fet "f^v. Division of Agricultural Sciences

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

OATS

for

GRAIN
and

FORAGE

COIT A. SUNESON
MILTON D. MILLER
BYRON R. HOUSTON

CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL
Experiment Station
Extension Service

CIRCULAR 481

OATS fc

^^ats are in an economically favorable
position in California. A breakthrough
in breeding experiments has resulted in
improved yields and disease-resistant
varieties. The amount of horse racing in
the state, and a rapid increase in number
of saddle horses near the large cities,
have provided a good market for well-
grown, top quality, pure oat hay and
grain oats.

California's oats are grown principally
for forage (about 400,000 acres), usu-
ally hay; a small portion is cut green
and either fed as green chop or ensiled;
the rest is harvested for grain (about
180,000 acres) . In some seasons, as many
as 100,000 acres of wild oats are also
cut for forage.

Oats for grain are used almost exclu-
sively for livestock feed. They are often
fed whole to horses and sheep, are usu-
ally ground for dairy cattle, and rolled
for rabbits. Oats are also used exten-
sively for poultry, usually without hull-
ing. The hulls appear to be rich in food
factors that check certain phases of mal-
nutrition in chickens — those that induce
feather picking and cannibalism. (In nu-
trition experiments with rats, oat pro-
teins promoted a more rapid rate of
growth than did the proteins of any other
grain.) Practically none of the Califor-
nia oat grain crop is used for human
consumption, primarily because there
are no oat mills in the state.

When oats are cut in the 20 per cent

SEPTEMBER, 1959
THE AUTHORS:

Coit A. Suneson is Associate in the Experiment Station, Department of Agronomy, Davis.

Milton D. Miller is Agriculturist, Agricultural Extension, Davis.

Byron R. Houston is Professor of Plant Pathology and Plant Pathologist in the Experiment

Stati

Da>

GRAIN and FORAGE

COIT A. SUNESON ■ MILTON D. MILLER ' BYRON R. HOUSTON

flowering stage and properly cured, they
make a very palatable and highly nutri-
tious hay relished by all classes of live-
stock. About 20 per cent of the oat hay
crop is grown in combination with vetch
or Canadian peas, providing a legume-
carbonaceous forage.

Oats are one of the best crops for use
in the rotation system on dry-farmed
barley or wheat land because they help,
to reduce root rot losses. The organisms
that cause "take all" and other similar
root diseases in barley and wheat do
not thrive on oats. In California experi-
ments, and in field practice, grain yields
per acre have been increased up to five-
fold by incorporating oats in the dry-
farm grain cropping system. As a con-
sequence, oats are increasingly being
incorporated into grain crop rotation
systems.

Production records for each of the
best-known varieties of wheat, oats, and
barley have bsen kept at Davis for 24
years (1934-1957). The average yields
in pounds per acre, were as follows:
Atlas barley, 3,025; Kanota oats, 2,586;
White Federation wheat, 2,595. During
three of the 24 seasons, Kanota was a
complete failure from shattering, rust,
or lodging. Neither barley nor wheat
failed completely in any season. Oats
gave the highest yield per acre in five
seasons, wheat in three, and barley in
13. With the new variety, Indio, outyield-
ing Kanota by an average of 28 per cent
in recent tests, it is safe to expect average

oat grain yields practically to equal those
of barley in areas in which Indio is
adapted.

Oats produce satisfactory crops on a
wide range of soil types, provided the
soil is well-drained and reasonably fer-
tile. The crop does best on clay loam
or loam. Oats do well on the red terrace
soils ranging from Butte County south-
ward through Stanislaus County. They
are also grown extensively on the adobe
soils of the Montezuma Hills of Solano
County.

In California, oats are grown princi-
pally in the central and south coast dis-
tricts, and in the Sacramento and San
Joaquin valleys. Climatically, oats are
best adapted to the cooler, coastal
regions. Hot, dry, windy weather just
before heading causes blast, particularly
in the common white oat varieties. Such
weather during the heading and ripen-
ing period causes oats to ripen prema-
turely, with poorly filled grain of light
bushel weight. By turning to shatter-
resistant and earlier maturing red vari-
eties (such as Indio and Palestine),
however, growers have shown that prof-
itable grain and hay yields are possible
in the drier, hotter interior valleys. Oats
are more susceptible to winter frost in-
jury than are other small grain crops.
Prolonged periods of temperatures below
22° F will kill some California varieties.
The nature of the oat head (panicle) is
such that it is especially vulnerable to
shattering by wind.

[3]

How to Identify Current Oat Varieties

Commercially, oats are generally clas-
sified according to color of the matured,
unweathered grain. The colors usually
recognized are black, red, gray, yellow,
and white. (Red, as referring to oats, is
usually a reddish-yellow rather than a
distinct red, best characterized by the
variety California Red.)

Oats also may be classified into three
convenient botanical groups: wild oats
{A vena jatua or A. barbata) ; the arid-
region red oats (A. byzantina) ; and the
cool- or humid-region white oats (A.
sativa) . The red oat varieties tend to
endure more winter frost, mature earlier,
and suffer less damage by heat and
drought than do the white oats. As a
result, our highest yielding and best-
adapted varieties are red. Currently
available true white varieties are adapted
only to the cool, northern mountain
counties. They often produce "blasted"
panicles when grown in the warm central
valleys.

Oat plants can be distinguished vege-
tatively from other cereals by the dis-
tinctive attachments of their leaves and
stems. The main characteristics are the

total absence of clasping auricles, a more
prominent ligule, and a throat. These
parts of the plant, and others, are shown
on the following diagrams. A typical
oat spikelet (Palestine variety) is also
shown, with its main parts identified.

The six leading oat varieties in Cali-
fornia, described below, are listed in the
order of their introduction into Cali-
fornia agriculture.

Coast Black

History. An early introduction, once
widely grown for hay. Present culture
is confined to north-coastal counties.

Description. Plants tall, coarse, with
large leaves; very late-maturing; winter
habit (poor heading from summer sow-
ing). Moderately resistant to stem rust.
Seeds black, heavily hulled, and gener-
ally of low bushel weight.

Recommended use. Only where cli-
mate is cool, rainfall abundant, soil
heavy, and a late-maturing hay is
desirable.

BLADE

COLLAR

(note absence

of auricles)
LIGULE (long)

THROAT

BASAL HAIRS

GLUMES (outer)

Oat leaf and stem.

Oat spikelet (Palestine variety).

[4]

DIAGRAMS SHOWING SIDE VIEW OF THE
COLLAR REGIONS OF OTHER GRAINS

LIGULE

LONG CLASPING
AURICLES

BARLEY

LIGULE

NARROW
AURICLES

LIGULE

SHORT AURICLES
(minute on
older leaves)

RYE

WHEAT

(All line drawings by Beecher Crampton, Botanist, Agronomy Herbarium, Davis.)

[5]

California Red

History. A strain of Red Rustproof,
once a dominant variety in the south
central states. Numerous introductions,
particularly of "Texas Red," were made.
Not all present-day stocks are identical.
The majority, however, trace to a mass
purified stock first released by the Uni-
versity of California as foundation seed
in 1937.

Description. Plants tall, fine-
stemmed, leafy, liberally pigmented with
purple; late maturing, with a rather
strong winter habit. Although moder-
ately resistant to stem and crown rust,
California Red is the most susceptible
to yellow dwarf virus of any California
oat variety. Seeds generally deep-colored,
prominently awned, and of medium
weight.

Recommended use. Better suited
for hay than for grain production. Rec-
ommended where winters are cold or
the soils are excessively wet. Should
never be sown in late winter, because
of the yellow dwarf virus hazard, or
where heat and drought are severe.

Kanota

History. A selected strain of Fulghum
released by the Kansas Agricultural Ex-
periment Station. Following extensive
testing of Fulghum and Kanota, certified
seed of Kanota was released in Cali-
fornia, in 1928, where it soon became
the leading variety. Recently, newer va-
rieties have pushed it into a subordinate
position.

Description. Plants tall, coarse,
sparsely leafed, and frost-hardy. Seeds
are plump, tend to shatter, have only oc-
casional small awns. Relatively early
heading. More tolerant of yellow dwarf
virus than any variety grown in
California.

Recommended use. Its maturity
range and stiff straw make it very satis-
factory for sowing with vetch. When
allowed to mature for grain, crop should
be windrowed to minimize shattering

[6]

losses. Should not be grown in areas sub-
ject to rust, which often reduces quality
of hay or yield of grain.

Palestine

History. A strain of Indian or Cal-
cutta collected in Palestine during World
War I, reselected at the Werribee State
Research Farm in Australia, introduced
to America in 1926, and first grown at
Davis in 1932. First released to farmers
in California in 1940. Despite extreme
susceptibility to rust, Palestine has pro-
duced 28 per cent higher average grain
yields than Kanota, and 34 per cent more
than California Red during the 1934 to
1956 period at Davis and in statewide
tests from Imperial to Tehama counties.
It proved to be the best variety where
heat, wind, or drought are severe.

Description. The earliest, shortest,
and most shatter-resistant of the Cali-
fornia varieties. Highly susceptible to
all of the major oat diseases, and is most
easily killed by frost. Kernels long, thin,
with prominent awn and a high percent-
age of hull.

Recommended use. Useful at pres-
ent only in the more arid and warmer
parts of the state and where adequate
supplies of Indio have not yet been
accumulated. Indio will soon displace
Palestine.

Ventura

History. Ventura was selected from
the cross, Victoria-Richland x Fulton.
The latter came from a Fulghum x Mark-
ton cross. The U. S. Department of Agri-
culture and the Kansas, Iowa, and Idaho
experiment stations shared the major
responsibilities in breeding Ventura. The
California Experiment Station sponsored
its release here in 1943.

Description. Plants shorter, more
leafy, and later maturing than Kanota.
Seeds yellow-white, awnless, and consid-
erably smaller than those of other Cali-
fornia varieties. Highly resistant to most
races of stem and crown rust and covered
smut generally found in California; sus-
( Continued on page 10)

RACHIS or
CENTRAL AXIS

SPIKELETS

FIRST FLORET

STERILE FLORET
SECOND FLORET

PEDICELS

AWN

PEDUNCLE

Diagram of oat panicle, showing major parts.

[7]

Most oat varieties can be identified by examining the seeds and heads (panicles).
This may be done with aid of a simple botanical key which describes the various parts.
The diagram (p. 7) identifies the parts; the keys that follow describe each of the varieties
now commercially important in California, and the wild types.

Key to Cultivated Varieties:

A. Hull dark-colored, lower floret with fairly well-developed basal cavity ; rachilla usually
persistent to upper florets.

B. Hulls black or grey Coast Black

BB. Hulls brownish red to red.

C. Awns weak to prominent, usually present on both the outer and inner floret.

D. Awns prominent; basal hairs rather numerous; glumes long-pointed
Palestine

DD. Awns prominent; basal hairs sparse Indio

DDD. Awns weak; basal hairs few; glumes short California Red

AA. Hull light-colored, yellow to reddish-yellow ; lower florets separate by fracture ; upper
florets easily separated from rachilla.

B. Occasional awns on outer grain; septate basal cavity Kanota

BB. No red color in hulls; awns seldom present; small seeds Ventura

Left: Coast Black variety. Note black seed, basal hairs, and rachilla fractures. Right: florets of
California Red, showing fracture of rachilla. (See diagram, p. 4.)

Left: florets of Kanota oats, showing irregular fracture at bases of upper ones, and septate basal
cavity. Right: florets of Palestine variety, showing fracture of rachilla. (See diagram, p. 4)

Left: Ventura variety florets showing irregular fracture at bases of upper ones. Right: florets of
Indio; arrows indicate fracture of rachilla.

Key to Wild Species:

The common wild oat has taller, more vigorous plants than the cultivated varieties,
and strongly twisted, geniculate (bent or kneed) awns. The grain from all florets
has a pronounced sucker mouth at the base, and usually a very hairy lemma. The hull
color may be white, grey, red, or black.

A. Lemmas (hulls) terminate in two long bristles Avena barbata

A A. Lemmas terminate in two short teeth A. fatua

False wild oats, or fatuoids, occasionally appear in cultivated oat fields. They are
true intermediates. They resemble either the common wild oat or the cultivated
variety in certain respects. These fatuoids are the result either of natural crossing
with wild oats and other cultivated oat varieties or of natural mutation in the culti-
vated varieties. Self-pollination is normal in oats, but natural crossing may occur
occasionally between wild or other oat varieties. Oats naturally cross more frequently
than does barley or wheat.

ceptible to Helminthosporium blight — a
disease not yet observed in the state.

Recommended use. One of the best
choices at present for security, in either
hay or grain production, in areas com-
monly subject to rust. Ventura hay is of
top quality. It is believed that this va-
riety will give way to rust-resistant forms
of Indio and Kanota as they become
available. (Since seeds are small, about
25 per cent less, by weight, should be
sown per acre.)

Indio

History. A sixth backcross cycle se-
lection, isolated from the crossing of a
Victoria-Richland and Fulghum hybrid
with Palestine. Indio is a product of the
cooperative oat improvement project
conducted by the University of Cali-
fornia and the U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

Description. Essentially all of the
plant characteristics of Palestine have
been put in Indio, plus resistance to some
of the prevalent California races of crown
and stem rust and the advantage of more
than one pound in test weight over the
Palestine parent. Indio and Palestine
have produced almost identical yields
where rust was absent or sparse. The
yield advantage in favor of Indio has
averaged 38 per cent where rust was seri-
ous. Severe injury from yellow dwarf
virus may occur in late-sown fields. Lodg-
ing is likely to occur in thick stands.

Recommended use. In all winter-
sowing areas of the state except at eleva-
tions over 1,500 feet. Indio winterkills
at temperatures of 20° 10 22° F. Cali-
fornia's highest yielding grain variety,
it is equal to the best tall variety in hay-
yielding ability. Indio matures too early
to use in combination with vetch for hay.

[10]

Wild oats (Avena fatua). Note twisted awns.
Florets easily separate at their bases, the upper
one with no irregular fractures.

Table 1. Comparative Performance of Principal
Oat Varieties at Davis, 1934-1957*

Data

No. of years
observation

Variety

Calif. Red

Kanota

Palestine

Ventura

Production data :

Grain yield (lbs. /A.)

Highest yield

Lowest yield

Testweight(lbs./bu.)....

Growth comparisons :
Pasture readiness in early

spring!

Date headed

Height (inches)

Damage situations :

Lodging (per cent)

Shattering (per cent)

Frost (per cent)

Disease reactions :

Stem rust (per cent)

Crown rust (per cent) ....

Mildew (per cent)

Halo blight (per cent) ....
Yellow dwarf (per cent) . .

8
19
15

13
5

7
3

2,400
4,224
608
32.0

86
May 4
50

2,586
4,416
1,216
36.3

100

Apr. 20

2,976
5,248
1,152
30.5

115

Apr. 15

24
5

35
10
20

50
51
25
14
45

2,656 f
4,736
1,088
34.5

108
Apr. 25

32
29

* Tests in 1935, 1936, and 1944 were "failures.'
t Grown only 14 years.
i As per cent of Kanota.

[ii]

How to Choose the Right Variety

High yielding ability and the plant's
resistance to disease and rust should be
considered when choosing an oat variety.
A shatter-resistant variety, such as Indio,
should be grown in a windy area if the
crop is to be harvested for grain. A rust-
resistant variety, such as Indio or Ven-
tura, should be grown in a district hav-
ing a history of cereal rust. In a district
where yellow dwarf virus has been a
problem in cereal crops, Kanota may be
the safest variety because of its tolerance
for that disease.

Time of sowing also affects the choice
of variety. Early-maturing varieties, in
general, do best in the drier, hotter areas
of California, and for late sowing. Late-
maturing varieties are best adapted to
the cooler areas and to those where
winter growth is restricted by too-wet
soils.

A comparative characterization of
four California oat varieties is given in
table 1. The frequency of occurrence in
the table gives an indication of the rela-
tive importance of diseases, frost, lodg-
ing, and shattering as observed in experi-
ments at Davis. The comparative rela-
tions here shown are roughly applicable

wherever oats are winter sown in Cali-
fornia. For growers, these factors plus
yield and the varietal description (pp.
4^10) are basic for the choice of a va-
riety. None of the varieties is universally
the "best." Though it has been men-
tioned elsewhere that Kanota has coarser
stems than California Red, the variety
has lodged more severely at Davis. Since
it heads two weeks earlier and rain-wind
complexes are more common in early
April, this is not an inconsistency. The
late winter growth score is an estimate
of comparative growth in February, and
has an application in a single pasturing.
Varieties of oats show less variation
in hay yields than in grain yields. For
hay, the critical choice often concerns
quality instead of yield. In Southern
California considerable dry-farmed acre-
age produces less than 1 ton of hay per
acre, while yields of 5 tons are some-
times obtained in the north, under more
abundant rainfall or irrigation.

For Grain

Table 2 shows the grain yield of the
six leading oat varieties in the key areas
of California. Since most of the state's

Harvesting from the swath. Oats are ready to thresh when grain is down to
10 to 20 per cent moisture.

>'-?'r/KSi

grain oat crop moves as livestock feed,
the variety recommended for any given
district would normally be the one yield-
ing the most grain.

For Forage

Recent hay trials conducted by the De-
partment of Agronomy and University of
California Farm Advisors have shown
that all of the current California oat va-
rieties, when grown and harvested under
comparable average conditions, yield
about the same total amount of forage
per acre. For example, although Kanota
grows later and taller, it yields no more
total dry matter per acre than does a
short, early variety like Palestine. The
greater basal leanness of the shorter
types apparently compensates for the
greater height of the taller varieties. The
choice of oat varieties for hay should
therefore be based upon desired time of
maturity, strength of straw, hay quality,
and available moisture.

For many years, California ranchers
considered the California Red variety
best for haymaking. In the absence of
rust or yellow dwarf attacks, it produces
a high-quality, fine-stemmed hay, if
properly handled. Recently, it has been
largely displaced by Ventura, a rust-
resistant variety that is also fine-stemmed
and leafy, and that yields hay of consid-
erably better quality than does Califor-
nia Red in years of rust attack. Stockmen
have favored Kanota for growing with
vetch. Kanota is fairly tolerant of yellow
dwarf virus, to which California Red is
extremely susceptible; it matures at
about the right time for growing with
purple vetch; and its strong straw pro-
vides good support for the climbing
vetch crop. When sown together, the oats
usually mature to the medium to hard
dough stage when the purple vetch is in
full bloom.

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[13]

Growing the Crop

The cultural practices recommended in
this section are essentially the same
whether oats are grown for grain or

forage.

Seedbed Preparation

A good seedbed for oats should be
semicloddy on the surface but firm be-
neath. Crusting may be a problem on
overworked soils with a fine powdery
surface. Soil compaction may result from
working soils when they are too wet, or
from repeated use of a single tillage
implement.

Fallow operations. The bulk of the
California oat crop is grown without ir-
rigation, in the foothill areas of the Cen-
tral Valley and in coastal districts. In
the low-rainfall areas (less than 15
inches annually), it is a common prac-
tice to fallow the land and grow a crop
of grain or cereal hay every other year.
Proper fallowing will control wild oats
and other weeds, perhaps help retain
some moisture in the soil, and increase
the availability of plant food to the fol-
lowing crop. A typical fallow tillage op-
eration would be two heavy and two
light cultivations, with a light summer
weeding tillage in some seasons.

The number of fallowing operations
and type of tool used will vary with soil
type, amount and time of rainfall, and
the terrain. Equipment for the heavy or
initial operations includes an offset disk,
a wheatland plow, and a chisel or, in
some areas, the moldboard plow. The
heavy operations should be performed
as early as possible, usually in the fall
or early winter. This will work crop resi-
dues and fall-germinated weeds into the
soil, insuring their decomposition and
improved availability of the resulting
plant nutrients. The second heavy work-
ing, in the late winter or early spring
of the next year, will kill wild oats, other
weeds, and volunteer grain. The offset
disk and chisel are the best implements

for these operations on hillside soils.
Where land is level or only slightly roll-
ing, the wheatland plow is commonly
used and, in some areas, the moldboard.
The advantages of the disk and chisel
are that less soil is turned over, and
straw and stubble are mixed on or near
the soil surface, providing protection
against rain and wind erosion.

Two or more light workings carried
out in the spring are primarily weed- and
volunteer-control operations. Equipment
includes tandem disks, springtooth har-
rows, or CC cultivators and rod weeders.
The amount of crop residue, soil condi-
tions, and plants to be killed will deter-
mine the tool to be used and the number
of times over a given field. In some areas
a single tillage will suffice.

It is advisable to till the soil across
the slope on land subject to erosion. In
such soils the use of the chisel, CC culti-
vator, and rod weeder is recommended
because these tools tend to keep crop
residues at or near the soil surface. All
of these practices will aid in reducing
rainfall runoff, improving moisture pen-
etration, and reducing wind and rain
erosion.

Dry-farmed annual cropping. In
districts where rainfall and other con-
ditions permit seeding oats on other than
summer fallow, the tillage program will
generally be much shorter. Usually the
stubble of the preceding grain crop will
have been grazed by stock in July, Au-
gust, or September.

In marginal rainfall areas where stock
is not available, the preceding crop resi-
due may be burned off rather than
grazed. Burning stubble land is not rec-
ommended except where weeds may be
a serious problem or where the crop has
been heavily diseased. Consistent un-
necessary burning of stubble hastens the
depletion of soil resources. Some coun-
ties now have antiburning ordinances
(applying to agricultural land as well as

[14]

urban areas) as smog-control measures.

The first or heavy mechanical opera-
tion should be with a wheatland plow,
moldboard plow, or, in some cases, an
offset disk, early in the fall. This opera-
tion should be performed while the soil
is dry, if possible. Following the first
rain, a light working with a disk or
springtooth harrow will usually make
a good seedbed. In some districts, espe-
cially in the foothills of the Central
Valley, the finishing operations in No-
vember or December are done with a
Graham plow followed by a spiketooth
harrow.

Bur clover and wild oats volunteer
profusely in the fall and winter in some
areas, particularly the central coastal
district. For this reason it may be ad-
visable to wait until these have germi-
nated well before finishing the seedbed
preparation. Otherwise the seeded oat
crop may be choked out by weeds or
badly contaminated with wild oats.

Irrigated districts. The method used
depends upon the previous crop, the soil
condition, and whether or not the grain
will be irrigated up. Plowing usually is
necessary following alfalfa or irrigated
pasture. This operation may be followed
by several diskings. Following vegetable
crops or cotton, disking twice works the
crop residue into the soil and tills the soil
to a depth of 5 to 7 inches. The field
should be floated and bordered after the
seedbed is prepared. The grain may then
be drilled and irrigated up. An alterna-
tive and preferred practice is preirriga-
tion, usually followed by harrowing,
after which the seed grain is drilled.

Seed

Buy seed of the best quality available.
By purchasing certified seed of the ap-
propriate variety you will be assured of
top quality seed that meets high stand-
ards of purity and germination, and is
free of weed seeds. Moreover, it will re-
produce the varietal characteristics for
which it was selected.

The cost of seed is only a minor part
of the cost of growing the crop. You are
not economizing by using cheap seed.
Common seed (uncertified) frequently
can prove most expensive, even if the
initial cost is low. In a recent experi-
ment, it was found that samples of com-
mon cereal seed taken from farmers'
drill boxes contained as high as 2,000
weed seeds per pound. In many instances
the samples contained noxious weeds
such as morning-glory, star thistle, and
whitetop. To use such seed is literally
to seed your fields to noxious weeds that
could cost thousands of dollars for con-
trol measures. Planting common grain
that has not been cleaned to remove weed
seeds and shrunken grains is a hazard-
ous, costly practice that no progressive
farmer will follow. If you have to re-
seed a field because of low-germinating
seed, your seed costs may be doubled
or trebled, and your farming costs
increased.

Seed dormancy. This is common to
most cultivated red oat varieties. Dor-
mancy is a physiological seed condition
wherein seed fails to germinate satisfac-
torily for a brief period immediately
following harvest. Storing freshly har-
vested oat seed for a period of four to
six weeks before planting will correct
this condition. Low germination caused
by storage of damp seed or thresher
damage, however, will not be corrected.

Seed treament. Treating oat seed
with an effective chemical fungicide is
recommended for the control of seed-
borne diseases such as covered and loose
smuts, Helminthosporium leaf blotch,
and bacterial blight. Organic mercuric
fungicides such as Ceresan M, liquid
Ceresan, or Panogen are recommended.
Follow the manufacturer's recommenda-
tions as to rate of application and treat-
ing procedure.

When buying seed, check the bag
labels to see if the seed has been treated.
Seed does not have to be treated with a
fungicide in order to be sold as certi-

15]

fied quality. Once grain is treated with a
poisonous fungicide, it cannot be used
safely for any purpose other than seed,
except after other costly treatment. For
this reason, seed growers and dealers
may treat the seed they distribute only on
request of the purchaser. The important
thing is to be sure the seed you sow has
been treated, either by the dealer or by
you, but not both.

Time to Sow

The best time to seed oats either for
grain or hay in California, at elevations
below 1,500 feet, generally is late No-
vember, December, or early January. In
the mountainous areas, the crop should
be seeded as early in the spring as a
seedbed can be prepared and after the
danger of prolonged freezing weather is
past.

Oats thrive best in cool weather; they
suffer heavily from heat or drought.
Therefore, it is desirable to sow early
enough that as much as possible of total
crop growth is completed during the
rainy season.

Seeding at the times recommended
above will minimize yellow dwarf virus
problems. Oats seeded much before No-
vember 15 or after January 15 are
usually damaged much more severely by
this disease.

If early-maturing varieties like Indio
or Palestine are seeded before November
1, they may be heading out or blooming

when winter frosts occur in February
or March. Seeded as recommended, the
early varieties usually will not head un-
til after the average date of the last kill-
ing frost.

Seeding at the time recommended for
your area contributes to maximum
yields. Your local Farm Advisor can tell
you the best dates. Seeding tests at Davis
show the importance of time of sowing
(table 3). Grain yields suffered when
seeding was much after January 1. Ob-
servations over the state show that grain
yields are also reduced by frost, lodging,
and yellow dwarf virus disease, as re-
sults of too early seeding. Similar obser-
vations have been made on oats sown
for hay or silage.

Rate of Seeding

Rate of seeding depends upon date,
method, variety, fertility, moisture, and
competition from weeds. Because late-
seeded oats tiller (stool) less than those
seeded from November 15 to January
15, about 15 to 20 per cent more seed
must be used per acre to achieve satis-
factory grain or forage yields with late
sowing. Seeding oats too heavily can
lower grain or forage production. Ex-
cessively dense stands promote disease
and lodging, with a resulting low yield.
Broadcast seeding by airplane or endgate
seeder requires 15 to 20 per cent more
seed per acre than is required when a
seed drill is used. In broadcasting, some

Table 3. Effect of Date of Seeding on Yield of Oats

Crop year

No. of

varieties

grown

Actual seeding dates

Acre yield in bushels (32 pounds per
bushel) at following seeding periods:

Nov.

Jan.

Feb.

Optimum

Mid-winter

Late

1939

1941

1942

1947

1948

1949

1950

5
3

4
4
4
4

11
27
19
29
22
11
15

2
5

25
16

103

133

102

116

45
28

[16]

of the seed is lost because it is not cov-
ered enough to protect it or else it is
covered too much. The following are
generally recommended seeding rates for
various situations:

DRILLED BROADCAST

(after

(optimum Jan. 15,

seeding below

crop conditions) 1,500 ft.)

pounds pounds

Grain or hay 48-64 64-96

Oats-vetch hay :

Oats 48 48

Vetch 48 48

The recommended seeding rate for
oats and vetch varies, depending on how
well vetch grows in a particular district,
and the product desired. Where nearly
pure vetch hay is the goal, from 10 to
20 pounds of oats and about 65 pounds
of vetch may be used. In general, most
districts seed a 50-50 mixture of oats
and vetch seed, at rates varying from
60 to 100 total pounds of seed per acre,
depending upon seeding time. The lower
rates are used for early seeding; the
higher for late seeding.

Fertilization

The kinds and amounts of fertilizer
to use profitably depend upon soil type,
soil moisture situation, length of the
growing season, native fertility level,
and the cropping history of the field
on which the oats are to be grown. Local
Farm Advisors usually have a set of crop
fertilization recommendations and can
suggest fertilizers for oats or oats and
vetch.

On most soil types in the dry-farmed
grain areas, the application of about 20
to 40 pounds of nitrogen (100 to 200
pounds of ammonium sulfate or its ni-
trogen equivalent) has resulted in profit-
able increases in grain and forage under
usual moisture conditions. Where oats
and vetch are grown together, the nitro-
gen fertilizer may be reduced or omitted.

On sandy soils, or those subject to
heavy leaching, it may be desirable to

apply one-half of the nitrogen fertilizer
(as ammoniacal N) at seeding time and
the remainder as a top dressing (as ni-
trate N) when the crop is 4 to 6 inches
tall, a stage at which rapid growth and
large demands for nitrogen occur. Ni-
trogen applied after the jointing stage
has less effect on yield but may influence
the quality of the crop.

Under irrigated conditions, grain or
forage yields of oats can be increased
with liberal amounts of nitrogen, rang-
ing from 20 to 80 pounds of actual ni-
trogen per acre. If considerable straw
or nonlegume crop residue is incorpor-
ated in the soil shortly before seeding
the oats, it may be desirable to supply
an additional 20 to 40 pounds of ni-
trogen to offset the temporary nitrogen
deficiency during the crop residue de-
composition. Little or no supplemental
nitrogen may be needed where the oats
follow alfalfa, irrigated pasture, heavily
fertilized row crops, or legume green
manures.

Phosphorus fertilizers have given
economical responses on some poorly
drained, old terrace or plains soils with
strong claypan or hardpan development.
Such soils include the Corning, Kimball,
Hartley, Huerhuero, San Joaquin, Rock-
lin, Aiken, Linne, and Altamount. Some
older alluvial soils (Delano, Ducor, Ra-
mona) in the floor of the Central Valley
are borderline deficient and may respond
to phosphorus application under contin-
uous heavy cropping.

Phosphorus needs can be determined
by test strips across a field and, in some
instances, by soil analyses by a commer-
cial laboratory. The sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCOg) method of testing for avail-
able phosphorus has usually proved sat-
isfactory. Your local Farm Advisor can
assist in interpreting the laboratory re-
port. Analyses will usually be made on the
basis of pounds of available P 2 5 per
acre. Cereal crops usually respond to
added phosphorus when the NaHC0 3 -ex-
tractable phosphorus is less than 30

[17]

pounds P 2 5 per acre. If phosphorus is
needed, the equivalent of about 20 to
60 pounds of P 2 5 per acre, either as
a combination nitrogen-phosphorus fer-
tilizer or as single or treble superphos-
phate may be applied. Oats or oats and
vetch for hay have shown responses to
phosphorus fertilizers in some dry-land
areas.

When phosphorus is needed, it should
be applied with the nitrogen at seeding
time. Fertilizer containing phosphorus
preferably should be drilled, but may
be broadcast and then disked or har-
rowed in so that it is placed several
inches below the surface.

Some growers mix the seed and fer-
tilizer and drill them together. This prac-
tice is definitely risky where the rate of
fertilizer application exceeds 150 pounds
per acre, and it may injure the seed or
seedlings at rates as low as 100 pounds
per acre. Experiments in California and
elsewhere with foliar spray applications
of urea or other nitrogen solutions to
cereal crops have not been particularly
promising.

In University of California field trials
to date, cereals have shown some re-
sponse to sulfur and possibly to zinc, but
little to potassium and none to elements
other than those mentioned above.

Irrigation

Most of the California oat crop is
grown without irrigation. In most dis-
tricts of the state, on good, deep, perme-
able soils, there probably would be no
increase in forage or grain yields as a
result of irrigation, if the annual rain-
fall is 15 inches or more, and is well dis-
tributed. In dry-farmed districts where
average annual rainfall is less than 15
inches, and especially if it is poorly dis-
tributed, the crop should either be sown
on fallow, or irrigated.

If oats are grown in a very dry area
or season, a total of about 15 to 17 acre-
inches of water from rainfall and irriga-
tion will be required for good yields.
Thus, one or two irrigations of about 6
acre-inches each may be needed. Critical
moisture periods for the oat plant occur
when it is about 4 to 6 inches tall, and
again when it is in the boot stage. Tiller-
ing (stooling) and head formation are
taking place when the plants are about
6 inches tall. The greatest water usage
occurs when the oat plants are in the
boot stage. For maximum yields it is
important to maintain a continuous sup-
ply of available soil moisture either by
rainfall or irrigation, especially during
the critical periods.

Harvesting the Crop

For Grain

The bulk of California's grain oat
acreage is cut and swathed before it is
threshed. Ripe oats are likely to shatter,
particularly under strong winds. Swath-
ing the oats before they are dead ripe
avoids losses from shattering and stem
breakover or crinkling. Trouble from
green weeds is also eliminated by swath-
ing. The grains have reached full de-
velopment in the hard dough stage. If
satisfactory drying weather prevails, the
windrows will be ready to thresh with

a combine with a pick-up attachment in
three to seven days after swathing.

For direct-combine harvest, the grain
must be fully ripe. This is feasible where
winds are not heavy and/or where farm-
ers are able to harvest the oats as soon
as they are dry. Normally, the crop is
ready for direct combining when all
green has left the straw, the seed is down
to about 10 to 12 per cent moisture, and
the chaff has turned a dull white. Short,
stiff-strawed Indio or Palestine combine
with less shatter and crinkle loss than

[18]

do the taller growing California Red,
Ventura and Kanota varieties.

Storage. For safe storage, grain oats
should be down to 12 per cent moisture
content or less. If the threshed grain
contains much green trash, it should be
removed promptly to avoid high mois-
ture and spoilage of the grain. Place
grain for storage in clean, sound, weather-
and animal-proof structures, in order to
avoid quality deterioration and resulting
monetary losses. Oats weigh less than do
other types of grains, such as barley or
wheat; therefore, pound per pound, they
require from 60 to 100 per cent more
storage space. The hull of the oat grain
ordinarily makes up 25 to 40 per cent
of the total grain weight.

For Hay

Oat hay is most nutritious if cut when
most of the plants have headed and some
of them are shedding pollen. In studies
just completed at Davis, by the de-
partments of Agronomy and Animal
Husbandry, stages of maturity were de-
scribed and associated with the feeding
value of various oat hays. Chemical anal-
ysis, digestion trials, and feeding tests
with sheep were used to evaluate the hays
fed.

Seven stages of development, repre-
senting the entire forage production
period, were harvested as follows:

STAGE OF APPROXIMATE

DEVELOPMENT HEIGHT

inches

59% jointing 15

16% flag leaf 23

21% boot 27

1% flower 30

18% flower 38

44% milk 44

42% dough 46

The lignin and holocellulose content
increased steadily during the growing
period until the milk stage. Total digest-
ible nutrients (TDN) in the oat forage
decreased slowly from a high of 68 per
cent in the flower stage. Thereafter, a
rapid decrease occurred, to 50 per cent
in the milk stage. This was followed by
an upturn to 53 per cent in the dough
stage when the grain was increasing rap-
idly in dry matter.

Yield of total dry matter per acre in-
creased to the end of the milk stage, but
remained constant thereafter. There was
about a 10 per cent increase in dry mat-
ter between the 18 per cent flower stage
and the 42 per cent dough stage. Animal

Left: combine harvesting of oats near Willows / California. Because ripe oats shatter easily,
combine harvesting is risky in windy areas. Right: swathing oats near Hemet, California. Grain
will finish maturing in swath and be ready in three to seven days if weather is dry.

nutrient yield, however, as indicated by
total digestible nutrients and lamb pro-
duction per acre, was greatest at the 18
per cent flower stage.

Early gains by the experimental sheep
were influenced very little by stage of
maturity up to the milk stage, at which
point there was a drastic decrease in gain.
Sheep receiving hay cut at the 18 per
cent flower stage produced approximately
800 pounds of gain per acre of hay as
contrasted with slightly over 600 pounds
of gain on hay cut at the 42 per cent
dough stage.

These results indicate that oat
forage should be harvested when
the plants are in the flowering
stage, but if that is not possible, de-
lay cutting until the dough stage.

For Silage and Green Chop

Oats or oats and vetch (less fre-
quently) are harvested green from the
field as green chop or for ensiling. The
choice of varieties, methods of growing,
and harvest timing for green chop vary
tremendously, depending on whether in-
terest is in gross yield or TDN.

Some growers have made good oat si-
lage by the "wilted" method, but the
best silage generally results where en-
siling additives are used. The following
have given good results when evenly
mixed with each ton of green chop going
into the silo: about 75 pounds of stock
feed molasses; or 10 pounds of dehy-
drated molasses; or 125 pounds of bar-
ley; or 8 pounds of sodium bisulfite (use
only in airtight silo).

SPECIAL SITUATIONS

Drought may result in accumulation of
nitrates in immature oats. If plants are
cut at the 18 per cent bloom stage, the
hay may be somewhat toxic to certain
types of livestock. Excessively high levels
of nitrogen fertilization may give similar
results. Therefore, in years of short rain-
fall, or under unusually high nitrogen
levels, for maximum safety, do not cut
drought-stressed oat hay before plants
are in the medium dough stage. This is
important where livestock, and especially
horses, are to be fed oat hay exclusively.

Pasturing Oats

Oats can be used to bolster winter live-
stock pastures (usually deficient from
late November through January). The
Kanota variety, which is tolerant of yel-
low dwarf virus, should be used for such
early seeding. When seeded in late Sep-
tember or early October at elevations
below 500 feet, the crop will usually be
ready for grazing by late December. If
the crop is not grazed when the soil is
very wet, a succession of grazings, a hay
crop, or perhaps even a grain crop can
be obtained later in the season. In tests
conducted by the Riverside County Farm
Advisor, October-sown oats have pro-
vided up to three cuttings from a single
planting when harvested each time at a
height of about 15 inches. Heavy fertili-
zation and irrigation before seeding and

immediately after each harvest during
the late spring are usually necessary for
maximum pasture production.

Oats sown for grain production can
be grazed moderately under good man-
agement in the early vegetative stage
without a serious reduction in yield. Ade-
quate soil moisture and fertility stimu-
late new growth after the field has been
grazed. Pasturing after the plants begin
to joint usually results in reduced grain
yield, but good yields are possible if the
stock are withdrawn before that stage
and if adequate moisture and plant nu-
trients are available. Oats should not be
grazed while the fields are wet. Some
growers graze or clip oats after the joint-
ing stage when frost damage or severe

[20]

lodging occurs. The plants then head late only where moisture and fertility are
in the spring and are short. Satisfactory adequate and when temperatures are
regrowth after late clipping is possible moderate.

Weed Control

Two types of weeds are troublesome
in oat fields: (1) grassy weeds, such as
wild oats, darnel, and ripgut; and (2)
broad-leaved weeds, such as wild radish,
mustards, star thistle, fiddleneck, and
wild sunflower. The first group can be
controlled by well-timed seedbed prepa-
ration; the second, by chemical means.

Wild oat infestations are difficult to
control because the seeds shatter readily
and are subsequently plowed under or
trampled into the soil. They may lie dor-
mant in the soil for several years, but
will germinate and grow when they are
returned to the surface by later culti-
vation. Wild oats were introduced into
California during the Mission period,
as a contaminant in barley, wheat, and
oat seed. Especially well-adapted to Cali-
fornia's climate, they spread rapidly over
most of the state in contaminated grain
and hay. Wild oats volunteer so pro-
fusely on cropped and uncropped land
in many areas of the state that they fre-
quently are harvested for hay.

Wild oats and other troublesome an-
nual grassy weeds can be controlled by
delaying final seedbed preparation until
fall or winter rains have germinated the
seeds that are at or near the soil surface.
Disking or harrowing will then kill most
of the weedy grass seedlings, and the
seeded crop will become established be-
fore the weeds are again abundant. This
practice is also useful in controlling
broad-leaved weeds. In some coastal
areas of California the grain fields are
so weedy that several diskings during

the winter are necessary. Seeding is then
delayed until early spring.

Most of the commonly occurring
broad-leaved weeds can be controlled by
spraying weedy oat fields with selective
chemicals, such as amine 2,4-D or MCP.
Use % to % pound of active chemical
per acre, applied in 3 to 15 gallons of
water by airplane or 15 to 50 gallons
by ground rig. Oat plants should be 4
to 6 inches tall, and tillering, when
treated. This crop should not be sprayed
after jointing has begun.

Oats are more susceptible to injury
from 2,4-D than is barley or wheat. For
this reason, some farmers prefer to use
MCPA which is less injurious to oats.
Where very resistant weeds, such as fid-
dleneck, predominate, the low-volatile
ester formulations of 2,4-D or MCP, at
the rate of *4 pound active chemical per
acre, may prove more effective than the
amine formulations, but may result in
more injury to the oats.

In some areas, especially where the
chlorinated types of herbicides are re-
stricted by law, the dinitro compounds
are used to control seedling weeds in
oats when the crop is from 4 to 6 inches
tall. Follow the manufacturer's recom-
mendations as to amount and method of
applying dinitro herbicides.

Growers using 2,4-D or MCPA,
under provisions of the law, must
first obtain a permit from their lo-
cal Agricultural Commissioner.

Diseases and Insect Pests

Diseases

The fungi and viruses causing the ma-
jor oat diseases in California are trans-

[21

mitted from field to field or plant to plant
in various ways. They may be carried
by air, rainwater, soil, and seed, or trans-

mitted by insects. Thus, the control of
these diseases is often largely dependent
upon how they are spread. Many of the
diseases that affect cultivated oats also
affect wild oats, and are spread from the
latter to the cultivated varieties in many
areas.

Stem rust, caused by a fungus, is the
most common and often the most serious
disease of oats in California. Since the
fungus and spores may be found through-
out the year on cultivated oats, wild oats,
volunteer oats, and other closely related
grasses, a source of infection is often
present when weather conditions are fa-
vorable for development. Epidemics oc-
cur in cultivated oats when temperatures
and humidity in late winter and early
spring are above the average normal for
California oat-growing areas. A heavy
rust infection will cut grain yield and
quality severely.

The disease may be recognized by
elongated pustules of brick-red spore
masses that break through the leaf sur-
face and result in a ragged margin of
host tissue around the spore mass. Infec-
tion and sporulation may occur on
leaves, leaf sheaths, stems, and flowers.
These spores are spread by wind, and in-
fect other plants during periods of high
relative humidities and warm tempera-
tures. Late in the growing period of the
plant, black spore masses may be pro-
duced in place of the red spores. Control
of this disease is largely dependent upon
growing the resistant varieties Indio and
Ventura.

Crown rust, caused by another rust
fungus, attacks the leaves and occa-
sionally the leaf sheaths, but does not
infect the stems. The fungus produces
small, orange-yellow spore masses in
compact groups. In many years, the dis-
ease may affect sufficient leaf area to re-
sult in loss of hay quality and grain
weight.

The black spore stage is found on
older leaves, in small pustules covered by
leaf tissue. The red spores from wild

and volunteer oats constitute the initial
source of infection for cultivated varieties
in the early spring. The only practical
means of control is to grow the semi-
resistant varieties, Ventura or Indio. The
latter has been found infected in some
areas of the state where unusual races
of the rust are present.

Loose and covered smuts are most
common at present in wild oats. They
have become rare in California cultivated
varieties since the use of organic mer-
cury seed treatments. Evidence of smut
is not present in the plant until heading
time, when the fungi produce black spore
masses which replace the normal flower
parts. These spores are air-borne to sur-
rounding, healthy flowers, and are also
disseminated to healthy seeds at the time
of threshing. The spores or minute
amounts of mycelium are carried on or
near the surface of the seeds, and be-
come active when the seed is planted.
The fungus grows into the growing points
of the seedling, and eventually produces
the spore masses.

Powdery mildew has not been a
serious disease of cultivated oats in Cali-
fornia, but occurs extensively on wild
oats throughout the state. It is identified
by gray to tan masses of fungus growth
on the leaves. These masses are easily re-
moved by rubbing. Spores produced on
this growth are air-borne, and infect dur-
ing periods of high humidity and cool
temperatures. Infection may be severe
enough to reduce yield and quality of oat
hay. No control measures are practiced.

Helminthosporium leaf blotch has
been present in California for many
years, and reached epidemic proportions
in the upper Sacramento Valley in 1956.
1957, and 1958. The fungus attacks only
oats. It is characterized by the appear-
ance of red-brown to almost purple oval
spots on the leaves. As the fungus pro-
gresses through the tissues the spots be-
come elongated and irregular in outline
and light brown in color. Multiple in-
fections result in death of leaves, with

lower leaves affected first. Infections may
reach the upper leaves and floral parts
when frequent periods of rain occur
through the spring. The primary infec-
tion of a plant results from the seed-borne
phase or from air-borne spores produced
on refuse from a previously infected
crop or on wild or volunteer oats in the
immediate area. Organic mercury seed
treatment will control only the seed-borne
phase. Rotation with another crop for
one year will eliminate most of the
carry-over on plant refuse in the soil.

Halo blight, a bacterial disease, is
most common on the varieties Palestine
and Indio. It attacks only oats. Infection
occurs on leaves and floral parts, result-
ing in oval spots, at first water-soaked,
with a yellow margin, and later with a
tan center. The bacteria may be carried
in crop residue for one year or may be
seed-borne. The latter type of infection
can be controlled by use of an organic
mercury seed treatment.

Root rot may be caused by several
different soil-inhabiting fungi, but oats
rarely suffer severely from attack. Wheat
and barley are much more susceptible to
these fungi. The disease is characterized
by brown to black discoloration at the
base of the stems. This invasion by the
fungi may kill the plant at any time from
shortly after heading to normal matur-
ity. Plants are often killed in small, scat-
tered spots or in irregularly shaped areas
several hundred feet across. Wild oats
and other weeds usually grow luxuri-
antly in such spots. Oats are sufficiently
tolerant of attack to be used in rotation
where the disease has become a major
factor in wheat and barley. When planted
following a. year of oats, barley or wheat
will often show markedly less root rot
than when they follow barley or wheat.
Yellow dwarf virus causes disease
in wheat, barley, oats, and many wild
and cultivated grasses. It is transmitted
from diseased to healthy plants during

the feeding process of any one of several
species of grass-inhabiting aphids. Very
early (October 1) or very late (February
15) plantings usually are most severely
damaged, because aphid populations are
generally higher in early fall or late
spring. In oats the disease results in
dwarfing, and an orange to red discolor-
ation of the leaves, in contrast to a yel-
low discoloration in wheat or barley. The
leaf reddening starts at the tips of the
older leaves and progresses to the base,
with orange-red blotches preceding the
over-all reddening. At heading time,
blasting of basal flowers of the panicles
may be evident. When high percentages
of infection occur during the young plant
stage, yields may be reduced by as much
as 70 per cent. The varieties Coast Black
and California Red are the most suscep-
tible to injury, and Kanota is the most
resistant variety. Timing the date of
planting, and using varieties with some
tolerance are the only practical means
of control.

Blasted panicles are ones with vary-
ing degrees of withered or empty florets.
They may result from unfavorable cli-
matic conditions or from yellow dwarf
virus. This condition reduces the num-
ber of seeds per head, and may reduce
yield. Although seen in red oats, the con-
dition is much more common in white-
seeded varieties imported from cool
climates.

Insect Pests

Rarely have insect pests appeared in
California oat fields in sufficient numbers
to make chemical control economically
practicable. Despite the fact that at least
five species of aphids transmit yellow
dwarf virus, it has rarely paid to control
them by chemical treatment. If insects
appear to be damaging your oat crop,
ask your local Farm Advisor whether
treatment is necessary.

Co-operative Extension work in Agriculture and Home Economics College of Agriculture University of California, and United S»ates Department of Agncdture
co-operating. Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 30, 1914. George B. Alcorn, Director, California Agricultural Extension berviee.

20m-9,'59(A0458)LL

<^.<

AGRONOMY TRAINING

leads to many careers

AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES

RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

FARMING

Agronomy deals with the production and
improvement of field crops, pastures, and
rangelands.

Agronomic crops are grown on more than
half of California's agricultural land.

Trained agronomists are needed to
produce more foodstuffs,
handle speciality crops,
develop improved varieties,
devise and apply scientific methods.

Training at Davis has special advantages:
Instructors who are leaders in their fields,
and are active in research on today's farm
problems.

The University farm, for practice and ex-
periment in one of the nation's richest farm
areas.

Modern facilities, for better study and re-
search.

An uncrowded campus, with many new
buildings.

Letters and Science college on the same
campus, broadening the scope of education.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

on agronomy write to Maurice L. Peterson,
opportunities chairman, agronomy depart-
ment.

on entrance write to Howard B. Shontz,
requirements office of the registrar.

on college see your County Farm Ad-

opportunities visor for college entrance
counsel.

University of California * Davis, Calif.

CAREERS IN

farm management

farm operation

seed processing

seed marketing

agricultural industry

farm supply houses

farm service houses

teaching

research

Agricultural Extension

Service

crop improvement

associations

departments of agriculture

STUDY INCLUDES

management

adaptation

plant breeding

culture

utilization

processing of cereals

oil crops

cotton

sugar beets

beans

hay crops

range plants

irrigated pastures

distribution

variety improvement

soil management

weed control

crop diseases

animal husbandry

agricultural machinery