UC-NRLF 71 3E3 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING A BOOK FOR THE FARMER By HOWARD R. SMITH Professor of Animal Husbandry^ University of Nebraska Investigator in Animal Feeding, Nebraska Experiment Station THIRD EDITION ^ OF THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHED BY THK AUTHOR 1908 LINCOLN, NEBRASKA COPYRIGHT, 1905 BY H. R. SMITH PfttSS OP GEO, F. MCKIERNAN A co. 79-81 W. VAN BUMN T. CHICA6O PREFACE. Profitable Stock Feeding, if the book deserves such a title, had its inception in a series of type- written lectures prepared for winter course students in the University of Nebraska School of Agricul- ture. With a constantly increasing enrollment in the stock feeding classes (the number in 1905 pass- ing the two hundred mark) it seemed best to pub- lish in permanent form a rather full discussion of the subject, covering the ground in a way that would make it easily comprehended by even the least experienced, whether in the science or practice of feeding animals. The writer was further en- couraged to undertake such a task because of an enlarged correspondence with stock feeders, who, by proposing questions which presented themselves in their feeding operations, have manifested more than Usual interest and confidence in what may be called the scientific side of stock feeding. For several years previous to engaging in college and experiment station work, the writer was a prac- tical stock feeder, in the business for profit. It was an early realization of the financial advantages that would come from a knowledge of foods and the proc- esses Of nutrition in animals that led to a more or less extended inquiry into the subject as a science. Later experiences in the field of investigation have made this the more evident. Each year, as the re- sults of experiments are compiled and the work of other stations reviewed, new proof is added to the fact that a careful system of feeding, in which na- ture's laws are given recognition, is capable of pro- ducing, to a marked degree, larger and more prof- itable gains than indiscriminate feeding. It has been proved beyond a doubt that the cost of pro- 189770 VI PREFACE. ducing gains may be reduced from 20 to 30 per cent by properly compounding rations. Such evidence is forthcoming from all stations of the Middle West, where feeding questions have been given most consideration. Should a farmer lose by dis- ease one animal out of every five, he would feel much concerned. The equivalent of this is hap- pening on many farms today through injudicious feeding. If stock feeding is to be conducted with profit, there must be put into the work a high order of intelligence. How can it be otherwise? The feeder is in constant touch with nature's laws, which must not be ignored. He is dealing with a wide range of foods, differing essentially in physical character, in composition, and in digestibility. He is further- more dealing with an animal mechanism infinitely more complex in the arrangement of parts and the performance of functions than anything ever wrought by man. If all foods and all classes of animals were alike, the problem would be a simple one. If all food consisted of the natural herbage, which at one time grew uncultivated, animals would get for themselves more nearly what the system requires. But the artificial propagation of numer- ous forms of food (some kinds produced in greater abundance than others) has made the economical utilization of such foods a complex science. Nor can profitable stock feeding be looked upon as a science merely. It is a business, too, in the sense that one who is engaged in the work is each year confronted with a change in prices on foods, which compels him to keep posted on market quotations in order to be able to select those which go farthest for the money. In the following chapters market prices in their relation to profitable production are given the consideration they deserve. PREFACE. Vll While we are to be congratulated for the light that has been thrown upon feeding problems by ex- tensive work in the realm of research carried on during comparatively recent years, both at home and abroad, there is a great work yet to be done. The facts presented in this book are largely based upon scientific investigations carried on to the date of this writing, coupled with observations made by the writer during a period of practical experience in feeding while associated with his father, the late F. H. Smith, an extensive stock feeder for a period of forty years, whose wise counsel has been of ines- timable value. An attempt has been made to begin at the bottom of the subject of stock feeding and proceed in some logical order. While the use of cer- tain technical terms is unavoidable, the aim has been to present the facts in a straightforward manner clothing them in the simplest language. It is hoped that the contents will be readable, and instructive to any and all who are interested in the feeding of live stock. It is out of the province of a book on feeding to include diseases of animals, but it seemed best to treat briefly of certain intestinal parasites found in sheep, inasmuch as this is a common disorder, but one easily guarded against. The thanks of the writer are due Mr. Joseph E. Wing, of Ohio, for the preparation of the chapter on parasites in sheep, and for reviewing other copy on sheep. The part devoted to sheep feeding was also reviewed by Hon. Peter Jansen, of Nebraska, well known for his success in feeding sheep on a large scale. In recognition of the immensity of the poultry industry in the United States, and its possibilities under careful management, a few chapters are de- voted to this important subject. Farm flocks of poultry are usually under the management of Viil PREFACE. women, who, because of their more painstaking efforts in looking after the details connected with the rearing of young chickens, turkeys, etc., succeed best. Poultry raising is a pleasant and profitable occupation for the woman who has the time and in- clination for it. The chapters in this book were prepared by a sister of the writer, Miss M. L. Smith, who has been unusually successful in the manage- ment of poultry and as a farmers' institute lecturer upon the subject. The leguminous hay crops alfalfa, cowpeas and soy beans are new to many farmer^ of the United States, and the growth of one or more of these or the better known clover plant is so essential on farms devoted to stock feeding, it has been thought best to publish in the appendix something concern- ing the culture of the three first mentioned. For the discussion of cowpea and soy bean growing the writer is indebted to Professor D. H. Otis, formerly of the Kansas Experiment Station, now connected with the Wisconsin Experiment Station. Alfalfa growing is described by Mir. E. G. Montgomery, who has given special attention to alfalfa ii? his work in the crop department of the Nebraska Ex- periment Station. Acknowledgment is also made to Professor T. L. Haecker, of the Minresota Ex- periment Station, for reviewing the manuscript on dairy cattle; to my associate, Director E. A. Bur- nett, for reviewing that part concerning the feed- ing of breeding swine ; to Mr. Fred Rankin, of Illi- nois, for reviewing other chapters on swine feed- ing; to Professor Rice, of the Cornell (New York) Experiment Station, for reviewing the copy on poul- try; and to Professor W. L. Carlyle, of the Colo- rado Experiment Station, for reviewing the chap- ters on horse feeding. H. R. SMITH. Lincoln, Nebr., December 15, 1905. CONTENTS. CHAPTER. PAGE. I. Introduction Live Stock in Its Eelation to the Farm '. 3 PART I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN STOCK FEEDING. II. The Products from Feeding Animals 7 III. The Composition of Foods 12 IV. Digestible Nutrients in Foods 19 PART II. MILK PRODUCTION. V. The Dairy Cow 37 VI. Fundamentals in Feeding the Dairy Cow. ... 48 VII. Winter Eations in the Corn Belt 55 VIII. Feeding Without the Legumes for Koughage. . 80 IX. Summer Pasture for Dairy Cows 97 X. Rearing Calves on Skim-milk 103 PART III. -BEET CATTLE. XI. Beef Type 113 XII. Shelter and Feed Lot Facilities for Beef Cattle 143 XIII. Baby Beef 150 . XIV. Feeding Yearling Steers for Beef 156 XV. Fattening Steers with Grain on Pasture 165 $jj XVI. Winter Feeding Eange Two-year-old Steers.. 172 | XVII. Corn Substitutes, Protein Concentrates and y the Preparation of Foods for Fattening Cattle 186 V PART IV. SHEEP. i ; . XVIII. Mutton Type 191 XIX. The Farmer 's Breeding Flock 199 XX. Fattening Lambs in the Fall 208 XXI. Fattening Lambs in Early Winter 220 XXII. Fattening Eange Lambs or Natives which have not had Grain on Pasture 232 iz X CONTENTS. CHAPTEB. PAGE. XXIII. Parasites in Sheep 248 PART V. SWINE. XXIV. Types of Hogs 253 XXV. The Breeding Herd of Swine 261 XXVI. Fattening Pigs in the Fall 273 XXVII. Fattening Pigs in Winter 280 XXVIII. Corn Substitutes for Swine 293 XXIX. Protein Concentrates and the Preparation of Foods for Swine 298 PART VI. FARM POULTRY. XXX. Types of Fowls 309 XXXI. Raising Little Chicks 315 XXXII. Care of Grown Fowls in Summer 328 XXXIII. Care of Hens in Winter 333 XXXIV. Turkeys and Guineas 346 PART VII. HORSES. XXXV. Types of Horses Summer Feeding for Work 357 XXXVI. Winter Rations for Work Horses 368 Appendix 381 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Kernel of Corn Showing Cellular Structure 17 Food Case 18 Food Chart 26, 27 Good Dairy Type 41 Inferior Dairy Type 41 Holstein Cow 43 Shorthorn- Jersey Cow 43 Shorthorn Milch Cow 43 Silo 69 Corn and Cowpeas for Silage 69 Ears of Corn Showing Proper Stage of Eipeness for Silage. 71 Dairy Cows on Pasture 102 Calf Stanchions 112 Angus Steer (good type) Showing Eetail Cuts of Beef.... 116 Jersey Steer (inferior type) 116 Angus and Jersey Steers Rear View 117 Rib Cuts of Angus and Jersey Steers ; 117 Good Feeder but Inferior Butcher Steer 122 Inferior Steer from Viewpoint of Both Butcher and Feeder. 122 Grade Hereford Steers. Comparison of Good and Inferior Types 124 Challenger Grand Champion Steer, 1903 128, 129 Shamrock Grand Champion Steer, 1902 131 Clear Lake Jute Grand Champion Steer, 1904 131 Pat Ryan Champion Galloway Bull 135 Choice Goods Champion Shorthorn Bull 137 Prime Lad Champion Hereford Bull 137 Bugler Angus Bull, Showing Masculine Character 141 Shorthorn Two-year-old Steers from Milking Cows 142 Challenger II and Stanton 149 Angus Baby Beeves 155 Range-bred Hereford Calves 159 Grade Angus Steers Grain-fed on Pasture 168 ii xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Two-year-old Steers Fed with and without Oil Meal 176 Rations Required for One Pound of Gain 177 Range Cattle Scene 190 Typical Specimens of Four Mutton Breeds of Sheep 198 Ewes and Lambs in Pasture 195 Shropshire-Merino Breeding Ewes 201 Woodland Farm Scene 211 Sheep in Alfalfa. . .212 Sheep Feeding Yards 221 Range Yearlings 222 Range Scenes near Forbes, Wyoming 233 Sheep Feeding in the Semi-Arid West 242 Lard Type English Champion Berkshire Boar 254 Bacon Type English Champion Tamworth Boar 254 Portable Hog House 263 Duroc- Jersey Brood Sow and Pigs 272 Poland-Chinas in the Feed-lot 279 Rack for Feeding Uncut Alfalfa Hay to Hogs 288 Rack Design for Feeding Alfalfa Hay to Hogs .289 Pens for Winter Pig-feeding Tests 292 Laying Type Single Comb Brown Leghorns 312 General-purpose Type Single Comb Buff Orpingtons 313 Meat Type Partridge Cochins 314 Framework of Colony Brooder House 317 Colony Brooder House 319 Curtain Front House 334 Curtain Front House Interior View 335 Scratching Shed House 337 Poultry House , 339 Double House 341 Inexpensive Poultry House 343 Poultry House Interior View 345 Diseased Organs of Turkey Affected with Hepatitis 348 Pair of Mammoth Bronze Turkeys 352 types of Horses 360 Clydesdales Ready for Work 361 Alfalfa, Showing Advantage of Early Fall Sowing 388 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I. LIVE STOCK IN ITS RELATION TO THE FARM. Maintaining Soil Fertility. One thing to be re- gretted in our American agriculture is the existing warfare against land fertility. This is particularly true in the states of the Middle West. Year after year millions of tons of vegetable matter contain- ing valuable fertilizing constituents move from these states to distant lands never to be returned. This rapid exodus of farm crops is due partly to alluring foreign markets for grains; partly to an aggressive Western spirit, a desire to elbow in and get the first fruits of the land quickly, regardless of the future. The people of the Old World have acquired a liking for bread and cakes made from our American corn, and they are now feeding this grain to their live stock. Government statistics show a phenom- enal growth in popularity for this American cereal in foreign countries. With the existing market con- ditions so favorable, it is not surprising that lands adapted for corn growing are now being used more extensively than ever. The large production of corn is justifiable, but its transportation to other lands to be fed put is not a favorable sign for the future. It is a question how long this outpour of grain can last without result- 4 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. ing finally in a lamentable deterioration of the soil. It is a question of duration only, as it is bound to come sooner or later, unless something is put back on the land. In the New England states enormous sums are annually expended for commercial fertilizers. The land will not produce satisfactorily without the ap- plication of plant food of some kind, and barnyard manure is not available in sufficient quantity. The purchase of mineral phosphates, nitrates and potash salts is the only alternative. In Illinois, Indiana and adjacent territory, farms which have been pro- ducing grain sold through the elevator year after year are much less productive than those which have been partly devoted to the rearing of live stock. In fact, there is but little land in the entire corn belt which is not improved today by the ap- plication of stable manure. The practice of selling corn, hay and other farm 2 J3 % v. 33 d a M .2 5 o t-t PM | ii 5 00 s o > 1.2 SB 89.1 89.0 88.1 90.8 59.5 86.8 84.7 91.6 10.9 11.0 11.9 9.2 40.5 13.2 15.3 8.4 1.4 3.0 5.8 5.7 3.4 4.4 6.2 7.4 8.8 25.3 28.2 16.1 21.3 34.8 34.2 32.4 7.9 9.2 12.2 29.3 1.7 2.8 6.8 11.0 66.7 47.3 39.2 32.7 32.4 43.4 35.8 39.6 4.3 4.2 2.7 7.0 0.7 1.4 1.7 1.2 1: 9.7 1: 6.2 1: 3.7 1: 1.6 1:19.3 1:16.6 1: 5.8 1: 3.8 Oats Wheat bran Old process linseed Koughage. Corn stover Timothy hay .... Eed clover hay. . . Alfalfa hay The indigestible matter is found by subtracting the sum of digestible nutrients and ash from the total dry matter, the latter being the foodstuff minus the water it contains. Nutritive Ratio of Foods. As has been previous- ly stated, that class of nutrients called carbohy- drates, including starches, sugars and digestible crude fiber, and the class called fats or ether extract could all he grouped together under the name non- nitrogenous constituents, since they contain no ni- trogen. They are, therefore, convertible into fat or beat, but not into lean tissue, because the latter con- 82 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. tains nitrogen. The nitrogenous compounds, also called protein, including such familiar substances as the gluten of wheat and corn, the casein oi milk, etc., form the lean tissue and assist in the formation of bone. The ratio of these two general classes of constituents in a food the one forming the fat and the other the lean tissue should be kept in mind, since it determines the class to which a food be- longs. If a single food contains more protein than an average animal needs, it is called a protein "r nitrogenous food. If it contains less it s called a. carbonaceous, or, more correctly, a non-nitrogenous food. This ratio of non-nitrogenous to nitrogen- iv constituents is shown in the last column of the table, and is called nutritive ratio. It is found by multiplying the fat by 2.25, adding the prod- uct to the carbohydrates of the food, and divid- ing this sum by the protein content. The fat is first multiplied by 2.25, because i pound of fat is equal to 2^4 pounds of carbohydrates in the production of heat, as is shown by heat- ing water. One pound of fat burned under water in an apparatus for conserving all the heat will raise to the same temperature 2.25 times as much water as will one pound of starch or sugar. Inasmuch as a large part of the food goes to make heat and energy, it is customary to assign these relative values to fats and carbohydrates. By way of illustration, the nutritive ratio of linseed meal is computed as fol- lows : There are in 100 pounds of old process lin- seed meal (oil-meal) 7 pounds of digestible fat. This multiplied by 2.25 gives 15.7, the carbohydrate equivalent of the 7 pounds of fat. This added to the 32.7 pounds of digestible carbohydrates in 100 pounds of linseed meal gives 48.4 pounds of non- nitrogenous material, as compared with 29.3 pounds of protein, or nitrogenous matter. Dividing the for- DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. 23 mer by the latter, we have the nutritive ratio i -.1.65, which means I pound of nitrogenous matter to 1.65 non-nitrogenous matter. Animals must have food nutrients in certain pro- portions to meet all the needs of the organism and to give the largest returns from the smallest con- sumption of food. If an excess of starch is supplied, this excess is wasted, because there is not sufficient protein present to balance it. On the other hand, if an excess of protein is supplied in the ration, it is not altogether wasted, because a part of it may go to form fat, since protein contains the elements car- bon, hydrogen and oxygen (the three elements forming fat) and, in addition, the element nitrogen. This latter element the most valuable part of pro- tein is eliminated through the kidneys, if this 'nu- trient is made to take the place of carbohydrates in fat formation. An excess of protein, therefore, while not a total loss, is an unnecessary extrava- gance. A balanced ration is one which contains the nu- trients in proportions which meet the needs of the animal body for its best development; in other words, it is a ration in which the food is in harmony v/ith the animal. It may be a single food, but it .is oftener a combination of two or more. The bal- anced ration is no longer looked upon as a theory which does not hold good in practice, because it has been put to the test and has not been found want- ing. Our state experiment stations have conducted numerous feeding experiments with animals, in which balanced and unbalanced rations have been compared. At the Kansas Experiment Station, for example, corn, prairie hay and corn stover, a com- bination having a nutritive ratio of 1:11, was fed to steers in contrast with a balanced ration having a nutritive ration of 1:6.5. The average of three trials showed that 28 per cent less feed was re- 24 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. quired for a given increase in weight with the bal- anced ration. In an experiment at the Nebraska Experiment Station with yearling steers, it was found that, to make the same gain, 29 per cent less food was required with corn and alfalfa than with corn and prairie hay, and the alfalfa was no more expensive. In another lot where oil-meal, a rich pro- tein food, was added to corn and prairie hay, 25 per cent less total food was required for a given gain. The experiment stations of Illinois and Missouri have recently shown the advantage of corn and clover over corn and timothy in as striking contrast. Nor have the tests been confined to fattening cat- tle alone. Experiments with sheep, swine and dairy cows show that much larger returns are made when the rations are compounded in a way that will fur- nish the nutrients in a proportion somewhere near the requirements as determined by scientific meth- ods. Feeding Standards. During past years certain German investigators have formulated what are called feeding standards. These standards prescribe the amount of digestible nutrients needed per day for the development of the various classes of farm animals at different stages of growth, calculated per 1,000 pounds live weight. The following table is a part of one proposed by Wolff and Lehmann, and has been in general use for many years: DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN FOODS. Growing cattle ..... ... gl .rH O J O *>s Digestible nutrients. 1 ! ,1 4 *iPi* Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Nutritive ratio. 3 to 6 6 to 12 12 to 18 24 25 24 30 18 '26 44 35 36 22 26 30 29 32 3.5 2.5 2 2.5 .7 2.5 7.6 5 4.5 2.5 4.4 3 2.5 3.3 12.8 13.2 12.5 15 8 13.3 28 23.1 25 15.5 15.5 15 13 13 1.5 .7 .5 .5 .1 .8 .1 .8 .7 .4 .9 .5 .5 .8 1: 4.7 1: 6 1: 6.8 1: 6.5 1:11.8 1: 6 1: 4 1: 5 1: 5.9 1: 6.6 1: 4 1: 5.4 1: 5.7 1: 4.5 Growing Cattle Growing cattle Fattening cattle (first pe- riod) Cattle (maintenance ra- tion) Horse (heavy work) .... Growing swine 2 to 3 3 to 5 Growing swine Fattening swine (first pe- Brood sows Growing sheep . . . . 4 to 6 Fattening sheep (first pe- riod) . . . Milch cows, 22 Ibs. milk per day Milch cows, 27.5 Ibs. milk per day As indicated by the table a young animal needs more protein, and consequently a more narrow nu- tritive ratio, than an older one. This is because the young animal is building bone and flesh, rather than fat. As the animal approaches maturity, there is less call for nutrients to develop framework, and more for fat tissue and maintenance needs. To make clearer the relation of foods to animal requirements with reference to the digestible nutri- ents, a chart is given below showing the proportion of protein, or nitrogenous constituents, to starches, fats, etc., called non-nitrogenous, in each of several common foodstuffs. These foods are arranged in their order according to the relative richness of each food in, protein, the one richest in this nutrient being placed at the top and the one lowest in pro- tein at the bottom. 26 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TJ si P fa o fa. 5 O Cflg W P 3 I I! o o o ct . . ..... =5 .... : OL- > ed 00 ' * _: 12 ^ :vg3 : 2 * ; : ; O ~, |'> ^ :':- -g ' : : : *^* ^^-^ 5 2 "^ ... >\ s. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 58 10.83 1.369 2.71 5.43 .531 6.8 2. Mixed hay .... Oil meal 5.77 1.80 0.550 0.664 1.90 0.19 2.761 0.768 .211 .06 2. Bran 1.76 0.308 0.18 1.078 .08 Total 20716 2.891 4T9T 110.037 .882 4 7 I [. GRAIN 3.29 r RATION. 0.211 1.15 1.70 .063 QA 2 5 Mixed hay 5.43 2.25 0.518 0.83 1.79 0.237 2.60 0.96 .198 .075 5. 6. Corn meal 4.25 5.29 0.46 0.924 0.095 0.54 3.435 3.234 .19 .24 Total . 1Ol 2.943 3^812 1 IT929 7766 WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 75 It will thus be seen that the cows in each lot con- sumed practically the same amount of dry matter and crude protein, but in the silage ration over 82 per cent of the dry matter was derived from roughage, while in the "grain" ration less than 43 per cent was derived from roughage. Each hundred pounds o'f dry matter produced as follows : Ration. . Lbs. milk. Lbs. fat. Silage 96.7 5.08 Grain 81.3 3.90 In computing the cost of the silage the experimenter says: "The value placed upon a ton of silage is based upon that of the corn and stover grown upon similar ground and marketed as such. For instance, upon ground on which we average fifty bushels of shelled corn per acre we grow fifteen tons or better of silage corn. The fifteen tons of silage corn therefore may be said to be worth the market value of the fifty bushels of corn, plus the one and one-fourth ton of stover which will go with it. (We find the expense of putting an acre of corn into the silo to be practically the same as shocking, husking and cribbing the grain and haul- ing off the stover.) We have here charged 51 cents per bushel for corn on the average for the period cov- ered by the test and $4.00 per ton for stover. This will make the acre of silage corn worth $30.50, or $2.03 per ton/' Other foods were valued at current market prices. The schedule of prices on each feed and product was : Silage, per cwt $ 0.10 Hay, per cwt 50 Stover, per cwt 20 Wheat bran, per cwt 93.7 Corn meal, per cwt 1.00 Oil meal, per cwt I.IG^ Butter, per pound 25% Skim milk, per cwt 15 76 PROFITABLE STOCK TEEDING. At these prices, not counting the cost of labor, each hundred pounds of milk from the "silage" ration costs $0.687 an d from the "grain" ration, $1.055. Each pound of butter on silage costs $0.131 and on the "grain" ration, $0.221. The experiment shows (i) that, for Ohio condi- tions at least, the dairyman cannot afford to make too liberal a use of grain, reducing the apportion- ment of hay correspondingly; (2) that silage can take the place of a large part of the grain ration ordinarily fed, with much greater economy. It does not show, however, that such a heavy feed of silage is necessarily more economical than a moderate al- lowance, perhaps thirty or forty pounds to each cow per day. A Profitable Western Ration. In consideration of what has been said concerning the economy of the use of a considerable quantity of corn, in which is mixed a little bran to make the grain ration itself more bulky, with alfalfa to furnish most of the pro- tein as well as bulk, and corn silage for succulent material, we have in the following a wonderfully effi- cient ration, as well as one low in cost: Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn meal, 6 Ibs 5.34 .47 4.00 .25 Wheat bran, 2 Ibs 1.76 .24 .78 .05 Alfalfa hay, 10 Ibs. . . 9.16 1.10 3.96 .12 Corn silage, 40 Ibs 8.36 .36 4.52 .28 Total 24.62 2.17 13.26 .70 1:6.9 Should wheat bran- be much higher per ton than corn, it would be more profitable to use six pounds of corn and cob meal, substituting two pounds more of alfalfa for the two pounds of bran. By using seven pounds of corn and cob meal and one pound of cottonseed or linseed meal, with ten pounds of alfalfa and forty pounds of silage, we have another excellent combination. WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT 77 Cowpea hay, as shown by the table in the appen- dix, is very similar to alfalfa in composition and practically equal to it in feeding value. At the Tennessee Station these two forage plants produced milk equally well, but the cowpea hay was said to be somewhat cheaper. It is a plant which does par- ticularly well in Southern States; in fact, as far north as Central Illinois. Its real merit, as a sup- plement to corn and as a soil renovator, combined with the fact that it is comparatively new to most farmers, makes it seem desirable to describe briefly its culture, which description may be found in the appendix. This hay plant should be fed in the same manner as alfalfa, but wherever the latter can be grown well, there would seem to be no particular advantage in growing cowpeas for hay, extensively at least. Cowpea fodder also makes good silage. The Maryland Station found it su- perior to corn silage. Soy bean hay frequently yields as high as three tons per acre in the South, where it is receiving favorable mention as a fodder plant. It is somewhat coarse in stem, though palatable and a rich source of protein. Its composition is similar to alfalfa and cowpea hay, making its use in the ration the same. It has been tested as a silage plant and is highly recommended. The New Jersey Station found alfalfa hay and soy bean silage as efficient as commercial foods for supplying protein, which seems entirely reasonable in view of its composi- tion. Red clover, belonging to the same family as alfalfa, is also rich in protein and therefore a good fodder to supplement corn. To be most useful it should be cut when the blossoms begin to turn brown, preferably in late afternoon or early morn- ing so that it will receive the sun's rays the whole 78 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. day. It should be raked and put up in small cocks before the dew tails, which always blackens cured clover, and allowed to stand while it undergoes the sweating process. This usually requires about two days, after which it is ready to go in the mow or stack. Clover cured in this way, if it has not been rained upon, will come out in the winter green and crisp, in which condition it is much more palatable and nutritious than hay which has been put in direct from the windrow. On small farms, more particu- larly in the Eastern States, canvas caps are used to advantage for covering haycocks, and no doubt more than pay for themselves, at least where hay is high in price. Clover is a good substitute for alfalfa, though its lower protein content makes it necessary to use a protein concentrate, such as linseed meal, when corn stover is made a part of the roughage. The digest- ible nutrients in a ration consisting of corn and clover alone are as follows: Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn, 10 Ibs 8.9 .79 6.67 .43 Eed clover, 20 Ibs. .. 16.94 1.36 7.16 .34 Total 25.85 2.15 13.83 .77 1:7.2 W oil's suggested stand- ard 25.6 2.2 13.3 .8 1:6.9 It is apparent that this combination meets re- quirements sufficiently close. Were we to utilize the stover which grew with the corn fed, our ration to be well balanced would be as follows : Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn, 9 Ibs. 7.9 .71 6.0 .39 Linseed meal, 1% Ibs. . . 1.3 .44 .48 .10 Corn stover, 9 Ibs 5.3 .15 2.91 .06 Clover, 13 Ibs 11.0 .88 4.65 .22 Total , . 25.5 2.18 14.04 .77 1:7.2 WINTER RATIONS IN THE CORN BELT. 79 With a silo the clover ration may be made still more efficient in a manner something like this: Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn and cob meal, 7 Ibs, 6.23 .55 4.67 .30 Cottonseed meal, 1% Ibs 1.37 .55 .25 .18 Clover, 10 Ibs 8.47 .68 3.58 .17 Corn silage, 40 Ibs 8.36 .36 4.52 .28 Total 24.43 2.14 13.02 .93 1:7 For such animals as dairy cows, which are equipped for utilizing a large quantity of roughage, it is much more profitable to grow one or more of these four legumes than to purchase extensively commercial protein foods. Nor should the effect of such crops upon the soil be overlooked. CHAPTER VIII. FEEDING WITHOUT THE LEGUMES FOR ROUGHAGE. With none of the legumes (clover, alfalfa, cow- peas and soy beans) for use as hay, but with an abundance of other roughage on hand, all forms of which are non-nitrogenous in character, the pur- chase of one or more of the so-called commercial protein foods is made necessary. These foods, most of them by-products, have never reached a price when a limited quantity could not be used with profit, though certain ones are often more econom- ically used than others, depending upon relative prices at the time and place wanted. These protein foods for cattle feeding may be conveniently divided into three classes, the group to which each belongs depending upon protein con- tent : Class i contains those richest in protein, and includes cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal and soy bean meal; Class 2, gluten feed, dried brewer's grains, malt sprouts, Canadian field peas and cowpeas; Class 3, wheat bran and shorts, or middlings. Class I. Cottonseed meal, a Southern product, is the richest protein food on the market for use as a cattle food, 100 pounds containing 37 pounds of digestible protein. It is a by-product from the manufacture of oil from cotton seed. After the seeds have been freed from fiber, they are passed through a machine which removes the hulls. The decorticated seeds are then cooked and while still hot subjected to hydraulic pressure which removes the. oil. The hard, board-like cake remaining is FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 8l afterwards broken, finely ground and sold as cot- tonseed meal. One ton of seed will yield about 800 pounds of cottonseed meal, which should be of a light yellow color, with a clean, nutty odor. If it is dark in color it is of inferior quality, either be- cause of the presence of finely ground hulls, or be- cause of fermentations. The Vermont Experiment Station suggests the following test by which any one can quickly and surely tell whether it is good or inferior: "Place a teaspoonful of the meal (do not use more) in a tumbler and pour over it from an ounce and a half to two ounces of hot water. Stir the mass till it is thoroughly wet up and all the particles are floating. Allow it to subside for from five to ten seconds and pour off. If a large amount of fine, dark brown sediment has settled in this time, a sediment noticeably heavier than the fine, mustard-yellow meal, one which upon re- peated treatments with boiling hot water keeps settling out, the goods are a feed meal /. e., meal containing relatively large quantities of ground hulls. All meals contain small quantities of hulls' and show dark specks. If, however, there is found a large amount of this residue, one which persists in remaining behind after several washings and decantings, it is surely composed of hulls and the goods are a feed meal. The results of this test are very striking when a feed meal is compared with a meal of known purity which is similarly tested at the same time." Some feeders have experienced difficulty in securing a pure meal, on account of which this simple test is of great practical value. A good quality of the meal produces excellent re- sults when fed as suggested in the pages follow- ing. Linseed meal, also called oil meal and ground oil cake, is similar to cottonseed meal in feeding 82 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. value, being if anything more palatable but a little less rich in protein. Linseed meal is of two kinds, old process and new process. Old process linseed meal is the residue left after extracting linseed oil from flaxseed by means of hydraulic pressure. New process is made by extracting the oil by the use of a chemical solvent, like benzine. The new method extracts the oil more perfectly, on account of which the old process meal contains more oil but a little less total protein. In the new process, however, the ground flaxseed is first cooked, so that, although the meal contains more total protein, the cooking has rendered it less digestible, giving the old process meal a higher percentage of digestible protein. This more valuable "old process" can be told from the new by placing a teaspoonful of each in separate glasses, pouring a small quantity of hot water on both samples. The new process, having once jel- lied through cooking, remains unchanged, while the old process forms a sticky jelly-like mass. Lin- seed meal, like cottonseed meal, is first pressed into cakes, after which it is ground, either to the condition of a fine meal or a granuiar substance in which the particles are about the size of peas or kernels of corn. The cake in its original form is exported, because it is known to be unadulterated in that form. The granular, or pea-size, is prefer- able to the fine meal for the same reason. It is, furthermore, more satisfactory for outdoor feed- ing, because it is less blown by the wind. Linseed meal is well relished and serves as an appetizer and a mild laxative, as well as a concentrated source of protein. Gluten meal is a residue from the manufacture of starch and glucose from corn. The process con- sists in first separating the germ and hull from the starch and gluten, after which the gluten is sepa- FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 83 rated from the starch by the action of water. The dried meal is rich in protein and has a value fully as great as linseed meal. Soy bean meal differs from the products described in that it is the entire seed of the soy bean plant ground. It is worthy of note that soy beans are the only farm seeds deserving of a place in Class I, on account of their exceptionally high protein con- tent. They are also rich in oil, which makes it the more necessary to use a limited quantity. The soy bean is a very promising crop in the more Southern States, yielding from ten to twenty bush- els of seed per acre, worth as much per pound as linseed meal for feeding purposes. (See Soy-bean culture in the appendix.) Malt Sprouts. In the process of the manufac- ture of beer from the barley grain, the starch is transformed into sugar by sprouting the seed, the sugar thus formed being dissolved out by water after the seeds are ground, fermenting later to form alcohol. At a certain stage in germination the seeds are dried and the sprouts are broken off and separated from the grain, after which they are sacked and placed on the market for feeding pur- poses. Malt sprouts, relatively higher in protein than are other foods of Class II, are fed to dairy cows with profit in localities where beer making is an important industry. Dried brewers' grains constitute that portion of the barley grain which is left after the starch is converted into sugar and removed from the seed. Brewers' grains are sometimes sold to the local trade in the wet form, which is valuable only for immediate use, as the material does not keep. Dried brewers' grains are very commonly fed to dairy cows in Eastern States. Class II. Cowpeas are less rich in protein than 84 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. are soy beans, which logically puts them in Class II of the protein foods. The cowpea plant, cut be- fore the seeds ripen, is so valuable for hay that it is used largely for this purpose. Where the seeds are allowed to ripen and are threshed, they may be ground into a meal and used very advantageously as a protein supplement to corn. Canadian peas are nearly as rich in protein, and are sometimes grown in the North for feeding as a grain, as well as for use as a forage. For all classes of stock, with the possible exception of sheep, they should be ground before being fed. Gluten feed is another by-product from the manu- facture of starch and glucose from corn. It differs from gluten meal in that it contains the hull and germ as well as gluten, giving it a lower percent- age of protein and a higher percentage of crude fiber. Class III. The annual yield of wheat in the United States has averaged during the years 1900- 1905 about 650,000,000 bushels, of which nearly 500,000,000 are annually ground for flour within our borders. When it is understood that not less t'han one-fourth of this wheat is milled out as offal, producing from 3,500,000 to 4,000,000 tons of bran and shorts each year, the extensive use of such ma- terial for feeding purposes can be more easily com- prehended. The wheat grain consists of a mass of starch cells mingled with gluten, a germ near the base within, and a layer of gluten cells around the outside, the whole being surrounded by a tough, woody coating made up of three distinct layers. Bessey is authority for the statement that "The coatings constitute 5 per cent of the seed, the gluten layer 3 to 4 per cent, the germ 6 per cent, and the starch cells 84 to 86 per cent." Wheat bran is the coarse outer part, or skin, of the FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 85 kernel, to which cling more or less gluten material and starch cells, when the product is removed in milling. A large part of the mineral matter of the wheat kernel is at the outside of the kernel, and consequently appears in the bran. This, with the gluten, makes the product a good bone making food. The large percentage of crude fiber gives bulk, making bran desirable to feed in con- nection with concentrated material like corn-meal, to which it also adds protein and mineral matter in both of which corn is deficient. Bran is also something of an aid to digestion, inasmuch as it contains more or less of a ferment, called "diastase," wnich is found about the germ, and which promotes the change from starch to sugar, in digestion as well as m seed germination. Bran, like linseed meal, is a mild laxative, which makes it useful immediately following parturition, when the dam is feverish and usually constipated. Its use for such purposes makes bran more valuable than its composition would indicate. Wheat shorts, or middlings, consist largely of the row of gluten cells, that part of the kernel be- tween the starch cells and outer coatings. It con- tains more starchy matter and less crude fiber than bran, making it more concentrated, though no richer in protein and even less rich in mineral mat- ter. Shorts are more suitable for animals of lim- ited digestive capacity, as swine, but less valuable for diluting corn-meal for cattle. Wheat middlings is the name formerly applied to what is now sold as shorts, though in Eastern States the name middlings is still in common usage. When flour was made by the old burrstone process there were but three parts: flour, middlings and bran. With improved methods a large number of grades, from the finest patent flour down to bran, are made. At the pres- 86 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. ent time millers apply the term middlings to that part of the kernel from which both the finest flours and coarser bran have been removed material fur- ther used for the manufacture of the coarser grades of flour, with which, therefore, the feeder is not concerned. The relative value of the three classes of protein foods is most conveniently stated in terms of protein content. Those in Class I contain from 28 to 35 per cent digestible protein ; those in Class II, from 17 to 20 per cent, and those in Class III, from 12 to 13 per cent. The relation of the three classes in terms of protein may be given as 30, 18, 12. Accord- ingly, there would be required a percentage of the wheat by-product in the ration one and a half times the percentage of foods in Class II and two and a half times the percentage of those constituting Class I. In other words, if oil meal, for example, is used as 10 per cent of the ration, one of those in Class II should constitute 17 per cent, and bran or shorts 25 per cent. The proportion 30, 18, 12 should also be a fairly good estimate of relative values. Were any further distinction to be made, it would be to give cottonseed meal a valuation more nearly to correspond with its higher protein content, about 36, though it will average in quality lower than that figure represents. Rations Without the Legume Hay Plants. With only cornstalks for roughage, a ration to be well balanced should be something as follows: Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn, 9 Ibs 8.02 .71 6.00 .39 Cottonseed meal 3 Ibs. 2.75 1.12 .50 .36 Corn stover, 23 Ibs. .. 13.68 .39 7'.45 .16 Total 24.45 2.22 13.95 .91 1:7.2 If the corn is cut just as soon as the ears are FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 87 ripe and the stalks are well cured in the shock, such a ration will give good results at a low cost. Sorghum (sugar-cane) is often grown for fod- der, particularly in regions where rains are less abundant and corn is less likely to succeed. Sor- ghum yields well, and if the seed is drilled rather 'thickly the stems grow small, making the forage better relished and more easily masticated. Sor- ghum hay is so similar to corn stover in composi- tion, the difference being due to the presence of more sugar and less starch in sorghum, that the two should be supplemented in the same way. Timothy hay is nearly as deficient in protein as are the two fodders just described. Timothy is in such demand for horse feeding that its market price is much above its real worth for all other classes of stock. Should it be the only roughage at the feed- er's disposal, it could be fed with cottonseed meal as follows: Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Corn, 8 Ibs 7.13 .63 5.33 .34 Cottonseed meal, 3 Ibs... 2.75 1.12 .50 .36 Timothy, 18 Ibs 15.61 .50 7.81 .25 Total 24.49 2.25 13.64 .95 1:7 Prairie hay, which grows so abundantly on the Western plains, is similar to timothy in composi- tion, though it usually consists of so many varieties of grasses that its analysis in one section is inap- plicable to another. The Minnesota Station found timothy and prairie hay practically equal for pro- ducing milk. This should be fed as has been sug- gested for timothy. Millet hay (Hungarian grass) is not in high favor as a forage plant, though it yields well and pro- duces a crop quickly. Millet often causes scours, especially when cut too green, which makes it some- 88 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. what objectionable. On the other hand, if allowed to ripen, the fodder is less valuable and the small, hard seeds are irritating to the digestive tract. It should be supplemented in the same manner as timothy hay, though much better results are se- cured by using millet as half the roughage. Oat straw is an inexpensive material on most farms, where it is often used for bedding purposes. By referring to the table it will be seen that oat straw has less protein than the foods described, on account of which about one-third more protein food should be used. Any straw contains a large quan- tity of crude fiber, mostly indigestible, which ex- plains why less of .such roughness will be consumed, making a larger use of grain necessary. Oat straw is another food more successfully utilized in con- nection with some other roughage. Wheat and rye straw contain still less protein and more crude fiber than is found in oat straw. In fact, they contain so much inert matter, and so much energy is expended in extracting the little nutri- ment contained, that the economy of forcing such material upon any class of animals, at least in quan- tity, is questionable. With no other forms of rough- age, they will serve as "fillers," as all ruminants re- quire some bulk. Straw is an excellent absorbent and extremely useful for bedding, for which pur- pose it often yields more revenue than for use as a food. Variety in the roughage fed is as much appre- ciated as variety in the grain ration. When possi- ble two or more kinds should be supplied. If hay from any one of the legumes, alfalfa, clover, cow- peas or soy beans, is fed as half the roughage, it would be more profitable to reduce the amount of cottonseed meal or other commercial protein foods FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES &) to one-half of that recommended for stover, timothy or the other fodder plants of that class. Roughage Need Not Be Weighed. The rations, as outlined in the preceding pages, show something of how the foods should be put together to furnish the nutrients, together with the bulk desirable, for a dairy cow weighing 1,000 pounds. If a cow is lighter or heavier, the ration should be varied ac- cordingly. It is not the thought of the writer that the roughage be weighed, as this would involve too much labor. By weighing a measure full of grain it is possible to regulate the amount at each feed with but little inconvenience. The average cow, if fed the weight of grain recommended, will consume approximately the amount of hay or other roughage stated, providing she has before her all her appetite craves such an allowance as will be cleaned up each day with no waste except coarse stems, which have little nutritive value and are only serviceable for bedding. Beet Pulp. The sugar beet industry has attained such proportions in certain sections of the United States that the pulp, a residual product from the manufacture of sugar from the beet, has come under consideration relative to a possible feeding value it may possess. Pulp has no commercial value aside from its use as a stock food, which makes it all the more necessary to give it a careful trial for feeding purposes. In the process of sugar manu- facture the beets are crushed, saturated with water and chemically treated. The pulp is simply the crushed beet minus the sugar it originally contained, plus water. One hundred pounds of pulp has ap- proximately ten pounds of dry matter. It is, there- fore, extremely watery and quickly fermentable, which makes it a product most suitable for feeding in close proximity to the sugar factories, rather than QO PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. to pay heavy freight charges for its transportation ; and, furthermore, it should be fed out quickly rather than stored for any length of time, unless the silo is used. While beet pulp contains but little dry mat- ter, making it low in nutritive value, when fed with grain and dry fodder, it has, like corn silage and roots, a physiological effect upon the system which is beneficial. This makes it somewhat more valuable than its composition would indicate especially for milch cows. The Cornell (New York) Station found that the dry matter of beet pulp is equivalent to the dry matter of corn silage, which makes two tons of average pulp equal to one ton of corn silage, ap- proximately, for feeding purposes. At the Colorado Station it was also found that two tons of pulp are the equivalent of one ton of the beets. These two tests confirm the Nebraska test, which showed sugar beets to be practically equivalent to corn silage, pound for pound, for dairy cows. The Colorado Station advocates fifty pounds as a maximum daily feed of pulp. In their tests, twenty-four pounds were fed per day in connection with twenty pounds of alfalfa, four pounds of corn chop and four pounds of wheat chop. Beets were fed in the same way in half the quantity. In the New York test each cow ate from fifty to one hun- dred pounds of pulp per day, according to size, in addition to eight pounds of grain and six to twelve pounds of hay. Dried molasses beet pulp is a new product given considerable prominence by sugar companies. The Vermont Station found it equivalent to the dry mat- ter of corn silage and as efficient as bran, though the two are hardly comparable because the dried pulp is not a protein food. Its preparation is de- scribed as follows: FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES gi "The beets are thoroughly washed, then shredded and placed in large cylinders. Pure water is ad- mitted and the sugar soaked out by the diffusion process. This liquor is drawn off and the pulp, containing 92 per cent moisture and one-quarter per cent sugar, is conveyed at once to the drier, where it is first run through presses reducing the moisture to 82 per cent. Residuum molasses from the sugar factory containing 50 per cent sugar is next mixed with the pressed pulp. This mixture is then put into the kilns, where it is thoroughly dried by direct heat. The drying process lasts 35 min- utes. Immediately upon coming from the kilns the pulp is sacked and is ready for shipment. The dry- ing follows the use of the water so quickly that there is no opportunity for fermentation. One hour from the time the sugar is extracted from the beets the dried molasses beet pulp is in sacks ready for use. "Dried beet pulp, whether molasses is added to it or not, is hardly in the same class as other concen- trates. Its origin and method of manufacture are so unlike them that we may expect to find its chemical composition and adaptations unusual. Such is found to be the case. Its protein content is lower than that of any ordinary concentrate ex- cept corn-meal; its nitrogen-free extract and ether extract contents are low and their composition rela- tively poor and lacking in true starch and fat; and its crude fiber percentage is high. It cannot serve to narrow a ration, since its nutritive ratio is wide. Theoretically it would seem better adapted to fat- tening than to milk making ; but as a matter of fact it was found satisfactory in these trials." Beet leaves are produced in abundance on land devoted to the culture of sugar beets. In actual value leaves are better than straw, but less valuable THE 92 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. than hay. The presence of oxalic acid makes it ad- visable to feed beet leaves moderately. Roots are very commonly used in European coun- tries for all classes of stock. In the United States their growth is more largely confined to small farms in Eastern States, where land is comparatively high in price. A large tonnage of roots can be grown on a limited area, though in actual pounds of dry mat- ter produced they are not ahead of some of our forage crops. It is their watery, succulent character which makes roots especially adapted for milk pro- duction. In the corn belt, however, silage can be produced at half the cost, and, as shown by experi- ments, the silage is equal to roots, pound for pound, making root growing less practical. Of the dif- ferent kinds of roots, mangel wurzels are most in favor, because they yield heavily and are at the same time well relished. Cabbages are also grown for cows, and they are relished extremely well, even more so than roots. By proper methods of culture they can also be made to yield well, often requiring less labor than is re- quired for root growing. Without the silo for corn, at least some roots or cabbages should be grown for the dairy herd. Corn Substitutes. On many farms cereals other than corn are often grown for feeding purposes, either because they fit well in the crop rotation, or because the farmer feels it something of a risk to depend entirely upon corn for fattening purposes. In the Northern States especially, the dangers from killing frosts in the fall would seem to warrant the growth of at least a small acreage of barley or some other corn substitute. In the semiarid regions cer- tain other crops yield better and are more to be relied upon than corn. In feeding- any of these so- called substitutes, either alone or mixed, protein FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 93 foods should be used to supplement them, as has been recommended for corn, with exceptions as stated below. Barley is an excellent substitute for corn where the latter cannot be successfully grown because of unfavorable climatic conditions. Barley contains a little more protein than does corn, but, on the other hand, it has more crude fiber and is somewhat less palatable. In tests that have been made the two were found to be practically equal in value, and one may be used as a substitute for the other. It is more necessary to grind barley, because of its smaller size and hardness. Emmer (speltz) is similar to barley in composi- tion, though it contains more fiber. At the South Dakota Station barley proved to be 13 per cent more valuable than speltz for milk production. Farmers in the semiarid sections can grow speltz more successfully than barley, much more so than corn, and where they have fed it to dairy cows good results have been secured. Owing to its bulk, it would seem better adapted for cows than any other class of animals. Wheat is occasionally so low in price as to make its use for stock feeding practicable. It should be ground and mixed with bran or some other food to make it less sticky, under which circumstances it is equal to corn. Wheat is somewhat richer in protein than corn, requiring, therefore, a little less of this nutrient from other sources. Rye should also be ground and fed as suggested for wheat, though it seems to be from 5 to 10 per cent less valuable, which must be due to its unpalat- ability, as the two grains are similar in composi- tion. Kafir corn and sorghum seed are semiarid products, and both are very commonly fed to stock. 94 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. The seeds are so small and hard that grinding is also necessary with them, more necessary, in fact, than with wheat or barley. Neither Kafir corn nor cane seed is so well relished as corn by dairy cows, which, no doubt, partly accounts for a slightly lower feeding value. Oats are well relished and contain more protein than the other foods described. They are excellent regulators, because of their bulk and the fact that they are easily digested. Whenever the market price of oats is no higher than corn per hundred weight, they should be fed. Even at a slightly higher price, they can be used economically in a limited way to furnish variety, and with corn-meal they add bulk, which is advantageous. Condimental Stock Foods. During recent years numerous establishments for the manufacture of so- called stock foods have sprung up in various parts of the country. The enterprise and aggres- siveness displayed by these concerns in advertis- ing their goods have been such as to arouse con- siderable interest among farmers as to the validity of the claims made for such products. The claims made are: first, that they are appetizers, promot- ing digestion ; and, secondly, that they have medici- nal properties beneficial in effect. Several experi- ment stations have been investigating these claims, among them Massachusetts, which reports as fol- lows concerning the ingredients used: "The sub- stances generally employed as a basis for the stock foods were the cereals corn and wheat offal es- pecially linseed meal, beans and rice. The poul- try foods were composed of similar substances, to- gether with oyster shells and meat and bone meal. Among the remaining ingredients, added ostensibly for medicinal effect, are numbered many of the old- time remedies, such as common salt, charcoal, black FEEDING WITHOUT LEGUMES 95 pepper, cayenne, fenugreek, sulfur, Glauber and Ep- som salts, and occasionally fennel, ginger, tumeric and sulfate of iron. Fenugreek was a favorite In the stock mixtures and pepper in the poultry foods. Venetian red (oxide of iron) was often used simply to color and disguise the character of the other constituents. Finely ground charcoal acted in a similar manner. In several instances noticeable quantities of sand were found, but whether to in- crease the weight or as an accidental admixture is difficult to say." Dr. James B. Paige in Bulletin 71 of the Massa- chusetts Station says: "Contrary to the popular belief, animals in a state of health, under favorable conditions as regards food and stabling, do not need condition powders or tonic foods. There is in the body of such an animal a condition of equi- librium of all body functions. The processes of nutrition, digestion and assimilation are at their best. All that is required to maintain this condi- tion of balance is that the animal be kept under sanitary conditions and receive a sufficient quantity of healthful, nutritious food and pure water. It may be possible by the use of such substances to improve the appetite so that an animal will ingest and possibly digest more food, but should the in- creased quantity of nutrient constituents elaborated not be appropriated by the tissues of the body, harm may result from the overloading of the lymphatic system or from an increased activity of the ex- cretory organs. In the case of sick animals there are abnormal conditions to be taken into considera- tion, such as loss of appetite, weakened digestion, poor circulation and malnutrition. Until every or- gan performs its normal function a state of health does not, cannot exist. If by the administration of a tonic, stimulant or an alterative it is possible to restore to a normal condition any organ so that 96 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. it can perform its function, then every organ in the body is benefited." Station Tests with Stock Foods. Hills of the Vermont Station fed Nutriotone to cows and re- ports as follows : "The material does not appear to have increased productiveness in this particular ex- periment." Bartlett of Maine says, "In neither of these cases did Nutriotone have any effect, either favorable or otherwise." Sir John Bennett Lawes, the late well-known IJnglish investigator, after ex- amining the merits of condimental stock foods, said : "In conclusion I feel bound to say that I should require much clearer evidence than any that has hitherto been adduced to satisfy me that the bal- ance-sheet of my farm would present a more satis- factory result at the end of the year were I to give each horse, ox, sheep and pig a daily allowance of one of these costly foods." After feeding condimental stock foods to dairy cows at the Kansas Station, the experimenter con- cludes that they "are worthless for dairy cows ac- customed to a good balanced ration." The New Jersey Experiment Station in making a summary of all feeding experiments with condi- mental foods says, "In thirteen of sixteen experi- ments the addition of condimental foods either had no effect at all or was actually a detriment to the ration, while in three experiments they had a slight- ly favorable effect, but in each case the yield was accompanied by a greatly increased cost of the product." These are facts concerning stock foods as they are found by careful and impartial investigation. It is difficult to understand how such foods can be sold at from $100 to $200 per ton, with oil meal, cottonseed meal and gluten meal bringing not more than $30 per ton. CHAPTER IX. SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. Early Spring Pasture. After cows have been confined to dry feed all winter, the first green blades in the spring are eagerly sought and are eaten with great relish. Fresh pasture invariably increases the flow of milk, especially when the cows have not been receiving silage. Rye sown early the previous fall will make a good growth and will provide an abundance of green pasture three or four weeks before grass is ready. It can be sown in the corn at the time of the last cultivation, and if the field is to be again planted to corn it will furnish an abundance of pasture up to the time for plowing the ground. Rye sown in the cornfield will also make the ground wash less dur- ing fall and spring, and when turned under it adds humus to the soil. Rye is not so well relished as grass, though early in the spring before grass ap- pears it seems to be appreciated. Winter wheat is sometimes pastured in early spring and afterwards allowed to ripen. If there is a good growth a little pasturing probably does it no harm. It is similar to rye in its effect upon the milk flow, and is, if anything, a little more pala- table. Blue grass pasture has no superior for milk pro- duction, partly because of its composition and part- ly because it is more relished than other grasses. No matter how well cows are fed in winter they increase their flow when turned on an abundance of fresh blue grass in the spring. The one objection 97 98 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. to blue grass is that it stops growth during the hot, dry weather of late summer, which often makes it necessary to cut green crops to supplement it. Brome grass, which is comparatively new in the United States, stands dry weather well because of its longer roots. It is for this reason very popular in the drier parts of the country. It starts early in the spring and yields well for a plant adapted only for pasturing. Other grasses, including meadow fescue, orchard grass, etc., are used for cow pasture and should be sown if they seem to be best adapted to a given locality. The legumes, clover and alfalfa, are also used for pasture plants, though the latter is almost certain to cause the death of some of the cows from bloat unless sown mixed with other grasses. Of the clo- vers, the small white clover seems to be most rel- ished as a pasture plant. Mixed grass pastures are in favor because they furnish variety and usually produce more food per acre. If one grass fails on account of dry weather, another hardier variety grows more luxuriantly in its stead. Feeding Grain on Pasture. The Cornell Experi- ment Station (New York) for a series of years fed grain on grass pasture, from which test it was con- cluded that while grain often increases the milk flow, the extra flow does not compensate for the grain fed, and is, therefore, not a profitable prac- tice when grass is abundant. This conclusion has also been reached in other states. If for any rea- son pasture is scarce, then grain or soiling crops should be supplied. Soiling, by which is meant cutting green crops and feeding while still fresh, is very commonly practiced in Europe and Eastern United States. Soiling usually begins in July, when pastures are SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. < likely to become dry and scanty. By its practice dairymen are often able to keep many more cows on a given acreage of land, one acre in soiling crops producing as much as two or three acres of pasture. The labor connected with soiling is the one thing which will not make this practice popular in the West, where at that season of tlie year farmers already have difficulty in securing sufficient help. Soiling is more to be recommended for dairy specialists, on account of which it, is not the pur- pose of the writer to enter into the details of the system for the benefit of the general farmer. Brief- ly, it consists of growing certain crops which fur- nish an abundance of green feed at successive periods during the season. Such crops as rye, clov.er, alfalfa, oats and peas mixed, early and late corn, sorghum, etc., are planted at a time to insure a continuous supply of green though fairly mature feed, which is supposed to last until late fall. With the advent of the silo many prefer to put up enough silage to last during the summer, claiming it is less expensive than regular soiling crops. Flies become very troublesome in late summer, not only reducing the milk flow but also causing no little annoyance to the milker. The Kansas Station recommends the following as a fly dope for milch cows : Two cakes of laundry soap are dissolved in warm water, into which solution there is mixed ij^ pounds of resin, y 2 pint of fish oil and sufficient water to make 3 gallons. This may be applied with a brush, or as a spray by adding J/ pint of kerosene oil. About l /2 pint is put on each cow two or three times a week until the hair becomes coated with resin. Were one to figure the cost of material, and labor of putting on the dope, there is little doubt but that some sort of a blanket would be more economical IOO PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. in the end. Blankets may be made from gunny sack- ing; or those with elastic bands, protecting the under side of the body as well as the upper, may be purchased from dealers at from $i to $1.25 each. Shelter in Summer. Many overcome the fly and heat difficulty by housing the cows in a dark but cool stable during the day, pasturing in the field at night. Green crops freshly cut are fed in the barn. A basement barn is preferable, though any barn with a tight floor above the cows, giving an air space between this floor and the roof, does very well. If the cows are kept in the field during the day, it is essentially important that they have shade trees. Fresh water should be found in every pasture or conveniently near. The work of milk elaboration, whether in winter or summer, requires a large sup- ply of water. Salt should be fed regularly or kept before the cows at all times. Common salt or pulverized rock is preferable to rock salt. A box kept under roof is perhaps best for furnishing a continuous supply. Dry Cows. If the cows are fresh in the fall, late summer feeding should give no special concern, as every cow should be dry at that season for at least six or eight weeks. For the cow not giving milk, green feed is less needed, which is one argument in favor of having cows fresh in the fall. The dry cow in winter will do well without grain, if she has roughage of the right character. The calf in utero needs for its best development a large proportion of protein material, while the cow needs for her own maintenance a surplus of heat and energy-making material, such as carbohydrates and fats. Any of the legumes, whether alfalfa, clover or cowpea hay, will supply protein. In fact, any of these alone will furnish more protein than SUMMER PASTURE FOR DAIRY COWS. 101 is actually needed by the cow and her calf. For the sake of variety, too, there should be fed with one of these protein fodders something more starchy, and at the same time less expensive, as corn sto- ver, prairie hay, sorghum, or even oat straw if any of the others are not available. Any one or more of the last named fodders should not consti- tute more than one-third to one-half the entire ration by weight, the remainder consisting of the protein roughage. Should the roughage be inferior in quality, it would be necessary to supply a little grain in addition. Feeding the Fresh Cow. Immediately after the birth of the calf the cow will be weak and fever- ish. In that condition she will require considerable water which should be slightly warmed but will show little inclination for food. Whatever is given her should be of a light character, such as well- cured clover or alfalfa and a little bran, preferably made into a mash by the use of warm water. A few pounds of bran will have a cooling and laxative effect, which is always beneficial just after calving. The following day, four or five pounds of a mixture of equal parts of corn, oats and bran would prove satisfactory. Without oats it would be well to feed equal parts by weight of corn and bran, gradually increasing the corn to three-fourths of the grain ration, at the same time making the daily feed gradually larger until at the end of three weeks she is receiving a full ration of ten or twelve pounds of grain per day, the exact amount depending upon the size of the cow. In the meantime the cow should be given all the clover or alfalfa hay she will consume. The Abusive Treatment of the Milch Cow a Positive Source of Loss. Every animal is capable of doing its best when the conditions are most fa- 102 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. vorable for quietness and contentment. All harsh treatment results in a waste of nervous energy at the expense of food. In the case of the milch cow gentleness in handling is still more important, inas- much as milk secretion is a part of "maternity" in animals, and anything in the way of unkindness tends to suppress this instinct, lessening the flow of milk accordingly. If the cow is well treated she will feel kindly toward her attendant, and at least one condition will be favorable for maximum pro- duction. If a cow acts "mean" there is always some cause for it either she inherits a nervous disposi- tion and for that reason must be dealt with pa- tiently, or she has been made "suspicious" by hav- ing had, at some time in her life, unkind treatment. Dairy Cows In Pasture. CHAPTER X. REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. Whole Milk Costly. In farming sections where dairy cows are kept for butter making, it is custom- ary to raise calves on skim milk. This may be milk from which the cream has risen and has been skimmed in the usual way, or it may be milk from which the cream has been extracted by the use of the separator. While the butter fat may be re- moved more perfectly by the use of the separator, leaving the milk obtained by this process less rich than the gravity milk, there is after all so little dif- ference in the food value of the two kinds that whatever is said concerning the feeding of one will apply also to the other. In view of the fact that whole milk is the natural and most perfect food for young animals and that fresh skim milk only differs from whole milk in that it contains but little or no fat, it would seem that, were it possible to substitute some less ex- pensive but equally digestible fat for butter fat, just as good results could be secured from feeding skim milk. Theoretically this is correct. In practice it is extremely difficult to make the conditions suf- ficiently favorable to secure the same thrift in the skim milk calf as is ordinarily found in the well nourished sucking calf. The latter not only has the milk in its original composition, uncontaminated by bacteria and perfectly warmed, but he is also com- pelled by force of circumstances to take milk into the stomach slowly, making it more easily acted upon by the digestive fluids and less apt to cause * 104 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. scours. But even though the whole-milk calf is somewhat better raised, butter fat is so valuable as a commercial article, that feeding whole milk or permitting calves to suck their dams is an extrava- gant practice on good farming lands. Skim milk, therefore, is to be chiefly relied upon for growing all calves on the farm except pure-breds of the beef breeds. How to obtain best results from feeding skim milk is worthy of careful consideration. Early Feeding. The young calf should be given a good start by having fresh whole milk at least the first week. It is better for the cow if the calf is fed from the pail the second or third day after birth, and the calf may be taught to drink with less trouble at this age than later. From four to six quarts a day, depending upon the size of the calf, is enough during the first week. If this amount could be given in three feeds it would be better for the calf. During the second week the feeding may be done twice a day, and a little skim milk perhaps a half pint substituted for whole milk, the amount to be increased very gradually until at the end of three weeks the whole milk is entirely with- drawn, when the calf should be receiving from five to seven quarts of skim milk per day. At the close of the second month eight or nine quarts may ordi- narily be fed a good-sized calf without inducing scours, which sometimes result from overfeeding on milk. At four months of age ten quarts may be given, and at five months eleven quarts. Scours. Should a calf become affected with scours, a raw egg mixed in the milk will usually bring relief, or, if a severe case, a tablespoonful of castor oil, followed by a raw egg every two hours until four to six eggs are taken. A teaspoonful of soluble blood meal, another form of albumen sold by the packing houses for about 3 cents a pound REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. 105 stirred in the milk will act in a way similar to the egg and is much less expensive. The Kansas Sta- tion reports excellent results with dried blood (blood meal), claiming that a mild case of scours can be cured in one or two days by adding a tea- spoonful to the milk, which last should be tempo- rarily reduced in quantity. The Idaho Station rec- ommends for scours an ounce of lime water added to the milk. Skim milk should be warmed to a temperature of 90 to 100 degrees Fahrenheit before feeding. Cold milk chills the calf and often brings on digestive disorders. On the other hand, if milk is heated to the scalding point the albumen coagulates and rises to the top in the form of a scum, which coagulation renders it less digestible. Every one who raises calves on skim milk should be provided with a small glass thermometer that may be hung with the bulb submerged in the milk, by which means the warming may be discontinued at the proper time. The feeding buckets should be made of tin or galvanized iron, having just as few seams as possi- ble. Milk is likely to collect in these seams, where it becomes charged with bacteria, these micro-or- ganisms affecting the milk in such a way as to set up fermentation and consequent indigestion in the calf. Infection from bacteria can only be avoided by thoroughly washing and scalding the buckets after each feed. Probably more than half the dis- orders prevalent among skim milk calves have their source in unscalded buckets. The calf is very susceptible to disorders from contamination. At creameries skim milk is often sterilized by introduc- ing steam from the boilers, which makes it more wholesome. Fat Substitutes. Several concentrated foodstuffs IO6 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. rich in fat have been tested as butter fat substitutes. Flaxseed meal is richest in fat and can be used very successfully. Soon after a part of the whole milk is withdrawn and skim milk is fed in its stead, a tablespoonful of flaxseed meal may be stirred in the milk each day just before feeding-. Making a jelly by pouring hot water on flaxseed meal is an excellent way of feeding this meal. A table- spoonful of jelly may be added to each feed, the amount gradually increased until as high as a half pound per day is fed to the six-weeks-old calf. Old process linseed meal is often used in the same way, though it is less rich in fat. Corn germ meal, a by-product from the manufacture of glucose and corn starch, is also made to serve as a substi- tute for butter fat. Corn oil, another by-product made by glucose factories, has recently been tested by the Nebraska Experiment Station, but with re- sults less satisfactory because of the cathartic effect of the oil. It is, furthermore, difficult to mix corn oil with skim milk. Flaxseed and linseed meal are well adapted for early feeding, because they con- tain little or no starch, and the very young calf is lacking the necessary equipment for digesting starch. Whole milk contains sugar, but no starch. Mixing flaxseed jelly with the milk need not be con- tinued after the first few weeks, as dry grain should be fed separately just as soon as the calf can be induced to eat it. By putting grain in the bottom of the bucket after the milk has been con- sumed it can be fed early, and this practice has the further advantage of diverting the attention of the calf, causing him to eat grain rather than to suck the ears of his mates, which seems to be a natural tendency with calves after drinking milk. Stanchions overcome the sucking habit most effectually, and they have the further advantage of REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. IO7 being wonderfully convenient when several calves are kept together, as by their use all the calves may be quickly and securely held as long as seems neces- sary. The stanchion is a simple contrivance made of narrow boards fixed vertically and sufficiently far apart to permit the calf to enter his head at feeding time, the attendant thereupon fastening the boards closely enough together to make it impossi- ble for the head to be drawn out. On the floor or ground in front is a feed box just wide enough to hold a pail firmly and long enough to accommodate the desired number of calves. The lumber required for ten stanchions, as given by the Kansas Experi- ment Station, is as follows : 1 piece I"xl2"xl2', for bottom of feed-box. 2 pieces I"xl2"xl6', for bottom of feed-box (8 ft.), upright partitions (24). 2 pieces I"x6"xl0', for front of feed-box. 5 pieces I"x6"xl6', cypress or full-thickness pine, for top and bottom rails. 5 pieces I"x4"xl2', full thickness, for fixed uprights. 2 pieces I"x4"xl6', %" thick, for swinging uprights. 10 pieces 3"x6"xl", for tongues or locks. 3 posts 6 feet in length. 3 blocks 6"xl2" under feed-box. "The stanchions are two feet wide between the partitions and three and one-half feet high. The board along the front of the feed boxes is hinged, so it may be turned down and the boxes thoroughly cleaned out. At the end of the stanchion is a rack for hay. With these stanchions a feeder can keep four pails going and can feed a bunch of calves in a very short time." (See illustration, page 112.) Grain Feeding. Not only can milk be fed more conveniently by use of the stanchions, but the calves can be induced to eat dry grain earlier by having them thus fastened. After drinking milk they seem to crave something to put in the mouth, and if other calves' ears are not within reach they IO8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. very often nibble at grain placed before them even when they are but ten days or two weeks old. For young calves nothing superior to oats seems to have been discovered. At an early age, too, calves show an inclination for something bulky, which craving should be satisfied, as it is but a manifestation of a physiological law. Oats, which are easily digested, furnish bulk, and, in addition to these advantages, contain a rather high percentage of fat. No farm food in common use excels oats in their tendency to counteract scours in calves. Whole oats seem bet- ter than the ground grain. As the calf becomes a little older a small portion of shelled corn may be added, increasing the amount to equal parts of oats and corn as weaning time approaches. Here again the whole grain is prefer- able. It has a fresher flavor, inasmuch as meal sometimes taints from exposure, the oil being most susceptible to decomposition. Calves, furthermore, seem fond of cracking the whole grains. The Kan- sas Station in a recent test found the whole grain considerably more profitable than the meal. Bran, rich in both mineral matter and protein for bone development, is sometimes added, though it is often- times rather too laxative for calves receiving skim milk ; the milk, too, furnishes all the protein needed. By a judicious use of farm grains, commercial foods, while often profitable, are not essential. Quantity of Grain Most Profitable for Skim Milk Calves. The following, again furnished by the Kansas Station, are timely data upon this subject: REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. ICQ II 3 '^2 '3 fa 3* HP g* P ,__, ^ c4- O 5 S- S S Number of calve s ' 1 t I 1 D O Days fed M ._. 3S OS ~ O so y Skim milk oo *M tr* 2 feS* Shelled corn CD 00 S M M g OS 00 S' ^ OO M ^ Ground o oo CO 01 PLS & oo b Kafir corn . . . 3 M CO <*5 ^ o ^1 CO t" 1 M O *3 QfQ ja ro h-i o" w os Pi M M "* w B OS o M ^ S' & p "M "bo cT Prairie hay CJrf M "b oo 3 g s 1 S ^ Alfalfa hay o -q i-i r B ^ B i ii 1 Oat hay p S CO M M o to -1 CO I 1 OS CO Mixed hay a CO OS P 1 I 1 M M : g Tame hay, O b\ ' OS rfi- M W PJ r^ F P If 1 i- i ^? ft ? ^ IIO PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. If the skim milk is figured at 15 cents per hun- dred, as is customary, the roughness $5 per ton, and the grain 70 cents per hundred, each pound of gain on the heavy or full grain ration costs 3.17 cents, while on three-quarters of a full grain feed the cost would be 4.85 cents, a favorable showing for a full feed of grain in connection with skim milk. The table is of interest in that it shows how much of the different feeds was consumed during the 140 days. Kafir corn was fed ground, because the seeds are small and hard. In another test 30 per cent was saved by grinding Kafir corn. Roughage of the best quality the farm affords should be placed within reach of calves when two or three weeks old. Prairie hay is more constipat- ing than alfalfa, though the latter is much more relished, and, if an early cutting, is not likely to be excessively loosening. Clover is first-class very much better than timothy, which is rather too harsh and coarse for young calves. Pasture for skim milk calves should not be too watery, because of its laxativeness. Turning spring calves out early is, therefore, not to be recom- mended. Even in later summer many prefer to stable such calves, because flies seem unusually ir- ritating to these young animals. Oats are an excel- lent grain for calves on pasture. Weaning from milk is a matter which should not be hastened. While four months on milk is more nearly the usual period of feeding, six months is better when it can be done conveniently. If the calves are receiving grain liberally at weaning time, there will follow but a very light shrinkage, much lighter than in the case of sucking calves. The cost of raising a skim milk calf was deter- mined at the Kansas Station by averaging the re- sults of thirteen different experiments, the average REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK. Ill period of feeding being 125 days. With skim milk at 15 cents per hundred, grain at 50 cents per hun- dred and roughness at $4 per ton, each calf con- sumed milk costing $2.52, grain $1.27, roughness $1.51, while labor cost $2.13, making a total of $7.43. The patent calf feeders, as put on the market, are easily contaminated, because the nipples are diffi- cult to clean. This seems to be the chief reason why those who have tested them are unfavorable to their use. Dehorning Calves. Stock cattle without horns ordinarily outsell horned cattle of the same quality from 15 to 25 cents per hundred, which is the strongest kind of an argument in favor of dehorn- ing. The operation is simple and causes so little discomfort to the animal if done on calves by means of caustic potash, a brief statement concern- ing the use of the caustic seems pertinent. When the calf is three or four days old, clip the hair from where the rudimentary horns, or buttons, later appear, and with a stick of caustic potash, wrapped at one end to protect the fingers, rub over the button until the skin becomes a little inflamed and more or less tender to the touch. A scab will appear after a few days and further growth of the horn will cease. Caustic is exceedingly painful if allowed to run down over the face. This work should be done before the horns break through the skin, necessarily within a few days after the birth of the calf. Shelter for calves is important in winter, because small cattle are much more susceptible to cold weather than larger ones. Straw bedding should be used liberally to keep the ground dry and to provide a comfortable bed. Shelter during the hot summer weather is also desirable because of troublesome flies. Calves should not, however, be deprived of sunshine the entire day. If confined 112 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. during the middle of hot summer days, they should be given the privilege of the pasture lot the re- mainder of the day for both light and exercise. In winter, calves should have the sun's rays as much as possible. Fresh, pure water should be provided in addition to milk. Salt is also needed. For convenience it can be placed in a box nailed within the shelter, where the calves may lick it whenever so inclined. Loose salt is preferable to rock salt. With the exercise of skill and attention to details, calves may be reared on skim milk very success- fully. Probably no animals of any class are more responsive to skillful treatment. It is certainly a less expensive method of producing the first few hundred pounds of beef than to permit the calves to draw whole milk from the dam ; and, while they may have less bloom and rotundity of form, they will have sufficient digestive capacity to insure good future gains. REAR VIEW OF CALF STANCHIONS AS USED AT THE KAN- SAS EXPERIMENT STATION. PART III BEEF CATTLE CHAPTER XI. BEEF TYPE. Meat as a Food. Notwithstanding the fact that there exists a class of people known as vegetarians who are using their influence against the consump- tion of meat, the industry promises to continue. Americans are particularly fond of meat. We have the reputation of being the heaviest meat-consum- ing nation in the world, and many attribute much of our rapid social and industrial advancement to this fact. Meat is too high in price to be used as a staple article of food in the Old World except in the more wealthy families. The study of more eco- nomical methods of production, to keep the supply in America more nearly at a pace with the growing demands of an increasing population, would seem, therefore, to be of vital interest to consumer as well as to producer. Nearly all meat consumed comes from domesti- cated farm animals cattle, sheep and swine fur- nishing by far the larger part, though fowls must be given recognition for their place in meat as well as egg production. These classes of animals will be discussed in the order given, because of a greater similarity between the first two in the matter of food requirements. 113 114 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Quality of the finished product has been men- tioned as one of the two important factors in profit- able feeding. Quality is important because it means a higher price per pound for the meat animal when marketed, though produced at no greater cost for food consumed. It is obtained by feeding prop- erly balanced rations to animals of good type. A meat animal is of good type, (I) which prom- ises when properly fattened to satisfy the demands of .the market, and (II) which also has sufficient .vigor of constitution and power of assimilation to make satisfactory gains in the feed-lot. I. Percentage of Dressed Weight Influenced by Type as Well as by Fatness. The market calls for an animal which will, first of all, dress with- out excessive offal, or waste. Other things be- ing equal, the fatter the animal the higher the per cent of dressed weight. This is true because the meat animal is both a manufacturing institu- tion and a storehouse for its own goods. As the fattening process goes on, weight is added to the carcass with little or no increase in the weight of the machinery. The importance of condition in its relation to selling price will be better understood by the state- ment that a thin i,2OO-pound steer worth 5 cents per pound on foot, dressing 50 per cent, would yield enough more meat, were it fat enough to dress 60 per cent, to make it worth 6 cents per pound in- stead of 5. But fatness alone does not determine the per- centage of waste. Individual specimens of cattle, sheep, or swine in the same condition vary in per cent of waste, because some individuals are nat- urally heavy in those parts which constitute offal. Unimproved animals, commonly called scrubs, dress with more waste because they have not been bred BEEF TYPE. for thick carcasses. The dairy breeds of cattle when fattened are likely to have more waste than the beef breeds, because they are larger in paunch, or barrel. The mutton breeds of sheep dress higher than the wool breeds, while the so-called "lard" breeds of swine dress higher than the bacon breeds. In the matter of market carcass requirements for cattle, sheep and swine there is a marked similarity, so much so that whatever is said concerning beef carcasses will apply in a general way to sheep and swine, with exceptions as hereafter stated. Beef Carcass Requirements. A choice beef car- cass (i) should be proportionately heavy in those parts which sell for the highest prices and corre- spondingly light in the cheaper cuts. (2) It should not be heavy in bone. (3) It should have a pre- dominance of lean tissue. (4) The fat should be evenly distributed over the carcass, not occurring in patches or "gobs," and flakes of fat should be dis- tributed between the fibers of lean. (5) The lean fibers should not be coarse, and they should be light red rather than dark in color, and tender in charac- ter. (i) Large Proportion of High Priced Meat. To be profitable on the block the beef animal must be endowed by Nature with a broad back, which covers thickly with meat as the fattening process nears completion. The importance of the broad, thick back will be at once apparent by re- ferring to Fig. i, which shows the location of each market cut of beef and the retail price per pound in the average Western market. The price which the consumer is willing to pay for these different cuts is a good criterion of their relative values. In the markets of large Eastern cities, where there is more wealth, the choicer cuts sell relatively higher, because there is a greater demand for them. PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Figure 1. Angus steer, side view, showing butcher's cuts Live weight, 1,550 Ibs. ; dressed weight, 1,046 Ibs. Retail prices (western): (1) neck, 40 Ibs. at 4 cts.; (2) chuck, 237 Ibs. at 7 cts.; (3) prime of rib, 117 Ibs. at 12% cts.; (4) porter- house steak, 103 Ibs. at 18 cts. ; (5) sirloin steak, 87 Ibs. at 15 cts. ; (6) rump, 36 Ibs. at 10 cts. ; (7) round steak, 183 Ibs. at 10 cts. ; (8) shank, 30 Ibs. at 2 cts. ; (9) flank, 52 Ibs. at 4 cts. ; (10) ribs plate, 138 Ibs. at 5 cts. ; (11) shank, 23 Ibs. at 2 cts. Figure 2. Jersey steer, side view, showing heavy middle and light bind quarters. BEEF TYPE. 117 Fig. 3 Rear view of the Angus and Jersey steers, showing strong contrast in the development of back, loin, rump, and thighs. (1) Rib cut from the Angus steers, wt. 117 lbs. t 11.1% of the carcass. (2) Rib cut from the Jersey steer, wt. 70 Ibs., 10.1% of the carcass. Il8 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. From the diagram it will also be seen that the hind quarter has valuable meat, though somewhat less valuable than the back. It is important, there- fore, that the finished steer should have a broad rump and full, wide thighs. The cheaper cuts are the plates, neck and shoulder, none of which should be excessively large. (2) Bone. The proportion of bone to meat should not be large, as the consumer does not wish to pay meat prices for bone. Some individuals possess altogether more bone than is necessary. This is particularly true of the unimproved types of cattle. To illustrate what has already been said con- cerning beef type, the reader is asked to compare the high-grade Angus steer shown in Fig. I with the high-grade Jersey, in Fig. 2. The Angus weighed 1,600 pounds and the Jersey 1,230 pounds, although the Jersey was three months older. The rations fed these steers were the same in character, and both animals were fat and ripe when slaugh- tered. The Jersey dressed 7 per cent less than the Angus; and of the 7 per cent more offal in the Jersey, 3 per cent consisted of fat deposited about the stomach, intestines and kidneys worth in the retail market 2 cents per pound. This is an illustra- tion of the greater dressing capacity of the good beef type over the inferior. The larger middle of the Jersey, as seen in the illustration, is entirely consistent with the figures given. By referring to Fig. 3 we have a rear view of the same two steers, showing the broad, thick back and loin, full rump and wide, full thighs of the Angus as compared with the Jersey. The fullness of flesh well down and toward the gambrel, permitting the retailer to cut round steak much lower on the Angus, is strongly brought out in the photograph. BEEF TYPE. In this case no one would maintain that the Jersey had as much high-priced meat as the Angus. The picture of the rib cuts in these two steers shows a larger proportion of this choice meat in the Angus. While the Jersey in the illustration does not show an extremely heavy bone, it is much more pro- nounced than in the Angus. The smooth, well- covered Angus has the appearance of a package of beef with only enough bone to give it permanency of form. In the Jersey, or inferior butcher's type, bone stands out prominently hips, shoulders and ribs being poorly covered. (3) Predominance of Lean Desirable. Individ- ual specimens vary considerably in the proportion of fat to lean. In a recent carcass test with high- grade Angus steers fed in the same manner, the writer found that the lean muscle which extends over the back measured in one case four inches thick, while in another individual it measured four and three-fourths of an inch in thickness. The steer with a 4-inch muscle had a covering of ify inches of chine fat, while the steer with a 424-inch muscle had but I inch of fat covering. This differ- ence was not due to feed or breed, but rather to a difference in type. When undergoing judgment on foot, the steer whose back presented less fat and more lean showed a firmness under pressure of the hand, while the fatty steer was soft. (4) Evenness of Flesh. A certain amount of fat covering, however, is desirable, inasmuch as it pro- tects the lean during the ripening process. Meat is very much more tender and palatable after it has hung in the coolers a few weeks and has been allowed to ripen. If it is not covered with a layer of fat, it becomes tainted from exposure to the atmosphere. It is neither necessary nor desirable, however, to have the. fat layer excessively thick. I2O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. There are some individuals, more commonly in cer- tain beef breeds, which have a tendency to accumu- late fat in patches, or gobs. In the live animals this is most noticeable about the tail-head. It also occurs as rolls over the ribs. Such accumulations of fat are undesirable, because they must be cut off as so much tallow worth but a few cents per pound. Fat should not only be evenly distributed over the carcass, but a certain amount should also be found distributed between the fibers of lean as flakes. This makes the lean more tender and juicy. Ani- mals which have a firmness of flesh free from patches are likely to have this admixture of fat and lean. (5) Meat Fiber. Meat inclined to be coarse in fiber is less tender and palatable. Coarsness in bone and hair is usually associated with coarseness in meat grain. In the live animal we therefore have a guide which is indicative of quality in the grain of meat. Tenderness of fiber is a question of age more than of type. Old animals, no matter how good in type or finish, must be sold at a discount, because the meat will be tough. The three-year- old steer would not be considered past its prime in this respect. At any rate, the market makes no discrimination against three-year-old beeves be- cause of too much age, though more age than this is undesirable, even from the butcher's point of view. II. Feeder Requisites. The utility of the ani- mal on the block is in itself important, but it is not the only requisite of good type. An animal may fully satisfy the demands of the butcher, and yet not be profitable to the feeder because of failure to make satisfactory growth. From the feeder's viewpoint an animal (i) should be capable of mak- ing large daily gains from a given supply of food, and (2) should mature early. BEEF TYPE. 121 Gaining Propensity. In the capacity for making gains, we find a wide variation among individuals of the bovine race. Some steers are known to have gained as high as four pounds per day for a short period, while others, even under forced feeding, have gained but one pound per day. A difference of 50 per cent in the rapidity of making gains is not at all unusual, even when in the same condition of flesh. The big gainers consume more feed, because they have stronger powers of assimilation, but they are more economical feeders, inasmuch as less food is consumed to make a pound of increase in weight. The capacity for making gains is largely a question of inherent vigor and active powers of assimilation. External Indications of Gaining Capacity. For- tunately for the man who buys cattle for the feed-lot, there are certain external qualities which serve as an index to feeding capacity. ( I ) The abdominal cav- ity, occupying the middle of the animal, should be roomy. A steer, slender and tucked up in body, is un- able to utilize a large amount of feed and therefore cannot make heavy gains. There should be not only good depth and breadth of body in the abdominal region, but this breadth and depth should extend for- ward to include the chest cavity. (2) A lack of width through the chest would indicate that the vital organs, including lungs and heart, are restricted in development. An animal having poor chest develop- ment is invariably a slow feeder. This seems reason- able in view of the fact that the lungs and heart play so important a part in purifying the blood and for- cing it to circulate throughout the entire system. The blood being the medium which carries off worn- out tissue and replaces it with fresh matter taken from the digestive tract, is a most important factor in digestion and assimilation. If there is a lack of lung development indicated by narrow chest, slen- 122 'ROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Good feeder but poor butcher's type. Grade Angus steer ; age, two years, ten months ; weight, 1,850 Ibs. A remarkable feeder, as indicated by a powerful chest and large abdomen, but a poor killer because of too much forequarter, excessive plates and gobby fat. This steer was the heaviest of a lot of twelve choice Angus steers, but his carcass was valued at $1 per cwt. below the others. A South Omaha "sunfish." An inferior type from the viewpoint of both butcher and feeder. BEEF TYPE. 123 der neck at the base, and small nostril the oxida- tion, or purification, of the blood must be corre- spondingly slow. . (3) An active, healthy cir- culation of blood, and active digestion and as- similation are also indicated by the character of the skin and the hair. The outer skin is a continuation of the inner skin, which constitutes the stomach and the intestines. If the outer skin is dry and harsh, lacking in pliableness, we may expect a poorly nourished inner skin. A soft, pliable skin, cov- ered with a thick, mossy growth of soft, fine hair, oily in appearance, is almost a certain indication of active digestion and assimilation of food. Drawing the skin between thumb and forefinger is the surest way of determining its handling quality. In buy- ing steers for the feed-lot, however, this is not often possible, because of the timidity of the animal. A feeder of long experience learns to associate a bright, healthy coat of luxuriant hair with gaining capacity. He learns to avoid the skin having the appearance of being drawn tightly over the body. These are qualities which may be observed by the eye. Gaining Capacity a Question of Type Rather Than Breed. The ability to make rapid and eco- nomical gains is, therefore, a question of type rather than of breed. Several experiment sta- tions have at various times conducted so-called breed tests, in which one or two specimens of each breed, both dairy and beef, have been fed in comparison with steers of unknown breeding, com- monly called scrubs. These tests have not proved that one breed is superior to another, nor that steers of the beef breeds are superior as gainers to all dairy bred steers and natives. Where a representative of a cer- tain breed made the largest gain in one test, a repre- sentative of a different breed came out ahead in another 124 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. GOOD TYPE GRADE HERE- FORD. Age, one year and six months ; weight, 1,065 pounds; gain 2.3 pounds per day. INFERIOR TYPE GRADE HEREFORD. Age, one year and ten months ; weight, 900 pounds ; gain, one peund per day. BEEF TYPE. 125 test. These tests have been unsatisfactory from a feeding point of view, because not enough individuals of any one breed were used. They have been of value, in that it has been abundantly shown that rapidity of gains is a question of type and condition, not of breed. We often find native steers with strong, vigorous con- stitutions and they are good gainers, at least for a limited period. Steers from a dairy breed like the Hol- stein-Friesian usually have strong assimilative powers, and there is no reason why they should not make large daily gains. We find an occasional Jersey of good feeding capacity. Most individuals of this breed, how- ever, are of more delicate constitution and do not re- spond so well in the feed-lot. In a recent test at the Nebraska Experiment Station, grade Angus and Here- ford steers two years old gained 75 pounds per month, while Jerseys of the same age, fed in the same way, inferior in type, gained but 50 pounds per month. The beef steers required 7>^ pounds of grain for one pound of increase, while the Jersey steers consumed 8^ pounds of grain for one pound of increase in weight. This much is true : there are many more desirable feed- ing types to be found in the improved beef breeds than in dairy breeds or natives of unknown breedings. On this subject of the relation of type to gaining capacity the Illinois Experiment Station has re- cently furnished the most satisfactory and reliable data yet found. Six different market grades, 16 in each lot, were fed the same rations. These were what are called fancy, choice, good, medium, com- mon and inferior. Unfortunately, some classes were considerably heavier than others, which puts them at a disadvantage and therefore gives us less satisfactory results for a comparison of each of the six grades. But for a comparison of the two principal classes, good and common, we have valuable 126 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. data. The average initial weight of the 48 steers of the three best grades, fancy, choice and good, was 1,022.8 pounds each. The average weight of the 48 steers of the three poor classes, called medium, com- mon and inferior, was 984 pounds each. We thus see that if there is any advantage on account of lighter weights to begin with, it is. in favor of the common steers. The average daily gain of the good steers was 2.48 pounds per day; of the common steers, 2.10 pounds per day. The good steers consumed 11.37 pounds of dry matter for one pound of increase in weight, while the common steers consumed 12.66 pounds of dry matter for one pound of increase. This was n per cent larger gains in favor of the good steers over the inferior from the same weight of food consumed. Early maturity means the tendency of an indi- vidual to become sufficiently fat at an early age to satisfy the demands of the market. The importance of this will be better understood by giving a few figures. If an average steer is well fed with grain from the age of twelve months to the completion of his third year, he will gain, as a yea-ding, about two pounds per day; as a two-year-old, about ij^ pounds per day; and as a three-year-old, i l / 2 pounds per day. He therefore makes the largest daily gain in early life and makes it on less food. If, how- ever, we compare a thin two-year-old with a thin yearling, we shall find the former capable of making the heavier gains, though less economically. Avera- ging six different trials where accurate records were kept of gains and cost of food, it is found that during the first 12 months each 100 pounds of increase in weight costs $3.45 ; the second 12 months in the same animal, $7.42 ; and the third 12 months, $11.50. It is apparent, therefore, that if a steer can be made ripe for market before he reaches the BEEF TYPE. 127 age of three years, the profits will be co.nsiderably greater. Some steers, no matter how well fed, can- not be made sufficiently fat at the age of two years. Their increase in weight is in the nature of growth of frame rather than thickness of meat. The tendency to mature early under liberal feeding is a question of type, or conformation. Twenty-five years ago practically no beef steers were marketed as two-year-olds. This was partly because most cattle were then of the late-maturing type and could not be made sufficiently fat at two years, and partly because the markets then called for heavier cat- tle. Today the well-rounded i,2oo-pound two-year-old commands practically as high a price per pound as the large-framed three-year-old of equal flesh. Because of this and the fact that the younger steers are more economical feeders, as previously shown, it is impor- tant for the feeder to be able to select the early-matur- ing kind. On the range and in the farming dis- tricts, we find both the early and late-maturing types, although during recent years breeders have been selecting for earlier maturity, and conse- quently there are many more individuals of that type than formerly. Exterior Indications of Early Maturity. The feeding steer to mature early must be compact and blocky in build. The long-legged, lanky kind, wide- spaced from hip to rib, is invariably one which will require an extended period of forced feeding to be made fat enough for market. Such steers in a feed-lot must be withdrawn and fed longer, or sold at a sacri- fice. If they are fed until finished, others must be carried beyond the profitable stage for marketing. The shape of the head and neck is often a help in selecting steers for early maturity. Usually a short, broad head and short, thick neck go with a short, broad body and short legs. It is always the low- 128 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. BEEF TYPE. 129 I3O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. down, blocky steers which mature early. In some individuals the early-maturing type is carried to the extreme, in which case there is often a lack of size. Such individuals are most profitable when marketed as soon as fat, regardless of size. Blocky Steers Easier Keepers. It is worthy of note, too, that the blocky, early-maturing steers are also easier keepers, in that they require less grain in proportion to hay for laying on flesh and keeping in good condition. This is well shown in the records of 12 low-down, blocky, Angus steers marketed by the Nebraska Experiment Station. During the first winter, as calves, six made an average gain of 33 pounds each per month on prairie and alfalfa hay, without grain. The remaining six gained 60 pounds per month on but four pounds of mixed grain each per day, with a liberal allowance of hay. The following summer all were given grass only, and the second winter a light grain ration. They were finished with grain on grass the next summer, and in November, at the age of 29 months, averaged 1,480 pounds each, and were g*ood enough for Christmas beeves. During the two years, these steers consumed but 5.7 pounds of grain for one pound of increase in weight, or about 15 per cent less than is ordinarily required with common grades. The Ideal Beef Steer. From what has been said on butcher's type and on feeder's type, it will be seen that while certain qualities are desirable from both points of view, there are other qualities in which the butcher and feeder are at variance in their demands. As already pointed out, the feeder wants a steer with good bone, a good roomy paunch and deep, broad chest, while the butcher considers undue development in such parts objectionable, be- cause of excessive waste and too large a proportion BEEF TYPE. 'Shamrock" Grand Champion steer at the Chicago International Live Stock Exposition, 1902. Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. 'Clear Lake Jute" Grand Champion steer, Chicago International Live Stock Exposition, 1904 Reserve Champion, 1903. Uni- versity of Minnesota. 132 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. of the less valuable meat. Giving both butcher and feeder due consideration, a certain standard of per- fection, called "scale of points," has been adopted for the beef steers, in which each part of the animal is given a numerical value according to its impor- tance, the whole footing 100 per cent for what would be a perfect animal. The following, sug- gested by Craig, is in use among most agricul- tural colleges. The writer has submitted it to the leading judges of England, Scotland and Amer- ica. Some have suggested slight changes ; others make none. It is quite possible that somewhat more importance should be given to chest, rump and thigh, although these parts are all included in "form," which is given 10 points. Score-card for Beef Steer General appearance: Weight, according to age 10 Form, straight top line and underline; deep, broad, low set, stylish 10 Quality, firm handling, hair fine, pliable skin, dense bone, evenly fleshed 10 Condition, deep even covering of firm flesh, especially in regions of valuable cuts 10 Head and neck: Muzzle broad, mouth large, jaw wide, nostrils large.... 1 Eyes large, clear, placid 1 Face short, quiet expression 1 Forehead broad, full 1 Ears medium size, fine texture 1 Horns, fine texture, oval, medium size 1 Neck thick, short, throat clean 1 Forequarters : Shoulder vein, full 2 Shoulders, covered with flesh, compact on top, smooth .... 2 Brisket advanced, breast wide 1 Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping 1 Legs straight, short; arm full, shank fine, smooth 2 Body: Chest, full, deep, wide, girth large, crops full 4 Eibs, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 Back, broad, straight, smooth, even 10 Loin, thick, broad ( . 8 Flank, full, even with underline 2 BEEF TYf E. 133 Hindquarters : Hips, smoothly covered, distance apart in proportion with other parts 2 Eump, long, wide, even, tail head smooth, not patchy. ... 2 Pin bones, not prominent, far apart 1 Thighs, full, deep, wide 2 Twist, deep, plump 2 Purse, full, indicating fleshiness 2 Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2 Total , 100 The score-card, while of no particular use to an experienced and competent judge in making show ring awards, is of value to the amateur in mak- ing a detailed examination of an animal. By its use he learns the relative importance of the various parts of the animal and becomes more familiar with what constitutes ideal beef type. After the correct type is fairly well fixed in mind, its further use is not recommended. More can then be accomplished by close comparisons of individuals without re- ferring to a score-card. To a man conducting feeding operations, a fair conception of what constitutes the most desirable type in beef cattle is of the utmost value. In buy- ing feeders on the market, where the assortment is large and prices asked for different lots are ex- tremely variable, injudicious purchases are easily possible, and are often made. Sometimes too much is paid for the choicer grades, when the less desir- able kinds are offered at a price below their real value. Usually the better grades are more profita- ble in the end, even at prices somewhat higher. This is particularly true when feed is high-priced. When a purchase is made, the privilege is often given the buyer to cull out a stated number. Ina- bility to discover the most undesirable individuals in a lot, will result in a useless scaling of profits from feeding. 134 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. The Selection of a Herd Bull for Dairy Herd of Grade Cows. While we have been depending very largely upon the range country for our feed- ing steers, many cattle are now being both grown and fattened on farming lands. In order that we may breed good cattle for feeding purposes, it is highly important that we give to the selection of the herd bull the consideration it deserves. Since "Like begets like" is a fundamental law of breed- ing, we must naturally seek in the herd bull the same general type that is most desirable in the market steer. We could hardly expect broad- backed, thick-quartered steers from fish-backed, peaked bulls, nor a low-down, early-maturing type from a rangy sire. Whatever, then, has been said concerning the desirable form for the steer will ap- ply as strongly to the bull. Prepotency. But no matter how perfect a bull may be in form, if he fails to transmit his characters to his offspring he is not a satisfactory animal. To be prepotent he must have been bred pure for several generations, or until the characters are fair- ly well fixed the longer he has been bred pure the more firmly fixed are his characters. A grade or cross-bred bull seldom has firmly established characters, and therefore will not ordinarily re- produce his type with any degree of certainty. On the other hand, a line bred, or inbred, bull is likely to be very prepotent, because his breeding has been confined not only to one breed, but to a certain family in that breed. Close inbreeding, however, is not usually to be recommended in pure-bred herds, because it may result finally in a weakened constitution and oftentimes barrenness. For cross- ing upon grade cows, a bull of moderate inbreeding, good in conformation, is rather to be preferred. There are certain external characters denoting BEEF TYPE. 136 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. masculinity in individuals, which also indicate pre- potency. They are: a strong, broad head; a full, bright eye, showing vivacity; curly hair about the face; a thick, strong neck with a well-developed crest ; strong shoulders ; and a broad chest. A pure- bred bull, possessing these strongly masculine char- acters, bred to grade or mixed bred cows, is more than half the herd, because the offspring from such a mating are likely to resemble the sire much more than the dam on account of his greater prepotency. This is a matter which is too often overlooked in purchasing a bull. If a grade bull can be bought tor a small sum there is a temptation to reject the more costly pure-bred. One hundred and fifty dol- lars more invested in a good pure-bred bull means a cost of one dollar more per calf, assuming that the bull gets thirty calves per year for a period of five years. This is rather an insignificant sum in comparison with the increased value of a calf from such a sire. A pure-bred bull, inferior in type, is for the same reason worse than a mixed-bred of the same type, because more of his calves are likely to be inferior. No one, whether ranchman or farmer, with a fair-sized herd of cows, should be content with anything less than a pure-bred bull of good conformation and quality, whether it be a Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus or Galloway. The choice of breeds will depend more upon locality, and is less important than the selection of a good individual. The Profitable "Farmer's Cow." In farming dis- tricts, where land is high priced, the dairy cow is rapidly growing in popular favor. In fact, it is now generally admitted that anywhere outside the so-called grazing territory, or range, a grade cow to be profitable must be a good milker, as it does not pay to keep a cow one year for the calf she BEEF TYPE. 137 Shorthorn bull "Choice Goods" an American and English cham- pion and a noted breeding sire. Tebo Land and Cattle Com- pany, Clinton, Missouri. Hereford bull "Prime Lad." An American champion. Van Natta & Sons, Fowler, Indiana. W. H. 138 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. produces, unless it be in a locality where farming land is best suited for pasturing purposes. The butter or cheese made from a good cow amounts to $40 or $50 per year, which, deducting the cost of labor, much more than pays for the feed she con- sumes. But cows pre-eminently suited for economical milk production are not satisfactory beef producers, nor are the calves when such cows are bred to dairy bulls, as has been shown. Since a good cow, properly handled, may be milked with profit for a period of at least eight years, and during this time will produce, upon an average, four heifer calves, it is apparent that for maintaining a dairy herd of cows, only one-fourth the cow herd need be bred each year to a dairy bull, or the entire herd may be bred to such a bull once in four years. All other calves are available for beef production and should be sired by a beef bull. Bulls of Extreme Beef Tendencies Most Suitable for Beef Calves from Dairy Cows. It is important in selecting a beef bull that he should carry the type to the extreme, in order to cover up, as it were, the dairy type of the dam. He should be extremely low set, closely coupled, broad over the back and loin, wide and deep quartered and natu- rally thick-fleshed, possessing in a marked degree easy keeping qualities. A mixed-bred, heavy-milk- ing cow mated with such a bull will produce a calf which, if not the choicest beef type, will be found entirely satisfactory in the feed lot quite above the average range steer. The writer's experience upon a farm, where such a system is still in practice, has been limited to the use of pure-bred Shorthorn and Angus bulls upon grade Shorthorn and Holstein milch cows. The results were most satisfactory with a low-down, compact, pure Scotch Shorthorn bull and an Angus BEEF TYPE. 139 bull of the same type. A large number of the cows produced enough milk to suckle two calves each, for a period of five months, and a third calf the remaining five months. A part of the herd acted in this capacity, the larger portion of the milk being used for cheese making. Calves so handled are very good for the production of baby beef; and, with a large herd of dairy cows to consume the roughness, the method of heavy grain feeding to be pursued with the calves for the production of baby beef is a most satisfactory one. The heifer calves from such sires are also fed out for young beef, rather than reserved for dairy purposes, be- cause of their beef tendencies. Old cows are re- placed from outside sources, or a few of the best milkers are bred annually to a dairy bull, vealing all male calves from such matings. The Angus bull now in service has produced three crops of calves, all black or dark gray in color, and with but one out of ninety having horns, though several had small rudimentary ones about one inch in length. These calves , were mostly from grade Shorthorn cows leaning toward the dairy type. The heifers in the first crop sold in the fall, as -yearlings finished on blue grass, at $4.50 per hundred, while the steers were grain fed as "long yearlings," weighing, at 23 months, 1,200 pounds each, and bringing $6.10 on the market, or 15 cents below top prices for heavy cattle. At the Nebraska Experiment Station a Short- horn-Jersey cow which produced 375 pounds of butter per year for five years, when bred to a pure- bred Hereford bull gave birth to a calf which weighed 1,300 pounds at 22 months of age, fairly good in type, though peaked behind. The following year from an Angus bull the cow produced a calf I4O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. which weighed 1,200 at 21 months of age, better in type than the Hereford; and a year later from a Shorthorn sire, a calf weighing 1,250 at 21 months, equal in quality to the Angus, both being broad behind and fairly well covered, though less thickly than high grade steers of the beef breeds good enough, however, to sell near the top of the market. Calves from Jersey cows bred to beef bulls are less satisfactory for beef production than are those from other dairy breeds. Such cows are small in size, less robust in constitution, and it is quite im- possible to produce anything but peaked hind quar- ters, so objectionable to the feeder. If the Jersey cow has considerable blood of another breed the calves are likely to be better for beef purposes. It is not unusual for grade Shorthorn cows of dairy conformation to give twenty quarts of milk per day. Such cows are excellent for producing beef calves, when bred to blocky, thick-fleshed bulls. The Hoi- stein cow is our heaviest milker. She is also large in scale, strong in constitution, and active in assimi- lative powers. When pure she is unusually persis- tent in transmitting her own characters to off- spring. A grade Holstein cow, however, bred to a beefy bull, usually produces a fairly good feeding animal, though later maturing and coarser than the Shorthorn. It was a common Shorthorn-Holstein grade cow, bred to an extraordinary pure-bred Hereford bull, which produced Challenger, the In- ternational Champion steer for 1903. While this is more than should be expected from such a cow, it could hardly be called accidental on her part, since she produced the following year another calf from the same bull, which won second place in a strong class of grade steers at_the International show. The Iowa Experiment Station, in making a sum- mary of results as published in Bulletin 48, issued BEEF TYPE. 14! in 1900, says concerning the combining of dairying and beef making: "r. From the results so far obtained through these trials it is evident that a system whereby dairying and meat making may be combined is the most promising in profits. Not only do the steers from cows bred with this combination in view yield as much profit as those from the range, but the cows when used for dairy purposes make profitable returns. "2. The data secured through the actual work of establishing a herd of this kind and the actual test of the cows in the dairy and steers in the feed-lot show that it is not only possible to combine these qualities to a profitable degree, but also to perpetuate them if the herd is bred especially for them. "3. In the commercial production of beef through a combination of dairying and beef mak- ing it is necessary that the calves are removed from their dams when two or three days old so as to develop and preserve the milking qualities of the cows." Angus bull "Bugler." Showing extreme development of masculine character. Very blocky, and useful for producing beef calves from dairy cows. University of Nebraska. 142 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. CHAPTER XII. SHELTER AND FEED-LOT FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. The shelter problem in cattle feeding is of im- portance, since it influences materially the cost of producing beef. When it is understood that the temperature of the animal body under normal con- ditions is 98 Fahrenheit, it is apparent that a con- siderable part of the day's ration must go to pro- duce heat, much of which is constantly leaving the body by radiation from the surface. This loss is most rapid when the temperature of the air is con- siderably below the normal temperature of the body. On cold winter days, for example, when the body is fully exposed, the loss is very great, and there is in consequence a heavier draft upon the food for fuel purposes. Cattle are endowed by nature with a thick skin and a good coat 'of hair to check this loss of heat by radiation, and this protection during moderate weather is sufficient. Then, too, after having been fed for beef for some time cattle have more or less fat distributed over the body just underneath the skin, and this gives addi- tional protection. Such cattle generate more or less heat as a by-product, as it were, during the rapid as- similation of food, which serves to warm the body, more especially when the ration is highly carbonaceous. Because of this fact, if fattening cattle are confined in closed barns, as is sometimes practiced particu- larly in Eastern States they are likely to be un- comfortably warm too warm for a good appetite and large gains. On the other hand, the Western '43 144 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. practice of feeding cattle outdoors, unprotected in any way, requires the consumption of considerable food solely for the purpose of heat lost by ex- cessive radiation, which food is far more costly than shelter. The Missouri Shelter Tests. The Missouri Ex- periment Station during several successive winters conducted tests to determine the influence of shel- ter upon gains. Each winter two-year-old steers were divided into three lots ; one was provided with a closed but well-ventilated barn, another with a shed closed on all sides except the south, and a third with an open yard, a tight fence being the only protection. These cattle were all cared for in exactly the same way, each lot being given a ration consisting of corn and timothy hay and those in the barn allowed the run of a yard on pleasant days. The average results for each steer in the several lots were as follows: the average daily gain per steer in the closed barn was 1.7 pounds, in the shed 1.92 pounds, and in the open yard 2.05 pounds. The barn steers consumed 10.6 pounds of corn for each pound of gain, the shed steers 10.4 pounds, and the open yard steers 9.98 pounds. Combining both hay and grain, the barn steers consumed 14.79 pounds of feed for one pound of gain, the shed steers 14.12 pounds, and the open yard steers 14.22 pounds. The results show in favor of the shed and open yard steers as compared with the steers fed in the barn. The difference in favor of the shed steers in this series of experiments is hardly great enough to pay for building sheds. Had the ration been a balanced one instead of being excessively starchy, the result would undoubtedly have been still more favorable for the use of the shed as com- pared with the open yard. Corn and timothy hay were used, because that combination is one common- ly fed in Missouri. Director Waters, the experi- SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. 145 menter, says: "While the difference between the gains of the bunches in the open shed and the open lot do not indicate a large advantage in favor of the open shed, yet from every point of view it seems fair to say that where much winter feeding is to be done it will be profitable to provide suit- able shelter for the cattle, the feed and the manure, and particularly to give the cattle a dry place on which ; to lie. From these experiments it does not appear to be necessary or profitable to attempt to make such quarters warm." In a Kansas test 10 per cent of the feed was saved by providing an open shed. The Pennsylvania experiments also show in favor of shelter. As a result of several thousand letters of in- quiry sent out by the Missouri Experiment Station to cattle feeders in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Nebraska, it was found that 17.6 per cent of those re- sponding favored the closed barn, 59.2 per cent the open shed and 23.2 per cent the open lot. From the investigations in Missouri and other States it is ap- parent that there is danger of overhousing as well as underhousing fattening cattle. Such cattle are not likely to be uncomfortable, even during cold weather, so long a*s they are protected from cold winds and have a dry bed. The latter is more necessary than is ordinarily supposed and a roof is no doubt worth more than its cost for this pur- pose. It would seem that in the Northern States especially, some sort of a shed open on the side opposite prevailing winds is most satisfactory for fattening cattle. Shelter for Stock Cattle. For stock cattle the sit- uation is different. They- are not crowded with grain and do not have so much fat for protection. A small animal also presents a larger surface in propor- tion to weight than does a larger one, making the loss of heat from radiation relatively greater. The Mis- 146 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. souri Experiment Station carried on shelter tests with stock cattle as well as fattening cattle. - In com- menting upon the results of the test with light cattle in contrast with fattening cattle, Director Waters says: "We have carried on this experi- ment for four years with yearlings, one winter feeding them on hay only and three winters on a small quantity of corn and what timothy hay they would eat. The result was altogether the other way. The bunch in the barn came out in the best condition by far, with a better coat, etc. It would be the same way with any other class of cattle if due care is taken not to overhouse and to keep their quarters well ventilated." Young cattle, especially when fed largely upon hay, need shelter closed on all sides, with enough open doors on one side to permit them to pass in and out at will. There should be enough openings to give good ventilation at all times. Location of the Feed-lot. In choosing a loca- tion for the feed-lot, attention should be given to drainage and natural protection. Whenever possi- ble, the yard should be situated on a south slope, so that water will drain off quickly after a rain and the ground will receive the full benefit of the sun's rays. Muddy yards are not conducive to good gains. This is a matter of common observation among feeders during winters when there is con- siderable rainfall. Experiment station records also show that monthly gains made when yards are muddy are considerably below the monthly gains made when yards are dry. In some cases the soil is sufficiently open to permit the rapid percolation of water downward, while in other localities the soil is so nearly impervious that pools form at the surface, or the water mixes with the clay to make a most dis- agreeable mud. At the Illinois Station, where such SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. 147 a condition exists, paving was found to be entirely practicable. Bedding, whether in barn or lots, should be used liberally, because it not only adds materially to the comfort of the animals, but it actually saves feed. One who has scattered a load of straw in a bare feed-lot will vouch for the statement that cattle are quick to lie down and rest when encouraged to do so. A condition of mud or frozen clods in the yards is greatly improved by using straw liberally. If it is thrown in one place, that spot becomes ele- vated and furnishes a dry and comfortable bed. A well-fed steer lying contentedly upon his side is making the best possible use of the feed in his stomach. He will not lie down in mud and filth until forced by exhaustion to do so. Standing or walking means an unnecessary muscular exertion, which requires food. Fattening cattle should be kept as quiet as possible. No better use can be made of wheat straw or refuse hay and stalks than to scatter them about for bedding, where such ma- terial will also serve as an absorbent of liquid manure. Salt should be given regularly to all kinds of cat- tle. To make sure that enough is supplied to meet physiological requirements it is advisable to keep it before them at all times. A box of salt may be nailed to the side of the fence where cattle will have free access to it, or, better still, underneath the shed, where it will keep dry. When supplied in this way cattle will not eat more than is good for them, unless the box is allowed to become empty for a time. If cattle become hungry for salt, they are greedy and eat so much that the tissues are made dry, owing to the strong affinity of salt for water; this causes such intense thirst that water in excess is imbibed to the detriment of digestion and assimilation. 148 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Ground rock or common pulverized salt is prefer- able to rock salt, though the latter is preferred by some for cattle on pasture, because it is not dissolved by rains. The chief objection to the latter is that cattle are required to spend too much time licking the rock, which time would be better spent" eating grass. Another objection to rock salt is that its rough surface may cause the tongue to become sore. For summer feeding, a box of com- mon salt kept underneath a swinging cover or a roof built at some central point in the pasture is most satisfactory, although regular salting once a week is not a bad practice, inasmuch as cattle on grass without grain are sometimes left unobserved for long periods, when they should be counted and otherwise inspected at frequent intervals. Pure water should be made accessible to cattle both winter and summer. The system calls for water to serve in the elaboration of animal compounds and to transport these compounds from place to place in the body. Tissues must always be kept moist. A large quantity of water leaves the animal with the breath and must be replaced. The water always present in foodstuffs is not sufficient to meet de- mands, and more must be supplied from outside sources. Animals never drink too much water under normal conditions. They will not drink enough for best gains if the water is in any way offensive, hence the importance of pure water. In cold weather cattle do not, as a rule, drink enough, because of the chill- ing effects of ice cold water. This is especially true with stock cattle and dairy cows. The milch cow, as already mentioned, must be given every possible inducement to drink freely, because in the elabora- tion of milk compounds more water is needed than in the elaboration of meat compounds. The tank SHELTER FACILITIES FOR BEEF CATTLE. 149 heaters described for dairy cows are also useful for steers during freezing weather. Dipping for lice, mange, etc., is preferably done when cattle first go into the feed-lot, if done at all, because a lighter shrinkage follows. In localities where such troubles are common, it is wise to em- ploy this safeguard. With a good dipping plant the process can be made a short one and any of the approved dipping solutions, whether the sulphur- lime or coal tar preparations, may be purchased at a small cost. A pair of good backs "Challenger II" and "Stanton," University of Nebraska. CHAPTER XIII. BABY BEEF. In discussing the details of feeding for beef it is taken for granted that the reader has gone over the chapters on general principles in feeding all classes of live stock and those chapters on feeding the dairy cow. Feeding the cow logically precedes feeding, the steer, and whatever was said concerning foods for the dairy cow applies in a general way to beef cattle, and should first be given consideration by the reader. In feeding for beef, the system to be practiced will depend upon the locality, and to some extent upon the season. In some sections the soil and climate are especially favorable for the production of grass and hay, but less so for corn, making the latter high in price; or feeding for pork may be carried on so extensively in some localities as to make grain in demand at strong prices and rough- ness a drug on the market. In other sections grain may be reasonably low and rough feed high in price. The season is a factor in any locality in so far as it affects prices on foodstuffs from year to year, necessitating the exercise of business sagacity in the use of those foodstuffs which go the farthest for the money. Feeding for beef resolves itself into two general methods : the production of early fattened beef, which is called "baby beef" when carried to the extreme, and the production of older beef by a larger use of rough- ness and a more gradual process of grain feeding. Arguments for Baby Beef. On those farms 150 BABY BEEF. Igl where roughness can be profitably used in other ways, the production of early beef has two distinct advantages. I. Young stock require less food for a given gain than older stock. Records show that for each succeeding year up to the age of three or four years nearly 50 per cent more food is required for a given increase in weight than was required the year previous. Much of this difference is no doubt due to the fact that as the steer grows older and larger, he also be- comes heavier in flesh, which always means smaller gains from a given weight of food. At the Illinois Experiment Station in 1904 one car-load each of range-bred calves, yearlings and two-year-olds was purchased from Wyoming. None having been ac- customed to grain, they were therefore uniformly thin in flesh. Each lot was given the same kind of food, viz., corn which had been run through an ensilage cutter, cotton-seed meal, alfalfa hay and some oat straw and shredded corn stover. De- ducting the pork produced, the net cost of pro- ducing loo pounds of gain on the calves was $4.10, on the yearlings $5.60 and on the two-year-olds $6.60. This means that the cost of producing gains was 37 per cent more on yearlings than on calves, and 18 per cent more on two-year-olds than on yearlings. The calves weighed at the begin- ning 384 pounds, the yearlings 784 pounds and the two-year-olds 1,032 pounds each. That young ani- mals make better use of food seems entirely rea- sonable in view of the fact that nearly half of a full feed is required for maintaining a constant weight. The larger the animal the more food is required to keep up body heat, replace worn out tissues, force the blood to circulate and do other necessary work ; and a smaller proportion is therefore converted into flesh and fat. 152 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. II. The same capital invested in young stock produces more beef than in older stock. The man who produces his own feeders also realizes his profits sooner in baby beef than in older beef. The existing conditions favorable to early feeding are (i) the availability of low-down, blocky types of cattle which respond well to early heavy feeding, putting on fat and -flesh rapidly without a large development of bone; and (2) the status of the present day market, which pays practically as much for small cattle of high finish as for the larger i,4oo-pound cattle more com- mon in former days. Whole Milk Calves Best for Making Early Baby Beef. For the production of early baby beef, calves which have been allowed plenty of whole milk fresh from the cow are most suitable, because they are in better flesh at weaning time. Such calves should be fed grain just as soon as they can be encouraged to eat. A mixture consisting of equal parts of whole oats, bran and shelled corn is very satisfactory for young calves receiving milk. Whole grain is ordi- narily more attractive to calves than ground grain, because the whole grain is always fresh, while the ground grain is sometimes tainted from exposure to the air. Shelled corn is brittle and easily cracked by young calves. Probably no grain is more relished by them, regardless of the fact that it is too starchy for their good when fed alone. Bran, rich in protein, off- sets the starchy corn and with oats satisfies the craving for something bulky, needed to properly develop the ruminating powers. Bran is also an excellent bowel regulator, useful in connection with a whole milk diet. Oats tend to check scours in all animals. No single food is better to supplement milk for growing calves than whole oats, but the mixture of the three foods is more satisfactory. If bran is not available, one-half the same quantity of oil-meal or BABY BEEF. 1 5 3 gluten meal could be used instead. Grain feeding be- fore weaning not only saves milk, but, more than that, it lessens the shrinkage which is likely to fol- low weaning. By full feeding on grain at weaning time, very little shrinkage is occasioned when the milk is withdrawn entirely. Feed After Weaning. The secret of feeding after weaning is to hold the milk flesh and keep the calf putting more on top. At this age it is natural for a calf to develop frame. If flesh and fat are to keep pace with this bone development, heavy grain feeding is the only recourse. All the grain the calf can be made to consume without taking the edge off his appe- tite is the best guide to follow. This is where skill and watchfulness are rewarded. At this stage the calf should have about one-half corn, one-fourth oats and one-fourth bran. With spring calves a late summer pasture of blue-grass will furnish any protein lacking in the grain ration. If no blue-grass pasture is avail- able and the calves are stable-fed, the roughness should consist very largely of clover or alfalfa, since both of these plants are rich in protein and are relished by calves. Feed During the First Winter. In producing baby beef there should be no cessation of heavy grain feeding. The first winter, corn should be increased to form at least 60 per cent of the grain ration. If oats are high in price, as they usually are in com- parison with corn, it is better economy to feed three-quarters corn and one-quarter bran, or, if bran is high, seven-eighths corn and one-eighth oil meal. Should the roughness consist in part of corn stover, timothy or prairie hay, somewhat less corn and a little more bran or oil meal should be used, since such forms of roughness, are, like corn, too starchy. In the absence of clover, alfalfa, or cow- pea hay, 20 per cent of oil meal could be used. All: 154 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. the rough feed such beeves will take should be sup- plied. With the close of winter, at the age of 12 months, a calf under such treatment should weigh from 800 to 1,000 pounds and be fat enough to market. Finishing Baby Beeves on Grass. It is often more profitable to full feed on grass until about July I, since cheap gains can be secured during the summer with corn on grass, and somewhat less grain would be required the previous winter. If some feed like oil meal, cottonseed meal or gluten feed can be had at a reasonable price, it could profitably form 10 per cent of the grain ration, and if the pasture is timothy or prairie grass, 15 to 20 per cent would be needed. Baby beeves 14 to 18 months old, weighing from 900 to 1,200 pounds, are more profitably handled by packers than are heavy cattle in summer, and are therefore in greater demand at that season. Skim Milk Calves for Baby Beef. Skim milk calves are as a rule larger in frame, carrying less flesh at weaning time than the calf well nourished on whole milk. It is for this reason that skim milk calves can seldom be finished for baby beef before the age of sixteen or eighteen months has been reached. This, of course, depends largely upon the skill displayed in raising the calves. The condi- tion of flesh at an early age is also very largely gov- erned by the type of the animal, those on the short- legged, blocky order ripening much more quickly than the leggy kind. Heifer calves may be profitably made into baby beef for several reasons, (i) Heifer calves natu- rally take on flesh more rapidly than steer calves under like conditions. (2) They are not likely to be with calf at this early age, for which reason buyers are willing to pay as much per pound for a fat heifer under 18 months as for a steer of the same BABY BEEF. 155 quality and condition. (3) After a certain age is reached, usually about twelve months, heifers come in heat at intervals of 21 days. This period of heat lasts about two days, during which time not only the one individual loses in weight, but others in. the herd are more or less excited and lose there- by. This loss can only be overcome by watching the herd and by separating each animal that comes in heat which, of course, involves labor or by spaying all females. Spaying heifers is a much more difficult operation than castrating male calves, resulting in some shrinkage and not infrequently in the death of the animal. Feeding for baby beef is the best solution of the heifer problem. The prices on young "she stuff" at our Western markets are often such as to make the feeding of that class more profitable than steer feeding. Angus Baby Beeves fed by the Illinois Experiment Station. CHAPTER XIV. FEEDING YEARLING STEERS FOR BEEF. In the preceding chapter on "baby beef," the ad- vantages of early fattening were pointed out. But this method also has its limitations and its disad- vantages under certain conditions. Where beef raising is not carried on in connection with dairy farming, the cost of keeping the cow one year is charged to the calf she brings up. In other words, the calf, in starting upon its career of beef produc- tion, has hanging over it a debt for its creation. If the calf is sold at the age of twelve months, this sum, which may be only $12, is charged to one year's growth ; if sold at the age of 24 months it is distributed over two years' growth, making it $6 for each year. . The feeder market gives recog- nition of this fact by quoting calves about 25 per cent higher per pound than yearlings of equal qual- ity. Owing to the birth cost of an animal it is not always profitable to cut off its life too early. Then, too, in the production of baby beef, heavy grain feeding is resorted to from start to finish. In converting any concentrated feed, as grain, into meat, the pig is a much more economical pro- ducer than the steer. For example, up to 200 pounds in weight, a pig will consume during life an average of about four pounds of grain for each pound of increase in weight. In the production of baby beef marketed at the age of 16 months, there will be required nearly five pounds of grain and some roughness for each pound of increase. The ruminants cattle and sheep with their four 156 FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. 157 stomachs, are naturally consumers of roughness, in the large use of which the pig is handicapped and can not compete. There is grown on every farm considerable roughness in the shape of cornstalks, hay and the like, which would command but a very low figure if placed on the open market. It is for the utilization of this cheap roughness that the steer has a place. Only in the cow or sheep has he a substitute for this work. When such animals are not present in sufficient number to consume all roughness, then it is better economy to feed the steer more of such feed and correspondingly less grain, even though more time is required to get him on the market. This has been especially true during recent years, when corn has been high in price. With modern types of cattle, which natur- ally mature earlier than formerly, it is not neces- sary to extend the feeding period beyond the age of 24 months, even with a liberal feeding of rough- ness during the first year. Amount of Grain the First Winter. Just how much the grain ration may be profitably reduced the first winter is not definitely known. During two winters experiments have been carried on at the Nebraska Experiment Station to throw some light on the relative economy of hay with and without grain for calves. During the winter of 1901-02 Angus calves, weighing 500 pounds each, were divided into two lots, one lot fed hay without grain, the other fed four pounds of mixed grain per day. In both lots the hay was largely alfalfa of good quality, with just enough prairie hay to prevent scours. An average monthly gain of 33 pounds was secured on hay alone. The grain lot made an average gain of 60 pounds per month. With good hay, then worth $8 per ton, it was found that each 100 pounds of gain with grain cost but 158 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. $4.60, while without grain the same gain cost $6. This was a large saving in favor of light grain feeding during the first winter in comparison with no grain. The following summer, however, when both lots were placed in the same pasture, without grain, the steers previously given no grain made a gain of 10 pounds per month more than the winter grain fed calves. The latter, however, were enough better in quality to make this light grain feeding during the winter about 15 per cent less costly than without grain for the whole year. The following winter fifty Hereford steer calves were divided into three lots. One lot w r as fed hay alone, one hay and three pounds of grain daily, and the third hay and six pounds of grain daily. At this time alfalfa and prairie hay were each worth $6 per ton. The gain of those having no grain with hay cost $7 per hundred pounds, while the gain of those having three pounds of grain cost $4.95 per hundred, and those having six pounds of grain cost $4.35. By the end of the year, all having been summer pastured, without grain, at a cost of $4 per steer, the lot having three pounds of grain the previous winter made gains at a cost of $3.14 per hundred, while the lot receiving no grain made gains at a cost of $3.17, and the lot re- ceiving six pounds, $3.46 per hundred. No doubt the "no grain" calves consumed more grass, which would put them at a somewhat greater disadvan- tage than the figures denote. The records from these experiments, then, would indicate that, for the first year's feeding, a light grain ration during the winter with good roughness is more econom- ical, when no grain is fed the following summer, than either no grain, or a grain ration as high as six pounds per day. Character of the Ration. The successful utiliza- FEEDING YEARLING STEERS, 2 B l6o PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. tion of a large quantity of roughness during the first winter's feeding depends very largely on the kind supplied and its quality. Well cured alfalfa, clover and cowpea hay are best, because any of these, with corn, makes a fairly well balanced ration for calves; though a ration with so large a quan- tity of alfalfa contains really more protein than is necessary, and something like cornstalks, oat straw or cane, fed in small quantity with it, cheapens the ration and at the same time lessens its tendency to produce scours. Should the roughness consist en- tirely of timothy hay, prairie hay, cornstalks, sor- ghum, millet or straw, then it will be necessary to feed about three-fourths corn to one-fourth linseed or gluten meal. If bran is used it should form about half the grain ration with corn. Oats are not especially rich in protein, but when the price per- mits are a very useful adjunct to corn. Corn silage is excellent for wintering calves, if a little supple- mentary protein is supplied. Being succulent, it makes young cattle sappy and well prepared for future growth. Tabulated Rations for Calves. Following is a table showing the nutrients in each of two rations recommended for a 5oo-pound calf which is to be fattened as a yearling the following winter: Dry Carto- Nutritive matter. Protein, hydrates. Fat. ratio. Red clover, 12 Ibs 10.1 .82 4.29 .20 Corn, 3 Ibs 2.6 .24 2.00 .13 Total 12.7 1.06 6.29 .33 1:6.6 Alfalfa, 7 Ibs 6.4 .77 2.77 .09 Corn stover, 6 Ibs 3.6 .10 1.94 .04 Corn, 3 Ibs 2.6 .24 2.00 .13 Total,. . 12.6 1.11 6.71 .26 1:6.6 FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. l6l Fall and Winter Feeding. With good grass pas- ture, without grain, following a winter's feed con- sisting of roughness with three or four pounds of grain fed to each calf daily, a gain of 40 to 50 pounds per month may be expected during the en- tire year, and sufficient flesh will be put on to make practicable the second winter's heavy grain feeding. Yearling steers may be left on pasture as long as they have an abundance of feed and the weather is not too cold. In the more Northern States it is usually found advisable to remove from pasture field to feed-lot late in October or some time in November, unless provision is made for feeding some grain in the field. Yearling steers are less able to stand exposure to cold winds than are two-year-olds, for which reason they should go to the feed-lot fairly early. Not having been fed grain during the sum- mer, feeding should begin by making the ration very largely roughage, alfalfa, clover or cowpea hay pre- dominating, with either cornstalks, sorghum, prairie hay or oat straw to furnish variety and at the same time to act as a preventive of scours, which is not uncommon when alfalfa is fed in large quantity. About three pounds of grain per steer the first day is quite enough. There are usually some steers which do not eat grain the first day, and if more than this is supplied the others get too much. This amount may be increased one pound every other day until an allow- ance of nine pounds has been reached, when the further increase should be somewhat more gradual, say at the rate of not more than two pounds per week. With fifteen pounds per day at the end of the fifth week, the steers will be eating about all the grain they will care for, so long as good roughage is supplied in abundance. It is not practicable to weigh roughage for cattle. They should receive all they will con- sume without excessive waste. Coarse stems con- l62 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. tain but little nourishment, and cattle can hardly be expected to eat them. It is not economy to force cattle to clean out the racks containing rough feed so completely that they will consume less of such feed than they otherwise would, and therefore de- mand more grain. In no case let the change from grass to heavy grain feeding be made too sud- denly. The system must be given time to adapt itself to the new conditions; if not, digestive dis- orders may result, and this means no little sacri- fice to profits. Five weeks for this change is none too much time. Character of Rations. A yearling steer weighing, January i, from 800 to 900 pounds, supplied with 15 pounds of grain per day, will consume something like 8 pounds of hay. If this is alfalfa or cowpea hay, the grain, at average Western prices, for most profit- able gains should be corn alone, at least so far as investigations to date indicate. For most perfect digestion either shelled corn or corn meal is rather heavy. This compactness which prevents a ready admixture of digestive juices in the stomach is easily overcome by grinding cob and corn together, or by feeding crushed or broken husked or snapped corn, the latter name designating ear corn within the husk. When corn, cob and husk are passed to the stomach ground together in a Vnass, we have a mixture easily penetrated by the gastric juice and other digestive fluids and entirely safe for forced methods of feeding. Corn without cob is some- times made more bulky by mixing it with bran or cut hay, but usually at greater expense than with ground cob. With clover, however, bran is entirely practicable, inasmuch as a little more protein is then desirable, though if corn and cob meal is easily obtained, the extra protein is often more cheaply furnished in linseed, gluten or cottonseed meal. FEEDING YEARLING STEERS. 163 Without Legumes for Roughage Protein Concen- trates Are Needed. In feeding timothy or prairie hay, cane or any roughage of which one of the legumes clover, alfalfa or cowpea hay is not made a part, it is decidedly advantageous to use a protein concen- trate with corn, more so with yearling steers than with older cattle. From what has been said concerning the lack of protein, or flesh-making material, in corn and all hay plants except the legumes, it is at once ap- parent that a protein concentrate is needed. In a test at the Nebraska Station in 1904, yearling steers on corn and alfalfa made an average gain of 1.97 pounds per day during a six months' feeding period, while a lot on corn and prairie hay gained but 1.35 pounds per day. Thirty-six per cent more feed was re- quired for each pound of gain on corn and prairie hay than was required on corn and alfalfa, and, as the market price on both kinds of hay was the same, the cost of producing gains was correspondingly higher on corn and prairie hay. The net profit on corn and prairie hay was 38 cents per steer for the six months' feeding, while those in the alfalfa lot each returned a net profit of $8.66. In another lot, where the roughage consisted of prairie hay and the grain ration was 90 per cent corn and 10 per cent oil meal, the average daily gain was 1.91 pounds as compared with 1.35 pounds without oil meal. In this case 33 per cent more feed was required for each pound of gain when the oilmeal was left out of the ration. With prairie hay worth $6 per ton, corn 60 cents per hundred (33 cents per bushel) and oil meal $1.25 per hundred, each pound of gain without oil meal cost 21 per cent more than with oil meal, and each steer in this lot returned a net profit of $4.76 as compared with $.38 without oil meal. Where the oil meal was added the steers could be induced to take more feed, 164 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. which, no doubt, partially accounted for their more economical gains. The nutritive ratio of the oil meal ration was I pound of nitrogenous material to 8 pounds of the non-nitrogenous, while the nutritive ratio of the poorly balanced ration, consisting of corn and prairie hay without oil meal, was i : 10.4 yet the latter ration is one very largely used in the West. In a ration consisting of corn, 90 per cent; oil meal, 10 per cent; and corn stover (stalks without ears), in which the nutritive ratio was 1 :8, the daily gain was 1.96 pounds per steer, and the cost of pro- ducing gains just as cheap as on corn and alfalfa. This ration produced 9 per cent larger gains for the same weight of food consumed than were made on corn, 90 per cent; oil meal, 10 per cent; and sor- ghum hay, a ration in which the nutritive ratio was approximately 1 19. The 50 steers in the experiment described were finished for market at the age of 24 months, aver- aging 1,120 pounds each, when they sold for as much per pound as older cattle of the same qual- ity. These steers consumed during the first winter, as calves, an average of 2.9 pounds of grain each per day, and during the second winter, on full feed, 15.6 pounds each per day. For each pound of live weight at the time the steers were sold, they had consumed during both years an average of three pounds of grain and the same weight of hay. This, of course, does not include the milk and grass pas- ture received as calves, nor a second summer's pas- ture as yearlings. It confirms what has been said, that finishing "long yearlings" permits a larger use of roughage, requiring less grain per pound of beef than is required in the production of "baby beef/' CHAPTER XV. FATTENING STEERS WITH GRAIN ON PASTURE. Finishing Two-Year-Old Steers With Grain on Grass. In feeding out yearlings for a spring mar- ket, as just described, while the grain feeding is light the first winter, one is compelled to use grain very liberally all the second winter, in order to se- cure a marketable finish by May, and if the cattle are inclined to be a little rangy in type, it is .frequent- ly necessary to feed into June. Early June is often fairly cool in the Northern States, and the markets at this season for the lighter weights, like yearlings, are usually good; but later in the month hot weather becomes oppressive for fat cattle and flies begin to be troublesome, making it difficult to se- cure a reasonable gain. With a good pasture field on the farm, it is possible to save grain by feeding sparingly during the second winter as well as the first, finishing on grass the following summer. Some use no grain the early part of the second win- ter. At the New Mexico Station yearling steers gained 1.36 pounds per day on alfalfa alone, and at Arizona 1.5 pounds per day. In localities where corn is relatively high in price, and hay and grass are abundant, finishing steers on grass is often profitable. Cattle fed on grass re- quire less grain for a given increase in weight than when winter-fed on hay and grain. The nutritious and palatable grass seems to take the place of grain to a limited extent. There are two ways of feeding 165 1 66 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. grain on grass: one is spring and early summer, the other late fall and early winter feeding. Feeding Grain on Grass in Early Summer. As- suming that the steers have had a fairly liberal supply of grain the previous winter perhaps half a full-feed or more it is better to continue the grain on grass, supplying all they will take and market- ing as soon as ready, which will probably be some time in July. Great care should be exercised in mak- ing the change from dry hay to green grass. If it is sudden there is sure to be a shrinkage. Cattle are prone to fill up. on grass if given the first op- portunity, which brings on scours, often flushing out the system to such an extent that it means the loss of a month's growth. It is not likely to hap- pen if the change is made gradually. There are two ways of doing this. One is to turn the cattle on grass for but a short time at first, lengthening the period a little each day. The other is to allow the cattle the run of the pasture just as soon as the first blades appear in the spring. They are then able to get but very little grass at first, but more each day thereafter as the grass grows larger. There are two disadvantages, however, with this method of feeding. First, in early spring the sod is likely to be soft, becoming badly trampled if cattle are allowed to run upon it. This makes it neces- sary for cattle to be shut off for a few days in case of heavy rain, and they will eat too much grass when turned on again afterward. The second dis- advantage is that early pasturing does not permit so large a yield of grass, because it has no chance to make a start. A large blade can elaborate much more food from air and soil than one kept small by a continuous cropping off; for this reason a larger yield of grass can be had by keeping stock off the field until it is well started. Therefore, although it GRAIN ON PASTURE. l6? involves more labor, it is probably better to keep the cattle off pasture until the grass has a few weeks' growth, turning on for an hour the first day, increasing the length of time each succeeding day until the cattle remain permanently in the pasture. By this method they get grass very gradually, and do not shrink in consequence. Besides being a safe method, this is also a practical one when there are many in the herd. Character of the Grain Ration on Grass. On a pasture containing an abundance of clover the grain may consist entirely of corn, the clover sup- plying sufficient protein to make up what is lack- ing in corn. Alfalfa would do the same, though it has been found unsafe to pasture clear alfalfa be- cause of bloat. If timothy, brome-grass or some other grass is mixed with alfalfa this difficulty may be overcome. It was recently found at the Ne- braska Experiment Station that steers pastured on mixed grasses, consisting of blue-grass, brome- grass, meadow fescue, prairie grass and a little al- falfa made better gains when fed oil meal with corn than when fed corn alone. During a summer period of 30 weeks five two-year-old Angus steers were fed an average of 17.8 pounds of shelled corn each per day, making an average daily gain of 1.63 pounds. Another lot of five steers of the same kind were each fed 17.8 pounds of grain per day, consisting of 90 per cent shelled corn and 10 per cent oil meal. These steers made an average gain of 2. 02 pounds per day during the same time. The pasture was alike in both lots. Those fed corn and oil meal required but 8.8 pounds of grain for one pound of increase in weight, while those fed corn alone required 10.9 pounds. With pasture worth $3 per acre, corn worth at that time 33 cents per bushel, and oil meal $25 per ton, each 100 pounds i68 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Grade Angus steers used in the Nebraska Experiment. "Corn vs. corn and oil meal en grass." GRAIN ON PASTURE. of gain on corn alone cost 13 per cent more than on corn and oil meal. In this experiment, if the oil meal had cost $44 per ton, instead of $25, nothing would have been saved by feeding it. The results, though from but a single experiment and therefore not fully authoritative, indicate that corn and mixed grass of this kind do not supply sufficient protein. Those fed oil meal were much less troubled with scours, which may partially ac- count for the difference in favor of the oil meal lot. Cottonseed meal or gluten meal could be substi- tuted for the oil meal, or bran might answer the purpose, though fully twice as much, amounting to 20 per cent of the grain ration, would be needed. With pigs running behind the cattle, dry shelled corn may be used. Oil meal in nut form, the pieces be- ing about the size of kernels of corn, mixes very well with shelled corn, and blows out of open feed- ing bunks very much less than the finely ground meal. In this form, too, oil meal is less likely to be adulterated. Without hogs, corn should be fed ground or soaked. Soaking is cheaper, but care should be taken that it does not sour. In warm weather, shelled corn soaked 12 hours in a tight wagonbox will be quite soft and is not likely to sour. It will be understood that soaked corn should not be fed in such quantity that some will be left in the feed bunks to sour after the feed. Cattle two years old fed grain on grass in early summer can be made to make large gains, and they should be good enough to market before flies be- come very troublesome. To ship with small shrink- age, grass-fed cattle should be removed from the pasture one or two days before shipment and fed dry hay with little or no grain. If the cattle have had less rather than more than half a full feed of corn during the previous winter, 170 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. very satisfactory gains may be secured on good grass without grain. If the grass is dry rather than watery during mid-summer and fall, a fair quality of beef may be made without any corn for finishing, though enough better prices usually are obtained to make corn feeding profitable, noticeably so when corn is not too high priced. In a Nebraska test, when corn was worth 40 cents per bushel, bran $16 per ton and pasture $3 per acre, grain-fed steers returned a net profit of $5 each, while grass without grain gave a net profit of but $2 per steer. The market that fall, however, was unusually favorable for grain-fed cattle. Fall Feeding Corn on Grass. The new corn crop during most seasons is sufficiently ripe to cut and shock about September 15 in the Northern States. At that time a little may be drawn to the field to be fed in the stalk. With this system the cattle have no grain in early summer. Four pounds of corn per steer will answer for the first feed, this amount to be gradually increased until the cattle are on full feed, about October 15. When full grain-fed, the cattle will consume less than half of the stalk, and, unless stock cattle can be turned in afterwards, much will be wasted. Under such circumstances it is better to substitute, in part, snapped corn. Cattle can be fed in the field until snow falls, which may be December i or later, at which time they should be ripe enough to bring a good price on the market. If, for any reason, the supply of grass is short, enough shock corn may be fed to furnish roughness, and the protein may be supplied by using bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal or gluten feed. In order to feed some one of these protein concentrates, it will be necessary to feed part of the corn shelled or ground to serve as a mixing medium. Half the corn fed in the stalk GRAIN ON PASTURE. 171 will supply sufficient roughness, and the other half may be fed as shelled corn or ground corn and cob, in which is mixed one-fifth, by weight, of one of the concentrated protein foods mentioned. Feed-racks are necessary for field feeding, unless the pigs can be turned into the lot after the cattle have been fed a matter easily regulated by call- ing the pigs into an enclosure each night, where they are given a slop consisting largely of shorts, per- mitting them to go out after the cattle have finished, which is usually near noon. In that case corn in the stalk could be scattered on the sod. One distinc- tive advantage which comes from scattering corn on the grass is that something in the shape of fertiliz- ing material is distributed over the pasture each year. Fields continuously pastured lose fertility unless something from outside sources is fed on the land, or barnyard manure is spread over the pas- ture at intervals. Feeding grain on pasture is more satisfactory because less labor is involved. Old blue-grass pastures are by far the best pastures, if the land is not allowed to deteriorate; the grass then becomes less abundant and weeds of various kinds make their appearance. By keeping up the fertility as suggested, avoiding close pasturage, per- manent grass lands can be maintained which will produce yearly a large number of pounds of beef. A loo-acre pasture field owned-in part by the writer has pastured cattle continuously for over 30 years, and it is still producing highly nutritious blue-grass in abundance. In these days of scarce labor a good, permanent pasture field is a boon to every farmer. CHAPTER XVI. WINTER FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR- OLD STEERS. Range Steers Sell as Feeders in the Fall. A very large proportion of the steers two years old and over, fattened in the corn belt, are grown on the range lands of the West and Southwest. The farmer who raises the steers he feeds for market is hardly justified in holding them until they reach the age of 34 to 36 months, as is customary with range two-year-olds. Finishing in the fall on shock corn or snapped corn, or still earlier as yearlings or baby beeves, is more profitable. But with range steers the bulk of the offerings do not come to mar- ket until late fall, which makes winter feeding of that class the most common practice. Grain Fed Sparingly at First. In feeding range cattle it is well to buy not later than November, in order that they may be started on corn slowly, yet finished before late May or June, when hot weather comes on. Range steers are often very thin in flesh because of a scarcity of grass, and in that condition it is much better to feed liberally on hay, at least the first six or eight weeks. Thin range steers frequently make a gain of 2 pounds per day the first two months, on an average feed of 8 pounds of grain per day, with all the good roughage they will consume. Not only does this gradual process of grain feeding remove all danger connected with the change from grass to grain, but hay used lib- erally seems to distend the digestive system, giving 7* FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 173 larger capacity for future grain feeding. Cattle from the range, without this distention, are not the heaviest gainers. If cattle are in condition for heavy grain feeding early, 5 pounds per steer can be fed the first day, though 3 or 4 is more often better. The increase of grain should be made as has been suggested for yearlings, a full feed being reached in not less than five weeks, a little more time being preferable in most cases. Character of Winter Rations for Two-year-olds. What has been said concerning the character of winter rations for yearlings will apply in a general way to steers two years old, though the latter re- quire less protein and are, therefore, more profitably fed wider rations. A ration, however, made up of corn and timothy hay, or any other non-nitrogenous roughage, will not supply two-year-olds with suffi- cient protein for profitable gains. At the Missouri Experiment Station corn and clover hay gave 29 per cent larger gains for grain consumed than corn and timothy hay. At the Illinois Experiment Station corn and clover effected a saving of 22 per cent of the grain required for a given gain, as compared with corn, timothy and corn stover. This was un- questionably due to the lack of protein in the latter ration; for, when gluten meal, a concentrated pro- tein food, was supplied, there was required 24 per cent less grain for a given gain than without it. The nutritive ratio of the three rations fed is as follows : corn and clover, 1 19.4 ; corn, timothy and corn stover, 1:13; corn, timothy, stover and gluten meal, 1 19.4. The average of three tests at the Kansas Station shows that by using bran, shorts and oil meal to balance the ration, 28 per cent less grain was required for a given gain than when corn, stover and prairie hay were fed. In an Iowa experi- 174 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. ment, where oil meal, cottonseed meal and gluten feed were used in separate lots in comparison with corn not thus supplemented, there was an average saving of 19 per cent of the grain fed, by the use of the supplemental foods. Had not a little clover been used toward the close, no doubt the saving effected by the use of these foods would have been still greater. In a Nebraska test conducted in 1905 with thin range steers, corn 90 per cent, oil meal 10 per cent, and prairie hay required a little over 5 per cent less grain per pound of gain than was required by corn and prairie hay without oil meal. This was a rather small saving compared with the 23 per cent on year- lings the previous winter. In the two-year-old test the oil meal cost $28 per ton and the corn 39 cents per bushel. With the small saving by the use of oil meal and with this food high in price, the cost of producing one pound of gain was practically the same in both lots. With the ten steers fed oil meal, however, a much earlier finish was secured, such as to make them bring $5.25 in Omaha as compared with $5.10 for the ten fed only corn and prairie hay this, too, on an even start six months pre- vious. With all steers costing $4 per cwt. deliv- ered, and the oil meal lot selling for $4.98 net on home weights and the other lot $4.78, there was a net profit of $1.09 per steer with oil meal and a net loss of $1.12 per steer without oil meal. Had the oil meal cost $41.19 per ton instead of $28, the loss would have been the same with oil meal as without. Protein Roughage Usually More Profitable Than Protein Concentrates. -As has been suggested for dairy cows, a protein roughage is often more eco- nomically fed in connection with corn than is a more costly commercial protein food. In the Nebraska test just referred to, alfalfa and corn gave 14 per cent FEEDING RANGE TWO-YEAR-OLDS. 175 larger gains, and correspondingly larger profits, for grain consumed, than prairie hay and corn, and 10 per cent larger gains than prairie hay, corn and oil meal. Stated in another way, prairie hay, valued at $6 per ton, fed with oil meal proved equivalent to alfalfa at $8.28 per ton, and without oil meal equiv- alent to alfalfa at $11.14 P er ton - With oil meal cost- ing $28 per ton, alfalfa returned a value of $13 per ton in comparison with it. In an Illinois test, gluten meal at $28 per ton, fed in connection with timothy and corn stover, returned a slightly larger profit than corn and clover, the latter being then worth $11 per ton. Corn Stover With Alfalfa Cheapest. The alfalfa and corn ration in the Nebraska test gave a nutritive ratio of 1 17.4. Apparently these steers were able to stand a ration still wider, as another lot of ten in the same experiment fed equal parts of alfalfa and corn stover required but 7.89 pounds of corn for one pound of gain as compared with 8.14 pounds with alfalfa alone, or 3 per cent less. The stover and alfalfa ration had a nutritive ratio of 1 18.4, which is added evidence in favor of something like 1 :8 in preference to a ration more narrow for two-year-old steers. The stover in this experiment was figured at $2.50 per ton, a high valuation for a fodder allowed to go to waste in Western fields. This combination pro- duced gains at a cost of but $6.49 per hundred com- pared with alfalfa and corn at a cost of $6.89 per hundred, the alfalfa and corn ranking second in point of economy among the five lots fed in the experiment. With alfalfa worth $6 per ton as fed with corn, the stover returned a value of $4.63 when made one-half the roughage with alfalfa. The stover seemed to be well relished, though of course the stubs, or lower third, of the stalk were refused and were thrown out Lot. 1. Steers fed corn and prairie hay. Cost, $3.90 per hundred ; selling price, $5.10. Lot 2. Steers fed corn, 90% ; oil meal, 10%, and prairie hay. dred ; selling price, $5.25. Two-Year-Old Steers in a Nebraska test to show the effect of oil meal corn and prairie hay. 176 Cost, $3.90 per hun- in a ration of M J3 H co a ~ o o a '3 o , a o bin-Tea ^_ fc702 O O O "fl oo a> oo' - OJ CC b* < 03 CQ CO 01 C^ 00 * iH iH IO CO CO TJH co -ee- b^CO Tfl O CO CM OJ OS TH Ol CM ' rH CO O OS 10 Tt< Tj< b- CO rH 00 CM O IO OO Tp * * rH TjH CO rj5 CO .S.S OW) 00 fl 3 '. & T3 ^^3 1= O) rrt ^ ^ O S3 O C O> p. 3 I S I .I Ill If! .2 15 -u J3 ,0 * fl0 73 5r-;q O fl 4^ S 03 <" OQ ^^fe oq ^ 00 ^4H > rf-8 gfi'S CHAPTER XXIII. PARASITES IN SHEEP. It is the history of sheep husbandry everywhere within moist latitudes that evil days befall the flock because of infection from internal parasites. These parasites, living within the digestive tract of the sheep, are expelled when mature and filled with eggs. The germs are thus communicated to the grass and are taken in by the lambs and young sheep, which become in turn infected. The older sheep may have harbored these parasites without noticeable injury to themselves, but the lambs suf- fer much more and very often succumb and die. Thousands of flocks all through the corn belt have been started with high hopes, have thriven for a time, then have become diseased, the owners dis- couraged and the sheep dispersed. This is not necessary. Parasitic diseases are hard to cure but comparatively easy to prevent. A brief study of the nature of the more important parasites likely to affect sheep will be helpful. The stomach-worm, Strongylus contortus, is a small hair-like worm that inhabits the fourth stomach of sheep and lambs. It may readily be found there, just at the beginning of the intestine, sometimes in small numbers and sometimes in multitudes. These little worms do great damage. They cause the diseases called "paper skin," "black scours," and in the West lambs so afflicted are called "locoed." The presence of a few of these worms may not create great harm, again a com- 248 PARASITES IN SHEEP. 249 paratively small number of them will cause the death of the lamb. In the older sheep they are not so noticeable. Very often a lot of lambs re- ceived in the feed lot are found to be afflicted with scours that cannot be attributed to wrong feed- ing. When this is the case the owner should at once dissect one of the lambs, searching for this worm, which, if found in force, will explain his trouble. The remedy is a treatment of gasoline, given after fasting for at least sixteen hours, the dose for a lamb six months old being three tea- spoonfuls in a quarter of a glass of sweet milk, well shaken together. The lambs should be treated three times in succession, twenty-four hours apart. Creo- sote is also advised, and there are other remedies, which we will not at present concern ourselves with, the object being to seek the cause and prevention, a far more profitable act. It must be borne in mind that the germs of in- fection are carried over winter in the bodies of the ewes. When warm weather comes the germs are then laid upon the ground and through the medium of short, tender grass they find access to the lambs. In dry regions they reach the lambs through stag- nant drinking pools. Through this source come the "loco" and "Lombriz" of New Mexico, Texas and the dry range country. When lambs are born early, say in March, and with their mothers are well nourished until grass comes in spring, they will soon be ready to wean, when they may be separated from the ewes and put on fresh pasture, with no old sheep with them. Clean lambs on clean pasture will never become- infected and will remain clean and profitable. Before the lambs are weaned the ewes may be shifted often from one pasture to another and the drinking water furnished in troughs or other un- 25O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. contaminated source. This lessens the liability of infection. Ewes and lambs may be kept until weaning time on sowed pastures of rye, oats, barley or rape, or a. mixture of these. There is little liability to in- fection from grazing these coarser sowed crops, as the lambs hardly bite so close to the ground. In this case, however, small grassy lots much fre- quented by the flock must be avoided, as they are poison spots to young lambs. It should be the steadfast aim of the shepherd to avoid having the lambs graze after their moth- ers, and as soon as they are weaned they must be removed to fresh ground, where old sheep have not grazed that year. It is not probable that infection remains over winter in northern latitudes in the pasture. To lessen the danger of lambs becommg dis- eased, it is a safe and profitable plan to hasten their maturity with corn fed while the lambs are yet sucking their, mothers. Thus in June a whole flock of lambs may be made to average a weight of eighty pounds, when they will command a good price and may as well be sent to market. Then there is no danger during the summer period for these lambs. Of course, the shepherd desires to retain his best ewe lambs to add to the flock, and they must be cared for as indicated, separated from their mothers and grazed on safe pasture. To breed ewes before they are 'sixteen or eighteen months old is to invite the gathering of parasites, as it weakens the resisting power of the young ewes and makes them the more ready host for the destroying worms. The nodular disease of the intestines is almost as serious a plague as the stomach-worm. It is a disease generally of slow progression, and, unlike PARASITES IN SHEEP. 25! the stomach-worm, is hard, if not impossible, to reach with medicine. The nodular disease causes little tumors upon the intestines, commonly called "knotty guts," which unfit the intestines for sausage casings. Unfortunately this is the least of the harm that they do. The digestion and as- similation is seriously affected, the sheep eats ravenously but gets thin and in the end dies. For- tunately it is not so swift or rapidly spread as the work of the stomach-worm. Seeing that medicine can do little or nothing for the nodular disease, the course is one of pre- vention, and measures should include the method of pasturing just outlined to prevent the increase of stomach-worms and the sale of infected sheep or those suspected of being unhealthy. It is a safe rule to permit no sheep to remain upon the farm that has a cough, that is drooping, has a dead, thriftless wool, or that persists in re- maining in thin flesh. Naturally the best ewes will become thin when suckling their lambs, but if they are in health they should soon recover if afterward they have sufficient food. It used to be supposed that Merino sheep were less subject to internal parasites than sheep of the mutton breeds. This is not true. Sometimes Merinos seem of tougher fiber and live longer than other breeds when infected, but they are unprofit- able unless in health. The long wools Lincolns, Leicesters and Cotswolds seem less resistant than Shropshires, Southdowns and Dorsets, Oxford Downs seem readily infested. Whatever breed is kept, the management should be the same, as no sheep is profitable when diseased. After saying so much upon this question of para- sites some may be deterred from undertaking to keep sheep at all. This would be unwise. Fore- 252 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. warned, no one need suffer from the pests. On a small farm in Ohio, a State peculiarly subject to parasitic infection, Mr. Joseph E. Wing has for fourteen years kept a flock of Dorset ewes. The flock is small, about 150 all told, but it is kept on a rather limited area of land. In the early '90*8 para- sites made sad havoc in this flock. In 1896 nearly all the lambs died. Since then, by better manage- ment, the plague of parasites has almost disap- peared, and the profit of the flock much increased. These sheep have been kept each year on the same land, but not continuously. PART V SWINE CHAPTER XXIV. TYPES OF HOGS. Swine Husbandry Extensive. No animal has yielded more revenue to the average American farmer than the hog. The favor shown this ani- mal is not because he possesses more attractive qualities than are found in other farm animals, but rather for more practical reasons which appeal to the masses who till the soil, (i) The feeding of swine requires less capital than the feeding of other domestic animals. A small sum invested in brood sows will, in a year's time, return many fold to the purchaser, which makes swine husbandry possible on practically all farms, whether large or small, or whether operated by owner or renter. (2) A large number of hogs may be kept within a compara- tively small space, requiring less fencing than is necessary for other farm animals. (3) Hogs are easily fed and handled. (4) They are the farm's scavengers, consuming kitchen waste and other refuse which nothing else will consume, material which, were it not for the hog, would be wasted. For these, and perhaps still other reasons, the hog is found more widely distributed over the farming districts than any other class of animals. *S3 254 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING* Photo by Breeder's Gazette Lard Type An English Champion Berkshire Boar. Photo by Breeder's Gazette * Bacon Type An English Champion Tamworth Boar. TYPES OF HOGS. 255 The Improved Breeds of Swine may be divided into two classes or types, the Lard, or fat type, and the Bacon type. The lard class includes the Berk- shire, Poland-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, and a few other Breeds less common in America. All hogs of the lard type are so called because of their inherent tendency, when heavily fed, to store in their carcasses a large proportion of fat. The Conformation of the Lard, or Fat, Hog. The ideal lard hog should be broad and deep in body, supported by strong, well-placed legs and feet. As with the beef steer, the fat hog has its high-priced meat along the back, loin and hams. The hog differs from the steer in that a relatively higher valuation is placed upon the ham, or what corresponds to the thigh of the steer. The side meat on the hog is also valuable because it is used for bacon. Too much length of body is objection- ble, because it means somewhat later maturity, with consequent slower fattening proclivities. A long body is also more likely to give to the animal a drooping back, whereas a slight arching is really wanted. On the other hand, too much compactness of body may dwarf the growth of the animal, which is especially true when there is over-refinement of bone. There is, then, danger of having the body too short as well as too long. The following score-card, suggested by Craig, gives a detailed description of the ideal fat barrow and the relative importance of the various parts of the animal: SCALE OF POINTS FOE FAT HOGS BABROW. Perfect General Appearance: score. Weight, score according to age .-* 6 Form, deep, broad, low, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs 10 256 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, mellow and free from lumps or wrinkles 10 Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, especially in re- gion of valuable cuts 10 Head and Neck: Snout, medium length, not coarse 1 Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 Face, short ; cheek full 1 Ears, fine, medium size, soft 1 Jowl, strong, neat, broad 1 Neck, thick, medium length 1 Forequarters : Shoulders, broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 Breast, advanced, wide 2 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- right ; feet medium size 2 Body: Chest, deep, broad ; large girth 2 Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung. ... 6 Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 Loin, wide, thick, straight 10 Belly, straight, even 2 Hindquarters : Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns up- right ; medium size feet 2 Total 100 The score-card is of special importance for the use of one who needs a herd boar, whether for grade or registered stock. As was mentioned regard- ing cattle, the influence of the male in determining the character of the offspring is as great as the en- tire herd of sows to which he is bred; if a pure- bred, which he should be, and the sows are grades or mixed bred, the boar counts for more than half the herd because of his greater prepotency. For this reason unusual care should be taken in mak- ing the selection of a herd boar. While the score-card shown is arranged for a fat barrow, the same general form is wanted in a boar ? since "like begets like/' It is understood, TYPES OF HOGS. 257 however, that the boar should have certain quali- ties denoting masculinity, which the barrow does not possess. A little more coarseness in the head, neck and shoulder gives a slight variation in the type outlined by the score-card, but these qualities are desirable, because they indicate greater pre- potency; in other words, more certainty in trans- mitting characteristics to offspring. The boar should also show a little more bone than is desir- able for the fat barrow, which goes with masculin- ity. A small, fine bone is objectionable in any hog, because it does not give the animal sufficient framework upon which to build. Furthermore, an extremely fine bone is associated with delicacy of constitution and lack of vigor. Heavy hogs in high condition oftentimes do not have sufficient strength in the thigh bone to support their weight, and a breakdown results, a circumstance perhaps more likely to occur in the stock yards after the hogs have been shipped some distance. Weakness in the pastern, that part of the bone between the dewclaw and hoof, is quite common. If this bone is small and long, it may bend down to such a degree that the animal supports a part of its weight upon the dewclaws. Since m'uch depends upon the locomotion of the hog in the field and at the stock yards, it is highly important that he should in- herit strong legs and feet, as well as a shapely body. On the other hand, in the effort of the farmer to get bone, he should guard against going to the other extreme, as an unduly large bone is associated with coarseness, slow-fattening and late- maturing qualities. The farmer wants a pig which will be sufficiently fat to market at the weight of 200 to 250 pounds. If he is compelled to feed longer, more food is required for a given gain. It is further true that the packer is favorable to the 258 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. 25O-pound pig, and is quite as willing to pay as much for a hog of this weight as for the old-time heavy hog. Good type in hogs means not only a higher price for the finished product on the market, but an earlier finish and a larger gain from a given consumption of food in the lot. Bacon Type. The increasing demand and con- sequent high price for bacon have resulted in the development of a hog of the so-called bacon type. There are two breeds belonging to this class, the Tamworth and the Yorkshire. Both are long and deep in body, which gives a large proportion of side meat, from which bacon is made. The hams and shoulders are correspondingly small. One of the essentials of good bacon is that there should be a maximum of lean and a minimum of fat. The Tamworth and Yorkshire have been bred for the production of lean tissue. In an experiment con- ducted by the writer, where Poland-China pigs were fed in the same pen with Tamworths, the former at the close of the experiment showed a two-inch layer of fat along the back, while the Tamworth had only a one-inch layer. This differ- ence was due entirely to breed, or type, and not to feed. Some doubt, too, has been expressed as to the gaining capacity of bacon hogs, but in an ex- periment where Tamworths were fed in compari- son with Poland-Chinas, Duroc-Jerseys and Berk- shire-Tamworth crossbreds, all under like condi- tions, the Tamworths proved somewhat the most economical gainers, with the Tamworth-Berkshire crossbreds second. Breed tests are not always satisfactory, however, because of a difference in in- dividuals within a breed. Nevertheless, from this and other tests it would be safe to say that Tam- worths are at least equal to other breeds as feeders. The English, Canadian, and a few Eastern markets TYPES OF HOGS. 259 pay a premium for bacon hogs, but as yet these are not produced in sufficient numbers in the West to warrant the packing-houses in handling them separately, and therefore they do not outsell other hogs. It is not unreasonable to think, however,, that the time will come when bacon hogs will sell at a premium in all parts of the United States, if the popularity of breakfast bacon continues to in- crease. SCOEE-CAED FOE BACON HOGS, AS PUBLISHED IN CEAIG'S " JUDGING LIVE STOCK. > > SCALE OF POINTS. Possible General Appearance : score. Weight, 170 to 200 Ibs., the result of thick cover of firm flesh 6 Form, long, level, smooth, deep 10 Quality, hair fine ; skin thin, smooth ; firm, even covering of flesh 10 Condition, even, thick covering of flesh, and not soft, flabby fat. Thickness of flesh underneath desirable, smooth covering of flesh, free from lumps and wrin- kles, with thick, trim belly 10 Head and Neck: Snout, fine 1 Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 Face, slim 1 Ears, trim, medium size 1 Jowl, light, trim 1 Neck, medium length, light. . . ; 1 Forequarters : Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and same width as back and hindquarter 6 Breast, moderately wide, full 2 Legs, properly set, short, strong bone, clean, pasterns upright 2 Body: Chest, deep, full girth 4 Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 Side, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulder to end of hindquarters. The side at all points should touch a straight edge running from fore to hind quarter 10 Bibs, deep, uniformly sprung 2 Belly, trim, firm, thick, without any flabbiness or shrink- age at flank 10 26O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Hindquarters : Hips, smooth, wide, proportionate to rest of body 2 Eump, long, even, straight, rounded towards tail 2 Ham, firm, fleshed deep, rounded 6 Thigh, fleshed low towards hock 2 Legs, properly set, short, strong; feet medium size.... 2 Total 100 Digestive Capacity of Swine. No farm animal can manufacture so much meat from a given quan- tity of food as the pig, provided the material con- sumed is in a more or less concentrated form. For the utilization of a ration consisting largely of bulky matter the pig is by nature unadapted. Such rations are more economically converted into beef or mutton. Whereas cattle and sheep have four stomachs, the total capacity of which is large, pigs have but one, and that very limited in size. To be more specific, a car-load of sheep or cattle of a certain weight have a combined stomach and in- testinal capacity nearly three times as great as a car-load of hogs of the same weight. This larger digestive capacity of the ruminants makes them better adapted for consuming coarse fodders, but it gives them no advantage over the pig for grain feeding. On the contrary, from the same weight of grain, fully one-third less meat will be made by cattle and sheep than by pigs. The pig should, therefore, be used to utilize refuse from the kitchen and dairy, concentrated foodstuffs like the cereals, with such bulky matter as can easily be handled necessarily a limited amount CHAPTER XXV. THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. Breeding Combined With Feeding. Unlike the cattle business, in which it is customary to pro- duce large numbers in cheap grazing sections, to be transported later to the farming districts for feeding purposes, the pork industry must be begun and finished on the farm. The pig feeder must breed and grow the stock he fattens for market, as the dangers from cholera are too great to make the buying of stock pigs in the open market prac- ticable. Then, too, a breeding herd can be main- tained on every farm without seriously interfering with market feeding operations, assuming that this is to be the farm specialty. Unlike cattle and sheep, hogs are very prolific, making it possible to produce from a comparatively small breeding herd all that can be fed. A Good Brood Sow. Aside from the qualities already discussed in Chapter XXIV on types, the brood sow should have qualities which will make her a satisfactory breeder. The ideal brood sow is one which has the conformation to make a good carcass for the block; one which will respond well to feeding, a matter of inherent vigor and health; and one which will reproduce her kind in paying numbers and care for them well. While some pre- fer one breed to another, each of which has its merits, the desirability of feeding-animals is largely a question of type and individuality. The farmer should have good animals, whether Berkshire, Po- 262 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. land-China, Duroc-Jersey, Chester White, Tarn- worth, Yorkshire, or crosses of these. Winter Quarters for Brood Sows. In providing suitable buildings for the brood sows, it is first important to select for a site dry, well-drained ground, preferably on the south side of a grove or other protection from the winter winds. While hogs are fond of wet ground in midsummer, such a place would not be suitable during colder weather, because mud on the skin of the animal reduces its temperature, the water absorbing heat as it evaporates. Hog houses, as built, vary from the small portable kind called "cots," large enough for from one to four sows, to expensive structures with all possible conveniences. For registered herds of choice stock, these costly buildings are probably good investments, but for raising com- mon market hogs, there is apt to be too large an expenditure for the extra revenue which may come from having such quarters. The Portable House. Where the ground is well drained the small movable house is satisfactory. Such a house is constructed on runner sills, so that a team hitched to one end can draw it to another place whenever necessary for the sake of cleanli- ness, or when it is desired to change pasture lots. Matched lumber should be used in the construc- tion of these houses to give proper protection dur- ing the winter months and during the farrowing season. On the next page is a photograph of a movable house in use at the Nebraska Station. The house is 9 feet long, 6 feet wide and 3^ feet to eaves. The longer roof measures 5 feet 4 inches from peak to lower edge, while the shorter mea- sures 3 feet 3 inches. A small glass window is placed in one end and a swinging door in the other. During warm weather this door may be fastened THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 263 open, while during cold weather it is left down, being hung in such a way that the pigs can push it open when they wish to go in or out, after which it closes by its own weight. The trap doors in the shorter roof may be left open on pleasant days in winter to let in the sun's rays. During hot weather there would be a decided advantage in having a second roof to place about six inches Small Portable Hog House. above the first to permit a free circulation of air be- tween the two roofs. The air, acting as a noncon- ductor of heat, makes the house much cooler than does the single roof. These houses have no floors, making it necessary to keep them well bedded in cold weather. A floor would be an improvement for early spring farrowing, when the ground is cold, as there is danger of having too much bed- ding for the safety of pigs just farrowed. To pre- vent the sow from lying upon her pigs, a plank or scantling is fastened to the inner sides of the 264 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. house, eight or nine inches from the ground, pro- jecting ten inches toward the center of the building. This prevents the sow from crushing the pigs against the side wall when she lies down. The runner sills extend in front a distance of 2 feet and 10 inches and are sawed to give an upward turn. A plank is bolted from one projecting sill to the other. To this the team is attached when the house is to be moved. By the use of the small, movable house a brood sow can be conveniently kept by herself, which is unquestionably desirable, both at farrowing time and afterwards, since pigs of the same age, or nearly so, do better together than do those widely different in age and size. It is need- less to say that a place for storing grain should be conveniently near all feeding lots. Large houses which can be divided into pens are more satisfactory on ground that is not per- fectly drained, because floors can be built off the ground. During bad weather, too, the feeding may be done under cover. Such a building would be preferable for early litters. Pigs require warmer housing than other farm animals, because, first, they have but a light coat of hair, and, secondly, they are small in size, presenting a large surface in proportion to weight, thus losing more heat by ra- diation. All lumber should be matched, the roof made tight, and glass windows should be made to fit well to prevent drafts. The floors should be made of planks, especially the floors under sleep- ing quarters. Cement is not satisfactory, except for the alleyway and feeding apartments, because it is a good conductor of heat. Pigs lying on such floors are certain to be uncomfortable in winter, as the cold is conducted from below direct to the animal, unless a thick layer of straw is kept be- neath at all times, or a plank panel, called an over- THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 26$ lay, is placed on the cement floor to give a warm contact. Feed for the Brood Sow Before Farrowing. In feeding a brood sow before farrowing time, it must be borne in mind that not only the sow must be maintained, but the young she carries must be nourished in such a way that they will be strong and vigorous at birth. Much depends upon the sow's ration. If she is fed heavily on starchy food, too much internal fat is formed, the presence of which is detrimental to young in utero. There are no dangers from overfeeding, however, if the feed is of the right character. Sows are too often underfed. There are three principal things to con- sider in feeding the brood sow: first, to provide the nutrients starch, protein, etc.- in proper pro- portions, or as nearly so as possible; secondly, to furnish sufficient bulk to keep the system in a healthy condition; and, thirdly, to make such a ration as inexpensive as possible. The brood sow needs considerable protein, be- cause it is largely concerned in the development of her young. If it is a young sow, not yet mature, still more is needed, because she is building tissues for her own body as well as for her young. Since it is not desired to crowd the brood sow for large gains as in the case of the fattening animal, it is bet- ter for her, and more economical for the breeder, to provide considerable bulky feed. If there is kitchen waste the brood sow should have it. Skim milk is another very useful adjunct. Assuming that these are not available, or that they can be had only in limited quantity, substitutes must be supplied. Whatever starchy matter she needs can be sup- plied most cheaply with corn, at least in the so- called corn belt. In the more Northern latitudes, where barley is more successfully grown than 266 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. corn, this cereal, although less satisfactory, could be substituted for corn. If the entire ration for a young sow is half corn or barley, say 2 per cent of her live weight, or 4 pounds per day for a 200- pound sow, she could derive whatever more nour- ishment is needed from a more bulky and less ex- pensive material. This should be a nitrogenous roughness, as clover or alfalfa, either of which will supply the necessary protein at a price much below what it would cost in some protein concen- trate, as wheat shorts, or the more concentrated oil meal. At the North Platte (Nebraska) Substa- tion, mature sows, carrying young, maintained fair thrift on corn fed in a quantity equivalent to I per cent of live weight, with alfalfa pasture. Alfalfa or clover may be fed as hay during the winter or as pasture in summer. In the former case there will be less waste if the hay is first run through a cutting machine. This cut hay may be mixed with corn meal, and enough water added to make a thick slop ; or, if corn is fed on the cob, the hay may be fed separately and uncut. In a sec- tion of the country where feed is relatively cheap, it is doubtful if enough better results can be se- cured to pay for cutting the hay and grinding the corn. While some feeders throw the uncut hay upon the ground, it is cleaned up much better if racks are built, so that the sows can eat the hay from below without throwing it under foot. For winter feeding the last cutting of alfalfa is prefer- able for hogs, because that cutting usually has a smaller stem and more leaves, and the same is true of clover. The chaff of "either hay plant is better than hay, if it can be obtained in sufficient quan- tity from such places as the floor of the cattle barn, where it usually accumulates during winter feeding. THE BREEDING HERD O? SWINE. 267 Should one not have clover or alfalfa hay, it will be necessary to supply either wheat shorts, bran, oil meal, gluten meal or tankage with the corn. If skim milk can be had, this, fed with corn in the proportion of i pound of corn to 3 pounds of skim milk, will be entirely satisfactory. At ordinary prices the dry brood sow should be fed about I pound of shorts or bran to 3 pounds of corn ; or I pound of gluten, oil meal, or tankage to 8 pounds of corn. Whichever of the several foods is purchased will depend largely upon the relative cost of the protein, which cost can be determined by dividing the price per hundred by the number of pounds of digestible protein in 100 pounds of food, as given in the table in the appendix. The ration for a dry brood sow could be made one-half oats and one-half corn, if the oats are to be had at corn prices by the hundred. In the South, where soy beans and cow peas are grown, there will be required about I pound of soy bean meal to 8 of corn, and I pound of cowpeas to 5 of corn. Northern field peas could be substituted for cow- peas. By supplementing corn or barley with a protein food in any of the ways described, the sow can be brought up to a fair condition of flesh without in- juring her as a breeder. By virtue of her flesh at farrowing time she will need less crowding with grain while suckling -her pigs than if she were to farrow spare in flesh. The pigs will also be strong and thrifty at birth. Feed for the Brood Sow After Farrowing. Dur- ing the first twenty-four hours after farrowing, while the sow is in a very feverish condition, she, will show little, if any, inclination for feed. Water slightly warmed should be supplied liberally. A thin bran mash is relished before the sow regains 268 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. her appetite for heavy feed, as is also skim milk. On the second day a slop of wheat shorts with bran may be fed, or, if these are not on hand, four pounds of corn may be mixed with one pound of oil meal and a small quantity fed. Oil meal has a laxative effect, which is desirable for the fresh sow. A mixture of two pounds of corn with one of shorts or bran, depending upon prices, may be fed in increasing amounts until the sow is eating a full feed, which should require fully one month's time to avoid scours or thumps in the pigs. A day's ration would then be about 4^2 per cent of the live weight of a growing sow, and about 4 per cent of the weight of a mature sow in average condition. This heavier ration might consist of six pounds of corn to one pound of oil meal or gluten meal, as these foods are often cheaper than shorts or bran. With sufficient skim milk, four or five pounds to one of corn may be fed, in which case nothing else is needed. Man- gel-wurzels or other roots are excellent for sows not on pasture, because succulent feed promotes a good flow of milk. Alfalfa hay at average prices is the rqost economical of all, and may be fed. as soon as the sow has fully recovered from the effects of farrowing. Not less than 75 per cent by weight of her full ration should consist of corn, with the remaining 25 per cent hay, which amount will fur- nish nearly all the protein needed. Should the hay be short and fine or in the form of chaff, 70 per cent of corn would keep her in good thrift. When receiving uncut hay, a young sow should have 3 per cent of her live weight in pounds of corn and all the hay she will eat. The Brood Sow on Pasture. During the sum- mer months less corn will be required on alfalfa or clover pasture than on hay. Half of a full feed THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE. 269 of corn, or about 2 per cent of the sow's live weight, with all the pasture she wants is a cheap and adeqaate ration. Care should be taken not to overpasture, both for the sake of the sow and the field of alfalfa. It is always best to provide a good run, cutting first one-half the field for hay, and when this has grown up, the other half; or the sows may be turned from one field into another, the second not to be cut until the first is again well started. Rape, though perhaps not so well relished as al- falfa, is better than blue grass and makes a good pasture for sows. It is well to feed with blue grass a little more corn than with rape or alfalfa, be- cause less pasture will be consumed. With wheat, rye, or sorghum pastures, protein foods must be given with corn, which is one reason why none of these pastures are as satisfactory as alfalfa, clover, or rape. With sows fed as outlined from the time of far- rowing, there will be little danger of the pigs being troubled with "thumps," a disease brought on by overfeeding the sow early in lactation, on grains of a heavy character, at the same time depriving the pigs of needed exercise. Feeding Dry Sows Which Have Not Been Bred. A sow suckling a good-sized litter, no matter how liberally she may be fed, is almost certain to shrink in weight, which loss, however, may be recovered after the pigs are weaned. Dry sows from which the pigs have just been weaned do well on good alfalfa pasture without grain. At the North Platte (Nebraska) Substation, sows weighing 200 pounds each, gained .43 pound per day for 63 days on alfalfa pasture with no grain. In this connection it must be stated that the pasture was good and the sows were thin in flesh at the time the pigs were 27O PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. weaned. At the Michigan Station, "five dry sows were turned on June grass May 27, 1904* rape July 9, June grass again July 25, and returned to rape August 6, where they remained till September 9, in all covering a period of 105 days. No grain or supplementary feed of any sort was given during the entire period, though the sows had access to water and shade. During these 105 days there was an increase of two pounds in the weight of the bunch." The individual record of each sow is shown by the following: WEIGHTS OF FIVE DRY SOWS DUEING TEST OF 105 DAYS. Weight Weight Weight Weight Weight Gain May 27, July 9, July 25, Aug. 6, Sept. 9. or 1904. 1904. 1904. 1904. 1904. loss. Poland China .... 298 283 281 183 291.5 6.5 Old Tamworth ... 366 358 359 353 379.5 +13.5 Poland China No. 1 194 180 173.5 176 180 14 Poland China No. 2 159 171 163 177 174 +15 Poland China No. 3 170 163 155 157.5 164 6 Here was an average daily loss of .42 pound per sow on blue grass, and an average daily gain of .47 pound per sow on rape. However, a part of the shrinkage on grass was thought to have been due to the shortness and dryness of the grass early in July. Feed for Pigs Before Weaning. Young pigs show an inclination to eat from the trough when only two or three weeks old, and if the litter is large it is advisable to supply them with food early. Nothing is superior to skim milk mixed with wheat shorts to form a thin porridge. Such feed is easily digested and is rich in bone and muscle making material, and just what the young pigs need. It is, of course, necessary to provide a separate trough for the pigs, around which is built a fence, with the lower board close enough to THE BREEDING HERD OF SWINE, 27! the ground to keep out the mature hogs, yet high enough to allow the pigs to go beneath. At the age of four weeks it is well to add a little corn meal or soaked shelled corn to the ration, until, by the time the pigs are old enough to wean, they are being given a mixture consisting of equal parts of corn and shorts. Some farmers make a practice of weaning at the age of seven weeks, but if the sow raises only one litter per year the age of ten or twelve weeks is preferable. From results obtained at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, it would seem that the gains on young pigs are made as eco- nomically by feeding a given weight of food through the dam as by feeding directly to the pigs. The advantage in depending more upon the sow for the nourishment of the pigs is the fact that the sow is able to consume proportionately more inexpen- sive green forage than are the pigs. If, as some- times happens, certain pigs in the litter are con- siderably larger than others, it is well to wean these stronger pigs first, inasmuch as this will tend to make the entire litter more even in size, and it will also be a more gradual way of drying off the sow. The herd boar, during the season when not in use, should be given practically the same food as suggested for the brood sow before farrowing. If he is mature, he will need but very little, if any, grain, provided he has an abundance of good pas- ture. He should be given pasture, not alone for the sake of economy, but also for exercise to pro- mote muscular development, stamina and vigor, so essential in a breeding sire. With any of the legumes or rape for pasture, what little grain is given him may consist of corn alone or mixed with barley, rye Or any other grain no v more costly than corn. A boar should be fed a little protein food, 272 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. as shorts, oil meal or tankage, with corn when no pasture is supplied, and proportionately more of such foods if he is young and undeveloped, al- though perhaps not to exceed 15 per cent of oil meal. While it is not necessary to keep the herd boar in high condition throughout the entire year, as the breeding season approaches his grain ration should be increased, in order to have him in good thrift and fairly fleshy when used in the herd. As mentioned in the chapter on breeding sheep, the number of offspring is likely to be greater, if both sire and dam are gaining rather than losing in flesh at the time of mating. It is also true that the propensity of the offspring to put on flesh is greater, if the parents are in good condition during the breeding season. Flesh on one boar can be made with less expense than on several sows. He should not, however, be fed excessively on corn, nor put in such high condition as will make him unsatisfactory as a breeding sire. Buroc-Jersey Brood Sow ana Pigs. CHAPTER XXVI. FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. Summer Feeding Profitable. Pigs farrowed in the spring as early as the weather will permit are most profitable under average conditions, because they can be finished for market in the fall. Sum- mer and fall feeding is profitable for two reasons: (i) pigs have but a light coat of hair for protec- tion, which makes them very susceptible to cold weather ; (2) pasture can be had in summer, which lessens materially the cost of producing pork. Both cattle and sheep have better natural protec- tion against cold than have pigs, but are less able to stand hot summer weather, especially when pigs are provided with a shaded wallow. After several years of experimentation, the writer does not hesi- tate to say that there is no way in which pork can be made at less expense than with grain on pasture, provided the grain and pasture are of the right kind. No matter how perfectly balanced ? ration without pasture may be, from one-fifth to one-third less grain will be required for a given gain if good pasture is supplied. At the Nebraska Ex- periment Station, pork which was worth on the market $5 per hundred, live weight, was made at a cost of $2.43 per hundred with corn and alfalfa pasture, the corn being worth at the time 30 cents per bushel and the alfalfa pasture $5 per acre. At another time, when corn was worth 56 cents per bushel, gains were made at a cost of $4.13 per hun- dred, at which time live pork was worth on the ket $7.50 per hundred. 274 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Feeding Pigs When First Weaned. When pigs are first weaned, some time in May or early June, they are hardly large enough to derive all their protein from forage crops. Young pigs need more protein than older pigs, because they are growing rather than fattening. They should be given either alfalfa, clover or rape pasture, and with such feed the grain may be more largely corn than with pas- ture less rich in protein. For rapid gains in pigs nothing is superior to qorn meal and skim milk. Enough of the latter should be used to make a slop thin enough to distribute itself quickly in the trough. Without skim milk, a slop containing two pounds of corn meal and one pound of wheat shorts gives excellent results on pasture. If shorts are high in price, one pound of dried blood may be mixed with nine pounds of corn meal;, or one pound of oil meal or soy bean meal, with five pounds of corn meal. Oil meal, however, some- times induces scours in pigs, and for that reason is less satisfactory than dried blood. Dried blood is also preferable to tankage for young pigs, be- cause the latter contains some animal fat, which is difficult for them to digest and is very likely to cause scours. In feeding any of these mixtures, there should be .given all that will be cleaned up quickly twice per day. This will be about three- fourths of what they would consume without pas- ture. Feeding Shoats. As the pigs grow larger, the proportion of corn may gradually be increased. After a weight of 75 to 100 pounds has been reached, it would be most economical to feed corn alone with pasture, unless corn is high in price and supplementary foods low. In a Nebraska experi- ment somewhat larger gains were secured by sup- plementing corn on alfalfa, but the cost of gains was less on corn and alfalfa without a supple- FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 275 ment. The same thing was shown at the South Dakota Station, where barley and rape pasture gave somewhat smaller, but cheaper gains, than barley supplemented with tankage, dried blood, oil meal or skim milk. If one does not have corn for feed- ing pigs on pasture, either barley or wheat or rye may be fed in the same way. In feeding any of these grains on pasture they should be ground or soaked, with the possible exception of corn, which may be fed on the cob or shelled. Still, in warm weather it is not inconvenient to soak corn, and when treated in this way it is enough better to pay well for the trouble, and soaking is much less ex- pensive than grinding. Rape and clover are both good pasture plants for pigs. Experiments at Wisconsin indicate that rape is superior to clover. The field peas of the North, if pastured when the peas are just large enough to cook, undoubtedly give the most rapid growth of all forage plants, with the possible exception of soy beans, and less grain will be required, at least while the peas last. With green field peas a half feed of clear corn meal is best for trough feeding, although a good growth can be made without supplying any grain in addition. Cheaper gains, however, are ob- tained if the peas are supplemented with corn. The disadvantage in growing field peas for pigs is the expense of the seed and the labor of putting in the crop annually. Of the different forage plants, alfalfa is most satisfactory for hogs, first, because it can be made a permanent pasture ; secondly, be- cause it is richest in protein, making an excellent combination with corn ; and, thirdly, because it has tender leaves and a small stem, which make it easily masticated, besides being greatly relished. In feeding alfalfa care should be taken not to over- pasture. It is best to run the pigs in a field that can be mowed, holding in reserve another to pas- PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. ture while the freshly mown field is getting a new start, as was suggested for brood sows. Pigs which show an inclination to root in the sod should be rung. In pasturing forage crops, portable fences may be built and moved about from one season to another. For alfalfa, woven wire is desirable, since, with a crop that does not need reseeding year after year, a stationary fence is best. Woven wire two feet in width will answer. Such a fence can be made to turn cattle by stretching one or two strands of barb wire along the top. Heavy Corn Feeding on Alfalfa Pasture Most Profitable. March pigs may be made ready for market at the close of the pasturage season, weigh- ing in O'ctober or November from, 200 to 250 pounds each. This can be done only when grain has been fed liberally from start to finish. In fact, when corn is not excessively high in price, the lib- eral use of grain on pasture seems to be most eco- nomical. At the Nebraska Experiment Station four lots of pigs, ten in each lot, were given alfalfa pasture with corn in varying amounts. The aver- age record for each pig in the four lots is shown by the following table: Lot 2. Lot 3. Lot 4. Lot 1. Light Medium Heavy No grain grain grain grain, ration, ration, ration. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. A v. wt. of each pig, Aug. 27. . 74.0 73.5 73.5 72.5 Av. wt. of each pig, Oct. 27. . 75.4 95.2 113.3 126.2 Av. gain from Aug. 27 to Oct. 27 1.4 21.7 39.8 53.7 Daily gain per pig 02 .34 .63 .85 Av. amt. of corn consumed by each pig per day 1.33 2.48 3.46 Corn consumed per pound of gain 3.86 3.98 4.23 Cost of corn per 100 Ibs. of gain 2.08 2.15 2.28 Cost of pasture per 100 Ibs. of gain $14.30 $0.66 $0.30 $0.15 Total cost per 100 Ibs. of gain 14.30 2.74 2.45 2.43 FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 2/7 In making the estimates for cost of gains, corn at the time was worth 30 cents per bushel in Lin- coln, Nebraska, and alfalfa pasture was valued at $5 per acre for the growing season of five months, which would be $2 per acre for the two months the experiment was in progress. In this experi- ment the alfalfa fields were all of the same size and large enough to harvest hay while the pigs were on pasture. During the previous summer it was found that one acre of alfalfa would pasture twenty-four loo-pound shoats while on full grain feed, but this number injured the stand. In this test, one acre would have furnished sufficient feed for 10 pigs without grain, or 14 pigs receiving 1.33 pounds of corn per day, 17 receiving 2.48 pounds, or 20 receiving 3.46 pounds per day, by pasturing to the limit without cutting hay. From these estimates the cost of pasture per pig was computed. The experiment shows that the heaviest fed lot made somewhat the cheap- est gains. This lot was given a little less than a full feed of corn the first month and all that would be consumed the second month. Alfalfa pasture can hardly be figured at more than $i per acre above the interest and taxes upon the land valua- tion. Were the alfalfa higher in price the results would be still more in favor of the heaviest fed lot. On the other hand, had corn been higher in price, as is often the case, Lot 3, which received about 75 per cent of all the corn they could consume, would have made the cheapest gains. Under average Western conditions a full feed of corn night and morning on alfalfa pasture is prob- ably the most profitable, taking into consideration the desirability of securing such gains as will enable the feeder to market at the close of the pasturage geason. Pasture without grain proved to be little 278 PROFITABLE* STOCK FEEDING. more than a maintenance ration for these pigs, and was by far the most expensive of all. Such animals lack the digestive capacity necessary to make gains on bulky feed alone. Large, thin brood sows are able to make a growth, because of a larger capacity. In these experiments it was shown, that with the lot fed grain liberally on pasture, the same gains were made on about two-thirds of what grain had been consumed in a previous experiment where no pasture was supplied. Pigs running in pasture not only require less grain, but the effect of the exer- cise upon the general health of the animal is ex- tremely favorable for such feeding. In another ex- periment the addition of 5 per cent bone meal to a full ration of corn with alfalfa pasture lessened the amount of grain required for a pound of gain 22 per cent. This is the result of a single trial for a period of two months with ten pigs in each lot. Further experimentation must follow in order to gain reliable evidence concerning the value of bone meal fed with corn on alfalfa pasture. Fall Pigs. If a sow produces but one litter of pigs per year, the proper time for farrowing is in the spring. In cold climates it takes considerably more feed to properly nourish a sow and pigs in winter than in summer, and warmer pens must be provided. Only mature sows should be expected to raise two litters per year. With good, liberal feed- ing a sow can produce two moderate sized litters without harm to herself or the pigs, if the latter are fed as early as possible. With two litters per year it is advisable to wean the young at the end of seven weeks, breeding the sow the first heat following, the period of gestation being sixteen weeks. Fall pigs after being weaned may be fed liber- ally with grain, giving corn and a percentage of pro- tein foods double that recommended for young pigs FATTENING PIGS IN THE FALL. 279 on pasture, at least until they are old enough to eat clover and alfalfa hay. One of these could then be substituted for a part of the protein concentrates. A liberal system of grain feeding all winter and early spring would put them in condition for a late spring or early summer market, but less crowding on grain during the winter, with corn on pasture until about July i, would in all probability be more profitable. Rye pasture may be provided for early spring, but it is to be remembered that such pasture does not provide protein, as do rape 'and the legumes alfalfa, clover and cowpeas. Poland-Chinas in the Feed-lot. CHAPTER XXVII. FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. As indicated by the pasture experiment described in the previous chapter, when corn is relatively high in price, pork may be produced more economically by feeding less corn than would constitute a full feed on pasture a daily allowance of not less than two per cent, nor more than three per cent of the live weight of the pig in pounds. Under such cir- cumstances considerable growth would be secured during the summer, and the fattening accomplished in winter with new and perhaps cheaper corn. Nearly all farmers, too, have some late spring pigs which can not be finished by fall, no matter how liberally fed, and must, therefore, be fattened in winter. Shelter. In the economical production of pork in winter it is absolutely necessary to provide comfort- able quarters. Pigs will not make satisfactory gains if left to shiver for lack of shelter. Expensive struc- tures are not necessary. A shed boarded on all sides, having an opening for entrance on the leeward side, with boards, cornstalks, or straw on top for a roof, and an abundance of bedding underneath, will answer the purpose, so far as the comfort of the pigs is concerned. Such a shelter is warm enough in severely cold weather, if the roof is not too high from, the ground. The temperature can be more easily regulated, however, if the roof is moderately high and on one side of the shed are hung doors which can be left wide open or partly closed, ac- cording to the severity of the weather. Portable houses, as described on page 263, are also satisfac- to FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 28l tory for fattening pigs, preventing, as they do, overheating caused by a large number sleeping in one nest. Winter Rations. In the West, where corn is abundant, the majority of farmers feed nothing but this grain, for reasons readily apparent. A basket of ears may be taken from the crib and scattered upon the ground with comparatively little labor, the pigs shelling the corn from the cob with little diffi- culty and eating it with relish. They consume a large quantity and fatten quickly, enabling the farmer to market them after a comparatively short period of feeding. But while fairly good gains may be secured on corn alone, it does not follow that the best results are attained by practicing such a sys- tem. In fact, numerous tests made at different sta- tions comparing corn alone with corn supplemented with other foods furnish reliable evidence that corn properly supplemented is much superior to corn alone. From an economical point of view, a 100- pound pig of average flesh will show the largest gain from a given weight of food when there is present in the ration about one pound of protein, or flesh-making material, to 6.5 or 7 pounds of non- nitrogenous material, such as starches, sugars and fats. In corn there is one pound of protein, or ni- trogenous matter, to 9.7 non-nitrogenous. That this excess of non-nitrogenous matter in corn is not uti- lized at all, or in very small part, is a generally ac- cepted fact, because it has been proved conclusively by practical feeding tests. This being true, less food for a given gain will be required if something rich in protein is fed with the corn. Wheat Shorts a Source of Protein. At the Wis- consin Experiment Station 5.37 pounds of corn were required for one pound of gain, and 5.22 pounds of wheat shorts were required for the same gain when 282 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. each was fed separately. By combining the two in equal proportions by weight, only 4.4 pounds of the mixture were required for one pound of gain. In this experiment there was required about one- fifth less corn for a pound of gain when the corn was mixed with wheat shorts. At the South Da- kota Station 16 per cent more grain was required for producing a given gain on shoats weighing 114 pounds, when corn alone was fed, than when the grain consisted of equal parts of corn and shorts. In this experiment shorts cost the same price per hun- dred as the corn, and the profits were therefore 16 per cent greater by mixing the two together. It was also found in this experiment that the gains from corn and shorts were 10 per cent larger and 10 per cent cheaper than from shorts alone. In a Mis- souri test, when 20 per cent of the grain ration con- sisted of shorts, 21 per cent less feed was required for each pound of gain than when corn alone was fed. At the same station 30 per cent was saved by making the ration 33 per cent shorts. In Nebraska 27 per cent was saved by feeding 20 per cent of shorts, and in an Indiana test with 5o-pound pigs, 38 per cent was saved by feeding equal parts of shorts and corn in comparison with corn alone. In wheat shorts there is present one pound of protein, or nitrogenous matter, to four pounds of non-nitrogenous. There is, therefore, a defi- ciency of the non-nitrogenous, or starchy, mate- rial in this foodstuff. By mixing shorts with corn we are able to secure a proportion of nutrients which more nearly meets the requirements of the animal. The most economical proportion of corn to shorts depends upon current prices. If corn sells relatively high and shorts low, equal parts of the two would be profitable for fattening hogs. It is usually the case, however, that shorts are worth FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 283 considerably more per hundred than corn. Under these circumstances better profits, but perhaps somewhat smaller gains, would be obtained by feed- ing a larger proportion of corn. At average West- ern prices, the proportion of three pounds of corn to one pound of wheat shorts is ordinarily most profitable. This proportion can be varied slightly, according to current prices. Should corn ever reach the low mark of 10 cents per bushel, as it did in the West at one time, and protein foods remain high in price, then it would be profitable to feed corn alone. At that price the feeder could better afford to waste the excess of starch in corn than buy any protein foods to balance the ration and convert the whole into meat. Concentrated Protein Foods. There are years when wheat shorts are too high to be used by the feeder. As a substitute the farmer has at his disposal such commercial protein foods as oil meal, gluten meal and tankage, which, as the table in the ap- pendix shows, contain a little more than twice as much protein as is found in wheat shorts. It will also be noted that the soy bean, grown in the South- ern States, contains about the same as is found in oil meal or gluten meal. A ration made up of eight pounds of corn to one pound of any one of these four foods will answer the same purpose as the ra- tion of corn and shorts in the proportion suggested. In an Indiana experiment, where light pigs were fed two-thirds corn and one-third soy bean meal in comparison with corn, 46 per cent less of the former feed was required for a given gain. The Missouri Station found oil meal with corn a de- cided advantage. Cottonseed Meal Often Poisonous for Pigs. Cot- tonseed meal, another Southern product, while rich in protein, containing even more than the food- 284 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. stuffs mentioned, cannot safely be used in pig feed- ing, because of its deleterious effects upon the sys- tem. Pigs fed even a small proportion of cotton seed meal are apt to become sick, and if the feeding is continued they often die. The Texas Station re- ports its successful use for pigs, but Northern feed- ers should not risk it so long as there are other protein foods on the market at corresponding prices. Running pigs behind cattle fed cottonseed meal, however, seems to be entirely safe. Skim milk may be fed to fattening pigs and will furnish all the protein needed if supplied in suffi- cient quantity. Three pounds of skim milk mixed with one pound of corn meal makes a very satis- factory ration for fattening swine. It has been found by experiments that fattening pigs fed liber- ally upon skim milk mixed with meal mostly corn can be made to eat more feed per day and will make larger gains than on any combination of foods without milk. Near large creameries it is often possible to procure skim milk in large quantities. If it can be had at a price not to exceed 15 cents per hundred pounds, it can be fed with profit. In feeding this or any other of the protein foods recommended in connection with corn, the propor- tion could be slightly altered to conform more to prices prevailing for foodstuffs of either character. In the Eastern States, where corn is relatively high, more protein foods could be used profitably. Alfalfa Hay for Hogs. In the West, where al- falfa hay is now being extensively grown, its use as a source of protein to supplement corn has sim- plified very much the problem of economic pork pro- duction. To give the reader an idea of the worth of alfalfa hay as a substitute for shorts or milk in connection with corn feeding, and to further empha- size what has been said concerning the value of corn FATTENING PIGS IN WINTER. 285 properly supplemented in comparison with corn alone, the results of an experiment performed at the Nebraska Experiment Station during the winter of 1902-03 are given below. Twenty pigs, uniform in quality, were divided into four lots of five each. The following table shows the average record of each pig by lot : S n M 3 o ^^ '^'o W)'5b w>oj a a a | II "3 g g-0 0)H fl ** O O o ^ rt fl a ^ oj ^T3 -O g-O gftbfi *q <3 | |~ ^ d* in pounds. >+> p s 2r . 3-3 ^3 *- || gft E 1* "3*2 S H I 1 I 1 I < : in K& r I 1 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. I ,bs. Lbs. 15 to 50 38 9 41 174 2.23 5.95 .76 293 50 to 100 78 13 100 417 3.35 4.32 .83 400 100 to 150. 128 13 119 495 4.79 3.75 1 .10 437 150 to 200 174 11 107 489 5.91 3.43 1 .24 482 200' to 250 226 12 72 300 6.57 2.91 1 .33 498 250 to 300 271 8 46 223 7.40 2.74 1 .46 511 300 to 350.. . 320 3 19 105 7.50 2.35 1 .40 535 Referring to the last column of the above table, it will be seen that as the pig grows larger, more food is required for a given gain. This seems en- tirely reasonable in view of the fact, that the larger PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. the hog, the more food is required for maintenance ; by which is meant more food to keep the body warm, force the blood to circulate, and maintain other functional activities commensurate with larger size, all of which requirements are made at the expense of actual increase in weight from food consumed. The smaller the pig the less food is required for a given gain. Yet it is not profitable to kill an animal too young, because of the initial ost at birth. Everything considered, it would seem .that the pig should be marketed at a weight some- where between 200 and 250 pounds for maximum profits. The above table is of further interest in that it shows how large a daily ration pigs at different weights should consume, and the gain per day which might reasonably be expected under average conditions. Pigs thin in flesh would, of course, con- sume larger amounts than stated and would gain more accordingly. Pens for Winter Pig-feeding Tests, Nebraska Experiment Station. CHAPTER XXVIII. CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR SWINE. Throughout the corn belt of the United States, corn is almost entirely depended upon for pig feed- ing. While no feed has yet been found which has proved superior to corn properly fed, yet there are occasional years when certain other grains are cheap enough to be serviceable for the production of pork. On most farms, too, it is advisable to grow certain other grains in the crop rotation. In the semiarid districts small grains are better able to stand the dry weather than corn, and such grains are there- fore oftentimes cheaper for feeding purposes. Barley, which is grown to a considerable extent in Northern latitudes and the extreme West, is of two kinds, the bald varieties and the common. The latter has a hull and is much less valuable for pig feeding. Though classed as a starchy food, barley contains a higher percentage of protein than corn, and it is probably this fact which shows barley to be slightly superior to corn when each is fed alone. At those stations where each was supplemented by shorts and skim milk, the corn proved to be better than barley. Millet seed, which yielded at the rate of 30 bush- els to the acre at the South Dakota Experiment Sta- tion, was fed to pigs in comparison with wheat and with barley. In this test one pound of wheat proved equivalent to i.oi pounds barley and to 1.22 pounds millet seed. Millet weighs 56 pounds to the bushel and barley 48. Each yielded in pork the same price per bushel 2Q4 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. Wheat can be grown in a drier climate than corn, and in such localities is frequently fed. In feeding wheat to swine it should be first ground or soaked, for the kernels are so small and hard that many will pass through the alimentary tract undi- gested if fed dry and unground. At the Nebraska Station it was found that there was a saving of 10 per cent of whole dry wheat by grinding it, and a saving of 8 per cent by soaking it from 18 to 24 hours. Soaking was most profitable because of the greater expense of grinding. In the same experiment it was found that ground wheat gave 9 per cent larger gains than ground corn. This may be due to the fact that wheat, with its somewhat higher protein con- tent, is more nearly balanced than corn alone. A Utah test showed an advantage for wheat until pea- meal was added to corn to furnish more protein, when the latter proved just as valuable. After re- viewing a large number of experiments with wheat feeding, it seems safe to assert that wheat is about 3 per cent ahead of corn, pound for pound, when each is fed separately; but properly supplemented, corn is just as good. Wheat screenings can often be had at a price below _that of corn, and if of good quality, consist- ing of cracked and shrunken kernels with no dirt, they are very nearly equal to corn. Screenings should also be soaked or ground. Frosted wheat is entirely satisfactory for pigs. Tests at the Central Experiment Farm of Canada show frosted wheat very nearly equal to the un- frosted. Rye is not as well relished by pigs as is wheat. Since the two grains are similar in composition, the greater palatability of wheat no doubt explains why better gains are made on wheat than on rye. From comparative tests made, it seems conservative to say CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. 2QS that wheat has a feeding value about 10 per cent greater than rye. Like wheat, rye should either be ground or soaked when fed. Kafir Corn. At the Kansas Experiment Station, where Kafir corn has been grown for a series of years, it has been found to average 55 bushels per acre 25 per cent more than common Indian corn. Farther west than Manhattan, in dry sections, the difference would be still greater. In pig feeding tests at Kansas, when corn meal was compared with Kafir corn meal, it was found that one pound of corn was equivalent to 1.17 pounds of Kafir corn. When each was fed with 33 per cent soy bean meal, a rich protein food, one pound of corn and soy bean meal was equivalent to 1.07 pounds of Kafir corn and soy bean meal, but when soy bean meal was made 20 per cent of the ration, one pound of Kafir corn meal was equal to 1.06 pounds of cornmeal. Kafir corn, like common corn, is deficient in protein, and it has also a constipating effect, both of which faults soy bean meal or oil meal will correct. On account of the small size and hardness of the seeds, it is advisable to grind or thoroughly soak Kafir corn before feeding. Cane, or sorghum, seed is very similar to Kafir corn in composition and it should be fed in the same way. The Kansas experiments show cane seed to be somewhat inferior to Kafir corn for pig feeding. Oats. For feeding market hogs, oats are ordi- narily too expensive in comparison with corn, and for fattening hogs they contain altogether too much hull, which is largely indigestible matter. Oats are fairly good for brood sows, provided they can be had at a price per hundred no greater than corn. For young pigs they are not satisfactory, owing to their bulk, unless fed in a very limited quantity. Emmer, commonly called Speltz, has been used 296 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. in pig- feeding tests at the North Platte (Nebraska) Substation, where it was found to have a food value considerably below corn and below barley. It con- tains rather too much hull for fattening pigs. Potatoes contain from 75 to 80 per cent water and the remainder is largely starch. Considering the starch content, potatoes would properly be consid- ered a corn substitute. Owing to their large water content, they are in reality too bulky for pigs, unless the water is first driven out by cooking. From ex- periments conducted at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, it would seem that one pound of corn is equivalent to about 4^ pounds of uncooked pota- toes. This agrees closely with experiments made in Denmark. It would not be profitable, therefore, to feed potatoes if they are more than one-fourth the price of corn per bushel. Jerusalem artichokes, like potatoes, grow under- ground as tubers, and are sometimes planted for pigs. At the Missouri Experiment Station they were found to be the equivalent of potatoes. Not having more than one-fourth the food value of corn, they are hardly competitors of this cereal for economic pork produc- tion, though they are valuable for brood sows and growing pigs. Sugar beets at the Colorado Experiment Station proved little more than a maintenance ration when fed alone. With grain they were worth $1.50 per ton. It was therefore concluded that any succulence needed for growing pigs could be furnished more cheaply in grass. Sugar beet pulp gave a gain equivalent to that from sugar beets, and, as indicated by the test, would seem to be worth as much per ton. Sugar beet pulp, if made not more than one-fourth the grain ra- tion by weight for pigs, should give better results than corn alone. Corn silage, like roots, is very watery and there- CORN SUBSTITUTES FOR PIGS. fore somewhat too bulky for fattening pigs unless fed in very small quantity not more than one-fourth the ration. For brood sows a larger proportion could be fed. Corn silage is most satisfactory for sows giving milk, as its succulence seems to have the effect of stimulating the flow, which is especially desirable when a large litter is being raised. A brood sow could easily consume equal parts by weight of silage and grain, but the grain part in that case would necessarily be made up of sufficient protein food to supply the needs of the sow. Moreover, this protein food should be of a concentrated nature, like shorts or oil meal, rather than clover or alfalfa, since the silage pro- vides all the bulk that can be utilized. Corn silage is even more deficient in protein than corn. CHAPTER XXIX. PROTEIN CONCENTRATES AND THE PREP- ARATION OF FOODS FOR SWINE. Feeds Supplementary to Corn for Pigs. In the preceding chapters on pig feeding, the use of corn has been described in more or less detail. As already stated, this is done because corn is almost entirely de- pended upon as the basic part of the ration, owing to its relative cheapness. Should there be occasion for feeding any of the so-called corn substitutes, the method of supplementing them would be similar to the methods described for corn, the only difference being the amount, or proportion, of supplementary food used. None of these corn substitutes will require a larger proportion of protein foods than that recom- mended for corn ; in fact, most of them require less, because they contain a higher percentage of protein. Wheat and rye, as noted by the chart on page 27, have nutritive ratios very near to requirements for fattening mature hogs. In the use of such foods for pig feeding, not more than one-half the proportion of protein or supplementary foods recommended for use with corn is needed. For example, where a ration of 88 per cent corn and 12 per cent oil meal is suggested, 94 per cent wheat or rye and 6 per cent oil meal would furnish approximately the same nutrients. Barley would need a little more oil meal than wheat, because it contains less protein. Kafir corn should be supplemented in the same manner as corn. As previously stated, the choice of protein foods to supplement any of these starchy foods depends entirely upon their relative efficiency at the current * 9 8 PROTEIN CONCENTRATES FOR PIGS. market price. The efficiency of each is largely a question of protein content. As with starchy foods, palatability is a factor in measuring the value of a protein food, but any slight difference in the palata- bility of such concentrated foods is less noticeable in the ration because of the small proportion used. Since it is the practice to base the value of the so-called protein foods very largely upon the per- centage of digestible protein contained, figuring upon this basis, we shall assume clover to be worth $5.00 per ton, then alfalfa is worth $8.00, cowpea hay $8.00, wheat shorts $9.00, wheat bran $9.00, Canadian peas $12.50, cowpeas $13.60, skim milk $2.10, soy beans $21.70, oil meal (old process) $21.50, gluten meal $19.00, tankage $22.00, dried blood $38.00. In computing the value of tankage per ton it is assumed that the coefficient of digestibility of the protein is the same as in dried blood. But to get a more nearly correct estimate of the relative worth of these foods, some value must be given to the carbohydrates and fats found in each. This value should not be more than the actual cost of carbohydrates as found in corn, their cheapest source. Assuming fats to be 2.25 times as valuable as carbohydrates (their heat ratio), and placing upon each pound of digestible carbohydrates in ex- cess of what is contained in clover a valuation of one- half cent, the relative value per ton of each food- stuff would then be, clover $5.00, alfalfa $8.00, cow- pea hay $8.00, bran $9.00, shorts $10.00, Canadian peas $13.80, cowpeas $15.30, skim milk $2.10, soy beans $23.30, gluten meal $23.00, oil meal $22.50, tankage $23.00, dried blood $38.00. However, the work of masticating the unground peas and beans, and the still greater energy expended in grinding the hay, would place these foodstuffs somewhat below the prices quoted. Just what esti- 3. &l Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. CONCENTRATES Cont Millet seed 14.0 3.3 11.8 9.5 57.4 4.0 Oats 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 30 Oat dust 6.5 6.9 13.5 18.2 50.2 4.8 2 Oat feed 7.7 3.7 16.0 6.1 59.4 7.1 4 Oat hulls 7.3 6.7 3.3 29.7 52.1 1.0 1 Oat meal 7.9 2.0 14.7 0.9 67.4 7.1 6 Palm-nut meal 10.4 4.3 16.8 24.0 35.0 9.5 600 Peanut kernel (with- out hulls) 7.5 2.4 .27.9 7.0 15.6 39.6 7 Peanut meal 10.7 4.9 47.6 5.1 23.7 8.0 2480 Pea meal 10.5 2.6 20.2 14.4 51.1 1.2 2 Eape-seed cake 10.0 7.9 31.2 11.3 30.0 9.6 500 Rice 12.4 0.4 7.4 0.2 79.2 0.4 10 9.7 10.0 12.1 9.5 49.9 8.8 5 Eice hulls 8.2 13.2 3.6 35.7 38.6 0.7 3 Eice meal 10.2 8.1 12.0 5.4 51.2 13.1 2 Eice polish 10.0 6.7 11.7 6.3 58.0 7.3 4 Eye 11.6 1.9 10.6 1.7 72.5 1.7 6 Eye bran 11.6 3.6 14.7 3.5 63.8 2.8 7 13.1 0.7 6.7 0.4 78.3 0.8 4 Eye shorts 9.3 5.9 18.0 5.1 59.9 2.8 1 Shorts 11.8 4.6 14.9 7.4 56.8 4.5 12 Soy bean 10.8 4.7 34.0 4.8 28.8 16.9 8 Sorghum seed 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6 10 Starch feed, wet 65.4 0.3 6.1 3.1 22.0 3.1 12 Sunflower seed 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 21.2 2 Sunflower-seed cake. . 10.8 6.7 32.8 13.5 27.1 9.1 Wheat, all analyses . . 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1 310 Wheat screenings . . . 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65.1 3.0 10 10.4 1.9 12.5 1.8 71.2 2.2 13 Wheat, winter 10.5 1.8 11.8 1.8 72.0 2.1 262 EOUGHAGE Corn husks, field cured 50.9 1.8 2.5 15.8 28.3 0.7 16 Corn leaves, " 30.0 5.5 6.0 21.4 35.7 1.4 17 Corn stover, " " 40.5 3.4 3.8 19.7 31.5 1.1 60 Fodder corn," " 42.2 2.7 4.5 14.3 34.7 1.6 35 fKafir corn stover, field cured 13.4 9.3 5.5 27.9 42.0 1.7 2 t Average of Kansas (Bulletin 103) and Oklahoma (Bulletin 37) tests. APPENDIX. 393 TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Continued. Feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. 1 No. of 1 analyses. I Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. EOUGHAGE. Cent. *Sorghum, field cured 94.2 8.2 5.8 23.3 55.5 1.5 1 Corn forage, green. Dent varieties 79.0 1.2 1.7 5.6 12.0 0.5 63 Dent, kernels glazed. 73.4 1.5 2.0 6.7 15.5 0.9 7 Flint varieties 79.8 1.1 2.0 4.3 12.1 0.7 40 Flint, kernels glazed. 77.1 1.1 2.7 4.3 14.6 0.8 10 Fodder corn, all va- rieties 79.3 1.2 1.8 5.0 12.2 0.5 126 Leaves and husks. . . . 66.2 2.9 2.1 8.7 19.0 1.1 4 Stripped stalks 76.1 0.7 0.5 7.3 14.9 0.5 4 Sweet varieties 79.1 1.3 1.9 4.4 12.8 0.5 21 Ray from grasses. Barley hay, cut in milk 15.0 4.2 8.8 24.7 44.9 2.4 1 Buttercups 9.3 5.6 9.9 30.6 41.1 3.5 2 Hay from mixed grasses 15.3 5.5 7.4 27.2 42.1 2.5 126 Italian rye grass .... 8.5 6.9 7.5 30.5 45.0 1.7 4 Johnson grass 10.2 6.1 7.2 28.5 45.9 2.1 2 Kentucky blue grass. 21.2 6.3 7.8 23.0 37.8 3.9 10 Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed in milk 24.4 7.0 6.3 24.5 34.2 3.6 4 Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed ripe. 27.8 6.4 5.8 23.8 33.2 3.0 4 Hungarian grass .... 7.7 6.0 7.5 27.7 49.0 2.1 13 Meadow fescue 20.0 6.8 7.0 25.9 38.4 2.7 9 Mixed grasses and clovers 12.9 5.5 10.1 27.6 41.3 2.6 17 Oat hay, cut in milk 15.0 5.2 9.3 29.2 39.0 2.3 1 Orchard grass 9.9 6.0 8.1 32.4 41.0 2.6 10 Perennial rye grass. 14.0 7.9 10.1 25.4 40.5 2.1 4 JPrairie (native) . . 6.8 8.3 6.0 30.1 46.3 2.7 3 Eed top, cut at differ ent stages 8.9 5.2 7.9 28.6 47.5 1.9 9 Bed top, cut in bloom 8.7 4.9 8.0 29.9 46.4 2.1 3 *Colorado bulletin 93. ^Average of Colorado, Kansas and Nebraska analyses, hay is variable in composition because of mixed grasses. This 394 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Continued. Feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. 1 No. of 1 analyses. Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. HAY FROM GRASSES. Cont. Eowen (mixed) 16.6 Salt-marsh hay 10.4 Swamp hay . . 11.6 Timothy, all analyses. 13.2 Timothy, cut in full bloom 15.0 Timothy, cut soon after bloom 14.2 Timothy, cut when nearly ripe 14.1 White daisy 10.3 Wild-oat grass 14.3 Fresh grass. Barley fodder 79.0 Barnyard millet 75.0 Hungarian grass 71.1 Italian rye grass, com- ing into bloom .... 73.2 Japanese millet 75.0 Kentucky blue grass. 65.1 Meadow fescue, in bloom 69.9 Oat fodder 62.2 Orchard grass, in blopm 73.0 Pasture grass 80.0- Eed top, in bloom. ... 65.3 Eye fodder 76.6 Sorghum fodder 79.4 Tall oat grass, in bloom 69.5 Timothy, different . 61.6 Hay from legumes. Alfalfa 8.4 Alsike clover 9.7 Cowpea 10.7 Crimson clover 9.6 Flat pea 8.4 Japan clover 11.0 Peanut vines (without nuts) 7.6 6.8 11.6 22.5 39.4 3.1 23 7.7 5.5 30.0 44.1 2.4 10 6.7 7.2 26.6 45.9 2.0 8 4.4 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 68 4.5 6.0 29.6 41.9 3.0 12 4.4 5.7 28.1 44.6 3.0 11 3.9 5.0 31.1 43.7 2.2 12 6.6 7.7 30.0 42.0 3.4 2 3.8 5.0 25.0 48.8 3.3 1 1.8 2.7 7.9 8.0 0.6 1 1.9 2.4 7.0 13.1 0.6 2 1.7 3.1 9.2 14.2 0.7 14 2.5 3.1 6.8 13.3 1.3 24 1.5 2.1 7.8 13.1 0.5 12 2.8 4.1 9.1 17.6 1.3 18 1.8 2.4 10.8 14.3 0.8 4 2.5 3.4 11.2 19.3 1.4 6 2.0 2.6 8.2 13.3 0.9 4 2.0 3.5 4.0 9.7 0.8 2.3 2.8 11.0 17.7 0.9 '5 1.8 2.6 11.6 6.8 0.6 7 1.1 1.3 6.1 11.6 0.5 11 2.0 2.4 9.4 15.8 0.9 3 2.1 3.1 11.8 20.2 1.2 56 7.4 14.3 25.0 42.7 2.2 21 8.3 12.8 25.6 40.7 2.9 9 7.5 16.6 20.1 42.2 2.2 8 8.6 15.2 27.2 36.6 2.8 7 7.9 22.9 26.2 31.4 3.2 5 8.5 13.8 24.0 39.0 3.7 2 10.8 10.7 23.6 42.7 4.6 6 APPENDIX. 395 TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS . Continued. Feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. INo. of 1 analyses. | Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro. gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. HAY FROM LEGUMES. Cont. Pea vine 15.0 Ked clover 15.3 Bed clover, in bloom. 20.8 Red clover, mammoth. 21.2 Sanfoin 15.0 Serradella 9.2 Soy bean 11.3 Vetch 11.3 White clover 9.7 Fresh legumes. Alfalfa 71.8 Alsike clover 74.8 Cowpea 83.6 Crimson clover 80.9 Flat pea 66.7 Horse bean 84.2 Red clover, different stages 70.8 Serradella 79.5 Soy bean 75.1 Straw. Barley 14.2 Buckwheat straw 9.9 Horse bean 9.2 Oat 9.2 Oat chaff 14.3 Rye 7.1 Soy bean 10.1 Wheat 9.6 Wheat chaff 14.3 Silage. Apple pomace 85.0 Barnyard millet and soy bean 79.0 Corn 79.1 Corn and soy bean. . 76.0 Cowpea vine 79.3 Cowpea and soy-bean vines, mixed 69.8 6.7 13.7 24.7 37.6 2.3 1 6.2 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 38 6.6 12.4 21.9 33.8 4.5 6 6.1 10.7 24.5 33.6 3.9 10 7.3 14.8 20.4 39.5 3.0 1 7.2 15.2 21.6 44.2 2.6 3 7.2 15.4 22.3 38.6 5.2 6 7.9 17.0 25.4 36.1 2.3 5 8.3 15.7 24.1 39.3 2.9 7 2.7 4.8 7.4 12.3 1.0 23 2.0 3.9 7.4 11.0 0.9 4 1.7 2.4 4.8 7.1 0.4 10 1.7 3.1 5.2 8.4 0.7 3 2.9 8.7 7.9 12.2 1.6 2 1.2 2.8 4.9 6.5 0.4 2 2.1 4.4 8.1 13.5 1.1 43 3.2 2.7 5.4 8.6 0.7 9 2.6 4.0 6.7 10.6 1.0 27 5.7 3.5 36.0 39.0 1.5 97 5.5 5.2 43.0 35.1 1.3 3 8.7 8.8 37.6 34.3 1.4 1 5.1 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 12 10.0 4.0 34.0 36.2 1.5 . . 3.2 3.0 38.9 46.6 1.2 7 5.8 4.6 40.4 37.4 1.7 4 4.2 3.4 38.1 43.4 1.3 7 9.2 4.5 36.0 34.6 1.4 0.6 1.2 3.3 8.8 1.1 1 2.8 2.8 7.2 7.2 1.0 9 1.4 1.7 6,0 11.0 0.8 99 2.4 2.5 7.2 11.1 0.8 4 2.9 2.7 6.0 7.6 1.5 2 4.5 3.8 9.5 11.1 1.3 396 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Continued. Feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. 1 No. of 1 analyses. I Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. SILAGE. Cont. 50.1 3.5 5.9 13.0 26.0 1.6 1 Red clover 72.0 2.6 42 84 11.6 1.2 5 Rye 80 8 1 6 24 5 8 9.2 3 1 76.1 1.1 0.8 6.4 15.3 0.3 6 Soy bean 74.2 2.8 4.1 9.7 6.9 2.2 1 Boots and tubers. Artichoke 79.5 1.0 2.6 0.8 15.9 0.2 2 Beets, common 88.5 1.0 1.5 0.9 8.0 0.1 9 Beet, man o-el 90.9 1.1 1.4 0.9 5.5 0.2 q Beet sugar 86 5 09 18 0.9 98 01 19 88.6 1.0 1.1 1.3 7.6 0.4 8 Parsnip Potato 88.3 78.9 0.7 1.0 1.6 2.1 1.0 0.6 10.2 17.3 0.2 0.1 1?, Ruta-baga 88.6 1.2 1.2 1.3 7.5 0.2 4 Sweet potato 71.1 1.0 1.5 1.3 24.7 0.4 6 90.5 0.8 1.1 1.2 6.2 0.2 3 MISCELLANEOUS Acorns, fresh Apples 55.3 80.8 1.0 0.4 2.5 0.7 4.4 1.2 34.8 16.6 1.9 0.4 *3 Apple pomace 76.7 0.5 1.4 3.9 16.2 1.3 7 Beet pulp 89.8 0.6 0.9 2.4 6.3 16 Beet molasses Buttermilk Cabbage 20.8 90.1 90.5 10.6 0.7 1.4 9.1 4.0 2.4 i5 59.5 4.0 3.9 i!i 0.4 35 85 2 Cow 's milk Cow's milk, colostrum Distillery slops 87.2 74.6 93.7 0.7 1.6 0.2 3.6 17.6 1.9 0*6 4.9 2.7 2.8 3.7 3.6 0.9 793 42 T Dried sediment from distillery slops Dried blood Dried fish Ewe 's milk Goat's milk Mare 's milk Meat scrap Prickly comf rey Pumpkin (garden)... Pumpkin (field) 5.0 8.5 10.8 81.3 86.9 91.0 10.7 88.4 80.8 90.9 11.3 4.7 29.2 0.8 0.9 0.4 4.1 2.2 0.9 0.5 27.4 84.4 48.4 6.3 3.7 2.1 71.2 2.4 1.8 1.3 8.0 i'.6 1.8 1.7 36.1 4.7 4.4 5.3 0.3 5.1 7.9 5.2 12.3 2.5 11.6 6.8 4.1 1.2 13.7 0.3 0.8 0.4 1 3 6 144 41 APPENDIX. 397 TABLE I. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OP AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Continued. Feeding stuffs. Percentage composition. INo. of 1 analyses. | Water. Ash. Pro- tein. Crude fiber. Nitro- gen-free extract. Ether ex- tract. 2.0 2.3 2.6 8.4 0.5 2 0.7 3.3 4.7 0.9 96 0.7 3.1 . .. 5.3 0.3 7 0.6 0.6 3.2 11.7* ... 2 1.1 6.2 ... 4.8 7.1 7 4.0 2.0 4.9 12.7 0.8 1 2.4 2.6 2.2 4.4 0.4 18.7 44.1 7.2 9.4 13.6 *3 0.4 0.6 ... 5.1 0.1 46 MISCELLANEOUS. Cont. Rape 84.5 Skim milk, gravity.. . 90.4 Skim milk, centrifugal 90.6 Sorghum bagasse . . . 83.9 Sow's milk 80.8 Spurry 75.7 Sugar-beet leaves . . . 88.0 fTankage 7.0 Whey 93.8 T^ble II. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fer- tilizing Constituents in American Feed- ing Stuffs. The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived mainly from the preceding table and digestion coefficients obtained at American Experi- ment Stations. "In other cases they are from Bul- letin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins) ; and Zu- sammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Ko- nig. "The fertilizing constituents are principally from the Year Book for 1895, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, with additions from Wolff, Dietrich and Konig, and Bulletin 87, New Jersey Experiment Station. The table, as published, is taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," by courtesy of the author, with exceptions as given in foot notes. tBulletins: Iowa (65), Indiana (108). PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE II. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CON STITUENTS. Continued. Name of feed. Dry matter in 100 pounds. Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1,000 pounds. Pro- tein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Ex- tract. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Pot- ash. CONCENTRATES. Barley Lbs. . 89.1 Lbs. Lbs. 8.7 65.6 3.9 9.3 15.7 36.3 7.4 48.3 7.7 49.2 2.1 27.9 7.4 30.4 21.1 33.5 22.0 33.4 15.6 38.3 7.9 66.7 7.8 66.7 8.0 66.2 8.8 63.7 0.4 52.5 4.4 60.0 7.4 59.8 12.5 30.0 37.2 16.9 0.3 33.1 18.3 54.2 13.5 61.3 20.6 17.1 9.0 61.2 25.8 43.3 30.3 35.3 20.4 48.4 26.7 38.8 8.9 62.4 7.5 55.2 22.4 49.3 7.8 57.1 29.3 32.7 28.2 40.1 8.2 62.7 18.6 37.1 8.9 45.0 9.2 47.3 8.9 38.4 Lbs. 1.6 1.4 5.1 2.9 1.8 0.6 1.9 5.5 5.4 10.5 4.3 4.3 4.3 7.0 0.3 2.9 4.6 17.3 12.2 1.7 1.1 2.0 29.0 6.2 11.0 14.5 8.8 12.4 0.9 6.8 1.2 2.1 7.0 2.8 0.9 1.7 3.2 4.2 5.1 Lbs. 15.1 8.9 36.2 16.3 14.4 4.9 36.4 42^8 32.8 18.2 16.5 16.8 18.6 5.0 14.1 16.3 31.3 67.9 6.9 33.3 31.8 36.1 26.5 50.3 57.7 38.4 49.8 18.9 16.3 40.7 5*4.3 57.8 28.9 35.5 20.4 20.6 21.6 Lbs. 7.9 3.1 10.3 4.4 0.7 17.8 2L9 16.0 7.0 ".6 5.7 12.1 12.7 28.8 2.5 21A 13.9 8.0 3.3 4.1 5.1 2.2 9.8 12.0 1*6.6 18.3 5.6 14.3 8.5 8.2 Lbs. 4.8 0.5 0.9 2.1 5.2 12.8 1L4 24.0 4.0 e!6 4.7 6.8 11.7 8.7 10.2 m9 10.3 5.0 0.5 6.3 1.5 1.5 4.9 12.9 1*3.7 13.9 3.5 16.3 3.6 6.2 Brewers' grains, wet. 24.3 Brewers ' grains, dried 91.8 Broom-corn seed . . . 85.9 Buckwheat 87.4 Buckwheat hulls . .. 86.8 Buckwheat bran 89.5 Buckwheat shorts . . . 88.9 Buckwheat middlings 87.3 Cocoanut meal .... - 89.7 Corn, all analyses. . . 89.1 .. 89.4 . 88 7 Corn, sweet . 91.2 . 89.3 Corn and cob meal. . 84.9 . 90.9 Cotton seed . 89.7 Cotton-seed meal . . Cotton-seed hulls . . Cowpea Dark feeding flour. . 91.8 . 88.9 . 85.2 . 90.3 . 90.8 Germ meal . 89.6 Gluten meal . 91.8 . 91.9 * Gluten feed . 92.2 Grano-gluten . 94.3 High-grade flour . . Hominy chops . 87.6 . 88.9 Horse bean . 85.7 Kafir corn 84.8 Linseed meal, old process 90.8 Linseed meal, new process89.9 Low-grade flour 87.6 Malt sprouts 89.8 Millet . 86.0 Oats . 89.0 Oat dust . 93.5 8.8 instead of 8.8 is said to be more correct for digestible ether extract, be- cause the latex process removes more oil from gluten feed. APPENDIX. 399 TABLE II. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CON- STITUENTS. Continued. Name of feed. Dry matter in 100 pounds. Digestible nutrients In 100 pounds. Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1,000 pounds. Pro- tein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Ex- tract. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Pot- ash. CON CENTRATES. Cent. Lbs. Oat feed or shorts... 92.3 Oat hulls 90.6 Oat meal 92.1 Palm-nut meal 89.6 Peas 89.5 Peanut meal 89.3 Bape-seed meal 90.0 Rice 87.6 Rice hulls 91.8 Rice bran 90.3 Rice polish 90.0 Rye 88.4 Rye bran 88.4 Rye shorts 90.7 Soja (soy) bean 89.2 Sorghum seed 87.2 Starch refuse 91.8 Sugar meal 93.2 Sunflower seed 92.5 Sunflower-seed cakes. 91.8 Wheat 89.5 Wheat bran 88.1 Wheat bran, spring wheat 88.5 Wheat bran, winter wheat 87.7 Wheat middlings.... 87.9 Wheat shorts 88.2 Wheat screenings... 88.4 ROUGHAGE Corn stover, field cured 59.5 Fodder corn, field cured 57.8 Fodder corn, green. . 20.7 * Kafir corn " stover, field cured 86.5 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 12.5 46.9 2.8 17.2 9.1 5.3 1.3 40.1 0.6 5.2 2.4 5.2 11.5 52.1 5.9 23.5 . . . . . . 16.0 52.6 9.0 26.9 11.0 5.0 16.8 51.8 0.7 30.8 8.2 9.9 42.9 22.8 6.9 75.6 13.1 15.0 25.2 23.7 7.5 49.6 20.0 13.0 4.8 72.2 0.3 10.8 1.8 0.9 1.6 44.5 0.6 5.8 1.7 1.4 5.3 45.1 7.3 7.1 2.9 2.4 9.0 56.4 6.5 19.7 26.7 7.1 9.9 67.6 1.1 17.6 8.2 5.4 11.5 50.3 2.0 23.2 22.8 14.0 11.9 45.1 1.6 18.4 12.6 8.1 29.6 22.3 14.4 53.0 18.7 19.9 7.0 52.1 3.1 14.8 8.1 4.2 11.4 58.4 6.5 22.4 7.0 5.2 18.7 51.7 8.7 36.3 4.1 0.3 12.1 20.8 29.0 22.8 12.2 5.6 31.2 19.6 12.8 55.5 21.5 11.7 10.2 69.2 1.7 23.6 7.9 5.0 12.2 39.2 2.7 26.7 28.9 16.1 12.9 40.1 3.4 12.3 37.1 2.6 12.8 53.0 3.4 26^3 9.5 12.2 50.0 3.8 28.2 13.5 9.8 51.0 2.2 24.4 11.7 2.5 34.6 1.0 11.6 1.2 17.6 0.4 4.1 5.4 1.5 2.3 44.8 0.8 6.3 5.9 8.4 1.7 32.4 0.7 10.4 2.9 14.0 8.9 3.3 * Average of Kansas and Oklahoma tests, 4QO PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE II. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CON- STITUENTS. Continued. Name of feed. Dry matter in 100 pounds. Digestible nutrients In 100 pounds. Fertilizing constitu- ents In 1,000 pounds. Pro- tein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Ex- tract. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Pot- ash. EOUGHAGE Cont. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. *Sorghum (cane) 94.2 2.5 44.3 0.9 ... ... Fresh grass. Green barley 21.0 1.9 10.2 0.4 ... ... Hungarian grass.... 28.9 2.0 16.0 0.4 3.9 1.6 5.5 Kentucky blue grass. 34.9 3.0 19.8 0.8 ... ... Meadow fescue, in bloom 30.1 1.5 16.8 0.4 ... ... ... Oat fodder 37.8 2.6 18.9 1.0 4.9 1.3 3.8 Orchard grass, in 27.0 1.5 11.4 0.5 4.3 1.6 7.6 Pasture grasses, mixed 20.0 2.5 10.2 0.5 9.1 2.3 7.5 Peas and oats 16.0 1.8 7.1 0.2 * ... ... Peas and barley .... 16.0 1.7 7.2 0.2 .. ... ... Eedtop, in bloom. . . . 34.7 2.1 21.2 0.6 ... ... ... Eye fodder 23.4 2.1 14.1 0.4 3.3 1.5 7.3 Sorghum 20.6 0.6 12.2 0.4 2.3 0.9 2.3 Timothy, different 38.4 1.2 19.1 0.6 4.8 2.6 7.6 Hay. Hungarian grass . . . 92.3 4.5 51.7 1.3 12.0 3.5 13.0 Kentucky blue grass. 78.8 4.8 37.3 2.0 11.9 4.0 15.7 Marsh or swamp hay. 88.4 2.4 29.9 0.9 .. .. . . Marsh or swamp hay. 92.1 3.5 44.7 0.7 ... ... ... Meadow fescue 80.0 4.2 43.3 1.7 9.9 4.0 21.0 Mixed grasses 87.1 5.9 40.9 1.2 14.1 2.7 15.5 Oat hay 91.1 4.3 46.4 1.5 ... ... ... 90.1 4.9 42.3 1.4 13.1 4.1 18.8 tPrairie (native) . .. 94.4 3.7 43.6 0.9 ... ... ... Eedtop 91.1 4.8 46.9 1.0 11.5 3.6 10.2 Eowen (mixed) .... 83.4 7.9 40.1 1.5 16.1 4.3 14.9 Soy-bean hay 88.7 10.8 38.7 1.5 23.2 6.7 10.8 Timothy 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 12.6 5.3 9.0 White daisy 85.0 3.8 40.7 1.2 ... ... ... Straw. Barley 85.8 0.7 41.2 0.6 13.1 3.0 20.9 Oat .. 90.8 1.2 38.6 0.8 6.2 2.0 12.4 Colorado Bulletin 93. tDigestion coefficients obtained by Colorado Experiment Sta- tion. APPENDIX. 401 TABLE II. -DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CON- STITUENTS. Continued. Name of feed. matter in 100 pounds. Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds. Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1,000 pounds. Pro- tein. Carbo- hy. drates Ether Ex- tract. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Pot- ash. STRAW. Cont. Lbs. Oat chaff 85.7 Eye 92.9 Wheat 90.4 Wheat chaff 85.7 Fresh legumes. Alsike, bloom 25.2 Alfalfa 28.2 Cowpea . ... . ^-. 16.4 Crimson clover 19.1 Bed clover, different stages v 29.2 Soy bean 24.9 Legume hay and straw. Alfalfa 91.6 Alsike clover . 90.3 Cowpea 89.3 Crimson clover 90.4 Pea-vine straw 86.4 Bed clover, medium. 84.7 Bed clover, mammoth 78.8 Soy-bean straw .... 89.9 White clover 90.3 Silage. Alfalfa 27.5 Barnyard millet and soy bean 21.0 Clover 28.0 Corn < . . 20.9 Corn and soy bean.. 24.0 Cowpea vine 20.7 Grass 32.0 Sorghum 23.9 Soy bean 25.8 Roots and tubers. Artichoke 20.0 Carrot 11.4 Beet, common 13.0 Beet, sugar 13.5 Beet, mangel 9.1 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1.5 33.0 0.7 Lbs. 0.6 40.6 0.4 4.6 2.8 7.9 0.4 36.3 0.4 5.9 1.2 5.1 0.3 23.3 0.5 7.9 7.0 4.2 2.7 13.1 0.6 4.4 1.1 2.0 3.9 12.7 0.5 7.2 1.3 5.6 1.8 8.7 0.2 2.7 1.0 3.1 2.4 9.1 0.5 4.3 1.3 4.9 2.9 14.8 0.7 5.3 1.3 4.6 3.2 11.0 0.5 2.9 1.5 5.3 11.0 39.6 1.2 21.9 5.1 16.8 8.4 42.5 1.5 23.4 6.7 22.3 10.8 38.6 1.1 19.5 5.2 14.7 10.5 34.9 1.2 20.5 4.0 13.1 4.3 32.3 0.8 14.3 3.5 10.2 6.8 35.8 1.7 20.7 3.8 22.0 5.7 32.0 1.9 22.3 5.5 12.2 2.3 40.0 1.0 17.5 4.0 13.2 11.5 42.2 1.5 27.5 5.2 18.1 3.0 8.5 1.9 ... ... ... 1.6 9.2 0.7 2.0 13.5 1.0 ... ... ... 0.9 11.3 0.7 2.8 1.1 3.7 1.6 13.0 0.7 .. . .. . 1.5 8.6 0.9 ... ... ... 1.9 13.4 1.6 ... ... ... 0.6 14.9 0.2 ... ... ... 2.7 8.7 1.3 ... ... ... 2.0 16.8 0.2 2.6 1.4 4.7 0.8 7.8 0.2 1.5 0.9 5.1 1.2 8.8 0.1 2.4 0.9 4.4 1.1 10.2 0.1 2.2 1.0 4.8 1.1 5.4 0.1 1.9 0.9 3.8 4O2 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE IT. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND STITUENTS. Continued. FERTILIZING CON- Name of feed. Dry matter in 100 pounds. Digestible nutrients In 100 pounds. Fertilizing constitu- ents in 1,000 pounds. Pro- tein Carbo- hy- drates Ether Ex- tract. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Pot- ash. ROOTS AND TUBERS. Cont. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Flat turnip 9.5 1.0 7.2 0.2 1.8 1.0 3.9 Potato 21.1 0.9 16.3 0.1 3.2 1.2 4.6 Parsnip 11.7 1.6 11.2 0.2 1.8 2.0 4.4 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2 1.9 1.2 4.9 MISCELLANEOUS Acorns, fresh 44.7 2.1 34.4 1.7 .. . . . ... Buttermilk 9.9 3.9 4.0 1.1 4.8 1.7 1.6 Cabbage 15.3 1.8 8.2 0.4 3.8 1.1 4.3 Cow 's milk 12.8 3.6 4.9 3.7 5.3 1.9 1.8 Cow 's milk, colostrum 25.4 17.6 2.7 3.6 28.2 6.6 1.1 Beet pulp 10.2 0.6 7.3 ... 1.4 0.2 0.4 Beet molasses 79.2 9.1 59.5 .0 14.6 0.5 56.3 Dried blood 91.5 52.3 .0 2.5 135.0 13.5 7.7 Dried fish 89.2 44.1 .0 10.3 77.5 120.0 2.0 Meat scrap 89.3 66.2 .3 13.7 113.9 7.0 1.0 Prickly comfrey .... 11.6 1.4 4.6 0.2 4.2 1.1 7.5 Pumpkin, field ..... 9.1 1.0 5.8 0.3 ... . . . . . . Pumpkin, garden . . . 19.2 1.4 8.3 0.8 1.1 1.6 0.9 14.0 1.5 8.1 0.2 4.5 1.5 3.6 Skim milk, gravity. . 9.6 3.1 4.7 0.8 5.6 2.0 1.9 Skim milk, centrifugal 9.4 2.9 5.2 0.3 5.6 2.0 1.9 Spurry 20.0 1.5 9.8 0.3 3.8 2.5 5.9 Sugar-beet leaves . . . 12.0 1.7 4.6 * 0.2 4.1 1.5 6.2 *Tankage 93.0 31.7 15.3 13.6 .. .. . Whey 6.6 0.8 4.7 0.3 1.5 1.4 1.8 *Digestion coefficients for dried blood used. Table III. Feeding Standards for Farm Animals. The German Feeding Standards have long been in general use as guides in compounding rations for farm animals. As mentioned in previous pages, there is now a prevailing impression among Ameri- can investigators that these standards call for more protein than is actually needed for best results. American investigations point to the conclusion that, for conditions such as prevail in this country, APPENDIX. 403 a slight reduction of protein is to be recommended, though just how much it is impossible to say. A reduction of 10 per cent does not seem unreason- able. With a liberal use of corn, which is relatively high in fat, American rations necessarily show a higher percentage of fat than is specified in the Ger- man standards. Professor Henry, in his admirable book on "Feeds and Feeding," from which the tables in this appendix are taken, with exceptions as stated in foot notes, says : "The table of feeding standards here presented is taken from Mentzel & Lengerke's Landw. Kalender for 1898. It comprises the standards originally prepared by Dr. Emil v. Wolff for that publication, modified by Dr. C. Lehmann. "The standards are arranged to meet the require- ments of farm animals under normal conditions. The student should not accept the statements in the standards as absolute, but rather as data of a helpful nature to be varied in practice as circum- stances suggest." "The statements in the column headed 'Dry Mat- ter' should be regarded as approximate only, since the digestive tract of the animal readily adapts it- self to variations of 10 per cent or more from the standard of volume. "The column headed, 'Sum of Nutrients/ combines the data of the three preceding columns, the ether extract being multiplied by 2.4 before adding. In the first column of this division of the table, marked "Crude Fiber=i," all the digestible nutrients are included. In the second division, marked "Crude Fiber=^2," it is generally assumed that about 30 per cent of the digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients consists of crude fiber, and one-half of this, or 15 per cent, is deducted. Rations containing much 404 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. coarse forage should therefore be somewhat in- creased, because of their lower nutritive value. "The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of small breeds will require more nutrients, amounting in some cases to .3 of a pound of nitro- genous and 1.5 pounds of non-nitrogenous digesti- ble nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live weight of animals. "Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full- grown animals is for the purpose of lessening the depression of digestibility, to enliven the temper- ment, or to increase the production of milk at the expense of laying on fat. "The different standards given for the same class of animals according to performance illustrate the manner and direction in which desirable changes should be made. "In considering the fattening standards the stu- dent should bear in mind that the most rapid fat- tening is usually the most economical, so that the standards given may often be profitably increased. "Standards for milch cows are given for the mid- dle of the lactation period with animals yielding milk of average composition. "The standards for growing animals contemplate only a moderate amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent mostly non-nitrogenous nutrients to the ration. If no exercise is taken, deduct 15 per cent from the standard." APPENDIX. 405 TABLE III. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. il Animal. 1 Digestible nutrients. 1 11 I P si 5* wS Sum of nutrients Nutritive ratio, 1: Crude fiber = 1 =/! 1. Oxen. Lbs. At rest in stall 18 Lbs. Lbs. 0.7 8.0 1.4 10.0 2.0 11.5 2.8 13.0 2.5 15.0 3.0 14.5 2.7 15.0 1.6 10.0 2.0 11.0 2.5 13.0 3.3 13.0 1.2 10.5 1.5 12.0 2.9 15.0 3.0 15.0 3.5 14.5 1.5 9.5 2.0 11.0 2.5 13.3 2.5 15.5 4.5 25.0 4.0 24.0 2.7 18.0 4.0 13.0 3.0 12.8 2.0 12.5 1.8 12.5 1.5 12.0 Lbs. 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.4 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.3 Lbs. Lbs. 8.9 7.5 12.1 9.7 14.7 12.0 17.7 15.0 18.7 15.6 19.2 17.0 19.4 17.2 12.3 10.2 14.0 12.2 16.7 14.4 18.2 16.0 12.2 10.0 14.2 12.0 19.1 16.3 19.2 16.5 19.4 16.9 12.0 10.0 14.5 12.8 17.7 15.5 19.0 31.2 29.2 22.0 21.8 21.0 18.2 17.0 15.7 13.7 15.3 12.8 14.2 11.8 Lbs. 11.8 7.7 6.5 5.3 6.5 5.4 6.2 6.7 6.0 5.7 4.5 9.1 8.5 5.6 5.4 4.5 7.0 6.2 6.0 6.6 5.9 6.3 7.0 4.5 5.1 6.8 7.5 8.5 At light work 22 At medium work. ... 25 At heavy work 28 %. Fattening cattle. First period 30 Second period . . 30 Third period 26 3. Milch cows. When yielding daily 11.0 pounds of milk. 25 16.6 pounds of milk. 27 2.0 pounds of milk. 29 27.5 pounds of milk. 32 4. Sheep. Coarse wool 20 Fine wool 23 5. Breeding ewes. With Jambs 25 6. Fattening sheep. First period .. 30 7. Horses. Light work 20 Aledium work . . . 24 8 Brood sows . 22 9. Fattening swine. First period .... 36 Second period 32 Third period 25 10. Growing cattle. Dairy breeds. 2- 3 150 23 3- 6 300 24 6-12 500 27 12-18 700 26 18-24 f 900 26 406 PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING. TABLE III. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. Animal. Per day per 1,000 pounds live weight. |j I Digestible nu rients. 1 g! Ether extract. Sum of nutrients 1 Nutritive ratio, 1: Crude fiber =1 =/, 11. Growing cattle. Beef breeds. 2- 3 160... 3- 6 330... 6-12 550... 12-18 750... 18-24 950... 12. Growing sheep. Wool breeds. 4-6 60... 6-8 75... 8-11 80... 11-15 90... 15-20 100... 13. Growing sheep. Mutton breeds. 4-6 60... 6-8 80... 8-11. 100... 11-15 120... 15-20 150... 14. Growing swine. Breeding stock. 2-3 50... 3- 5 100... 5- 6 120... 6- 8 200... 8-12 250... 15. Growing, fattenin 2- 3 50..... 3- 5 100... 5- 6 150... 6-8 200 9-12 300 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. .. 23 4.2 13.0 2.0 20.0 21.5 4.2 .. 24 3.5 12.8 1.5 19.9 19.0 4.7 .. 25 2.5 13.2 0.7 17.4 15.8 6.0 .. 24 2.0 12.5 0.5 15.7 13.9 6.8 .. 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 14.8 13.2 7.2 .. 25 3.4 15.4 0.7 20.5 18.4 5.0 .. 25 2.8 13.8 0.6 18.0 15.8 5.4 .. 23 2.1 11.5 0.5 14.8 12.8 6.0 .. 22 1.8 11.2 0.4 14.0 12.0 7.0 .. 22 1.5 10.8 0.3 13.0 11.0 7.7 .. 26 4.4 15.5 0.9 22.1 20.9 4.0 .. 26 3.5 15.0 0.7 20.2 17.8 4.8 .. 24 3.0 14.3 0.5 18.5 16.3 5.2 .. 23 2.2 12.6 0.5 16.0 13.8 6.3 .. 22 2.0 12.0 0.4 15.0 12.8 6.5 .. 44 7.6 28.0 1.0 38.0 4.0 .. 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 30.0 5.0 .. 32 3.7 21.3 0.4 26.0 6.0 .. 28 2.8 18.7 0.3 22.2 7.0 .. 25 2.1 15.3 0.2 17.9 7.5 g swine. .. 44 7.6 28.0 1.0 38.0 4.0 .. 35 5.0 23.1 0.8 30.0 5.0 .. 33 4.3 22.3 0.6 28.0 5.5 .. 30 3.6 20.5 0.4 25.1 6.0 .. 26 3.0 18.3 0.3 22.0 6.4 INDEX Alfalfa hay for beef cattle, 175. for chickens, 341. for cows, 56. for horses, 373. for pigs, 284. for sheep, 227. culture of, 386. Alfalfa pasture for cows, 98. for pigs, 276. for poultry, 33. for sheep, 210. Animal requirements, 10. Animals dependent upon plants, 12. Ash, 14. Baby beef, 150. arguments for, 150. feed after weaning for, 153. feed, the first winter for, 153. finishing on grass, 154. heifer calves for, 154. skim-milk calves for, 154. whole-milk calves vs. skim- milk calves for, 152. Bacon hogs, score-card of, 259. Balanced ration, 23. Barley, 93. for beef cattle, 186. for horses, 368. for pigs, 293. for sheep, 243. Bedding for cattle, 147. Beef and milk production com- bined, 138. Beef carcass, 115. bone, 118. dressed weight, percentage of, high priced meat, 115. marbling, 119. meat fiber, 120. quality in meat, 115. requirements of, 115. Beef cattle, 113. (See steers.) alfalfa for, 175. barley for, 186. bedding for, 147. bran for, 187. cane for, 186. carcass of, 115. chaffed hay for, 189. condimental stock foods for, 187. corn fodder for, 178. corn silage for, 181. Beef cattle, corn stover for, corn substitutes for, 186. cottonseed meal for, 187. crushed corn for, 188. dipping for lice, 149. early maturity, importance of, 126. early maturity, indications of, 127. easy keepers, 130. evenness of flesh in, 119. external indications of gain- ing capacity, 121. feed-lot for, 146. feeder requisites, 120. gaining propensity, 121. gains depend upon type rath- er than breed, 123. grinding grain for, 188. high priced meat, 115. ideal beef steer, 128. Kafir corn for, 186. lean desirable, 119. maturity of, 126. meat fiber, texture in, 120. oats for, 186. protein foods for, 187. sale of, 184. salt for, 147. score-card for, 132. shelter for stock cattle, 145. shelter problem in, 143. shelter tests, 144. shipment of cattle, 184. shredded corn fodder for, 188. shredded stover for, 188. silage for, 181. sorghum for, 186. steer feeding, 143. stock cattle, shelter for, 145. stock foods for, 187. three-year-old range steers, 183. two-year-old range steers, 174. types of, 113. water for, 148. wheat meal for, 186. when to sell, 184. yearlings, 156. Beet leaves, 91. Beet pulp, 89. for beef cattle, 183. for sheep, 229. Blue grass, 97. Boars, feed for, 271. types of, 255, 258. 407 4 o8 INDEX. Bone, 8, 118. Bran, 84, 187. Breed tests, 125. Brewers' grains, 83. Brome grass, 98. Brood sows, 261. alfalfa for, 266. feed after farrowing for, 267. feed before farrowing for, 265. large houses for, 264. pasture for, 268. portable house for, 262. winter quarters for, 262. Brood mare, 377. Bull, 134. prepotency of, 134. selection of, 134. Cabbages, 92. Calculating rations, 28. Calves, 103. rations for, 157. Cane, 87, 181, 186, 371. Canadian field peas, 84. Carbohydrates, 15. Chaffed hay, 189. Cheap roughage, utilization of, 5. Chicks, 321. bread for, 322. brooder houses, for, 317. coops for, 317. dry food for, 321. feeding of, 321, 326. moist food for. 322. overfeeding, 324. racks for feeding, 324. Chickens, 309. alfalfa for, 341. Asiatic breeds, 314. beets for, 341. bloodmeal for, 340. cabbage for, 340. charcoal for, 327, 331. classification of fowls, 311. cleanliness, importance of, 343. clover for, 341. cockerels, fattening, 327. colds, how prevented, 343. colds, remedy for, 318. corn feeding, dangers of, 338. diarrhoea in chicks, 326 ; in fowls, 332. disease preventives, 843. disinfectants for, 321. Douglass mixture for, 326. dust-box for, 328. for in winter, fowls, care in summer, 328. general-purpose breeds, 312. grain for, 323. green food for, 324, 340. grit for, 323, 331. ground bone for, 327, 340. bens, feeding in summer, 331 ; Chickens, feeding in winter, 333. houses for, 333. indigestion, how prevented, o4o. industry in America, future of, 344. kerosene emulsion for, 330. laying breeds, 311. lice, 320, 328. meat for, 340. meat breeds, 314. Mediterranean breeds, 311. method of feeding, 342. mitas, 329. moist food for, 322. moulting, 331. nest bugs, 331. oyster shell, 327, 331. practical for farmer, 309. protein, animal, 321, 327. 332. 339. rape for, 331. salt for, 342. sand for, 331. setting eggs, 315. shelter for, 811. silage for, 341. sitting hens, care of, 315. skJra-milk for, 321, 326, 340. system, need of in America, 344. water for, S25, 343. water fountains for, 325, 343. wood ashes for, 331. Clover hay for cows, 77. for pigs, 290. for lambs, 227. for horses, 373. for chickens, 341. Clover pasture, 98. for sheep, 208. for poultry, 331. Commercial protein foods for cows, 80. for beef cattle, 187. Condimental stock foods, 94. for beef cattle, 187. for pigs, 303. for poultry, 332. Cooking feed for pigs, 305. Corn, 55, 67. increase in nutrients during maturity, 70. method of harvesting, 72. time to harvest, 70. Corn fodder for cows, 60. far beef cattle, 178. for sheep, 235. Corn silage, 60, (see silage.) economy of storage of, 61. for beef cattle, 181. for horses, 371. for sheep, 228. Corn stover for cows, 58. for beef cattle, 177. for horses, 371. INDEX. 409 Corn substitutes, 92. for beef cattle, 186. for pigs, 293. for sheep, 243. Cottonseed meal for beef cat- tle, 187. for cows, 80. for lambs, 227. for horses, 370. for pigs, 283. Cowpeas, 83, 381. Cowpea hay, 77. Crude fiber, 16. Crushed corn, 188. Cuts of beef, 116. Dairy bull, score-card for, 44. Dairy cow, 37, 38. abusive treatment of, 101. alfalfa hay for, 56. alfalfa vs. commercial protein foods for, 57. alfalfa pasture for, 98. barley for, 93. beet leaves for, 91. beet pulp for, 89. bluegrass for, 97. brome grass pasture for, 98. cabbages for, 92. Canadian peas for, 84. clover hay for, 77. clover pasture for, 98. condimental stock foods for, 94. corn fodder for, 60. corn for, 55. corn silage for, 60. corn stover for, 58. corn substitutes for, 92. cottonseed rneal for, 80. cowpeas for, 83. cowpea hay for, 77. dried molasses beet pulp for, 90. dried brewers' grains for, 83. early spring pasture for, 97. emmer for, 93. feeding standards for, 52. fly remedies for, 99. fresh water for, 100. gluten feed for, 84. gluten meal for, 82. grain on pasture for, 98. Hungarian grass for, 87. Kafir corn for, 93. legumes for, 55. linseed meal for, 81. malt sprouts for, 83. middlings for, 85. millet hay for, 87. nutrients for, 49. nutrients for, influenced by quantity of milk, 51. nutrients for, influenced by per cent of fat, 51. nutritive ratio for, 49. Dairy cow, oat straw for, 88. oats for, 94. oil meal for, 81. prairie hay for, 8T. profitable western ration for, 76. proportion of roughness to concentrates for, 53. protein foods for, 86. quantity of foods for, 48. ration for, 76, 86. red clover for, 77. roots for, 92. roughage for, 87, 89. rye for, 93. rye pasture for, 97. rye straw for, 88. salt for, 100. score-card for, 42. shelter in summer for, 100. silage for, 60. soiling for, 98. sorghum for, 87. soy bean hay for, 77. soy bean meal for, 83. speltz for, 93. spring pasture for, 97. succulent feeds for, 54. sugar cane for, 87. summer pasture for, 97. timothy hay for, 87. variety in the roughage for, 88. water for, 100. wheat bran for, 84. Wheat for, 93. wheat pasture for, 97. wheat shorts for, 85. wheat straw for, 88. Dairy industry, 37. Dairy type, 39. Digestibility, determination of, 20. Digestible nutrients of foods, 19. Digestive apparatus, 19. Dipping cattle, 149 ; pige, 306. Disinfectants, 306. Dressed weight, percentage of, Dried molasses beet pulp, 90; for sheep, 230. Dry cows, feeding of, 100. Dry sows, feed for, 269. Early maturity, 126. Egg, composition of, 9. Emmer, 93. for pigs, 294. for sheep, 243. Energy, source of, 362. Enjoyment, source of, 5. Exercise, 36. Farm animals, living factories, 7. Farmer's cow, 136. Fats in plants, 14. 4io INDEX. Fatty tissues, 8. Feeder requisites, 120. Feeding standards, 24, 52. Feed-lot for cattle, 146; for sheep, 224. Field peas, 84. Flax straw, 183. Flesh, evenness of, 119. Food constituents, 12. Food of maintenance, 10. Fresh cow, feeding of, 101. Gaining capacity, 121. German standards, 24, 52. Gluten feed, 84. Gluten meal, 82. for pigs, 299. Grinding grain for beef cattle, for pigs, 303. for horses, 377. Guineas, 353. Hogs, 253. (See pigs.) bacon type of, 258. breeds of, 255. breeding herd of, 261. digestive capacity of, 260. extent of industry, 253. lard type of, 255. score-cards for, 255, 259. types of, 253. Home market for crops, 4. Hungarian grass, 87. (See mil- let.) Horses, 357. alfalfa hay for, 373. barley for, 368. bedding for, 378. brood mare, feed for, 376. cane for, 371. clover hay for, 373. coach type of, 360. colts, feed for, 377. cornstalks for, 371. cottonseed meal for, 370. draft type of, 357. feed in summer for, 364. feed in winter for, 368. grinding grain for, 377. Kafir corn for, 369. Kafir corn fodder for, 371. millet hay for, 372. molasses for, 369. oat hay for, 372. oat substitutes for, 366. oil meal for, 367. prairie hay for, 371. protein requirements for, 363. roadster, feed for, 375. roadster type of, 360. salt for, 378. score-card for, 358. shelter for, in summer, 378. shelter for, in winter, 378. sorghum for, 371. Straw for, 372. Horses, watering of, 377. wintering of, 375. winter rations for, 368. Ideal beef steer, 130. Inferior steer, 122. Kafir corn, 93. for beef cattle, 186. for pigs, 295. for horses, 369. Labor, distribution of, 5. Lambs, alfalfa hay for, 227. alfalfa pasture for, 210. barley for, 243. bedding for, 223. beet pulp for, 229. bloat in, 218. clipping, 237. clover hay for, 227. clover pasture for, 208. corn fodder, 235. corn silage for, 228. cottonseed meal for, 227. dried beet pulp for, 230. dried molasses beet pulp for, 230. early spring, 203. emmer for, 243. experiment station tests wifh, 246. feed-lot for, 224. grain feeding for, 203, 206. grain with clover for, 209. grain troughs for, 209. ay racks for, 221. housing facilities for, 204. late, 206. millet hay for, 228. oats for, 244. oats and peas for, 219. oil meal for, 227. pasture for, 208. prairie hay for, 228. protein roughage for, 227. quantity of feed for, 232. range, 232. rape feeding, value of, 215. rape after wheat for, 214 ; in oats, 215 ; in corn, 217. rape pasture for, 212. roots for, 229. rye straw for, 231. sale of, 238. salt for, 223. screenings for, 244. self-feeder for, shock corn for, 235. shelter for, 220. shredded fodder for, 236. sorghum hay for, 228. speltz (see emmer). straw for, 223. INDEX. 411 Lambs, sugar beet pulp for, 229. timothy for, 228. water for, 223. wheat for, 244. wheat straw fer, 231. winter, 202. winter rations for, 225. young, care of, 204 Lean of meat, 8, 119. Legumes, 55. Liberal feeding, importance or, 81. Lice, 149. Linseed meal, 81. Maintenance ration, 10. Malt sprouts, 83. Meat carcasses, 8, 104. Meat as food, 113. Meat fiber, 120. Middlings, 85. Milk, 9. fat of, 9. mineral of, 9. protein of, 9. sugar of, 9. Milk production, 37, 45, 48. Milk production vs. beef prduc- tion, 37. Millet, 87, 182, 293, 372. Mineral matter, 14. Molasses, 369. Mules, 361. Mutton type, 194. Nitrogenous compounds, 16. Nutritive ratio, 21. Oats for beef cattle, 186. for cows, 94. for iambs, 244. for pigs, 295. for horses, 365. for steers, 186. Oat hay, 372. Oat straw, 88. for beef cattle, 182. Oil meal, 81. Palatability, 32. Pasture for cows, 97. with grain for steers, 16o. for lambs, 208. for sows, 268. for pigs, 275. Plant oils, 14. Pigs, 253. alfalfa hay for, 284. alfalfa hay (last cutting) for, 007 alfalfa pasture for, 276. barley for, 293. cane seed for, 295. charcoal and ashes for, 30b. cleanliness in pens, 306. clover hay for, 290. Pigs, clover pasture for, 275. condimental stock foods for, 303. cooked feed for, 305. corn silage for, 296. corn substitutes for, 293. cottonseed meai for, 283. disinfectants for, 306. dipping for lice, 306. dried blood for, 302. exercise for, 307. fall pigs, 278. feed for before weaning, 270. feed for when first weaned, 274. frosted wh^at for, 294. gluten meal for, 299. grinding grain for, 303. hay rack for, 288. heavy feed of, 276. Jerusalem artichokes for, 296. Kafir corn for, 295. linseed meal for, 283, 299. mangel-wurzel for, 303. middlings for, 281. millet seed for, 293. oats for, 295. oil meal for, 299. potatoes for, 296. protein foods for. 283, 298. rape for, 275. rutabaga for, 303. rye for, 294. shelter for, 280. shorts for, 281. skim-milk for, 284. soaking grain for, 305. sorghum seed for, 295. soy bean meal for, 283. sugar beets for, 296. summer feed of, 273. tankage for, 301. water, 307. weight of to market, 290. wet vs. dry meal for, 304. wheat for, 294. wheat screenings for, 294. winter rations for, 281. Portable hog house, 262. Prairie hay, 87. for steers, 182. for sheep, 228. for horses, 371. Prepotency, 134. Protein, 16. Protein foods, classes of, 86. when needed, 163, 283. Protein roughage for sheep, 227 steers, 174. Quantity of food, 31. Quietness, 36. Range steers, 172. Rape for sheep, 212. feeding value of, 215. 412 INDEX. Rape for poultry, 331. for pigs, 275. Regularity in feeding, 35. Rye, 93. for pigs, 294. Rye pasture, 97. Rye straw, 88, 231. Roots, 92, 183, 229. Salt for calves, 112. for beef cattle, 147. for chickens, 342. for cows, 100. for sheep, 223. for horses, 379. Score-card beef cattle, 132. for dairy bulls, 44. for dairy cows, 43. for lard hog, 255. for bacon hog, 259. for draft horse, 358. for sheep, 196. Self-feeder for sheep, 224. Sheep, 191 (see lambs). bloat in, 212. breeding flock. 200. digestive capacity of, 197. dog, difficulty with, 193. ewe, feed for. 203, 205. extensive scale, 239. feeding in semiarid West, 239. fences for, 199. gestation period of, 202. housing of, 204. nodular disease in, 248. outlook for, 191. parasites in, 248. stomach worm in, 248. temperament of, 193. yearlings, 238. Shelter tests, 144. Shoats, 274. feed for, 274. rape for, 275. clover for, 275. Shock corn, 178. 235. Shorts, 85, 281. Shredded stover, 188. Silage, 60. Silage fed liberally, 74. for steers, 181. for chickens, 341. Silo, 62. capacity of, 64. corn best crop for, 67, 72. cost of, 67. cost of filling, 73. cowpeas for. 68. filling, 72. form of, 63. location of, 68. proportion and capacity of, stage ef ripeness of corn for, table showing capacity of, 6. Skim-milk calves, 103. calf feeders for, 111. cost of raising, 110. dehorning, 111 early feeding of, 104. fat substitutes for, 105. feeding buckets for, 105. flaxseed meal for, 106 grain feeding of, 107, 109. beavy vs. moderate feeding Ofy 10 o pasture for, 110. quantity of grain for, 108. roughness for, 110. salt for, 112. scours in, 104. shelter for, 111. stanchions for, 106. . weaning, 110. whole milk vs, skim-milk for, 103. Snapped corn, 180. ' maintainlD S' 3 - Sore mouths, 181. Sorghum hay, 87, 181, 228, 371. Sorghum seed, 93. Soy bean meal, 83. for pigs, 283. Soy bean hay, 77, 384. Speltz (see emmer). Stable construction for cows, 46. . Steers, two-year-olds, 172. (See beef cattle.) beet pulp for, 183. cane for, 181. corn silage for, 181. corn stover with alfalfa for, 175. early grain feeding, 172. flax straw for, 183. grain on pasture for, 165. millet hay for, 182. oat straw for, 182. prairie hay for, 182. protein roughage vs. protein concentrates for, 174. roots for, 183. shock corn for, 178. snaped corn for, 180. sore mouths in, 181. sorghum hay for, 181. timothy hay for, 182. wheat straw for, 182. winter feeding, 172. winter rations for, 172. Steers, yearlings, 156. character of the ration for, 162. fall and winter feeding of, 161. fall feeding on grass, 170. INDEX. 413 Steers, yearlings, grain the first winter for, 157. grain ration on grass for, 165. protein concentrates for, 163. tabulated rations for, 160. Stock foods. (See condimental stock foods.) Sugar, 16. Swine (see hogs), 253. Timothy hay, 87. or steers, 182. for sheep, 228. Turkeys, 346. blackhead, 346. difficulty with, 347. feeding of, 351. grit for, 352. hepatitis in, 346. profits in, 350. varieties of, 353. Turkeys, vitality of, diminish- ing, 346. Water for cows, 100. for calves, 112. for steers, 148. for sheep, 223. for horses, 378. for chickens, 325, 343. for pigs, 307. Wheat, 93. for beef cattle, 186. for sheep, 244. for pigs, 294. Wheat bran, 84. Wheat shorts, 85, 281. Wheat straw, 88, 182, 231. Winter lambs, 202. Winter milk production, 45. Winter shelter for cows, 45. Wool, 9. Work, 10. IVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA ' L LIBRARY ' THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE STAMPED BELOW AUG.l 1 LAST DATE 30W-6/14 MA YC 61655 189770 OvrcXAjku r