fields. They are true intermediates. They resemble either the common wild oat or the cultivated variety in certain respects. These fatuoids are the result either of natural crossing with wild oats and other cultivated oat varieties or of natural mutation in the culti- vated varieties. Self-pollination is normal in oats, but natural crossing may occur occasionally between wild or other oat varieties. Oats naturally cross more frequently than does barley or wheat. ceptible to Helminthosporium blight — a disease not yet observed in the state. Recommended use. One of the best choices at present for security, in either hay or grain production, in areas com- monly subject to rust. Ventura hay is of top quality. It is believed that this va- riety will give way to rust-resistant forms of Indio and Kanota as they become available. (Since seeds are small, about 25 per cent less, by weight, should be sown per acre.) Indio History. A sixth backcross cycle se- lection, isolated from the crossing of a Victoria-Richland and Fulghum hybrid with Palestine. Indio is a product of the cooperative oat improvement project conducted by the University of Cali- fornia and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Description. Essentially all of the plant characteristics of Palestine have been put in Indio, plus resistance to some of the prevalent California races of crown and stem rust and the advantage of more than one pound in test weight over the Palestine parent. Indio and Palestine have produced almost identical yields where rust was absent or sparse. The yield advantage in favor of Indio has averaged 38 per cent where rust was seri- ous. Severe injury from yellow dwarf virus may occur in late-sown fields. Lodg- ing is likely to occur in thick stands. Recommended use. In all winter- sowing areas of the state except at eleva- tions over 1,500 feet. Indio winterkills at temperatures of 20° 10 22° F. Cali- fornia's highest yielding grain variety, it is equal to the best tall variety in hay- yielding ability. Indio matures too early to use in combination with vetch for hay. [10] Wild oats (Avena fatua). Note twisted awns. Florets easily separate at their bases, the upper one with no irregular fractures. Table 1. Comparative Performance of Principal Oat Varieties at Davis, 1934-1957* Data No. of years observation Variety Calif. Red Kanota Palestine Ventura Production data : Grain yield (lbs. /A.) Highest yield Lowest yield Testweight(lbs./bu.).... Growth comparisons : Pasture readiness in early spring! Date headed Height (inches) Damage situations : Lodging (per cent) Shattering (per cent) Frost (per cent) Disease reactions : Stem rust (per cent) Crown rust (per cent) .... Mildew (per cent) Halo blight (per cent) .... Yellow dwarf (per cent) . . 21 1 1 19 8 19 15 13 5 7 3 1 2,400 4,224 608 32.0 86 May 4 50 2,586 4,416 1,216 36.3 100 Apr. 20 49 2,976 5,248 1,152 30.5 115 Apr. 15 41 39 24 5 15 12 6 2 73 59 62 2 33 35 23 1 3 35 10 20 50 51 25 14 45 2,656 f 4,736 1,088 34.5 108 Apr. 25 48 32 29 7 tr 13 5 42 * Tests in 1935, 1936, and 1944 were "failures.' t Grown only 14 years. i As per cent of Kanota. [ii] How to Choose the Right Variety High yielding ability and the plant's resistance to disease and rust should be considered when choosing an oat variety. A shatter-resistant variety, such as Indio, should be grown in a windy area if the crop is to be harvested for grain. A rust- resistant variety, such as Indio or Ven- tura, should be grown in a district hav- ing a history of cereal rust. In a district where yellow dwarf virus has been a problem in cereal crops, Kanota may be the safest variety because of its tolerance for that disease. Time of sowing also affects the choice of variety. Early-maturing varieties, in general, do best in the drier, hotter areas of California, and for late sowing. Late- maturing varieties are best adapted to the cooler areas and to those where winter growth is restricted by too-wet soils. A comparative characterization of four California oat varieties is given in table 1. The frequency of occurrence in the table gives an indication of the rela- tive importance of diseases, frost, lodg- ing, and shattering as observed in experi- ments at Davis. The comparative rela- tions here shown are roughly applicable wherever oats are winter sown in Cali- fornia. For growers, these factors plus yield and the varietal description (pp. 4^10) are basic for the choice of a va- riety. None of the varieties is universally the "best." Though it has been men- tioned elsewhere that Kanota has coarser stems than California Red, the variety has lodged more severely at Davis. Since it heads two weeks earlier and rain-wind complexes are more common in early April, this is not an inconsistency. The late winter growth score is an estimate of comparative growth in February, and has an application in a single pasturing. Varieties of oats show less variation in hay yields than in grain yields. For hay, the critical choice often concerns quality instead of yield. In Southern California considerable dry-farmed acre- age produces less than 1 ton of hay per acre, while yields of 5 tons are some- times obtained in the north, under more abundant rainfall or irrigation. For Grain Table 2 shows the grain yield of the six leading oat varieties in the key areas of California. Since most of the state's Harvesting from the swath. Oats are ready to thresh when grain is down to 10 to 20 per cent moisture. >'-?'r/KSi grain oat crop moves as livestock feed, the variety recommended for any given district would normally be the one yield- ing the most grain. For Forage Recent hay trials conducted by the De- partment of Agronomy and University of California Farm Advisors have shown that all of the current California oat va- rieties, when grown and harvested under comparable average conditions, yield about the same total amount of forage per acre. For example, although Kanota grows later and taller, it yields no more total dry matter per acre than does a short, early variety like Palestine. The greater basal leanness of the shorter types apparently compensates for the greater height of the taller varieties. The choice of oat varieties for hay should therefore be based upon desired time of maturity, strength of straw, hay quality, and available moisture. For many years, California ranchers considered the California Red variety best for haymaking. In the absence of rust or yellow dwarf attacks, it produces a high-quality, fine-stemmed hay, if properly handled. Recently, it has been largely displaced by Ventura, a rust- resistant variety that is also fine-stemmed and leafy, and that yields hay of consid- erably better quality than does Califor- nia Red in years of rust attack. Stockmen have favored Kanota for growing with vetch. 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