A. ijj 'm^' I\l THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT OF H. L. I;:A.SSER ^'|i3ZL.r>„r---k ^=^^-- «. HAND BOOK OF NATURAL GAS BY HENRY P. WESTCOTT MEMBER A. S. M. E. AND NATURAL GAS ASSOCIATION SECOND EDITION 1 i> 1 o PUBLISHED BY METRIC METAL WORKS ERIE, PENNSYLVANIA Copyright, 1915 By METRIC METAL WORKS Press of ASHBY PRINTING CO. Erie and Pittsburgh tngineering Library PREFAC E THE need of a Hand Book containing authoritative information on High and Low Pressure Construction in the use of Natural Gas, and providing information and suggestions of a practical nature for those engaged in field work was wholly responsible for the publication of the first edition. From the splendid reception accorded the first edition, the publisher feels that, with the additional information and data available, a carefully revised second edition is demanded. Some errors that crept into the first edition have been cor- rected and new tables with many pages of material hitherto unpublished broadens the scope of the work and brings it completely up to date. Included are the tables, formulae and data prepared by the late F. H. Oliphant, and which, for purposes of easy reference, are printed in connection with the subjects to which they apply The constant aim throughout this work has been useful- ness. No effort or expense has been spared to insure its data and information being accurate in every detail, and absolutely dependable. The information presented is taken from the experience of the most active and successful operators in the business, as well as from the author's own practical experience. It is only from such data that a practical guide for practical men can be built. The author and publisher make grateful acknowledgment of assistance generously given by gas men in every section of the country, and appreciativclv thank every one who, by word, act or suggestion, has contributed to the betterment of this Hand Book. 733349 TAULE OF CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii PART ONE GENRRAL— GEOLOGY The Earth's P'ormation Briefly Told 1 Geological Formation of the U. S 2 Relative Location of the Large Gas Areas to the Old Gulf . 3 Origin of Natural Gas and Oil 3 Geological Chart 5 Volcanic Origin of Natural Gas and Oil 6-30 Early Geological History of Western New York and Ontario 30 Origin of Names Applied to New York State Formations. ... 31 Geology of the Mid-Continental Oil and Gas Field 31-4S (with tii'o maps) The Mississippian Floor 32 Cherokee Shales 34 Sands in the Cherokee vShales 34 Fort Scott Limestones 35 Pleasanton Shale 35 Bethany Limestone Series 36 Tola Limestones 36 Lane vShales 37 Allen and Stanton Limestones 37 Lawrence Shales 37 Oread Limestones 38 Pawhuska Limestone 39 Wabaunsee Stage 39 Permian 40-42 Points of Difference 42-44 Structure 44 The Healdton Area 46 Wichita Falls— Electra Field 46 Corsicana Field 47 Gas Bearing Strata 48 Remarkable Natural Gas Reservoirs in North America 48-50 Productive Natural Gas Horizons (with table) 50 Table of Productive Natural Gas Horizons 51-55 HISTORY The First Oil Well 56 History of Natural Gas 57 First L'^se of Artificial Gas 58 Natural Gas in Fredonia, N. Y 58 Deepest Drilled Wells 59-62 A "Freak" Gas Well 62 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ATMOSPHERE Altitudes and Atmospheric Pressures of Gas Fields in the U. S 64 Temperatures of Various Gas Fields and Cities Using Natural Gas 65 Atmospheric Pressure 66 Table Showing Weight of Gas and Air 67 STATISTICS Production and Consumption of Natural Gas from 1884 to 1913 68-72 Well Record in the U. S 73 Acreage Controlled b}' Natural Gas Companies in 1912-13. 74 Production in Appalachian Field in 1913 and 1914 75 PART TWO— PROPERTIES OF GASES Air 76 Hydrogen 76 Olefiant Gas 77 Methane 77 Ethane 77 Carbonic Oxide 77 Carbon Dioxide : 77 Oxygen 78 Nitrogen 78 Hydrocarbons 78 Illuminants 78 Natural Gas 78 Oil Gas 78 Coal Gas 78 Table of Commercial Gas Analyses 79 Table of Combustible Gas Mixtures 79 Coke Oven Gas 80 Water Gas 80 Natural Gas Analysis 80 To Obtain Sample of Gas 80 Explosive Mixture with Gas from the Petrolia (Tex.) Field. 81 Candle Power , 82 British Thermal Units 82 Hinman-Junker Calorimeter 83 Specific Gravity. .■ 85 Specific Gravity Apparatus 85 Heating \'alue and Specific Gravity 86 Illuminating Properties of Natural Gas 87 Tests to Determine Poisonous Gases in Natural Gas from Caddo (La.) Field 88-91 PhvsiologicalTestof Natural Gas fron the Caddo (La.) Field 92-94 Heat Facts 94 Radiation of Heat 95 Gas Analyses from \"arious Gas Fields 96-101 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Gas Analysis from the California Field 102 Analyses of European Gas 103 — of Gases from Rivers, Lakes, Marshes, etc 104 — of Gases from German Springs 105 ■ — of Gases from Volcanoes and Geysers 106 — of Gases from Clefts in Lava of Vesuvius 106 PART THREE-FIELD WORK Lease 107 Well Contract 109 Well Location 109 Derrick or Rig 109 Derrick and Drilling Outfit with List of Parts 112 Specifications of Material Required to Build a Complete Double-Tug Standard Rig 114-116 Specifications of Material Required to Build a California Rig 117-119 Specifications of Material Required to Build a California Combination vStandard and Rotary Rig 119-122 Hydraulic Rotary Rig 123 Specifications of Material Required to Build a California Heavy Rig 124-126 Specifications of Material Required to Build a California Rotary Rig 127 Pole Tool Rig ( Canadian) 128 Bull Wheel 129 Bull Rope 129 Walking Beam 129 Complete String of Drilling Tools 130 Drilling 131 Table of Dimensions of Drive Pipe 131 Wood Conductor Pipe 133 Table of Sizes of Casing 134 Weight of Water in Pipe of Diff"erent Diameters in Lengths of One Foot 135 Water Pressure 135 Demonstration of Mud Laden Fluid Method as F^mployed to Conserve the Natural Gas Resources in Drilling for Oil ^137 Demonstration at the Greis Well 137 141 Results Obtained bv the Test 141 Record of Well from Top of Wheeler Sand to Oil Sand 142 Core Drill 143-145 Drilling Wells in Lake Erie 145-149 Well Record 149 vShooting 150 Nitroglycerin 151 Solidified Nitroglycerin 152 Torpedo 153 Shot Anchor 154 Go-Devil 154 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Jack Squib 154 Cleaning Out 154 Tubing and Packer 156-158 Table of Sizes of Tubing 159 Elevators 159 Dry Holes 159 Well Connections 161 Water Propositions 161-163 Pumping Powers 163 Pumping Heads 163 Capping 164 Gas Well Drip 164 Gas Well Lead Lines 166 Care of Gas Wells 166-168 Salt Water Propositions 168-172 Use of Abandoned Gas Wells 172 PART FOUR Basis of Measurement of Natural Gas 178 Pitot Tube for Testing the Open Flow of Gas Wells 174 Pitot Tube Table for Testing of Gas Wells 176 Minute Pressure Testing of Gas \\'ells {with tables) 178-181 Open Flow Capacity of Gas Wells [unth chart) 182 Rock Pressure 183 Working Capacity of Gas Wells under Pressure {with table) 183 PART FIVE— PIPE LINE CONvSTRUCTION Surveying 185 Construction Camp 185 Ditching 187 Blasting and Shooting 188 Preparing a Shot 188 SCREW PIPE LINE Pipe L'nloading 189 Tallying 189 Hauling 189 Table of Standard Dimensions, Capacity and Weight of Wrought Iron Pipe for Steam, Gas, Oil or Water 190 Stringing 190 Table of Standard Line Pipe 191 Swabbing 191 Laying 191-194 Painting 194 Laying Pipe in Level Country 194 Laying Pipe in Rough Country 194 Bending Screw Pipe 196 Rivers and Creeks 196 Railroad Crossings 198 Small Gas Lines 198 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAIX END PIPK PAGE Plain End Pipe 200 Hauling Plain End Pipe 200 vStringing 201 Bending 201 Laying 202-205 Creeks and Water Soaked Ground 206 Rough Country 206 Angle Couplings 206 Inspection and Leaks 207 Covering • 207 PIPE LINE WORK Inspection After Gas Line is Completed 209 Line Walking 209 Line Loss Percentage 209 High Pressure Pipe Line Leakage 210-212 Water in Pipe Lines 212 Fires on High Pressure Gas Lines Due to Leaks or Blow-outs 213 Break in High Pressure Line 213 Pipe Line Wash-out across Red River 215 Blow-offs and Drips 215-217 High Pressure Taps 217 Gates and Fittings 218 Gauges 219 House Regulators 220 PART SIX— CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES Friction 222 Formulas for Pipe Line Cajiacities 222 Tables A, B, C and D 223-233 Reduction in Pressure of Natural Gas in Pipes. Owing to Fittings 233 Table of Multipliers for Different Specific Gravities 234 Pipe Capacity 234 Tables for Computing the Flow of Natural Gas in Pipe Lines 235 Capacities of Pipe Lines 236-324 PART SEVEN— COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS Description 325 Object of Compressors 325 Table of Indicated Horse Power on Compressor Piston per Million Cubic Feet of Natural Gas 333 Booster 337 Number of Compressor Stations. Horse Power, etc 337 PART EIGHT— MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Henri Pitot 338 PitotTube 339 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Measurement of Natural Gas with Pitot Tubes 339-346 Portable Pitot Tube 346-348 Orifice Meter 348-350 Orifices 351 Recording Difi"erential Gauges 352 Table of Maximum and Minimum Capacities of Orifices. . . 353 Mercury Float Differential Gauge 355 Static Pressure Recording Gauge for Orifice Meters 356 Information Necessary in Ordering Orifice Meters 356 LARGE CAPACITY METER Large Capacity Meter 358 362 Range of Accuracy of Large Capacity Meter {with table) .... 362 Tables to Determine the Proper Size Meter, in Measuring Low and High Pressure Gas 365 Setting for Six-inch Large Capacity Meter 366 Proving Large Capacity Meters 367 Pressure Testing of Large Capacity Meters 367 Over Capacity in Large Capacity Meters 367 Table of Pressures for Testing with Funnel Meter 368 Table Giving Percentage with Correcting Facts for Testing with Funnel 371 Chart to Determine the A'olume of Low Pressure Gas or Air a Large Capacity Meter Will Measure at Different High Pressures 372 Installation 372 Cleaning 373 Bj'-pass 373 Turning Gas Into a Meter 374 Proper Sized Meter to Install Where Gas is Used to Generate Power Either in a Gas Engine or Under Steam Boilers. 375 Condensation 376 Drain Cocks 376 Lighting Measuring Stations 376 Large Capacity Meter Gaskets 377 To Read a Large Capacity Meter 377 Field Testing 377 Funnel Meter 378 Large Capacity Meter for Measuring Compressed Air 380 Table to Determine the Proper Size Meter to be Used in Measuring Compressed Air • 381 Recording Gauge 382 Volume and Pressure Recording Gauge 383 PART NINE— DENSITY OF GASES Robert Boyle 385 Edmond Mariotte 385 Jacques Alexander Cesar Charles 386 Bovle's and Mariotte's Law 386 Charles Law 386 Expansion or Contraction of Natural Gas Due to Change in Temperature 386 X TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Low Pressure Basis 387 Density Changes in Gas Volumes 387-389 Formula for Determining the Quantity of Natural Gas When Measured Above Normal Pressure 389 Multiplier Tables 391-395 PART TEN— REGULATION OF GAS Regulators 396 High Pressure Regulators 397 Intermediate Pressure Regulators 397 Low Pressure Regulators 398 Index to Parts of Low Pressure Regulators 398 Installing 399 Regulator Diaphragms 399 Regulator House 400 Regulators and Plain End Pipe 400 Sheet Iron Heater for Gas Line 400 Care of Regulators 400 Heating 401 Regulator By-Pass 401 Grinding Valves 401 PART ELEVEN— DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Description of Low Pressure System 403 Daily Peak Load 404 Monthly Peak Load 405 Peak Load 406 Construction of Low Pressure System 406 Mapping 406 Size of Mains 406 Table Showing the Approximate Discharge of Gas in Differ- ent Lengths and Diameters of Pipe 407 Welding Gas Mains 408-410 Low Pressure Main Marker 410 Regulator Station or Feeding Point 410 Low Pressure Regulator Station or Building 411 Oil Safety Tank 412 Turning Gas Into a Low Pressure System 413 Testing Low Pressure System 413 Leaks 414 Electrolysis 414 Electrolytic Mitigating System 414^16 Electrolysis Remedial Measures 417-419 Fire Alarm in Gas Office 419 Gauge Alarm 419 vStealing Gas 419 Suggestions to Gas Companies and Employees 420 Wireless Pipe Locator 421 Purifiers for Natural Gas for Domestic Service 423 . Safety or Pop Valves 423 xi TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Low Pressure Gauges 424 Syphon or "U" Gauges 424-426 Differential Gauges 426 Table of Equivalents of Ounces, per sq. in., in inches of Height of Columns of Water and Mercury 427 SERVICES AND HOUSE PIPING Tapping Services 428 Table of Proper Sized Tap Drills to be Used for the DilTerent Sized Pipes 428 vServices 429 vSteel Pipe 429 Testing House Piping 429 Gas Proving Pump and Gauge 430 Rules and Regulations for Gas Fitting 430 434 Table of Capacities of Thin Orifices 435 PART TWELVE— INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS Income 436 Table — Percentage of Natural Gas Sold for Domestic Pur- poses Each Month in the Year 1908 in Three Cities in Kansas 436 Table Showing Number of Domestic Consumers for Towns and Cities of Different Population 437 Application for Gas Service to be Laid 438 Application for Gas 439 Domestic Meter Installation Record 440 Meter Deposit Record Card 440 Meter Reader's Record Sheet 441 Postal Card Gas Bill for Monthly Readings 442 Postal Card Gas Bill for Continuous Meter Reading 443 Office Gas Bill Card 444 Notice Requesting Payment of Discount When Remittance Without Discount Was Received 444 Foreman's Report Blank for Gas Fitting and Meter Setting Job 445 Foreman's Report Blank for Installing Service 446 Reverse Side of Foreman's Report Blank for Service Line. . 447 PART THIRTEEN— DOMESTIC METER Flat Rate System 448 Domestic Gas Meter 449-451 Reading a Domestic Gas Meter 451 Continuous Meter Reading 453 Capacity of Domestic Meters 453 Differential Pressure 454 Installing Domestic Meter 454 Disconnecting Domestic Meter 455-457 Proving Domestic Meter 458 Repairing Domestic Meters 459 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Tin Meter Repairing 459 Instructions for Setting Valves in Tin or Slide Valve Meter. 460 Diaphragm Oil 460 List of Tin Meter Parts 462 Rating of Tin Meter Capacities 462 Standard Meter Prover 463 Cubic Foot Bottle 464-466 Correction of Erratic Meters {with tables) 466 Table of Multipliers for Correction of Erratic Meters 468 Complaint Meter 469-471 • PART FOURTEEN— DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS High Gas Bills 472^74 Proper Color of Flame in Stove Burners 474 Gas Range Burner Tests 475 Lights 476 Summary of House Heating Furnace Tests 476 Suggestions for Domestic Consumers 477-479 Cooking and Heating with Natural Gas When Pressure is Low or a Shortage of Gas Exists 479 Comparison of Domestic Meter Bills by the Consumer 480 Water Condensation from Burnt Gases 481 Incandescent Light Mantles 481 PART FIFTEEN— INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Comparative Fuel Value of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas. .... 483 Facts and Figures about Natural Gas as Used in Various Industries 484 Carbon Black 485 BOILER BURNER INSTALLATION Boiler Burners for Natural Gas 486 Temperature of Natural Gas Combustion 486 Installation of Natural Gas Burners Under Boilers 489-492 Use of Steam or Compressed Air in Boiler Burner Installa- tions 492 Boiler Burner Installation with List of Fittings 493^96 Draft ■ 496 Draft Gauge 498 Operation of Natural Gas Burners for Boiler Use 498-500 Some Causes Responsible for Failures with Natural Gas Burners 500 Boiler Testing 500-505 Testing Gas Burners 505 Stack Gas Analysis 505 Sampling Apparatus 505 Gas Pressure 506 Results 506 Boiler Test of Natural Gas 507 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE GAS ENGINES Average Amount of Natural Gas Required to Operate Gas Engines 509 Horse Power of Gas Engines 509 Size of Gas Supply Pipe 510 Length and Diameter of Service for Gas Engines 510 Exhaust Pipe 510 Circulating Water 511 Comparative Actual Operating Costs of 100 h. p. in the Various Practical Forms of Power Now Available 511-515 Transverse Current Heaters for Gas Engines 517 Table Showing Efficiency of Transverse Current Heater. . . 518-519 PART SIXTEEN— CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Gasoline Gas Industry 520-528 Production of Gasoline from Natural Gas in 1912 and 1913. 529 Analyses of Natural Gas for Gasoline Content 531 Experiments in Liquefying Crude Natural Gas 532 Chart Showing Different Hydrocarbons in Light and Heavy Gases 533 Analysis of Natural Gas for Gasoline Content 534-538 Use of Alcohol as a Solvent 538 Orsat Apparatus for Determination of Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen 538 Properties of Seven Paraffin Hydrocarbons 539 Specific Gravity Outfit ' 540 Interpretation of Results of Tests 541 Compression and Liquefication of the Constituents of Natural Gas in Plant Operation 543 Three Commercial Processes 543 Results of Tests of the Grade and Quantity of Gasoline Produced When Crude Natural Gas is Subjected to Different Pressures 543 Air in Casing Head Gas 544 Orifice Well Tester 545 Tables of Capacities of Orifice Well Tester 546-548 Pipe Line Capacities Under Minus Pressure Conditions. . . 549-563 Multipliers to be L'sed for Gas of Specific Gravities Other than .6 563 Measuring Gasoline Gas 563 Table to Determine Proper Sized Meter for Measuring Gasoline Gas 565 Volume and Pressure Recording Gauge 566 Condensation in Meters 567 Testing Large Capacity Meters with Gasoline Gas 568 Construction of Gasoline Plant 568-570 Description of Ordinarv Ammonia Refrigerating Machine. . 570-572 Lighting Plant 573 Gas Relief Regulators 573 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Percentage of Vapor Condensed by Compression and Cooling 573 Results of Analyses of Gases from DifTerent vStages of Plant Operation 574 Table of Results of Laboratory Tests of Samples of Gas from DifTerent Gasoline Plants 575 vSpecific Gravities and Absorption Numbers of Natural Gases Used for Condensation of Natural Gas 576 Low Explosive Limits for Paraffin Gases and \'apors 577 Solution of Gas Condensates 577 Kvajioration Losses in Blending {ivith table) 578 Hauling Gasoline 579 Market for High Gravity Gasoline 580 Pressures Generated by Heating Gasoline and Confined Liquefied Natural Gas 580 Table of Heat Values of the Lighter Hydrocarbon Products from Crude Oil 581 Effects of Difi"erent Weather Conditions on Manufacturing Gasoline 582 Operating Cost 582 Shipping Gasoline 582 Safety Valves for Gasoline Tank Cars 582 Rules of the Interstate Commerce Commission 583 Regulations for the Transportation on Railroads of Natural Gas Gasoline 583-585 Liquefied Gas — A By^Product from Gasoline Gas 585-588 PART SEVENTEEN— POWER Horse Power 589 Steam 590 Steam Horse Power 591 Table of Areas of Circles 592 To Find the Horse Power of a Steam Engine 593 Directions for Determining the Correct Setting of Engine Valves 593 Electrical Horse Power 593 For Every-day Use in an Engine Room 594-595 PART EIGHTEEN— MISCELLANEOUS Tank for Separating Gas from Oil Flowing from Well 596 Table of Capacities of Tanks 598 Melting Point and Expansion of Metals 600 Beaume Scale and Specific Gravity Equivalents [with tabic) 600-601 Specific Gravities of Liquids 602 Weight and Tensile Strength of Wood, Iron and Other Materials 602 Weights of Round Iron a^id Steel per Lineal Foot in Pounds 603 Conversion Tables 603-605 Natural Gas Association 606 PART ONE General GEOLOGY— ORIGIN OF NATURAL GAvS AND OIL- GEOLOGY OF THE MID-CONTINENTAL OIL ANDGAvS FIELD— GOVERNMENT STATLSTlCvS— HISTORY— PRODUCTIVE NATURAL GAS HORI- ZONS—DEEP WELLS— ALTITUDES AND ATMOS- PHERIC PRESvSURES OF VARIOUS GAS FIELDS- TEMPERATURE RECORD OF VARIOUS GAS FIELDS. In view of the many theories that have been advanced regarding the original source of natural gas, we herewith submit a paper written by the late Frank Westcott of Alden, New York, who made a life work of the study of natural gas from a geological standpoint. His observ^ations were obtained from a study of rock formations as well as the logs of many gas wells tiiroughout western New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ontario, Ohio and West Virginia, and several other states. The paper is advanced to place before the gas fraternitv a reasonable view, not only of the possible source of natural gas but also of the geological formation of the earth. The Earth's Formation Briefly Told — "What we now call tile earth was, in tiie l)eginning, a gaseous bodv or a molten chaotic mass probably thrown off by some planet, that through a long process of cooling gradually took shape as a globe with a thin hard crust. The hard crust, whicii was of sligtit thickness in the beginning, but increasing as ages passed, was made up principally of granite formation commonly spoken of as the floor of the earth. At this period there was neitiier animal nor vegetable life existing, as the heat was too intense; gas and oil were out of the question. 1 GENERAL The transformation from a gaseous body to a hard- crusted globe probably covered a period of many millions of years. During this period there were no mountains nor rivers and the earth had not begun to shrink. As ages passed and the globe cooled sufficiently to allow precipitation of the vapor surrounding it, the Potsdam and the Trenton rocks began to form on top of the granite, in the order named. The earth began to shrink, and it was this shrinking of the crust, due to its loss of heat, that created the mountain ranges and the high deviated plateaus, and brought to the surface portions of the lower layers of the earth's crust, carrying with them the metals now being mined. Had this upheaval not taken place these metals could never have been reached. The earth's crust is supposed to be from twenty-five to thirth-five miles thick. The increase of temperature toward the interior varies at different points on the globe as shown by tests made in mining shafts and deep wells. At Butte, Montana, the copper mining shafts show an increase of 1 deg. for each 52 feet descent. The average increase of tem- perature has shown 1 deg. fahr. for each 60 to 64 feet descent toward the center of the earth. The cooling and shrinking of the earth is still going on, which accounts to some extent for the earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other minor changes taking place in the crust. About eight-elevenths of the earth's surface is sunken below the rest and covered with salt water. After the earth has become a cold body, too cold for habitation, it will appear as a bright moon to some other planet. Geological Formation of the United States — The large fossil remains found in Wyoming and the Black Hills of South Dakota clearly prove that this section first appeared above the sea. GENERAL The Gulf of Mexico extended up to the foot of the Rocky Mountams and the Black Hills on the northwest and to the Adirondack and Appalachian Mountains on the east and northeast. The northern shore of this original gulf extended westwardly from the Adirondack Alountains through western New York and Ontario. This period was ages before the formation of the Great Lakes, Niagara Falls and the Niagara River. As the old gulf receded toward the present gulf, it re- ceded in the form of a large bay, which accounts for the -45 deg. line in the State of Pennsylvania which the oil men of that state so successfully followed in their operations for oil. The Ozark ^lountains were an island thrown up in this large arm of the ocean by the shrinking of the earth's crust. The tendency of this upheaval was to divide the gulf into two smaller arms or elongated bays. Following the formation of the different rocks, the earth was so hot at the equator that life could not exist and at the poles the temperature corresponded very much to the tropical temperature of the present day. This statement is borne out by the fmding of petrified animal remains and tropical plants in the arctic regions. As the earth cooled at the poles it kept driving animal life toward the equator and the time will come when even the equator will be so cold that life cannot exist. Relative Location of the Large Gas Areas to the Old Gulf — The present Pennsylvania, West X'irginia and Ohio gas fields are located on what was the eastern shore of the old gulf. The New York and Ontario fields were located on the northern shore, and the mid-continent field was located on the eastern shore of the peninsula formed by the upheaval of the Ozark ^Mountains in the center of the old gulf. Origin of Natural Gas and Oil — The lowest order of animal life came into existence with the formation of the Potsdam and Trenton rocks, and the source or origin of GENERAL natural gas and oil must be attributed to the burying and subsequent decay of these mussels and other invertebrates. During this age there were periods of storm and calm on the globe. When the sea was smooth, the sand was laid down loosely and when it became disturbed the sands were filled with either silicate or lime and cemented together. In the first case, the spaces between the little pebbles became resen^oirs for gas or oil generated by decayed animal life, while in the second case, when the sand was cemented, there was no room for such lodgment for either gas or oil. Extreme storms during this period laid down what is called tlie "shell," which was thoroughly cemented, and which held down the gas or oil until the ingenuity of mankind drilled through it. Oil is a product of natural gas caused by the pressure and confinement of the gases in the rocks, which are laid down like shingles on a roof. There is no such thing as a gas vein but there is a gas reservoir. Though natural gas has its origin or source in the Pots- dam and Trenton rocks, it may have to travel many miles to find an opening into an upper stratum. Coal and gas or oil have absolutely no connection with each other, as gas and oil were in existence millions of years before the coal measures were laid down. For illustration — the gas of Alden, New York, coming from the Medina sand- stone and free from petroleum, is smokeless. If the coal measures ever existed in this locality they would have been a mile and a half in the air. Shale was originally soft clay. Rarely can surface indications of either oil or gas be relied upon." ^'. c GEOLOGICAL CHART Archaen— Iror Age-Granite. Gneiss, Mica, Schist, Limestone, Crys ,Ca„.„. ! Early-Lower ILatter^orL-pper-Potsdam Lower Si (Canadian-Calciferious sandstone iN. New Y urian iTrenton limestone (New Yorkl. The Galena or lead bearing of Illinois and Wisconsin i rpper Trenton, Utica shale, and Hudson shal fSubcarbaiiiferous Carbonic Carboniferous— Coal periods ICrickets (Amphibians) i i Amphibians'! Spiders (Coal plants) I Flies (M: I Permian— Red sj [ ormarlites. (N fTriassic [Crocodiles 1 I Dinosaurs ern Jurassic [Lizards lant beds 't'^liMapr •, Coarse sand-stone and conglomerate I-^tJj^„',„ ^ |-! Crocodiles led Dinosaurian (Wasatch Mountains) ' ;r.uwcr [ Cormorants and Waden [Eocene — Hog, Rhinoceros [Tertiary JMiocene— Beech, Oak, Pcpla [pliocene— Horse, Stag, Antel Cenozoic ■, [Glacial [Quaternary ]Champlain [Recent GENERAL "»"'iu,i,iip GENERAL VOLCANIC ORIGIN OF NATURAL GAS AND OIL. By Eugene Coste, E. M., Toronto, Ont. In the following article on the Volcanic Origin of Natural Gas and Oil, the writer has endeavored to reprint the most essential paragraphs from the paper written by Eugene Coste, E. M., and published by the Canadian Mining Institute. Vol. vi, pp. 73 to 123, 1903. "Science has long ago recorded and is recording every day in the newly developed oil and gas fields many facts which in mv opinion have thrown and continue to throw the clearest light on the origin of the hydrocarbons, whether they be petroleum, natural gas, or solid hydro- carbons. (A). As everyone knows carbon is the fundamental element of the organic world, but this must not blind us to the fact that carbon is also a very important element of the mineral world. Indeed the predominance of carbon in the organic world is one of the strongest evidences that can possibly be adduced to demonstrate its great importance, during past as well as present ages, in the mineral world (including of course the atmosphere) for vegetables and animals alike had evidently no other source to draw from. When one reflects on all the carbon subtracted from the mineral world during the past geological ages by all the representatives of the organic kingdom, especially since the beginning of the Carboniferous, to form not only the coal beds, but the limestones, he must admit that the primitive atmosphere was very rich in carbon. Therefore large quantities of this element must have been dissolved in the first fluid of magma of the earth, and large quantities of it must still exist in the fluid magma of to-day under the crust of the earth. To know^ and demonstrate in just what form the carbon is there, and how, from it, hydrocarbons were produced are 6 GENERAL not essential geological points, and I will consider it quite sufficient to recall that chemists of high standing in the scientific world, such as Berthelot and Mendeljeff, have long ago (in 1866 and 1877 respectively) suggested very probable forms such as carbides under which carbon could exist in the interior fluid magma, and probable re-actions under which hydrocarbon compounds could be generated. The present great daily production of the hydrocarbon acetylene by the simple action of water on carbide of calcium is very sug- gestive in that respect, and these considerations together with the further one, now proved and admitted, that eruptive magmas are hydato-pyrogenic, namely, contain the more or less notable admixture of water necessarv^ to suggested possible reactions in the formation of hydrocarbons are sufficient in that respect. The vital point is to actually show the carbon and hydrocarbon in the igneous rocks, lavas and emanations proceeding from these internal fluid magmas. That, geology can do and has done, in a great many in- stances, at points widely distributed over the whole surface of the globe ; and, we will now pass in review a few^ of these instances, namely: 1st. In the Archaean rocks we find carbon under the form of graphite in gneisses, in pegmatite dykes, in granites, gabbros and other rocks, the igneous origin of which is undeniable. 2nd. In the crystals of igneous gneisses and of most granites and other eruptive rocks, gaseous and liquid in- clusions are most abundantly found, and these are very often constituted by carbonic acid and hydrocarbons, and also often contain chloride of sodium in solution or in minute crystals. 3rd. Petroleum, or semi-liquid or solid bitumens have often been noticed and cited by many obserA^ers as occuring in traps, basalts or other igneous rocks. GENERAL 4th. Volcanic rocks forming vertical necks and pipes across horizontal strata and containing carbon in the pure form of diamonds are also well known to constitute in South Africa the deposits of these precious stones. 5th. I now come to the hydrocarbons and carbonic acid in volcanic manifestations of to-day. Not later than a few months ago the civilized world was suddenly startled and horrified at the report that an explosion of Mount Pelee had wiped away in a few minutes the entire population of the City of St. Pierre, Martinique Island. From the accounts of the catastrophe then published, it is quite certain that a fearful blast or tornado of gases suddenly shot from the side of the volcano, asphyxiating and burning in a moment 30,000 people. Nothing else, I submit, but gas w^ould carry death so suddenly to so many thousand people, inside and outside of their houses, over a whole city. That these gases were mostly sulphur gases and very inflammable gases (which could be mainly nothing else but hydrocarbons) has also been made quite clear by the accounts of the very few survivors. We mentioned above that these inflammable gases must have been mainly hydrocarbons (probably mixed with hydro- gen and sulphuretted hydrogen), and we draw the above inference from the fact that inflammable or combustible gases thus constituted have often been noticed and observed before in connection with many other volcanic eruptions by scientists of great repute, w^ho were actually able to collect and analyse these gases. For instance,' in the Vesuvian eruption in 1855 and 1856, it was observed by Charles Sainte Claire Deville and Leblanc that the lava as it cooled and hardened gave out successively vapors of hydro- chloric acid, chlorides and sulphurous acid, then steam, and finally, carbon dioxide and coml3Ustible gases. At Torre del Greco, on the sea shore opposite Vesuvius, during the eruption of this volcano of 1861, Mr. Charles 8 GENERAL Saint Claire Deville and Mr. Fouque gathered and studied the gases from the eruptive lava which was then partly flowing under the sea. The combustible gases from it were collected under water before they could oxidize with the following results, namely: — From Fissures OF THE Lava on Land. From Fissures of the Lava Under the Sea. 10 to 15 metres from land. 40 to 50 metres from land. Ab't 100 metres from land. Ab't 200 metres from land. Dec. 23 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Dec. 18 Jan. 1 Jan. 1 Carbonic acid. Hydrogen and Proto-Carbon 96.32 95.95 3.68 4.05 88.60 11.40 59.53 40.47 46.78 53.22 11.54 88.46 (Bj. I now pass to my second paragrapli in which I propose to show that all the petroleum, natural gas and bituminous fields or deposits cannot be regarded as any- thing else but the products of solfataric volcanic emanations condensed and held in their passage upward, in the porous tanks of all ages of the crust of the earth from the Archaean rocks to the Quaternary, or in veins, fissures and seams in the case of solid bitumens. Nothing is so simple and there- fore nothing so natural as this origin. It can be abundantly proven, and I will divide the data and proofs I propose to adduce for this under the following heads: — • 1st. Direct proofs and rock pressure of natural gas. 2nd. Complete analogy of the products of the oil and gas fields with the products of solfataric volcanic action. 3rd. Location of the oil and natural gas fields along faulted and fissured zones, each one presenting a few par- ticularities of its own, similarly to the systems of volcanoes and to the mountain chains of the trlobe. GENERAL 4th. The oil, natural gas and bitumens are never indigenous to the strata or formations in which they are found; their "sands" or other deposits are nothing more than natural rock tanks ranging in geology from the Archaean to the Quaternary, and these extraneous products must therefore come from below the Archaean. 5th. Oil, gas and bitumens are stored products, in great abundance in certain localities, while neighboring lo- calities often are entirely barren, exactly as volcanic pro- ducts would be, and the strata among which they are found are so impervious that it forces one to the conclusion of a source, with powerful energy, directly below their fields. 1st. To the direct proofs given above of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in lavas or other igneous rocks, or in emanations clearly volcanic, can be added direct proofs of volcanicity from a few of the oil and gas fields, and these will serve as a link as it were between the vol- canoes, on the one hand, and the oil and gas fields where the volcanic origin is not so plainly apparent, on the other. In the newly discovered oil fields of Texas and Louis- iana, and also in the California fields, we have many no less direct evidences of volcanism, though they do not appear to have been understood in their true light. These are, in Louisiana and Texas, the Salt Islands and the "Mounds" of the Coast Prairie, such as the famous Spindletop, near Beaumont, which are clearly nothing else but "suffionis" or "salses," hardly extinct yet, grouped along fractured lines and marking in that region the dying out of volcanicity, that is to say, the dying distant echo of that tremendous volcanic energy which, a little further south, in Mexico, Central America and in the islands and along the south coast of the Caribbean Sea, is to this day so powerfully active. Abundant proofs of the above statement are to be found in Professor Robert T. Hill's paper, and to me these 10 GENERAL proofs are so conclusive that you will pardon me if I again quote copiously: — "In the generally monotonous monoclinal structure (of the Coast Prairie of the Gulf) there are a few wrinkles or small swells likely to escape the eye of even the trained observer, and yet of a character which may have an impor- tant bearing on the oil problem. These are the circular and oval mounds, already described, which were first recognized by Capt. Lucas. When he pointed out vSpindletop Hill to me, my eyes could hardly detect it; for it rises by a gradual slope only ten feet above the surrounding prairie plains. I was still more incredulous when he insisted that this mound, only 200 acres in extent, was an uplifted dome. But Capt. Lucas said that I would be convinced of the uplift if I could see Damon's mound in Brazoria County. In August, 1901, I visited that place, and returned for a second look at Spindle- top, and was convinced that, if these hills are not recent quaquaversal uplifts no other known hypothesis will explain them. Damon's mound is an elliptical hill, a mile or more in greater diameter, rising 90 feet above the surrounding level. . . . The salt islands of Louisiana were described by Capt. Lucas in the transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers before his discovery of oil at Beaumont. (1). These so-called islands, rising from 80 to 250 feet above the surrounding marshes of the Coast Prairie, are hills be- neath layers of stratified clay and sand. They belong to the same group of topographic phenomena as Spindletop Hill at Beaumont. By sinking through the superstructure of sand and clay Capt. Lucas located the salt bodies, and determined their horizontal extent, developing also the im- portant fact that, though limited in diameter, they were of great depth, that of Jefferson Island having been penetrated for 2,100 feet without reaching bottom. . . . The bodies of salt discovered beneath the hills of the Coast Prairie are of remarkable size, thickness and purity, notably 11 GENERAL those of Louisiana, and one discovered within the past few months at Damon's mound which, for its lower 700 feet, is pure rock salt with occasional traces of oil. . . . It was Capt. Lucas who discovered the relation between the sul- phuretted hydrogen fumaroles, gas springs, and sulphur incrustations at the surface and the bodies of subterranean oil; and it was his belief in this association that led him to seek for oil on Spindletop Hill. . . . The oil is closely associated with the mounds, occurring on their slopes or summits. ... In some localities hot water has been struck below the oil. ... In the original Lucas well, the oil itself is hot. ... It had a temperature of over 110° fahr. The oil seems to occur not in any definite contin- uous stratum but in spots of many strata. Gas in immense quantities and frequently under such pressure as to wreck the wells, has been struck before reaching the oil. This has occurred several times at Spindletop, twice at Sour Lake, and once at Velasco, where the destructive effect was terriffic. Sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen gas occur in intimate association with the Beaumont oil. In fact, the oil itself is said to contain 1 to 2 per cent, of sulphur, and the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen are strong in the vicinity of the wells. . Underground bodies of sulphur associated with the oil by natural processes have been found in many localities. The Calcasieu section of Hilgard shows at 540 feet in depth solid sulphur rock similar to that encountered at 1,040 in the Beaumont well. At Damon's mound a bed of sulphur from 10 to 40 feet thick was encountered above the salt. Crystals of free sulphur also occur in the cap rock overlaying the vSpindletop oil. Capt. Lucas found the sub-strata of the south-eastern part of Belle Isle, above and down to the rock salt, were heavily impregnated with petroleum. Several calcareous strata containing sulphur were also encountered. The wells at Damon's mound encountered small flows of oil at depths of from 400 to 600 feet." 12 GENERAL In his last report on petroleum in the Mineral Resources of the United vStates, Mr. F. H. Oliphant confirms the true nature of these mounds, as here indicated, in this significant remark: "The depth of the wells to the productive bed vary from 880 feet, about the centre of the elevation at vSpindle- top, to 1,190 feet near the edge of the productive area, indicating that the stratum holding the petroleum is in a general way conical, which condition seems to be verified by the deep wells, less than 500 feet from defined territory, failing to find any trace of the open cellular carbonate of lime and pure sulphur structure encountered on the mounds, at depths of over 2,000 to 2,500 feet. The thickness of the oil-bearing formation is placed by different drillers at from 20 to 75 feet. It is almost pure carbonate of lime with more or less combined sulphur as well as surrounding crystals of pure sulphur." To the volcanic solfataric piiase of phenomena these mounds, or rather as we see, real vertical chimneys, must surely belong. How else could be explained their hot oil, their hot water, and especially their v^ertical chimney-like masses of sulphur, salt, limestone and dolomite permeated and impregnated with natural gas, oil, and hydrogen sul- phuret gas? If we now transport ourselves from Texas to the Island of Trinidad, at the otiier end of the circle of oil and asphalt deposits, which, as it has been remarked, border tiie Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean vSea, what do we find there? According to Clifford Richardson and to Edward \V. Parker, of the United States Geological Survey, "the chief source of the supply (of asphaltum) is a lake of pitch filling the crater of an extinct volcano. This lake lies 138 feet above the sea level, and has an area of 114 acres. The supply is being partially renewed by a constant flow^ of soft pitch into the centre of the lake from a subterranean source." The solfa- taric volcanic emanations at Trinidad are also abundantly 13 GENERAL attested by the many mineral springs on that Island, by the strong thermal waters with borates, iodides and sulphur compounds intimately mixed as an emulsion with the bitu- men of the pitch lake, by the gas issuing from the cracks in the bitumen, and by the indurated clays, burnt red shales and porcelanites to the southward of the lake. Similarly, in California, through all the extensive oil fields of that country situated along the coast Range which has been only recently uplifted, the solfataric volcanic phenomena are most abundant to this day in connection with the oil deposits which are found in very disturbed and dislocated strata of the Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary. Here, the shales, interstratified with the bituminous and oil sands, have become reddened and burnt or bleached to white shales, and changed to porcelanites by the solfataric vapors, and they have also been greatly calcified and salici- fied by the hot calcareous and silicious waters. Hot natural gas and hot sulphuretted hydrogen emanations, as well as hot and boiling waters, issue yet from the hot ground in a number of places as at the Calera Rancho, six miles west of vSanta Barbara, where, on the ocean shore, an area of twenty acres has lately subsided some 25 feet, and from the hot ground of which heavy petroleum oil oozes out with sul- phurous and other vapors and hot sahne waters. Mr. A. S. Cooper, State Mineralogist of California, in a paper on "The Genesis of Petroleum and Asphaltum," devotes a great deal of space to these red burnt and white bleached shales as connected with the genesis of bitumen in California, but he attributes the evidences of heat and heated vapors and steam everywhere shown by them to chemical heat engendered in the shales themselves in some mysterious way, or generated in some even more mysterious way in the metamorphic rocks below the Cretaceous. This "chemical heat," according to Mr. Cooper, distills the carbonaceous vegetable matter in the rocks and the 14 GENERAL resultant gas, oil and asphalt migrate upward into the Cre- taceous, Tertiary and Quaternary rocks to lill there the gas and oil sands and to form the asphalt veins. But why this "chemical heat" should have been so accommodating as to have waited until the Tertiary and Quaternary formations were deposited before metamor- phosing and distilling the lower formations is not clearly explained. There remains now one more direct proof of volcanicity in the oil and gas fields to which I desire to especially draw your attention. This proof is general and present in all the oil and gas fields, and therefore of primary- importance in a consideration of the origin of oil and gas; I refer to what has been called the rock pressure of natural gas. This great force, which often has thrown out of a well high above the derrick an entire string of tools weighing thousands of pounds and which often gushes the oil and the pebbles of the oil sands with terrific force hundreds of feet high in the air cannot be explained in any other way than as a remnant or spark of the initial volcanic energy, the stupendous force of which in volcanoes has so often caused most tremendous explosions, appalling in their magnitude and effects, blowing out enormous craters and sometimes whirling out without warning, as from the mouth of a mammoth cannon, a de- structive tornado of inflammable and irrespirable gases over a whole city, as in the recent memorable instance of St. Pierre, Martinique. In some of the oil and gas wells this pressure of the gas has registered as high as 1,525 lb. to the square inch, or over 100 ton to the square foot, but it is generally considerably less and ranges ordinarily between 200 lb. and 1,000 lb. in fresh fields when first struck, at depths of from 500 to 3,000 feet. It varies greatly in the different fields from wells of the same absolute depth, even though the two fields are not far distant, as for instance in the case cited by the late Professor Edward Orton, where a 15 GENERAL well in Oswego County, New York, only gave a pressure of 340 lb. to the square inch from a depth of 2,100 feet, at which the gas was struck in the Potsdam sandstone, while another well in Onondaga County, N. Y., the "Munroe" well, where the gas was struck in the Trenton limestone at 2,370 feet, gave a pressure of 1,525 lb. to the square inch. But, and this is a very significant fact, which indicates plainly the internal origin from below, in the same field when gas is found in different strata, as it very often is, the strongest pressure is always in the lower stratum, and the rate of de- crease of that pressure from the lowest stratum to the upper ones is very irregular, evidently depending on the more or less open channels of communication between these strata which existed at the time of the solfataric volcanic activity under that field, channels which have now long ago been closed up as a rule. The other significant fact of the rock pressure of natural gas is that it is a continually decreasing pressure from the time the gas is first used in a new field until finally it is all exhausted. This shows, without a doubt, that there is nothing now behind that pressure, no hydro- static column or anything else ; the gas possesses this energy, per se, it is its own life, and it imparts it to the water, or to the oil sharing the sands with itself to make them flow vio- lently at first, but before long this decreasing pressure be- comes powerless and the oil has to be pumped. This would not be the case if a constant hydrostatic head was behind it ; therefore, this fact alone is enough to condemn absolutely Professor Orton's and Professor White's theory of hydro- static or artesian water pressure as an explanation of the rock pressure of natural gas. Paleozoic oil and gas rocks of North America are far from being porous enough to form permeable sheets arranged in basin form between imper\4ous layers and with porous outcrops, and thus never fulfill all the conditions necessary to constitute artesian basins. These rocks, ranging in geology from the Potsdam all the way to 16 GENERAL the Pittsburgh sandstone, just above the Pittsburgh coal, have in many cases furnished oil and gas sands forming in shale series irregular bodies, unconnected and without out- crop. In this case, how can any one seriously adduce an artesian water pressure to account for the rock pressure of the gas? But, even in the case of the Trenton limestone, which is a thick continuous stratum with long outcrops to the north, and forming a basin under Ontario, it is far from being pervious enough and therefore some of the conditions for an artesian basin are not there, as absolutely proven by a number of wells which were drilled right through the whole series down to the Archaean below, and never found any water. Even at Collingwood, where the Trenton limestone outcrops under the town and under the Georgian Bay, a number of wells, drilled there, have found only sulphurous and saline waters in small quantities below 130 feet; and, three wells which were drilled under the mountain, fifteen miles south of Collingwood, pierced the whole Trenton lime- stone, from 1,160 to 1,750 feet, without finding a drop of water in it, though the top of the Trenton in these wells, situated miles one from the other, was about 275 feet below the level of the Georgian Bay in each instance. Where is Professor Ort on' s artesian water column here? Wanting ab- solutely, right where it should be on the track between Ohio and the outcrops of the Trenton. It is only fair to add here that Professor Orton himself, in his presidential address read before the Geological Society of America, December 28th, 1897, abandoned as untenable his theory of artesian water pressure as the source of the natural gas rock pressure. Yet, there is surely a cause for these great pressures going up sometimes as high as 100 atmospheres, recorded by natural gas. If it is not a volcanic energy, what is it? Svante Arhenius, the distinguished Swedish physicist, has figured out that the crust of the earth is solid down to about twenty- five miles, and that at this depth, where the temperature GENERAL must be 1200° C. and the pressure about 10,840 atmospheres, commences the fluid magma; also that, at the depth of about 186 miles, the temperature must without doubt ex- ceed the critical temperature of all known substances, when therefore the hquid magma must pass to a gaseous magma subject to extremely high pressures. Here then, only twenty- five miles, at most, below the gas fields, is an adequate source for the natural gas pressures, and this is the only adequate source we can possibly find. We also know that light hydrocarbon or natural gas is emanated abundantly in all the volcanic regions from these interior masses. We therefore have there, below the crust and there alone, the source of both the natural gas and of its strong energy and life, called rock pressure. 2nd. Complete analogy of the products of the oil and gas fields with the products of the solfataric volcanic action. It is well known, and our brief review in the first para- graph of this paper shows, that the great solfataric volcanic products are water, chloride salts, sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid and hydrocarbons with often an admixture of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. That all oil and gas fields in every part of the world present the above products in a remarkably constant association, though of course, occasionally a few of them may be missing, is a fact so well known that it is unnecessary for us to do more than refer to it briefly. We have already seen, that in the case of the Texas and Louisiana fields this association, mainly, of salt, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur, and hydrocarbons is most pronounced. So it is clearly in the Lima oil fields, including the Canadian fields, and in the Cahfornia fields. But, even in the Appalachian fields of New York, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, where the oil is free from sulphur and the gas is generally free from sulphuretted hydrogen, yet it is not always so and sulphur waters are very often found in the wells of that region almost as generally 18 GENERAL as salt waters and constantly associated with the oil and gas. The occasional presence of sulphur in the oil and gas at a few places along the Appalachian belt, especially in New York State, where it is found in lower formations, confirms Dr. David T. Day's suggestion that, if as a rule the Pennsylvania oil and the Lima oil differ in their sulphur contents and color, it is probably due to a filtering process which the Pennsylvania oil has been able to undergo in its passage upward through Devonian and Carboniferous fine-grained shales and sandstones. 3rd. Location of the oil — and gas — fields, and of the solid bitumens along faulted fissured zones, similarly to the system of volcanoes, and to the mountain chains of the globe. Few geologists are to be found to-day who do not admit at least a liquid sub-stratum under a solid crust for the constitution of our planet, be the centre of it gaseous, liquid or solid; and who do not also recognize the cooling and shrinking of this interior fluid mass as the grand cause of volcanicity including not only all the direct volcanic phe- nomena but also all the dislocations, movements, faulting and Assuring of the crust of the earth, except possibly some local and minor displacements. The mountain chains, therefore, and the volcanoes stand out as the chief results of one profound cause in which the entire central mass of the whole sphere is in operation. It is only natural then to find the mountain chains and volcanoes of the earth in such long straight lines marking the much faulted and fractured grand circle zones of least resistance of that sphere. But, in the resulting effects, on the earth's crust, of the pressures causing these great orogenic and volcanic dislocations, we must expect to find all degrees of intensity from the immense parallel folding, fracturing and faulting, so grandly illus- trated in so many of the great systems of mountain chains, to numerous zones much less dislocated and fractured, gener- ally parallel to the neighboring mountain range or to some 19 GENERAL main offshoot of it, and in some cases possibly hundreds of miles away from it, and marking the progressively dying out efforts and effects of that particular great orogenic revolu- tion from the mountain chain outward. These minor fissured and fractured zones may be of such slight disturb- ances and fracturing that this fact may hardly appear, especially when the surfac'e is largely drift covered. Yet, the pent-up gases and vapors of the interior may during the active period or periods of these disturbances have succeeded in forcing their way up along these zones to or near the sur- face. Even in North America, where so much deep drilling for oil and gas has so long ago taken place, several of these disturbed and fractured zones have only been indicated in the last few years in the drilling operations connected with new discoveries of oil and gas. Such was the case in the North Western Ohio gas and oil fields as shown by the late Professor Edward Orton in these words: "Up to a recent date it was not known that the underlying rocks failed to share the monotony of the surface, but the explorations of the last two years have revealed the surprising fact that the rocky floor of the Black Swamp of old time is characterized by far greater irregularity of structure and by far greater suddenness and steepness of dip than the strata of any other portion of Ohio. The entire floor of North Western Ohio, including the lake counties, as far east as Lorain County, is seen to lie in a disturbed and uneasy condition. The Findlay break is abrupt and well marked, and is indeed the most remarkable fact in the structural geology of North- em Ohio. The occurrence of petroleum and gas, but es- specially of the latter, in North Western Ohio has been found to be associated with greater irregularities of structure than are known elsewhere in the State, except in a single locality. It is in Findlay that the most marked disturbance occurs, and the great supplies of gas that are found there appear to be closely connected with this disturbance." 20 GENERAL Mr. Robt. T. Hill in his paper on the Beaumont oil fields, previously referred to, says! "There is some evidence that the Coast Prairie overlap conceals a line of serious deformation, which may be a sharp fold, with an increased dip coastward, or a zone of faulting." Concerning this same region, Mr. E. T. Dumble says: "While the Coastal Plain is now just what its name implies, during Tertiary times, it was subjected to oscillations, accompanied by certain phe- nomena which marked the dying out of vulcanism in this region." In the theory, which he formulates to explain "the oil phenomena" of the Texas mounds, Mr. Hill suggests that artesian saline waters bring up the sulphur and oil along this indicated line of faulting in that region; I simply go a little further and claim that this line of faulting gave access to volcanic emanations bringing the water, salt, sulphur, oil and gas from the interior in the state of vapors and gases, which condensed more or less near the surface, some escaping yet in their gaseous state as the hydrogen sulphuret and the natural gas. In the famous Appalachian oil and gas belt bordering and following the Appalachian Mountains from the eastern shore of Lake Ontario to Alabama, for the distance of 900 miles, the evidences of parallel folding, faulting and frac- turing are most numerous, as shown in tiic reports and maps of the Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia Surveys, and if so many anticlines, slopes, synclines and terraces have proven to be good oil and gas fields all through this vast extent of country, and from rocks ranging from the Potsdam sandstone to the Upper Productive Coal Pleasures, it is certainly not because these hydrocarbons have moved side- ways to the anticlines (as we will see below they cannot do on account of the imperviousness of the strata) but because this region being, at certain geological periods, a dislocated and fractured zone, the hvdrocarbons have then moved GENERAL upward from below through these faults and fissures. This is plainly evidenced by the solid vertical core of hydrocarbon at the Ritchie Mine, Ritchie County, West Virginia, where a straight vertical fissure, 4 feet wide in the sandstone, but much smaher and more irregular in the shales, is completely filled with a mineral pitch or inspissated petroleum, called Grahamite by Wurtz, and first described by Professor Leslie in 18^63, and lately fully reported on by George H. Eldridge, of the United States Geological Survey, who seems to admit, with Professor White, of the West Virginia Geological Sur- vey, that the source of the Grahamite is the oil in the Cairo sand 1,300 feet down, but, that does not explain the source of the oil in the Cairo sand which, we will see, can be traced to below the Archaean. Therefore, the Ritchie Mine Gra- hamite vein, though only badly defined when traversing the shales, must, nevertheless, have extended at one time to below the Archaean. 4th. That gas, oil and bitumen are never indigenous to the strata in which they are found and are clearly second- ary products is abundantly proven by the study of the different petroleum districts all over the world where the deposits are seen to form most irregular patches, pools and fields of porous rocks of all ages impregnated with the petroleums. Any porous reservoir of the entire sequence of the sedimentary formations, from the Quaternary down to the crystalline rocks may be filled with the petroleums and even fissures in the crystalline rocks below all the sediments (near Newhall, Los Angeles County, California,) are thus found filled with a very light oil, almost naphtha. In many of the fields the oil and gas are obtained in a number of different sands or reservoirs some of which are hundreds and thousands of feet lower than the upper one and in neighboring wells the oil and gas are often tapped at entire- ly different depths. All of which plainly demonstrate that the source of the petroleums is below the crystaUine rocks. 22 GENERAL 5th. Another and last proof which I want to adduce is that the petroleum and natural gas deposits are such locally separated and accidental accumulations, often in such very large quantities, that their source must be from the deep-seated volcanic reservoir directly beneath, which, alone, is abundant enough and was powerful enough to force such large quantities of hydrocarbons through most impervious strata during periods of volcanic activity under these fields. In discussing the origin of petroleum and natural gas, the mistake has often been made to suppose and admit that certain "horizons," especially of shales, are entirely "bitu- minous" over very large areas and are to be found spreading out uninterrupted, like coal beds for instance, over wide regions. In fact, in most of the papers w^hich I have read discussing this subject, some more or less extensive bitu- minous shale horizon, sometimes situated above strangely enough, is ahvays pointed at as the source of the oil; but, that, of course, as I have already remarked, does not solve the question of origin — it only defers it and shirks it as it were. But furthermore, I submit, that the evidence to be gathered in all the oil and gas fields show how localized and accidental the deposits of these products are and that in no case do they form widely and uniformly spread "sheets." Carbonaceous shales sometimes form such "sheets" but not bituminous shales. Hunt has long ago denied that the so- called bituminous shales "except in rare instances contain any petroleum or other form of bitumens." These two words "carbonaceous" and "bituminous" are very far from being synonymous, and this fact has too often been lost sight of. But even when shales are really bituminous (that is contain hydrocarbons) they contain these only in spots, as w^ell illustrated in the oil-shale fields of Scotland, where, in the different quarries, different beds of shales occupving a series under the coal 3,000 feet thick, are worked, the same 23 GENERAL bed not being found rich or "impregnated with oil" in more than one locahty or two. We have seen above how well the mounds and salt islands of Texas and Louisiana illustrate this localization of oil and gas deposits in a few small spots, here and there, with extensive barren stretches of the same formations between; and that the abundance of the oil obtained from under little Spindletop at Beaumont is so remarkable that it entirely precludes the admission of an indigenous source from the sedimentary strata under or near this mound. All other fields show the same spotted and local feature of impregnation in their petroleum deposits. Even in North Western Ohio and Indiana where the oil and gas stratum is a limestone and where, therefore, solfataric waters could partially dissolve and dolomitize this limestone, thus ren- dering it more porous and spreading the subsequent oil and gas deposits more than usual, yet even there the 300 million barrels of oil and the enormous quantities of gas, which have been obtained in the last 18 years, have been produced from verv^ limited areas in these vStates, though in many other counties of these and adjoining States the same fossiliferous stratum, viz., the Trenton limestone, has proven barren of hydrocarbons notwithstanding that the organic source (if such there was) would be available there just the same as in the neighboring oil fields, as well as many anticlinal domes and other varieties of flat structure which have been regarded as necessarv'- and sufficient to the accumulations of oil and gas travelling through from fossil sources. The Berea grit in Ohio affords another most striking example of the localization of oil and gas pools. Notwith- standing that it imderlies most uniformly 50 counties of Ohio and 20,000 square miles and that it overlies the greatest shale formation of the entire State, viz., the Ohio shales, ranging in thickness from 300 to 2,000 feet, and that it is covered by some 400 feet of imper^'ious shales, viz., the 24 GENERAL Berea and Cuyahoga shales, yet it is only productive of oil and gas at a few points. How is it that since, as Professor Orton said, "There is everywhere underlying the Berea grit an abundant source of oil" (the shales) and that, since the impervious cover is mostly always there over this vast territory protecting a good continuous, often porous, sand- stone reservoir, that in point of fact, as Professor Orton also said: "There are but very few localities in these 20,000 square miles where any notew^orthy value has thus far been obtained from the formation in the line of these coveted supplies, and but a single field of large production"? A few more fields have been found in the Berea grit since the above was written, such as Corning, Scio and others, but yet, after very considerable drilling, not one per cent, of the 20,000 square miles has been found productive; and, where it has been, as remarked also by Orton in the same report, an "abnormal structure or dislocation of the strata" was noticed, like at IMacksburg. This indicates the fracturing of the strata necessary for the local impregnation of the Berea grit and other "sands" with oil and gas. But where the localization of oil is most striking is in the famous oil field of the volcanic peninsula of Apscheron, near Bakou, Russia, where from a small area of not over eight square miles a production of oil of over 900 million barrels has now been obtained. The very local and accidental distribution of the oil and gas fields is very unlike what would be expected from de- posits of organic origin, which like the coal beds would naturally spread out uninterrupted over wide regions. On the other hand, volcanic products are "a priori" found locahzed along the lines of volcanic activity and tiiere in large quantities, while the neighboring localities or districts not subjected to this volcanic action are barren. If we now recall the well known geological fact that volcanic activity is, and has been during all geological ages, shifting and in- 25 GENERAL termittent along the fractured zones of the earth crust, that is to say that, while it manifested itself intermittently in a certain region during a certain period, in subsequent ages it died out and became entirely quiescent in that particular region to break out anew in other portions of the earth, then we will realize that natural gas and oil, though volcanic pro- ducts, are to-day in most every field where they are found, stored products not now renewing themselves in the recesses of the earth. We will also thus understand why the rock pressure and quantity gradually decrease as we take these products out of their deposits, the volcanic activity which brought them there, through faults and fissures, was active, as it always is, only for a time, and now that this activity has expired these faults and fissures have closed up and the volcanic force is unable to refill the reservoirs, just as it is in most mining regions of the earth where a similar volcanic energy was, at one time, the immediate cause of the filling of fissures, veins and lodes now long ago solidified with quartz and other vein-stones more or less mineralized. (C). Complete inadequacy of all organic theories of origin. I have shown that volcanic emanations of hydrocarbons are a natural geological process of to-day, abundantly veri- fied and witnessed in actual operation in volcanic eruptions and phenomena all over the world. Can as much be said of any of the organic theories generally advanced to explain the origin' of the hydrocar- bons? Evidently not! None of the processes called on by these organic theories are to be witnessed in operation any- where in nature to-day. The late Professor Edward Orton, a profound believer in and a strong defender of the organic origin of petroleum, acknowledged this point plainly when he said in his presidential address before the Geological Society of America: "It is easy to see how the bituminous series may result from the destructive distillation of either 26 GENERAL vegetable or animal substances enclosed in the rocks, and where v^er conditions can be shown that provide for such distillation we are not obliged to go further in our search. Destructive distillation can take effect in organic matter that has attained a permanent or stable condition in the rocks, like the carbonaceous matter of black shales or coal; but it seems improbable on many and obvious grounds that this can be the normal and orderly process of petroleum production. This production of petroleum must be in active operation in the world to-day; at least it seems highly im- probable that a process coeval with the kingdoms of life, growing with their growth and strengthening with their strength, a process that was certainly in its highest activity throughout Tertiary time, leaving a most important record in the rocks of that age, should suddenly and completely disappear from the scene upon which it had wrought so long and upon which all other conditions appear to be substan- tially unchanged." We have seen above how far from hav4ng disappeared from the scene is the volcanic process of petroleum production, but Professor Orton was only looking to find in nature a petroleum production process "coeval with the kingdoms of life," and that he could not find it simplv because it does not and never did exist. To me this is most clearly proven by the simple consideration of the natural geological processes of decomposition of organic remains and of the conditions pertaining in the oil and gas fields. First. It is quite certain that the decomposition of animal bodies, as taking place in nature to-day, and we mav, no doubt, say during all ages, is so rapid that the decay or combustion is complete before the entombment in the sedi- mentary rocks of these animal bodies, preserved in anv wav, can possibly take place. This is no doubt why instances are so rarely cited in geology of partially decomposed and preserved remains of animal bodies being found; only most exceptional cases, such as a few remains preser\'ed in the 27 GENERAL antiseptic waters of peat bogs or a few frozen remains of Elephas, are given; but these exceptions only confirm the rule which is, viz., when there is anything left at all it is the shell or bones or their moulds or casts and no trace of the body is to be found. The fact that a few shells are some- times found full of petroleum is a conclusive proof that this oil is a subsequent infiltration into the shell, as in the case of silt, silica, pyrites, calcite and many other minerals filling shells, a modicum of oil is all each shell would contain if the petroleum originated from the body, and invariably, when petroleum is found in fossil shells, it is also found in the porous or seamed strata in which the shells are embedded, showing the infiltration and impregnation from without. Second. It is also equally certain that there is only but one normal process of decomposition and preservation of vegetable organic matter in nature to-day and in ages past, and that is the decomposition of it into carbonaceous matter, viz., peat, lignite and coal. This process is in active operation in the world to-day, as it has always been, and it is the only normal process "coeval with the kingdoms of life" that geolog}^ teaches us. Not one single authentic instance can be adduced, from the actual normal processes of nature, of any decomposition of organic matter "primarily" into petroleum. How could it be? The same conditions of low temperatures and of all other factors entering in the normal decomposition of vegetable remains must give only the one result and cannot possibly give two different ones, especially in the same strata and at the same places, for oil sands and coal beds are often contiguous. If then we do not find carbonaceous matter in any quantity below the carboni- ferous period, as the A B C of geology teaches us that we do not, the simple reason of it is, as long ago admitted by geologists, that, before that period, the favorable conditions for vegetable growth had not yet developed to any extent, and not that it was transformed into petroleum, as attested 28 GENERAL by the small quantity of carbonaceous matter found in the Devonian and vSilurian strata, which are witness and proof that the one normal process of decomposition of vegetable matter into coal was then already going on. Then, since animal organisms were never entombed in the rocks, and since vegetable life was quite insufficient before the Carboniferous Age, how can the organic theories of origin be adduced to explain all the oil and gas found below the Carboniferous, and that means all the enormous quantities of oil and gas of the Lower Silurian limestone of Ohio and Indiana, and it also means almost all of the very large quantities of oil and gas developed in the last 40 years along the Appalachian belt which has been found under the coal in the lower and Sub-Carboniferous and in the Devonian and Silurian; and, much more in other fields. The fact often cited by the numerous exponents of the organic theories, as in the above quotation of the late Professor Edvvard Orton, that, by destructive distillation, petroleum and gas can be obtained from coal or carbonaceous matter, and also from fish oil, lard oil or linseed oil, etc., will not serve here at all, for not only there was too little to distill in the rocks prior to the Carboniferous, but, what little there was, was not dis- tilled and is to be found there to-day, undistilled, as the Paleozoic oil rocks of the oil regions of North America have, without the shadow of a doubt, remained unafTected by metamorphic agencies, and have never been subjected to the heat necessary to effect this distillation of organic matter. Nor have the rocks of the Texas section, and yet we have seen that petroleum, gas and asphalt are found in them from the Ordovician to the Quaternary. This destructive dis- tillation of carbonaceous matter (and, we repeat, there is no other organic matter entombed in the sedimentary' rocks but carbonaceous matter) could not possibly take place with- out leaving a residue of coke and of ash, and not only these residues have never been found under the oil and gas fields, 29 GENERAL but we know for certain that they do not exist. In fact, if this distillation had taken place, there would be no coal fields anywhere as they would all have been changed into coke-beds. We see, therefore, to what absurd deductions we are led by the organic theories of the origin of petroleum, viz., 1st, Abundance of vegetable life before the Carboniferous; 2nd, No coal am^vhere on the globe." Early Geological History of Western New York and Ontario (Frank Westcott. ) — "At one period during the earth's transformation, following the recession of the original Gulf of Mexico in a southwesterly direction from New York and Ontario, what is now Lake Ontario and Lake Erie was one large body of water, with the St. Lawrence as an outlet and no Niagara Falls. This geographical condition was caused by the slowly receding gulf. The Susquehanna River, which runs south through Pennsylvania, ran north through Seneca Lake — if Seneca Lake existed at that time — and emptied into what is now Lake Ontario. Partial proof of this is that about ten miles north of Geneva, New York, the drill penetrated three hundred feet of soil before striking rock, showing the bottom of an extinct stream. The Niagara river was forty miles wide, as is shown at the present time by the hills back from the river on both sides. As the water receded through the St. Lawrence Valle\^ Niagara Falls was formed and the larger share of the water of Lake Erie drawn off. Lake Erie, as is well known, is a very shallow lake. Niagara Falls has been cutting back toward Lake Erie at the rate of eighteen inches to two feet per year ever since its formation. The time will come when there will be no Lake Erie, but a river where Lake Erie now is. 30 GENERAL All the lakes in the vState of New York with one exception are glacial lakes, and run north and south, being extremely deep at their southern extremity. Oneida Lake, the only exception, is a very shallow lake, twenty-two miles long and five miles wide. It was caused by the squeezing up of the Adirondack Mountains, which were not of volcanic origin. Oneida Lake lies in a synclinal and its bottom is the Trenton rock. Lake Ontario, w^hich averages eight hundred feet deep rests on the Trenton rock, and the southern shore, in ages gone by, was about thirty-five miles south of its present shore. From Oneida, New York, to the Atlantic Coast there is no chance to obtain either gas or oil, as the lower rocks are on the surface. Origin of Names AppHed to New York State Formations — The Trenton rock receives its name from Trenton Falls, New York, w^here it outcrops. The Clinton takes its name from Clinton, New York; the Medina from Medina, New York, and the Niagara from Niagara Falls, New York. These formations dip to the south and come up to the mountains of Tennessee and Kentucky." GEOLOGY OF THE MID-CONTINENTAL OIL AND GAS FIELD By Erasmus Ha worth, State Geologist, State Geological Sur\^ey of Kansas. A. Geography — "The term "]\Iid-Continental Oil and Gas Field" was first applied to the oil and gas fields of Kansas and Oklahoma. For a number of vears this was all V the territory covered by the name. Later, through the influence of the United States Geological Survey, the name was extended so as to include the oil fields of northern Texas around Electra and Corsicana, and the oil and gas fields of northwestern Louisiana. 31 GENERAL In Kansas the field covers a zone extending from around Kansas Citv southwestward across the State. Its western limit has not yet been determined, but on the south it is known to reach westward to beyond Arkansas City. The extreme southeast corner of Kansas and northeast part of Oklahoma are out of the oil zone. In Oklahoma the zone widens and reaches west to Healdton, a few miles west of Ardmore. From here it crosses into Texas around Wichita Falls and Electra. Possibly the Healdton, Wichita Falls, and Corsicana fields are distinct from the main field and from each other, but probably not. The oil fields in the northeastern part of Louisiana also seem to be distinct from the others, but geographically may be included. B. Geology — Throughout the greater part of Kansas and Oklahoma the oil and gas bearing formations are the Pennsylvanian series of the Carboniferous system. In the western part of the f^eld, however, the surface rocks are Permian, as around Augusta, Arkansas Cit}^ and Healdton. The Permian here is not very thick and the wells pass through it down into the Pennsylvanian, unless it should be at Heald- ton, where the geology has not been very well worked out. Also, in the Wichita Falls area the surface rocks are of Permian geologic age, but the wells, doubtless, reach down- wards into the Pennsylvanian. At Corsicana the surface is covered with cretaceous rocks, which seem to be the oil producers, and in northwest Louisiana from cretaceous or younger rocks. For convenience of discussion it may be well to begin with the lowermost Pennsylvanian rocks and consider them in order upwards. For this purpose the geological section of Kansas will be used mainly, because it has been worked out here better than elsewhere. Conditions in Oklahoma different from those in Kansas may be explained later. The Mississippian Floor — For convenience of studying the mass of stratified rocks which are important in connection 32 GENERAL with oil and gas production in the mid-continental field, we may start with the Mississippian limestone formation and look upon it as a floor upon which all other rock masses rest. These Mississippian rocks or limestones cover the surface throughout a large area in northwestern Arkansas, northeastern Oklahoma and southwestern Missouri, cutting off a little corner in the extreme southeast part of Kansas. The accompanying map shows the areas where the Mississ- ippian limestones are exposed to the surface. The upper surface of the Mississippian dips westward at a gentle slant throughout this entire region, but the exact amount of dipping differs quite materially in different places. Along the south line of Kansas it has been found by well borings that it dips west almost exactly twenty-five feet to the mile on an average. Southward, in Oklahoma this dip increases to from 40 to 75, and even to 100 feet to the mile in extreme instances, and the direction of maximum dip gradually bears more to the southw^est. The top surface of the Mississippian, however, lacks a great deal of being regular, having been made irregular by surface erosion, that produced river channels and river valleys in the top of the limestone which often throw our calculations into error from 50 to 100 feet. Still further, the rate of dip is quite uneven, although for a long stretch it is almost uniform. Locally, we have waves produced at inter- vals, so that here is a ridge and there a valley, etc., making slight dift'erences of depth at which the limestone may be reached. How far to the west the Alississippian extends no one knows to a certainty, nor do we know l^ut that the formations may change their principal properties so they would be difficult to recognize. It is probable, however, that no such changes amount to much within the distance as far west as Ponca City. 33 GENERAL Cherokee Shales — Immediately above the Mississippian limestone lies a mass of shales, which, in eastern Kansas is about 450 feet in thickness, but which thicken greatly to the southward and westward. In the vicinity of Sedan, in Chautauqua County, they are about 600 feet thick, and south in Oklahoma in the vicinity of Drumright the}^ are still thicker. Dr. Carl D. Smith*, of the U. S. Geological Survey, calls them about 1000 feet thick at the Glenn pool. Therefore, they are wedge-shaped, growing thicker to the southwest and thinner to the northeast. Sands in the Cherokee Shales — The Cherokee shales have within them many sandstone beds which are the richest and greatest producers of oil and gas in the entire territory under consideration. Near their top, in the vicinity of Peru, Kansas, is a well developed sandrock, 50 feet or more in thickness, which is very productive of oil and gas, and which has been named the "Peru Sand," probably identical with the Skinner sand. It is doubtful about this sand extending continuously in any direction very far, but rather within a few miles it will pinch out and later come in again. That characteristic seems to be true of practically all the sands in this part of the country. Below the Peru sand lies the main producing sand at Bartlesville, named the "Bartlesville Sand," which lies in Kansas about 200 feet below the top of the Cherokee shales, but in the Gushing field is about 300 feet below the Peru sand. It is about 100 feet thick and is very productive. It is the producing sand in all the best wells in Kansas and in the vicinity of Bartlesville, Collinsville and on down south to the Glenn pool, and in Cleveland and Drumright, where wells have a capacity of from 5000 to 8000 barrels per day and a depth of 2500 to 2800 feet, as explained for the Peru sand. *Smith, Dr. Carl D., U. S. Geol. Sur. Bui., 541, Fig. 1, pp. 42. 34 GENERAL Other sands have been found which occupy position below the Bartlesville sand, the most important of which has been named the "Tucker Sands" and Hes near the base of the Cherokee shales. In some other localities still other names have been given, but in general it may be said that there is some little doubt regarding the reliability of names of sands that have been used for wells from 25 to 100 miles apart. Fort Scott Limestones — On top of the Cherokee shales lies the Fort Scott limestones, which, in earlier days, were named the Oswego limestones, a term by w^hich they are still known to many of the drillers. These limestones in reality are two in number, separated by a shale bed from 6 to 15 or 20 feet in thickness. The lower limestone at Fort Scott is the Fort Scott cement rock, and covers the surface throughout the main part of the town. Above this is the upper Fort Scott limestone which does not have the cement quality. Drillers here and there throughout the oil field usually do not separate these two from each other, and as they vary in thickness from place to place sometimes they are reported as over 60 feet in thickness. However, one should understand that, in many places, two of them exist separated by a shale bed of from 6 to 20 feet, as above stated. This limestone mass is interesting, in a good many ways. First, when the driller reaches it he knows he may be close to a productive sand, and proper care should be given. Next, it is not at all unusual for a considerable amount of oil or gas to be found within the limestone, so that one should not be surprised at such an occurrence. The so-called Wheeler sand, according to Buttram,* is, in reality, the Fort Scott limestone. At Drumright it is 75 feet thick, and lies about 2100 feet below the surface. Pleasanton Shale — Above the Fort vScott limestones we have a series of alternating beds of limestones and shale with *Buttram, Frank, Oklahoma Geol. vSur. Biil. 18, p. 41. 35 GENERAL many sandstones occupying a part of the shale. These are of relatively little importance, although here and there the sandstones develop into reasonably good oil producers. The first heavy shale bed which is reached above the Fort Scott limestone in Kansas is known as the "Pleasanton Shale" on account of the wide outcropping in the vicinity of Pleasanton, Kansas. In many places these shales are almost all changed into sandstone, while elsewhere they are typical shales. Farther to the west and southward they carry sandstones which are important producers. In Oklahoma, particularly, and also in Kansas to a lesser degree, sandstones which seem to lie in the equivalent of the Pleasanton shale become very productive, particularly in the Gushing field. Bethany Limestone Series — Above the Pleasanton shales, and resting comfortably upon them, we have another series of alternating limestones and shales. Each individual limestone has been named and also each shale, but for our purpose we will speak of the entire mass as the Bethany Limestone System. In Kansas this entire mass is about 300 feet thick and will average about 65 to 75 per cent, limestone for the entire 300 feet. In most of the well records reported, the entire distance is reported as limestone, although oc- casionally otherwise. In Oklahoma this group of limestone frequently is called the "Big Lime," because the shale beds in places become very thin and the limestones thicker, so that the driUer neglects the shales. Ida Limestones — Above the limestones just described and resting comfortably upon overlying shales we find a very heavy limestone which has a great extent in Kansas, but which does not retain its thickness into Oklahoma. This is the lola limestone, and is a very important marker in drilling in Kansas. At lola it is about 40 feet thick, and occupies the surface of the ground immediately under the town of lola. 36 GENERAL Lane Shales — Above the lola hmestone is a heavy mass of shales which have been named the Lane shales, and which in places carry heavy beds of sandstone that may become producers of oil and gas at any place throughout the mid- continental field. The Lane shales average 100 feet or more and in some places reach fully 200 feet. It is quite possible that the sands within the Lane shales are the Lawton sands of Oklahoma. They lie above the Wheeler (Fort Scott) sands about 700 to 800 feet. Allen and Stanton Limestones — Above the Lane shales we have two limestones, well marked in places, which are separated from each other by the Vilas shale beds of variable thickness but usually from 20 to 50 feet. The lower one of these is known as the Allen limestones on account of its occurence in Allen County, Kansas, and the upper one is called the Stanton hmestone, an old name given it by Pro- fessor vSwallow in 1866. These two limestones usually are counted as one by well drillers, because in most cases the Vilas shale bed between them is so small that the well drillers do not recognize it. The two jointly constitute a very heavy mass of limestone which covers the surface throughout large areas of Kansas and, hence, are worthy of special recognition. The sandstones within the Lane shales below have already been mentioned, so that when a well driller finds he is passing through the Allen and Stanton limestone he may not be surprised to iind a good flow of gas or oil in the next sand- stone. Lawrence Shales — Omitting a few lesser limestones and shale beds which have thicknesses so small that we will not consider them here, we come next to a mass of shales which carry a great quantity of sandstone, and hence is very im- portant. They have been named the Lawrence shales. In the vicinity of Lawrence, Kansas, they are about 200 feet thick, or neglecting a thin limestone they may be 300 feet, but southward their thickness increases. Also, very markedly 37 GENERAL they grade over into sandstones. These sandstones of them- selves are important and prominent throughout all the eastern part of Chautauqua County, and constitute the row of hills and bluffs in the vicinity of Niotaze, Peru and Caney, and from here southward in the Osage territor}^ just west of Bartlesville. They have been called the Chautauqua sand- stones, but the person who is trying to keep a clear conception of the strata of the rocks throughout the oil field should think of them as being equivalent to the Lawrence shales, and as lying above the Stanton limestone and below the Oread limestone. The Chautauqua sandstones are v^ery important as gas producers in the vicinity of Augusta, where they are found in great abundance and called locally the Augusta sands, and as oil producers near Newkirk. It seems that they have a great extent both north and south, and wells drilled in many parts of the country encounter them. Oread Limestones — First above the Lawrence shales with their important sandstones comes a mass of limestone known in Kansas as the Oread limestones, a common name for Mount Oread at Lawrence. In most places we have here two limestone masses separated from each other by about 20 feet of shale. They extend entirely across the State of Kaiisas and northwest Missouri into Iowa, and cap a pro- minent escarpment facing eastward throughout this entire distance. Near the eastern line of the State they are on top of the hills at Sedan and Elgin and separate the Chautauqua sand- stones from the overlying Elgin sandstones of the Oklahoma geologists. They constitute one of the most prominent markers in the upper part of the Pennsylvanian. According to Buttram* they extend but a few miles into Oklahoma and entirely disappear b}" gradually growing thinner, so that they have little stratigraphic importance in Oklahoma. ♦Buttram, Frank, Oklahoma Geol. Sur. Bui. 18, p. 11. 38 GENERAL Above the Oread limestones in Kansas is a eomplex of relatively thin shales and limestone, alternating with each other, which constitute the vShawnee stage of about 400 feet in thickness, and extend upward to the Wabaunsee stage at the bottom of which lies the Burlingame limestones. It is known that these formations thicken to the south end, in general, have their shales grading into sandstones, the most prominent one of which, in Oklahoma, seems to be the Elgin sandstone which lies first above the Oread limestone, and which is used as a geological marker extensively by Oklahoma geologists. Pawhuska Limestone — Oklahoma geologists use the name Pawhuska limestone to designate a limestone which outcrops near Pawhuska, '^^ in Osage County, Oklahoma. This has not been correlated definitely with any of the lime- stones occuring in Kansas. According to Buttram '' the Pawhuska limestone lies 006 feet below the Neva limestone in the vicinity of Gushing. This would bring it approxi- mately equivalent with the Burlingame limestone of Kansas, which, in the generalized section for Kansas, is about 500 feet below the Ne\'a limestone. Beede'^' cahsittheequivalent of the Deer Creek or Topeka limestone of Kansas. Un- fortunately no one has traced the Pawhuska limestone northward from Pawhuska to the State line, so as to learn to a certainty with what Kansas limestone it connects. It may be depended upon, however, that it is in the neighbor- hood of the Burlingame limestone. Wabaunsee Stage — The first 500 feet above the Paw- huska-Burlingame limestone in both Kansas and Oklahoma consists of a complex of alternating limestones and shales (1) Pawhuska limestone, Smith, Jas. Perrin; Jour, of Geology, Vol. 2, p. 199, 1894. (2) Buttram, Loc. cited. (3) Beede, Dr. J. \V., Oklahoma vState Geol. vSur. Bui. 21, p. 9. 39 GENERAL with the shales greatly predominating, to which the name "Wabaunsee Stage" have been given. Nothing herein con- tained seems to have very much significance stratigraphically or economically, so that we will pass over this distance and enter the Permian. Paleontologists have not definitely decided exactly where the base of the Permian is, but all agree that it is close to the Neva limestone. Permian — Dr. J. W. Beede^ has given us a reliable account of the Xeva limestone in Oklahoma. It enters Oklahoma from Kansas a few miles east of the boundary line between Osage and Kay counties, and trends a little west of south, to the northern line of Murray County, near the northwest corner, beyond which it has not been traced. Progressing southward it gradualy changes into sandstone, so that throughout its southern extension it is a sandstone. Assuming, for the present, that the base of the Permian lies near the Xeva limestone, we have the eastern limit of the Permian marked by the great Flint Hills escarpment, which is so prominent in Kansas from the Cottonwood river southward and across into Oklahoma many miles. Immmedi- ately above the Neva we have about 130 feet to the well known Cottonwood limestone, which is so prominent in Kansas, both as a geological marker and as a limestone of great commercial importance. The lower part or base of the Flint Hills is occupied largely with shales alternating with thin limestones for a distance of 150 to 175 feet upwards. Immediately above this lies a great mass of soft, cream- colored limestones with but little shale, which constitute the topmost part of the Flint Hills. The lower one of these limestones has been named the Wreford limestone. It is so heavily charged with flint that in places fully one-fourth of its volume is composed of flint rock. Its thickness varies greatly from north to south, but averages 45 feet or more. Immediately above it we have the Matfield shales 65 feet or (*) Beede, Dr. J. W., Oklahoma Geol. Sur. Bui. 21. p. 21. 40 GENERAL more in thickness, which are followed by another heavy mass of limestone, the lower part of which carries an enormous amount of flint, corresponding to the Wreford limestone. The lowermost of these has been named the Florence Flint and the upper one the Fort Riley limestone. In some places they are separated by thin beds of shale but elsewhere they come so close together that drillers do not recognize a break between them. Above the P"'ort Riley we have (30 feet or more of the Doyle shales in Kansas, and then the Winfield limestone, which is about 25 feet in thickness in most places. These formations combined constitute the Chase stage of Kansas geology, named from Chase County, where they are so abundant. The entire thickness varies greatly from place to place, as is show a ])y the logs of wells drilled at different places from Augusta southward to Ponca City. Some well records show a continuous mass of limestone over 500 feet thick, which would imply that the Doyle shales of the Mat- field shales are very thin. It is probable, however, that a carefully kept well record would show that they do not entirely disappear at any one place. The Flint hills area represents a great monocline with the rock dipping westward along the south line of Kansas at a uniform rate of about 25 feet to the mile, which possibly increases westward and surely increases to the southwest, reaching a dip of 30 feet to the mile or more. Substantially all the development from Augusta southward, including all of the Augusta, Winlield, Arkansas City, Newkirk, Black- well and Ponca City developments start at or near the upper surface of these formations. West of Arkansas City the overlying Wellington shales are encountered, so that the many deep wells from 3 to 10 miles west and southwest of that place, in Kansas and Oklahoma, have their beginning in the Wellington shales. A careful inspection of the records of these wells implies that the deepest of them, more than 41 GENERAL 3400 feet, are not very far below the Fort vScott limestones. With the Cherokee shales apparently growing thicker to the west, and known to be 600 feet thick in Chautauqua County, Kansas, it is probable that the Swenson well and others in this vicinity would have to go nearly 4000 feet to reach the bottom of the Cherokee shales. This is an important point, because well drillers in general think they have reached the Mississippian limestone in this part of the field, but evidently they are in error. Points of Difference — Geologic conditions in Oklahoma in many respects differ materially from those in Kansas, although they have been treated here as though they were substantially the same. The difference consists principally of two characters ; first, the dip of the stratified rock to the west and southwest is a little greater in Oklahoma than in Kansas and also gradually becomes greater as one passes southward. This fact is true, however, for the entire area both in Kansas and Oklahoma; second, the greatest and most important difference is that throughout Oklahoma they have much less limestone and much more shale and sandstone, and the formations are correspondingly thickened. In Kan- sas our best stratigraphic rock leads us to look at the lime- stones as the important markers, in fact to consider them as so many shelves with the intervening spaces occupied by shales and sandstones. Near the southern part of Kansas, as already pointed out, these limestones begin growing thicker and sandstones especially increased in amount. By the time we have reached the Cushing field in our southward migration we have gotten rid of nearly all thehmestoneandthe formations are correspondingly nearly all sands and shales. The well records from Cushing show upon an average less than two per cent, of limestone for the entire depth, while the average for central Kansas will be about twenty per cent, and the deep wells near Arkansas City on either side of the line show an intermediate per cent, of limestone. 42 GENERAL ^ ^ It t II ^- \ % i I I % III I z ^l ^i -M ■-2 ^ o s 05 II 43 GENERAL This great change in Hthologic conditions makes it very difficult to correlate many of the Oklahoma formations with those in Kansas. It also leaves us under the necessity of using sandstone beds for geologic markers. But with these same sandstone beds having limited horizontal extension, as already pointed out, they become correspondingly unreliable. All of these conditions make it more difficult, therefore, to determine with accuracy the geology of the oil fields in Oklahoma than of the same field farther north. But by keeping in mind the variations as given, fairly reliable inter pretations should not be surrounded with insurmount- able difficulties. Structure — Figure 1 is a cross section of the mid-con- tinental field near the south line of Kansas, extending from Galena to Wellington, showing how the principle limestones outcrop producing, with the soft shales below, great escarp- ments which trend across the State. It also shows how all the formations dip to the west in almost parallel plains. This section represents only the principle limestones and the vacant spaces between should be thought of as containing the great shale masses with their interbedded sandstones and a few limestones which have been omitted. Figure 2 is an east-west section copied from Dr. Carl D. Smith's* article on the Glenn pool. This section is about 60 miles south of the Kansas Oklahoma State line, or 75 miles south of Figure 1 . In each of the illustrations the limestone beds are given a slight wavy appearance which is diagrammatical but which represents in a degree the local undulations found in many places here and there throughout the mid-continental field. Usually an oil or gas pool is found immediately under an anticlinal arch, although in some places the deformation of strata is so mild it can hardly be detected. In the most pronounced instances the reverse dip rarely equals 100 feet * Smith, Dr. Carl D., U. S. Geol. vSur. Bui. 541, p. 43. 1914. 44 GENERAL 45 GENERAL per mile. With the rock dipping to the west upon an average of from 20 to 30 feet per mile a mild dip to the east or even a horizontal position implies a fold, and should be carefully examined. In Oklahoma, particularly, the great oil and gas pools underlie anticlines in almost every instance. According to Dr. Wood's map (loc. cit. '',) an anticline trending nearly east and west passes through the center of the most pro- ductive part of the Glenn pool in Township 17 north, range 12 east, and another one near the north side of Township 18. The Gushing field is on a pronounced anticline, and the wells southeast of Newkirk are on one of the most pronounced anticlines in the entire mid-continental field. In a few in- stances fairly good oil and gas have been found where the structure was not marked. It would seem that should one find an anticline in the productive area one might be almost sure production would result from proper prospecting. The Healdton Area — The surface rocks in Healdton are classed as Permian on the U. S. Geological Sur^-ey maps. The production at Healdton is quite shallow, rarely reaching 1000 feet. Xo detailed correlation work has been made connecting the Healdton field with the area to the north, throughout which detailed geology is known. This leaves it so that little can be said regarding the geology of the Healdton pool. Apparently the oil and gas come from sand- stones lying within the Garrison formation. Wichita Falls— Electra Field— The Electra field is still farther to the southwest and the surface is occupied by Permian rocks. Here, also, we have but little detailed geologic information and cannot connect the Electra field directly with the Oklahoma-Kansas fields. In general it may be said that the difference of detailed geology is quite marked so that a casual observation would make it appear that the two areas are not very much alike. After more elaborate * Loc. cit. Plate 3. 46 GENERAL field work has been done by competent ^a-ologists it is en- tirely possible a definite relation between the two areas may be brought out. Corsicana Field — ^The Corsicana oil field lies within the upper Cretaceous. Locally the upper Cretaceous is divided as follows, reading downward: Navarro Marls 800 feet. Taylor Marls 1000 '' Austin Chalk 400 to 600 '' Eagle Ford oOO to 600 " Woodbine 500 to 600 " The oil seems to lie in sandstones within the Navarro and Taylor marls. Oil wells in the vicinity of Elgin and San Antonio are situated in the same way, which implies the possibility of greatly extending the Corsicana field in that part of the State. Oil at Corsicana is of two different grades and seems to come from two different sands within these marls. That obtained immediately wnthin the city limits and nearby is light in gravity and produces about 60 per cent, distillates, w^hile that which is found two or more miles farther east is much heavier in gravity and much less pro- ductive of kerosene and gasoline. It would be difficult and probably useless to try to correlate these Texas upper Cretaceous formations witli similar formations farther north in Oklahoma and Kansas, or in other parts of the United States. They belong to the Cretaceous rocks which were formed in the great inland seas during Cretaceous time, which produced the Cretaceous formations extending from the Gulf region northward far into Canada. These Cretaceous rocks here and there are producers of oil and gas in many parts of the continent, sucii as Florence, Colorado, both North and South Dakota, where much gas is obtained along with artesian water from the Dakota sandstone; Medicine Hat, Canada, a great gas pool; and the Athabasca river region to the north of Edmonton. GENERAL Doubtless no one ever will be able to connect these fields in detail, but is interesting to note that the Corsicana field lies in the same general geologic position with so many other productive areas." Gas Bearing Strata — The gas bearing strata which when pierced by the drill produces natural gas is sometimes called a "gas vein," a "gas pool," a "gas reservoir," a "gas sand," etc. Practical geologists quite often can locate an anti- cline or a syncline or other formation where gas or oil is likely to be found but the drill is the only positive way of telling where there is an underlying gas filled strata. The sand itself must be porous in order to contain gas or oil, and most important of all, the gas bearing strata must be covered by an upper strata of hard non-porous rock, commonly called the "shell" which prevents the gas from gaining an outlet to some upper strata. The tendency of gas is to move upward or parallel to its source until its movement is checked by a non-porous rock or the gas escapes into the atmosphere, as is commonly found at out croppings. Generally the larger the pores or the coarser the sand in a gas bearing strata the shorter the life of the gas from that particular sand. The area and thickness of a gas bearing strata of sand varies greatly. It may be 40 feet thick in one spot and only 100 feet distant but 2 feet thick or even void of any pores in which the gas is confined. It may be miles in length in one direction while it is but a few hundred feet wide. Its edges may be round in outline or it may be oval. There is abso- lutely no rule or theory to go by in determining the area or shape of a known gas bearing strata. It can only be deter- mined by the drill. There may be two gas wells a hundred feet apart with no connection between the gas bearing strata. Remarkable Natural Gas Reservoirs in North America — No other country has produced more than a small fraction 48 GENERAL f)f the natural f,^as produced b}- the L'nited .States and Canada. While mainly confined to the v^alley of the ^Mississippi, the gas areas hav^e greatly increased and are now to be found in Ontario, Alberta, New York and California. The main areas of Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio have de- veloped remarkable staying qualities, and considerable new production. These three States produce two- thirds of the total production of this continent. Indiana is the only State that has shown any appreciable falling ofT in the production of gas. In this State gas was found principally in the Trenton limestone, here, as in the Trenton limestone of Central New York, the supply is soon exhausted. It has been generally considered by geologists that the origin of natural gas is below the Trenton limestone, as this limestone has never shown the proper formation to produce natural gas in paying quantities, probably due to the amount of cement which it carries, which has a great tendency to form pockets. The mid-continental field has shown a greater increase in production, during the past two years, than any other natural gas area. The Kansas production has dropped off considerably, but it has been ofifset by the development of new areas, such as Tulsa, Ponca City, Ossage Nation, Choteau, Collinsville, Ada, Duncan and many smaller fields in Oklahoma; Petrolia, Mexia, Laredo, Thurber, Albany and Trickham Texas; Caddo and DeSotto Parish in Louisiana. The New York and Ontario fields where gas is found in the Medina sandstone have ne\xr developed any large wells, but have gradually spread out over an extensive area, and have shown wonderful staving power. Instances are known to the writer where wells in New York state have produced gas in paying quantities from twenty to twenty-five years, a:id are still good producers. The Alberta field has developed many exceptionally large wells. The great volume already produced can be taken as a 49 GENERAL very good indication of the Alberta field as a gas-producing province. Small gas areas are to be found in Illinois, Kentucky, California, Wyoming, Alabama, Colorado, New ^Mexico, Oregon and vSouth Dakota. None of these fields is fully de\^eloped, consequently it is impossible to predict what the future will produce. In foreign countries there is some gas produced in Russia, Persia, Roumania, Galicia, India, Japan and Alexico. England produces a limited amount. In the year 1913 the total production of natural gas in the United vStates and Canada was nearly six hundred billion cubic feet. It is estimated that not less than tweh^e millions of our inhabitants are enjoying the benefits of this ideal fuel, as a source of heat, light and power. Many of the natural gas pools in the United vStates are associated with the petroleum producing areas, to which they often form a fringe or border near by, the gas occupying the higher portions of the same strata that contain the petroleum. There are, however, numerous areas that produce large quantities of natural gas that are completely isolated from am' petroleum production. Productive Natural Gas Horizons — The chart of pro- ductive natural gas horizons shown on the following page was prepared with a view of showing the various oil and gas sands with reference to their age and position in the stratified rocks forming the earth's crust. Owing to the fact that some of the oil fields have not been given thorough geological study and also that geologists are not yet certain regarding the age of scA^eral of the formations, this chart is of course approximated. Asterisks (*) indicate uncertainty. 50 GENERAL TABLE SHOWING PRODUCTIVE NATURAL GAS HORIZONS Era Geological System Geological Series of Group Producing Formation or Sand Locality where Productive Quarter- nary Recent Series Alluvial Deposits Beaumont, Tex. Jennings, La. Tertiary Pliocene* u o Upper Mio- cene Jacalitos Formation Coalinga, Cal. McKittrick-SunsetCal. o o Fernando Formation Santa Clara River, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal. o Middle Mio- cene Monterey Shale Santa Maria, Cal. Summerland, Cal. Puente Formation Los Angeles, Cal. Salt Lake District, Cal. Lower Mio- cene Vaqueros Sandstone Coalinga, Cal. McKittrick-Sunset Cal. Santa Clara River, Cal. Eocene Series Tejon Formation Coalinga, Cal. Sespe Formation Santa Clara River, Cal. Cretac- eous Upper Cretac- eous Chico Formation Coalinga, Cal. Mancos Shale Colorado Lander, Wyo. Wind River, Wyo. Dakota Sandstone North Dakota Alberta, Canada (Gas) D Webbervdile Formation Corsicana, Tex. n Aspen Formation Spring Valley, Wyo. 8 'A Colorado Formation Big Horn Ba.sin, Wyo. Wall Creek Sandstone (Lentil of Benton Shale) Salt Creek, Wyo. Nacatoch Sand Caddo, La. (Gas) Woodbine Sand Caddo. La. (Oil) Lower Cretaceous Trinity Sand Medill, Okla. Jurassic Sundance Formation N. E. Wyoming Triassic * Chugwater Formation Wyoming 51 GENERAL The following table by F. H. Oliphant shows the strata in descending order, that are known to contain natural gas in greater or less quantity in the localities named, beginning with Pittsburgh coal, which caps the upper barren measures of the carboniferous, and extending to the Quebec group of the Cambrian. The distance from the Pittsburgh coal to the lower Trenton is given approximately, and the approximate intervals can be found by subtracting one from the other. It must not be inferred that all of the strata named are universally productiv^e, but that the horizons in the localities named are productiv^e. In the northeastern portion of the Mississippi Valley natural gas occurs principally in the strata beginning w4th the higher carboniferous down to the bottom of the Trenton, a distance of over 9,000 feet. The rocky reser\^oirs, and strata associated with them, vary considerably in thickness and texture. This section is compiled from records of w^ells near McDonald, Allegheny County, Pennsylv^ania, and ex- tends northeast to central New York, where the lower strata are productive. The fact that the very lowest rocks of the Trenton lime- stone yield the greatest known gas pressure, amounting in New York to 1,500 pounds to the square inch, indicates that all of these different horizons are supplied from a common deep-seated source, and that the gas is not indigeneous to the strata in which it is found stored. This common source is probably deeply covered by Paleozoic rocks which have been more or less disturbed by folds that have produced slight fractures in the strata. These have served as vents for the passage of natural gas into the overlying porous strata, where it is found to-day. Many of these sands contain large quan- tities of petroleum, but pools of natural gas are much more generally distributed and occupy a much larger area than the pools of petroleum, both of which have a common origin. 52 GENERAL Approx. Depth Below Pittsburgh Coal i §§ 920 970 1.060 1.140 in 01 CO .— 1 i-H CO ^ 1-1 P 9 5 > -t- 0. c o'b] 1- -(- X 'c o'b] i- > X ; d •;; •;; S X; X -r^ ?^ ^ > C C X •S ■£ £ OS oJ ^. . > > ^> P^ Ph o t S.E.Ohio. S.W. Pennsylvania and W. Va. S.E.Ohio, S.W. Pennsylvania and W.Va. S.E.Ohio, S.W. Pennsylvania and W.Va. Kansas and Indian Territory. S. \l. Ohio. S. W. Pennsylvania. West \'irginia and E. Kentucky Not productive S. E. Ohio and West \'irginia West Virginia, S. W. Per.nsylvania. S. 1{. Ohio niifl T<*. Kentiiekv 5 rt • > x' ^ 1 'bJc C .J:; cJ lo < as a: 13 o o "x - U -a r C ^ Si o a X C c C c 1 r 5 X X c \1 ll 1 n TJ TJ "C ii cS S rt X o i; -c E rrti §11 L \ ^ c - E :i t § ^ ^ b. - t 3^2255 7 > rt o o U >< .:: 3 ^ o o o^ = .§ 5 r E a b 1 w ; c ) ; V J r J > bJC_J s ^ X j: i-H o s^ 53 GENERAL ■^ lO O O lO O O O O lO O O O O lO o to o o '^ CO CO lO lO.— irHt- C0-^OO(MCi00O00OCvJ jA' lO {>■_ i> C» 0^_ 0_ O^ f-f^ r-H C\J C\I ■^_^ iq O 00 00 O i-H "^ r-( nH ,-( ,-1 ^ c\j c\j C\J (M Ca C\J C\J (M Cq" CVJ Cvj CO CO K > < ^ o ^^i ^^-.2 . c s '5 to 05 ?^>7 r" C •'^ '-^ -^ .^ '^'^ ^ J k> > • n rt ci rt ci rt rt -o +J +J +J ^ tn w :/2 .*^ o o o ^ C G C > cS 03 rt '-^ p ^ X ^ >. P^ >. >> ■ • • a •■p i£ ex-'- -Z .« ^ rt rt .^ ^ ^ rt rt C3 C3 rt 5 ct rt ci rt n K^ X X X X X ^^^^oS^^pHp:^ Ph' o S o J! .2 Ph Pu, dn II, j; . . . .o X ^ ^ ^ ^ :^ ►4 ^ Mo ^ c J-- rt c o ■3^ c "■ c O Q S g c/2 c OH *^ J= X - ^t:^:: ci o ^ =^3 ^ c/:p3 Opa ail 54 GENERAL r- 1 S5*l^ ^ o o .o uO .o o o o o o ir: ic in o o in O (M X X X ii* O Ol 1 u - o ;:; g ^ 00 CO CO 00 lO in lO lO J> X c:. o -H 0} i^ H ;> >< >H 1> III ^ ~ ^ ^ ^ ^ oj o a c-» ^Z>'^^ : Z > r w (Hi 'i^'^ZZ O'rt -^ " CJ Q . > 2 . . . • rt r X ^ > : r:- - ^^^^5 rt ti ^ •:: a > -a -a -o -o '^ -^ s o'^2>l -11 7; Z ^ H d rt rt S^^^ o u s. H >>S I -'^^^ ■^ ~ > ^ H Q §1 E r: 5 r: - ^ ■ -^ =^ =^ --r: 1^ "^ ^ ^ H rf d rt rt . , , < /^ r- > > > ^ j2 11 '^ .2 .2 ^ 5 B z ■-= j:^ S 2 'ii CJ '-' d u -^ 0' ^ ^ 0'5-C rt '-^ 'C c dJOOO-' — U-^ PU flH PL, Ph r4 ^, C c- ^ 1^ -^ 5 1- mtf . . . jn '^ ■ 5 • t/5 .2 ■".2 5 '■ U ■ V 5 • ^ ti -z ^ < t: =1 > Q 1 :§? r "x £ ^ JT X 5£ o 5 O X -o ^, cj £ '^ '? ill "^ rt ^£522211 C 1- iw.^^'^^OO ^ c^ PQ -^ ^^ p; ::n 'J C 6 '^ '3 ^ S ^ H -^ w C'. a H < ^ in c^ c ^ c c 8< O g> 2 3 £ 2.2 S > •"^ > •^ ^ — ' p o 2 Q 03 'J 7. ^ 'J 1 55 GENERAL THE FIRST OIL WELL IN AMERICA AT TITUSVILLE, PA., AUGUST 27, 1859. C4 Fig. 3. THE DRAKE WELL. Depth 693/^ feet. Produced 20 barrels per day for one year. Man with silk hat. Col. E. L. Drake. Man on his left, Peter Wilson, his friend. Boys on the right, sons of Wm. Smith, the driher, who assisted their father. Commenced drilling May 20, 1859; completed Saturday, August 27, 1859. Photograph taken August 17, 1861. 56 GENERAL History of Natural Gas — Xatural gas was known to exist in China, Persia andBritisii India for many centuries, although it was nev^er put to commercial use. It appeared as leakage from gas-bearing strata through crevices in the ground, and when lighted by the natives, it was worshipped as a fire "god." At a burning well near Baku, Russia, are the ruins of an old Parsee temple, dedicated to the God of Fire. In this country, as early as 1775, George Washington dedicated to his country, as a national park, a tract of land which he had preempted, in West Virginia, containing a burning spring. This, too, w^as leakage from a crevice in the ground. The first discovery of natural gas by drilling in the United vStates occurred through the drilling of shallow wells for salt in Ohio and West Virginia, and probably dates back to early in the nineteenth century. Along the Muskingum River in Ohio in the early thirties many salt wxUs were drilled to a shallow depth of from three hundred to four hundred feet. These wells were located along the river from vStockport to Duncan and the making of salt became an industry of importance. Rufus vStone, one of the first operators in the salt making business at AlcConnelsvillc, in the Morgan field, in drilling for salt struck a vein of natural gas strongly impregnated with sulphur, w4iich caused the drillers to exclaim "we have drilled through into hell." At first Mr. Stone considered the well a failure but later Captain Harry Stull solved the problem for him, making the gas boil the water in making the salt. This was continued for forty years. The first actual use of natural gas for light occurred in Fredonia, New York, in 1826, but it was not until 1872 that Titusville, Pennsylvania, was piped for natural gas for do- mestic purposes, the gas being delivered through a two-inch line from the Newton well about five miles north of Titus- ville. GENERAL From that time the natural gas industry has had a phenomenal growth, increasing from a domestic service to perhaps a hundred people to the present total of about tu'o million consumers, serving approximately twelve million people. First Use of Artificial Gas — In the year 1812 the Gas Light and Coke Company of London obtained a charter to supply gas to that city. William ^Murdoch was the inventor of coal gas and lighted his home with it in the year 1792. He was connected with the above mentioned company when they first applied for their charter, three years before it was finally granted. At the time of the first application before the House of Parliament, a great deal of ridicule was directed toward Mr. Miirdock and his company. "Do you mean to tell us," asked one member, "that it will be possible to have a light without a wick?" To which Alurdock answered in the affirmative, for the best of all reasons — that he himself had produced a light with gas. "Ah! m}^ friend," said the representative of the people in the House, "you are trying to prove too much." Alen, talented and educated, heaped ridicule upon the work of that little band of heroes who foregathered at Soho, Birmingham. Sir Walter Scott, great as was his admiration for James Watt, made various smart jokes about the ab- surdity of lighting London with smoke. People implicitly believ^ed that the gas was carried through the pipes on fire, and the}" foresaw awful results from red-hot metal. To-day the Gas Light and Coke Compam^ of London has a capital stock of $150,000,000, and in the year 1911 burned two million tons of coal and made about twenty- seven billion feet of gas. Natural Gas in Fredonia, N. Y. — The ''Fenny Maga- zine/' a London weekly, on August 26, 1837, published an 58 GENERAL article taken from "Brewsler's Journal,'' under date of 1830 and which is reprinted herewith as a matter of general interest: VILLAGE LIGHTED BY NATURAL GAS The Village of Fredonia in the Western part of the State of New- York presents this singular phenomenon. I was detained there a day in October of last year, and had an oi)portunity of examining it at leisure. The village is forty miles from Buffalo, and about two miles from Lake Erie; a small but rapid stream, called the Canado- way, passes through it, and after turning several mills discharges itself into Lake Erie below; near the mouth is a small harbour with a lighthouse. While removing an old mill which stood partly over the stream in Fredonia, three years since, some bubbles, were observed to break frequently from the water, and on trial were found to be inflammable. A company was formed, and a hole an inch and a half in diameter, being bored through the rock, a soft, fetid limestone, the gas left its natural channel and ascended through this. A gasometer was then constructed, with a small house for its protection, and pipes being laid, the gas is conveyed through the whole village. One hundred lights or less are fed from it, at an expense of one dollar and a half yearly for each. The flame is large, but not so strong or brilliant as that from gas in our cities; it is, however, in high favour with the inhabitants. The gasometer, 1 found on measurement, collected eighty-eight feet in twelve hours during the day, but the man who has charge of it told me that more might be procured with a larger apparatus. About one mile from the village, and in the same stream, it comes up in quantities four or five times as great. The contractor for the lighthouse purchased the right to it, and laid pipes to the lake; but found it impossible to make it descend, the difference in elevation being very great. It preferred its own natural channels, and bubbled up beyond the reach of its gasometer. The gas is car- buretted hydrogen, and is supposed to come from beds of bituminous coal; the only rock visible, however, here, and to great extent on both sides along the Southern shore of Lake Erie, is fetid limestone. Deepest Drilled Wells — The deepest drilled hole is at Czuchow, Silesia, which reached a depth of 7,349 feet. Its diameter is about 17 inches at the top and about 2 inches at the bottom, where the temperatm'e is about 182 deg. fahr. It cost $18,241 and was completed in 1893 after one and one-half years of work. The deepest diamond drilled well is located at Dornk- loof, sixteen miles east of Randfontein, South Africa. It is 5,560 feet deep, 2 inches in diameter at the top and 1 3-8 59 GENERAL inches at the bottom, and was completed in 1904, after four- teen months of actual work. The deepest well drilled in America is located at Candor, Washington County, Pennsylvania, and is being put down by the People's Natural Gas Company of Pittsburgh, Penn- sylvania. At the present writing, June, 1915, the drillers have a fishing job at a depth of 7181 feet. The following give a few facts of work : Dimensions of Derrick Base 26 feet. Derrick 90 feet. Bull Wheel Shaft 2 feet. Bull Wheel Gudgeons 5i^" Steel. « Crown Pulley Gudgeons 6" Steel. Band Wheel'Shaft 6". Wrist Pin 4". Band Wheel 18" x 12 feet. Belt 8 ply 16" x 105 feet. Engine 14" x 14" 52-h. p. 2— 30-h. p. Boilers. Amount of Casing Used 232 feet— 13" Casing. 953 ' U _;^Q. U 1,969 u _ sy^r u 6,053 U _ QY^" U 6,102 u _ 53^. u 6,265 u _ ^y" u Dimensions of Hole where it was reduced 16 inch Hole 232 Feet. 13 " 953 " 10 " '' 1,969 " 8H " " 6,053 " 5M " " 6,102 " Depth to which Well was drilled w'ith a 2Xi" Length . 3,720 Feet. Cables Used in Drilling Well 1-2M" Manilla Cable 2,000 feet. 1-214" '' 3,000 " 1—1" X 7,000 feet Wire. 1-1^" to %" 8,000 ft. Wire. 1 1 // 8,000 ft. 1 — 1" 8,000 ft. 1—1"— \}4"—VA" 8,000 ft. Taper. Sand Lines man ill a cable, 1—H" X 7,000 feet. 1—1^" X 8,000 feet. 1— A" X 8,000 feet. 60 GENERAL Depth at which Explosions of Gas occurred At 4,850 feet. " 4,870 " " 5,900 " " 5,905 " " 5,910 " " 5,915 " " 6,060 " Record of Temp eralures Taken in Well At 5,150 feet 110 degrees fahr. " 5,220 " 120 " " 5,800 " 140 " " 6,000 " 150 li " 6,095 " 156 " R. A. GEARY WELL No. 770 llu 1 Below Coal Formation Top Bottom Conductor 16' 13" Casing 232 Limestone 450 470' Slate 470 595 Freeport Coal 595 600 Water at 600 Gas 760 Salt Sand 734 950 Gas 912 Pencil Cave 950 953 Big Lime 953 982 10" Casing 953 Big Injun Sand 982 1,241 Gas 1,052 Squaw Sand 1,378 1,392 Gas 1.379 Sand 1,610 1,622 Hundred Foot Sand. . . 1,794 1,817 Gas 1,797 Thirty Foot Sand 1,910 1,925 Gas 1,912 Gordon Strav 1,968 1,971 8H" Casing.' 1,969 White Slate 1,971 2,990 Limestone 2,990 3,210 White Slate 3,210 3,440 3,440 Reduced Hole Limestone 3,440 3,450 White Slate 3,450 4.100 Sand and Lime 4.100 4.170 White Slate 4,170 4.520 Black Slate 4,520 4,550 White Slate 4,550 5,200 Black Slate 5,200 5,320 61 GENERAL R. A. GEARY WELL No. 77G—(Co}itiuiied) Formation Top Bottom Black Shale 5,320 5,520 White Slate 5,520 5,660 Limestone 5,660 5,680 (Supposed Guelph) Black Lime 5,680 5,788 ( " Niagara) Black Slate 5,788 6.008 Black Lime 6.008 6,023 Flint 6,023 6.045 Gray Sand 6,045 6,200 6%" Casing 6,053 Water and Gas 6,060 Brown Sand 6,200 6,260 Water 6,260 6,265 White Sand 6,260 6,270 Brown Sand 6,270 6,315 Black Lime 6,315 6,395 Sand and Black Flint.. 6,395 6,405 Black Lime 6.405 6,515 White Sand 6,515 6,530 Gas 6,522 Black Limestone 6,530 6,610 Gray Limestone 6,610 6,700 Rock Salt 6,700 6,708 Lime and Sand 6.708 6,775 Rock Salt 6,775 6.785 Limestone 6,785 6.830 Rock Salt 6.830 6.840 Lime and Sand 6.840 6.860 Rock Salt 6,860 6.865 Limestone 6.865 6.870 Rock Salt 6,870 6,875 Limestone 6.875 6.895 Rock Salt 6.895 6.900 Limestone 6.900 6.910 Rock Salt 6,910 6,925 Limestone and Sand . . 6.925 7.020 Salt and Lime Shells . . 7,020 7.040 Sand and Lime 7,040 7,181 A "Freak" Gas Well — A very interesting producing gas well was discovered in February, 1915, in the Kansas field. The well was located in the southern end of a well- defined producing area in which all of the wells previously drilled had been productive in a 1,600 foot sand of close formation, giving the wells a relatively small open-flow capacity, the average for the flow being about 1,000,000 cu. ft. a day, and the maximum not more than 4,000,000 cu. ft. for wells previously drilled. 62 GENERAL The other weHs in the Held struck the sand very uniformly at the level indicated by geological survey. The sand was struck unexpectedly about six o'clock in the evening about fifty feet above the expected level, and the rush of gas from the well blew the tools out of the hole through the crown-block of the derrick, and about four hundred feet in the air, the tools coming down within twenty feet of the hole, and penetrating eight feet of soil and three feet of limestone, twisting the stem in two distinct cork-screws from the force of the impact. The open flow ca- pacity of the well twelve hours later was about thirty million feet per day, and twenty-six hours later was thirteen million feet per day, but subsequent calculations show that the first flow could not have been less than seventy-five million feet. The interesting feature of this well was not its enormous flow, but the fact that when closed in twenty-six hours afterward it made only about fifty pounds rock pressure which gradually built up over a period of two weeks to the original pressure of the sand of about five hundred and fifty pounds. Careful calculations from an orifice meter installed on the line from this well, together with a recording gauge record of the pressures of the well, show that this well had penetrated a cavity in the rocks of between one-half and three-quarter million cubic feet volume, with a crevice or passage through which gas feeds from the main sand body at the rate of about two to three million feet per day. In actual operation this well is used as a reserv^oir and allowed to fill up to the maximum pressure when the entire contents of this cavity is available and can be used in a few hours, or a day, or two days, as emergency requires. If in constant use the well would not be worthy of special note, but as an emergencv reser\'oir from which ten to fifteen million feet can be taken in a few hours, it is of untold value in the maintenance of good service under trying conditions which confront every gas company at times. The rock pressure in the field is about 550 lb. 63 GENERAL Altitudes and Atmospheric Pressures of Gas Fields in the United States — The following table, from the United States Geological Survey, gives the altitudes, together with the average atmospheric pressure, in or near the different gas fields in the United States. Ashtabula, O Arkansas City, Kas. . Astoria, Ore Alliance, O Bradford, Pa Batavia, N. Y Baldwinsville, N. Y. . Beaumont, Tex Boulder, Col Bakersfield, Cal Bowling Green, Ky.. Buffalo, N. Y Birmingham, Ala Charleston, W. Va. . . Chanute, Kas Cincinnati, O Corning, N. Y Cleveland, O Columbus, O Corsicanna, Tex Claremore, Okla Dallas, Tex Dunkirk, N. Y Des Moines, la Erie, Pa Evanston, Wyo Fairmont, W. Va Fort Worth, Tex Fort Scott, Ark Huntington, W. Va.. Huntsville, Ala Hot Springs, Ark Henrietta, Tex Indianapolis, Ind. . . >d 1064 50 1083 1464 895 390 26 5308 432 466 588 596 603 910 501 942 583 748 427 604 466 598 800 686 6835 888 623 467 566 612 718 915 709 M a: a c w =^ < H 3 KB-'-" 14.33 14.13 14.67 14.12 13.92 14.22 14.49 14.69 12.34 14.47 14.45 14.38 14.38 14.37 14.21 14.43 14.19 14.38 14.30 14.47 14.37 14.45 14.38 14.27 14.33 11.69 14.22 14.36 14.45 14.39 14.37 14.31 14.21 14.32 Johnstown, Pa Joplin, Mo Kansas City, Mo. . . . Lexington, Ky Los Angeles, Cal. . . . Laredo, Tex Lima, O Little Rock, Ark. . . . Muncie, Ind Mobile, Ala Marion, O Muskogee, Okla Pittsburgh, Pa Parkersburg, \V. Va . Port Huron, Mich.. . Pierre, S. D Pueblo, Col Robinson, 111 Red Bluff, Cal Raton, N. M Rovstone, Pa vSilver Creek, N. Y. . Shreveport, La San Antonio, Tex. . . Salt Lake City, Utah Santa Anna, Cal. . . . Tulsa, Okla Texarkana, Tex Trinidad, Col Toledo, O Vincennes, Ind Warren, Pa Wheeling, W. Va. . . . 1= 1184 1018 748 975 265 806 859 263 948 69 979 599 745 574 633 1438 4669 508 307 6620 1465 623 198 683 4228 137 701 303 5820 583 431 12C0 637 14.07 14.16 14.30 14.17 14.56 14.26 14.24 14.56 14.19 14.66 14.17 14.38 14.30 14.39 14.36 13.93 12.72 14.43 14.53 11.79 13.92 14.36 14.59 14.37 12.73 14.63 14.32 14.54 12.12 14.39 14.47 14.06 14.36 64 GENERAL Temperature Averages of Various Gas Fields and Cities Using Natural Gas Average Average Average Average Humidity (%) City Annual Temper- Daily Minimum Daily Maximum ature in Winter in Summer Astoria Ore. 51 Abilene Tex. 64 35 91 64 ButTalo N. Y. 47 20 75 73 Birmingham . Ala. 64 38 90 Beaumont . . . Tex. 69 Bakersfield ...Cal. 66 Cumberland . . Md. 51 22 86 Cleveland Ohio 49 22 77 73 Columbus Ohio 52 24 83 73 Cincinnati. . . .Ohio 55 27 84 69 Corpus Christi.Tex. 70 51 86 82 Charleston. .W. Va. 58 Chanute Kan. 56 Carlsbad.. N. Mex. 63 Des Moines. ... la. 49 14 83 72 Dallas Tex. 65 33 94 Detroit Mich. 48 20 79 75 Erie Pa. 47 22 76 76 Fairmont . . . W. Va. 54 Ft. Smith Ark. 61 31 90 70 Ft. Scott Kans. 56 Hot Springs. . .Ark. 62 Henrietta. . . .Tex. 63 Huntington. \V. Va. 54 Indianapolis. . .Ind. 55 23 84 70 Jamestown. . .N. Y. 47 18 78 Johnstown Pa. 51 Joplin Mo. 57 Kansas City . .Mo. 54 23 85 70 Lexington.... Ky. 55 28 84 69 Laramie Wyo. 40 10 75 60 Los Angeles. . .Cal. 62 45 82 71 Louisville . . . .Ky. 57 29 86 67 Little Rock ..Ark. 62 35 89 72 Lima Ohio 50 Marion Ohio 51 19 86 Mobile Ala. 67 45 89 81 Nashville . . .Tenn. 59 32 87 71 Muskogee ...Okla. 60 Pittsburgh Pa. 53 25 83 72 Portsmouth. . Ohio 56 24 87 65 GENERAL Temperature Averages of Various Gas Fields and Cities Using Natural Gas—Continued Average Average Average Average Humidity (%) Annual Dailv Dailv City Temper- Minimum Maximum ature in Winter in Winter Pueblo Colo. 52 17 87 48 Port Huron ..Mich. 46 18 76 77 Pierre S. D. 47 10 85 64 Parkersburg.W. Va. 54 26 84 76 Red Bluff Cal. 63 39 93 57 San Francisco Cal. 56 46 65 80 Shreveport . . . .La. 66 40 92 73 San Antonio . .Tex. 69 44 93 67 Toledo Ohio 50 21 79 74 Texarkana . . . .Ark. 64 Tulsa Okla. 60 Wheeling.... W.Va. 56 Warren Pa. 47 Wichita Kans. 56 24 88 68 Atmospheric Pressure — The average pressure at the sea level is 29.95 inches of mercury, equal to 14.70 pounds per square inch. Under favorable conditions above the sea level the pressure decreases as shown by the following table. Altitude Barometric Pressure Above Sea Level. Lb. per Sq. In. Inches of Mercury 14.70 29.95 500 14.43 29.40 1000 14.17 28.87 1500 13.90 28.32 2000 13.63 27.77 2500 13.37 27.24 3000 13.10 26.69 4000 12.67 25.81 5000 12.20 24.85 6000 11.73 23.89 2.0374: inches of mercury or 27.68 inches of water at 62 deg. fahr. equal one pound. Mercury is therefore 13.58 times heavier than water. 66 GENERAL In higher altitudes there is an increase in the number of feet in elevation per inch of mercury. Table Showmg the Weight per 1000 Cu. Ft. of Air and Natural Gas of 0.6 Specific Gravity at Different Tem- peratures and at a Pressure of 14.65 Lb. per Sq. In. Absolute Corresponding to 4 Ounces Above 14.4 Lb. Atmospheric Pressure. Zl Weight in Pounds W ei(;ht in Pounds — l-I 5/^ c! rt 1000 Cu. Ft. of Gas of 0.6 Sp. Or. ICOO Cu. Ft. of Air ; 1000 Cu. Ft. of Gas of 0.6 Sp. Gr. 1000 Cu. Ft. of Air 51.61 86.05 110 41.66 69.43 10 50.52 84.23 120 40.94 68.23 20 49.47 82.47 130 40.25 67.08 32 48.27 80.45 140 39.58 65.95 40 47.49 79.17 150 38.93 64.88 50 46.56 77.61 160 38.30 63.83 60 45.66 76.11 170 37.69 62.82 70 44.80 74.67 180 37.10 61.84 80 43.97 73.29 190 36.53 60.88 90 43.18 71.96 200 35.98 59.96 100 42.40 70.67 212 35.34 58.89 67 GENERAL ■So 5 ^ do O o O a •- O -^ d ^^^ o ^ o n u m i-HOOOOOOtOiOO ooooooooc:t-o CvJOOiOO:Oi>l>0 co' co' CO o' (>i CO o CO iO t-i— (COt-i— li— 1-^ lO CO C_' »— ' CO O O i-O lO lO o^ co' m' co' of o' -— I o O CO ^ CO O Ci CO CO o o lO o CM O o CM lOOOOOOOOO CMOOOOOOOO OOCO-rt^O^OOiOO .-H cm' -^^ \6 co' cv}' cm' o co"" lO iC 00 O --H .— t CO lO lO CD CO Oi CO c: o lO ^ CO t- o o 00 OOCMCOC^r-HOt-OOOO 00 CM OiOCOOCO^^XCOCO lO tr- io lO CO r-H CO O lO CM O i2 Ci CO rH r-( --H t;- lO lO CM p. lO lO CM 1—1 CO ■— I CM CM O O 00 CO O CM CM CO lO rH 88 lO o Ci'co' "^ CO t- CO o o o o o o o o o 288^8^ CM 'st" CO rt >.2 cti .2 >^ i "5 $ O O 5 r 2 S 68 o t- CO lO r:H 00 nH Tj^ bJ3 be C C d rt o o 8 8 O CM O 1> CO lO CO CO w w oj a> rt a CO u u a; (U rH 4:! -s:, c C/2 . -, . ^ r! 8 8 _ \1 :=i ^ ^ rH T}< c:! 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I— 1 1—1 Tj^ § o o H O P o ■>* CD CO 00 00 CD_ cm'oo' 00 Oi .-H Til OOiOTtiOlO'-H i-l -^LO.-HCD'^t-CM O OCOCOCOOOOkO CO CI CO 00 00 00 l> Tj< t~ 00 05 CM O ■^00 O i-H i-H O iC 00 --( 00 t- .-H -^^ CM cd' LO -^ CO CO 00 .-t '^ rt< .-H "^ 00 lO 00 Tt^ -^ CO lO Tt" t:J^ .-( 00 00 '^ I— I CD^ lo" o" >-H --H T^' cm' o' lO Oi 00 CM CM CO CO O 00 r-H 8§ c:i CM CO ^ O rH .-HCMiOCMiOCDOOOOCM CDCOrHt-CMCDt-CMO rH CM CM '=^_^ 00_^ lO^ -H CO_^ CD oo' Co' t>' rj^' r-i ^ oT -H t-' 00 Oi -^ lO lO lO CD CD CM -H Ci <^^ ^ cm' cm' co' cd' CM t- -^ CM O 05 O t- CO CO .H CD 00 CO O CO O Tt^ 00 -^ Tj< CO CM O t- lO Oi lO O^ CM_^ lO lO oo' oi rH Ti^' cd' ci" cd' .HCOt^iO lOtO t- 00 CM CO >-H Oi^ <^_'^ "^ O cm' cm' £>' o t~ O -H 00 00 > u bO ^ o ^ u t/; C;- G §^ 2 i2 ^0 .":: ^ rt o ^ ra ^ W) en tn O 1^^ o §3 o £i ^ t^^U 0:1 lO lO CO 05 CV} t> L- t>- Ci t- CD Ci CO t- iO {> t- lO t^ r-H CV} c~ lO CD CO Oi Tj^^^ ^_ O} CD lO '^ CO TjH CO 00 .0 -^ rH T}<_ ^ c: co' i-J Tf< co' T^' cd' <-i ^ lO t-' CV}' d tJh' d I-H CO l—t COTj^CiOli-HrHCOrHCO -^ CV} CO CO iq CO 00 CO CD O CO nH ^_?_iO CO ^. iO oo' Oi .-H co' I-H Tt^' r-»' I-H I-H t-' '^' .-H r-H CO 00 ^ ^^v_^ 5SJ>;^fc:'^°o^^'^ lO lO a: 00 0^00 ^^ 5! 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C3 c ^ o cj '^ ^ o 01 ^-> -d fcr c G a ^ rv^ o ', (T: o 1 «+H OJ TJ ^ 5=1 H 03 (>J O 00 Ci n-T 00 CO C\J lO OO' .-I' lO lO' i-H .-H O lO oo' t~ t-OiiO'!*— ii— I T^iOi— ( CV} 00 lO CD -^ 00 lO T}< CO .-I O t- c; CD T^ Oi— trtiiOCDCDCDOi— • OCOt>OOCDCOTt<'*f> Cvi>— It- {>'<#O0000 O' oo' r-T rt^' t-' Cd' i-t' 00 t- J>- i> O Tfi -^ r— I r— I 1— t rfl f-l 00 CVJ 00 Tti 00 .-H CD 00 -^ Cvj -^^ 00 O^ rt^' oi Oi o t> O -^ 00 r-H I— ( CO C\J 00 r-( lO .-H t^ O CVJ .-H O t- O t-' oo" CV}' ^' rJH CI -^ 00 Tti CO CV} CD O CD r=J 00 cd'w CD 00 00 1> lO CD t> CVi^ 00 X "-T cd' O (M >-i lO to OOOOt>'-Ht>XCDOOOCDOO(MQJ>OaOO t-OCD0000Tt<.-i-^01OCVJ(MTtit>OiO.-H(M CDi— lOCDi— iCvj0000T}<(MO0:i"^tO00 1>C0_^ /■^^ I .^ /-^ ^-k rv-\ rr\ i *-+( r^ nri r^ ^-H ^^ ^ ' i> (xT CO oi' ^' -rj^' o oo' cd' I 00 r-l n-( CVJ r-H ■<* OOirtiiOl>--HOi> OOirtiiOl>--HOi>Cit>-Ot-0000 t-mcv}G5rtiOiiO.-iOOOOOCD'^00 lO^ CD_^ .-H r-( cvi co_^ i>- c:i cvi t> Tj< ,-H o co_^ -'■' -' -' cd' cvj' c:' cd' C-' lO c\i cd' --h i>' 00OO--H.:H OlOCDOO CD O O .-I CQ .-( CM 1 — I 00 'Tf 1 — I CO ,-H .-H Cvi CM CM o rj< Ci t~ 00 CD 00 LO .-I i> O O 00 lO 00 CM t> 00_^ O^ I— I Oi lO t> CM Oi Oi 00 OOCDr—lOOClTfClCDCDLOiOr—ti— I cd' o" i>-' iO c6 cd' oo' --h .-h' o' i-h oo' lO' >— ICM CDt-CD-— to OJi— iiOt- CM r-(r-(00.-ICO "^t-OCD CD 05 00 i> CJJ CM O r-l TJH t> ci CD_ c: oo' cm' oo lO o --I CM 00OiOOiO£>05-^t>CMOOO00 CDCMOi>CMt-0000'=^'^OCD00CD lOOTfiOlCDOCDOOOCMiOCDOOCJ oo' o lo' cm' lO' T^' O rt^' CM CM -^ ^ ^ O rt <0 O lO >0 (M O 00 Ol ^ Vh O C-OOCOCVJOOr-iOiCiL- - <^ ^ aiOOCDiOiO(M.-l.-HO ^' d -a o o •^nH.-t(MiO{>(MTj— 1 tL- oooooooooo OOCOOCOiOiO'^-^iO'-H - t~ -^ -^ O c- Oi -^ T^ (M CI wu OiX=X3«3iO(M^--H^ d > £i 00b-0000>0 ■ 4-1 . o >< ,-tCO.-irH(M0000iOCO ■ •♦-' OlOiCiCi ClOOCOCOCD ■ « .S^ p ^ o o •lOiOOOOOiOiO * • • O ^ CO CO lO lO rt< .-H r-t C/5 W < •lOiOiOiOiOiOiOiO (J oooooooo ■ ^ o u • -OOOOOOOlO • • CD CO Oi 00 lO 00 Ol t- < • • .-H CO W (M CM (M HH OOOOO^OkOOOO 1^ CMPOCMCvlTfiOOiOOCOO TjH lO lO CD s o K O iO O O kO ■ ■ lO • ■ 00 CO lO tM 00 • • o • • r; !— 1 .... CJ X o o o o o o • o • ■ (M 00 O CD lO (M -00 • ■ u. 05 -^ -"a* 00 CM oooooooooo X OOCMCOOOXOOO^ C0rt"iO-^-^C\2>— ti— 1 45 ■ • a" bfl ^ ' '^ 3 c3 ^ ""* o w ■t-> X 1^ o i? r- ^ 5 X 3 from 3 from -gas f nace Wi -^aj-MrtSjiiVHU, r^7->CUijo6uoi>X)0:3 2.^ o 9 ^ usfe ^^ alu il r oal oke arb ate oduc oduc rod last 1 'AC o u u:^ a, PL, ;i^ EC W (A, SI en — O O Tf TJH CD Tj< O t> CM CM CI ■'^ Ol lO = E rt ^^ C " r- ^ T^ tC £u ^ c < u 79 PROPERTIES OF GASES tive distillation of bituminous coal in externally heated air-tight retorts. The resulting gas is withdrawn by an exhauster and the residual coke is removed periodically. Coke Oven Gas — This is a gas made in a by-product coke oven; that is, the gas, tar, and ammonia evolved by distilling coal in a closed oven are saved and used as a b}^- product. Its composition is quite similar to coal gas. Water Gas — This is produced by the decomposition of steam acting on incandescent carbon. On account of the large amount of carbon monoxide present the gas is very poisonous. Natural Gas Analysis — To treat this subject fully would require a volume in itself. Therefore we refer the reader to Hempel's Gas Analysis, or Stone's Practical Testing of Gas and Gas Meters. In general the analysis of gas consists in absorbing the constituents one by one, in appropriate reagents, and measuring the decrease of volume caused by such absorption. Certain substances, such as hydrogen and methane, can- not readily be treated in this manner, and these are deter- mined by exploding with oxygen and determining the products of the explosion or the diminution in volume of the original mixture. To Obtain Sample of Gas — The sample tube commonly used is a glass bulb 1^ inches in diameter and 2% inches long, with the ends drawn out into capillary tubes, and terminating in two short ends y^-moh in diameter. One end is connected to the gas supply by means of a piece of rubber tubing ; the gas is turned on, and is lighted at the other end of the sample tube. If the flame is not over 1^ inches long there will be no danger of melting the glass, and the bulb may be purged of air by continuing the combustion for a reasonable period. As a rule, one-half to three-quarters of an hour will be ample. Great care should be used to close the ends of the glass bulb to prevent leakage or allow the air 80 PROPERTIES OF GASES to mix with the gas on the inside of the tube. The safest way to do this is with a blow pipe and a pair of pHers, melt- ing the ends of the glass tubes and squeezing them shut, thus making a seal of glass. In making the seal, turn the gas partly off until the flame is about ^ 4-inch long; then, with the blowpipe, seal the capillary nearest the outlet. With the gas pressure still on, seal the capillary at the other end. Great care should be used in packing the bulb for ship- ment or carrying. The tube if properly packed can be shipped by express to any laboratory for analysis. Explosive Mixture with Gas from the Petrolia (Tex.) Field — Oxygen required to create an explosive mixture with natural gas from the Petrolia Field. Tests made by E. S. Merriam, Ph. D. Assuming that the compositions of gas is as given, the quantities of oxygen and of air are as shown : Constituents. Oxygen Required. lUuminants C2H4 0.3 0.9 Carbonic Oxide 0.0 Hydrogen 0.8 0.4 Marsh Gas 47.2 94.4 Ethane 12.5 43.75 Carbonic Acid 0.2 0.0 Oxygen 0.4 0.0 Nitrogen 38.6 0.0 100.0 139.45 One hundred volumes of this gas would therefore require 139.45 volumes of pure oxygen for its complete combustion. There is however, according to the analysis 0.4*^ of oxygen in the gas, subtracting this there remains 139.05 as the necessary volume of oxygen, and since air contains 20 93% of oxygen, the amount of air needed to furnish 139 05 volumes of oxygen will be 665. From the analytical figures, therefore, one volume of gas will need about 6.7 volumes of air to give the most vigorous explosion. 81 PROPERTIES OF GASES Candle Power — A standard candle power is the illumin- ation obtained from the flame of a spermaceti candle burning at the rate of two grains per minute. Sixteen candle power is the illumination given off from sixteen such candles. In making candle power tests, reliance must be placed on the human eyesight, which is variable and uncertain. Condi- tions of atmosphere and temperature affect the standard candle differently, so that the tests vary. In judging the quality of gas this standard is not as satisfactory as by the B.t. u. standard, which is a positive criterion of the quality of natural gas. This test for heat is scientific, mechanical and accurate. British Thermal Units (B. t. u.)— The B. t. u. standard of determining the quality of natural gas is universally recognized by the natural gas fraternity. British Heat Unit, or British Thermal Unit, indicates the heat necessary to raise the temperature of one pound of pyre water at 39 deg. fahr. through one degree. There are two methods employed to ascertam the B. t. u. of any gas. One is to use the calorimeter, and the other is to compute it from the gas analysis. In the latter case, it is necessary to have the B. t. u.'s of the different gases found in the analysis. These are given on page 87. B. t. u.'s figured from candle power are valueless. There are several calorimeters, namely, Hinman-Junker, Simmance-Abady, Sargent, Doherty, and the Boys. The Hinman-Junker calorimeter is fully described in the fol- lowing pages. 82 PRO E R T I E S O F A S E S Fig. 3 THE HINMAN-JUNKER CALORIMETER Used in Determining the B. t u. of Either Artificial or Natural Gas The Hinman-Junker Calorimeter — This apparatus is of the same general design and operates on the same principle as the well-known Junker Calorimeter, which has heretofore been regarded by gas experts as the most satisfactory form of calorimeter in use. The complete apparatus consists of the one-tenth foot drum wet meter, wet governor, calorimeter with three ther- mometers, small graduate, rubber tubing, weighing balance, copper water buckets, or, in place of the last two items, a large graduate. The L TO drum meter is a standard wet test meter, fitted with Hinman patent drum, water-line gauge glass, spirit levels, thumb screw feet, siphon pressure gauge and the 83 PROPERTIES OF GASES other customary fittings. The drum shaft is of German silver and all the sheet metal is tinned brass. The wet governor is made of brass, nickeled. It supplies the calorimeter with gas at a perfectly uniform pressure. A set of weights is furnished with the governor. The calorimeter is constructed on the same general lines as the Junker. The two water thermometers, however, are set on the same level, which is a great convenience in operat- ing. On the outlet weir is a three-w^ay cock which allows the water passing through the calorimeter to go either to the waste or to the weighing or measuring receptacle. The operation of the three-way cock is as follows: The water running through the calorimeter before and after the test goes to the waste. At the instant the meter hand comes to zero the key of the three-way cock is turned. When the desired amount of gas has passed through the meter the cock key is instantly turned back to allow the water to go to the waste. There is a vent tube on the cock to allow all the water to drain out of the tubing going to the weighing or measuring receptacle. By the use of this three-way cock the amount of water used during the test is accurately and easily measured. The exhaust tube for the products of combustion has a damper, on the axis of which is a hand moving in a graduated arch. By this means the position of the damper is definitely known and it can be reset in subsequent tests. The burner is provided with a baffle screen and a mirror for observing the condition of the flame. The weighing balance is sensitive to one-thousandth of a pound. It has steel knife edges and agate bearings. The 10 lb. set of brass weights consists of 4 lb., 2 lb., 1 lb., 5/10 lb., 2/10 lb., and 1/10 lb. weights. The scale on the beam is divided into one hundred parts, each part representing 1/1000 of one pound. 84 PROPERTIES OF GASES Two water buckets are furnished. These ])uckets are made of copper, tinned on the inside and pohshed on the outside. Their capacity is r about 9 lb. each. When the bucket is placed on the scales, they are so arranged as to balance. If it is preferred to measure the water a graduate of the desired size can be .^ ^ furnished. p^ In accordance with recommendations made by the Committee on Gas Colori- metry of the American Gas Institute, calori- meters are furnished with 'oafifle plates on the burner to prevent downward radiati- on from the gas flame. Specific Gravity — Specific gravity is the ratio between the density of a bod>- and the density of some other body chosen as a standard. The specific gravity of solids and liquids is given in terms of water. In this case the specific gravity is the ratio be- tween the mass of any volume of the sub- stance and the mass of an equal volume of water. In stating the specific gravities of gases, ^'^c^^vrfv^^^ air or hydrogen are generally taken as apparatus standards. Specific Gravity Apparatus — This is a very simple and convenient apparatus for ascertaining the specific gravity, or density, of gases. It consists of a glass jar with a metal top into which fits a brass column having suspended from its base a long graduated glass tube and at its top a cock and a ground joint socket, into which sets a socket holding a small glass tip closed in at the top with a very thin piece of platinum. In this platinum is a minute hole to permit the passage of gas or air at a very slow rate. 85 PROPERTIES OF GASES The mode of operation is as follows : The glass jar is tilled with vvater to or a little above the top graduation of the tube. The tube is then withdrawn so as to hll it with air. The cock on the standard is then closed and the tube replaced in the jar. The cock is then opened and with a stop watch the time is taken that elapses while the water passes from the lowest graduation to the top or the next to the top graduation. The tube is then withdrawn and filled with gas and the procedure repeated the same as with air, care being taken to use the same graduation in both cases. The specific gravity, air being one, is obtained by dividing the gas time squared by the air time squared. Formula is — Specific Gravity a 2 (f) G = Time gas requires to pass through orifice. A = Time air requires to pass through orifice. While boring out the hole in the tip will shorten the time for each individual test it wull also greatly increase the liability of error in the final results. The longer time it takes for each test, the more accurate the results. Heating Value and Specific Gravity — When it is im- possible to obtain a calorimetric determination of the heating value of a particular gas, the next best procedure is to com- pute it from the chemical analysis of the gas, using the values shown in the following table for the heating value of the constituent gases. Multiply the percentage of each gas present by its corre- sponding heating value per cubic foot, and add the products. The specific gravity is obtained in the same manner from the specific gravities and proportions of the constituent gases shown by the analysis. Such computed results are necessarily subject to what- ever errors there may be in the analysis of the gas, and unless this has been done with great care and precision, a wide dis- ROPERTIES O F GASES crcpancy ma)' exist between the calculated and the actual values. The following B. t. u. values are gross or high values, and are based on one cubic foot of gas at 60 deg. fahr. and four ounce pressure, or 14.65 pounds per square inch absolute. Kind of Gas Symbol Gross Heating Value B. t. u. per Cu. Ft. Specific Gravity (Air=:l) Methane Ethane Ethylene Carbon monoxide Hydrogen CH4 C2H6 C2H4 CO H2 H2S N2 CO 2 He 02 1003 1754 1578 322 324 668 5529 1.0368 9676 9671 0692 Hydrogen sulphide Nitrogen Carbon dioxide Helinm 1 . 1769 0.9701 1 . 5195 1382 Oxygen 1 . 1052 Illuminating Properties of Natural Gas — Natural gas in connection with the mantle of alkaline earth f cerium and thorium) has produced the cheapest and best illuminant. Where natural gas can be had at twenty five cents per thousand cubic feet and fifty candle power can be obtained from the consumption of two and one-half cubic feet per hour with a mantle, the cost of one candle power per hour is but 0.00125 of a cent. In an ordinary argand burner with chimne\', natural gas will give about twelve candle power with a consumption of five to six cubic feet per hour. If consumed in an ordinary tip, seven to eight cubic feet per hour will yield six candle power. All natural gas has not the same illuminating value. In some districts it carries a small percentage of heavier hydro- carbons, which add much to its illuminating properties. 87 PROPERTIES OF GASES TESTS TO DETERMINE POISONOUS GASES IN NATURAL GAS FROM THE CADDO (LA.) FIELD In presenting the following tests by Prof. B- S. Merriam it must be borne in mind that the results obtained do not establish the fact that all natural gas is harmless. The gas used in the tests was practically pure methane with no detectable quantities of higher hydro-carbons. TESTS CONDUCTED ON THE NATURAL GAS SUPPLY OF LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS, AUGUST 7th, 1913. By E. S. Merriam, Ph. D. "The tests described below were made w^ith the object of ascertaining whether the natural gas supplied to it's con- sumers, by the Little Rock Gas and Fuel Company, con- tained any poisonous constituents. There is a widespread belief that many varieties of natural gas contain carbon monoxide. Work done in the Bureau of Mines makes it probable that carbon monoxide is never found in natural gas. It's reported presence in many analyses is due to the use of unsuitable methods of examination. Two tests for carbon monoxide were made: — 1st, when blood is exposed to an atmosphere containing carbon mon- oxide the gas is absorbed and a compound of carbon mon- oxide with the hemoglobin of the blood is formed, having a pink or purplish color quite different from the color due to oxyhemoglobin. The formation of this color is one of the most positive and conclusive tests we have for carbon monoxide. A dilute solution of steer's blood in water was prepared (about 1 in 300). Three Nessler tubes were filled with this solution. On passing one liter of the city gas supply through the blood solution, in one of the tubes, no change in color 88 PROPERTIES OF GASES was noted. In order to show that carbon monoxide, if present in the gas, could be detected by this test, a mixture of city gas and carbon monoxide was prepared — 10 cc of carbon monoxide w^as mixed with two hters of city gas making a O.o^x mixture. This mixture w^as bubbled through a Nessler tube containing blood; the color appeared after the passage of about a quarter of the quantity of the mixture. The blood tube which had been previously treated with the city gas alone and had failed to give the reaction, gave it very readily when treated with the mixture of carbon monoxide and gas. 2nd: A dilute solution of palladium nitrate is reduced by carbon monoxide and also by hydrocarbons of the ethv- lene series, by hydrogen sulphide, and by free hydrogen. The metal appears in the form of very line black particles floating about in the light yellow liquid. A thin smoky deposit of metal is also formed on the glass of the test tube near the surface of the liquid. These fine particles of palla- dium coalesce in a short time and appear in the bottom of the test tube as a black sediment. On passing one liter of the city gas through occ of a solution of palladium nitrate, no change whatever could be noticed, even on comparing the solution with a blank of 5cc of the original solution. The above described mix- ture of carbon monoxide and gas gave the reaction unmis- takably. The failure to get a positive result from the city gas with this solution not only excludes carbon monoxide, but also eliminates free hydrogen, hydrocarbons of the ethylene series, and hydrogen sulphide. A special test for hydrogen sulphide was further made by passing two liters of city gas through a U tube containing granular lead acetate. No sign of blackening could be detected. This is an extremely delicate test and minute traces would have made themselves evident. 89 PROPERTIES OF GASES Absorption experiments using bromine water and ammoniacal cuprous chloride in the ordinary Hempel form of apparatus failed to show any carbon monoxide or ethylene hydrocarbons. This method was employed because these are the customary reagents used in technical gas analysis, altho the tests by blood and palladium salts are far more decisive. As a further test of a different sort, a canary bird was placed in a pasteboard box of the following dimensions: — 17 X 23 X 24 inches; the capacity of the box was therefore 154 litres. Holes were bored for the admission of gas and provision was made for obtaining a sample of the atmo- sphere, within the box. A glass plate which could be pasted on was provided so that the bird could be obser\^ed. After introducing the cage with the bird and closing the glass door, forty litres of gas were introduced into the box. This would give an atmosphere within the box containing at the start about 35% of gas. The glass door was then pasted down air-tight, and the box was left undisturbed for one hour and six minutes. During this period the bird showed no signs of distress and was apparently as well as ever at the close of the test. At the end of the test a sample of the atmosphere within the box was obtained and showed the following result on analysis: — 92.05 cc were taken and after treatment with KOH lost 0.2 cc. This represents 1.22% of carbon dioxide mostly formed by the bird's breathing. After re- moval of oxygen by alkaline pyrogallic acid there remained 74.15 cc. From these figures the percentage of air in the box is calculated to be 93.1, or the atmosphere of the box contained 6.9% of gas. A confirmatory and more accurate result obtained by combustion showed 7.35% of gas. In order to determine the nature and amount of the combustible constituents of the gas it was burned in a form of apparatus devised by the Bureau of Mines. The gas was handled over mercury and burned with pure oxygen, by the use of a hot spiral of platinum wire. The percentage of 90 PROPERTIES O F GASES carbon dioxide, originally present in the gas, was previously determined and its presence allowed for in the calculations. The volume of carbon dioxide and the contraction, due to burning, were corrected for deviation from the true gas laws. The measuring burette had been previously calibrated and was provided with a compensating device to avoid errors due to changing temperature and pressure. Below are the results of combustions : — Oxygen taken Gas taken Volume after Burning Volume after KOH Corrected volume of CO 2 Corrected value of Contraction Empirical formula of hydrocarbons present 97.35 42.85 55.8 13.4 41.95 84.3 CH4.03 The gas is therefore almost wholly methane with a small amount of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The gas can act physiologically only by diluting the atmospheric oxygen present. Summarizing the above results we have : — % Methane 97.8 % Carbon Dioxide 1 . 25 % Nitrogen 0.95 % Carbon Monoxide . 00 % defines 0.00 % Hydrogen 0.00 % Hydrogen Sulphide 0.00 100. 00 91 PROPERTIES OF GASES PHYSIOLOGICAL TEST OF THE NATURAL GAS FROM CADDO (LA.) FIELD, AUGUST, 1913 By E. S. Merriam, Ph. D. **A chemical analysis performed August 7th, having shown the natural gas supply of Little Rock to consist almost wholly of methane, it was believed that a physiological test would furnish further and conclusive evidence that the gas does not possess toxic qualities. Mr. B. J. Gifford consented to the use of the kitchen of his house at 2605 State Street for the test. This room measured 16 feet in length, 12 feet in width and 11 feet in height; its total capacity, therefore, was 2,112 cubic feet. The gas pipes were disconnected at the stove and hot water heater, in order to allow a free flow of gas into the room. Mr. W. F. Booth, Mr. B. J. Gifford and Prof. E- S Merriam remained in the room during the entire period of the test. Dr. J. H. Kinsworthy was admitted when the test had been under way for 31 minutes and he remained until the end. A meter in the basement of the house aUowed the total quantity of gas admitted to the room to be measured. The windows and doors of the room were tightened somewhat by stopping the cracks with newspaper. Prof. Merriam determined the percentage of oxygen in the air of the room at the beginning of the test, and at frequent interv^als during the test; so that a close record of the amount of gas in the atmosphere of the room could be obtained at any moment. The test was begun at 2 :o5 P.M., Mr. Booth, Mr. Gifford and Mr. Merriam being then in the room. The initial read- ing of the gas meter was 6300. At 3:31, the gas supply was turned off and the final reading of the meter was 6750, showing that 450 cubic feet of gas had entered the room during this interval of 36 minutes. The gas, therefore, came in at the rate of 12.5 cubic feet per minute. At 3:26, Dr. Kinsworthy was admitted to the room, 5 minutes before the gas supply was shut off. At 3 :38 a bottle was filled with 92 PROPERTIES O F GASES water, the water poured out and the bottle tightly corked. In this way a sample of the atmosphere of the room at that moment, was secured. It was tested later. At 3 :54 P. M., or 59 minutes after the start of the test, a second sample of the atmosphere of the room was obtained. At 4:00 P. M., the test was brought to a close by opening the doors and windows. In spite of the fact that the day was uncomfortably warm, none of the persons undergoing the test felt the slightest discomfort; there was no headache, nausea, dizzi- ness, nor any of the usual symptoms of gas poisoning, ex- perienced by any of the four men, either during or after the test. Below are recorded the observations made during the test: Time P.M. Percent, of Oxygen Percent, of Air Percent, of Gas Remarks 2:55 3:00 20.6 20.1 19.6 18.7 17.9 18^4 18.8 19.0 19.05 100.0 97.6 95.2 90.8 86.9 89'3 91.25 92.25 94.6 0.0 2.4 4.8 9.2 13.1 10'7 8.75 7.75 5.4 Start of test. 3:05 3:15 3:26 3:31 3:35 Dr. Kingsworthy entered. Gas turned off. 3:38 3:41 First sample of at- mosphere taken. 3:49 3:54 4:00 Second sample of atmosphere taken. End of test. The sample of atmosphere obtained at 3:38 was tested by withdrawing the cork and applying a match. The gas ignited and burned quietly, flaring back into the bottle. The sample collected at the end of the test was tested in the same way, but did not burn or explode. This result was expected, as the Bureau of Mines has foimd that a mixture of air and 93 PROPERTIES OF GASES methane must contain 5.5% of methane to be explosive. The sample collected at 3:54 contained, according to the analysis, only 5.4% of natural gas, or methane, and could not, therefore, be expected to explode. From the analytical results it is evident that from about 3:10 to 3:50 there was gas enough in the atmosphere of the room to form an explosive mixture. Two other important points are to be noted from the analytical figures. First, the rate of escape of gas from the room after the supply was shut off is quite rapid, the percentage of gas falling from 13.1 to 5.4 in 28 minutes. This was in a room where all the doors and windows were closed and the cracks stopped up. In an ordinars^ room it seems extremely un- likely that sufficient gas could accumulate to reduce the oxygen percentage to a dangerous degree. Second, the gas was introduced into the room at the rate of 12.5 cubic feet per minute; the room was of an average size, but the percentage of oxygen was reduced to only 17.9; even with all the burners of a stove turned on full and all gas jets open, gas could not be introduced at a higher rate than two cubic feet per minute. This test shows, therefore, that no ill effects whatever can be attributed to an atmosphere containing unburned Little Rock Natural Gas. Four men obserA'ed no effect whatever from breathing an atmosphere containing far more gas than is ever likely to result from accidental causes." HEAT FACTS By Albert A. Summerville, Ph. D. "Heat travels at the same speed as light, namely, 186,000 miles per second. It travels in straight lines and may pass through a medium without heating it. This is proven by the fact that although the sun heats by radiation, the upper layers of air are always cold. 94 PROPERTIES O F GASES Steam or hot water radiators will give off more radiant heat in proportion to the pohsh of their surfaces. In other words a silvered or gilded radiator will give off less heat than a dull black surfaced one. The thermos bottle keeps its contents at nearly the same temperature as when placed in the bottle because of the lack of radiation. In addition to a vacuum chamber surrounding the bottle, which is a non-conductor of heat, the outside is silvered, further preventing radiation. A rug feels warmer than a tiled floor, because the rug is a poorer conductor of heat." Radiation of Heat — Radiation of heat takes place be- tween bodies at all distances apart, and follows the law for radiation of light. Heat rays proceed in straight lines and the intensity of the rays radiated from any one source varies inversely as the square of their distance Jrom the source. PROPERTIES O F GASES < O xn O o xn < < xn < s Collected by D. T. Day, July, 1910. Analysis made Oct. 1905. 1911. .—J .— ( 1— ( U. S. Geol. Sur- vey, Mineral Resources 1911 A.S.M.E., Aug., 1912. A. S. M. K., Aug., 1912. < 1 PQ < 6 loojoiqno aad -n-; -g; CD 00 i> ; CD CM CD . Ci 05 CD . .^;tabjS oypadg - ■- CD 00 CD Z w ;^ H H •X u 3 -X c Hydrogen 0.01 Carbon monoxide0.08 Olefines 0.02 H 2.70 CO .50 [C^H, .30 X u 'uaSAxQ o 00 o ■nO i-l rH 00 CN - • • o o o js^ 'U9Soj:^Tjsl % 1.30 2.71 3.38 1.8 3.6 '03 spy -xoip uoqj'B3 ^H^3 aa^q^H JO 3UBq:^3i/\[ 98.30 96.12 92.40 79.0 87.5 Alabama Fayette Co. : Fayette Arkansas Sebastian Co. : c 6 c 5 X 96 PROPERTIES O F GASES w O U r >»^ . >. ^ Oo o -pas ■ J C2 y t: o^ ^• ^ ;:; O w Oi ~ ^ o O 02 U. o U K >—i um^ '^"^ •T. o; t— ( s i; 1^ . 3 Ui CTi II 1^ ■^ r' - oa iS U' •^ U-a S ■^ o o o (M CO CO R Ci w ■^ Oi 00 CO Cvj CO o >-H 1— ( (M ^ CO CO CO 00 o o o ,_, o CO o 1— 1 lO lO 00 1— ( {> •^J CO CO 1—1 CO lO o o r— 1 1— 1 CO 8 ^ 00 00 00 ^ Tt* CVJ 8 ^ ? s 05 •^ CO ^ Tj^ t> CO lO §8 s ^ ?2 CO t- 05 g o . •:fe U : O d it u S) o.H C >— ' ti X rt •- f-H a O ,'-'0 > d c3 c c2 Co -z. ■ '^i 2^ 1^ 97 1< PROPERTIES O F GASES ti: (D X2 >. w ^ Depth et, pre b., Ju 610 fe . 200 1 1906. 1906. a X O 03 h4 ^ cr r- K " +-> (S iiii Dcptl Prcs Aug, July •—1 -l-j X H ^^— N ■L d ^• "o : 'X 'X 13 T, Ji^ O : ^• d S c 0) c« . >i C 3i ^ , ; ^ J= — ir. ^ o X) r^ ri r- ^3 >c: o ^- ^ £ u O, E c/5 i>. . ^ D > 1^ < y ^-c ^ = t/i o o 'X :i; 1.: "rt >>^ o >. c:3 >> 03 "^ Th t: -o-z "CIZ < rt rt ^ 03 rf c^ S O^ Wpq Ofe Ofe ^ s. ' s^ ' ^^ — -^ — ' -^ ;ooj DiqriD jad •n;-a §. t- 00 (v^ Oi t- {^ X:^IABJS DTjpadg 00 iO ^ 1 ri< T:t< oc , — '■ — ^ ^ 'V_ 3 CD (>I CO 05 <-< I-H .ti .— 1 CO ^ .-; kO q X X 5 +-' CO cc r-l as Oi ~co ■f. 2 O ^M uaSoj^i^ -^ 00 05 CO CO 1— t kO '03 3PI XO § ^ 1— 1 lO 1 lo -xoip uoqjB3 ^ Cvj $s ■ CO CO CO 'H'3 3ubii;h o • CO t- I-H CO (M CO CO o o ■^ ^HDSbS qsjBUi ^ COi> CD CO t- id 05 JO auBn:^3j/\[ ^^ ^ 00 ^' o .— '^ Is \r. u OS cr 1^ > < "O < u 6 o < ; U 98 PROPERTIES O F S E S o ^ X , >-. ^ O ,-( X |^§ ■fj\ f : - % i 'c 7\ c5S .Geol. Mill. irccs, 1 % m 1-^ |S [U.S ] vey [ SOI s> 00 CO lO CO ou K U K O O c O X ffi 3 ffi ffi O 5 l-i 3 cd:x U'J:: id CO o CO cm' CO t> CM 00 1— 1 s d I— 1 1— ( d 1—1 d lO CM d ^ O -H Ci CO T}< 00 is ^1 ■§« < c • O X O OS -^ < : >> 2 •• > 99 PROPERTIES O F GASES d Ci .—1 'J: id Ci .— 1 r-H Oi 5 ^1 'o ^- »- o > u < 5 fli! loo; Dtqno J3d xx-x -g; o >— t ■"!■ 00 r-H Ai^tabjS oypads lO -X z p ■X. z c3 •X o X C o 'uaSAxQ 8 1 ^ u3Soj;t|v[ lO 00 lO Q 00 CO Oi lO CO CC 00 i-H '00 3PI -xoip uoqjE3 lO ^ ^H'O auBq^H -\ CD CO 1— 1 r— ( CD .—1 ^HOS^SqSJBUI JO 3UBO;3p\I ^8 ^ ^ lO lO 00 X 15 o 1 o .- < z < > J >- ■X '- Z "Z Z j^ i 11 < < o .. ' Hi 1— t "x 1^ t l-H 'bib •J', c PC < 1 ) m "3- 5 IS % C ^iE S ^d K ^ o CI CM t> (M CO d --J CO KUE o o 2 a« o o O !5 d IS w P5 US So p U X < _2 101 PROPERTIES OF GASES Analysis of Gas taken at different times from the city mains at Taft, California. First analysis is from so-called dry gas or from wells that produce gas only. Carbon dioxide .60 3.50 Illuminants 20 .45 Oxygen 20 .15 Methane 92.05 93.43 Ethane 3.15 1.15 Nitrogen 3.80 1.32 100.00 100.00 Specific gravity 58.08 60.21 Gross B. t. 11., at (30 fahr., 29.92" 1021 1098 Net " " 927 1018 Following is an analysis of wet gas, or gas produced in connec- tion with oil: Carbon dioxide 8.2 Illuminants 2.0 Oxygen 0.3 Carbon monoxide 1.1 Methane 76.1 Ethane 12.3 Nitrogen 0.0 100.0 Specific gravit}' 74.6 Gross B. t. u 1084 102 R O P E R T I O F GASES 7: 000 000 88 8 8 8 1 H s s I 88 8 88 OJ ^3 u, ^ ^ '^ ^ "^ >r-^^ K r^ ^ z i* >^ X 2 c ■"^ 00 CO Ci >, W) X - g-^ r^^'§ U V) ^ rH CO CO ■ '^ ^ CM CM ; ^ T}< 00 ■^ • r« ti: CO C5 c ,-1 ,-( Ttl -^ cv} d s r- OJ 53 CO 00 rH Ci Tj^ ^ ^ S CO Gi ^ lO CO Tfi TP ,-t ^.2 (M 00 T}< CM -^ CM OQ CJ J5 Ci c; Tj< Oi >-* CO 05 ^ CO Tt^ CM 00 lO lO w S 05 (M CO CM 10 i> id l> 02 C^ Oi Oi 05 05 Oi Oi -j ; u X '. u •>. ':!: < t. r -^ w ■X. i_ . c^ ;:; .02 C '__ • • C7 M - n tt. j^ 'J "u 7} 5 < '^> g < '^' S rt '-^- < U h4 - ^ Zi ^- S o'^- S S-7. al^S-^Go>-'r-^= 1 u cu ^ ^ H^^.« " " cr> •— ) 1 103 PROPERTIES O F GASES ^ — ^ 6~ ■^i G >> 1 o t- g ; rH CO 00 8 a ^ - lO lO Cv] Pq * ^ c 8 1— 1 O d H r^ (M t> i> w § ': 1— I 1—1 CD § ^ O m W - ^ W c3 lO ■"l (M w lO • • 00 r— 1 c 8 rH "C 1:0 Cvj — > : CO 00 C^J 00 I— I 8 r— ( C/D pc) cu •^ 00 (>J oc oc CO S^ oc CO 00 '* c C\} 8 1— 1 < P^ ■^ 1—1 0^ t: tr. "H c <: ii X O 'p. IS 1 to .2 t/2 •5 O OJ c '5 e bJO J ;a % 03 c ^ z bi ^ < X. c3 K^ J2 bj >> c Vh * ^ 0, XI J! > > ^ w w CJ c K 2 ffi 104 PROPERTIES O F GASES u 1 dJ Oi CO CO ^ 8 r- '^ OS 3 CO (M CO d § .= js pq a- CM t> 9. 5 a> a=2 o Oi 1—1 CM 01 r— 1 00 01 8 ^;^ ^ ^ ^ : ^ 8 ^ t> CI r— I r-H 8 i— 1 HC f-K CD " - CO in lO 8 O 3 Oi § 8 CA) a CO CM CO Oi C5 8 en C5 CM 8 CJ s . ^- o , cr. flj C3 Uh vL ^ ^ W) t/^ rj a-' 3 <3J 5 "^iS I— 1 00 d 8 8 F— 1 t/5 1 r- +-> , ."^ .S rt Vi i) 8 05 00 co d 8 8 i-H c/5 d ^ - -a 1: >. X ^ ffi 5: CJ s 105 PROPERTIES O F GASES GASES FROM VOLCANOES AND GEYSERS Fumarole; Gases from Iceland. {By Bunsen) 1 2 3 Name of Gas Fumaroles ' Fumaroles from great Hecla from lava stream crater ' of 1845 Nitrogen Oxygen 81.81 14.21 , 2.44 i 0.00 f 1.54 1 0.00 ■ 0.00 Undete 82.58 78.90 16 86 20 09 Carbon dioxide Hydrogen sulphide. 0.56 1.01 0.00 00 Sulphur dioxide Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons Hydrochloric acid 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 00 rmined 100.00 ICO.CO 100.00 GASES FROM CLEFTS IN LAVA OF VESUVIUS Name of Gas 3a Sulphur dioxide. Oxygen Nitrogen 0.64 20.00 78.36 99.00 20.70 79.30 0.03 20.50 79.47 100.00 100.00 0.07 20.77 79.16 100 . 00 Fig. 7 106 I'AUT TIIIUOE Field Work AVERY COMPLETE vSECTlON DEALING IX DETAIL WITH EVERY PHASE OF LEAvSE, DERRICK, DRILLING, vSHOOTiNG AND CARE OF GAvS WELLvS. Lease — Almost the entire amount of gas and oil pro- duced in the world is ob- tained from leased lands. The lease, therefore, which embodies in legal form the consideration, penalties and agreements between the land owner and the operator, is of fundamental importance, and should be a matter of record in the Recorder's office of the county in which the property is located. Leases of property owned or controlled by the Indians are under Federal super- vision through the Depart- ment of Interior. A lease may be obtained on a straight yearly rental basis, or, more commonly, on a basis of a specified amount for each gas well drilled in which gas in paying quantities is found. Likevvise in event of finding oil in paying quantities 107 Fig. A'— .4 BURNING GAS WELL IN CIMARRON RIVER BED Cushini- Field {Okla.) I FIELD WORK In Constberation of o,. do.uu .o .c .n hand -A_- ^(r'>^Pt^t/^3-' the rccei|il of whicli is acknowledged, and of the benelits that may accrue to me as hereinafter suted . of the Town of pa,d \>,^n^(^^^d^^.)^^^^ ay accrue County, New York. do hereby give, grant and (^mse to said first party, for and during the term of ten years ffom date, and as much longer as gas or oil shall be found in p.mn^'tjii.-intities. or as the rental IS paid thereon, the exclusive rigiit^license and privilege of drilling and sinking wells for oil or gas. and taking and removing said product therefrom, the right to dig and use water wells therefor, the ex- t.i.ive right to lay pipes and mains ^nd to conduct said product through the same and a right of way for thr- purpose hereof. ii|^in. III. throuu'li, and over the following described |)j^mj^s y ^ All that tract of land situate in the town of C>'^^C<'P^^''^rrr. County of z'^r'^^'fSr^...^ Nirn York, described and liouiid^d as follows, to wa i^^^^'A^^'^&ra^ _ South bv lands ol Cast l.v lands of lA'e.it b\ lands ol l^onlaining Z^/... ^. acres of land.inort or less, upon the following terms and conditions: _. First: — That if, within ISie years from date, a well has not been drilledon s^id prei\iiscs, said lessee shall pay me ^<^....T!^^^ 1 lollars per annum thcre.iftcr u i ili l iiuik 1 1 cu i. Lid. , ^^3»^«^(X>!?>^^?-til.<«<»'t-C-<.^__^ .Second:— That, in case gas in payini; quanritics is foimd. stlid lessee shall pay me for wells producing <)*e M cubic feet pei ila>.or more, ^ibo (leriinjuim. into the giaini I propoBioiv Spr e.K-h h ell so long as it is opperate4 by retpovin;; ga Ihird: -TH.4T IF Of I. IS FOVSD. I AM Tp HA V^ O^ EIGHTH OE THE PkOPUCTlOX DBUJC^RBP hREE Oi^HARGE ''VTO^ groui\Jf- —T^fLx. in the locating of a wttl-on said premises I amMTI be consulted a^Tto its location. ^ ;( said premi.ses for drillint: shall be paid for al th^ rale ^^J-jy- ly acrefor, jf Fifth:— That no well shall be drilled witljin two hundred feet of a house or barn, or in any orchard, on said premises, with out my consent Sixth: — That all crops damaged by entering! tlie amount actinlly darr^aged or destro)ed. Seventh: -That saitflessee may at any tirije remove all casings, pipe and property put upon and used on above described liremises. The grants and conditions hereof shall bind the parties hereto, their heirs, nxecntors, administrators and assigns- Failure of the lessee to comply with the conditions hereof or to make the payments specified, will render this lea.sc null and void and not binding upon either party; and said lessee may, by surrendering this lease, terminate it at any time and thereby cancel all obli- gations, hereunder, either expressed or implied WITNESS m) hand and seal this ^.'day o CX/ /^-trp^^^-^-*^^ Fig. 9— FORM OF GAS LEASE 108 FIELD WORK the land owner generally receives a royalty of one eighth or one sixteenth of the total amount of oil produced from the property during the life of the wells. In the lease the operator is generally given the exclusive right to drill for oil or gas, and a right of way for pipe line across the land. Some leases stipulate that the farmer or land owner is to receive free gas for house use on the lease, but it is better that the operator install a domestic meter and require the land- owner to pay a reasonable price for the gas above a certain amount per month or per year. Leases granting free gas to the landowner have fallen into disfavor owing to the many abuses of the privilege and it is now the common custom to exclude the clause granting free gas privileges. Well Contract — The well contract is an agreement between the operator and the drilling contractor. The contract is generally based on a certain price per foot of completed hole. In some cases the operator furnishes gas for fuel, in which case the contract should stipulate that the drilling contractor must use a boiler regulator to prevent extravagant waste of gas. Well Location — In locating a well, consideration should be given to the w-ater supply for the boiler, and to placing the boiler on the windw^ard side of the derrick with reference to prevailing winds. In anticipating a large gasser, just prior to drilling in, the boiler should be moved to a safe distance. Derrick or Rig — There is a great variety of gas well drilling derricks or rigs, but all of them can be placed in two classes — standard and portable. Under the standard are the bolted steel or wood and the nailed derrick. Steel derricks are not commonly used on account of their weight in moving and the difficulty of replacing new parts at distant 109 FIELD WORK points in the field. The bolted derrick (wooden) is more expensive in the beginning but there is less waste in tearing down and putting up. A bolted wooden derrick should be painted and the bolts kept well oiled. The nailed derrick is the same style as the wooden bolted derrick except that the legs, girts and braces are spiked together in erecting. Fig. 10— CLOSED RIG The lower part oj the derrick is enclosed to protect the machinery and work- men from cold or stormy 'feather. The average cost of tearing down and erecting a wooden derrick by a rig builder is $75.00 without the hauling. A portable derrick has been used to drill a well 3000 feet deep but they are most commonly used in drilling wells less than 1000 feet deep. The height of a standard derrick is from 74 feet to 84 feet. 110 FIELD WORK Fig.ll—STLEL DERKIlK 111 FIELD WORK DERRICK AND DRILLING OUTFIT 1 Nose Sill 2 Mud Sills 3 Mud Sills 4 Main Sill 5 Sub Sill 6 Sand Reel Sill 7 Bumper, Engine Block to Main Sill 8 Engine Block 9 Engine Mud Sills 10 Derrick Mud Sills 11 Derrick Floor Sills 12 Foundation Posts 13 Bull Wheel Posts 14 Bull Wheel vShaft 15 Bull Wheel,Brake Side 16 Bull Wheel, Tug Side 17 Calf Wheel Posts 18 Calf Wheel Shaft 19 Calf Wheel 20 Skeleton Rim for Calf Wheel 21 Sand Reel Reach 22 Band Wheel Shaft 23 Iron Tug Wheel for Calf Wheel 24 Back Jack Post Box 25 Tug Pulley 26 Band Wheel 27 Front Jack Post Box and Cap 28 Shaft, Crank, Wrist Pin and Flanges 29 Iron Sand Reel 30 Sand Reel Posts 31 Jack Post 32 Pitman 33 Sand Reel Lever 34 Sampson Post 35 Sampson Post Braces 36 Derrick Crane Post 37 Headache Post 38 Walking Beam 39 Jack Post Brace 40 Derrick Ladder 41 Derrick Cornice 42 Derrick Girts 43 Derrick Braces 44 Bull Wheel Cants 45 Bull Wheel Arms 9 Fig. 12 112 FIELD WORK WITH ALL PARTS NUMBERED 46 Calf Wheel Cants 47 Calf Wheel Arms 48 Belt 49 Adjuster Board 50 Derrick Floor 51 Bull Wheel Post Brace 52 Crown Pulley 53 Sand Pirnip Pulley 54 Casing Pulley 55 Sand Line 56 Drilling Cable 57 Casing Line 58 Bull Rope 59 Calf Rope 60 Temper Screw Eleva- tor Rope 61 Temper Screw Pulleys 62 Center Irons 63 Stirrup 64 Calf Wheel Gudgeons (not Visible) 65 Bull Wheel Gudgeons (not Visible) 66 Brake Band for W^heel 67 Brake Lever for Wheel 68 Brake Staple for Wheel 69 Sand Reel Hand Lever 70 Brake Lever and Staple for Calf Wheel 71 Brake Band for Calf W^heel 72 Telegraph Wheel 73 Derrick Crane with Chain Hoist and Swivel Wrench 75 Crown Block 76 Temper Screw 77 Rope Socket 78 Jars 79 Stem 80 Bit 81 Bailer or Sand Pump Fig. IS — {Continued) NOTE: Boiler and engine are not sho-a-n on this diagrai 113 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIAL REQUIRED BUILD A COMPLETE DOUBLE-TUG STANDARD RIG. NUMBERS REFER TO DRAWING ON PAGES 112 AND 113 Derrick 80 Feet High TO No. in Diagram No. of Pieces Name of Part Timbers: Oak, Beech Maple Size in Inches Length in Feet 4 2 3 1 5 9 8 6 10-11 7 34 31 39 35 37 13 51 17 30 38 75 27 30 33 32 75 69 14 18 Main Sill Mud Sills Mud Sills Nose Sill Sub Sill Engine Mud Sills Engine Pony Sills Engine Blocks Sand Reel Sill Derrick Sills Bumper (engine to mudsills) Derrick Blocking Dump Block Sampson Post Jack Post Jack Post Braces Sampson Post Braces Headache Post Bull Wheel Posts Bull Wheel Posts Brace Calf Wheel Post Sand Reel Post Walking Beam Keys Crown Block Jack Post Cap Knuckle Post Sand Reel Lever Pitman Tapered Sand Pulley Block Bull Wheel Spools Bull Wheel Spools Sand Reel Handle Octagon Bull Wheel Shaft . Octagon Calf Wheel vShaft| 18x18 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 12x14 8x20 12x14 9x10 6x 8 16x16 12x12 16x16 16x16 6x 8 6x 8 6x 8 12x14 6x 8 12x14 12x14 14x24 3x 5 5x14 5x14 5x14 9x11 5x5-5x12 2x12 2x 6 2x 4 2x 8 f 18x18' 16x16 18x18 \16xl6 32 16 20 8 18 14 12 10 12 21 24 16 8 16 12 16 14 16 10 14 10 6 26 16 14 10 12 20 20 16 8 14 114 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS DOUBLE-TUG RIG iCoutiuucd) No. in No. of Name of Part Size in Length • Diagram Pieces Pine or Hemlock Inches in Feet 41 30 Derrick Legs, etc • 2x 8 16 41 22 Derrick Legs, etc 2x10 16 6 6 Doublers 2x10 2x 8 20 Starting Legs 18 42 4 4 8 14 First Girts.. 2x12 2x10 2x 6 2x6 18 42 Second Girts. . . . 18 43 First Braces 20 43 Second Braces, etc 18 30 Floor and Walk 2x12 20 40 20 Ladders and Stringers 2x 4 16 8 Engine Honse Stringer 2x 4 12 26 72 Band Wheel and Girts 1x12 16 43 60 Braces Ix 6 16 4000 Feet Boards 1 16 1000 Feet Boards 1 14 28 If Rig is to be Full Doubled 2x 8 16 12 If Rig is to be Doubled Front and Rear only 2x 8 16 Outfit of Rig and Calf Irons, as follow: FOUNDRY IRONS Diagram No. 28 1 vShaft. Crank, Wrist Pin and Collar. 28 1 Pair Flanges with Keys and Bolts. 62 1 Set Center Irons with Bolts. 52 1 Crown Pulley. 53 1 Sand Line Pulley. 63 1 Walking Beam Stirrup. 65 1 Pair Bull Wheel Gud- geons with Bands and Bolts. Diagram No. 24 20 23 64 64 54 1 Jack Post Box. 1 90-inch Skeleton Rim for Calf Wheel. 1 Iron Tug Wheel for Calf Wheel. 1 16-inch Bowl Calf Wheel Gudgeon with Band and Bolts. 1 30- inch Flange Calf Wheel Gudgeon with Band and Bolts. 2 Casing Pullevs. Diagram No. BRAKE IRONS I Diagram No. 66 1 Brake Band for BuUWheel 67 1 Brake Lever for BullWhccl 68 IBrakeStaple for Bull Wheel 1 Back Brake for vSand Reel if Wood Reel. n 1 Brake Band for CalfWheel rO 1 Brake Lever for Calf Wheel rO IBrakeStaple for CalfWheel 115 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS— DOUBLE-TUG RIG {Continued) WOODWORK Diagram No. 26 1 Set Band Wheel Cants. 25 1 Set Double Tug Pulley Cants. 44-45 1 Set Double Tug Bull Wheel Cants, Arms and Handles. Diagram No. 46-47 1 Set Calf Wheel Cants, Arms and Handles. SAND REEL 29 1 Wood Sand Reel or 1 Iron Sand Reel with Lever and Straps. Diagram No. NAILS, BOLTS AND WASHERS 150 pounds lOd Nails. 150 pounds 20d Nails. 150 pounds 30d Nails. 4 ^:4x8-inch Machine Bolts. 8 ^^x9-inch Machine Bolts. 3 ^xlO-inch Machine Bolts. 10 ^xl2-inch Machine Bolts. 4 ^xl4-inch Machine Bolts. 4 ^xl6-inch Machine Bolts. 11 ^xlS-inch Machine Bolts. 6 3^x20-inch Machine Bolts. 2 3|x22-inch Machine Bolts. 4 Kxl2-inch D. E. Bolts with 2- inch Square Nuts. 6 Kx22-inch D. E- Bolts with 2- inch Squat e Nuts. 58 ^-inch Wrought Iron Washers 58 %-inch Cast Iron Washers. 10 y^-\nch Cast Iron Washeis. 1 piece 132-inch Pipe 18 inches long. Note — The above Bolts and Washers are in addition to those furnished with the Foundry Rig Irons. Estimated shipping weight of complete specifications as shown on this and two preceding pages, including rig irons and lumber, 78,000 pounds. 116 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO BUILD A CALIFORNIA RIG Derrick 82 Feet High ivith 20 Foot Base, Using Standdrd Rig Irons Name op Par' Oregon Pine Walking Beam Engine Block Main vSill Sub-Sill Sampson Post vSelect Bull Wheel Shaft. . . vSelect Calf Wheel Shaft. . . Mudsills Tail Sill and Post Nose Sill and Jack Post Cap Engine Mud Sills Casing Sills Jack Post Back Brake and Blocking . Bull Wheel and Calf Wheel Post Bumper Pony Sills Side Sills Derrick Sills, Casing Rack and Blocking Bunting Pole Dead Man Jack Post Braces Calf Wheel Brace Back Brake, Headache Post Sampson Post and Bull Wheel Braces CalfWheelandShortBraces Select Crown Blocks Knuckle Post Pitman and Swing Lever. . Band Wheel (surface 1 side) Derrick Foundation Floor, Walk and Girts Derrick Foundation and Girts Girts and Top of Derrick. . Girts Starting Legs and Belt House Sills Doublers Derrick Legs and to cut up Size in Length Total Inches in Feet Feet 12x12x12x26 26 676 22x22 9 363 16x16 30 640 16x16 20 427 16x16 16 341 16x16 14 299 16x16 6 128 14x14 16 1045 14x14 16 261 14x14 16 261 14x14 14 458 14x14 12 392 14x14 12 196 12x12 20 240 12x10 24 480 10x12 14 140 10x12 12 240 8x8 22 234 8x8 20 1177 6x6 26 78 6x6 20 60 6x6 18 108 6x6 16 48 6x6 14 210 4x6 16 160 5x16 16 214 5x16 12 80 5x5x5x14 12 140 2x12 20 560 2x12 20 2160 2x12 18 288 2x12 16 256 2x12 14 112 2x10 26 258 2x10 24 1120 2x10 16 540 ir FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS— CALIFORNIA RIG {Continued) No. of Pieces Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Inches Length in Feet Total Feet 12 4 Derrick Roof, Forge and Belt House Starting Legs. 2x8 2x8 2.x8 2x8 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x4 2x4 2x4 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x6 18 18 16 24 26 20 18 16 14 12 16 14 12 20 18 16 14 12 16 288 96 20 1 5 Derrick Legs and to cut up Bunting Pole to Jack Post Belt House 420 32 130 17 8 12 2 3 20 3 Braces Braces Braces and to cut up Engine House Engine House Ladders and to cut up Engine House. .. . 340 144 192 28 36 220 27 3 Engine House 24 30 75 Boarding up Boarding up 600 1350 146 50 60 60 Girts and Boarding up. . . . Engine House Siding and Boarding up Boarding up Braces and Ladders Strips Total Oregon Pine 2336 700 720 480 22,553 1 1 1 Hardwood Oak Top of Crown Block. . Oak Top of Crown Block. . Oak Top of Beam and Dog Total Hardwood 4x5 4x5 2x12 16 14 16 27 23 32 82 CANTS— SINGLE TUG 56 lx8-inch Plain for 10-foot Band 8 2^ 2x8-inch Plain for 7-foot Tug Wheel. Pulley. 8 23>^x8-inch Grooved for 8-foot 8 2i/2x8-inch Grooved for 7-foot Bull Wheel. Tug Pulley. 8 21 9x8-inch Plain for 8-foot Bull 16 lx8-inch Plain for 7-foot Tug Wheel. Pulley. 72 lx8-inch Plain for 8-foot Bull 32 lineal feet 13/2-inch O. P. Round Wheel. B.W. Handles. 8 2i^x8-inch Plain for 712-foot Calf Wheel. 40 lx8-inch Plain for 71^-foot Calf Wheel. 1 Hardwood Follower. 24 O. P. Rig Keys. 118 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS CALIFORNIA RIG (Conliuued) NAILS, BOLTvS, WASIIJvKS, KTC. 50 pounds 60d NaiLs. 16 ^xU-inch Bolts. 100 pounds 40d Nails. 14 »/4xl2-inch Bolts. 100 pounds 30d Nails. 8 ^4xlO-inch Bolts. 100 pounds 20d Nails. 5 Mx8-inch Bolts. 150 pounds lOd Nails. 4 ^ix26-inch D. E- Bolts. 2 =^4x38-inch Bolts. 2 34x32-inch Bolts. 1 piece lJ/2-inch Round Iron 16 1 =Ux30-inch Bolts. 1 =^4x24-inch Bolts. 2 ^4x22-inch Bolts. 4 ^4x20-inch Bolts. 12 Mxl8-inch Bolts. 20 ^xl6-inch Bolts. 1 Complete Set Bu inches long. 6 13^-inch Cast Iron Washers. 20 1-inch Cast Iron Washers. 25 1-inch Wrought Iron Washers. 125 •^4-inch Cast Iron Washers. 100 ^4-inch Wrought IronWashers 1 600-foot Coil Guy Wire. RIG IRONS 1 Complete Set Rig and Calf Wheel Irons. BRAKE IRONS I Wheel and Calf Wheel Brake Irons. SAND REEL Drum vSand Reel with Cast Iron or Steel 1 Single or Double I'langcs with Lever. SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO BUILD A CALIFORNIA COMBINATION STANDARD AND ROTARY RIG Derrick 102 Feet High ivith 22 Foot Base, Using Standard Rig Irons . No. of Pieces Name of Part Oregon Pine Mudsills Mud Sills Sampson Post Jack Post Tail Sill Sub Sill Main Sill Nose Sill and Back Brake Pony Sills Engine Blocks Walking Beam Calf Wheel Post Bull Wheel Post Jack Sills Size in Inches 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 16x16 14x14 14x14 22x22 14x14x30 12x12 12x12 14x14 Length in Feet 16 20 16 16 16 20 32 16 12 9 26 26 22 22 Total Feet 1365 853 341 341 341 427 683 261 392 726 910 312 264 719 119 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS— COMBINATION STANDARD AND ROTARY RIG {Continued) No. of Pieces Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Length Inches in Feet 12x12 13 6x8 30 6x8 16 6x8 10 6x6 16 4x6 20 4x6 16 4x6 14 3x12 18 3x12 16 2x12 16 2x12 22 2x12 20 2x8 24 6x6x16 14 6x6x16 12 2x6 26 2x6 24 2x6 22 2x6 20 2x6 14 2x6 12 2x4 12 1x8 16 1x8 20 1x12 16 1x12 14 1x12 20 1x12 24 12x12 24 10x10 22 8x8 20 2x10 26 2x10 18 2x10 16 2x12 24 2x12 22 2x12 20 2x12 18 2x12 16 2x12 14 Top Derrick Bunting Pole Headache Post Back Brake Sill Sampson Posts Braces Braces Braces Arms, Surface 4 sides Arms, Surface 4 sides Band Wheel, Surface 1 side Band Wheel, Surface 1 side Band Wheel, Surface 1 side Derrick Pitman Swing Lever Belt House Belt House Belt House Braces Engine House Engine House Engine House Derrick Belt House Engine House and Derrick. Engine House and Derrick. Belt House Belt House , Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick 120 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS COMBINATION STANDARD AND ROTARY RIG iContimicd) Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Inches Length in Feet Total Feet Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Derrick Doublers Doublers Doublers B. \V. ArmsS. 4S C. W. ArmsS. 4S Band Wheel S. IS Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Sway Braces Total Oregon Pine, feet. Redwood Corners Hardwood Bull Wheel Shaft, Oak Calf Wheel Shaft, Oak Crown Block, Oak Crown Block, Oak Crown Block, Oak Crown Block, Oak Crown Block and Post Total Hardwood, feet. . , 2x12 2x12 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x8 2x8 2x12 2x12 2x12 23^x10 23^x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x10 2x10 2x10 2x10 3x12 12 10 24 22 20 18 16 16 14 18 20 22 18 16 18 22 20 18 16 14 28 26 24 22 20 16x16 14 16x16 6 6x6 12 6x6 6 2x12 6 6x16 16 6x16 14 192 200 168 176 160 288 128 384 299 144 80 2464 150 80 144 176 160 144 128 112 373 693 320 293 28,251 960 299 128 72 18 12 128 224 881 121 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS— COMBINATION STANDARD AND ROTARY RIG (Contimied) NAILS, 100 pounds 60d Nails. 200 pounds 30d Nails. 200 pounds 20d Nails. 200 pounds lOd Nails. 2 s^xlO-inch Bolts. 22 34xl2-inch Bolts. 10 34xl4-inch Bolts. 20 34xl6-inch Bolts. 45 ^^xlS-inch Bolts. 6 3ix20-inch Bolts. BOLTS, WASHERS, ETC. 2 34x24-inch Bolts. 2 34x28-inch Bolts. 3 s^xSO-inch Bolts. 2 hx42-inch Bolts. -inch Cast Iron Washers. :4-inch Wrought IronWashers. 18 1 84 3. 24 1-inch Wrought Iron Washers 1 600-foot Coil 3 8-inch GuyWire CANTS— SINGLE AND DOUBLE TUG For specifications of cants see specifications for regular and heavy California rigs on preceding page. RIG IRONS One Complete Set Rig and Calf Wheel Irons. BRAKE IRONS 1 Complete Set Bull Wheel and Calf Wheel Brake Wheel. 1 Single or Double Drum Sand Reel Flanges with Lever. with Cast Iron or Steel Fig. 14— MOVING A DRILLING BOILER WITH OXEN BLUE CREEK FIELD {W. VA.) IN FIELD WORK Fig. 15— STEEL CROWN BLOCK Weight, 1200 lbs. 'F* ' . , I Bio— a-t ^.V„t.r Fig. lU—IlVDR.AULlC KO'F.ARY RIC 123 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO BUILD A CALIFORNLA. HEAVY RIG Derrick 82 Feet High with 20 Foot Base, Using Ideal Rig Irons No. of Pieces Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Length Inches in Feet 14x14x14x30 26 22x24 9 16x16 30 16x16 20 16x16 16 16x16 14 16x16 14 14x14 16 14x14 16 14x14 20 14x14 14 14x14 12 12x12 24 12x12 20 12x12 14 8x8 26 8x8 22 8x8 20 6x6 20 6x6 18 6x6 16 6x6 14 4x6 16 6x16 16 5x16 12 6x6x6x16 12 5x5x5x14 12 3x12 18 3x12 16 2x12 20 2x12 20 2x12 18 2x12 16 Select Beam Engine Block Main Sill Sub Sill Sampson Post Jack Post Select Bull Wheel Shaft. . . . Rig and Engine Mud Sills. . Tail Sill and Post Blocking Casing Sills Pony Sills and Nose Sill.. . . Bull and Calf Wheel Posts . Back Brake and Blocking... Biunper Bunting Pole Side Sills Derrick Sills and Casing Rack and Blocking Dead Men Jack Post Braces Calf Wheel Brace Back Brake, Headache Post, Sampson Post and Bull Wheel Braces Calf Wheel andShortBraces Select Crown Blocks Knuckle Post Select Pitman Select Swing Lever Select S. 4 S. to 2i/^xll-inch Bull Wheel Arms Select S. 4 S. to 2i.^xll-inch Calf Wheel Arms S. IS. Band Wheel Derrick Foundation Floor, Walk and Girts Derrick Foundation and Girts Girts and Top of Derrick . . 124 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS CALIFORNIA HEAVY RIG {Cant.) No. of Pieces Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Inches Length in Feet Total Feet 4 Girts 2x12 2x12 2x10 2x10 2x10 2x8 2x8 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x4 2x4 2x4 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x6 14 24 26 18 16 24 18 26 20 18 16 14 12 16 14 12 20 18 16 14 12 16 112 28 Doublers 1344 6 4 48 I 12 Starting Legs and Belt House Sills Short Starting Legs Derrick Legs and to cut up. Bunting Pole to Jack Post. Derrick Roof, Forge and Belt House 258 120 1296 32 288 5 Belt House 130 17 Braces 340 8 Braces 144 12 2 3 20 3 Braces and to cut up Engine House Engine House Ladders and to cut up Engine House. . . . 192 28 36 220 27 3 30 75 146 50 60 60 Engine House Boarding up Boarding up Girts and Boarding up Engine House Siding, Der- rick Roof and Boarding up Boarding up Braces and Ladder Strips... Total Oregon Pine. . 24 600 1350 2336 700 720 480 24 547 1 1 1 1 Hardwood Oak Calf Wheel Shaft Oak Top of Crown Block. . . Oak Top of Crown Block. . . Oak Top of Beams and Dog Total Hardwood 16x16 5x6 5x6 2x12 6 16 14 16 128 40 35 32 235 4 4 *Oregon Pine Girts Girts 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x8 2x8 2x8 2x8 18 16 14 20 22 20 18 16 144 128 4 2 8 8 8 8 Girts Girts Braces Braces Braces Braces 112 80 235 213 192 171 Total 1,275 'Note — If outside girts and braces are wanted, add the following. 125 FIELD WORK CANTS— DOUBLE TUGS 56 lx8-inch Plain for 10-foot Band Wheel. 16 21 i2x8-inch Grooved for 8-foot Bull Wheel. 8 21 9x8-inch Plain for 8-foot Bull Wheel. 80 lx8-inch Plain for 8-foot Bull Wheel. 8 2V9x8-inch Plain for T^-foot Calf Wheel. 40 lx8-inch Plain for 7} 9-foot Calf Wheel. 24 0. P. Rig Keys. 16 2i/^x8-inch Grooved for 7-foot Tug Pullev. 8 2i^x8-inch Plain for 7-foot Tug Pulley. 24 lx8-inch Plain for 7-foot Tug Pulley. 32 lineal feet iH-inch O. P. Round B. W. Handles. 1 Hardwood Follower. NAILS, BOLTS, WASHERS, ETC. 50 pound 100 pound 100 pound 100 pound 150 pound 2 3 9 4x42- 34x32- 1 3^x30- 34x30- 34x26- 34x24- 4x22- 4x20- 26 34XI8- s 60d Nails. s 40d Nails, s 30d Nails, s 20d Nails, s lOd Nails, inch Bolts, inch Bolts, inch Bolt, inch Bolt, inch Bolt, inch Bolt, inch Bolts, inch Bolts, inch Bolts. 12 ^4xl6-inch Bolts. 10 34xl4-inch Bolts. 25 34xl2-inch Bolts. 1 3.4xl0-inch Bolt. 2 ^4x8-inch Bolts. 4 Kx28-inch D. E- Bolts. 1 piece li/2-inch Round Iron, 16 inches long. 2 13/2-inch Cast Iron Washers. 20 1-inch Cast Iron Washers. 25 1-inch Wrought Iron Washers. 130 3^-inch Cast Iron Washers. 100 3^-inch Wrought Iron Washers. 1 600-foot Coil Guy Wire. IDEAL RIG IRONS 1 Complete Set 5- or 6-inch Ideal Rig and Sprocket Calf Wheel Irons. BRAKE IRONS 1 Set Bull Wheel and Calf Wheel Brake Irons. SAND REEL 1 Double Drum Sand Reel with Steel Flanges with Lever. 126 FIELD WORK SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO BUILD A CALIFORNIA ROTARY RIG Derrick 106 Feet High with 24 ^out Base Name of Part Oregon Pine Size in Inches Length in Feet Total Feet Engine Block Mud Sills Pony Sills Blocking Casing Sills Blocking Bumper Side Sills Derrick Sills Casing Sills and Blocking. . . . Dead Men Pump Foundation Select Crown Block Floor Girts and Doublers . . . . Girts Girts Girts Girts Derrick Foundation and Top. Derrick Foundation Starting Legs Starting Legs Derrick Legs Top of Derrick First Set Braces Second Set Braces Third vSet Braces Fourth Set Braces Fifth Set Braces Sixth vSet Braces Ladders and to cut up Boarding up Boarding up Boarding up Braces and Ladder Strips Total Oregon Pine. . Hardwood Oak Top of Crown Block Oak Top of Crown Block 22x24 14x14 14x14 14x14 14x14 12x12 12x12 10x10 8x8 8x8 6x6 6x6 6x16 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x12 2x10 2x10 2x10 2x10 2x8 2x8 2x8 2x6 2x6 2x6 2x4 1x12 1x12 1x12 1x6 5x6 5x6 9 16 12 20 24 20 14 26 24 20 20 18 16 24 22 20 18 16 20 18 26 18 16 18 24 22 20 20 18 16 16 24 20 16 16 396 522 392 327 784 240 168 434 1024 428 120 324 96 3456 352 160 288 128 920 432 172 120 1458 120 256 232 216 160 144 128 330 1200 1500 800 560 18.387 40 35 Total Hardwood ! i NAILS, ETC.— 1(H) pouiuis 4Ucl Nails. 100 pounds 30ci Nails, 100 pounds 20d Nails, 100 pounds lOd Nails, 2 — OOO-foot Coils Guy Wire. 127 FIELD WORK Fig. 17— POLE TOOL RIG (CANADIAN) 128 FIELD WORK Bull Wheel — The bull wheel is the large wheel on the derrick floor on which is coiled the manila or wire line used in drilling. The first American saw mills used the wheel to haul logs out of the water to the saw. It was first known as the "pull wheel," but from its strength the word was changed to "bull wheel". Bull Rope — The "Bull Rope" acts as a belt between the band wheel and the "bull wheel". It probably takes its name from the "bull wheel". It is generally made from a piece of the drilling cable of a two or two and one-half inch manila rope. Walking Beam — The walking beam is as old as pre- historic times. It was originally the "working beam " but the name was changed to "walking beam," probably through the peculiar motion resembling walking. It was used by the Eg>^ptians and was known as "Shadoof," a device for raising water from the Nile for irrigation pur- poses. In this country it is familiarly known as the "well sweep." The first steamships used it and caUed it the "walking beam." Fig. IS— MIDWAY FIELD. KERX COL'Ml. lALIFORMA 129 FIELD WORK 130 CO^NIPLETK "STRING" OF DRILLING TOOLS «c=:Cn31!3^3S3ffil^ "^ ill l^illil ^:*2 =„ = ! bs = oi FIELD WORK Drilling— Wells vary in depth from 200 feet to 7000 feet. Very shallow wells are from two to sixteen inches in diameter. Deep gas wells start with a ten inch hole, or larger, depending on the formation, and finish with a hole from four and seven-eighths inches to six and one-quarter inches in diameter. The hole is reduced in size from time to time as the drill proceeds, each reduction being after the casing is put in, after which the well is allowed to stand long enough to determine whether the hole has been cased dry or not. The casing should extend beyond the flow of water. Often a steel shoe is used on the bottom of dry pipe or casing. This makes the casing tight at the bottom and less apt to leak, but on the other hand, it is harder to pull the casing afterward. In event of the casing leaking after being set, wheat or rice can be put in on the outside of the casing and often- times will stop the leakage. Where there is no water directly beneath the gas vein, the well should be drilled about 25 feet deeper, thus forming a pocket for the accumulation of sand and cave-ins. Where there is water underneath the gas sand and the sand is shallow, do not drill over one screw into the sand. If the sand is deep, two or more screws are sufficient. DRIVE PIPE Nominal Nominal Number of Threads per Inch Outside Inside Diameter Thickness Inch Weight per Foot Diameter of Couplings Inches Pounds Inches 3 0.217 7.54 8 41^8 4 0.237 10.66 8 ^H 6 0.280 18.76 8 n-z 8 0.322 28.18 8 9H 8 0.363 32.00 8 9H 10 0.366 40.06 8 im 12 0.375 49.00 8 13f^ 14 0.375 58.00 8 16A FIELD WORK 132 FIELD WORK Fig. 22~P0RT ABLE DRILLING MACHINE Wood Conductor Pipe — This style of pipe is often used in place of iron drive pipe where the rock is not very far below the surface of the ground. It is cheaper than the regu- lar drive pipe and ser\^es its purpose fully as well in keeping the mud or clay from caving into the hole while drilling. =S7Tt>7t' ■^j$*.'>4^tfB MiHIMMIf M Fig. 23— WOOD CONDUCTOR Used in Lieu of Drive Pipe. Octagon, in Lengths of 16 Feet. 133 FIELD WORK SIZES OF CASING Nominal Outside Diameter Inches Nominal Number Outside Inside Weight of Diameter of Diameter per Foot Threads Couplings Inches Pounds per Inch Inches 2 2M 2.16 14 2.687 2^ 2^ 2.75 14 2.875 2H 2^ 3.04 14 3.187 2M 3 3.33 14 3.500 3 3M 3.96 14 3.781 3M 3^ 4.28 14 4.000 3H 3^ 4.60 14 4.250 3^ 4 5.47 14 4.625 4 43^ 5.85 14 4.687 4M 43^ 6.00 14 4.937 4M 43^ 9.00 14 4.937 4>i 4M 6.55 14 5.218 4^ 4M 9 00 14 5.218 4% 5 7.58 14 5.562 5 5M 8.00 14 5.781 5 5M 10.00 14 5.781 5 5M 13.00 113^ 5.781 5 5M 17.00 113^ 5.781 5A 53^ 8.40 14 6.062 5A 51^ 13.00 UK 6.062 5^ 6 10.16 14 6.062 m 6 12.00 113^^ 6.625 5^ 6 14.00 113^ 6.625 5^ 6 17.00 11^ 6.625 6M 6^ 11.50 14 7.125 6M 6^ 13.00 113^ 7.125 6M 6^ 17.00 113^ 7.125 6^ 7 12.45 14 7.687 65^ 7 17.00 10 7.687 7M 7^ 13.50 14 8.220 7^ 8 15.00 113^ 8.625 7% 8 20.00 113^ 8.625 8M 8^ 16.00 113^ 9.312 8M 8^ 20.00 113^ 9.312 8>i 8^ 24.00 8 9.312 8^ 9 17.50 113^ 9.750 9% 10 21.00 113^ 10.812 10^ 11 23.00 113^ 115/^ 12 25.15 113^ 123^ 13 35.75 113^ 133^ 14 42.02 113^ 143^ 15 47.66 113^ 1512 16 51.47 11^2 ! 134 FIELD WORK WEIGHT OF WATER IN PIPE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS IN LENGTHS OF ONE FOOT 62.425 POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT The following table will be found useful in computing the weight of water in a string of pipe or casing in a well. Diameter Water Diameter Water Diameter Water Inches Pounds Inches Pounds Inches Pounds 1 .3405 5 8.5119 1034 37.537 iVs .4309 5M 9.3844 11 41 . 198 IH .5320 5^ 10.299 113-2 45.028 IVs .6437 5^ 11.257 12 49.028 I'A .7661 6 12.257 1232 53.199 IVs .8997 6K 13 300 13 57.540 IH 1.0427 63^ 14.385 1332 62.052 iVs 1.1970 Q% 15.513 14 66.733 2 1.3619 7 16.683 15 76.607 2H 1.5375 7M 17.896 16 87.162 2K 1.7237 73^ 19.152 17 98.397 2^ 2.1280 m 20.450 18 110.31 2^ 2 . 5748 8 21 . 990 19 122.91 3 3.0643 8M 23.174 20 136.10 m 3.5963 83^ 24.599 21 150.15 33^ 4.1708 8M 26.068 22 164.79 3M 4.7879 9 27.579 23 180.11 4 5.4476 93^ 29.132 24 196.11 4M 6 . 1498 93^ 30.728 25 212.80 43^ 6.8946 934 32.366 26 230.16 m 7 . 6820 10 34.048 27 28 248.21 266 93 Water Pressure — The pressure of still water in pounds per square inch against the sides of any pipe or vessel of any shape is due alone to the head or height of the surface of the water above the point pressed upon, and is equal to 0.434 pounds per square inch for every foot of head, the fluid pressure being equal in all directions. For example: the pressure in pounds per square inch at the bottom of well tubing 1,000 feet deep and filled with water would be 0.434 X 1,000 = 434 pounds pressure. 135 FIELD WORK 136 FIELD WORK DEMONSTRATION OF MUD LADEN FLUID METHOD AS EMPLOYED TO CONSERVE THE NATURAL GAS RESOURCES IN DRILLING FOR OIL Extract from Technical Paper No. 68, Bureau of Mines. 1914 demonstration made in the Gushing (Okla.) field. vSuch enormous waste of an important natural resource indicates that the methods that were employed were faulty and that better methods, which shall at once be successful and practical, should be devised. For this purpose the Bureau of Mines proposed to investigate the possibilities of adapting the use of clay and water, which was devised for use with rotary rigs, and developed in Louisiana, Texas and California, to the dry-hole method of drilling practiced in Oklahoma. To accomplish this it was necessary to obtain the co-operation of well operators that a practical test and demonstration of the method might be made. DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE MUD-LADEN FLUID METHOD Demonstration at the Greis Well — The first well for demonstration was ofi'ered by Mr. Henry N. Greis, of Tulsa, Okla This well was in the's. Yi SB. '\i sec. 8, Tp. 17 N., R. 7 E. It had been drilled to a depth of about 1,700 feet on April 11, 1913, when gas from the Jones sand was en- countered unexpectedly. The gas was ignited from a forge on the derrick floor, and the fire destroyed the rig. After the rig was rebuilt, drilling was continued until May 2, w^hen it was stopped in black shale at a depth of 2,140 feet. The hole was then filled with mud- laden water, and was allowed to stand full of this fluid until Alay 5, when drilling was resumed. The Jones gas, which had been es- caping from the well, was successfully excluded from the bore hole by the fluid mud and gave no further trouble. 137 FIELD WORK The hole was found to be bridged at a depth of about 1,700 feet, where driUing had ceased because of the fire, the strata there having slacked from contact with clear water dur- ing the time required to rebuild the rig. In drilling out this bridge considerable difficulty was encountered from caving, but the drilling tools were on the bottom of the hole by May 7. The hole continued to cave at about 1,700 feet, and it was decided to insert 6/^-inch casing. A special casing shoe 6 feet 4 inches long was made, and the casing was placed on May 9. Drilling was resumed May 10. The casing was lowered as the hole was drilled, and on May 1 1 it was securely seated at a depth of 2,147 feet, directly on top of the Wheeler sand. On May 12 the hole was drilled 10 feet be- low the casing into the Wheeler sand. Bailing showed considerable gas, but the well was quiet and no gas es- caped. The bailer and tools brought out thick mud and drilling be- came slower. May 14 a small quantity of sand- stone was thrown into the well by the drilling contractor and drilled up, the tools going to the bottom of the hole and the bailer following to within 1 foot of the bot- tom, where it stuck. The ^'s- ^o sand line was parted in GAS WELL NEAR CORPUS CHRISTI ^^ effort in null fViP (1914) BEFORE THE GAS "BLEW ^^. ^^" ^^ P"^^ ^^^ OUT" AROUND THE CASING bailer loose. 138 FIELD WORK On May 15 the bailer was grabbed by a "latch jack," but the latch was jarred through the bail. On May 16 a bell socket was used, which brought up pieces of the bailer. At no time was any difficulty experienced in getting a hold. On May 19 the bell socket stripped off the mandrel and work stopped for a new fishing tool. The bell socket was recovered May 20 by means of a tubing spear. On May 21 drilling was resumed in an attempt to drill out the remainder of the bailer, about one-half having been removed by the bell socket. On May 22 the sand pump that had been used for removing the pieces of the bailer as they were drilled up became fast in the hole and could not be loosened. The fluid was bailed out of the hole, and by means of a latch jack a hold obtained on the sand pump, which was easily removed on May 26. The gas pressure cleansed the well of mud and the tools were started in to drill up the bailer in the dr}^ hole. Large pieces of steel were blown from the well by the gas, the flow of which increased gradually as the hole was deepened, until the tools would no longer drop with force enough to make hole. On May 28 the well was shut down and the flow of gas measured. The flow was more than 22.- 000,000 cubic feet a day. On May 31 the well was hlled with mud-laden fluid. A gate valve was Fig. 26~A BLOWOUT IN GOOSE , , CREEK FIELD (TEX.) pUlCCd OU tOp Of the 139 FIELD WORK 6^-inch casing and connected by means of a swage nipple to a double joint of 10-inch casing provided with a top gate valve. The casing was anchored to "dead men" buried below the derrick floor and was securely braced in the der- rick to avoid danger of its swinging so as to loosen the joints at the top of the well. In filling the well with fluid the lower gate valve was closed, the upper one opened, and the chamber between the valves was filled with the fluid; the upper valve was then closed and the lower valve opened. The pressure in the filling chamber being equalized, the mud-laden fluid, owing to its weight, fell to the bottom of the well, being replaced in the filling chamber by an equal volume of gas. By again closing the bottom valve and opening the top valve, the gas displaced by the fluid was released and the chamber was ready for a new charge. This operation was repeated until the column of fluid in the well was so high that its hydrostatic pressure exceeded the rock pressure of the gas. The rest of the well was then filled by pumping the fluid directly in. Drilling was resumed June 2 and a quantity of steel was removed from the well, some pieces exceeding 1 pound in weight. The tools dropped freely and broke up chunks of steel that were not broken by the tools when working in the dry hole with gas escaping. On June 6 the drilling contractor again threw a small quantity of soft sandstone into the well and the bailer stuck on the first run after the stone had been put in. All efforts to pull the bailer out by the sand line failed and the sand line broke. The fluid was bailed out of the hole and the bailer recovered on June 8 by means of a latch jack. When the bailer was loosened it was thrown to the top of the derrick by the gas that was liberated by the removal of the fluid. The well was then filled again with the fluid and drilling continued until June 12, when the derrick was rigged 140 FIELD WORK for casing. All 10-inch and 123^-inch casing were pulled on June 13, the surface casing and the 8-irch and the 6''^-inch casing being left in. On June 14, 2,177 feet of Oi^-inch casing with a lead shoe on the bottom was seated in the well and the mud-laden fluid bailed out. The lead shoe and casing proved tight against the pressure of the column of fluid on the outside, which stood to the top of the 6^-lnch casing. Drilling was resumed and 22 feet of hole was made in adv^ance of the casing. This hole struck a second gas sand, and the well was shut in and again filled with the fluid on June 17. The 5A-inch casing was withdrawn on June 18. The hole was then reamed from 2,177 to 2,198 feet and the or^-inch casing was reset June 20 with a 5i^-inch by QH inch conical sleeve packer, carr}^ing 26 inches of rubber on the bottom. The fluid was bailed out and the casing found to be tight, the w^ell was quiet, and no gas was escaping. Drilling was resumed June 21. Oil was encountered the next day, and on June 23 was spraying into a tank with a fine showing for a large production. During the first 24 hours after the oil started to flow^ into the tank the gaged flow w^as 60 barrels, and on June 25 drilling was discontinued. Results Obtained by the Test — This demonstration of the well-drilling method proposed by the Bureau of Alines proved the following points: 1. The escape of gas from a w^ell during drilling can be controlled, and formations can be sealed so as to prevent the further escape and waste of gas. 2. The sealed formations may be reopened at any time by removing the fluid from the well, the pressure of the gas cleansing out the mud so that the yield will not be affected. 3. By sealing off gas with mud-laden fluid it is possible to drill entirely through a gas-bearing sand without wasting gas. 141 FIELD WORK 4. A record of the gas bearing formations can be ob- tained with an accuracy that is impossible with the "dry- hole" method of drilling, for the reason that on drilling a hole "dry" the gas blows all the finer drill cuttings from the well and only occasionally are fragments found that are large enough to show the character of the formation pene- trated. The following record indicates the character of the formations penetrated during the demonstration, the terms "sand" and "lime" are those recorded by the driller, the samples not having been examined by a geologist: RECORD OF WELL FROM TOP OF WHEELER SAND TO OIL SAND Material Estimated Depth Thick- ness Kind volimie per day of gas flow Feet 2,140 to 2,147 Feet 7 26 6 2 5 5 8 14 12 Black shale Cubic Feet 2,147 to 2,173 2,173 to 2,179 Blue-gray lime (gas) Gray sand 22.000,000 2,179 to 2,181 Brown Sand 2,181 to 2,186 Blue shale . 2,186 to 2,191 Black shale 2,191 to 2,199 2,199 to 2,213 2,213 to 2,225 Gray lime (gas) Gray sand (gas) Gray sand (oil) 5,000,000 300,000 The time spent in the dift'erent operations at this well was as follows: May 2, 1913, started demonstration. June 25, 1913, completed demonstration, with well producing oil. Days Drilling, 8 days with double tours, 11 days with single tours. ... 19 Fishing and shutdowns 17 Drilling on lost bailer and removing bits of steel 8 Casing 5 Rigging up and filling well with mud-laden fluid 5 Total elapsed time 54 142 FIELD WORK Core Drill — It is very unusual to find the Core Drill out- fit at work in any gas field. While this system of drilling is commonly used for drilling wells for elevator plungers and for geological tests, it is seldom used in drilling for gas. It is a rotary system for use in Paleozoic formations, differing greatly, however, from the rotary employed in the Louisiana and Texas fields, where the formation is Cre- taceous. The actual cutting is done by a tube or casting, with about a one-half inch surface or face, revolving on top of what is called "steel shot." The "steel shot" simply consists of small pieces of chilled steel, rather rough in shape, and averaging about the size of B. B. shot. Above the bit, or cutter, is the reducing plug, connecting same with a calix. The calix is connected with the tubing, which is tw^o- or three-inch and runs to above the derrick floor through rotary driving apparatus. A stream of water is pumped into the tubing, carr>4ng with it the chilled shot as required and depositing the shot under the bit or cutter. This method cuts a core which is taken out in pieces varying from a few inches to fourteen feet in length. The great advantage of this system is that it shows the geological formation from the surface to the bottom of the well. After the water passes in and around the bit or cutter, it flows upward, carrying with it the silt or drilling which is deposited in the top of the calix. The tendency of the bit drill is to drill a perfectly smooth hole, thereby enabling the packer to set without chance of leaking. Breaking off the core is done with the aid of the circular bit, which is slightly tapered towards the top, and by placing gravel in the stream of water, which is pumped into the tubing. When the driller has cut sufficient core to pull out, instead of placing the shot in the stream of water pumped into the tubing, gravel is used. The gravel is deposited around the inside of the tapered drill. This gravel becomes wedged between the core and the bit and during the process 143 FIELD WORK 144 FIELD WORK of revolving, practically twists the core off at the bottom, after which, the tubing and the bit are pulled out, the calix is emptied of its drillings and the core taken out of the bit. The sides of this core are practically smooth ; in fact they remind one of a marble column. This method is spoken of as the "core drilling system without the use of diamonds." The derrick used is of special make, being 125 feet high and of bolted tubing. The well is started, before striking the rock, by placing a shoe and drive head, and revolving the same as a regular drill, using the water system until solid rock is reached. It has been possible to drill a little over 100 feet in one tower while drilling in comparatively soft rock. While this method seems rather expensive to a practical gas man, it is of great advantage to be able to see the rock formation at different depths and to know exactly where each portion of the core came from. In drilling for gas by the common standard method, one is merely able to examine the drillings and can only guess within four or live feet of the exact depth from which they came. With this method the driller looks to his cable for measurement. With 1000 or 1500 feet of cable in the hole, the stretch w^ill amount to considerable. A steel measuring line can be used showing the depth or location of the sand more accurately. Of course in shooting the well, pieces of rock of sufficient size to enable one to make a very careful examination may be blown out. But this does not determine the exact depth from which they came. Drilling Gas Wells in Lake Erie — During the past few years a prohtable gas Held has been located along the north shore of Lake Erie in the vicinity of vSelkirk, Dunneville and Port Maitland, Ontario The hrst wells were drilled but a short distance from shore, where the depth was not over one or two feet and the operations could be carried on at any 145 FIELD WORK time of the year. Gradually the locations were made further from the water's edge, until finally one well was drilled by the North Shore Gas Company through the ice one-half mile from shore. These wells have proved to be of medium size, with a rock pressure ranging about two hundred pounds to the square inch. The gas comes from the Medina gas sand at a depth of about nine hundred feet, and is of excellent quality. No tubing is used, but the wells are cased off with 5/^-inch casing to nearly the full depth, or just above the gas sand. At the top of the casing is placed a 5^ 8-inch to 2-inch re- ducing cap through which is hung a ^^-inch water siphon reaching to the bottom of the hole. The siphon takes care of any water that might come m the hole below the casing. The wells are "blown off" regularly, same as with those located on land, the employee being obliged to use a boat in summer, while in winter he travels over the ice to the differ- ent wells. Concrete piers are built around the wells to protect them from the ice in the spring and the waves during severe storms. Leases on lake land are obtained from the Government, to which a royalty is paid of one-half cent per thousand cubic feet of gas taken from the wells. The land is divided into 146 Fig. 28— GAS WELL IN LAKE ERIE Located about one -half mile from shore in twelve feel of water. Concrete pier is hardly visible above water level. Note lead line from well just level with water. FIELD WORK ])locks from two to three hundred feet square and all wells driUed must be located in the lake beyond the low water mark. The well lead lines run onto the land where a drip takes care of the moisture in the gas. Here it is metered through large capacity meters and sold to pipe line companies. In January of 1912 the Lake Shore Gas Co. of Selkirk, Ont., made a location about one-half mile from shore, upon the ice where it was thought the water w^as not more than three or four feet deep. Through miscal- culation the depth proved to be twelve feet. As the winter proved to be a verv" cold one the drilling w^as carried on successfully, and w^as completed just before the spring thaw. All timbers for the rig were moved to the location the same as on land. A standard rig was used with coal for fuel under the boiler. Onlv necessar\" tools were drawn to location. The boiler was set with blocks under the stack end and the fire box end was set on a twenty-foot joint of eight-inch casing. The rig was guyed with wires to stakes driven through the ice. The depth of the water was not determined till spudding was started. The heat of the boiler soon melted the ice under the lire box but not under the stack end. The ashes dropped through 147 I-ig.29—CAS WELL IX LAKE ERIE Located near shore where the water is but two or or three feet deep. Note the concrete pier with sloping side toward direction of prevailing waves. FIELD WORK Fig. 30— PUTTING OUT A BURNING WELL IN THE CANEY FIELD BY USE OF A HOOD AND LEAD LINE TO CARRY GAS TO ONE SIDE FROM WELL the hole in the ice into the lake. The joint of eight-inch casing proved to be an absolute necessity in preventing the boiler dropping into the water. The derrick timbers were not im- bedded in the ice but placed on top and proved to be suffi- ciently rigid in drilling. The drilling progressed rapidly in calm weather. During severe storms operations were stopped because of the liability of freezing pipes and danger of the derrick being blown over. These shut-downs were necessary to allow the water around the boiler fire-box to freeze, as with contmued fire under the boiler the ice kept melting further away until both the boiler and joint of casing threatened to drop into the lake. The well was completed late in February and the boiler and derrick were moved off" the ice under severe conditions, as the spring thaw had set in. Several times the teams hauling the material broke through the ice, but with all the hardships experienced none of the outfit was lost. 148 FIELD WORK Fig. 31— SAME WELL AS LU,.in. \ I lAV SI[i)\\l\A, MAST ERECTED OX CAR AXD RUN OX TRACK UP TO A POIXT WHERE HOOD COULD BE LOWERED OVER BURXIXG WELL This particular well was drilled to a depth of 920 feet and showed a flow of 500,000 cubic feet per day. As soon as drilling was finished and before the derrick was removed from the location, the construction of the con- crete pier was started. This required the building of cribbing around the well to keep out the water while the cement was setting. The pier is built with a sloping side facing the direction of the prevailing waves. A two-inch lead line was laid on top of the ice from well to land and dropped through the ice to the bottom of the lake. Well Record — A complete and accurate record or log of the well while drilling should be kept by either the contractor or the field man. All formations and known sands should be shown with their proper names. The depth of finding oil, gas, or water, and a statement of the thickness of the sands, with an opinion of the quality of the sand, should be included in the report. 149 FIELD WORK i I Shooting — Shooting consists of exploding a charge of nitroglycerin in the well on a level with the gas vein, the object being to fracture the gas-bearing rock to nf% allow a freer movement of the gas from the gas g? sand to the well proper. ?:? During the process of drilling, accurate y^J' measurements should be taken with a steel ^ measuring line, showing the depth of the sand, p the thickness of same, and the amount of pocket ^J: below the sand. If the sand is hard and the well 1'' is under 1,000,- rp. 000 cu. ft. capa- ^;! city per day, V? eighty quarts of ^ nitroglycerin is -d^.^ the proper shot, > and for soft sand IS with the same :^j size flow, forty ^^ quarts. In wells 5ji of larger flow % than 1,000,000 ^ cu. ft. per day, § it is not ad- f visable to shoot on account of the danger in yj lowering the shell into the well. The shot should ^ be placed on top of the proper amount of tin tubing vk anchorage, the length of the latter being deter- v| mined by the log of the well previously taken. The main body of the shot should rest opposite the sand where there is no w^ater vein directly underneath the sand, one shell should be placed below the bottom of the sand to enlarge Fig. 32 the pocket for the accumulations of cave-ins, sand etc. T Fig. 3SSTEEL LINE FOR MEA.SUR- ING DEPTH OF WELL Note brake lever hanging from shaft, also weight which keeps line taut while in use and assists in finding bottom. 4 150 FIELD WORK In shooting a gas well, the operator should be well versed as to the character of the sand, as some gas wells are liable to be ruined by shooting. Nitroglycerin — Nitroglycerin is a heavy, oily, explo- sive liquid Cy H5 (No3)3. The color varies from water white to amber, obtained by treating glycerine with a mix- ture of nitric and sulphuric acids. It produces by detonation Fig. 34— A NITROGLYCERIX MOTOR TRLCK about fourteen thousand times its own volume of gas. Compared with gunpowder it is eight times as powerful weight for weight, or thirteen times as powerful, volume for volume. It is shipped in ten quart cans and transported from factory to field by wagon or automobile. Nitroglycerin freezes at about 55 degrees fahr. and must be thawed before lowering into the well for shooting. 151 FIELD WORK It is a very dangerous explosive to handle as it requires due care and skill to prevent a premature explosion. After shooting, the empty cans should be exploded at a safe distance either by use of a fuse and a percussion cap or by shooting at them with a rifle. Solidified Nitroglycerin — This explosive is made by putting nitroglycerin through a process whereby its nature is changed from liquid to a gelatinous substance about the consistency of soft putty, but more rubber like. It is four per cent more powerful than liquid nitroglycerin, weight for weight It is somewhat insensitive as compared to the liquid, —this being necessary to have it comply with the Interstate Commerce Commission regulations. The color varies with the color of the nitroglycerin used in its manufacture. Solidified nitroglycerin is put up in roimd sticks, wrapped with paper similar to dynamite, and is packed in small boxes. It can be shipped by freight to point of destination. This is a great advantage over the liquid nitroglycerin as it eliminates the necessity of hauling it by team across country, which is a hazardous operation especially in season when the roads are rough. When loading, the sticks of solidified nitro- glycerin are broken by hand and packed into the shell by the aid of a wooden stick. See figures number 36 and 37. In shooting, the shells must be placed in the hole one above the other, that is, with no anchor- age in between, othenvise the entire shot might not explode. Fig. 35 After the loaded shells are placed in the hole, the firing is done by dropping a "jack squib" with a lighted fuse attached to the percussion cap in the interior of the squib. The "jack squib" is filled with solidified nitroglycerin. 152 FIELD WORK Torpedo -- This con- sists of a tin shell or tube a few inches in diameter ac- cording to the size of the well to be shot and in lengths of from two to ten feet. The end of the shell carries a small tin tube soldered on to the point to fit over the top of the an- chorage or shell below. The top shell carries a tiring Fig. 36]— PREFARIXG SOLIDIFIED XITROGLYCERIN TO LOAD IX- TO SHELL FOR SHOOTING GAS WELL Fis- 37 — LOADING A SHELL WITH SOLIDIFIED XITROGLYCERIX head under which is placed a percussion cap. The fiat round plate on top of the firing head prevents the go-devil from passing by without firing the percus- sion cap. This flat plate is quite necessary where there is plenty of water in the hole which would greatly decrease the speed and force of the go-devil in its downward course. 153 FIELD WORK Shot Anchor — Figure 39 shows the anchorage used below the filled shells of nitroglycerin or solid- ified nitroglycerin. It consists of a tin tube of about two inches in diameter with a pointed end at the bottom and the top end made to fit over a tube of like diameter at the bottom, of the bottom shell. Go-Devil — This consists of a three edged elongated piece of cast iron, pointed at one end. It weighs about twenty pounds and is made of cast iron so that it will be entirely broken up at the instant of exploding the v shot and not come out of the hole in large Pig- ss pieces or clog in the hole. After placing the loaded shells in the hole at the proper place the go-devil is dropped and explodes the shot. Fig. 39 Jack Squib — This is used to explode the shot in the hole. It consists of a small tin tube pointed at one end and filled with solidified nitroglycerin or dynamite with a fuse and percussion cap within the interior. Before dropping in the hole the end of the fuse is lighted. The fuse is long enough so that the squib will not explode before reaching the position of the loaded shells in the hole. It is used in firing solidified nitroglycerin shots. Fig. 40 Cleaning Out — After shooting and before cleaning out, the well should be allowed to stand over night to allow for the caving in of the sand loosened by the shot. The well should be thoroughly cleaned out until the steel measuring line can be run to the full depth of the well prior to the shot. 154 FIELD WORK Fig. 41— ANCHOR RODS OR CLAMP Used in anchoring the hibing to the casing or drive pipe. This, with the assistance of the weight of the tubing in the well, keeps the gas under control, and in addition, expands the rubber packer, thereby preventing the leakage of gas around it from the portion of the well below the packer. Fig. 4^— PERFORATED PIPE OR TUBING Placed in the string of tubing opposite the gas sand. The holes are }4-inch and drilled on four sides of the pipe about one foot apart for the full joint length. 155 FIELD WORK Tubing and Packer — The gas conductor or tubing of a gas well is made of extra heavy pipe of from two to four inches in diameter, the size being selected according to the flow of the well. Some gas men believe that it is policy to use as small a tubing down to 2-inch, as is possible, even though it be necessary to "pull in" the first few joints when starting to tube the well. The idea of this is that it is easier to get water out of the well and, not being able to drain the w^ell as quickly of the gas, the life of the well would be longer. A packer consists of a steel plunger with a rubber ring fitting close to the walls of the well, the rubber being ten to twenty inches in length. An anchor packer has the tubing connection or thread on the top and bottom, while the disc wall packer has tubing connection on top only, the rubber being sup- plemented with a set of jaws work- ing over a cone and held in place by a spring and a cast iron disc. If the packer is an anchor packer, it is placed a few joints off the bottom of the tubing and is anchored in place, after the tubing rests on the bottom of the well, by the weight of the tubing on top of the packer with the assistance of anchor irons and rods pulling the tubing downward on the surface. The amount of tubing underneath the packer is dependent upon the height of the sand above the bottom of 156 Fig. 43— DISC WALL PACKER FIELD WORK the well and the location of the hard strata in which it is desired to set the packer above the gas sand. The joint of tubing which would come opposite the gas sand is perforated with 34-inch holes drilled through the pipe the full length of the joint, with about a foot space between perforations The disc wall packer is set on the bottom of the first joint of tubing that is let into the well. When the packer reaches the proper distance or opposite the location desired to set the packer, a short piece of pipe — J^-inch pipe preferred — is dropped through the tubing. This breaks the disc in the packer, thereby releasing the spring and jaws, after which the packer will sup- port the tubing without use of elevators and the tubing can be anchored down on the surface without liability of packer dropping. The disc wall packer can be pulled out of the well and a new disc in- serted in the packer if it is desired to lower the packer below its first location or to use the packer again in another well. It is a good idea to use a 3-foot nipple and collar just above the packer in the string of tubing with a right and left hand thread, so if at any time in the future it is desired to pull the tubing and the packer has become stuck, the whole string of tubing can be turned at the left hand thread and pulled. In event of the packer leaking after being anchored and the well is shut in, blow^ off well and put in one-half bushel of wheat and four or five pounds of shot on top of the wheat. The shot will weigh down the wheat and assist in making the Fig. 44 — Sectional View of Gas Well with 3-in. Tubing and % Siphon. Water 15< FIELD WORK i^^' packer tight. If there is no water on top of the packer, put in two or three barrels of water. After being allowed to stand two or three hours, the well can be shut in to determine the effectiveness of the operation. All tubing should be painted before placing in the well, not forgetting tong marks after it is set up. In wells of 10,000,000 cubic feet daily capacity and larger, where a long string of casing has been used and the pressure does not exceed 300 pounds to the square inch, the casing itself may be used as tubing. When a gas well is overhauled (i. e., the casing, tubing, and water pipe are pulled and renewed), it is good policy to test the well before and after the work. Often an old gas well, whose flow and rock pressure have dropped, can be shot to advantage. This requires the pulling of the tubing and water pipe prior to shooting. It is advisable to shoot the well with at least 100 feet of water on top of the shot. Dry shooting is less Fi,.4o-CAPPING A LARGE GAS WELL ^^^Ctive OU the Saud IN THE CANEY FIELD {1907) thoUgh mOrC SpCCtaC- Open Flow Capacity of Well. 80,000,000 ulSLT. 158 FIELD WORK TUBING Nominal Nominal Number Outside Inside Thickness Weight of Diameter of Diameter Inch per Foot Threads Couplings Inches Pounds per Inch Inches 1 .134 1.67 IIH 1.687 iH .140 2.24 113^ 2.062 Wi .145 2.68 113^ 2.375 2 .154 4.00 113/2 2.937 2 patent .174 4.50 11^ 2.937 23^2 .204 5.74 113^ 3.5 3 .217 7.54 11^ 4.062 3H .226 9.90 113^ and 8 4.687 4 .237 10.66 10 and 8 5.187 6 .280 18.76 8 7.343 Elevators — These are used for letting in and pulling out, drive pipe, casing, tubing, and water pipe. The size shown in Fig. 46 is for 2-inch tubing. In using elevators always see that both elevator links are caught in the tackle block hook. Dry Holes — In the event of drilling a dry hole and striking the gas or oil sand, it is very essential to plug the hole just above the sand with either a rubber or wooden plug. If wood is used, dry pine is the best, as it will swell soon after being immersed in the water in the bottom of the hole and make a perfectly tight fit. FIk- 4'J—l^l-i^yATORS 159 FIELD WORK 160 FIELD WORK \/ \r().\ i m^ ^^^B*' H^^l^'^'9 Fig. WOOD DRY HOLE PLUGS "rr^fiM^ Well Connections Afar a new gas well has been shut in and anchored it should be blown off a day or two later and the anchor rods re-tightened. In connecting up a "tubing blow-off" on a gas well, the blow-off should point at right angles from the tubing with no angles between the blow-off opening and the tubing. Otherwise the reaction of the gas issuing from the blow-off will tend to force the blow-off connection around and may result in a serious accident. Water Propositions — With gas wells of medium size making water, use a 54-inch "siphon" or water line hanging from the top inside of the tubing and with a "blow-off" on the top end. The bottom of the "siphon" should be plugged and hung one foot from the bottom of the well. Perforate the joint of pipe opposite the main gas sand with 3^-inch holes, drill through both sides of the pipe and space one foot apart. If blown often, this method keeps the water out of the well. Where there is no "floating sand" in the well, the same method can be installed with 1-inch working barrel and anchorage on bottom of ^^-inch, using the ^^-inch as a sucker rod as well as a conductor for the water. The top of the Q / . 1 111 1 1 1 ^'g- -^•'' — ^(^^ Well "shut in" rt-ii>l\ ^-mch should work through a to conned wUh main line 161 FIELD WORK stuffing box on the top of the tubing with a small walking beam and gearing, using a horse for power, or a two to four h. p. gas engine. Fig. 50— PUMPING POWER FOR PUMPIXG OIL WELLS OR WATER FROM GAS WELLS In equipping gas wells with 3^-inch water pumping outfits where the size of tubing is over 3-inch, a cast iron 162 FIELD WORK spider can be used on every second or third joint. The spider fits loosely in the tubing and is made to slip over the 54-inch, but not large enough to slip by a ^^-inch collar. This method prevents the ^-inch from weaving while pumping. There are special made gas pumps which can be used in connection with this ^ 4-inch without wasting any gas. With the blowing out method, water can be raised through a ^.^-inch "siphon" from a depth of 1200 feet with a 75-pound gas pressure, and from a depth of 1500 feet with 125-pound gas pressure. Cement will not set in a heavy mineral water in a gas well. A small gas well cannot be properly "blown ofT" and cleaned of water where casing is used in place of tubing. Fig. 51—PUMPIXG HEAD Pumping Powers — The pumping power is adapted for pumping small oil wells in isolated localities. It is also used extensively for pumping water from gas wells down to a depth of 3,500 feet by using the ^4- inch water line for both tubing and sucker rods. With a friction drum at- tached to the power, it is possible to pull the tubing and sucker rods from wells 2,600 feet in depth. With a larger pulley on the engine shaft, which will increase the speed, the drum may also be used for bailing. Pumping Heads — Pumping heads are clamped to the tubing and are used for pumping water from gas wells, using either gas, air or steam under pressure for power. The water 163 FIELD WORK is pumped through a S/^'-inch Hne same as with a pump- ing power. The heads for steam are 12 inches in dia- meter, 34 inches long, with a 30-inch stroke; for air and gas they are 12 inches in diameter, 36 inches long, with a 32-inch stroke. Heads can be operated on pressures ranging from 40 lb. to 400 lb., and will pump wells any depth down to 2600 feet. Capping — This operation merely consists of placing a gate on the tubing or casing and "shutting in" the well. If, in drilHng a gas well, a volume greater than 35,000,000 cubic feet daily capacity is anticipated, and the conditions of the well are fav^orable for casing to be used in place of tubing, screw a gate on the casing and reduce the size of the drill or bit just before drilling into the gas vein. If reducing the size of the bit is objectionable, use a swedge nipple and a gate one size larger than the casing. Gas Well Drip — A gas well should not be connected with- out using a drip near the well, whether the gas be absolutely dry or not. This drip should be placed from three to four joints of pipe distant from the well. The length of the lead and tail of the drip is dependent entirely upon the amount of water in the well. For a 2-inch or 3-inch lead line use 6-inch pipe in the drip. For a 4-inch lead line use 8-inch pipe in the drip, and for a 6-inch lead line use 10-inch pipe in the drip. A stop cock should never be used on the blow-off of the drip. 164 FIELD WORK Fig. 52 — Gas Pump for Pumping Water from Gas Well through ^i-inch Pipe, using the %-inch as a Sucker Rod and Tubing for Water Discharge Combined. TO WELL Blow off. Fig. 53— GAS WELL DRIP 165 FIELD WORK Gas Well Lead Lines — A gas well lead line is a pipe line connecting the well with the main line. Where there is liability of the pressure in the field line or main line exceeding the pressure on the gas well, a check valve should be placed on the lead Hne. Stopcocks should not be used on gas well lead lines. Care of Gas Wells — After a gas well has been completed and it is desired to move the derrick, a "three-pole derrick" or "gin poles" can be erected, or a single mast or gin pole can be used in case of emergency, for pulling tubing or water pipe. Fig. 55 — Walking Beam Method of Pumping Water from, a Gas Well. Power is furnished by S h. p. gas engine and the water is pumped through the ^-inch siphon. The ^-inch pipe is used as a sucker rod and tubing. Fig. 54— CAS WELL DRIP 166 FIELD WORK The common method of expeUing water from the well by blowing the gas into the atmosphere is an extravagant waste of gas. Wherever it is possible, the Ji^-inch siphon water line with pump attachment should be used. A gas well cannot be blown off and cleared of water where casing is used in place of tubing. In the event of a gas well constructed with a ^-inch siphon becoming flooded, the siphon can be pulled a few joints and the well shut in; then, after an accumulation of pressure, an attempt can be made to raise the water. If the ^-inch pipe, when opened, does not make a showing of water, it should be pulled one or two points more and the process repeated until the level of the water in the well is determined. After each attempt to raise the water, the well should be capped and allowed to stand long enough to permit the gas pressure to raise to at least 50 lb. After the well begins to throw water and the water level is lowered to the bottom of the ^^-inch pipe, the pipe should be lowered half a joint and the operation re- peated until the full length of the 54-inch pipe is back in the well. This method will often save the expense of erecting a derrick and bailing. When a gas sand becomes coated with paraffine or salt the only sure method of clean- ing out the well is by the "steaming process." This merely consists of turning live steam at about 125 lb. pres- sure, into the 3_^'-inch siphon and up through the tubing into the atmosphere. The boiler should be placed on the windward side and about two hundred feet from the well. Fig. 56— EXTRA HEAVY SWING CHECK VALVE 167 FIELD WORK It is policy to "blow off" gas wells of medium size, especially those making water, in summer as well as in winter, even though the well be closed in, except where pumping apparatus has been installed to free the well of water. It is not necessary to blow a well as often in summer when the well is shut in as it is in the winter or when feeding into the line. In the event of a leak developing in the tubing of a gas well, the tubing should be pulled and tested under pressure on the ground. Salt Water Propositions — Where gas wells are troubled with salt, which frequently clogs the tubing to such an extent that gas cannot pass through it, it becomes necessary to dissolve the salt, which is done by pouring water down the well. To admit fresh water, a "swaged water jug" which is made of a piece of 6/^-inch casing about three feet long, swagged at both ends to two inches is used. This is screwed into the top of the tubing, and holds about four and one half gallons of water. A bailing machine is then placed in position to agitate the fresh water in the tubing in order to dissolve the salt and bail it from the well. It often happens that ten or fifteen joints of tubing, aggregating 200 to 300 feet, will fill up solid with salt. When fresh water fails to dissolve the salt, it becomes necessary to pull the tubing and to "shoot" the well; that is the sand in the bottom of the hole. Usually from 20 to 60 quarts of nitro-glycerin are used, depending upon the thick- ness of the sand. The well is then cleaned, re-tubed and treated with fresh water. From 30 to 100 gallons of fresh water is con- sidered a "dose" and is allowed to remain from twenty to twenty -four hours on the salt before blowing out. This has 168 FIELD WORK the effect of dissolving the salt and washing the gas sand. It requires extreme care in handling to prevent the well clogging and being ruined. In certain localities where the gas is found in the Clinton sand it is found necessary to "water" a well twice weekly, and then it is only possible to keep them in commission about half the time, while others only require attention once or twice a month. Fig.dr—WATKRIXG A GAS WELL FIELD WORK wm^mfP^mf.3 170 FIELD WORK 171 FIELD WORK The Clinton Sand which extends from Hocking County on the south to Lake Erie on the north, is not only one of the most prolific gas sands ever developed, but probably contains more salt than any other field. This field is different from many others in that it contains but one paying gas formation. Use of Abandoned Gas Wells — Many times gas wells are abandoned even though they can supply enough gas for a few consumers. It is often profitable for land owners, where gas wells are abandoned on their property, to purchase from the gas company abandoning the weU, the drive pipe casing, and tubing, in order that it may be left in the well, thereby furnishing enough gas for one or more consumers. Sometimes after w^ells are abandoned and become filled with water, gas continues to bubble through the water. To save this construct a large galvanized iron drum and place over the well. The drum should be set in a water filled pit surrounding the well with guide posts, the same as a gas holder to allow the drum or tank to raise with increasing volume of gas. Connection can be made with the top of tlie drum by a one-inch rubber hose to an iron pipe leading to the consumer's house. This method will always insure a low pressure, as too much pressure will cause the drum to raise until the gas breaks the water seal and escapes into the atmosphere. To increase the pressure, place a weight on top of the drum. It must be borne in mind that while the leaking gas from an abandoned well might not run a stove or furnish enough gas for one consumer continuously, the gas could be collected in the drum during the twenty -four hours in sufficient amount for occasional use. 172 PART 1()UI{ Measurement of Gas Wells BASIS OF MEASUREMENT OF NATURAL GAS— PITOT TUBE FOR TEvSTING AND OPEN-FLOW TESTING OF GAS WELLS — MINUTE PRESSURE TESTING — ROCK PRESSURE — WORKING CAPACITY OF GAS WELLS. Basis of Measurement of Natural Gas — The value of natural gas lies almost wholly in its ability to produce heat, and this is directly proportional to the weight. For example, two pounds of a given quantity of gas will produce just twice the heat that one pound will. It is not convenient, however, to deal with gas in units of weight, and hence it is the uni- v^ersal custom to speak of gas quantities as so many volume units, such as cubic feet or cubic meters. Gas being an elastic fluid and having the property of entirely filling any vessel in which it may be contained, the actual weight of gas present in any given volume depends not only on the extent of that volume, but also upon the pressure and temperature of the gas. It is necessary, there- fore, when speaking of any volume of gas, to have a defmite understanding of the pressure and temperature under which the volume is measured. It has long been the custom for natural gas men to con- sider 60 deg. falir. as the standard temperature basis of measurement, and four ounces ( = 0.25 lb.) per square inch above an assumed mean atmospheric pressure of 14.4 pounds per square inch, as the standard pressure basis. These values are equivalent to 520 ( = 460 plus 60) fahrenheit degrees, and 14.65 ( = 14.40 plus 0.25) pounds per square inch above the absolute gross temperature and pressure, respectively. 173 MEASUREMENT OF GAS WELLS Throughout all that follows in this hook, unless otherwise specifically stated, it is to he understood that the ahove mentioned standards of measurement are to apply. The specific gravity of gas as referred to air, and its flowing temperature, also enter into the computations in certain formulas and tables to follow, and these will always be considered equal to 0.60 specific gravity and 60 deg. fahr. ( = 520 degrees absolute) respectively, unless otherwise stated. Pitot Tube for Testing the Open Flow of Gas Wells— The most accurate way of testing the flow of a gas well is by means of the pitot tube. This is an instrument for deter- mining the velocity of flowing gas by means of its momentum. It usually consists of a small tube, one end bent at right angles, which is inserted in the flowing gas, just inside the pipe or tubing and between one-third and one-fourth of the pipe's diameter from the outer edge. The plane of the opening in the tube is held at right angles to the flowing gas. At a convenient distance, varying from one to tw^o feet, an inverted siphon or U-shaped gauge is attached to the other end, which is usually half filled with mercury or water. If the flow is over five pounds to the square inch a pressure gauge is required. In small sized wells of not over four million feet, a 12-inch U gauge with water can be used. In wells from four to fifteen million feet, use mercury in a 12-inch U gauge, from fifteen to thirty-five million feet use a 50-pound spring gauge. Above thirty-five milhon feet use a 100-pound spring gauge. These foregoing figures are all based on a 6-inch hole. For convenience, a scale graduated from the center in inches and tenths is attached between the two limbs of the U gauge. The distance above and below this center line at which the liquid stands in the gauge should be added, the object being to determine the exact distance between the high and the low side of the fluid in inches and tenths of inches. 174 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS The top joint of tubing or casing should be free from fittings for a distance of ten feet below the mouth of the well where the test is made. The test should not be made in a collar or gate or at the mouth of any fitting. The well should be blown off for at least three hours prior to making the test. Having ascertained the velocity pres- sure of the gas flowing from the well tub- ing in inches of water, inches of mercury or pounds per square inch, as outlined above, the corresponding flow is given in the following table. The quantities of gas stated in the table are based on 4-ounce pressure or 14.65 pounds per square inch absolute, 60 deg. fahr. flowing tempera- ture, 60 deg. fahr. storage temperature. / ^ and 0.6 specific gravity (air be- ing 1.00). If the specific gravity is other than 0.6 the flow should be multiplied by 0.6 \ Sp.gr.ofgas. Fig. 60 — TESTIXG GAS WELL WITH A PITOT TUBE For flowing temperature above or below 60 deg. fahr., deduct or add 1% for each ten degrees, re- spectively. 175 MEASUREMENT OF GAS WELLS PITOT TUBE TABLE FOR TESTING OF GAS WELLS Table No. 1 — Discharge of Gas of 0.6 specific gravity from gas well tubing of different sizes in twenty-four hours. {By F. H. Oliphant) Pressure Discharge in Cubic Fei iT In Inches In Inches of Mercury In Lb. 1-inch 2-inch 3-inch 4-inch of Water per Sq. Inch Tubing Tubing Tubing Tubing .10 11,880 47,520 106,920 190,080 .20 17,136 68,544 154,224 274,176 .30 20,568 82.272 185,112 329,088 .40 23.520 94,080 211,680 376,320 .50 26,544 106,176 238,896 424.704 .60 29,112 116,448 262,008 465.792 .7 31.440 125,760 282,960 503,040 .8 33.624 134,496 302,616 537,984 .9 35,640 142,560 320,760 570,240 1.0 37,320 149,280 335.880 597,120 1.25 41,712 166,848 375,408 667,392 1.5 45,960 183,840 413.640 735,360 1.75 .12 49,680 198,720 447,120 794.880 2.0 .147 53,136 212,544 478,224 850.176 2.5 .184 59,400 237,600 534,600 950,400 3.0 .22 .108 65,088 260,352 585,792 1,041,408 3.5 .257 .126 70,272 281.088 632,448 1,124,352 4.0 .294 .144 75,120 300,480 676,080 1,201,920 4.5 .331 .162 79,704 318,810 717,336 1.275,264 5.0 .368 .18 84,000 336,000 756,000 1,344,000 6. .441 .216 92,016 368.060 828,144 1.472,256 7. .515 .252 99,360 397,440 894,240 1,589,760 8. .588 .288 106,272 425.088 956,448 1,700.352 9. .662 .324 112,656 450,624 1,013,904 1,802,496 10. .736 .36 118,800 475,200 1,069,200 1,900,800 11. .8 .396 125,160 500,640 1,126,440 2.002,560 12. .88 .432 130,128 520,512 1,171,152 2.082.048 1.02 .5 138,960 555,840 1,250,640 2.223.360 1.52 .75 170,280 681,120 1,532,520 2,724,480 2.03 1.00 196,680 786,720 1,770.120 3,146,880 2.54 1.25 219,960 879,840 1,979,640 3,519,360 3.05 1.5 240,720 962,880 2,166,480 3,851,520 3.56 1.75 259,920 1,039,680 2,339.280 4,158,720 4.07 2.00 272,640 1,090,560 2,453,760 4,362,240 4.57 2.25 294,600 1,178,400 2,651,400 4,713,600 5.08 2.50 310,800 1,243,200 2,797,200 4,972,800 5.59 2.75 321,000 1.284,000 2,889,000 5.136,000 6.10 3. 340,200 1,360,800 3,061,800 5.443,200 176 MEASUREMENT OF GAS WELLS PITOT TUBE TABLE—iCoulinned) Pressure Discharge ix C UBic Feet In Inches In Inches of of Water Mercury In Lb. 1-inch 2-inch 3-inch 4-inch per Sq. Inch Tubing Tubing Tubing Tubing 6.61 3.25 354,120 1,416,480 3,187,080 5,665,920 7.11 3.50 367,680 1.470,720 3,309,120 5,882,880 7.62 3.75 380,400 1.521,600 3,423,600 6,086,400 8.13 4.00 392,880 1,571.520 3,535,920 6,286.080 8.64 4.25 405,000 1,620,000 3,645,000 6,480,000 9.15 4.50 416,640 1,666,560 3,749,760 6,666,240 9.65 4.75 428,280 1,713.120 3.854.520 6.852,480 1 10.16 5.00 439.920 1,759,680 3.959,280 7,038,720 12.20 6. 476,040 1,904,160 4.284,360 7,616,640 7. 517.320 2.069,280 4.655,880 8,277,120 8. 542,400 2.169,600 4,881,600 8,678,400 9. 569,640 2,278,650 5,126,760 9,114,240 10. 595,560 2.382,240 5,360,040 9,528,960 1 11. 621,960 2,487.840 5,597,640 9,951.360 12. 642,600 2,570,400 5,783,400 10,281,600 13. 664,680 2,658,720 5,982,120 10.634,880 14. 683,880 2,735,520 6,154,920 10,942,080 15. 703,080 2.812.320 6,327,720 11,249,280 16. 721,080 2.884.320 6,489,720 11.537,280 17. 738,120 2.952,480 6,643,080 11,809.920 18. 753,960 3,015,840 6,785,640 12,063.360 20. 785,520 3,142,080 7,069,680 12.568,320 22. 803,280 3.213,120 7.229,520 12,852,480 25. 854,880 3.419.520 7.693,920 13,678,080 30. 910,680 3.642,720 8,196.120 14,570.880 35. 960,960 3,843,840 8,648.640 15.375.360 40. 1,006,680 4.026,720 9,060,120 16,106,880 45. 1,046,520 4,186,080 9,418,680 16,744,320 50. 1,081,920 4,327.680 9.737,280 17,310,720 60. 1,137.120 4,548,480 10,234,080 18,193,920 75. 1,223,400 4,893,600 11,010,600 19,574.400 1 90. 1,304,400 5,217,600 11,739,600 20.870.400 100. 1,336,920 5,347,680 12,032.280 21,390,720 Table Xo. 2 — Multipliers for pipe diameters other than given in the above tables. For any dilTerent sized pipe apply the multiplier to the figures given in the above table for "one inch tubing." lH-inch= 2.25 2^-inch= 6.25 4M-inch=18. 4^-inch=21.39 5 - 6 - 6h- inch=25. inch =31. 64 inch=36. inch=39. inch =43. 9 8 -inch= 64. 8i^-inch= 68. 9 -inch= 81. 10 -inch- 100. 12 -inch=144. 177 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS Minute Pressure Testing of Gas Wells — It has often been the practice to measure the capacity of natural gas wells by quickly shutting a gate or valve and noting the pressure on a gauge at the end of each minute. Usually the pressure at the end of the first minute is used to approximate the volume. Before making this test the well should be blown off for at least three hours. The following table gives the volume in different sized tubing in lengths of 100 feet, which is followed by a table of multipliers for different pressures for one minute and for twenty -four hours. VOLUME OF TUBING Table Number 1 Fig. 61. Diameter of Tubing in Inches Volume in Cu. Ft. of 100 Feet of Tubing Diameter of Tubing in Inches Volume in Cu. Ft. of 100 Feet of Tubing 1 0.55 5^ 17.26 2 2.18 6 19.63 3 4.91 6M 21.31 3M 5.76 Q% 23.94 4 8.73 7M 28.67 4M - 9.85 8 34.91 5 13.64 8K 37.12 53/16 14.14 9^ 50.53 5M 15.03 10 54.54 The best gas well is one which, at the highest pressure, will discharge the greatest quantity of gas. The working capacity of any well can be tested by closing in the pressure by a gate at a length of half a joint or more of pipe from the open end. A gauge connected by a small pipe back of the gate will record the increased pressure. The flow can thus be measured at various back pressures by testing the open flow with a pitot tube as the pressure inside the well is increased. 178 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS MINUTE PRESSURE OF GAS WELLS Table Number 2 Opposite the gauge pressure are found the multipliers for one minute and for twenty-four hours. All figures are given at 14.65 pounds, or atmospheric pressure 14.4 pounds plus .25 pounds (4- ounce basis). Specific gravity of gas 0.6. Temperature 60 deg. fahr. Gauge Multipliers Gauge Pressure Multipliers Pressure Pounds For One Minute For 24 Hours Pounds For One For 24 Minute ; Hours 1 .051 73 80 5.443 ' 7837 2 .119 171 90 6 . 126 8821 3 .187 269 100 6.808 9803 4 .255 367 110 7.491 10787 5 .324 466 120 8.174 11770 6 .392 564 130 8.856 12752 7 .460 662 140 9.539 13736 8 .529 761 150 10.221 14718 9 .597 859 160 10.904 15701 10 .665 957 170 11.587 16685 11 .733 1055 180 12.269 17667 12 .802 1154 190 12.952 18650 13 .870 1252 200 13 . 634 19632 14 .938 1350 210 14.317 ' 20616 15 1.006 1448 220 15.000 ' 21600 16 1.075 1548 230 15.682 1 22582 17 1.143 1645 240 16.365 1 23565 18 1.211 1743 250 17.047 1 24547 19 1.279 1841 260 17.730 ! 25531 20 1.348 1941 270 18.412 I 26513 21 1.416 2039 280 19.095 ! 27496 22 1.484 2136 290 19 . 778 28480 23 1.552 2234 300 20.460 29462 24 1.621 2334 310 21.143 30445 25 1.689 2432 320 21.825 31428 26 1.757 2530 330 22.508 32411 27 1.825 2628 340 23.191 33395 28 1.894 2727 350 23.873 34377 29 1.962 2825 360 24.556 i 35360 30 2.030 2923 370 25.238 ' 36342 35 2.372 3415 380 25.921 37326 40 2.713 3906 390 26 . 604 38309 45 3.054 4397 400 27.286 39291 50 3.395 4888 410 27.969 40275 60 4.078 5872 420 28.651 41257 70 4.761 6855 430 29 334 . 42240 179 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS Gauge Pressure Multipliers Gauge Pressure Multipliers 1 1 Pounds For One For 24 Pounds For One For 24 Minute Hours Minute Hours 440 30.017 43224 530 36.160 52070 450 30.699 44206 540 36.843 53053 460 31.382 45190 550 37.525 54036 470 32.064 46172 560 38.208 55019 480 32.747 47155 570 38.890 56001 490 33.430 48139 580 39 . 573 56985 500 34.112 49121 590 40.255 57967 510 34.795 50104 600 40.938 58950 520 35.477 51086 Example — Suppose that a well showed 320 lb. gauge pressure in one minute, and 2-inch tubing, the depth of the well being 1250 feet. From the first table the volume of 100 feet of 2-inch tubing is 2.18 cubic feet; and 1250 feet will have a volume of 12.5 times 2.18 or 27.25 cubic feet. From the second table the multiplier for one minute corresponding to the minute pressure of 320 lb. is 21.825. Hence the capa- city of the well is 27.25 multiplied by 21.825, or 594.73 cubic feet per minute, 35.683 cubic feet per hour, 856,000 cubic feet per day. The daily capacity can likewise be determined directly by using the multiplier for 24 hours, corresponding to 320 lb. minute pressure, or 27.25 multiphed by 31,428 or 856,000 cubic feet per day. If the packer is set up from the bottom, an addition will have to be made because of the additional space between the outside of the tubing and the wall of the well. Say that the packer is set up 120 feet in a hole o^g inches in diameter. Then 17.26 mmus 2.18 equals 15.08, the volume around the outside of the tubing per himdred feet of depth. Then the total volume around the tubing under the packer is 15.08 180 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS times 1.20, which equals 18. lU cubic feet. The volume of the tubing is 27.25 cubic feet, as previously determined; and the total volume of the well is 18.10 plus 27.25 which equals 45.35 cubic feet. 45.35X21.825 equals 990.0 cubic feet per minute, 59,400 cubic feet per hour, 1,425,000 cubic feet per dav. Fig. 62— A GOOD ADV ERTISEMEXT Introduction of Xatural Gas into Marshall, Texas. This method is only a comparison of the value of wells and gives results considerably under the measurement of the open flow, which is the proper method of measuring the out- put. Both of these methods should be accompanied by the maximum rock pressure. The best well is the one which will discharge the largest quantity of natural gas at the highest pressure. 181 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS "SIS 50- k 5S- \ \ \ : ^5- 2S- £0'- Fig. 63— PER CENT OF OPEN FLOW OF A GAS WELL CAPACITY AVAIL- ABLE FOR DOMESTIC USE By S. S. Wyer, in Natural Gas Service 182 Open Flow Capa- ities of Gas WeUs— Un- fortunately the well capacities that are gen- erally reported by the newspapers and repre- sented to gullible in- vestors are the open flow capacities when the wells are discharging freely into the atmos- phere. These open flow capacities are very much larger than the actual delivering capacities under routine operating conditions, as shown at the left. The data shown in this illustra- tion were obtained by first determining the open flow capacities of representative wells and then passing the gas from these wells through meters, noting the amount that was ac- tually delivered to the gas compressors. It is also important to note that even after the gas reaches the consumer's premises much is lost, due to leakage and ineffective methods for utilizing the gas. MEASUREMENT OF GAS WELLS Rock Pressure^Rock pressure means the highest pres- sure attained in a gas well after being shut in for a period of 24 hours or longer. It is no indication of the size of the well. The greater the rock pressure, the greater the distance the flow of a gas well can be transported without the assist- ance of a compressor. As the gas is withdrawn from the pool, the rock pressure gradually declines until it finally becomes necessary to install compressors to raise the pressure in the lines sufficiently high to transport the gas to the market. Working Capacity of Gas Wells Under Pressure — The following table show the approximate amount of gas a well will deliver into a pipe line under different back line pressures when the rock pressure and the open flow of the wells, found by the pitot tube, are given. In taking the pitot tube test, the well should be "blown off" for at least three hours prior to test. Due allowance is made for conserving the well and keeping the pressure high enough to prevent water coming in on the sand. The porosity of the different sands, and the depth of the different wells are taken into consideration. These tables are also based on the assumption that there is no lead between the well and the main line. Where lead lines are of any great length it will be found that the pressure at the main line will be less than at the well end of the lead line when the well is turned into the line. In this case the back pressure at the well end of the lead line is the pressure to be considered. All capacities are given in cubic feet on a four-ounce basis for twenty -four hour periods. 183 MEASUREMENT O F GAS WELLS I w Oh gw gw go Sow C/3 W>=H ooo §WpQ fe ^ H pq CO D< o ^ oW SCO S I— 1 (>}.-HCDOOiOO--Hi>OOOTfiOOCCQC:t-.-i'^ Tti CO 00 8 05 rHOO.-H,-iC3iOiOiOOOOCvJiOOiOO.-HiOO-^00 • • r-l i OC0'*O'*TtiOOiCDiOiO0CO00i-iiOC0.-H ■ • • ■ C:l>iOOOOi>Or-lOCviCvJ.-lTtiCDr-iCOCO.-i • • ■ ■ c:c:a:c;c:ooxi>coiCTticO(M.-i.-i • ■ • ■ 1: i 3 i .— ^ ' — ' ^• >-J i Ji ^ § '^* h-H u 'V 9^^nnS?2^:::::'. :::::"''* ,7^ 8 Q cp lO ^ CO CvJ <1 * ^ c: 00 ^ 2 ^ SS i£5 ^ !^ 8 1—1 ^o •^ CVl r-H 'il ^0 ^g^8^S8§8|8|8S8|S|8|8| 184 PART FlVi: Pipe Line Construction SURVEYING— CONSTRUCTION CAMP— DITCHING —BLASTING AND SHOOTING— SCREW PIPE LINE {Sectio}i)—FLAlN END PIPE LINE (Sectiofi) —PIPE LINE WORK (Section). Surveying — In constructing a long gas line, a surv^ey should be made, using 3-foot stakes driven into the ground every two hundred feet, each stake being numbered with even numbers from the starting point. In short lines that follow highways the measuring can be done with an auto- mobile speedometer, or with a bicycle and cyclometer. If neither of these is available, tie a cord or piece of cloth on one of the spokes in the front wheel of an ordinary buck- board and count the revolutions while driving over the route the line is to follow. The revolutions of the wheel, multiplied by its circumference, will then give the distance traversed by the vehicle. Construction Camp — It is very essential in building a camp outfit to make bunks, floorings, etc., so that they may be readily removed from one location to another. The regulation size tent is 28 feet by 1-1 feet and will accommo- date sixteen to eighteen men. Folding cots are convenient to use. The men employed in camp are as follows: — cook, flunkies (one flunkey to every thirty men) and one night watchman. It is the duty of the night watchman to pack the buckets for the following day. A No. II blanket and a 72-inch by 50-inch comforter should be used. The charge for board for men is usually deducted from their wages. 185 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION « CO ^5 •S sfe 186 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Ditching — The size of the ditch for different size gas hnes is as follows: Size of Pipe Depth in Inches Width in Inches 3- and 4-inch 20 24 28 30 32 36 Shovel 6-inch .... . Width 8-inch 20 10-inch 22 12-inch 24 16-inch 26 In constructing a line through timber, the right of way should be cleared sixteen to twenty feet in width. Allow for wagon track on one side of the location of the ditch. In ditching on side hills throw the dirt on the lower side. Fig.65—DITCHINC, MACHINE AT WORK FOR A HIGH PRESSURE GAS LIXE Between Dennison and Petrolia, Texas, for the North Texas Gas Company. The ditchers should be followed by the grading gang composed of from three to ten men. Their work is to straighten out, level and prepare the ditch for the tong gang. Where it is not necessary to lay the line deep, as in the case of small lines, a large plow can be used. It is also often used in starting ditches for large lines. 187 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Blasting and Shooting — In shooting use thirty per cent dynamite. "Dobie" shooting is commonly practiced and consists in placing the dynamite on top of the rock, and covering it with mud. Dynamite should be thawed bv placing near a fire and turning frequently. It should be thawed very gradually. In drilling for shots use 5 to 8 Fig. 66— DITCH I XG MACHINE AT WORK FOR A 16-INCH LINE Between Petrolia and Dallas, Texas, for the Lone Star Gas Company pound sledges or hammers. The drills should be 12, 18, 24, and 30 inches long, of IJ^-inch diameter. Bach shooting gang consists of three men called strikers. The shooting gang should be accompanied by a blacksmith and helper with a portable forge. To Prepare a Shot — Cut open one stick of dynamite and insert the percussion cap on the end of a fuse, placing the fuse in the center of the stick and closing the stick together. Insert the dynamite in the shot hole, packing gently with a wooden stick and fill on top with mud. 188 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION The fuse should project twelve to eighteen inches from the hole where the shot is placed. vSize of shot varies according to the character of the rock; generally from two to three sticks to a shot. SCREW PIPE LINE Pipe Unloading — In loading and unloading either screw or plain end pipe, great care should be used to protect the end of the pipe. Pipe should not be thrown off the car onto the ground or pile, but should be rolled off on skids. Inunloading 10-inch or larger, a mast and tackle block with one horse for power should be used. The method of taking hold of the pipe is by means of a rope loop with two iron hooks to hook into the opposite ends of the pipe. T a 11 y i n g~ All pipe should be tallied or measured when un- loaded from the car. In measuringplain end pipe, measure the full length, while in meas- uring screw pipe, meas- ure from thread end to center of collar. Hauling — In the construction of large size lines, pipe is generally hauled under contract by the foot or by the joint. All pipe should be carefully examined and defective joints thrown out before hauling to the right of way. 189 Fig. 67- -REAR VIEW OF DITCHIXG MACHIXE AT WORK PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION STANDARD DIMENSIONS, CAPACITY AND WEIGHT OF WROUGHT IRON PIPE FOR STEAM, GAS, OIL OR WATER Diameters, Inches Thick- Outside Diam- eter of Coup'gs Inches Feet of Weight No. of ness of Pipe Inch Pipe for 1 Cu.Ft. Volume of Pipe per Ft. Pounds Threads Nom. Inside Actual Inside Actual Outside per Inch ^ .270 .405 .068 .510 2500. .243 27 M .364 .54 .086 .720 1385. .422 18 % .494 .675 .091 .844 751.5 .561 18 V2 .623 .84 .109 1.156 472.4 .845 14 H .824 1.05 .113 1.375 270. 1.126 14 1 1.048 1.315 .134 1.625 166.9 1.670 113^ IK 1.380 1.66 .140 2.125 96.25 2.258 IIM 1^ 1.611 1.9 .145 2.375 70.65 2.694 113^ 2 2.067 2.375 .154 2.937 42.36 3.667 113^ 2V2 2.468 2.875 .204 3.500 30.11 5.773 8 3 3.067 3.5 .217 4.062 19.49 7.547 8 ^V2 3.548 4. .226 4.687 14.56 9.055 8 4 4.026 4.5 .237 5.187 11.31 10 . 728 8 43^ 4.508 5. .247 5.750 9.03 12.492 8 5 5.045 5.563 .259 6.343 7.20 14.564 8 6 6.065 6.625 .280 7.343 4.98 18.767 8 7 7.023 7.625 .301 8.437 3.72 23.410 8 8 7.982 8.625 .322 9 . 375 2.88 28.348 8 9 9.001 9.688 .344 10.560 2.26 34.077 8 10 10.019 10.75 .366 11.680 1.80 40.641 8 12 12.000 12.75 .375 13.930 1.27 49.000 8 Where second-hand pipe is to be laid, its threads should be oiled and brushed with a wire brush. Stringing — In stringing screw pipe, lay collar end in opposite direction from tong gang or starting point and allow for threads. In placing large size pipe along the ditch in a rough country, a small stone boat or two-wheeled cart with a horse is used. In the former method, chain pipe to the boat and place a wooden plug in the head end of the pipe, to keep out dirt or snow when dragging. 190 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION STANDARD LINE PIPE Nominal Actual Nominal Thickness Inches Nominal Number of Inside Outside Weight Threads Diameter Diameter per Foot per Inch Inches Inches Pounds of Screw 2 2.375 .154 3.609 113^ 2>^ 2.875 .204 5.739 8 3 3.5 .217 7.536 8 3^ 4. .226 9.001 8 4 4.5 .237 10.665 8 4^^ 5. .246 12.49 8 5 5.563 .259 14.502 8 6 6.625 .28 18.762 8 7 7.625 .301 23.271 8 8 8.625 .281 25.00 8 8 8.625 .322 28.177 8 9 9.625 .344 33 . 701 8 10 10.75 .2865 32.00 8 10 10.75 .3145 35.00 8 10 10.75 .366 40.065 8 12 12.75 .340 45.00 8 12 12.75 .375 48.985 « /•/,s' Sll'.l/i Swabbing — All pipe should be "swabbed" out before laying. This should be done just ahead of the tong gang or just before the pipe is laid. For a swab use one long joint of •'^4 -inch pipe as a handle having a leather disc, the same size as the in- ternal diameter of the pipe to be swabbed or cleaned, clamped between two iron washers of slightly smaller size, attached to it. Laying — The work of the tong gang consists of laying, painting, and inspecting for leaks, and in large size screw-pipe, bending. The number of men in a gang depends entirely on the size of the pipe. A tong gang for 8-inch pipe would be made up as follows: — one boss, one stabber, two jackmen, one "back-up" man, one "dope" man, and sixteen tong men. 191 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig 69— PIPE CUTTING AND THREADING MACHINE WITH GAS OR GASOLINE ENGINE ATTACHED Fie. 70— CARRYING BAR Fig. 72— CARRYING TONGS OR CALIPERS 1 lii :i -ril'I JACK AND BOARD It takes four men to each pair of tongs. The man working on the end of the tongs occupies the position cahed "points" and is No. 1. The man nearest the pipe is called the "stroke" and is No. 4; the two men in between, Nos. 2 and 3. The tongs themselves are numbered likewise from 1 to 4, beginning with the pair of tongs nearest the "back- ups." 192 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION The slabber is the next most important man under the tong boss. His duty is to steer the pipe when it is inserted in the collar and see that the threads are not crossed prior to giving the pipe the first few turns with a common snub- bing rope. The jackmen place the jack in position to sup- port the pipe as the stabber directs. It is the duty of the "back-up" men to place the "back-up" tongs on the joint of pipe previously set up to prevent it from turning. A 2-pound hammer is used by the tong boss or stab- ber in striking the collars into w^hich the pipe is being screwed, the idea being to jar the collar as the tongs start on the downward stroke and assist in setting up the joint. Carrying irons or calipers are used to carry large-size pipe from side of ditch to position for stabbing. The "dope" man carries the asphaltum or "dope" and paints the collar threads just ahead of the tong gang. For letting the pipe into the ditch after it has been set up, a wooden horse, built so that the legs will stand on either side of the ditch, and a snubbing rope are used. Only one w^ooden horse is necessary. The pipe is let dow^n Fig. 73— GAS WELL J .\ Till: .\///;ir.ir, CALII'.. FILLn 193 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION on the "growler board" which is placed under the collar of the joint just set up, to support the pipe above the ditch until the wooden horse can be moved ahead to a new position. Painting — All pipe laid under ground should be painted, especially when second-hand casing is used for a gas line. Use a regular small-size "hot tar cart." The tar should be kept hot and put on the pipe with a brush swab after the pipe is set up and before it is lowered into the ditch. Fig. 74— EXPANSION SLEEVES Laying Pipe in Level Country — In laying large-size high pressure pipe lines in level country use an expansion sleeve every mile or two. In case the line makes an abrupt angle, the tee should be anchored with a large rock or concrete bumper. This will prevent the line parting at the nearest sleeve. Laying Pipe in Rough Country — Lay lines deep through any knoll or ridge, or, in other words, lay it as straight as possible with no more fire bends than are absolutely necessary. On steep inclines, put in "deadmen," or anchor- ages, the size and number depending upon the steepness and length of the incline. Also place bunches of underbrush, with branches pointing up hill,every fifty feet in the ditch and fill in on top of the brush. The underbrush prevents wash- outs. Do not lay lines through "slips" or where there is any possibility of a "slip" in the future. 194 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig 73— PIPE LINE ON RIVER BA NK A T POINT OF LEA VINC RI VER BED Note heavy cast iron river clamp and remains of fire where fire bend was made. 195 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Bending Screw Pipe — To make an under or sag bend, set up one or two joints beyond the point to be bent, sup- porting the end above the ditch. Build a fire of wood (using some kerosene), about three feet long, covering the point to be bent on both sides of the pipe. The fire can be built underneath the pipe in the ditch or, in case the pipe Fig. 76— RIVER CROSSING SIIOWIXG TRIPLE LINES is above the ditch, use a couple of hangers, with a sheet of iron suspended under the pipe where bend is to come and build the fire on this. After being properly heated, bend the pipe by the weight of men. Care should be used that the pipe is not burned or buckled. For over-bends, make a sag bend as above described and screw joint of pipe one-half turn to bring the bend on top. Rivers and Creeks — In laying lines through small rivers or creeks where the water contains injurious chemicals, the pipe should be encased in concrete. In crossing a river 196 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fi^. ?r— A.U y.VG /.--■• HIGH PRESSURE LIXE ACROSS TYGARTS VALLEV RHER. XEAR BELIX^GTON, WEST VIRGIXIA Fig. 78—LAYIXG IJ' HIGH PRESSURE LIXE ACROSS A RHER SHOU'IXG COFFER DAM TO KEEP OUT WATER WHILE LINE IS LAID IN CONCRETE 197 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION where concrete is not necessar}^, each joint of pipe should be weighted down with a cast iron clamp at the collar, as the pipe will float unless anchored. River "dogs" or hooks may also be used for anchoring the pipe. In laying gas lines across shallow rivers or creeks where the lines are not cemented, they should be buried if pos- sible and well covered with rock. Railroad Crossings — Where gas lines cross under railroad tracks, they should be run through a casing which should extend a few feet from either side of the track. This acts as a protection against the jar of passing trains, and in event of any leakage it carries the gas off to the side of the track. Small Gas Lines — With small-size screw pipe lines, lay "snake like" to allow for expan- sion and contraction, in which case expansion sleeves are not necessary. This method consists in laying the pipe in a wavy line to permit the expansion or contrac- tion to be taken up by the bending of the pipe. Fig. 79— HIGH PRESSURE GAS LINE ACROSS TRINITY RIVER NEAR DALLAS. TEXAS. Note preparatioyi for making fire bend. 198 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig. 81— CAST IRON RIVER CLAMPS To prevent pipe joint breaking or leaking. Fig. 82— HIGH PRESSURE GAS LINE A^Ko.^.^ i n r. iKiSiii ix.VER Near Dallas, Texas. Note the small gasoline engine and pump for keeping water out of ditch while line is being laid. 199 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION PLAIN END PIPE Plain End Pipe — Plain end pipe is the same as screw pipe except that it has no threads. Including couplers, it is a Fig. 83— PLAIN END PIPE COUPLING SHOWING PARTS AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF RINGS little more expensive than screw pipe, although the cost of laying is less than that of screw pipe. Hauling Plain End Pipe — In hauling plain end pipe, load one center ring and two end rings to each joint of pipe on the wagon. If the bolts are received in sacks, they should be distributed along the right of way according to the number required for each joint of pipe. 200 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION >^ ^c5?\. A'/g. S4—PLAIX EXD PIPE COUPLING Fig. So— ALL-STEEL LONG SLEEVES Sizes: 10 inches inside diameter to 18 inches outside diameter, inclusive. 16 inches long. Stringing — In stringing plain end pipe, lay same with ends butting together. Bending — Bending plain end pipe should be done before the pipe is set up and ahead of the laying gang. In making bends distribute the fire for a distance of about three feet on both sides of the pipe and do not place the center block too near the fire. Apply greatest heat on side of pipe that is intended to stretch. After being sufficiently heated the pipe should be bent gradually to prevent buckling. The boss of the bending gang should be a man of good judgment. Fig. S6— MAKING FIRE BEND Using pipe tongs and chain on a two-inch pipe as a windlass. Large pipe is chained together at opposite end and block is placed between the chained end and the fire. 201 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION i .,,. _^; BLXDIXU JUIXT Uf 10-IX. I'll'L BY FIRE METHOD OR HEATING Laying — The pipe is put together on skids laid across the ditch. After placing the end ring and rubber on the end of the pipe, stab the joint into the center ring until the end v-^ Fig. 88— PLAIN END PIPE READY TO STAB 202 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION of the pipe butts the bead in the center of the center ring. The out- side rings should be bolted together while the pipe rests on the skids over the ditch and in- spected in this position. In bolting up center rings, bolt four bolts equally distant first. Care should be taken that the two outside rings are equally distant at every point around the center ring. After ten or twelve joints are thus connected, all but the last joint or two can be lowered in the ditch by the use of wooden horses and snubbing rope. Ratchet wrenches should be used to tighten bolts. The bolts should be placed in the end rings so that the nuts will come on the left hand side of the center ring on either side of the pipe. This will allow the wrencher to work right-handed and with downward stroke, regardless of which side of the pipe he is working on. In laying over hills or through gulleys, where deep ditch- ing is impossible and angles are not sharp enough to require bending or the use of angle joints, use short joints of pipe, making a slight angle at each joint. Fig. 89- STABBIXU PIPE PLAIX EXD 203 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Ii^,.. :ju and U1—"WREXCHIXG UP'' PLAIN END CENTER RINGS Pi^_ 92— PLAIN END PIPE LINE COMPLETED Ready to lower into ditch by use of wooden horses and snubbing rope. 204 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION 205 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Creeks and Water-Soaked Ground — Where line crosses creeks and is not cemented, screw pipe should be laid, and the same methods should be followed as given under the subject of screw pipe. Plain end pipe laid in swampy or water- soaked ground should be well anchored with rocks to prevent blow- outs. Whenever it de- velops that a plain end pipe line has been laid through land that is liable to inundation or is very wet and swampy at certain times of the year, it is policy to lay out a new survey be- ginning at the high points at either end of the low ground, and if possible, run an extra line around on high ground to avoid any wash outs or interrup- tions in the service of the high pressure line. Rough Country — Do not lay plain end pipe down hill. Always start at the foot of the hill and lay up. Angle Couplings — In place of bending, angle couplings can be used to advantage but must be well anchored with rock. 206 Fig. 94. PLAIN END PIPE LINE ON SIDE HILL Showing Rock Fill to Prevent Washout and to Anchor Pipe. PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Inspection and Leaks — (Jnc of the most important things to observe in the construction of a plain end pipe Hne, is the inspection of the couphngs after being laid. To repair leaks on plain end pipe under pressure, do not uncover more than one coupling at a time. All center and end rings should be carefully inspected before laying. Covering — The covering is done by a section of the ditching gang, after the pipe has been tested by the tong gang. Fig. <)-,— ANGLE COUFLIXG Fig. 96—90 DEG. ELL Fig. 97—COVERIXG COMPLETED PIPE LINE By Use of Team and Dirt ShoveL 207 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Do not cover a pipe line with cinders on account of the sulphur in them, they will corrode or pit the pipe, and rapidly destroy it. Fig. 98— BLOWING OUT 16-INCH GAS LINE BEFORE PLACING IN USE Note the Anchorage or "Deadmen" to Prevent Line Pulling Apart on Account of Pressure on Line Before Completion. 208 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION PIPE LINE WORK Inspection After Gas Line is Completed — After a gas line is completed and covered, attention should be given the work to note whether the filling has settled, or whether any washouts have occurred. The best time for making an inspection is directly following a hard rain. A plain end pipe line under pressure requires a consider- able amount of covering to prevent blow-outs. Line Walking — After a large high pressure gas line has been put into service, a line-walker should be employed for each fifteen or twenty miles of pipe, and he should inspect his allotted section of line daily. A great many companies construct a telephone line along the right of way, placing telephone boxes, under lock and key, every five or ten miles. Boxes should also be placed at railroad and river crossings and at all points where slips are liable to occur. If desired, installations can be made for telephone plugs, in which case the telephone stations can be placed about two miles apart. The line-walker then carries a portable tele- phone outfit that can be "plugged in" at each of the stations. Line Loss Percentage — The question is often asked — "What percentage of loss should w^e have in our low pressure system, even though the gas line is tight and ser^^ices and meters have been carefully inspected?" This is rather a difficult question to answer with any degree of accuracy but approximately the loss will be from fifteen to twenty-five per cent. It should be taken into consideration that a small leak on a gas line, even though it may be blown out by the use of a hat, means a continual loss of gas for not only tw^enty-four hours a day, but for three hundred and sixty-five days a year, and this so-called small leak will often supply a single con- sumer for a like period. Too much attention cannot be given 209 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION to these small details. The gas leaking into the atmosphere means a continual loss in money. The fact that natural gas is a product of nature is positively no reason why it should be allowed to escape, regardless of where the leak may be, whether at the wells, on a line, or in house piping. Constant inspection of high and low pressure gas systems and the stop- page of all leakage found is the one method of conservation that is successful. High Pressure Pipe Line Leakage^The mere fact that one has walked the full length of a buried pipe line (even though the line is laid but three or four inches beneath the surface) and has found or heard no leaks, does not furnish conclusive evidence of a tight gas line. In testing for leaks some men use a torch, made by tying a small bundle of waste to the end of a pole eight or ten feet long, saturating with kerosene, and carrying it lighted over the full length of the line, holding the flame close to the top of the covered ditch. This method has met with success in some cases and is perfectly safe to the employee unless some exceptionally large leaks are met with. But it is not absolutely positive, and should not be used where a line shortage of any serious nature has developed. It is taken for granted, in covering this particular sub- ject, that a pipe line has been carefully tested for leaks by allowing high pressure gas to remain in it over night before placing the line in actual service. It is not always necessary to uncover every joint after a line is laid and covered. One can find the leaks by driving a blunt-pointed bar at short intervals along the pipe line, and applying a torch to the hole made by the bar. In certain kinds of soil the leaking gas or heat of the sun often tends to form crust over a leak- ing joint, thereby forcing the leaking gas in different direc- tions through the ground, and especially along the pipe, in- stead of directly to the surface. If, after driving the bar into the ground, the gas is found to burn at the openings made 210 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION by it, the exact location of the main leak can be determined by the comparative size of the flames at the openings. As the holes approach the main leak it will be noticed that the flames increase in size, thereby locating the point at which to make repairs. Oftentimes gas will travel along a pipe line many feet from the original point of leakage before coming to the surface. Fig. 99— COLLAR LEAK CLAMP Certain kinds of soil, especially where cinders exist, have a chemical effect on the metal of the pipe, thereby causing the pitted effect commonly noticed. Cases have been known where pipe has been eaten through in a period of from one to two years time. If expansion sleeves are used in a pipe line and the line has any abrupt angles, unless the point at the angle is well anchored the expansion sleeves are apt to pull apart, due to the contraction of the pipe. It is well worth the cost and trouble to thoroughly inspect a high pressure gas line at least once or twice a year. By the above statement it is meant to make a bar test over the whole line for leaks. Lines should be kept free from dirt, water or other foreign substances. This is generally done with the great majority of pipe lines, yet in some cases the regulators as well as the meters will show dirt and water, whereas if the line had been kept clean this would have been eliminated. While large capacity meters or regulators will take care of a fair per- 211 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION centage of dirt and water without effecting their usefulness, it is not intended that they should measure dirt and water with a small percentage of gas. The leakage from a pipe line is independent of the quan- tity of gas being passed through the line but is wholly de- pendent upon the pressures existing in the line. It can there- fore amount to a ver>^ high percentage of the gas passed, in the case of a small flow and a high pressure, or again the per- centage loss may be quite low when the volume of the flow is large and the pressure low. Do not test a pipe line with a combination of air and gas. The pumping of air into a pipe line while there is gas in the line is apt to form the proper mixture for an explosion. Peb- bles or scale blown along a line may cause sparks and this mixture of gas and air ignited has blown up miles of line. The higher the gas pressure in pipe lines, the more apt the Hne is to leak. Water in Pipe Lines — It is not uncommon to find in- stances where a great deal of free water has been drawn from drips or taps along a high pressure gas line, whereas practi- cally no free water passed through the regulator or meter at the well in the field. This is explained by the fact that all natural gas carries more or less aqueous vapor which will not condense at the meter or regulator unless the tempera- ture conditions are right, but which will condense at different points along the line, thereby forming free water. One pound of water at 62 deg. fahr. will make 1153 cubic feet of aqueous vapor. While aqueous vapor should not account for any great loss in a measured volume of gas flowing between two points, there are cases where it should be taken into con- sideration, especially where there is a compressor. In the latter case a series of tanks or pipe returns are installed on 212 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION the outlet side of the compressor to cool the gas, as well as to take care of the condensation. The compressor, while in- creasing the pressure of the gas, necessarily raises the tem- perature to a high degree, and in cooling, the aqueous vapor condenses wherever coming in contact with the pipe, which is kept at a lower temperature than the gas by the tempera- ture of the atmosphere or water surrounding the cooling system. In the latter case it has proven good practice to install the outlet lines from a compressor through a pond. This has the desired effect and decreases the amount of the pipe required. Fires on High Pressure Gas Lines Due to Leaks or Blow-outs — Small-size fires can easily be put out by the use of a hand fire extinguisher. It is good policy for any gas company to have in an accessible location, a hand chemical cart holding at least twenty-five gallons. This size cart will extinguish a fire or blaze from twenty to twenty-five feet high. Another method commonly practiced is to pile stone on the fire until the pile is three or four feet high, then turn a stream of water onto the heated stone. The effect is to create steam which smothers the flame. Break in High Pressure Gas Line — If a break occurs in a high pressure line and shuts off the gas in a low pressure system, all gates at low pressure regulating points should be closed and the break repaired, after which all consumers should be notified at what hour the gas will be turned on again. If the break occurs in the night, it is better to keep gas turned off until morning. 213 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig. luO — Laying Temporary Pipe Line across Red River {Ark.), showing where Line leaves the new river bed Fig. 101 — Laying Temporary Lm,' ./,;■"- the Red River (Ark.) In mid.slream Line ivas Floated on a Log Raft. The Water -icas 2n Feel Deep at that Point 214 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Pipe Line Washout Across Red River (1915) — Figures Number 100 and 101 fully illustrate the laying of a temporarv' 10-inch line across a new river bed made by flood conditions, so common in the Southern Mid-Continent field. The pictures were taken at the pipe line crossing of Red River, near Garland City, Ark., of the Arkansas Natural Gas Company's main line from the Caddo field. The break was caused by the river over-flowing its banks and creating a new riv^er bed. In the overflow the original pipe line was washed out, with two additional tem- porary^ lines. To better describe the conditions directly following the first break in the line, the author quotes from the Superintendent's letter: "There was no bank like an ordinary river or break. All we could do was to go up the river with our motor boat and barge and pile our material on top of the levee, where you could stand and look around in all directions and see nothing but water, from one to ten feet deep. This break occurred on a right angle bend in the river and when the levee let go, the river went right across the countr\'. That is, it just divided at this point and continued to run out that way for ten or fifteen days after each rise in the river and the current was so swift it was impossible to undertake to go into the break with a boat or anything of that nature. The crevice in this levee where the water ran through was about 1,500 feet wide." This is only one of the many obstacles encountered by the gas company in transporting gas from a field far remote from their market. No business is so fraught with unforseen contingencies as the natural gas business. Blow-offs and Drips — Place blow-ofi"s or drips on the main field line in the immediate vicinity of the field wherever there is a depression or gulley. The regulation gas well drip 215 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig. 102 — -Autornaiic Drip for either High, Inlerrnediate or Low Pressure Gas Lint Fig. 103 — Water Flowing jrom Aulomatic Drip Shown in Fig. 1' 216 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION can be used to advantage. The drip should be placed a little ahead of and higher than the lowest point of the de- pression or gulley. These drips or blow-offs should be visited often and kept free from water. Gas tanks can be used on a gas line in place of drips. These tanks are built in different sizes with a baffle plate in the center against which the gas from the inlet line strikes in entering the tank. The liquid in the gas is caught on the plate and drops to the bottom of the tank, while the gas passes around the plate and out of the tank, freed from its liquid. Fig. 104 HIGH PRESSURE PIPE LINE SADDLE Xote — Sheet Lead makes the best Gasket High Pressure Taps — In making a high pressure tap, cut out a circle of the size desired on the pipe with a diamond point chisel; then strap on the saddle with the nipple and gate set up in saddle. The circle should be cut in the pipe until the gas begins to leak. After the saddle and con- nections are strapped on, the center of the circle can be punched through and the gate closed. Section Figs. lOJ and Wj^CAST IROX GATE LOi K. 217 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Gates and Fittings — Gates left unboxed should have the wheel removed. Open high pressure gates slowly when under pressure. Use nothing but high pres- sure fittings on a high pressure gas line and do not use bush- ings. The objections to using stop-cocks on high pressure gas lines is that the core of the stop will often become corrod- ed and stick, requiring the jarring of the small end of the core in order to turn it. This is a dangerous practice, es- pecially if there is any frost in the metal. Common paste board or tar paper makes good gasket material for field use. In the event of a high pressure valve or stop-cock becoming coated with frost, do not attempt to knock the frost off with a hammer or wrench, but use warm water to thaw it. Do not attempt to caulk fittings on a gas line under high pressure. For splits in a gas line, use an extra heaw cast iron clamp with stuffing box. For leaks in thin collars, use collar leak clamps. Caulking the collars, as a rule, will not make a permanent tight joint on account of the expansion and contraction of the pipe. 218 Fig. 107— SECTIONAL VIEW OF HIGH PRESSURE GATE VALVE PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig. lOS— HEAVY SI' LIT SLEEVE For Wrought Iron Pipe. Gauges — In placing a high pressure gauge at a farm house or lease house, it should be mounted on the outside of the building so that it can be seen through the window. Do not place any high pressure lines on the inside of such a building. Gauges should be tested at least twice a year, or oftener, when there is anv reason to doubt their accuracy. Flg.W9—I^SPECI0RS TEST PL ME Can be used for any type of Indicating or Recording Spring Gauges. Even though the hand on the gauge rests at zero when the gauge is not in use, it does not necessarily follow that the gauge would be accurate at higher pressures. Hence in testing gauges test at different pressures within the range of the gauge. 219 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION The outfit illustrated here can readily be used to check recording gauges. This inspector's test pump is furnished complete in leather case, and weighs about eight pounds. It is especially adapted for natural gas companies having high pressure gauges scattered over a wide territory. House Regulators — For use at farm houses, lease houses, and on some high pressure lines where the consumers are widely separated, the house regulator is very necessary. Fig. no— DEAD WEIGHT TYPE OF HOUSE REGULATOR It is essential to keep the regulator housed or well boxed to prevent children and animals interfering with it or in- juring it. The writer has seen chickens roosting on the arm of the weight type of regulator while the consumer was complaining of its unsatisfactory work. If a regulator freezes, thaw it with warm water. 220 PIPE LINE CONSTRUCTION Fig. Ill SPRING TYPE OF HOUSE REGULATOR For use on a high pressure line. There are several types of house regulators, one of which is illustrated on page 220. These regulators are built with small needle-like valves and will reduce the gas from a pressure of several hundred pounds down to a few ounces. Fig. 112—LAYlXG iJu" HIGH I'RIiS.sURE (..IN /J.M: MIDDLE FORK RIVER. BARBOUR CO.. W. Line is Being Laid in Bed of River. 221 VA. PART SIX CapacitiEvS of Pipe Lines Friction — There is no actual loss of gas in a pipe line as the result of friction. The effect of the friction is merely to produce a drop of pressure. Formulas for Pipe Line Capacities — No two pipe line formulas will check exactly with one another. They are intended only for practical purposes in determining the proper size of lines to carry a certain amount of gas, and not to check with a meter. So many different factors enter into the computations of pipe line flows as to prevent the use of the formula as a means of measuring with any degree of accuracy, and it is impossible to consider it as a check on the readings of a meter. No two pipe lines of the same nominal diameter and length are exactly alike when carefully calibrated, due to many causes, the principal one of which is that commercial pipe is not strictly of a uniform diameter, and accumulation of sediment and dirt will change not only the effective diameter of the pipe in varying amounts but also the co-efficient of friction of the flowing gas. Any de- viation of the actual effective diameter from that assumed in using the formula results in a multiplied error in the com- puted flow, due to the fact that the flow is proportional to the diameter raised to the 2.542th power. Leakage varies in different lines due to different operating pressures, thus introducing a variable error, and it is seldom found that a condition of uniform flow obtains, which is assumed in the construction of all pipe line formulas. They should therefore be used only for determining the size of lines in designing pipe line system^s, or for obtaining an idea of the pressures to be expected at various points under given flow conditions, or the approximate carrying capacity of the lines under given pressure conditions. 222 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLES A, B, C AND D. Tables to Find the Flow in Cubic Feet per Day of 24 Hours of Gas of 0.6 Specific Gravity with Different Pressure Conditions in Pipe Lines of Various Diameters and Lengths. Select in Table A the resultant opposite the gauge pres- sure of the line the capacity of which is to be determined; then in Table B select the multiplier opposite the length of the line in miles. Multiply these two numbers. The result is the cubic feet a one-inch line will discharge for the pressure and length named in twenty-four hours. If the diameter of the pipe is other than one inch, select the multiplier in Table C which is shown opposite the diameter, and multiply this number by the discharge for one inch already determined. The result is the quantity in cubic feet discharged in twenty- four hours by a line of the diameter and length selected. If the stated pressures and lengths are not given in the table they can be secured by interpolation. Example — Suppose it is required to fmd the discharge per day of twenty-four hours of a pipe line having an intake of 200 lb. gauge pressure and 25 lb. at the discharge end, the length being twenty miles and the diameter eight inches. In Table A we find opposite 200 (the intake pressure) and 2o (the discharge pressure) the number 211.3 and in Table B, opposite 20 miles, 225.5. Multiplying these two numbers, the result — 47,637 cubic feet — is the quantity that, under the above conditions of pressure and length, a one-inch pipe would convey. The given diameter is eight inches, however. Opposite this number in Table C it will be found that 198 is the proper multiplier; therefore 47,637 X 198 = 9,41^3,126 cubic feet discharged in twenty-four hours. If the pressure were twenty pounds instead of twenty - five at the discharge end, the flow could be found very closely 223 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE A {By F. H. Oliphant) In- take Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant Intake Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant Intake Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant 1 M 4.7 15 6 21.4 60 25 63.4 1 Yi 3.9 15 9 18.0 60 30 60.0 2 Yi 6.9 15 12 13.1 60 40 51.0 2 1 4.7 20 1 31.1 60 50 37.4 2 W2 4.0 20 4 29.4 ! 60 55 26.9 3 1 8.1 20 8 26.4 70 5 82.6 3 2 5.8 20 10 24.5 70 10 81.2 4 1 10.1 20 15 18.0 70 20 77.5 4 2 8.4 20 18 11.7 70 30 72.1 4 3 6.0 25 1 36.7 70 40 64.8 5 1 11.8 25 3 35.7 70 50 54.7 5 2 10.4 25 6 34.0 70 60 40.0 5 3 8.6 25 10 31.2 80 5 92.8 5 4 6.2 25 15 26.5 80 10 91.6 6 1 13.4 25 18 22.6 80 20 88.3 6 3 10.6 30 1 42.1 80 30 83.7 6 5 6.3 30 3 41.2 80 40 77.5 7 1 14.9 30 6 39.8 80 50 69.2 7 3 12.5 30 10 1 37.4 80 60 58.3 7 5 9.0 30 15 33.5 80 70 42.4 7 ! 6 6.5 30 20 i 28.3 ' 90 5 103.1 8 1 16.3 30 25 20.0 90 10 102.0 8 3 14.1 40 5 51.2 90 20 99.0 8 5 11.2 40 10 49.0 90 30 94.9 8 7 6.6 40 15 46.1 90 40 89.4 9 1 17.6 40 20 42.4 90 50 82.5 9 3 15.6 40 25 37.8 90 60 73.5 9 5 13.1 40 30 31.6 90 70 61.6 9 8 6.8 40 35 22.9 90 80 44.7 10 1 19.2 50 5 61.8 100 5 113.3 10 2 18.3 50 10 60.0 100 10 112.3 10 4 16.3 50 15 57.7 100 15 111.0 10 6 13.6 50 20 54.8 100 20 109,5 10 8 9.8 50 25 51.2 100 25 107.8 10 9 7.0 50 30 46.9 100 35 103.6 12 1 21.8 50 35 41.5 100 50 94.9 12 3 20.1 50 40 34.6 100 75 71.6 12 6 17.0 50 45 25.0 100 85 56.8 12 8 14.1 60 5 72.3 100 95 33.5 12 10 10.2 60 10 70.7 no 5 123.4 15 1 25.4 60 15 68.8 no 15 121.4 15 3 24.0 60 20 66.3 no 25 118.4 224 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE A (Conlijiucd) In- take Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultan t Intake Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant Intake Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant 110 35 114.6 200 125 163.2 275 100 266.2 110 50 106.8 200 150 137.9 275 150 238.5 110 75 86.8 200 175 ]00.6 275 200 194.6 110 85 75.0 200 190 64.8 275 250 117.8 110 100 49.0 220 5 234.2 300 5 314.4 125 5 138.6 220 15 233.1 300 15 313.6 125 15 136.8 220 25 231.6 300 25 312.5 125 25 134.2 220 35 229.6 300 35 311.0 125 35 130.8 220 50 225,8 300 50 308.2 125 50 124.0 220 75 217.1 300 75 301.9 125 75 107.2 220 100 204.9 300 100 293.3 125 100 79.8 220 125 188.8 300 125 282.2 125 110 63.1 220 150 167.3 300 150 268.3 135 5 148.7 220 175 138.3 300 175 251.3 135 15 1 147.0 220 200 94.9 300 200 230.2 135 25 144.6 230 5 244.1 300 250 170.3 135 35 141.4 230 15 243.2 300 275 123.0 135 50 135.2 230 25 241.7 325 5 339.4 135 75 120.0 230 35 239.8 325 15 338.7 135 100 96.3 230 50 236.2 325 25 337.6 150 5 163.8 230 75 227.9 325 35 336.3 150 15 162.3 230 100 216.3 325 50 333.7 150 25 160.1 230 150 181.5 325 75 327.9 150 40 155.6 230 200 117.5 325 100 320.0 150 50 151.7 230 215 84.4 325 125 309.8 150 75 138.3 250 5 264.2 325 150 297.3 150 100 1 118.3 1 250 15 263.3 325 175 281.9 150 120 94.9 250 25 262.0 325 200 263.4 175 5 188.9 250 35 260.2 325 250 213.0 175 15 187.6 , 250 50 256.9 325 275 177.5 175 25 i 185.7 250 75 249.3 325 285 160.0 175 35 183.3 250 100 238.8 325 300 128.0 175 50 178.5 250 125 225.0 350 5 364.5 175 75 167.3 250 150 207.4 350 15 363.8 175 100 151.2 250 175 184.7 350 25 362.8 175 150 94.2 250 200 154.9 350 35 361.6 200 5 214.1 250 230 101.0 350 50 359.2 200 15 212.9 275 5 289.3 350 75 353.7 200 25 211.3 275 15 288.4 350 100 346.4 200 35 209.1 275 25 287.2 350 125 337.1 200 50 204.9 , 275 35 285.7 350 150 325.6 200 75 195.3 275 50 282.6 350 175 311.7 200 100 181.7 275 1 '' 275.7 1 350 200 295.0 225 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE A (C )}iti)iue i) In- take Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant Intake Lb. , j Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant Intake Lb. Dis- charge Lb. Re- sultant 350 225 275.0 400 1 75 405.1 ' 425 300 307.2 350 250 251.0 400 100 398.8 425 325 279.3 350 275 221.6 400 125 390.2 425 ' 350 245.7 350 300 184.4 400 150 380.8 425 375 203.7 350 325 132.8 400 175 369.0 425 400 146.2 375 5 389.5 400 200 355.0 450 5 464.6 375 15 388.8 400 225 338.6 450 15 464.0 375 25 387.9 4C0 250 319.4 450 25 463.3 375 35 386.8 400 275 296.9 450 35 462.3 375 50 384.6 400 300 270.2 450 50 460.4 375 75 379.5 400 325 238.0 450 75 456.2 375 100 372.7 400 350 197.5 450 100 450.5 375 125 364.0 400 375 141.9 450 125 443.4 375 150 353.4 425 5 439.6 450 150 434.7 375 175 340.6 425 15 439.0 450 175 424.4 375 200 325.4 425 25 438.2 450 200 412.3 375 225 307.4 425 35 437.2 450 225 398.3 375 250 286.1 425 50 435.2 450 250 382.1 375 275 260.8 425 75 430.7 j 450 275 363.5 375 300 230.0 425 100 424.7 450 300 342.1 375 325 191.1 425 125 417.1 450 325 317.2 375 350 137.4 425 150 407.9 450 350 288.1 400 5 414.5 425 175 396.9 450 375 253.2 400 15 413.9 425 200 383.9 450 400 209.8 400 25 413.1 425 225 368.8 450 425 150.4 400 35 412.0 425 250 351.3 475 50 485.7 400 50 409.9 425 275 330.9 500 50 510.0 226 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE B Length 1 Length j Length of Line ! Multiplier of Line Multiplier 1 of Line Multiplier Miles i 1 Miles Miles K 2880. 19 231.2 61 129.1 M 2016. 20 225.5 ' 62 128.1 % 1652.4 21 220.1 63 126.9 Yi 1419.7 22 214.9 64 126.0 H 1275.9 23 210.0 65 125.1 % 1158.6 24 205.7 66 1 124.1 ^8 1083.7 25 201.6 : 67 123.1 1 1008.0 26 197.6 68 122.2 11., 826.2 27 193.8 1 69 121.3 1^" 763.6 28 190.5 70 I 120.4 2 714.9 29 187.0 72 i 118.7 21., 638.0 30 183.9 74 117.2 2U 607.2 I 31 181.0 i 76 115.6 3 582.7 32 178.0 ! 78 114.2 31., 539.0 33 175.6 1 80 112.7 4 504.0 34 172.9 1 82 111.2 41., 475.5 35 170.3 84 109.9 5 450.0 36 168.0 86 108.7 51., 428.9 37 165.8 88 107.5 6 " 411.4 38 163.6 90 106.2 61., 395.3 39 161.3 92 105.1 7 380.4 40 159.5 94 103.9 71., 367.9 41 157.5 96 102.9 8 356.2 42 155.6 98 101.8 81., 345.2 43 153.7 100 100.8 9 " 336 44 152.0 102 99.8 91., 327.3 45 150.2 105 98.3 10 319.0 46 148.7 107 97.5 101., 311.1 47 146.9 110 96.0 11 303.6 48 145.4 112 95.3 111., 297.3 49 144.0 115 93.9 12 " 291.3 50 142.6 118 92.8 121., 284.7 51 141.2 120 92.0 13 276.4 52 139.8 122 91.2 131., 274.6 53 138.5 125 90.2 14 269.5 54 137.1 130 88.4 141., 264.6 55 135.8 135 86.8 15 260.5 56 134.8 140 85.2 151. 255.8 57 133.5 145 83.7 16 252.0 58 132.3 150 82.3 17 244.7 59 131.2 18 1 237.5 60 130.1 227 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE C MULTIPLIERS FOR DIAMETERS OTHER THAN ONE INCH Size Size Size of Pipe Multiplier of Pipe Multiplier of Pipe Multiplier Inches Inches Inches M .0317 3 16.50 I 12 556 Vi .1810 4 34.10 16 1160 K .5012 5 60.00 18 1570 1 1.0000 5^ 81.00 20 2055 1^ 2.9300 6 95.00 24 3285 2 5.9200 8 198.00 30 5830 2V2 10.3700 10 350.00 36 9330 by adding the figures opposite 15 and 25 and dividing by 2, which, computed as above, gives a discharge of 9,469,154 cubic feet. The measure for wrought iron pipes greater than 12 inches in diameter is taken from the outside. For pipes of ordinary thickness the corresponding inside diameters and multiphers are as follows: Outside Diameter Inside Diameter Multiplier 15 14M 863 16 im 1025 18 iiH 1410 20 19H 1860 The preceding tables can also be used to determine the pressures or the size of pipe necessary to convey a certain quantity of gas. Example — Required the pressure to furnish say, 9,500,000 cubic feet, per 24 hours, through 8-inch pipe 20 miles long. 9,500,000 — = 48,030 that one-mch pipe must convey, per 198 228 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES 24 hours; opposite 20 miles (Table B) the number is 225.5, which governs the capacity for this particular length — '- = 212.9, which number must be compared to a com- 225.5 bination of high and low pressures in Table A. Upon inspec- tion of this table it will be found that 200 pounds intake and 15 pounds outlet will fulfill the condition. Table A also shows a number of other combinations which are equal to 212.9, or close to it, any of which will apply equally well. If the size of the line is taken at 10 inches in diameter, then 9,500,000 ^--,.., . ,, , u- u ■ u • = 2/, 143 IS the amount which one-mch pipe must 350 27 143 convey and — '- = 120. Bv inspecting Table A, 110 intake 225.5 - ^ and 20 pounds discharge will be the pressures required. If it is required to find the size of pipe necessary to convey 9,500,000 cubic feet in 24 hours, and the other con- ditions remain the same, then 198 X 212.9 X 225.5 = 9,500,000; therefore 9,500,000 - (212.9 X 225.5) = 198, and this number is found opposite 8-inch pipe in Table C. vSay that 4,550,000 cubic feet are required when the other conditions remain, then 4,550,000 -f- ^212.9 X 225.5) = 95 + . By referring to Table C it is found that 95 is opposite the size of 6-inch, which is therefore the required size. The numbers found in Tables A and B corresponding with the pressures and lengths, multiplied together and divided into the quantity, must give the number corresponding to the size of pipe. Any of these quantities in the formula can be de- termined by multiplying the two known factors and dividing their product into the known cubic feet. Examples Showing Application of Table D — Suppose that a line is composed of 10-inch and 16-inch pipe, that there are 30 miles of the former and 20 miles of the latter, 229 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE D COMPARATIVE CAPACITY OF PIPES OF DIFFERENT GAS APPLIED TO LINES IN WHICH A Size 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 OF Pipe Ins. Note —In mak Comparative ing computations observe 1 1 34 265 1,150 3,573 9,035 39,000 2 .0294 1 7.8 34 105 266 1,150 3 .0037 .128 1 4.34 13.45 34 147 4 .0295 .231 1 3.11 7.80 34 5 .0741 .0293 .0037 .3274 .1272 .0295 .0094 1 .3954 .0915 .0295 .0116 2.51 1 .2316 .0741 .0295 10.94 6 4.34 8 1 10 .3260 12 .1272 loM .0086 .0373 16 .0295 17^ 18 19H 20 The above table is based upon the fact that the length of pipes for the same quantity of gas varies as the 5.0835 power of their diameters. The value of the increasing or decreasing sizes can readih' be appre- ciated by an inspection of the table. It is particularly useful in securing the value of a series of dif- ferent sizes of pipes in the same line by reducing the values of the several sizes to some one of the sizes in use. For example, on the hori- zontal line in the table a unit, say 1 foot or 1 mile of 8-inch pipe, has 230 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES TABLE D DIAMETERS CONVEYING THE SAME QUANTITY OF NUMBER OF DIFFERENT SIZES ARE USED (By F. II. Oliphant) 10 12 1534 16 17M 18 19K 20 Values carefully the decimal notations. 121.210 306.380 1,043.700 1,326,000 1.937.700 2.406.100 3.382,300 4.120.000 3.570 9.035 30,700 39,000 57,000 70.765 99,480 121.178 457 1.150 3.940 5,004 7,312 9,040 12.760 15.550 105 265 908 1,150 1.685 2,092 2.940 3,575 34 85.75 292 371 542.3 673.4 946.6 1,150 13.45 34 115.5 147 215 265 375 457 3.11 7.80 26.75 34 50 61.70 86.70 105 1 2.52 8.61 10.94 16 19.85 27.90 34 .8954 1 3.41 4.34 6.32 7.80 11.00 13.45 .1161 .2935 1 1.27 1.85 2.30 3.24 3.95 .0915 .2316 .7871 1 1.46 1.81 2.55 3.11 .0630 .1582 .5386 .6843 1 1.24 1.75 2.13 .1273 .4337 .5510 .8053 1 1.41 1.71 .3085 .3920 .3218 .5728 .4703 .7113 .5840 1 .8209 1.22 1 the same value as 3.11 feet or miles of 10-inch. 7.80 feet or miles of 12-inch and 105 feet or miles of 20-inch. When smaller sizes are used 1 foot or 1 mile of 8-inch pipe is equiv- alent to 0.2316 feet or mile of 6-inch pipe, etc. Larger diameters, when compared to smaller, give the equivalent in an increased length, and smaller diameters give a less length when compared with a diameter assumed to be 1. 231 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES and that the pressure is 200 pounds at the end of the 10-inch section, next the source, and 25 pounds at the discharge end of the 16-inch section. After adding 15 pounds to each of the pressures to obtain the actual pressure, these become 215 and 40 pounds, respectively. The formula is Q = ^2aJ ^Jf^^. y/Pi — Pi = V 215'— 40' = V 44,625 = 211.3 For 10-inch pipe the multiplier is a = 350, as given in Table C. The length of equivalent 10-inch pipe is now to be de- termined, so that it can be substituted in the formula. One mile of 16-inch pipe is equivalent to 0.0915 mile of 10-inch, and 20 miles of 16-inch will therefore be equivalent to 30 + 1.83 = 31.83 miles of 10-inch pipe. The same result can be obtained another way, as follows : 1 mile of 10-inch pipe is equivalent to 10.94 miles of 16-inch. Hence 20 miles of 16- inch will be equivalent to — '- — = 1.83 miles of 10-inch pipe. 10.94 ^ ^ The equivalent lengths thus determined remain the same for all variations of pressure at the intake and outlet. By substituting the determined quantities, the equation (? = 42 X 3.50^/|f • = 42 X ^-^'^f^^ = 551,700 cubic feet per hour. Suppose the pressure be increased to 400 pounds at the intake and 25 pounds at the outlet; then V 415'— 40' = V 170,625 = 413. As compared with 211.3 this quantity would be 1.95 times 211.3, showing the increase in quantity to be almost directly as the intake pressure when the outlet pressure is small by comparison with the intake. 232 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES The proof of this iUustration can be shown by substi- tnting the equivalent distance for the 16-inch pipe and the multiplier for the same instead of the 10-mch. By referring to the table it will be found that 1 mile of 10-inch pipe is equivalent to 10.94 miles of 16-inch. Thirty miles of 10-inch are therefore equivalent to 30 X 10.94 = 328 miles of ] 6-inch. The whole line is consequently equivalent to 328 + 20 = 348 miles of 16-inch pipe. In the table of multipliers for diameters greater than one inch, opposite 16 w^e find 1160; then if the pressures remain 200 and 25 pounds respectively, as before, Q = 42 . lil^p X 1160, Q = 42X2113X1160 ^ ..^^^^^ \ d48 18. bo cubic feet per hour, w^hich is almost exactly the same quantity as obtained before. For any specific gravity other than 0.6, multiply the final result bv 4 0.6 sp. gr. gas For temperatures of flowing gas when observed above 60 deg. fahr., deduct 1 per cent, for each 10 degrees, and add a like amoimt for temperatures less than 60 deg. fahr. Reduction in Pressure of Natural Gas in Pipes, Owing to Fittings — The drop in pressure due to friction in ells, tees and globe valves of ordinary manufacture is allowed by an addition to the length of straight pipe. The following table shows the additional length required to compensate for friction due to ells, and tees. For globe valves increase the values shown in the table by 50 per cent. 233 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES Diameter of Pipe Additional Diameter of Pipe Additional Inches Length, Feet Inches Length. Feet 1 1.5 6 27 IM 2.0 7 29M IV2 '^-i 8 35M 2 ^% 10 46^3 Wi Q% 12 58% 3 m 15 76% 3H 10% 18 95 4 13M 20 108 5 18?^ 24 133 Table of Multipliers for Different Specific Gravities — The following correction factors apply to all computations of the Pitot tube and orifice measurements and of the flow of gas in pipes, when the formulae used are based on a standard specific gravity of gas of 0.60. In practice, the corrections for gravity are usually neglected unless accurate results are required. TABLE OF MULTIPLIERS FOR DIFFERENT SPECIFIC GRAVITIES Specific Gravity Multiplier Specific Gravity Multiplier .75 .70 .65 .894 .925 .960 .6 .55 .50 1.000 1.044 1.095 Pipe Capacity — The capacities of pipe lines of different sizes vary as ' 5.0835 2.542 d = d where d is the diameter. The area of a pipe varies as the square of the diameter, or as d~. 234 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES Tables for Computing the Flow of Natural Gas in Pipe Lines — Based upon formula by F. H. Oliphant in "Production of Natural Gas in 1900," United States Geological Survey. Formula — () = 42(7. * , Q = cubic feet per hour. 42 = constant. a = computed value for diameters. Pi = gauge pressure + 15 pounds at intake end of line. P2 = gauge pressure + 15 pounds at discharge end of line. L = length of line in miles. For value of .4, sec Table of Multipliers. Calculated for 1-inch pipe (flow in thousands of cubic feet) for 24 hours at normal pressure of 14.4 pounds. vSpecific gravity of gas taken at 0.6. For any other specific gravitv multiplv final result bv % '- \ sp.gr.gas For other diameters, or value A, use the following multipliers : M inch 0317 23^^ inches 10.37 8 inches 198 H inch 1810 3 inches 16.50 10 inches 350.0 ^ inch 5012 4 inches 34.10 12 inches 556.0 1 inch 1.0000 5 inches 60. CO 16 inches 1160.0 Vi inches 2.9300 bH inches 81.00 18 inches 1570.0 2 inches 5 . 9200 6 inches 95 . 00 For pipes greater than 12 inches in diameter the measure is taken from the outside and for pipes of ordinary thickness the corresponding inside diameters and multipliers are as follows : Outside Inside Multiplier 15 inch 14M inch 863 16 inch IbH inch 1025 18 inch 1714 inch 1410 20 inch 19^ inch 1860 For riveted or cast pipe with inside diameters as below, use multipliers opposite: 20 inch 2055 30 inch 5830 24 inch 3285 36 inch 9330 All pipe line capacity tables on pages 236 to 324 are based on the foregoing formula. 235 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES o c: o o o o S o r~, ■£ S CA i-O r-' (/J t-' O'lC O CO O O "M 'O .-irt,— iCMCNtNCOCO O'OOJQOCioocoeo r-lr-HC^JIMlMC^COCOeO §881 :8SgS 000( CO ^ o CO ' - _ _ - — i.-i-H(M(M(M(MCCCOeO' OOOO! 8S8SS 00( 88? — 1 1-1 -H iM (M -M C~) CO CO CO CO ■ QOOl 888: -t r-H 'O ( CO >C Ol^ o iSS8s88 CO'# ot^coo ' OO O C5 O : CO »c -H t^ -M t^ -r o 'C o 'O —I o OCO'JDCO-^COOCO — -fOCJ'-H rtrtrtrtC^4(MCMC^COCOCOCO-^ 800 Q QQQO OOOOOOO OOOOOOOO OO' Cf 1 O 00 05 Ci o" C^-*>OOt^C0O^ OOi 88: O OOOO -f r-T C5 o '-<" (M CO '^ O t^ OOOOOOOOQO 5 ^ ^ -3 S .^i -^ -3 C2 '-^ >— I CI iM Oi O) CO CO CO CO -ti 000000000'0 0>OQ»00'0 0«0 0'0 CI CO -# lO CO t^ CO O O "M 'O I-- O C-l «0 t^ O C-l 'O t^ o _ rt rt r^ cj CI CI c-i CO CO CO CO -t< 236 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES c^' ^F X tj;* cp g ~: rj x - o ic o M ^ 2 1^ ^ ^ ' :/; :c ro -M -M cc ;s i^ o-r ■^ t^ O — fC O O X lO c-4 X o o w -M r^ i^ C-. O c-i -r o r- c; o c>) ro r 1 ri re r 1 £. -o . 88S888i88iiiS8; S22: r. o 'M oc t^ o cc < -^ C^l CO ■* • o o o 883 cf O' ci" 22222222222; 22222 888 222 o re M X — -r ■>! c; o c-i ^ ;m -M ^: -r OOCSOSSOOOOCOS20S2020. 5SC-5S3 !>: S -3 >: c^ — rl -r- L.~ t^ X b — fc? r» n ro re re ro 237 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES X L- re -r -r X I- Ti -r L- ri t^ — -• t^ O ■* iD X c~. — :^> rc o oc r^' ^r t^' o lO x x" L-: — T c; oc re t^ O re L-: t^ — — ' ec ic i^ X O — M re -r o co£o5S5555So re o' c; x' x' o" --c — ' -f w' t-.' r-" fc Le -^ t>. 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BBSS c c o o rvi cvf cc r^ •M 'M CO 00 SSsS: j: re v. r: >: S,SS2 BBBBBBi SSBB oooo rC ^ o cT oS5 555o55535o c6c6 ■>> o Ci lO -f c^f o r-T Lt' m' o BSBBBSB sssgs oooo; g2ggSS£SSSS£SS52S52SS2 oooooo5ooooooo55oooooo r/S c-i -^ -^ :£ ID >rS ■c -f' ro — ~' ■■£ -r — >' X ^ rc o' x o" ri c I lO t>- C5 ^ re o t^ c: — — o '■'t O 'O C5 -:?> c; -r >" ro xi ^ _ „ _« „ rvj -:-, ^ J^ _p _p _p ,-; ,.^ ;;^ ;;^ (^ j^ O O O O O O O O O Q 'Q O 'C O >0 O lO O O O >--: o ^ M CO ■* lo o t~ X C5 o -M .c t^ 5 ^^ ifS t>: o CN r;^ t^ O 243 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES :8|88S; lO 00000( " * " - ' lOOCO rtr-KMCMCOfOCO-^-^iOiOiOO 8885 lOOi :88: ;888; >oc o ; :88l OOOL'^CO-T'M'^OOQCt^ O'^QC'MOOfOO'MiCOCC (M(N(MeOCO'*-«*<->J<»0>-OtOCO iM »C t^ 00 O oo 88 88 2888 — S 8 888 8 8888888 -i^HCMC^cSCOCO^rr-^OOOO _ _ _ .OOOOOQiCOiOQiOOiOOiOOiOO ^^rt,-iC^(NC^l(MCOC0COCO->S< OC OOOOOi 244 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ri x c: -y. re ~. O LO -r — Ti r^ CO — -r -r t— — t^ ~i I- Er 5- ~ 2' 1} ~ L" '^- Z^ ~ ■£: ~' £2 5^ = oc o ri c 71 K ^ i-^ ?t t- S2S 7 1 1 2 I 10 a; t- y. — re 3 r- r^ -r t^ X v: .r — X) 10 cc o r 1 -r u: — o L-: c: t^ o' cf X 'T -M >: c; Ci o t^ o 10 t^ C5 — ?C iC t^ 55S ci oc — " CO •M i--^ CO O X :g2jj2=s^2Sro c: '^ — ^' :^ -^ — r; t^ c: — ~ yi ~ ~r Ti ^ l>- ~. — Tl — --S: ZC EsE C5 t^ o o -^ C5 lO O i-O Tf t^ c^i T r^ o O -M — o t^ -=!' iC oc C: — ' <^^^;cxo:^^^^l--t^^x^ot^--l.':c:cox^^oo■*JO ITS LO tr ts w> ^ 1— 1 -H rt ^ (N C^ CN C^COCOfO CO- 245 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES a 04 i-O C^l O -H O t^ CO 00 (M CO (M t^ -^ ■*! 00 .-H i-T ^' ci (m' cc CO CO ■<*'■ |i|||||is§ ^ i: C -r X ^ ^ cc ^_^ ^ -h' ~ rf c^i oi" CO CO CO rj!' •>!if §sg§g oS ooo (m' Tt TiJ oc CO tc ~ c^i c; LO c^ lO c; c•' o t" r^ o o i-o 30 »- ■* CO lO t^ X ci -^ c: r I •-: X — -»< X ■=: -se. -x . 1 ~\ ~ A r. ~. i~ 1- r. ?i 1- x I- I ~ — •£ t^ — ^ t- -M c>o cc ro M O i-o ir; ro -M lO ^1 CO cr. — Cd Li ^ t^ ~ :s3E3CSS3C5t3C5< OT- X CT. M -^ ?5 TT ic S X C5 o ^, '•'v 'S, ^, -~1 '-'v f"" ^ '-^' "^ f^ ^ •-H -^' f-T ci c>J !m" c^' CO 00 00 ro CO S S S o g Qo '— ' ir L- l2 i^' ":£ %( 55Sc5 3 = 5^5552: 555S5J5oqSoo5oooS re ^ ■"-: i' r-1 X r-i O H '-~ x 'ci ?i •-- t^ i — * — — " — ' ^^ ^j' ■>{ ^)' ro I - c; o o c Q o g Li o o Q o o L-5 g o o L.0 g _^__^^^^:^^:^^:o^:)oooO'^ 247 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES W -2 C (1< CO CI to cr. ^ -^ t- 05 '-h' i-T T-^ cT c^r f-1 oT 888: ooo< c; t^ t^ O -^ OOOOOOOOOOOQ 8SS8888S8SS8 CO CO 'O' ^< CO »0 CO o" ^ O cT CD c; lo — o ^ Tf< -r Ci o lo C5 'M t* lO X ^ CO CO ^ 'T lO CO O -- — ^ lO t^ O CC CO -o CO Tf lO t^ t^ O CI 888 ooooooSo 9 S: 2 9 8S; 8SS CI o oo c:^ CO c:5 1^ COOi O OO 00 t^ (M CO ■* lO CO l^ CO :; CO 1^ GO CO lO l^ o ol c^i <: ' co^-rt^'Mcoccoor^r^ioio ^CO-^iOCOt^GOOO-^OJCO ^_rrH^^c^Cvf(>f(Ncocoeo ■ OOCOOilM co^t>.oo(^ O -^ OCiOO CM COTt)»0t^OCM»Ot--O'Nt0t^c5 ^^^^(MiMCMC^jfOCOCOCO^ 248 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES o -r c. •c o lo -r o u-^ C-. — f t^ o — -TO c: ro — C-. O oi t- t- cc t^ -r rC' — t - o C-. >^ -< -r 1- t- o ■M -r o S2SS35SS: - o ^- fo o r^ c; ,iS' ssss CO X — ' i-'S re c f L'< o" lO t^ X t^ CO -r o ic ' X i.o o -H f CO I -* •>* ec c^i o X iiiiiiiii to X X X -M I.-:: o X t^ CO o --r OQQQOOQQ SO Q Q O Q OO w-OOOOOOO o" -r CO* rf irf ic lo CO — — OCit^iOCO- 'M rO r^ TT lO CO t^ X CO X 'M X O to-* Tj< C^ ^ ^ C^ CO •* lO -Ht^eoiCTj< xr^co-* c^i — I c^i CO -* o 2g' liSi 22 :::?? r^ O C X CO CO C5 O — O: CO ^J C^ iC — X -r O CO C) OOXLOco — xcofc^) — oxr^coTfcoMOcr. M CO CO Tt* LO CO CO t^ X C C^) Tt- i-O t- : COOCOOOOOQiCOiOO'ftQ'OQ'OQ'O" — ?lC0^IoSttxC:O!Mi-':t^O=S-=^O0 88SS8SI OOO O O O : t^ o CO -^ --r — — t - o o o o o CO -r t^ --C CO ^ ^1 CO ~? -f ooooooooooooooooooooo 888iiSSi8i85SSSSS8SS8 M 04 C<) C^ OOOOOOOOi _____ -0 O 1- X C-. O C^l lO t^ O Ol lO t^ O •>! i-O t^ ( ^ ^ „ « ~4 ^j ^1 C~) ro CO CO CO • 250 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES S5o55 555 t^ >c -f — " ■£ r f ri '/• ir: o ic ■* f>. c: — '-1^x5 255 = 8 ^ f^ 1.5 c^i X o -.r X o — 5ts=5csi5=:3CiC5=: — ^) re Tf -t< lO -o X ^5; i^ X c; fc ^ ^ ?5 CO 2SSSS: O C C: O C S 5 5 o S '^" w' m' CO of C5 t— "T O CD -H c^i rc fc :22 22; O O C O C C O O O O LTt C L~ O iC O i-~ O i-'^ c i-*; o 251 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES O O CC C2 iM t^ 00 lO O O CO 00 CO O C-. C-1 Q Ot -o ro t^ o c/; lo »o t^ OO C ' (m' oc' x c; T> ■■£ ■ -r C T 'X O C^l ■ CO iC O t-. c: O ' r r-.' o -f ! 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X CD O Ol 'O t- O 01 lO r- o oj «o t^ ( '^— <^«oioio^oicorococo- 254 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES 222S2! ■^ O re — — 00 t^ -r — e 1 §g| c/: ~ x — le O re 1^ '.e x O r-- C: t^ ^ oi ce re' ■r t>r cc o o gSS; o >.e re — X — ' ,— TT — t^ t^ O re t^ w re o t^ |5SSSgg|gggg; ^ce o — re ei — loex -- — ei : O re o o re o S S 5 5 S 5 5 re' re c: — ~ t^ t^ ' — ' — H ef ■>)' re' gsggsssgsss _' -V)' -~ ^ —r r^' „' V-' — ' — - -' r^ i3 ~i ir- io TT ~ — ^ — ,— el § ue - t2 re c -c r i x - re' re' rr o >-e' zc t^' t^' cc x o 00220 ooo SSSqSSSS o re' id o' Ci ef ce' o' ccicero — oDic^o oorecz;oO'-i'*o ^' -4^ -h' ^' ei ef (m" §0 Q OO 00 o" re' o r^" ee -H (>j o t^ Z S -^ .?; re o o oi »o I- o ei o t^ ce ci i= c^ cC' -^ o w cl_^ o6 rr —< .-^ rt' 1-H CM* C^^ C^' ef CO CO t!" lO IC O t> iC CXj OC Ci o o o o o o o o o o o i-e o ic Q i.e o 'O o o c o o T-H c^j ce -^ >.e o t^ jc c: o ■M >e i^ c5 •M o r^ o r^ Le r^ o ,_(«^H,— lCslCM^^:^^rererere•* 255 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES c:' r-' -f — :SS i^O —I Ol <^i o !M O Tf t^ t^ -^ iq . oo' - z r- CO O) c: O . . . — — -r T T CO CO t^ O) t^ 01 t- Ol t> OJ t^ 04 COOOOOOOOQOOOOi-OO" r^oico-^iooixJOOooaior^poiLoi 256 I lO O "0 o I Ol o t^ o I CO CO CO-* CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ;£ q: O '-:' ■--; o OC (N OC CO 00 i~ H c: c^i S w t-^ 5 — '■" ro o lO — ;:? — ic ci 'T ~. — ' CN 'm' ro ro 'f ' 55555555 Tf' O fO — <' O CX3 — ' 'J"" lO'X — ooicr^?ao — -h' -<* — ' (m' '^f 55 5t S aS ac 2 2 .it X ^i if {r X K -, 2 O ;c t>r gS22gl 5555^; 'Jw ,N -r .'. . . — ^1 j^ Tft^c: — roL-^r^X t^ C: O X CO ic r^ c: -H 552555 -H ^f of — >" L.-: c-^ -^ t CO — Tt< e oC o M Tf T~ i-~ ;C w r>- o X ~ r- ir i- — ~ t^ -r X — -- r^ c; — t^ c: fc vr : c^ TT ;r X c: M T L.t t^ o c^- X r-j w -^ o Ci -^ X rN( ; _— .-H^c^iojfccc' irj ic O O r^ 5 s.^ ^c^co^io3i>-aoc55^).-ot^5:^LOt^5ML-t^o ^„_^CMr^CM(McorororO'3' 257 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES _^ 6,000 6.000 6.000 2,000 1.000 6,000 3,000 7.000 3 -H ^1 Cf ro '^' ■* Tf lO ^ ^^ ^_,^, ^,^,_^,^^_ ■ • •' •' • ■ ■ ■ • • • S s 5 c 5 8 5 S 5 S J i(< --' — ' -I — ' 1^' -1 --' ~f -<^ O : : : -f — i^ >: r-f-^ccc^ ri^ • • • • ■ • ■ -^.^ -.".'- '~. 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'^ — X c: -- re Le | ; ; '. [ ; ; ; 1 ; , ^^ ^^ .^ :8s qqS ;j ; ^' t^' 10 i-e ;;::;;;;:;;;;;; ; o ;^^^^§ :::::::::::::::: :Ss558 •■::•■;:•■•■;•■•■■■::: : - -J ■i2f2^^^ ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■'[ o : ce 1> C2 :::..:... '-<'■ 888888i88i888???8iigS8 J 0' ~: — '~' x' ^' i~' — ' e 1 X .r re x .e x — ' -: — ' x re' o o o ^ ^ rt" .-1 r- c>i cm' cj ce CO ■<* '3- •*' ic lO o o a 5 ^ c-i 0030000000 ooooooi-ooLe 000 i=.?)re=roSt-oooOMi-ot-.oeiot^OM^t^O >'. S ^ X a. 258 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES r I / — ~i ri o • - - — >: ?i -^ ill ill q' X O CO o" « 5 CI etc: t^ CO ro -^ -t" 'T o oc o C-. r^ CO ~ --r ' -^ i>. X c; M — cr. : X -£ o 'j; c;" r^' c^' x' ■^3x5'^?i3o C-. X X lo >o c; X Q O t— CO X CO — ■^ O I> O O O) CO s n ^ rr -S 5o : ^ t- 5 -r -^ cr. 01 io T- 5 co o ■ ^, ^. ^, '^, ^. ^. *^ "-", ^, "^^ ^, ^ • — «' m' oi c^f CO* co' CO ^' ■^' ■^' lO o X _ — rj -r- SS5 tC X* Ol r^ i.o >.o X r^ — ■ X CO r^ -H co^ o t^o — . I ~ — _ t^ — iT Ol X -M (- 01 -O :^ ~ M 'O i^ o n ■-; 1^ c; m '~ i^ — . (^ _ -~ 1^ „ ,-. 1^ — rr i^ O CO — ' — ' oi' c^' of co' CO co" rr -r -t" O lO OpOQOCCOOCiCOiOCiOCxtCcOC'OO »-i5lCO^lOCCr-XC50C^iOh-CC^i.Ot^OCIOI^O 259 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES » ^^ •— ^1 'M 'M fC fC CO gCCSQSCOC C S S C O C g S < OO'T — ^= ac sc 3= at sr g ; o -r -i- CO '.") t^ o c-i r^oo-^t^xoo coirst^xoocoo ogogoog CO* o c^i -f o !m' tC -r -H Lo X -^ CO Tt< CO '-'3 O t^ O O '-' CO CO CO CO -^ t^ ^ CO o ^ r- LO X 0-1 "^i icco ccoooooo OOOOOOQO o o o c o o e o t^' — ' o — ' co' O :d -h' O -sC C-. M -^ ^ t^ CI COTOt^XOO^ Lo 1- -h' t>r GO O O C C^l Tfi —I CO i-o o t^ mil — O X CO o ^ ^ OJ c: O toc^ _ t^ O !M »0 00 r-^CO 1-H c.XCiO(N>Ot^OC^"Ot^OC^"Ot^O _)cOCOCOfO'5l< 260 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES C-. fc I -I q cc ic S=r' 3^ sr : C OQO 8Si8 llllllll; C — ' -r ij ^' ;f ^' 'm' ; S888S8 o o oo oo o o c^f cc o ■^'■ t^ CO lO (M CC CO -r o o CI T}< t^ fi^s^iiU :88i lO o< cc '^ lo o r- ( lOO ;S8 I CO 't* -r ■ o t^ ( r^ lo -^ CO t^coioco cr. u; --c t- — -r t^ t^ oj lO C£> 00 O CO lO £555525 c -H ,r .c X X -r — rj lO t- cc X X X t- t^ C^CO-^iOOt^OCO Oi t^ Qi C^J IOC5 p -< ■ "H 6J ^ lO' r o (M (M CO CO CO lO X Ol t^ C5(M 55555525 5 S 2 5 o q2 2 5 8 — <' L-^' r-' — ' co' cc o c^' t' r^* c^ im' COOt^OOl^^OS— 'COiOQO (M •* CO 05 — _^ CO iq r^_ q C4 ■<*<_ o ^ i-T ^■' — ' c^f m' 'm" c^f CO CO CO CO COOOOTfCCnCOTTi-O fOTfiCiO-^'I'COM— ' T-.XC5 • M ^ cr ^^^^i;s^CvjCv)IMCOC0COC0'9< 261 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ss§s :~) w :c X — -M re -J* t^ C (TC L- CC O C^) '^ — ' — r — ' — ' m' c-j c^ r£ t--' \£ I.-' c^ — ' re x' cT t>^ c; — — — --i y: o ~"i Tf o i>^ cc -^ re i-e iC re t^ 2 Le X c: ei -^ ^ ei c^i c^ -M t^ :s »o r>.' c^f ej ef r-T x r^ ic -m' x re c- re' • iM re Tj- ic o X cr ei 'T i.e r^ ~ — ri -r --c : COO 8S5 SS2 c52S co2S; t^ ej c^ '# lO co o^ t^ o ^ CO -rr O 'O — o -< o 2 S o o iifiliii „3 c:OOc: O 888 - — x re y: 88888 00000 00000 880S8 ^^^^^ — I C^l -M CO -^ o cr. r: x I £d t^ o o : t^ oi >- I- y — CO o ^? -. '.-:■ -- —< c-i CI ro -rf 16 »o o 26 o o Ti r^ H f" ^ O C O O O O O O O O »0 O >0 O '"t O O O i-O C ^Z Q ■^ I ^ y: c. o M o r— o CI o 1^ o CI lo r^ o 263 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ^ ' .-' re — ' c-r o -r -^f o — ut -r -H X re X •^J lO r- C3 ^- r^ 'S' o t^ liiiiii X c '-- X C-. -r I o o r^ o o . GOt^fOOOC^IOOSC-JiOGO — CO COOt^OOO'—O-lTfiOOOOCS c5So X — M CO C; ! -f O) t^ — ' ^ 1 CO lO O X o S02ooQosoggos2sog 55S525 5£255c5wS25 — c55S r* ' 2 ■■^' ~ ~' — ' '^* ?i S ^ ^' ''■' ~' 2 '' h' -^ y' 2;rico^-?^-3r2xc: — c^co^irt^xcv QO r^ o o 't «o L-o CO o '^^ — ' t^ CO 30 c^) L.O -HO]coco'*'fcct~- CO X — O O •- CM S8§S (MX^'t^t^COOO— 'COUOf iO t^ C ■M '^ t^ O -H Tt< O X" Ot^OO-HiMCOiCOt^X' o S 5 S 5 8 S SS8S: .-KM (M CO C5 — X -^ CO — < XCOC5 "* ^ ^ CI (N CO • 52QCQ200Qogo5a^220wC02 ■ -^ -^ y' C5 -^" — ' — ' — ' O co' tf x' C;' - 1' — ' --5 x' ~' m' ro' . CO C; 'T O LO O O O i-O t^ C-. ' r -^ x o ~i l- t^ — '^'^c^coco'!ti't-occr>.c:o^^d'n'i-ooi>x< 1— i-H-H—nClC^JClC^COCOCOCO"* 264 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ■O iC X -r _ C rc rc — . -r x — T -^ t^ cr. — ~ I o :c -f — c-r — c:' w cT CO X ts — >': r^ C -M ^: '~ 'O CO "-^ i^ X r-. — -M -'o -r uo c; r^ C-. 3 CO CO ■M :o C c-i -^ «-0 -C: X CT. t^ i-O r: L~ ~ 1 — "M CO r o) sc — ^ --o x c; o - CO -^ ^ t^ CO C5 O M r 5= =: = =: i=;s;5=;=£i=;5t3=;5=:3C=;^s=:=;3<5, X =; s; =; =; =t ^ : bS23 5S2 SSS: 3S 5S =E 5? 5S c^i c 1- ri t- x I- y: ri i- - n ■-: ^ uO >-2 — V^ ■::^ L^ 1- >^ :^ ;;^ ^ P 5555888 •-r rf zr -m' o i — I- ?l I --2 3 iiii^ gS58i c co' — -^ o D lO O -^ C^ -H ^ C^ Cvl "M ~ f x' — " 3 O O Q >0 O 'O Q lO O lO o i-O 9 ;o o I- X O O Ol 'O t^ O M >0 t^ O C^l 'O t- O r-, ^ « ^ -M M ^4 71 ro CO CO CO -t< 265 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES -T'm'X ~ ■_; r^ X CO i-o S f-^ ~ c; — :8S CO CO X iM C-. 'M — Ci -r X) •M 1^ O r-i ^ CI 71 — ^ O CO -r 'O t^ cc cr. o '— c-i CO SS88S c c o c o -t --r x -T — o -r V — . — 3 o t^ O — ' C-l C-l 'M — C C-. C. X t- 'MTfiOCDt^OOOOO-^'MCO OQOOOCOOOOOOOOC; oSoogooooooogoo 00 oc i^" CO o CO — CO ■*' CO ■m' — (M cc CO X c^i C-) M -H o c; oo t^ _ ^'-^'MC^icoTfioor^t^aocr.o ooooocco oooooooo o o o o o o c^ o oo' lo c^' o t--.' 00 c^r -r '-^t^CslOO^'^fCO T-i -H CN (M CO CO '^ iC 2555S50 x — --T I- r^ -^ M C C; O "* QO (M o ^ ^ Oi 7J (M CO CO C: c; o o SS88 ggssgggsgggg oooosg; =• :=r 5r ■=- ^=r ^ ■ o o o o o 8S8SS — I lO 00 x' o O rt lOC: CO §11 c; -o CO CQ OggggggggOOOgggg; OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO' -r cr. i^ 71 ~ i--^ — X -r o cc- .-D X I- -^ -r CO ri 3 C-. X O i ^? CO -r ■--: i^ t^ X C-. c; o — " OOOOOOOOOOiOO>OOv-OOOOiOO»OQ i-KMeo-^ocot^oooocMiot^O'Mior^O'Mor^O 266 CAPACITIES OF P E LINES Ui as & Ph 1— t M ^ O tii < A y. u: p iiiiiii: : o ■?! o X V. '2 -^^ ^ ^_ ^_ ■ o* cc o c- T r I-': X •— ' CO --O ^ ^ ^ -M C-< C^l CO CC CO . O lO OO CO «o -^ c; c>i o -r ■ Ol C"! cc O lO ^ 00 Oi c: cr. I ^ tr re — ~ cr. ■^ c^j i-o C-. c; -T — x — t - X X oco-^co — XTO'-c — -c— 1 , -H CD »C CO O ^ t^ »0 O -* 'M O , —<_ 00 C^ r o trf irT r-T p c^i ^ ^ >*: * 5 *= ?* 2c 5 O Q r^T id t^' lc r-' ^ — < c*5 -^' c^T CO CO X O '-^^ C^l "I '^, ^ ^ O' o' '-' •^' tC OC O C^l ■^' lO Sc >c at >=: S5 2 5 SSS ^ 55 2 "^ ' L- O "M X CC C-. -T) L-^ ~ -rr lc -r ■-;;' — ' r^ — CO M •— X) M CO C"3 -M O^ C5 t-- iq CO^ O 'o -m'^ tooo'cJ''-^ CO i-dr^ ^H ^- ^, .—I -^ .-^ c^) (^^ oa c^ Si CO Tf O C^l C^l i OC d o O ^r d c-i lO — Oi . . ■* — cr- O 't c~i C c^J lot^oot-^co— ' of co' -V o o of o' ri SS5S2S2SSSSS ' x' t-' '^^ -h' rd i-o* o r-' X t C-. CO CC C5 (M t^ CO ^, —1 <^i ^. ^ ""1 f^ id t^' Ci c' of •^' o r-T -- -^ >- Ol 05 CM Ol Ol OCOQCO^-^Ot^ CO "^^^ ^__ CM^ o t^_ t^ iq IM* CO ■*' id CO o 00 o g8§i O O O I ■*' CO -^'" c5 1^ CO id CO 00 o ■^'' I —it^^iOCM-OOC^ICMCO-rfii -<00;DCOOt^iO(MOCOCOi ^cs^oicoococo CMt^CMOc005(NC0 O 00 t^ iq C^ O t^ ■*__ ^ (m" co" ■^* id' ic CO r-T CM t^ CO —1 1^ CM (M -^ ^^ ^*CMcdcd<* CO o r^ •* — ' CO ■* CM r^ o CO m CO o 00 -^ CM co' rt •** 888i oo< :S8I 00-HOt^t^OC»CMC^a'^C0'*C:QXC0t^CMOi0 01O T-HOiOr^O— lOOOO^— iCMC^J^CO-^-^iOiOiOiOiO oot^-* — ococooco-*— ioqiocMC5cqcqot>'3^'-H 1-H r4 CM CO '^ Tf lO CO t>r t-J 05 rt' cm' •>^' CO t>r 05 -^' CO •^" CO od' 1— li-Hi— (I— (t-Hi— i-CMCMCMCMC^ )OOOOOOOQiOO>OOiOOiOQ>OOiOO ieO-i" CO 1-' ■^' >d t^' x' SSS 'O : t^ >o CO c; o '>i 00 — T oT co' CO •^' lO »o ;8S OCi< llllllllllll . X oi ~ ;r r; CO X ^ X X x CO n I- ^x T\ S o '"S X ?i --i o -^ X ' 00 o ^' co' ■*' »o r^~ x' o — <" c^' OO O OOOi 8S8SS8! O O Ol X '^ O — I X o ■ o 1 -^ — < -P X 1 lo "O c; o 1 00 lo — I X -H of co' CO OOOQO OQOOO o o o o o o o' m" — <" co" lO (^ — I Ol —I CO O t-^ CO Ci '-<' c^r c^r co' CO SSS88S8S88S88SS8SS: oooooooocooooooooc;: OO CO -n- 00 >o ^1 t^ t^ — -M t^ ir — irr "O 'T CO t^ t- • >o ^ CO o t- I - -c ' T 'o CO -M — o X I- ;o -r Ci ^ t^ C :- O -r 50 C^l_ O O ^ t-^ ^_ LC o oi !m' co' V Tf it^io «?' r-" C5 O — " co' -*' CD t^ 00 O ^' ci Ol X ■ 1-1 (M CO -^ »0 CD t^ I -H^^^C^CMC^JCICOCOCOCO-"^ 269 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES OOOOOOQC S8888S8S b S q S 2 q q ic 2 re JT- -r X ri 3 o ss iiiiii ■ CO t^' ^'' —I CO oi -r ^H CO t^ : -H r-H X CO t^ • Lo CO t--.' cT o" 888888588588 ! r^ X' o —" lo o r^ o 88S; lO 00 ^4 r-^ I ob: ; CO O > CO o CO t^ '^ CO 888 q q q q q q q q sr; cc -r — vr c; ci CO CO -f lO t^ cz; '■4 ""' i-j ^' P ?^' ri 9 ^' m' co' CO 'I-' -f' cc t^' ^'i x^ -f b l6 q c^f c-l CO -^ -^ >o q oo 888 r-T c~ — ' lO O i-O O =C rr 'iiigss; OOOQOOOO CQOoqooo coocoooo LO o co' -f o t>^ o of LO CO oj r- -H -M Tf< -^ CO O O --^ t^ Ol t~- O) — ' of of co' co' -f -f to s^b bS — M OJ CO CO C --O 01 LO r^ Ci -r t^ X ^ t^ CO X CO - - — — oi n; o ( |S|i||S|||ii|||||8! q X q oi -r q x d5 t\ -i :c t-' c; o --<' c^i co' o o t ■ • a J3 cr ^rt^^^l(M(MC^COCOCOC«5' 270 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ^;=-sC=:5E3s:3iX d coc£2525S -- — c' — ' c; — ' c; '-o g cootJ^-r— — -^i^ CI ^'5x'^-^'^'?f^- — — — — _d liiiiiiiil J tf5x';5^'^'5;£:iic: g cx^x^-rr^Ci^o^ Pi O -*' LO t-' X' — ' f co' 'O' CD J g g S 5c g K -f>' -^ — ' x' >o t- X r- CO — i-o -r r; CO zd Pi ^ • •-fiotcxcT -^ ssiisSoSSSiS o .-.' r-.' ■ -' I -.' 1 -' / c:' v' ~' r 1 X 8 ^ .0 '- -^ I - X CO X 3 CO -r i^ ^, -r 1 - en 1 CO '- -^ X c: _H co' LO •^' t-' X ^' oi co' -r 10 h-^ o — — ^ ^^ _ _ , ^^ s 2 5< '=<'=;>=: 3< Sooo55 ^' o J Ifxg^g H^ C/3 • ofco'f L-'t-' ->:' (ij SSSS=S5SSSS^55SS2 hJ S552So5S=SSS35So5 s ;j £» X X -^ cc — L- c: ~ 1- -1 __ ,- lo '0 r u CO >-0 o) C X ro ..' X X t- -D 'O -r X a S i-O CO c^^ 10 CO -r- --: r- X C-. q —_ 1 CO -r -r \n 3; Oh u »— ' of of co' '^ i-O r~ t^ y ~ H' Zi 2' —' 12' i£' l5 J2 0' co' — ' i-o" — ' — <' ■ !^ i t- 00 t^ ^ CI t^ a 5 ^' Cf Cf CO fo" ■* 10 co" • B 2 ^• :iiiii|| CU ^ [13 •cr'^'.-'rlr -^'O ^ !^ 5 ;-x i [^ '^A o 't'-^ to o ^ III! i J 10 10 X : x'r- 2^ ~i CO X 5 r- "o CO S X 2 H ^ «S 2 F^ : ID f^ _ X c: c; 0) 01 CO — ■- .0 u: — ' cf cf -f'l.' ' -^ t- c 3 — 0) CO -* '0 — t- _£ ggS||||g o 3 C:' cl -m' -f CO ^' iM' -^" R — — <* m' m' CO CO •* '^f o -; ^2=; ac =L =; ::s s -5 ■ p ^f Z- ._-.- _' 10 S CC t^ iC: -r ^"^ ; t^^o Tfo ; — " -; c-j cf ■ ^ ;iiiii : < ^ iCicxooJ : .S.^^ggo : Oh < iiiJJJJ.iiiiiiiiiiiiiii -2 ^ ^^ -^ or -^ —< r>- 1"-- CO >c c 1 ■ ~ ? f — ' ■-* r^ c; c f —• ci" -i S 2 q 22^ S S S § §, 3 i{ S '£ ^, fi n -J 5 ? .^, '4 1-^. 1.0 ^-.c^^^co^ocoTP'-^'r:'t->:_.o — circ-ro^r- u t4 D 11 2S5g58Sj=S8S§SgS||g8§|r2S J--^ 271 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ooocoooo OOOOOQOC oooooooo o o c c S8SS o o o .88S M- c; o) '^ o o t^ t^ t^ i^ CO -^ CO t--^ OC C5 O •— ' C^f CO 888 ooo ■ t^ co' — ' O '-f CO OC' o -^ lO r-.' oc 888 CO lo 00 r lo t-^ lo 00 t^ o -* LO o Lo 00 c; o o — o — oj o -r t^ - . ■00 (>) 00 00 »c o "* 'o: 1 O Tf •* ■<* -^ ' ^H ^^ 0-] C^l CO -^ lO CO t^ CC CT- 5 • '^' -' s 5 ^ s e? CO' CO 't »o 1888888 : >oocooo • ' rf CC iC •*' o' of ■ I O CO O Ol Ol — < ' CO — ^ co^ o "^^ 00 : ' — ' of of CO CO CO • 00 ; 88i of cd( 01 CO 1 t^co I B8 X o X t^ OQCOOOOOOOOQ S|88888S888S C5 u5 o lO oc' x' x' co' c;' c: t-' oc •^ CC ^H CO Ol CO t^ C. C: — — ' O) 00 r- i-^ CO LO -r co o j r \ •— o o •*' id CO t>r oo' c' o ^ of co' •^' Ti? oco 88; O) Ol O "O: O O 1^ t^ Ol CO X C. O en I^ lO O lO O CO 00 ^^ o o_ ^' ^' ^ of of CO co' CO OO t OO c OO! O O lO >0 CO LO -^ CO X X CO 01 CO O Tt< Q 000< 8888J id — o' X ■ X Lo r^ CO 1 X CO t^ ^- I ooooooooooooo oooSooocSoooo O OQ OOOO O O O Q O O Q O O^ O O O O O " co' o co' of -^ co" id -r x" o CO t^ o t^ Tf ^ id of id cT CO ic CO — X LO oi c: Q '-^ o) CO ■* -f lo CO CO r^ t^ r^ ' ' COOCOt^OOOXJ^OiOfCOOlrtOOl g u -o cr OOOOOOOOOQ^OOiOOiOOiOOiCOiOO ^^0^C0-*OC0r>.00OO-O01iOI^O0^i0t^O r-(i— (i-Ht— (C: -< cc I- o i::; re --:: X _ 't lO lO >0 CO c^t o X -o oi cc t' lo' o' rC x' x' ci lOO oo o 00 f^ I - o 1 " — t ~ CO >?:■ ~ o t- '- ~ — o c: I- X t- 1- OOOQQOOO S8S88SSS ac i-o CO X 2 o o '.o O lO ?. ro tX c " ~ "" c5 = 'I (M (M 'M CO w' t^ t-^ ■JiO-.^tZ^ o o oo S8SS 0000000000500 : o O O-O O < ; S 2 2 S 2 ! 0000 :SoSS i i-o r-' X -r '- C5f X i c CO t^^ q — T ^ ^"^ (m' 000c 8888 co'-rx o co X— 1 1 o o ; X c I > r: X ~ >o X ^ rr 7 1^ q t-. 't c)_ q £ - !■- r I • ■-J ^ .-< CM (m" c^f CO CO Tji* ■^' lO o t>r 00 00 O O ' 000000000 _ _ O O 'O O 'O C >0 O lO O '!0 O '.O o 1^ X O O "M 10 t^ O r^l lO t^ O 'M 'O t^ o rt ^ ^ ^ ^1 ^1 ^1 cv) c/j CO CO ;o -^ 273 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES o ao 3C o lO cc o t^ (N' CO t' irf CC t^ OC 00 ^^ 'M' lO -m' "M' C: r-' t^ L-t CO co-^oroocoL'^i-'3-*c^ CCf ro -H Ci CC CC C t^_^ Tf of fo ^^ L'l lo cc r^' oc x' Oi t^ t^ OCCO 00 ■* t^ CO 'M O O ^ OOO lO Tj< t^ CC CO O O t^ QC C. C^l CO C5 i^ rM CO C-. ~. O X lO -^ t^ c-i o O C: t^ -w" — ~ lO C>1_ O iC 7^1 00 — ' !M' Co' ■* lO lO O t>r t>.' 00 o o CO t>. ic c^ •* CO CO t^ •^ — 00 -h' ^* Csf co' rf TT b S 2 c c S 2 S 2 5 S q. 2 5 2 5 S ic co' c^i* '^ oc X rf t^' o — t-' co" r-' x c; t-' -^" CMiO'-f't'Oi-O'-t^ — OCi'ML'^X-HC^ OCOt^OCOOt-_,'*Ot^COO_OC^_^GOiq^ -^ ^' (M' Ci co' co' "5f' lO iC ^ CC 00 Ci O «C -M CO t^ C") -f t C O ^ O ^ -^ t- X lO X C^ CO O C^l 't^ — x_ '-^ — ' — <' c^l m' : ' 22 St as: X X 55555 to QOOOOOOQOOO o 8 o o o o o o o q o jvT r-<' -^' i-o o O CO r^ CO 'T 00 OC^)OC5C")'1"XOC0iCt-- CO CO o Lo (M X -^_ — _^ r>._^ CO o cm' eo' co' tt lo lo ;o t--r tC 00 00 222 5 5 5 So o o r^ O O C: 'T LO ^ "^ X T O t-'.ococoo-^Tt't^ 18888 5 o o o q_ lO C: O t--^ C^f •* C^l ■>* CM o CO lO CM rt" O 8SSSSSSS888SS8: o o o 5 o o o o o o o o c c CMCMt^OoVo. - " CM r " H K ir ^ OOOOOOOOOO'-OOiOQLOOtOOLOOLO T-c C^l CO Tf uo CO t^ X C5 O C^l i-O t^ O CM »o t^ O C-1 LO r^ ' -H-H^^ CI CMCMCMCOCOCOCO 274 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES co5£So£5 5o t-T -r' r- CI c; t-' cc u-: o I- C C-. t- -r — I- re c^ u- ^ CI rf c6 -r lo io ;;; -^ i-' c/f iii^ O O lO o • (M C^J CO -^ ■ :S555SS2 lo ;D cr t^ r^ cc gSS2 8sso ssgss: O t^ k -3 cc ir: =r ^"i 00 — -r I- o '— c-i x -H CMOC O '.-:■ M t-co ^ c: so O — I •* O ro 1^ O CO o o — t^ cc -h" ^'' ^* .— ' of Ci CC • i 'yf -r cr. CO o O Tl i.O t-OC-1 8SSS _ s X C: O X !M C CT. "O tt cc oco CO X ■^ en L-: b S ^ i ^\ i-_ CO y: oa' of nn-^io "o o cd t^' t--' oc co O O ^ "* O 00 ^ I s8 >o r^ r^ o CO GC — ' o: CO t^ CO t^ c; oi -^ liiiiiii lOt^ococcor^cct^occoccoic-. r^i-ooxcoos I c^ o c; oi -r o X O oi o c 'T X CM lo ci CO r^ O -r t-- ) UO X O CO lO t^ 05 IM TT C> uO O lO ^ O^ — _^ t^__ ^J_ X_ C0_ 00 — " ^ — ' -h' ^" CM CM cm" co' Tf TT iC in O O" r>r tC x" 00 11 OOOOOOOOOQiOOiOQiOOiOOiOO'Oi <-ic^co^iowt>-ooo50CMior--ocM»ot^ocMor--i ^h^h^^^hocmcmcmcocococO' 275 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ooocoooo SSS88SSS -H -^ CO -r -H '- o o QO p IOC _ 00 I>-_^ C --^ w — H_ w --^^^ lc o ic o 1-H 'M" O-f CO CO -^ •^ lO lO !0 «D O oooooo o c o o o o CO o cf o of -^ •>* lo r^ ^ oi ^ o oj oc -r C2 'f 888 OOO CO lO GO -^ (^ 'to c »0 iCi O ^ lO CO lO CO O (M '* O ^ CO ^^'^cf of CO SS8S888 'of co'-Tt-'x oc - -I ic CO -^ -r ^ CO lO t^ c-i t^ Tof mil 888S8S 1 CD OOO! CO CO 0 00 01_ lO O^ Oa »0 05 OJ^ iq C5 OJ «D ^ ^ T-H r-T ^ of of of co' co' CO •^* tp •. lo -^ CO lo X' ic^H CO c^i X c-i o o X o ■ (M(MCi-^X'-COf-rt<^COCO'M— 'OC: TJ< O t^ Ci O -^ t^ O CO O O M O X — _ CO rt' ^ ^ ci c^f c^f <>) CO CO c IC CO ^ cc CO -t r^ i-o o O CO X (M lO X O CO i-OO GO Oi O Ol X CM lO C^ CO X 8 b 5 25 8 S b b S S 5 S •rf -h' -f CO O CO' 'T •^'' — ' C5 O' lO cocooj'-iciciXr^o-rrcoM iox^-*oc5(Nicx^-^r^ »-r ^" Csf (M" (M" cm' Co" CO' CO ■* "^ ■'I*' CO -^ w X to Ci C^J C^) lo CO t^ o o O X CM lO X CM CO lO CO t^ O X -HO! -HCO- O CO :S2QQSQ22QSS: o O --I ?i — -^ /: -o ' -H* '^f oi c>f CO CO co' co' 'S' ^^^^.^JCMCMMCOCOCOCO'S' 279 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ggggocg L- X — TO ^2cSocoS5i 't c; (M ^ "* iM C-J O O lO O ^1 L'l X ^ r-' * '' li; s' -'' '^ s' ii' rf '^' ?i ^ t~ ^ -^ t-^ o ^1 L-b 3?. c re S 00 ^^ «' -h" -m' -m' c^i c-f CO CO CO CO OO OO ( SSSSi S888SS8S8I c;oooc;ocoO( oc CO c^i o oc r^ (N c^ y: c M -^ t^ r^ o x: c^i -r lo lO CO ~ TT O t^ X Ci C^l T Lo -o X S o iiii -T ^ c5 1-' o coo o rt CO-* CO S_j i_; ;_; ;_• '_- coc o c; ■m" o' CO x' cc CO X CO t^ * I O -M lO t^ c: OO C c; 8S8S cob t^OiMCOrf<-^-*Tt< (N-*iOOt>XC50 gsssg o o So o of o' -<* of x' t-^ Ol -^ lO lO rt CO rt< lo o 88888 -r x' ~. -^' t^" CO lO o t^ t^ (N CO 'a* Lo o ggSg22eSg2S2S22gg2g2eg CO x' r-' o' — -f o' x' t-' — ' t-' x' x' o" o r-r o' o' o' o' o o" ■^ -o X ~ ~. cr. ~ X X X o< -^ o lo X n t^ -H lo c: o) o i-H c^a CO -* L.O ^ t^ X C-. o CO »-o X o c-i i-o i^ o CJ -^ t> o rt" rt' ^ r^ of ci Csf of CO CO CO co" CO 5 3 g. fi OOOOOOOOOQi-OOiOO»00»OQi-OOiOO '-lOJeO-^iOOt^XOOOliCt^OOl'-Ot^O'MOt^O rH T-l r-1 ^H J^4 OJ O) Ol CO CO CO CO -* 280 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES iSS O w o 111 iO to ->) X o >.'; -M t^ r-. c:: cc --C L-^ X — c5 — ' I -' — ' T i -' t- o 1^ rj 3 X r^ ?i ?: iS ?: r: r: .^ o -r o ■^' ri ^' cT o5s525-5£S552=od2 L- X rt t- ri X .c O "-^ t^ ?. i ^ lO ro cc en re t^ c= O « "^ X C5 ■* — < O lO !M S|SS§SSo- SgggSoog X "m' t>^ -m' r>r CO 00 ■) r^ o :^^ iiiiliiiii t^ X X ?j O L- c; X X I^ O X TT C c: — — — c: §|S§ t- t~ X -r -r L'f r-' >-o ^ 2 5 5 £ 5 o ^' ;r O ro bi X — X 5C .-- sses^S: ; >s sex s=; ; OO : 88; ii ss; '58 x'o 88' Oi CO X 3S 3£ s; se is St sssseeesxg t^ D t- rj -^ — rf o cT ec -o o ro t^' o' ^ x .-<' lO x" i-H — -HC^(MC0C0C0-^rt<'!fi0>OO COOOOOOOO'-IOiOOiOOiOQiOOLOO -1^^ — -MCMC^KMCCCOfCCO-* 282 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES 00 C '.-: X ~ — : o ~ r-~ -I — I- • OCO O - ■- — re ■- O O p T^ t~ O -f t C555S -^ — . ?i 2 O fO X X -r r: cf -r x" rf o cT CO •^ cr- ri Lo i^ :/: t^ o -r t~^ o cc ^ CI iM ri ?0 CO oo ^'3 !88 !C O r: o igggggSggggggggS; ~ T^ y: y: ~ ) CM ■>! C^ ^0 cc 8SSSi5 -r — -r f^ X -M t^ X O — -r r^ CO — — X g^: CO 'T :C t^ X O ssss lo X r^" r^ o -H loco X CO o o o c^* cc lO §1111 O -rf CO CM o CM -^ lO C^l lO cm' rf iC ^ X" ■3C 5c; 5C >t • SSS550 t^CM -Tco O C2 — CO lO t^ X rf in t^ X* o o O c:: X t^ t- 1.0 — CO CI — O C^ X co' i>o x" — " ^' r-' O co' O Ci C^f rf t>." Sri OOOOOOOOQiOOiOQiOOiOOiOOiOQ cMeO'^kO«ot>'X050CMmt>-ocMiot:^OCMu-:>r^o i-Hr-i.— ii— (CMCMCMCMCO CO-CO CO f 283 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES 1 OC O I . t^ O Ol I , lO -^ t^ I 1^ ^ CT. • o oo ;888 O Oi 88; I to o '^ 00 c^) CO o I Ci O t^ O O CO o I CO 00 f^ O '* (M O 18888 >oooo CO GO!M -rf '^i — I -H ^ ^ o 88888 88 oo_^ C5 O < CO 00 < oo< 88! ooooooooo< 888888888: c^) r^ — CO — ' li^ c 1 — ■'Tt^iCCOO'CO-. -_ 00 'Tt^ o '-0_^ c-)_ r-. c^^zcco X CO lO co" go' o' Ci >0 t--^ CD CO' id QC' C' CO' lO 00 o -^.-i^(M(M(M(MCOCOCOCO^ r^ T** ci CM -f CO ^ < i88? ;g8 lO 00 ' Tl* O- c; CO I ci 00 I coi^cor^oocxcMio ooo oo = o 8888888 CO O r-T id of o 00 lO 00 00 C2 lO 1^ c^i "^ O O -^ CO :*_^ iq CO •* >d t> 00 05 o oo 88 oooooooooooo 888888888888 c-i o ^ CO o lo o lO cr. Ot^COOOiO'^OOOOO COO'OOiO^HCO'— ICO cd>d GO .-IcdcdoO'-Hcd — ■— '^H^Iz-MrMC^ICOCO o o o o < :888SI -^-rtGococo^cir- CMCOCO—iCO^t^CM 00 CM tt CO i>. 00 00 c» CMTficcdt^odocD 88888 o o^ o o o_^ cdcdcsr^id O Tj< O lOcO t-- CO CO t^ 00 ^ CO ■^'' id CO :00 oo ;S88S ' c-f c: t-T id ' CO 00 00 lO 't^ 00 C: O OO CM r- •cdoo" coco OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 88 88888 888888888888888 co" 'rf « cT t--' -f c^i o X CO -^ id o lo c5 id CI* Tji' cji ^'' GO CO OO^OcO'-i'^OXOCO'^iOcOcOcOCOt^COt-COcO rt.O^H^HCMC^101ClC00CC0GCf000C000C000C000CO .-HC-lCOTfiOCOt^OOOi -^•^—iC^lC^lOlCMCOCOCOCO'l* 284 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES — S 252Q25 Zj ^ ; -r '-' vi c; v:' — ' r: g : : -r p CO — ^ X r;- CO — — -Ti o'l ?i 01 CO J §§5-5-§.^-r-B^-0 o oxot^t?:9x^x£i o x'of!^-x--'?f;r;5l'M- 01 01 oi 01 CO CO 1 J CO C -<' io I^ 'O ?f5 ^ r~ ?:5 •— " c: — -f r^ ■ ■ ' |B^5s=iis2=5 _z .J C' 5 — — r — r- vi yi i — 1 - ~f 8 — iO -f — t^ 01 r^ ^ lO X oi i-o t^' c CO X — ' co' -^ x' cT co' i-o ■ _ -;;■ — — -^ O) Ol Ol Ol CO rC CO I 2 2 25 se at =; ss J ~' -■ — ' Z ' = — ' ■' lO X r? i-: fo 2 2 ' ~ ^ ^ _:. — 52c5522c5S2S22trc5w a J ?o" f3 -j' Ji li^' — ^ — r^' >' y r: ^ ^' — -3 — ?? _) ro -f ■^' t ^' X -• cc' u~ X- 0' of uo !>: of -■ ^. , ^ .- ^ Ol (M Cvj C-J (M CO CO CO 1 '^ ^ J ■ of—' ro '-'■-' c: t-'ro ; X -+ r- c: --:: — --r ;3 '.0 t- - r: -. -r 30 • ■ ■ — -f ro^-.-'w-t-x-ro • • r- , ^ _. ,^ ^ ^ ,^ ^^ ,_ gisssss 2 J ^ 0' CC -^' -r' t-' .C 3 o — r- -r -M L- L- ?o CO — re -f 't -r -r • CM -F i-o r-' x' sisi ■ iliiiiiiiiii J ^^3^ ■ ■ 1~ ~ 1; :f, L^ " ^- i^ y u"^ — f^ i:^! t^ cc 1-: c^_ 01 Lo X CO LO X CO >o X -'rf-fo ■ • ■ — ' ^' CC X ^' co' LO t^-T c of -f' ^ g^^^^^gg -■ ~ — ' 1 ^' ~ f t - 1 ~ I ~^ ^^ ^ -M I- X - d - OHO ?i 'C t- y: — . ~. X X t^ ■ ^l^f-f .-5—' t-'x cr A |i|ii -A CO "*' r-' -^ c 0900^ ro ^ ^vi^'o'5 SSSS2 -^ 5 2 2 5 o c/" ^ -^ — -S —• ^c cT ro ?j rM' co' -r' 1-: -^' : • ^ : c S5SSS5S=S=5SS5S5Ss=S2 :3 - U3 cc $SS5^^?iis;?55oSot^5^i^txS rr x c c-f ^" o* _ ^ _ ^ „ ^1 -^-i -^^ ^J ^ -^ j^ -,3 ,, ■;: J_ Ij ^ »H _H ,-< M c-i (M c^j r«r ro ^: ri -^ ^■r: 1 285 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ooocccco ssssssss CO ^ t^' cc c: c; X JO ocOL'^ccrc — C:co O O CC CC X M L- t^ 51: =: sc 3=; ; cyi-'^ — i^ : o c. c^j cc t^ cr. o T c^ OC i-<_(M_^!M_^'-^ CO ^__rf r cs" -* o cT t>r cT ^' CO L' O^xcocococr. ^ O X X X 1^ LO ;c t^ OJ CO' Tf' 10 o i> cf ^ -m' co' ■ .00 iSS ':r ro -H o o ;5 1-^ t>r r^ X ;c •* LO c C L-t: X ~ t^ CO — o c; c; r^ t^ 00; I Co' t>.' ! t^O O I CO ic ic ■ X ?o f ( " o o i>r c t-^T^ X ' co' •*' lO SS ^; 5S sc SSSSSSSS 000c: :; o o c c; o o o >o o Lo o LO o 10 o Lo c >-o o ? ^ ic — t^ X Ci o C'l Lo r- o c^ Lo t- o 01 o t^ o rt^rt„C^C^r^jrs|c»jCOCOCOT}< 286 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES 'iiiiSiS cr- 1^ C-. o o «r. t^ i lO CO O fC lO o x' C ' oc ooco — lO — O — ' — ' t^ ^ cc CO CI o oc o cf -f ss tC o '— ' CC i-O O GO O* >-< CC '-0 CO -r :c x O Oi 88; -< c-i d ~) c C^ Oi ica o "co -rf o o o i£ c5 cd o -^ ^^ 00 O CO '^ ef cc :g222222 : CO -m' — ' .r' --;' ./:' ~' , t^ — - ■ 00 O — CO "^ O GO' C5 oo£S,q iC -m' ^' Ci i-'O f -sO c; cc o O CO O t^ T -^" !M' Co' CO TT O X t^ "C CO :vi = X o id x' C5 -^" CO Tj-" to" — — — — r^c^jc^c^ ,_„rtrtCsic^ic^(McoeoeofO-^ 287 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES :88l ■<*<__ C5^ O OC iC C^l t-~^ CO i-rT t^-' o* >-<" cc lo to" GO gooogogg. oooooocro 00 r Gc' C T I ce i-e cr CC -M t^ M lO ^ (M ^ uo O lO O TT O O lO' CO OC o' ^* oooooooooo SsSogSSSSS CC — y: ' I - o X 'O o — O X I- re — re ei o O ^_ — t- re X re t- — ox ■^' -,£:' r-' o o c^f CO i-o '-o t-^ CO Ci ei CO C'l lO !8S88S lO oooo 05 CO lo r^ GO o ;88i .00088S888SS8; O -H O 10 ^ O ^ CO X -f ' c; o — ' 00000000 00000000 00000000 CO CO -f iC O GO o — 0^0 — O ! o c; ' r^ CO X -r t- r- 'O ei CO ci X o 8888888^88: 00000000 88888888 — . CO CO — t^ -r co' r-T lo X ei — 0-. 10 o 't -r -H X -r OC i-o — CO CO t^ t^ CO 00 01 oi 1^ t^ -^ C: l^ CO O i-o 88888 00000 CO OC t-' -t CO 000000000000000000000 'TX =xeicox— ^ — -T^ — — fer^r^ — ooo-i^ ■*^ O o — (^ ei t^ re X — -r 1- O CO CO OC ei LO X o CO T-^ oi of co' co' TT ■*' to 10 r^' QC Ci — oi co ■*' co' t^ x o -^ u p 5,^ oooooooooo OO'OQiOOi-OOiOOir >— lOico'^ioot-ocoooiicr^ooiot^oc^Jiot^ ^ ^ ^ _ (^, c>, o< O) ce CO CO c^ 288 CAPACITIES OF PIPE N E S 3 ^ 2 = c c c 3 ■ • •o5oo'^ — ~o ; ; ; c j ^f x x ~ - x o Q i 1 i - ~ '-i T 1 1~ — 1 e X d t-' x c; x' 5 — 1 ~ x' e i o . O 12 |-r v= — i_- t^- re 1 - O o •—1 • -f o 1 -' -: c -H* CO -T .d I- — — '-' — -^ -< 1 30000 1 -^ SS8SS H-3 tCeio'ei-o i-re xo-r^ ^■j I- t- ei t- o •-' -f iC t>.' x' o _ ' g S i S ="5 S S S 5 5 2 O — c;c:55c:5S555^ 1—4 /^ 1 ^ _' ~ i - -' - [ , -' , -v' 1 _' - -' --■ -_3 8 o X -r 1^ X ~ -^ X c; X --r -T o o ei t- — _^ re --c x o e i -r ,:: x CO o o czj o' o -4 co' -f iC w' I - -^ -- -H — 1 — ^- — < 1 ooocoo 1 ^ lo — ~v X 1 ~ i ~ r^ . -r ^ 1- ■ I- • • ■erre---'-w-i^'x 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 J tmMMMMMm. a o ^ »o -H ei re re' -r Le "3 i^ en, o -^ ei re' -r cd r-T cc ' "~ , — -^^^,— ,.— , 1 _^ iiiiiiii tJ J -^ r-' re' o — ' — ' ■£ t-' O K o -f t^ ---:;- v:: — -r lO -M X -r - — t- O O g g s s s g g t/3 Q hJ o — ' X c-r r- t^' o r^ — — t^ — ■ re re — 1 ^ -r o o e^i t^ 'M t^ ■ — ei e? re' re ^ -p ggs SS5SS555SSSS w — _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — _ CJ 1 — s[^'i' i£- el cc o ei ^'ei id t>r CO o o •^' ei re' i-e O tC 00 oosgoooo -J ^ ^' ~' — ■ — ' r^ ii^ — r ■ ° : Li cr. •-- 2 2 -" ei ib ei X — ~. -r ~- -r X ■ — .'-^'ei ei re CO -r -f iiiii . — ; ?e' 1 e y' vcf — < ' O '■ ^^'dleo : — 'efeire' ^ : iiiii : ce'cTt-' yf iT ■ o Ss^'oS : — -^ ef "m' re o SSSS2SS = S'SSS = 2 = = SSS = 2 o 5S52S5S5cScSSS5c5ccS2 -^ _' — ' y -' — ■ V y -.-' -~ / / --' _■ — ' ,-■ — ' •-' .,' --■ ~ — ■ 1^" le c: 7 Te ei y: ^ 3 i_2 >: ^ — "ii '.i ~ ~ ^ ^~- L~ S ^ " - — •' — <' -m' ei CO ce ■^" tt o o t>.' od o o — ef t' o ^' i^ a> a « £S t-> n ^^ s ?i?e2.^5.x5 2S§§t5g|gg|g|gS -; -^ _: X 1 289 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES : : : 8 8 5 5 S ^ * J • • •ooo3c;c;c;o ; : : o c' . e' ? ; o — / s . le — y y. — — — T 1 o ; : ; X c; ce le 1- x cr. CJ • ■ -ce'ietCx'cTo'— 'ef :gggggggggg d s 1 -^ C; re 1 ": — i~ X X x x '"' • ce' Le' iD t^' x' ~' 0' — e 1 ce mil ; _: s S^SefS'er ■ • LO C-. t^ '* c; ■ ■■ X c; -H "^ ce'-'.et-'x' ■ • o£2oSo££52=S ;i^ ? ,~' J' ~' 5 ,~- ~\ — • ~- ZI- — ■ ~- 8 ^j ^' . > -^ t~' x' ^' 5 5 £i ::' :r c = ' _o H-] 5 r~' ?:' i~' Z' !!;••• ■ lO ■;£ re ^. — ' 1 ; ; ; t^ ■ — ri'rc .~'-^'i^" 1 000 000 000 000 (100 01)0 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 ^ a H^ , ~ T' i~ i~ T~ ~ ~ ~ *! c; ~ — "m' o S ?: i~ £ — i^ r-: ^ ^ — r^ fi ^i I-: B S y c/5 »o — ' — ' e i re ^•: -f L^ ■^' r^' X C: O ^'' C-f CO ^' ^'' S |l|||||| ; ; ; ; i : M M a EL, -4 a -! g o i§p5^>l3ii ::;::::::: i • — — -M -M re re T^ ^ 1 ^ lllllll Si'SS^'S':; (—3 ^ — I- -- CC "^ X ■ -h' ^"^ c^f — ' 1 290 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES — a" ■'2 5 II 25 ac 5 (MX) ()()() (MM) (MM) (MM) 1 1 11 «; t^ X ~ o C: O f lO O t^ lO lO »o o CO O -; —_ — fo "*' uo o r-T at at at at at O --r X X ri — -^ Ti .-. - C — ic t^ t^ t- ;d u'^ -r ci — ~. t^ lO (M* CO T)-' u-f O t^' X O' C O — C I SSSS8S 1^ fi r: re r"i — — ri'rc— ■' 1.-' -o iiiisB ^H r>. lo i.e r^ -^ c; t- c: •' OC C^l X O 2 — ~ re t-. C-. — oSSSSSSS ^'' '^' S' L: ^ ^' rf '^' iiiii — ■^^ c^i c^i CO CO 05 ■ -=; St at ^ is at ac ' CO Lc •-:: I- ''e t- 1- S --c 1 c^_ c_ j: -t -r-ri c: X u: •>^' iC lO ;D t~^ 00 O cT O ' Sc O re t^ X O X re r-. -r X c^ lO t~-- c: -r !->■ — <^ '^ — m' C^' Ca CO CO ; O O ; 1 O -^ i 8SSS; iiiiiiii at s=; X ac at ac; r^ X t^ i ^* m' (N* C^' Co' CO •*" iC O* CO' !>.* »" CT C5 c' ' OOOQOQOOOOiCO»OQOOiOQi-000^ ^HOico^io«ot>>ooc50c^iiot>-0(M'or^oc^icr^i ^_H— .— .^^Mr^^^cocococo- 291 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES • • . -~ ■ — ^ ' — ■ o o ^ o _D : : : :ggggg8SS 1-:) ; ; ; .cfce-fcTcrc-riCoo 8 o t^ o o re CM X iM • • ■ -oee^-r-rce^o Oi : : : :^'Tf'i.eo t^'x'oo : :§iiiiiiiii j£ ^ ■ ■ o CO cf L~ re' o' re' c-i t>.' ,-h" (-5 • • to d -H ue re r^ C-. o r- o O ; ;ox c; X t-- >o_^ce ^_o t-^ • • cm" re -:r' lo' o t^ x' c; o o [j • 5 3 3 ^' ^' • • • • • • lO ^ ■ c: "It 2 le re ; | ' ] | | • re' re' — ' lo' — ' 1 1 i ! i i gggggggggggg oooooooooooo hJ Lo = o re ei -^ - X ?e X e o (— ) o ei re ei — o t^ lO ei O t^ o ei e 1 re' ■*' o o i5 1^" x' cT o o ^ Sggsgg ::::;::: "^ ,»' _; ■^' _u' -x .^' .vt o o $ tvl S : : : : : : : : • — eirere-ri--e 1 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,()()() ,000 ,()()() ,()()() ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 J L^ --r re o ~. — re o i.e e i re x — — -^ x t^ a >-e 'T i-e ei i^ o X re X ei le r^ o ei -r i-e -v § o LO o re o L.e ei_ q i- '-e ei_ q i- — _ — ^ x_ o D ^ T-H ,— T ei e I re' -r i-e' Le' ;^ t^' t^' x' o o O* -^ % 003030 00 a o s S S s 8 o 8 • • • • • • •' • • • M ,^ '^ 1^ ■£ ^' ~' y' ^ ~^ ^ ^ a o t- re 5i X ei e"i re o o -^ : ST- '^^ ^ — Lo X c: re : : : : K — "— 'elei el re'-** S2S2S2S-:-::::::: 5q ■i 2 2SS2S2 a 1-5 ~ f _'_',-' -v —; y-' o CO' ^^(NCM!M(M 1 — ^^^ ^ ^.^^^^^ ^ ,-,-__,^ 1 ggg : sisiiismis -^ sSi? • ggi^^^^p^pl o o c •*_ : 'r^' -' .^e' Lo' o i^' x' X' r^: o' o' J — iiiiiiil::; ;:::::::; ^ gfe'ESKg re Lo ^ ; ! ; s ^S8 :;;;;;;;:::: t^ ^ lO X - ^ — ' ^'' C) "cf^fro -^ mil _9 rr i^ _r '— ' ^f o O -t o ?i -^ lO C. CO --^^ O F-H ^H ,— 1 ^ SoSSS o i i i i i —'—'—-- S£ooo8SoSoc55oS5SSSSS J f^ O yi o -r — ' c-i cT O x re -f re — ' d^ -: yf --:' r I — ' r^' r f '^ CI c: -r — -r ~; ro ej -^ C-. ^ cj re ^ ■- ^ --c i- x r-. r; o lO Tt< r-^" — ' — ' ei m' eJ ci re ro tt ^ — ' -,;; t- x x ~J c; o — ^ a a £5 b . ^1 ^^ c o o o o o o o o o i-e o Le o LO c: to o o o Lo o ?i ?e ^ S 2 i^ X S o ei i?: I- o ei >e: w o ci lo t^ o ,- — ^-.ei-MCJtNcocoeoeoTjt z - I;'-^ ^ i 292 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES U U b . ^ 93 C.1-H >0 t^ t ~ -r •- vr: I r i - -r cc -r — X — r vr r 1 1 - oici — c. vr re o I - -r o of CO -r -r 'd o i^' i^' x crl I O O O CO I CO C5 -f o I O cc oco I coco ^'"d oooooooooo I o' -h' o im' id -h oo i-T -t-" o C5 CO O O I* O OJ ' O CO o 11 CO -^ "^ »0 O CO OO : ^'>d- - CO ^ ,coco ^ „' „' „' rvf ^f !m" C5 coco >o O (M C5 O t^ ^ ■<»< r- o CO CO mil -f — " x' o 'd X O CO CO X >o X — I -r CO iSgggggggQSSggggSl r^ t-^ lO o CO CO C-. -M • O CO CO (M t^ M CO ^ CO CO c; CM -^ t^ o c^i ^ -H -H O) CI c-i CO CO ■ _rtrt^C^CMCM(MCOCO: 293 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ^ ^ ^ _ ^ 2SSg222^ 5 o o o o o o c o i3 5 X O S X S S --^OXOCJX^O S? iM rc rc ■^ L-^ L.- -si t^ :::;::::::: :gssssssss§ ^ S :::: ■.::::; : -i-^-frr-SSS-'^o- o I-O ! ! ! ! ! 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X' Ci a: o — ' r I co' -r S3 o c; — — -r X o ~ 'M O X CO 'O 'M -T X 'M t-^ CM t^ -H lO >0 -^^ — < -H !m' oI CO CO -*' lO i-oco •■ OCO ! t^co ; oSSSSSSSSS q q q q q q q 5 q q CO -- 1- 1-: ~ — CO -M ^ r: _ t- ^ .- — CO C-l — 3 C-. t- .r ^' lo if t-: x' o o —' —' : Siiiii' OC : QC iC ! 05cr. ^ C5 -^ : CO CO -^ C5 ro r- ^ -^^ m' -m" CO CO CO ooc ^ ssss 1— ( o iX C^l C^f CM o X d! -r ^ C^) ^ C5 CO t^ '- "^ -h' -.' r>\ C^f sss 232S2222222S3333SS32 X -^ ^ X o) X ri c; X cm" cm" C-f CO co' CO '*' iC O r>r 00 Ol O -^ ^^ CM CO ■ iOCOt^00050C^i2t2;OCMif5r;;;jOCMi_or>0 299 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES ^ ^ ir, ri hi 3 5^ c 00( CO*--" > lO o < ^8§S vO t^ t~- t^ lO >C0 00 Ci 00 (N > o lO •«*< ec (M SSSSS: C OC C O' S88: t: o o c -^ I- o ^2SOc o o o o oo o — o c; o o 3 - c: c oo 1-' >:' t-' yf o t-T . 2 -T ?4 C^ tC -1< ' t^' OC oT o' o —!" 888J 00 00 ^ I O C; 00 < ooccoooScSaooo oo r^ ic cc cc ^f "^ en • r^ t^ c; t^ CO r^ o - O m o 00 t^ ic CO ■ lO O -^ r^ CD T)- — 00 gsgsgssg 885888 lOOt^OC'OOOO^— I CO CO 88 oo t^ 00 Ot^ oooooqo 881 iO c oooo ;8SS8S8 X c: of CO ^^ -^ t^ C CO -r lO ici L-; C^ -M 1.0 00 ^ I — ' ^' -m' (m" (m' CO 2S! 0( QOQOO 12 t-T -T x' CD O I-- '-^ ■>! 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CO O r^ 'M ej -M ; C30 cc o r^ c; o — ■ -M* TT LO -O t>.' d. 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U?.^S _< ^^ ^H — I ^ (M O-l rs] ' §88881 lO t-- Ol 00 (M (M CO r-l ^ I^OlCO 02 (M CO O ^ (N CO >o t--' O of -^ 88 o o 888: OOO I CO Ol -f M lO O O t^ I OCOCOMCi'O — t^i OCiOOt^iO-^CO^i Ol CO 'O CD CD O ' i88 -H O O) t^ lO l^ t^ f, o I c; o t^ CO CO CO Tt* lO CD t-^ O ' o o 88 8881 ooo< 888: O t^ CO ( 00 CD CO ( r~ CD o CO ' f88F O Oi t-- CO •* Ol •— I -H CO O t^ OJ" CJ (N -** CD 00 O — — ( — c — < ^ -M OJ -M Ol OJ CO 888888 OJ o o o CO ^' oco o CO o o 88 Ol C: M CO CO -* lO CD I 88888 ooooo .-T -h' c2 >d CO 1-H -t< lo o :-< CO ^ CO Ol o O O ( 88S lO O O CI Ol CO o0 8888 888 888888888888888 o o o c; ~ ~ c: o o p p o p p o o o o o o C2 o CO o — ' — ' ri 0-. r"' C"! CO CD O t^ cd of 'i^ -r co of -r co lO r^ O 'i- 'O ro O ■-:; -^ :D '-H lO O CO CD O Ol Id oCi — ' CO CD X O OOC-. 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VC X I- TC I - ~ Tl To slllllijii.li o t^ — -3 I- I- ^ ~. ~. — i~ ("i O — re r 2 5 5 S cc 3 ^ r-t !H -f 5i i~ -r L-; ^ lO t^ t^ — < ^< o cr. iM Tt" --0 X SSiSSS; X -^ rc ot-Tc •^ X o SS llllllll o 2 S 5 3 — ~ re X ^ CO r I Ic X y A -- A -M 2 2 '_" 2 '^ S L- p "^ S ^^ J5 13 2 321 CAPACITIES OF PIPE LINES : Jiiiiiii -^ *"• : ;cc^'xxcx'--er . ■ C-l t^ t^ (M CO ^ X CO • • o re CI o c' lo o -^ ^ :§|s|5s|§§B i—t • ^' j^' ,-' ^' — ; — ' — ' ^f (^ ^f § ■^ "— — t^ '" 3 le X c; ei • -r — '.C — '.T: — i~ ^ — 'y" - ■ — ei ei re re -• — -r >-e .-e ■ o — — ^ -; ' c: Le' e 1 — ' e f ^1 re iD ~ X — . rf — ' — ' — ' — ' ■ ' ei r 1 re :iiiiiiiiiiii J • irc — .' _' _' .-' ,- — .' j^" _' .-' ~j ,^ o • ei . >: — ue t^ X c^. o o o ■ ei X re t- -N :c o 't- X re' r- -T • — — eieirereTr'^TiCLOO J2 ill ill H-) gs--,==s t^ C) - -r — -^ X =^2:^^^^ 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 (KM) (K)0 000 000 000 000 000 hJ o ro c-i X i^ ' r L- '^ L' — . 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'-^Tft^-HTft^oc^ CO c; oi 1.0 X 1 — -H — oi oi c2§i'i§ ^ 9 i q S -3 X r-t 7. ?j ^_^ < ggg 2 2 2 2 : X _£ o o 2 o 2 o — -^' O ji m' vf re r: ; ; o 1^ L.O cc LO ~ M ^ CO CO Lo r-T 00 - 1 1 2 o o S222S2222222 :j 5x'o' ; o t^ o g'l'gg S^rjolgxg^ ^1 co!*o : iC X' 01 10 t-' <-<' ^' r^' of lo' X --010 OlCOCOCOrt-rrTCn- -J %; i^' Z/ 'i Z. ifJ^ : : S5 co' i~' i5 1- c- ^• iiiii "- • '^f '— " i^f CO -- i~ fc 5 o CO u- '"' -H c: rr X — ^f CC UO o cc ::::::;: S S S S § — -^ S — — 2 o t— ' -f-L-OXO o ?252^ c-r-fLO t- x^ 1 — SSSSS2SSS2gS2 2Soooooo g -^ t^ r-.' x' --t: r 1 --f if I -' Lt' -r — ' r- — ' v5 ~ r i ■■£ ~ t i -x x' O — - tc Tj ^ X £. — £2 M 9 X tr ri 9 ^ ^- :7j X ^ — o '^ -- ;^^5^:^;^§^^S2gi-igJ;J^^^^55§ (d u c i^ c ?iSS3gog§8gg^8§§gS§igS Z £ ::^x 324 PART SEVKX Compression of Natural Gas Description — A great many people not directly con- nected with the gas business are under the impression that compressing natural gas consists of "pumping" air into a gas line. This is erroneous. A compressor outfit consists of steam or gas driven compressors, with all necessary cool- ing systems and appurtenances for taking gas from the field or incoming gas lines, at a low or natural pressure, com- pressing and deliv^ering it at a higher pressure to outgoing lines, in order to overcome the friction in the line enroute to the next compressing station or to the market. If air were introduced into a gas line under pressure, there would be great liability of an explosion of the whole line, due to the air mixing with the gas and forming an explosive mixture found in a gas engine cylinder. Object of Compressors — The distance of flow of natural gas from the gas well, is limited by the "rock pressure" or natural pressure. The higher the "rock pressure," the greater the distance a certain quantity of gas will flow from the well in a certain sized pipe line. The two illustrations following give a very compre- hensive idea of the advantage of the compressor. The first illustration shows the comparative size of pipe necessary to carry three million cubic feet of gas in twenty- four hours, one hundred miles, with and without the aid of a compressor. 325 COMPRESSION O F NATURAL GAS 326 COMPRESSION O F NATURAL GAS ^\Vilhoiil compressor and gas at 14 lb. pressure at the intake of line, with 3 lb. pressure at the discharge end it will require an 18 inch line. An eigh teen-inch pipe line will cost to lay, including pipe, from ten to twelve times as much as a six-inch pipe line. l^OLUM£r S M/LLIO/^ COS/C r£ET /="£:/? O/JX. /OO MILE'S 2 e 300 LB. ^ LB. Fig. 116 i/OLOM£r S Ai/LL/OAJ CUB/C F££T f^fTR O/^Y. I MILE ^s- LB. Fig. 117 Of'SCH/IR&E: ^/i>£<5ySURE S- LB. Figure Nos. 116 and 117 shows the comparative lengths of two six-inch pipe lines, one being connected w^ith a com- pressor and receiving its gas at 300-lb. pressure, and the 327 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS 328 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS other receiving its gas from the Held at a natural pressure of 25 lb., and both delivering three million cubic feet of gas per twenty-four hours at a 5 11). discharge pressure. When the natural pressure of gas in the held decreases to such an extent that it cannot be delivered at distant points without the employm.ent of exceedingly large size lines, it is necessary to install compressors to raise the pressure. These can be driven either by steam or gas engine, either direct connected or belt drive. They can also be driven by electric motor, in which case, however, alternating current induction motors should be used, in order not to have any sparks in the compressor station, which would be the case if direct current commutator motors were used. Belt or rope drive can be employed, but direct connected compressors are preferable unless the units are so small that it would entail too high a speed for economical operation. If gas engines are adopted, using natural gas for fuel, it is good practice to have them so designed as to be capable of being converted into producer gas engines in case the price of gas should rise to a point sufficient to warrant using coal in a gas producer. The ad- visability of this, however, depends upon the availability and cost of coal in the locality of the plant. The capacity of compressor cylinders of different diameters, is shown in the following table, based on an actual volumetric efficiency of 80 per cent. This table assumes that the intake pressure of the gas entering the compressor cylinder is at atmosphere and the measurement basis of the gas discharged from the compressor is also at atmosphere (14.4 pounds per square inch absolute.) Quantity of gas, in cubic feet per 24 hours, compressed by cylinder of one inch stroke, running at one revolution per minute with intake pressure at 14.4 pounds per square inch absolute (equal to atmos])heric pressure or pounds gauge.) 329 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS 99 21 454 32 . 121 22 499 33 144 23 545 34. 171 24 595 35. 1060 1130 1197 1270 14 199 25 646 36 1342 15 231 26 698 37 1418 16 262 27 753 38 1498 17 295 28 810 39 1577 18 333 29 869 40 1660 19 370 30 930 20 410 31 995 Fig. 119~EXTERI0R \- JEW— GAS COMPRESSING STATION Jefferson County Gas Company, Loleta, Pa. Note Cooling Tank. The pipes in the cooler are covered with 'water during operation. To ascertain the quantity of gas compressed by a cylinder of any diameter, running at a given number of revo- lutions per minute, with the intake at atmosphere, multiply the number corresponding to the diameter, taken from the table, by the length of the stroke in inches and the number of revolutions per minute. If the intake pressure is at any value other than atmosphere, multiply the quantity as ob- tained above by the fraction, p-\-UA 14.4 330 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS 331 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS where p is the actual intake pressure in the hne in pounds per square inch gauge. The power required to compress natural gas depends upon the ratio of intake to discharge pressure in pounds per square inch absolute. The following table shows the indicated horsepower required on the compressor piston to compress gas at the rate of 1,000,000 cubic feet per day, from various intake pressures to various discharge pres- sures. As will be seen from the table, when the range of pressures through which the gas is compressed becomes high, the power required is much less when two-stage compression is adopted, than when the gas is compressed through a single stage. The values in the following table must be increased by ten per cent, to ascertain the brake horse-power required from the engine. The power is directly proportional to the quantity of gas compressed. In addition to the decreased power per million feet of gas required by two-stage compression over single-stage compression, a further advantage is obtained by the reduction of the temperature of the discharged gas. In fact, it is necessary to adopt two-stage compression when necessary to compress through a wide range of pressures in order to keep the temperatures from becoming injuriously high. The temperature rise due to the compressing of gas depends upon the ratio of the absolute pressure of discharge to intake, and not upon their actual values. For instance, the tem- perature rise is as great in compressing from atmosphere to 60 pounds as from 60 pounds to 360 pounds. In order to obtain the benefits of two-stage compression it is necessary to cool the gas after it leaves the first stage compressor and before entering the second stage. It is also advisable to cool it after leaving the high stage, for two reasons. First, this obviates injurious effects to sleeve couplings in the discharge line due to the high heat. Second, it condenses whatever liquid there may be thrown down by the gas due to its com- 332 TABLE OF INDICATED HORSE-POWER ON THE COMPRESSOR PISTON PER MILLION CUBIC FEET OF NATURAL GAS PER DAY SURE, Pounds per Square Inch, Gauge SUCTION 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 276 300 325 350 375 400 Sim One Stage Two Stage One Stage Two Stage One Stage Two State One 31^8° strie Strg°e Stage sTaTe S?a";e sTaTe St^ge Strg°e One Stage Two Stage One Stage sT:?e One Stage Two Stage One Two One Two Stage Stage One Stage Two Stage One Stage Two One Stage Two One Stage Two One Stage Stage Two Stage m3 1B7.0 123.0 114.0 133 7 121.6 144.3 128.2 133.8 139.0 150.0 159.6 168.0 176.0 182 2 189.0 194 6 200.0 206 - 210 4 215 220 98,0 95.8 105.7 1030 115.1 110.5 124 116.0 132.8 121.0 141.3 126.2 137.8 146.4 1546 162.2 168 6 175.0 180 2 185.8 190 195 6 200 204 843 93.8 93.8 102 100.0 110 106.0 117.5 111.2 125 116.0 142.7 127.4 136,2 144.6 151,4 158 164.0 169 174.2 178 183 8 187 6 , 191 5 Lb 67.0 75.3 82 39 5 96.0 95.8 102 100.3 116 8 110.2 130.3 120,0 143,5 127 8 134,5 141 146.0 151 6 156,6 160 165 2 168 172 10 Lb 54.5 62.0 69 75 9 81,8 88 100 982 1120 1076 123,0 114.6 133.8 122,0 144,1 128 133.6 138 6 143,4 147 151 8 156 158 15 Lb. 44.6 52.5 59 65 4 71.0 76 88 98,5 97,6 108,3 105 6 118 111,6 126,9 117 4 135,8 123.0 144 4 128 2 132,6 137 141 144 148 20 Lb. 44.0 50 56 9 623 67 78 88,3 97,5 97.0 106 103,4 114,2 109 4 122 114.0 129 9 119 4 137.4 124,0 144,8 128 132 2 135 139 25 Lb. 43 49 5 54.8 59 71 80.1 88,8 96 96,0 1042 102 111 107.2 US 5 112 125.2 1162 132,0 120 138 3 124 6 144,9 128 4 131 30 Lb. 43 4 48.7 53 64 73.3 81,7 89 96,1 95 6 103 100.6 109 4 106 115.8 1100 121,9 114 127 5 118 133 121 8 139,3 125 35 Lb. •42.9 48 58 67,3 75,1 82 89,3 95 95.4 101 7 100 107.7 1044 113,3 108 118 7 112 4 124 116 129 119 40 Lb. 42 53 62,0 69,9 76 83,3 89 95 2 94 8 100.7 99,0 106,1 103 111 2 107 2 116 110 2 121 114 45 Lb. . . 48 57,0 65,0 71 78.2 84 89 7 95.0 94,6 100,0 98 104 9 102 4 109 106 2 114 109 50 Lb. 44 52,9 60,5 67 73.5 79 84 7 89.7 94,8 94 99 3 98 103 101 8 108 105 60 Lb. . 45,1 52.9 59 65.3 71 76 2 81.0 85,5 90 94 94 98 97 70 Lb. 45.9 52 58,2 64 69 1 73.6 78,2 82 2 86 90 80 Lb. 40.2 46 52,8 57 62 8 67.3 71.7 75 79 83 90 Lb. 41 47,0 52 57 62.0 66,0 70 73 77 100 Lb. 42.1 47 52 7 56.9 61.0 65 68 , 72 120 Lb. 43 9 48.4 52,7 56 59 , 63 140 Lb. 41.0 45,0 CO „ 55 160 Lb. 42 45 „ 49 180 Lb. „ 200 Lb. COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS 333 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS pression, before these liquids have an opportunity to pass out into the main Une where they would freeze and plug the line. It is therefore necessary, in addition to coolers, to provide the system with proper drips. When gas is compressed through a pressure range not greater than three compressions, it is not necessary to employ a very extensive cooling system. Fig. 121—BRADEN STATION, OKLAHOMA NATURAL GAS CO.. KELLEY- VILLE, OKLAHOMA Four 650 h. p. Single Tandem Compressors. Do not place a large capacity meter less than two miles ahead of a compressor, without providing an extra system of gas tanks or drips to absorb the vibration or throb of the piston. 334 COMPRESSION O F NATURAL GAS Ample receiver or tank capacity should be provided on the high pressure line, located from 100 to 200 feet from the compressing plant, with a blow-off valve, so that the moisture and semi-solids carried by the gas, may be dropped in cool- ing, trapped and blown off, and thus prevented from passing into the line. In case of dirty gas, it is also important to provide a tank or receiver upon the intake main near the compressing ])lant, to trap out sand and solids to prevent their entrance into the compression cylinders. When the intake line is operated below atmospheric pressure a by-pass can be arranged to cut off the tank and blow it out. A relief valve should always be placed on the compressor discharge betwxen the cylinder and the first gate, to protect the compressor in case it is started up with the discharge g-ate closed. Fig. 122—HAULIXG A COMFRESSOR BED FROM RAILROAD TO COMFRESSOR FLA NT One of the many incidenlal expenses incurred in supplying cities distant from the gas fields with Xatural Gas 335 COMPRESSION OF NATURAL GAS 336 COMPRESSION O F NATURAL GAS Booster — In gas fields where the pressure has dropped down to ten or fifteen pounds and the market is within a reasonable distance, boosters can be installed in place of compressors. A booster consists of a high pressure blower with power. While it is not capable of greatly increasing the pressure, it will have large volume capacity. The outfit does not call for a very large investment, and is often worked with success, especially where the consumption does not exceed from 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 cu. ft. per day. Boosters are often installed near gas fields to deliver the gas to a compressor station two or three miles away. This is a great assistance to the compressor station and also de- creases the size of the compressor required. Number of Compressor Stations, Horse Power, etc. — Throughout the United vStates and Canada there are over two hundred stations compressing natural gas for domestic use. The total horse power aggregates approximately 325,000. About 1,800,000 domestic consumers are dependent for their gas supply on these compressor installations. Fig. 1£4 337 PART EIGHT Measurement of Flowing Gas in Pipe Lines PITOT TUBE— ORIFICE METER LARGE CAPACITY DIETER Henri Pitot — Henri Pilot, a French Physicist and En- gineer, was born in 1695, and died in 1771. It was probably sometime during the year 1750 that he invented the device for measuring the velocity in a stream by means of the velocity head which it will produce. In its simplest form it consists of a bent tube, the mouth of which is placed pointing up- stream and measures the impact or dynamic pressure made by the flowing water. The water rises in the vertical part of the bent tube to a heighth above the surface of the flowing stream, and this height is equal to the velocity-head V" 2g, so that the actual velocity v is in practice practically equal to ^2gh. As constructed for use in streams, Pitot's apparatus consists of two tubes placed side b}' side with their sub- merged mouths at right angles so that when one is opposed to the current, the other stands normal to it. ^^-^ h ytiz K£^^^- h _L Fig. 125— THE FIRST PITOT TUBE USED IX MEASURIXG FLOWIXG STREAMS 338 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Pitot Tube — From the foregoing invention was first devolved the method now commonly used, to measure the open flow of gas wells. But one tube is used with which to measure the dynamic flow of the gas, it not being necessary^ to measure the static or atmospheric pressure. Later in 1904, Mr. B. C. Oliphant, of Buffalo, X. Y., perfected what is now^ known as the Oliphant Pitot Tube described in the following article : MEASUREMENT OF NATURAL GAS WITH PITOT TUBES B. C. Oliphant At the time natural gas was first being introduced in the large cities, both for commercial and industrial purposes, the question came up as to how to measure the large quantities of gas at the city limits of the cities being supplied. This w^as for the following purposes: 1st: To know just what the daily consumption was, and to determine the max- imum or peak loads, and at what hours they came. 2nd: To determine the amount of leakage, or loss in the city plants; or, in other words, to check up the domestic and commercial meters over a period of a month, or a year. The Buffalo Natural Gas Fuel Co., of Buft'alo, N. V., was the first one to go into this question, and experiments entailing a great deal of expense, and covering a long period of time, were conducted in Buff'alo. At this time, little was known of the proportional meters, which had not then reached the perfection which they have to-day . They were then more on the type of the old boiler meters, and due to the large quantities of gas which they had to handle, and the heavy ])ressures under which the gas passed through the meters, they were unwieldy aft'airs. These meters were tested out against a large gas holder. Under constant conditions, for which they were set, both as 339 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES for rate of flow and pressure they gave very good results, but when the pressure was made to vary, and the rate of flow^ diminished or increased, the meter proved that it might run fast or slow. Consequently, after a great many tests of this kind had been made, the scheme of using the Pitot Tube Gauge, or more commonly known as the Pitot Meter, was decided upon. Fig. 126--THE FIRST PITOT TUBE USED IN MEASURING FLOWING GAS IN A PIPE LINE The first Pitot Tubes used in the measurement of natural gas were rather crude affairs compared with the Pitot Tube of to-day. Figure 126 is a rough sketch of the Pitot Tube as first used for the measurement of natural gas The principles of this tube, however, are identically the same as those used in the more refined tube of to-day. "A" was a piece of ^^" iron pipe, "L" shaped and inserted in a 4" pipe so that the open end "A" came directly in the centre of the pipe. "B" was placed one foot distant from the point "C" and on the up-stream side. By means of the gas flow- ing against the open end "A," the static and dynamic pres- sures were transmitted to the "U" tube, and only the static pressure was transmitted from the point "B." In other words, the two static pressures were balanced, and the only thing then left w^as the dynamic pressure w^hich caused the 340 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES water in the "U" tube to rise to the height "h." This "h" then is the height of water, or pressure which would pro- duce the velocity "V" of the gas flowing in the pipe line. The static, or gauge pressure "p" was observed by means of a large "U" tube filled with mercury. The Pi tot Tube was then calibrated and the co-efficient for it determined by passing gas through the Pitot Tube into a large gas holder under varying conditions of flow and pressure. Other tubes were then made by comparing them to these tubes, and as they proved successful after a good many years it was de- termined to make more refined tubes of various sizes, and again compare them with the gas holder, thus giving what is known as Standard Tubes to which all other tubes are compared, and their co-efficients determined. The following will describe the methods and various formulae employed in determining their co-efficients. Br = Atmospheric pressure pounds per square inch; Pt = Gauge pressure, Pitot Tube, pounds per square inch; P,i = Gauge pressure. Gas Holder, pounds per square inch; h = Difference water level inches, Pitot Tube, Br + Pt = Absolute pressure. Pitot Tube, pounds per square inch, Br + P„ = Absolute pressure. Gas Holder, pounds per square inch, L = Lift of holder in feet V = Volume of holder in cu. feet for each foot rise — 7238 cu. feet, K = Volume passed by Pitot Tube in five minutes. By using the Pitot Tube formula, we have: K = CVh(Br+pt) Where C is the co-efficient to be determined. 341 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES For the holder, taking 14.4 pounds per square inch, as the average atmospheric pressure and four ounces as selhng or buying pressure, — or 14.65 lbs. per sq. inch, we have: K = 494.06XL(Br + P„) Hence: CVh(Br+Pt) = 494.06 XL (Br XPh) or, (BrXP„) C= 494.06 XL Vh(Br+Pt) The above "C" will be for five minutes run, or 1-12 the hourly co-efficient. Under Buffalo conditions, the average }'early flowing and storage temperature of the gas was found to be 40° and 50° fahr., respectively. Hence the temperature of the flowing gas at the tube was carefully observed, as was also the temperature of the gas in the holder and the co-efficient "C" corrected by the following formula: To t; c,=c— — T„\ T, Where, Cx = Corrected co-efficient. To = Absloute Standard temperature of stored gas (461-f50j=511° fahr. T„ = Absolute Temperature of gas in holder. Tf = Absolute Temperature of flowing gas (461 +40)=501° fahr. T,= Absolute Temperature of flowing gas in tube. In determining the co-efficient of each tube, the dynamic head (h) was made to vary from one to twenty-eight inches 342 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES and the pressure was also made to vary over a wide range, and as a result of over one hundred tests, the co- efficients for two, three, four and five-inch vStandard Tubes were obtained. These co-efficients were cor- rected for four ounce selling or buying pressure; 0.644 Specific Gravity of gas; 40° fahr., flowing and 50° fahr. storage temperatures of gas. Having now vStandard Pitot Tubes and either co-efficient determined, it is a simple matter to determine co-efficients for other tubes by comparing them to the vStandard Tubes in the following manner: Fig. 127~-TESTING ONE TUBE AGAINST A STANDARD TUBE. TO DETERMINE THE CO-EFFICIENT FOR NEW TUBE In Figure 127, suppose A to be the Standard Tube whose co-efficient C is known, and suppose B to be a Pitot Tube whose co-efficient C is to be determined. As A and B are in the same line of pipe and only separated by about sixty feet and have no leaks between them, the same amount of gas will pass through Pitot Tube B as through the vStand- ard Pitot Tube A, hence— C Vh'(p'+ Br) = C\h(p+Br) Vh(p + Br) C Vh'(p'-fBr) Where A and B are so close together, there is practically no difference in temperature, and consequently, no correc- tion. 343 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES The co-efficient C determined above, will be for standard conditions, viz: 40° fahr. = Flowing Temperature of Gas 50° fahr. = Storage Temperature of Gas 0.644 = Specific Gravity of Gas Base = 4 Ounce selling or buying pressure Assuming C' to have been established on the above con- ditions, and it is desired to change the co-efficient to suit new conditions as follows: — Standard pressure and temperature basis, (Storage Val- ues) Pg and Ts instead of Pq and Tq : Gravity Gx instead of Gf and the flowing temperature Tx instead of Tf. Let Cx be the correct co-efficient. Then, for a change in Pressure Base from Pq to Pg Po Cx = C' — Ps For change in Temperature Base from Tq to Ts Ts C, = C T„ For change in Gravity Base from Gf to Gx Gf Cx = C' V Gx Where the flowing temperature is Tx instead of Tf / Tf T3 Cx = C' ;^— i. e. correction factor = V Tx \ T, 344 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES In this manner, a tube may be changed to meet any con- ditions, and, indeed, such has been done with very satis- factory results. We now have, after corrections have been made, the following formula for the quantity of natural gas (Q) per hour passing through a tube whose hourly co-efficient is C, Q = CVh(p+14.4) where h — ^difference in inches of the water level in the U gauge. p= gauge pressure 14.4 = The average yearly atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch for conditions where natural gas is usually sold. From the expression V h(p+14.4), it will be readily seen that a table can be compiled which makes the work of arriv- ing at the quantity Q, a very simple matter. In this manner, miUions of cubic feet of natural gas per day are being bought and sold through these tubes. They are being used to determine pipe line leakage and losses. They are used to determine the efficiency of natural gas / PI PC r/tp :z: > -^ '.'/ • / • // lC/vcth or J Tcsf /i re-e-T Fig. 1£S—SECTI0XAL \'IE\V OF THE OLIPHAXT PITOT TUBE Showing Saddle. Tip and section of Brass Tube 345 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES compressors. They are used to test gas meters of all kinds under pressure, both in the shop and in the Field, and they are also used to determine the amount of gas a well will put into a line against different pressures. The drawing on page 345 shows the arrangement of the Pitot Tube as used to-day. Portable Pitot Tube — -The ordinars^ commercial Pitot Tube should be used with caution, however, for in spite of its extreme simplicity it is a delicate instrument and should be handled as such. When used in ordinary pipe lines, the ve- locities encountered may give differential pressures so small that it is impossible to read them with accuracy and the interior surface of the pipe may be rough and uneven, a con- dition that seriously affects the result obtained with the instrument. The internal diameter of commercial pipe is not strictly uniform and is difficult to obtain with exactness, and as this factor enters into the Pitot Tube formula as the square of the value, any error in the measurement of the diameter is squared in its percentage eft'ect upon the final result. A further difficulty is presented in the necessity of placing the tube in the cross section of the pipe at the point of average velocity, which point varies in the dift'erent sizes of pipe, and for different conditions of interior surface. A better plan is to place the tip in the center of the pipe and use the co-efficient ob- tained by actual calibration for each size of pipe. If this is done and care is taken to see that the interior of the pipe is free from sediment or dirt, and its diameter where the tip is inserted is accurately obtained, ver\^ satisfactory^ results may be obtained in the held with the Pitot Tube. In all cases, a free run of at least forty feet of pipe of the same size as that in which the tube is inserted must be in- stalled on the inlet side of the tube, and ten feet on the outlet, and there must be no fittings or obstructions nearer to the tube than these distances. 346 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES The best use of the Pitot Tube is (jl)tained where it is especially designed for permanent installation, and when properly built and installed it becomes a scientific instru- ment of high precision. It should be constructed of a care- fully made steel tip having a hole about one-quarter inch in diameter, inserted in the exact center of a seamless drawn brass tube with interior surface highly polished and gauged to accurate and uniform size throughout its length. The tip should be mounted in a saddle in such a manner as to be capable of being removed with ease for cleaning, and of being reinserted so as to occupy exactly the same position as before removal. The size of the brass tube used is determined by the quantity of gas to be measured, and is so chosen as to produce velocities much higher than those encountered in the main pipe lines, in order to give a high differential or impact pressure reading, thus greatly increasing the accuracy of the instrument by diminishing the error of obser^^ation. Each tube must be calibrated against a standard tube and a co- efficient obtained, which, when multiplied into the square root of the product of the differential pressure and the static pressure (in absolute units), will give the flow in unit time. These high precision tubes are usually installed in bat- teries of two or more, for obtaining measurements of a wide range of flows, and must have a sufficient run of pipe of the same size as the tube, both ahead and behind them, to avoid eddies and counter currents in the flow. The polished in- terior surface of the tube, and the high velocitv of the gas prevent the formation of deposits and the tube co-efficient thus remains constant for a long period. Should any accident occur whereby the tube becomes dented or injured in any way, it is necessary to have it repaired and recali- brated to obtain a new co-efficient. The Pitot Tube is usually used with water readings up to 30, or even 36 inches. Above this value the U gauge becomes cumbersome. It is not practical to use it with a dift'erential 347 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES lower than one inch of water, as at this value an error of observation of 0.02 inches will produce an error in Q of one per cent. Its practical working range is therefore 6 to 1, i. e., it will give values within one per cent, of correct from maxi- mum capacity down to one-sixth maximum. For vers^ accu- rate work this range is usually cut down to about 4 to 1, corresponding to minimum water reading of about 2.25 inches. In other words, a tube with a capacity of 100,000 cu. ft. per hour at a certain pressure would have accuracy down to 25,000 cu. ft. per hour. It also should be borne in mind that Pitot Tube observa- tions must be made every fifteen minutes during the twenty- four hours. This requires the services of two men working twelve-hour shifts. Orifice Meter^ — The heavy upkeep of the Pitot Tube as a measuring device for natural gas made its use limited, but from this invention the orifice meter was devised by John G. Pew and H. C. Cooper, of Pittsburgh, Pa., in 1911. This type of meter is es- pecially adapted for measuring high pressure gas in small or large volumes at the edge of the tow^n or city or in the field at the wells. The orifice meter consists of an orifice in a thin plate inserted in the pipe line, the differential pressure around it being obtained by means of an encased recording low pres- sure gauge or a specially constructed differential gauge, w^hile the static pressure is obtained by an ordinary record- ing pressure gauge. 348 Fig. 129— mix ORIFICE Used in Orifice Meter Flange Fig. Xo. 130 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Fig. 130— ORIFICE METER FLANGE Fig. 131— ORIFICE METER CASTING Fig. 132— JET ORIFICE Used in Orifice Meter Castiug Fig. No. 131 349 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES The formula for computing flow by means of the orifice meter is identical with that for the Pitot Tube except that the co-efficient for an orifice of given size is smaller than that of a tube of the same size, due to the lower "efficiency," or co-efficient of flow. If the true co-efficient of an orifice is known, it furnishes an accurate means of measuring gas. 350 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 1 -ORIFICE B -Bcor C -COfCff J) - CNO fi^/vce C-O/IOQS CO^A/€CT/0/V .rn F -DR///A/ Fig. 134—SECTIOXAL VIEW OF OXE TYPE OF ORIFICE METER Orifices — Gas is being measured by many types of orifices developed bv many experimenters with various methods of connecting the pressure pipes. Among these should be mentioned the thin plate with the cylindrical hole in which the plates vary from 1-32" to ig" in thickness; plates of varying thickness from 1^4" to J4" drawn down by bevelling at various angles to a thin edge usuallv in the center or up-stream side of the plate; plates with cylindrical holes from V to 2" thick. The orifice plates are made of various materials such as soft iron, coated with German silver to prevent corrosion; mild steel boiler plates; case-hardened or tempered steel. The reason for the use of these various materials, is the theory as to the action of the gas on the disc. The plating or coating is based on the theory that the principal danger is change in area of the orifice by corrosion. The hardened steel is based on the theory that the principal danger is a change in area from scouring or sand-blasting of the hole. The mild steel plates are used on the assumption, that neither of the two eHects mentioned above is a source of serious trouble, but that the important thing is to be able to machine the orihce to an exact micrometer dimension so 351 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES that the capacity can be determined by measurement of the orifice and the use of a pre-determined co-efficient, without individual cahbrations for each disc ; the principle being self- evident, that more accurate calibrations can be made for a determination for the purpose of establishing a standard for all meters than is possible in individual calibrations for each individual meter. Those advocating case-hardened orifices or orifices requiring indi\adual calibration believe that corro- sion and wear are more dangerous to accuracy than possible vagaries in individual calibrations. Recording Differential Gauge s^There are two types of recording differential gauges for use with the orifice meter, the encased and open type. The former consists of a common recording differential gauge with chart graduated in inches of water pressure. Its maximum range of pressure is either sixty or one hundred inches of water. This gauge is encased within a heavy casting with two peep holes through the cover. The cast- ing is slightly larger than the gauge, with a cover bolted on and is made to stand high pressure. A recording water pressure gauge is placed within the casting and connected through the casting with the high or up-stream side of the orifice flange or casting by a small sized pipe, either three- eights or one-half inch. Another small pipe connects the gauge casting with the low or down-stream side of the orifice flange or casting. The gas from the up-stream side of the orifice exerts a pressure upon the outside of the gauge spring and the gas from the down-stream side of the orifice exerts on the inside of the spring, a slightly lower pressure due to the friction of the gas passing through the orifice, and the gauge registers the difference in inches of water pressure. 352 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 88 CD O O t~ r-l X ^38 8 8 Oi CO I- X t- X CO CO o o {> CO ■—I CM CO X o o ■^ CD CO CO X CO 8 X CO X Ci CO §,§. co'o lO O .-I t- o o 88 o o ■^ Cvi CO lO 8 X o CM O CO X X CO i> o CO lO 8 8 CO 8 88 o o o_ ' <-< o cjT CO uO lO CO lO '<:^_^ .4 C^J CM lO CM CM Ci .-H o o 8 8 CO X o 8 8 8 X CM lO lO 88 ai <-i CO Tf< CO r-H CM X CM "^ o o o o Cm'>-h lo CO CM 8 8 Ci .-I O lO O Ci CM X O lO C- lO CO CO o o o o o o_ CM i> CO t- X o X CM o o o o o o o o o o .-Tx' i> <-> CO 8 o o ~ o lo cm" lO Oi .-H CO o o o o o o lO'x" X J> CM CM Oi CO Tf CO CO .-I 88 8 8 8 Cm'io" CO -"^l^ X a lO lO CM CM CO I— I lO CM O CO '^ CM O o o O Q o_p c:: -rj* CO t- CM t> CO t~ ,-t CM 353 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 15 5g 00 ^ t~ (M §1 .— I CO CO cv> o o o o o o Cvj ^ CO 00 CV! OS 8 Ci CM lO i-i f> CO 00 CO 8% co'io CD r-H O r-H 8 00 o CM t~ co '-^ o o oo CM Co' CD lO CD Oi §§ 88 11 88 i§ CO OJ CD CO CD r-H CM Ci 8g lO 00 ,-1 CD CM Oi CM CM CO lO r-H ^^ CD CO Oi CD lO CD O O O O O O io'cm' CO t- CO Ci o o o o o o co' c^ ^ Ttl 00 CM o o o o o o_ lO oo" O CM O —I CM CO o o o o t-'t-T o o: O 00 8 Cvi CM CM 00 lO CO o o o o o o cs oo' CD O .-H O o o o o o o ^'{-' CD CM o o 88 ,-H CD O O O O O O cm' oo' O CO 00 LO 00 o CO CD 8 88 lO lO CO "^ o o o o lO'o i> CD C5 CO ^' CD O •^ CM CO O o o o o q^ q^ o^ q^ 00~ Oi l> lO a <-* CO lo ^. ® '^^ "^^ .-H oo' cm" o" j> cd' lO lO CD CO O O o o o q ,-h' X lO CD CO lO o o o o o q cd' X X .-I i> lO lO lO X lO O X CO CO Tti CD o o o o o.q. ic" i-T X oo X ^ 8 88 --H 00 CM CM O O O O O O o'i> CM X CM a: O 1-1 CO t- o o o ~ q x' o CO LO X t> 88 o. q cm' cm' X lO CO O 8 .-H C5 ,-1 Ci G: lC O CO a: o CD 00 lO •-* ■^."^^ .-Tco" 88 o q lo' o' X o .-( CO X Oi t- X CM r-t 8 r^ .-H LO C7> X CM o o o o o o TJ^'X' rj< 00 8 X CO CM CM lO .— I 88 X Oi CO Gi ■^ CO 8 O X CO lO CM X O O OO ■^' x' CM CD O -^ 8 X lO X CO CM O CO t~ 354 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 1 1 requires several minutes to change the charts on this t\'pe of gauge ; but there is no shaft working through a stuffing box, so that the sHght friction found in the open type gauge is ehminated. The other type of gauge is a special type in which the spring only is encased and surrounded by high pressure gas and the movement of the spring is transmitted to the marking arm on the chart by a small axle passing through a stuffing box. All recording differential gauges are very sensitive and nuist be tested with a water column periodically. Mercury Float Recording Differential Gauge — In this gauge the pressure acts directly upon a seal of mercury in a pot, with the float following the mercury level and trans- mitting to the marking arm on the chart, by means of a shaft and stuffing box, any variation in the differential pressure. Fifi. 135— Mercury Float Recording Differential and Static Pressure Gauge. This gauge carries two pen arms marking on one chart Fig. 136 — Mercury Float Recording Differ- ential Pressure Gauge 355 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES There are two advantages in this gauge, first, a sudden rise in the differential pressure, which might strain or injure the gauge, would blow the mercury seal without injury to the gauge. The mercury is put in the pot after the gauge is installed in the field and in event of the seal being blown the mercur}^ pot can be refilled to the proper level or, till the marking arm on the chart rests at zero. Second, the mercury float gauge will measure gas carry- ing a high percentage of sulphur without affecting the gauge. With the spring recording gauge, if the differential pres- sure should rise suddenly, it would be liable to strain the gauge making it necessary to return it to the factory for re- pairs and test. Sulphur gas will corrode the spring, mak- ing it useless. Static Pressure Recording Gauge for Orifice Meters — With the encased recording differential gauge it is necessary to use a separate static recording gauge. With the open type the static pressure spring is incor- porated within the differential gauge case, and two marking arms record both the static and differential pressures on one chart, one marking with red and the other with black ink. Information Necessary in Ordering Orifice Meters — In ordering Orifice Meters always give the following in- formation : Estimate of the maximum volume per hour at the maxi- mum pressure. Estimate of the maximum volume per hour at the mini- mum pressure. Estimate of the minimum volume per hour at the maxi- mum pressure. Estimate of the minimum volume per hour at the mini- mum pressure. Specific Gravity of the gas. Size of the pipe line. 356 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES vSelling or buying base. Average temperature of the gas. The Specific Gravity of the gas should be taken periodic- ally, as it is liable to change. As gas wells grow old their gravity has a tendency to become higher. Unless the true specific gravity of the gas is known and the co-efficient cor- rected for same, the Orifice Meter will not measure the gas accurately. An orifice flange may be placed in any sized line by re- ducing or increasing the line at the orifice, so as to have at least twenty feet of pipe of the same size diameter as the flange on either side of the orifice. While it is possible to install a four inch flange in an eight inch line and get accurate results, it is advisable to have the flange the same size as the line, thereby sav^ing extra fittings. When installing an orifice, always have a gate on either side and about twenty feet from the flange. This will allow the changing of the orifice with the least amount of gas loss. Fig. U: -MiniVAV FIELD, CALIF 357 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES LARGE CAPACITY METER Large Capacity Meter — Where the volume of gas or air to be measured exceeds 6,000 cubic feet per hour, or the pressure is above five pounds, the most practical and cheap- est method of measurement is by a proportional or large capacity meter. Many gas companies use a large capacity meter to measure a volume of gas as small as 2,000 cubic feet per hour at a low pressure. While it is true that in the early days of large volume, high pressure gas measurement the proportional meter bore a doubtful reputation, during recent years many improve- ments have been made in these instruments, and they have been brought to a high standard of efficiency and accuracy. The large capacity meter is a most important instru- ment to the natural gas fraternity and without doubt there is less known about it by the actual caretaker than about anv other piece of apparatus under his care. It is seldom taken into consideration that it is a hard-worked piece of machinery, receiving little care and attention. ]Many in- stances are known where large capacity meters were not even cleaned, although in constant use for a period of tw^o vears or longer. While as a rule it is not good policy to repair a meter in the field without subsequent testing, never- theless there are a great many things that may happen to it which would only call for the tightening of a nut or screw, or replacing some part that would not affect the accuracy of the meter whatever. The large capacity meter, like any other sensitive instrument, needs attention. It is often blamed for a great deal of inaccuracy that should be charged to the pipe line. If a meter is believed to be inaccurate, it should be very carefully tested by a competent meter man, and if any controversy exists it would be 358 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 359 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Fig. 139—500-LB. TEST LARGE CAPACITY METER With Recording '['olutne and Pyessurc Gauge. policy to have the meter tested once a month and all records of tests kept on file at the gas company's office. When a gas company, selling to another company in the field, decides to have a test made, it is no more than fair (whether a dis- agreement exists or not) that the other interested party should be asked to have a representative present during the test. The results of the test should not be kept secret but should be held as common property between the two com- panies interested. Secrecy in testing meters often breeds trouble and creates a great deal of unnecessary dissatisfaction. 360 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES H - Piro taL^c Fig. 140—SECTIOXAL VIEW OF A LARGE CAPACITY METER Measure gas at as low a pressure as possible. It is cus- tomary^ to measure gas on a four ounce basis unless otherwise specified in a preliminary agreement. A great many field coinpanies purchase gas on an eight ounce basis. The slight advantage gained by this increased pressure is supposed to offset the small loss caused by the pipe line leakage. A factor}^ meter measuring gas at a low pressure will onl\' measure accurately a volume of low-pressure gas up to its rated capacity in cubic feet, while a field or high-pressure meter will measure accurately a volume of low-pressure gas at a high pressure far in excess of the rated capacity of the meter, entirely dependent upon the pressure. For example, a 10,000 cubic foot per hour, large capacity dry meter will measure accuratelv as follows: 361 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Meter Reading Pressure Pounds per Square Inch Multiplier Actual Amount of Low Pres- sure Gas Measured d d d .25 100.00 200.00 1.0000 7.8088 14.6348 10,000 78,088 146,348 The above figures are given under the assumption that the meter is working up to its maximum capacity, or 10,000 cubic feet per hour meter reading. To determine the proper-sized meter to measure any volume the following rule is followed : Divide the volume of gas to be measured per hour by the multiplier or density at which the gas is to be measured and it will give the meter reading for which to select the proper sized meter. Example: — If it is desired to measure 146,348 cubic feet of low pressure gas per hour at a pressure of 200 pounds — 146,348 -- 14.6348 = 10,000 ctibic feet per hour meter reading. Range of Accuracy of Large Capacity Meter — A large capacity meter is tested and corrected to within two per cent of accuracy within the limits of its capacity. Accurate measurement cannot be expected below a certain minimum volume which will vary according to the rated capacity of the meter. From the writer's experience, a table is given below showing a reasonable minimtim range of accuracy for meters of diflferent types and rated capa- cities. 362 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Capacity of Meter Cu. ft. per hour. (Meter Reading; Minimum Range of accuracy Cu. ft. per hour (Meter Reading) 3,000 500 6,000 700 10,000 900 20,000 1,800 35,000 3,600 50,000 3,600 75,000 3,600 100,000 3,600 125,000 7,200 150,000 10.800 All sizes of the different makes are tested in the factor}- to smaller volumes than those given above but it is extremely difficult to retain this accuracy on such small volumes in an instrument that was designed for heavier duty both as to pressure and volume. For volumes under 1,000 cubic feet per hour it is best to use a positive meter. To expect any type or make of meter to measure a wide range of volumes — for example a 20,000 cubic feet per hour capacity meter to measure a minimum volume of 600 cubic feet per hour is unreasonable. It might be likened to a merchant weighing a pound of butter with a set of hay scales. Where in the same pipe line it is necessary to measure large and small volumes of extremely wide range it is more reasonable to use two different size meters; a large size for the large volume and a smaller size for the small volume. By so doing very close accuracy can be obtained. A large capacity meter given proper care and used within its rated capacity will prove to be a wonderfully accurate measuring' instrument. 363 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES a s - 364 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES (A o -^ 6 (V t> O O O O O O o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 888 OQOOOOOO OOOOOOOO oooooooo 88_ . o o o o o o o o o o o o o o - o o o o 00 00 CO O O C O in in tr. O iC in O lO o o .— I c\} oj cv} CO CO CO in t- t^ o cvi ic o I— t I— f .-H (M 888 o o o o o o o o 88 CO CO O O O lO lO n-l .-H ,-( (M (M 00 OOOQOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOQOQQpOOOOOOOOOO p p p^ o^ p^ p p p, o_ o_ p_ p_ o_ o^ p p p CO o' o o lo o o' lo" o lo" o o irf o o o in .-i(MiOt-00(Min)J>OiO(MOOOiM r-l>-(.-(.-(r-l(M(M00-^lOCO00 ?^ «« o • w lOOOOOQOCOOOOOOOQ : 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 5 S, g = ° *^ ° ^ So o m o nH (M lO 8 o c c o o Q O O O O Q lO o lo o lO o O p p o c o' o' o o o o o b pppppp oi c\j oo' oo" ■^'~ lo" co' cc CD oi ic o ^ — — Cvi D O B8 co" o" o" --H oi 00 Tj^" i6 CD co" X o' o co" o" in cvi -"HCvJ-^COXOCMTfCOOinOO'-iOCQCO ^^^^(M(MCO"^iCCD00 O O O O o o 888888 o o o o o o o o o 365 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES 366 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Proving Large Capacity Meters — Large capacity meters are proved in the factory for volume with air at four inches water pressure corrected to the barometer and thermometer readings at time of test. The proving instruments used are the standard flow meter, funnel meter, large prover and Oliphant Pitot Tube. The latter is used for high pressure proving. In field proving, an additional correction is made on the pressure for the difference between the specific gravitv of the gas and the air (air being 1). Pressure Testing of Large Capacity Meters Hydraulic water pressure is used in testing large capacity meters for leaks, imperfec- tions in castings and strength of metal. Following water test, air under high pressure is used. Fifty pound meters are tested up to seventy-five pounds. Two hundred pound meters are tested up to two hundred and fifty pounds. Five himdred pound meters are tested up to five hundred and fifty pounds. Advantage should not be taken of the pressure test above the rated strength of the meter, as this addi- tional test is made as a precautionary measure. Over Capacity in Large Capacity Meters — All dry meters will work over capacity to a reasonable extent, especially the small sizes. For instance the 6,000 cubic feet per hour meter will measure accurately up to 7,200 cubic feet per hour. It is not good policy to take advantage of this over capacity con- stantly, but if used occasionally it will not injure the meter. Invariably the differential above the rated capacity of the meter increases greatly out of proportion to the difl>r- ential of the meter within capacity. 367 The Cane\ it 7C' ^y ^ /«£ : / 1 / «^ 1 ^ '^ 1 / / ^ /« . ' \,,tyr-r' YT' ^ ■^ /« 1 / / . riP" 1 , ^ ^ / / ^^" : ; " ^_: .-^''. — '^ / / / /" — /CO / / / y • ■ £ '.^-^^^^ --• - / / 1 'D t^y^ ^y" .^ — ' » - -v _ _ _ z. _ _ r^ ^ _- \- _ _ ^^^^.-^Mfife^ ^"t ^^=: r: _ ^ -= =: 60-| \f'- - - y '-J- '? 7^ - - "^^^ K \'^^x:.j^0^_ = = ' ■== - ^ - T ^ y ^ ^'^' ^""^"^ ^-—"'^ cyi£i J-S^n ' ** f / ^ ^ ^-""^ --^^^^^ -^-"^ 3C -H A / ^ _^ k- 1 _. _.- — -^ r-"""^ j i . ^'^ tu / V ^ r^ ^ ir-^ ^ — ^^^Hi ■ — ~ ^*'' 'l•^- ■^Si^^^^^ 1 ■■■■■■^^^^^^^^^ ■i V pH s; ;s -^^^ S 1 ;^; 5 «^a i^aa ^^^^ - ^ ■■^ ^m^m 1 ■n 1 hi MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES Recording Gauge — Where gas is measured at a greater pressure than four ounces, a recording gauge is necessary to determine the pressure throughout the 24 hours so that the multiplier for the average pressure can be applied to the meter reading to obtain the actual amount of gas passed. The recording gauge should be set on the meter itself and if it is a 24-hour gauge, the chart should be taken off daily and the day's reading, together with the previous day's reading, written on the back of the chart. Before setting a recording gauge on a large capacity meter, see that the marking arm rests at zero. Fig. 152— RECORDING PRESSURE GAUGE IN CARRYING CASE 382 MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES It is very essential to have recording pressure gauges that are used in connection with large capacity meters tested, as an error of ten pounds would amount to from 6 to 8 per cent, in the actual gas passed through the meter at 125 lb. pressure. At higher pressures the actual error would in- crease accordingly. Volume and Pressure Recording Gauge — (Adapted for use on the Large Capacity Meters in measuring gas or com- pressed air.) — In measuring gas or com- pressed air, it is al- ways desirable to determine the pres- sure of each 10,000 cubic foot volume passing through the meter. This enables the attendant to ob- tain the correct mul- tiplier from which he calculates the actual amount of gas or air passing through the meter. In addition to recording the contin- uous pressure, this gauge is equipped with a volume marker so constructed that — ijy making an additional mark or dash on the margin of the circular chart — it indicates each 10,000 foot volume passed. There is another advantage in the use of the volume and pressure recording gauge, for if the line should break ahead of the meter, the gauge chart would show, not only the time 383 Fi^. lo3 — X'olunie and Pressure Reeording Gang for use on Large Capacity Meters MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING GAS IN PIPE LINES of the break, but also the number of 10,000 cubic foot vol- umes that had passed through the meter after the accident. These gauges are equipped with either 1000, 10,000 or 100,000 cubic foot volume marking arms. Fig. 154 — -1 Recording Volume and Pressure Gauge Chart. Each dash, in space adjoining pressure graduations, indicates a 10,000 cu. foot volume has passed the meter. 384 PART XIXK Density (J f Gases Robert Boyle — Robert Boyle was an English natural philosopher, the seventh son and the fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great Karl of Cork. He was bom at Lismore Castle, province of Munster, Ireland, January 25, 1627. After three years at Eton he went abroad to travel with a French tutor. Returning to England in 1642 he found his father had died and left him estates at Dorsetshire and in Ireland. From that time on he gave his life to study. Reading, in 1657, of Otto von Guericke's air pump, he set himself, with the assistance of Robert Hooke, to devise improvements in its construction. The pneumatic engine being finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was published in 1660 under the title "New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the vSpring of Air and Its Effects." Among the critics of the view^s put forward in the book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linue; and it was while answering his objections that Boyle enunciated the law that the "volume of gas varies inversely as the pressure." This law among English-speaking people, is called after his name; though on the continent it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish it till 1676. Robert Boyle died December 30, 1691, at the house of his sister in Pall Mall, London. Edmond Mariotte — The French physicist, Edmond Mariotte, was born in 1620 at Dijon, where he spent most of his life. He was one of the first members of the Academy of Science, founded in Paris in 1666. He died in Paris, May 12, 1684. 385 DENSITY OF GASES He wrote many essays between 1676 and 1679 bearing on physical subjects, such as motion of fluids, freezing water, and the barometer. In his second essay, written about 1676, is the statement of the law that the "volume varies inversely as the pressure," which, though very generally called by his name, had been discovered by Robert Boyle in 1660. Jacques Alexander Cesar Charles — Jacques Alexander Cesar Charles was a French mathematician and physicist, born in Beaugency, Loiret, November 12, 1746. He was the first to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons, and in about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac's law of dilation of gases with heat, which, on that account, is sometimes known by his name. He died in Paris, April 7, 1823. Boyle's and Mariotte's Law — In a perfect gas the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure to which the gas is subjected, or, what is the same thing, the product of the pressure and the volume of a given quantity of gas remains constant Charles' Law — The volume of a given mass of any gas under constant pressure, increases from the freezing point by constant fraction of its volume at zero. In other words, gases expand — - of their volume at deg. C. for each deg. of 1 C. rise of temperature, and jrz of their volume at 32 deg. fahr. for each deg. fahr. rise of temperature. Expansion or Contraction of Natural Gas Due to Change 1 in Temperature — A\\ perfect gases expand or contract jri 386 DENSITY OF GASES or 0.00203 of their voluiiic at 32 deg. fahr. for an increase or decrease, respectively, of eacii deg. fahr. of temperature. Consequently if the temperature should fall 492 deg. below freezing temperature, or 460 deg. below zero, fahr., the volume of gas would contract to nothing. This point, namely, 460 deg. fahr., is called the absolute zero of tem- perature, and the absolute temperature of any gas is its temperature above freezing plus 460 deg. Thus 60 deg. standard temperature corresponds to 60 + 460 = 520 deg. absolute temperature. Low Pressure Basis — The "Rock Pressure" of gas wells varies according to the depth of the well and the length of time the well has been drilled; likewise the pressure of the flowing gas in pipe lines, meters, regulators, and gates is extremely variable, and on account of this variation in pres- sure, it was found necessary to establish some basis on which to sell and buy natural gas. Some years ago Mr. F. H. Oliphant, at that time of the United States Geological Survey, considered as a basis of natural gas measurement a pressure of 14.65 pounds per square inch absolute, and a temperature of 60 degrees fahr., and since then it has become customary for natural gas men to refer their gas measurements to this basis. A pressure of 14.65 pounds per square inch is 4 ounces above the assumed atmospheric pressure of 14.4 pounds per square inch, the latter being the average at about the elevation of the Great Lakes, which elevation was considered fairly representing that of most gas fields. Density Changes in Gas Volumes — At 4-ounce pressure a cubic foot of gas is made up of a certain number of atoms. In order to increase the pressure in a cubic foot of gas con- fined into a like space, it is necessary to force into that space more gas or more atoms of gas. If a sufficient amount of gas is forced into the confined space, originally 387 DENSITY O F GASES holding a cubic foot of gas at 4-ounce pressure, to create 15 pounds pressure, there will then be twice as much gas, or twice as many atoms of gas confined in the same space To illustrate, take a cylinder of proper diameter to contain one cubic foot of space for each foot in length fitted with a tight plunger. Y////////My//////////////v//^^^^^^ I CU. FT. 'v////////////////yy//////////^///////////////////^^^^ '/////////////Ml V///////////////////////////////////////7 Z'Z^Z^ Z CU. FT ^OZ. T^P£r^.S: Y>///////////////////////////////////////////////////////////;////////j^ Fig. loo — NOTE — Pressures slio-wn in Cuts are Gauge Pressures If the plunger in the cylinder is placed at the one-foot mark and enough gas forced into the space to create a pres- sure of fifteen pounds, it could be said that the cylinder contained one cubic foot of 15-pound gas. Then if the plunger is withdrawn until it rests at the two-foot mark the gas will expand and the pressure will drop to four ounces and the actual volume contained in the space will be two cubic feet. In other words, by multiplying the cubic con- tents in the first cylinder by 2 it will give the actual amount of 4-ounce gas in cubic feet. As all gas meters in the factory are tested and corrected to a low pressure basis, measuring gas by displacement, they may be compared to the cylinder with the plunger as illus- trated above. In measuring gas in the meter, the diaphragms contain just so much space. If the pressure of the gas con- fined in each quantity or volume of gas measured by the diaphragms filling and discharging is four ounces, then the meter reading needs no correction; but each time the meter diaphragm fills and discharges a volume of gas at a higher 388 DENSITY OF GASES pressure than four ounces, the meter reading must be cor- rected by applying a multipHer, to reduce the volume of gas measured to a four-ounce basis; and the higher the pressure the greater will be the density of the gas and the greater the number of atoms contained in each cubic foot of space. The multipliers for density are based on Boyle's law written in 1(360, that the "volume of a gas varies inverselv as the pressure." While the four ounce basis is generally accepted when no other pressure basis is stated in a buying and selling agreement, some other basis can be used and very often is used, particularly when gas is bought or sold in large volumes in the field. Formula for Determining the Quantity of Natural Gas When Measured Above Normal Pressure — In which Q = g h-\-.25 Q = cubic feet required. g = cubic feet shown by the meter. p = gauge pressure in pounds. h = atmospheric pressure of 14.4 pounds. 0.2o=4-ounce pressure reduced to pounds. By substituting the known values in the above it be- comes p + UA ^ ^14.65 For Example: — Suppose the meter or g reads 1,000 cubic feet and the pressure p shows 32J2 pounds to the square inch , required to find the quantity of gas at a pressure of four ounces. Then 32.5+14.4 Q=1,000 ,,,, =3.2013x1000=3,201.3 14.65 389 DENSITY O F GASES The result is therefore 3201.3 cubic feet at the standard pressure of four ounces to the square inch. In the fohowing pages will be found a set of multiplying tables for gas measured at 4 ounce pressure base. In com- piling the multipliers, atmospheric pressure (which does not show on the gauge) at 14.4 pounds is taken, same being the average atmospheric pressure in the natural gas fields, and temperature of 60 deg. fahr. Usually no correction is made for change in temperature as 60 degrees fahr. represents an average temperature throughout the year. w ^m- Fig. loG 390 DENSITY O F GASES Multipliers for Reducing Gas Volumes or Meter Readings to a Pressure Base of 4 Ounces Above Atmospheric Pressure. Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier 1 Gauge Pressure Multiplier Inches of Mercury or Density .14535 Lb. per Sq. In. 7 or Density 1.46075 Lb. per Sq. In. or Density -25 28 2.89419 -24 .17885 7,^2 1.49488 281 2 2.92832 -23 .21236 1 8 1.52901 29 2.96245 -22 .24586 8^2 1.56313 291^ 2.99658 -21 .27936 9 1.59726 -20 .31287 912 1.63139 30 3.03071 -19 .34637 3OI9 3.06484 -18 .37987 10 1.66552 31 3.09879 -17 .41338 i 101., 1.69965 313^ 3.13310 -16 .44688 , 11 " 1.73378 32 3.16723 11^2 1.76791 321^^ 3.20136 -15 .48038 12 1.80204 33 3.23549 -14 .51389 12^2 1.83617 331 9 3.26962 -13 .54739 13 1.87030 34 3.30375 -12 .58090 131 2 1.90443 341^ 3.33788 ■ -11 .61440 14 1.93856 -10 .64790 1432 1.97269 35 3.37201 - 9 .68141 351^ 3.40614 - 8 .71491 15 2.00682 36 3.44027 - 7 .74841 151^, 2.04095 1 361 9 3.47440 - 6 .78191 16 2.07508 37 3.50853 I6V2 2.10921 371^ 3.54266 - 5 .81542 17 2.14334 38 3.57679 - 4 .84892 171. 2.17747 381 2 3.61092 - 3 .88242 i 18 2.21160 39 3.64505 - 2 .91593 , 181 ., 2.24573 391 9 3.67918 - 1 .94943 19 2.27986 I ■ " Atmos. .98293 191 2 2.31399 i 40 3.71331 Lb. per Sq. In. 20 2.34812 401 „ 41 3.74744 3.78156 2OI9 2.38225 41 li 3.81569 OH 1.00000 21 2.41638 42 3.84982 oy2 1.01706 213^ 2.45051 421 2 3.88395 1 1.05119 22 2.48464 43 3.91808 I'A 1.08532 221 9 2.51877 431.? 3.95221 2 1.11945 23 2.55290 44 3.98634 2M 1.15358 231., 2.58703 441 2 4.02047 3 1.18771 24 2.62116 33^ 1.22184 241 2 2.65528 45 4.05460 4 1.25597 451 2 4.08873 4^ 1.29010 25 2.68941 46 4.12286 251 9 2.72354 461 2 4.15699 5 1.32423 26 2.75767 47 4.19112 53^ 1.35836 261 2 2.79180 471 9 4.22525 6 1.39249 27 2.82593 48 4.25938 6^2 1.42662 271 9 2.86006 481 9 4.29351 'Vacuum" or minus pressure. 391 DENSITY O F GASES 4-Ounce Multipliers — {Continued) Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. 91 or Density 49 4.32764 70 5.76109 7.19453 494 4.36177 704 5.79522 ! 914 7.22866 71 5.82935 92 7.26279 50 4.39590 711. 5.86348 921 9 7.29692 501/2 4.43003 72 5.89761 93 7.33105 51 4.46416 723'^ 5.93174 93I2 7.36518 513^^ 4.49829 73 5.96587 94 7.39931 52 4.53242 731-^ 6.00000 944 7.43344 521/2 4.56655 74 6.03412 53 4.60068 74I2 6.06825 95 7.46757 53V2 4.63481 954 7.50170 54 4.66894 75 6.10238 96 7.53583 541^ 4.70307 754 6.13651 96V^ 7.56996 76 6.17064 97 7.60409 55 4.73720 764 6.20477 973^ 7.63822 bbVr, 4.77133 77 6.23890 98 7.67235 56 4.80546 774 6.27303 984 7.70648 561^ 4.83959 78 6.30716 99 7.74061 57 4.87372 784 6.34129 991^ 7.77474 571^ 4.90784 79 6.37542 58 4.94197 793^ 6.40955 100 7.80887 583^ 4.97610 101 7.87713 59 5.01023 80 6.44368 102 7.94539 59>^ 5.04436 803^ 6.47781 103 8.01365 81 6.51194 104 8.08191 60 5.07849 813/i 6.54607 105 8.15107 601.2 5.11262 82 6.58020 106 8.21843 61 5.14675 821-2 6.61433 107 8.28668 614 5.18088 83 6.64846 108 8.35494 62 5.21501 834 6.68259 109 8.42320 621^ 5.24914 84 6.71672 63 5.28327 8432 6.75085 110 8.49146 63I2 5.31740 111 8.55972 64 5.35153 85 6.78498 1 112 8.62798 644 5.38566 851 9 6.81911 113 8.69624 86 6.85324 114 8.76450 65 5.41979 863^ 6.88737 115 8.83276 653^ 5.45392 87 6.92150 116 8.90102 66 5.48805 874 6.95563 117 8.96928 664 5.52218 88 6.98976 118 9.03754 67 5.55631 884 7.02389 119 9.10580 671^ 5.59044 89 7.05802 68 5.62457 894 7.09215 120 9.17406 68I9 5.65870 121 9.24232 69 5.69283 90 7.12627 122 9.31058 691^ 5.72696 901 2 7.16040 123 9.37883 392 DENSITY O F GASES 4-Ounce Multipliers — (Continued) Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. 166 or Density 12.31392 Lb. per Sq. In. or Density 124 9.44709 208 15.18088 125 9.51535 167 12.38225 209 15.24914 126 9.58361 168 12.45051 127 9.65187 169 12.51877 210 15.31740 128 9.72013 211 15.38566 129 9.78839 170 12.58703 212 15.45392 171 12.65529 213 15.52218 130 9.85665 172 12.72354 214 15.59044 131 9.92491 173 12.79180 215 15.65870 132 9.99317 1 174 12.86006 216 15.72696 133 10.06143 i 175 12.92832 ! 217 15.79522 134 10.12969 i 176 12.99658 218 15.86348 135 10.19795 177 13.06484 219 15.93174 136 10.26621 178 13.13310 137 10.33447 179 13.20136 220 16.00000 138 10.40273 221 16.06825 139 10.47098 180 13.26962 222 16.13651 181 13.33788 223 16.20477 140 10.53924 182 13.40614 1 224 16.27303 141 10.60750 183 13.47440 225 16.34129 142 10.67576 184 13.54266 1 226 16.40955 143 10.74402 185 13.61092 I 227 16.47781 144 10.81228 186 13.67918 228 16.54607 145 10.88054 187 13.74744 229 16.61433 146 10.94880 188 13.81569 147 11.01706 189 13.88395 ! 230 16.68259 148 11.08532 231 16.75085 149 11.15358 190 13.95221 232 16.81911 191 14.02047 233 16.88737 150 11.22184 192 14.08873 234 16.95563 151 11.29010 193 14.15699 235 17.02389 152 11.35836 1 194 14.22525 236 17.09215 153 11.42662 195 14.29351 237 17.16040 154 11.49488 196 14.36177 238 17.22866 155 11.56313 ! 197 14.43003 239 17.29692 156 11.63139 198 14.49829 157 11.69965 199 14.56655 240 17.36518 158 11.76791 241 17.43344 159 11.83617 200 14.63481 242 17.50170 201 14.70307 243 17.56996 160 11.90443 202 14.77133 244 17.63822 161 11.97269 203 14.83959 245 17.70648 162 12.04095 204 14.90784 1 246 17.77474 163 12.10921 205 1 14.97610 i 247 17.84300 164 12.17747 206 15.04436 248 17.91126 165 12.24573 207 1 15.11262 ' 249 ' 17.97952 393 DENSITY O F GASES 4-Ouiice Multipliers — {Continued) Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. 334 or Density 250 18.04778 292 20.91467 23.78156 251 18.11604 293 20.98293 i 335 23.84982 252 18.18480 294 21.05119 I 336 23.91808 253 18.25255 295 21.11945 337 23.98634 254 18.32081 296 21.18771 338 24.05460 J>55 18.38907 297 21.25597 339 24.12286 256 18.45733 298 21.32423 257 18.52559 299 21.39249 340 24.19112 258 18.59385 341 24.25938 259 18.66211 300 21.46075 342 24.32764 301 21.52901 343 24.39590 260 18.73037 302 21.59726 344 24.46416 261 18.79863 ' 303 21.66552 345 24.53242 262 18.86689 304 21.73378 346 24.60068 263 18.93515 305 21.80204 347 24.66894 264 19.00341 306 21.87030 348 24.73720 265 19.07167 307 21.93856 \ 349 24.80546 266 19.13993 308 22.00682 267 19.20819 1 309 22.07508 350 24.87371 268 19.27645 351 24.94197 269 19.34470 310 22.14334 352 25.01023 311 22.21160 353 25.07849 270 19.41296 312 22.27986 354 25.14675 271 19.48122 1 313 22.34812 355 25.21501 272 19.54948 314 22.41638 356 25.28327 273 19.61774 315 22.48464 357 25.35153 274 19.68600 316 22.55290 j 358 25.41979 275 19.75426 317 22.62116 1 359 25.48805 276 19.82252 318 22.68941 277 19.89078 319 22.75767 360 25.55631 278 19.95904 361 25.62457 279 20.02730 320 22.82593 362 25.69283 321 22.89419 363 25.76109 280 20.09556 322 22.96245 364 25.82935 281 20.16382 323 23.03071 365 25.89761 282 20.23208 324 23.09897 366 25.96587 283 20.30034 325 23.16723 367 26.03412 284 20.36860 326 23.23549 368 26.10238 285 20.43685 I 327 23.30375 369 26.17064 286 20.50511 328 23.37201 287 20.57337 329 23.44027 370 26.23890 288 20.64163 371 26.30716 289 20.70989 330 23.50853 372 26.37542 331 23.57679 373 26.44368 290 20.77815 332 23.64505 374 26.51194 291 20.84641 333 23.71331 375 26.58020 394 DENSITY O F GASES 4-Ounce Multipliers — {Continued) Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Gauge Pressure Multiplier Lb. per Sq. In. or Density Lb. per Sq. In. 418 or Density Lb. per Sq. In. or Density 376 26.64846 29.51535 460 32.38225 377 26.71672 419 29.58361 461 32.45051 378 26.78498 462 32.51877 379 26.85324 420 29.65187 463 32.58703 421 29.72013 464 32.65528 380 26.92150 422 29.78839 465 32.72354 381 26.98976 423 29.85665 466 32.79180 382 27.05802 424 29.92491 467 32.86006 383 27.12627 425 29.99317 468 32.92832 384 27.19453 426 30.06143 469 32.99658 385 27.26279 427 30.12969 386 27.33105 428 30.19795 470 33.06484 387 27.39931 429 30.26621 471 33.13310 388 27.46757 472 33.20136 389 27.53583 430 30.33447 473 33.26962 431 30.40273 474 33.33788 390 27.60409 432 30.47098 475 33.40614 391 27.67235 433 30.53924 476 33.47440 392 27.74061 434 30.60750 477 33.54266 393 27.80887 435 30.67576 478 33.61092 394 27.87713 436 30.74402 479 33.67918 395 27.94539 437 30.81228 396 28.01365 438 30.88054 480 33.74743 397 28.08191 439 30.94880 481 33.81569 398 399 400 401 402 403 28.15017 28.21842 28.28668 28.35494 28.42320 28.49146 440 441 442 443 444 445 31.01706 31.08532 31.15358 31.22184 31.29010 31.35836 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 33.88395 33.95221 34.02047 34.08873 34.15699 34.22525 34.29351 34.36177 404 28.55972 446 31.42662 405 28.62798 447 31.49488 406 407 408 409 28.69624 28.76450 28.83276 28.90102 448 449 450 451 31.56313 31.63139 31.69965 31.76791 490 491 492 493 34.43003 34.49829 34.56655 34.63481 410 28.96928 452 31.83617 494 34.70307 411 29.03754 453 31.90443 495 34.77133 412 29.10580 454 31.97269 496 34.83959 413 29.17406 455 32.04095 497 34.90784 414 29.24232 456 32.10921 1 498 34.97610 415 29.31057 457 32.17747 1 499 35.04436 416 29.37883 458 32.24573 417 29.44709 459 32.31399 500 35.11262 For tables of multipliers of other bases sec "Measurement of Gases Where Density Changes," by the author. 395 PART TEX Regulation of Gas REGULATORS: HIGH, INTERMEDIATE AND LOW- REGULATOR DIAPHRAGM— REGULATORS AND PLAIN END PIPE— INSTALLING— REGULATOR HOUSE— CARE OF REGULATORS— HEATING- REGULATOR BY- PASS— GRINDING VALVES. Regulators — A gas regulator is practically a reducing valve or set of balanced valves automatically controlling and reducing, by throttling, the pressure of the gas entering an intermediate or low pressure main or line. The regulator is one of the most vital parts in a gas line system, and unless working perfectly will cause a great deal of trouble and loss. Too much attention cannot be paid to the care of the regu- lator. As usually constructed, regulators, when working within their range, will maintain a nearly constant pressure in the outlet main. If an attempt is made to reduce the pressure of the gas through more than one hundred pounds, trouble is liable to occur, through freezing. The outlet pressure of a regulator is controlled by weights on the lever arm connected with the diaphragm and valve stem. Fig. 157— HIGH FRESSURE OR REDUCING REGULATOR 396 REGULATION O F GAS High Pressure Regulators A high pressure regulator is constructed with a small diaphragm and a small set of valves to enable it to take care of 500 to 600 pounds safely, and when especially ordered will take care of pressures of 800 to 1000 pounds. The work of a high pressure regulator is to reduce the pressure from a high to an intermediate pressure. Intermediate Pressure Regulators — The work of an intermediate regulator is to reduce the pressure from 50 to 100 pounds down to 15 or 20 pounds, so that the low pressure regulator will control the gas in a more sensitive manner without too great a reduction. The intermediate pressure regulator is not very commonly used, but when used, it greatly improves the work of both the high and the low pressure regulators. It gives a more sensitiv^e and far safer serv Fig. 138-~L0W PRESSURE REGL'LAIOR 397 REGULATION OF GAS Low Pressure Regulators — A low pressure regulator takes the gas from an intermediate pressure line and reduces it to a pressure low enough for home consumption, which is from four to six ounces. A low pressure regulator is built with a large diaphragm and large valves and is very sensitive. INDEX TO PARTS OF LOW PRESSURE REGULATOR SHOWN IN CUT No. of Part Name of Part 1 Bottom Plug or Cap 2 Main Valve Body 5 Valves and Connecting Stem Complete 5A Bottom Valve Nut 5B Bottom Valve 5C Bottom Wing 5D Top Valve 5E Top Wing 5F Top Valve Seats 5G Connecting Stem 6 Lower ,Steel Stem 8 Top Cap 9 Stuffing Box 10 Upright 11 Upper Brass Stem 14A Lower Diaphragm Cover 14B Upper " " 14C Rubber Diaphragm 14D Lower Diaphragm Plate 14E Upper " " 14F Diaphragm Bolts 15 Close Nipple 18 Diaphragm Piping or Breathing Pipe 20 Brass L^nion 21 Special Diaphragm Cock 23 Main Line Nipple 26 Flanges Complete 27 Asbestos Gasket 28 Cut-off Link 29 Lever 30 Weight 398 REGULATION O F GAS Fig. 159— LOW PRESSURE REGULATOR SETTING Installing — Small size high and low pressure regulators set on the same line should be about six feet apart. With six-inch and larger size, set twenty feet or more apart, other- wise they are apt to work against one another. It is good policy to use a regulator of larger diameter than the diameter of the high pressure line. Proper gauges should be placed on the high, intermediate and low pressure side. If a by-pass is installed around a high pressure regulator, a gauge on the low or intermediate side should be placed in plain view from the by-pass gate. It is a very good idea in low pressure systems to place a low pressure recording gauge on line, and preser^^e the charts for reference in case of dispute. Do not set regulators in a pit. Regulator Diaphragms — Regulator diaphragms should be examined often, and if they show the slightest wear new diaphragms should be substituted for the old. The slightest pin hole in the diaphragm kills the effect of the regulator. 399 REGULATION OF GAS Regulator House — Fig. 1(30 shows regulator house built by the City of Medicine Hat, Alta. Ventilator is placed at either end of the roof. Panels in the wall are one brick thick. While this build- ing is lire-proof, the cost is very reasonable. Regulators and Plain End Pipe — When a regula- tor is to be placed in a plain end pipe line, use two or three ioints of screw pipe Fig. 160— REGULATOR HOUSE -' , . on the inlet and outlet of the regulator. Where the high pressure line enters the regulator station, the pipe should be well anchored. Sheet Iron Heater for Gas Line — Figure 161 shows a sheet iron heater for use on a high pressure line entering a meter or regulator station. The large pipe projecting through the roof carries off the burnt gases and the small pipe runs into the pit to a point near the mixer of the burner in order to slowly supply fresh air. By this method the liability of the mixer receiving gusts of wdnd is eliminated and a constant fire is assured. A common log burner is used under the pipe. Care of Regulators — ^Thaw a regulator with w^arm w^ater. Do not use oil on a regulator piston rod in winter unless the excess of oil is wiped off, as cold weather chills the oil and causes the piston to stick. If frost accumulates on the high pressure regulator, in- crease fire in the heater. If the regulator is frozen solid, care should be used in thawing it out even with warm water, as the regulator is apt to jump and throw high pressure gas into either intermediate or low pressure lines. In the above case it is better to close the gate back of the regulator first, and in event of the frozen regulator being the only feeding 400 REGULATION O F GAS point on a low pressure system, all consumers should be notified that gas will be turned on at a certain hour. In case regulators are set where the distance between is so short that they jump, a short piece of pipe, the same size as that used between the two regulators, can be installed at riglit angles to old line and wall act as a reservoir. This, of course, would be a blind end or short joint of pipe capped. High and low pressure regulators should be visited daily and a record kept of all pressures unless recording gauges are used, in which case the charts can be preserved. Fig. 161— SHEET IRON HEATER FOR GAS LINE Heating — I n cold weather, or where the reduction in pressure is greater than one hun- dred pounds, use a gas torch heater back of the small regulator instal- lation. Place it far enough back so that in event of a gate flange gasket blowing out, the escaping gas cannot catch lire from the torch. Regulator By-Pass— All high and low pressure regulators should be installed with a by-pass. This will enable one to properly clean, inspect, or repair them without interfering with the service ahead of the regulator. Grinding Valves — When the seats or valves become nicked or worn and cause leakage they can be ground in by hand. Valves should be ground on their own seat, using cmerv flour and oil. 401 REGULATION OF GAS If a regulator fails to work and the diaphragm is found to be perfect, examine the valves and the pet cock on the breathing pipe running from the top of the diaphragm head to the low pressure side of the regulator. Dirt wiU cause the valves to stick and the pet cock to become choked Fig. 162— LOW PRESSURE REGULATOR INSTALLATIOX Note Single and Double Diaphragm Regulators 402 PART i:levex Distribution of Gas LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM — MAPPING — REGU- LATOR STATION — OIL SAFETY TANKS — SAFETY VALVES — GAUGES — LEAKS — SER- VICES — PURIFIERS — RULES AND REGULA- TIONS FOR HOUSE PIPING. Description of Low Pressure System — A low pressure system consists of a series or network of gas lines in which the gas is carried at a pressure of a few ounces above at- mosphere. This low pressure is maintained in order to lessen the possibihty of danger in house piping and burning devices, and at the same time to give adequate ser^'ice to all consumers regardless of their distance from the regulating station. It is good policy to use a double system of low pressure mains in city streets where there is a pavement or the possibility of one being laid in the future. In this case the mains should, if possible be laid between the curb and the sidewalk, one main on each side of the street. In estimating the possible number of consumers in a city, figure live people to the meter. Whenever possible, lines should be laid in alleys with services running into the rear of the building. There is less liability of damage suits due to accidents than if the lines are laid in much-traveled streets. 403 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS eoo ooo 500 ooo I (V- 'iOOOOO \ § 4 300000 \ EOO ooo — 1 c He -OA 7a/- /Si 'Si /Ui ^/Cl 5 \ A^UCH OF rH£ £OU//^M£'A/T Mi/Sr B£ H£LD £0/^ TH/S ^BAH- LOAC-A^O l^/ll SS 0S£0 A/or MO/9£ THAA/ ^ Hou/?s o^/i r £>u^/A/o. SAy: so ^/=- THS 3MAl././V£5S 0£- LV/S /S £l^/- C>£-A/r £-/?OM rH££-0/.LO^V//^0:- A/OAi3£/? OF /iOU/?S W A VFAf? /A/ IVH/CH rH£ F/X£D C/yAF'a£S AF£ ACCFa/NO, ^^^36S^ffP'SO=/00;i FOi/FS F£AF LOAC) £(?U/F- MEA/r /5 USED ^ ^ £0 -- SO = /% \ \ \ I X / - 1 V \, 1 / y C r 0£ PS LC 4X LC / ■)AL 5. ?/" ^ \ \ \ I \ ooo /B / 2 3 ^ S ($ 7 e 9 /O // /2 / 2 3-^36 7 3 9 /O // /2 T/ME Fig. 163— CHART SHOWING DAILY PEAK LOAD OF LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM. (By S. S. Wyer in -Natural Gas Service.") 404 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS 3 250. OOO, 000 3. 000 000, 000 2. 750 000 000 e. 500.000,000 % \2.££aoooooo \ ^2.000000 000 ^ /, Z50, OOa OOO ':^/,<$oo,ooo.ooo \ti/, 500,000,000 I W/,^so,ooaooo \ /, OOO. OOO, OOO 750,000000 500,000000 '250,000,000 ooo,oooooA M I H n H I H Fig. 164—AVERAGE MOXTHLY PEAK LOAD {By S. S. Wyer) 405 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Peak Load. l{very natural gas company is confronted \\4th the serious problem of peak load, and how to obtain an adequate return on the additional investment required. Abnormal peaks of very short duration are characteristic of all natural gas loads. This necessitates a large invest- ment for equipment that is actually used only a very short period out of each year. Even though the peak load equip- ment is used for a few hours out of each year, the invest- ment must be made to render the service. Construction of Low Pressure System — Plain end pipe can be used to great advantage in a low pressure system. There should be no dead ends. In cities of 5000 or larger, use a belt line feeding system. This consists merely of feed- ing the gas from the high pressure line into a belt line at an intermediate pressure, which in turn is connected with different regulator stations where the gas is reduced to a low pressure of generally about four to six ounces. The pressure carried on the belt line should be between fifteen and twenty pounds. Mapping — When a low pressure system is installed or any new additions made to an old system, it should be properly platted, showing all tees, plugs, expansion joints, bends and other fittings, as well as distances in feet, between streets and from curb to lines. Size of Mains — Low^ pressure systems are too frequently installed with pipe of too small a diameter. The larger the main the better will be the ser\4ce and the lower the pressure necessary to give it. 406 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS Table Showing the Approximate Discharge, in Cubic Feet per Hour, of Gas of 0.6 Specific Gravity in Different Lengths and Diameters of Pipe Intake Pressure 4.0 oz. or 6.9 in. water Discharge Pressure 3.7 oz. or 6.4 in. water (By F. H. Oliphant) Diameter of Pipe Iv'gh in Feet llnch 2 Inch 3 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 8 Inch 10 Inch 12 Inch 50 350 2,072 5,775 11,935 21,000 33,250 69,300 122.500 194,600 100 247 1,462 4,075 8,422 14,820 23,465 48,906 86,450 137,332 150 203 1,201 3,349 6,922 12,180 19,285 40,194 71,050 112,868 200 175 1,036 2,887 5,967 10,500 16,625 = 34,650 61,250 97,300 250 152 899 2,508 5,183 9,120 14,440 30,096 53.200 84,512 300 143 846 2,359 4,876 8,580 13,585 28,311 50,050 79,508 350 136 805 2,244 4,637 8,160 12,920 26,928 47,600 75,616 400 124 734 2,046 4.228 7,440 11,780 24,552 43,400 68,944 450 115 680 1,897 3.921 6,900 10,925! 22,770 40.250 63.940 500 110 652 1,815 3,751 6,610 10,450 21,780 38,500 61,160 600 102 603 1,683 3,478 6,120 9.690 20,196 35.700 56,712 700 95 562 1,567 3,239 5,700 9.025 18,810 33.250 52,820 800 88 520 1.452 3,000 5,280 8,360 17,424 30,800 48,928 900 83 491 1,369 2,830 4,980 7,885 16,434 29.050 46.148 1000 76 449 1,254 2,591 4,560 7,220 15,048 26,600 42.256 1100 73 432 1,204 2,489 4,380 6,935 14,454 25,550 40.588 1200 71 420 1,171 2.421 4,260 6,745 14,058 24,850 39.476 1300 68 402 1,122 2,318 4,080 6,460 13,464 23.800 37,808 1400 66 390 1,089 2,250 3,960 6,270 13,068 23,100 36.696 1500 64 378 1,056 2,182 3,840 6,080 12,672 22,400 35,584 1600 62 367 1,023 2,114 3,720 5.890 12,276 21,700 34,472 1800 58 343 957 1,977 3,480 5,510 11,484 20.300 32.248 2000 55 325 907 1,875 3,300 5.225 10,890 19,250 30,580 2500 50 296 825 1,705 3,000 4,750 9,900 17,500 27,800 3000 47 278 775 1,602 2,820 4,465 9,306 16.450 26,132 3500 42 248 693 1,432 2,520 3,990 8.316 14.700 23,352 4000 40 236 660 1.364 2.400 3,800 7,920 14,000 22.240 4500 37 219 610 1,261 2,220 3,515 7,326 12.950 20.572 5280 34 201 561 1,159 2,040 3,230 6,732 11,900 18,904 407 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS Welding Gas Mains — In welding gas mains, the pipe is strung along on top of the ground, outside of the trench. Two or more lengths of pipe are butted together and welded by an operator, assisted by two helpers, one at each end of the section. The helpers turn the section with chain tongs or other devices so that the operator is always welding on top of the pipe — a position in which the fastest work can be accomplished. Fig. lt;5—WELDIXG LOW I'RIi.ss [' RE M M .\ Various engineers use different methods of handling the pipe for welding. While many follow the method de- scribed above for all sizes of pipe, some engineers weld the larger sizes, namely, 8, 10, 12 and 16 inches, supported on skids directly above the trench. In this way frequently two operators work on opposite sides of the pipe, which is turned, as the work progresses, by one or more helpers. 408 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS With the small oxv-acetylene ilaine, which has a tem- perature of approximately ().3()0 degrees, the metal on each side of the joint is heated to the fusion point, when pure Norway iron wire is fused into the molten metal, forming a true fusion weld. By this simple method the operator does the work, building up the weld to any desired thickness, making the joint as strong as desired. Where the pipes are cut off straight, the two sections are butted up to within re to M-inch of each other according to the size of the pipe, and the weld is made as described. Figure 166 illus- trates a welding unit most suitable for field use. The unit consists of two steel cylinders, one each of compress- ed acetylene and oxy- gen, wielding blow- pipe, necessar}^ regu- lators, hose, etc. The entire outfit is mount- ed on a two-wheeled truck and is easily and quickly moved from place to place as required. As fast as a sec- tion of welded pipe is finished it is capped at both ends and tested for leaks, under any desired pressure. After the welded section has been test- ed and found satisfac- tory, it is rolled to the trench and lowered into place. 409 Fig. 166— PORTABLE WELDIXG OL'TFIT CONSISTING OF TWO STEEL CYLINDERS —ONE OF OXYGEN AND ONE OF ACETY- LINE WITH RECTLATORS. HOSE. ETC. DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Although the pipe in the trench should be graded as carefully as is customary in ordinary practice, do care need be taken to ha\'e it lie absolutely straight. In fact the more snake-like the pipe lies in the trench, the better, as by this method contraction and expansion are taken care of. Com- mon practice has demonstrated that because of the great strength and flexibility of the welded joint this is the only provision necessary to take care of expansion and contrac- tion. The section of pipe now in the trench is welded to the main already laid. For this, as for all welding in the trench, a bell hole is dug large enough to allow the operator to weld entirely around the joint. When welding the bottom of the pipe he is working overhead, a position in which good welding is readily accomplished after proper practice. Where laterals are required, a hole of the proper size is cut in the main with the cutting blowpipe, and the lateral is welded into place at any angle desired. One of the great advantages in this method of pipe line construction is the eliminating of joints, collars, sleeves, fittings, etc., thus greatly decreasing the leakage. Low Pressure Main Marker — In laying a new low pres- sure system or renewing old mains, wherever the work is done at paved street intersections, it is good practice to place a "monument" directly over and connected by chain to the gas main cross or intersection. Top of "monument" should be level with the surface of the pavement and should be lettered to indicate it is the property of the gas company. It will always assist in locating the point of intersection of mains without running a survey or use of blue prints. Regulating Station or Feeding Points — Regulating sta- tions should be placed at advantageous points in the thickly settled sections of the city or town. The purpose of this is to maintain as nearly as possible, a uniform pressure through- 410 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS out the whole distrilnition system under conditions of "heavy pull," or large consumption of gas. Low Pressure Regulator Station or Building — A well- built regulator house provided with a ventilator and neatlv painted is a credit to any gas company. Install a low pressure recording gauge, with either twcntv-four hour or seven-dav clock and chart on the low Ptrsptctivc Plan Fig. 167— FLAX OF REGULATOR BilLDIXC side of the regulator, and require the charts to be turned into the main office as soon as taken from the gauge. This will not only show the continuous pressure on the mains but will also act as a check on the regulator inspectors or care- takers. In summer, when the consumption is low, the ten- dency of a caretaker is to neglect the inspection of regulators. 411 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS . ^ '^ 1 Cia me Line ccntieflror F/g. 108— SKETCH SHOU'IXG INSTALLATION OF LOW PRESSURE RECORDING GAUGE AT REGULATOR STATION Oil Safety Tank — An oil safety tank consists of a sheet- iron drum or cylinder of reasonable size with pipe flange connections on the top. The inlet to tank should be of the same size pipe as the low pressure main and should run down through the top of the tank to within six inches of the bottom. The outlet should consist of a short piece of pipe the same size as the inlet, to act as an escape for the gas, andwhere the tank is placed in the interiorofabuildingthe outlet should be continued to the outside. A sufficient quantity of oil is placed in the tank, to seal the end of the inlet pipe, the depth depending upon the pressure at w^hich it is desired to have it blow. If the pressure exceeds this value it will overcome the head produced hv the seal low pressure oil J x-L- -11 ^u u 4-U A- 1 SAFETY TANK and the gas wall escape through the tank and relieve the pressure on the main. As soon as the pres- sure drops back to its normal value the oil seal automatically closes the pipe again. A salt-w^ater brine can be used in- stead of oil. m 412 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Turning Gas into New Low Pressure System- After turning gas into a new low pressure system and before open- ing any service cocks, the air should be let out slowly along various points of the line. After the gas has been first turned into the service, the air should be let out of the service through some stove or other opening by an inspector or competent employee of the gas company. Te sting Low Pressure Systems — In constructing a low pressure system it should be tested after each day's work with at least thirty pounds pressure of air or gas but not with a com- bination of the two. When using air press- ure an air pump (steam driven) can be used, and where the system is large the air can be pumped in over night and the inspec- tion made in morning:. the Fig. 170—TESriXG A SECTIOX OF LOW- PRESSURE SYSTEM WITH A SMALL AIR COMPRESSOR AND GAS ENGINE FOR POWER INSTALLED ON A WAGON It is good policy to make a few ser\'ice taps under pressure while testing. This will assist in cleaning the line as well as closing small leaks. 413 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Leaks — While leaks can be closed around collars by caulking, it is better to use collar leak clamps. Collar leak clamps take better hold and need less tightening after put in use if the end of the collar has a flat face or surface. Electrolysis — Electrolysis in a low pressure gas system is the destruction of pipe caused by stray electric currents from electric car lines. The damage is done to the gas main by the stray current jumping from the street car rail or ground onto the pipe and off again. It is an established fact that an alternating current does not cause electrolysis to nearly as great an extent as does direct current. The corrosion always takes place where the current leaves the pipe and enters the ground, whereas no harm is done at the point where the current enters the pipe. Heretofore various remedies have been suggested in the nature of bonding. One of these methods was to connect each joint of pipe with the other by a copper wire properly attached to each joint to make a good electrical connection. The main was wired at the point nearest the dynamo station and the wiring connected with the negative bar of the dy- namo. With this method the gas company's low pressure system became the return feeder for the electric car line company and practically a part of its electric system. In the event of a gas company repairing its main and tem- porarily breaking the gas line, there is great liability of an explosion of the gas leakage in the ditch ignited by a spark caused by the stray current at the moment of removing or replacing any joint of pipe in the main. Electrolytic Mitigating System (Albert F. Ganz, Elec- trical Engineer) — "The insulated radial track return feeder system aims to relieve the tracks of current by insulated conductors and thus aims to prevent currents from escaping into the ground. With a properly laid out track return feeder system, together with properly bonded tracks, it is 414 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS possible and practicable to minimize stray currents through the ground and therefore stray currents on underground piping to any desired minimum value, and such currents may be made so small as to be negligible. This system, removes the cause of the trouble, in that it relieves under- ground piping systems of dangerous stray currents. It removes danger from sparking as well as dangers from electrolysis, and does not require changes to be made in the railway system when changes in the underground pip- ing system are made. In fact it leaves underground pip- ing systems separate and independent of railway systems, which is certainly a safer and more preferable condition than to deliberately make such piping systems a part of the rail- way return circuit and a carrier of return railway current. With the tracks of two systems connected together, not only at cross overs, but also where necessary by cross bond- ing cables, these tracks become available for the joint use of the return currents from both systems with the result of greatly reducing the potential gradient in these tracks with corresponding reduction in stray currents through ground. It is the unquestionable duty of those who distribute electric currents to so control them as to prevent such currents from damaging others. Good engineering practice of to-dav makes it possible and practicable for single trolley electric railways to provide a return circuit which will pre- vent escape of large and serious stray electric currents into the ground. Where such large and serious stray elec- tric currents are allowed to escape they become a source of danger to the lives and property of the public and to the property of other utilities and of the municipality. The escape of such currents should, in my opinion, be controlled through the enactment and enforcement of a suitable ordinance based on the police powers of the municipality, exactly as other nuisances which endanger the public are now controlled." 415 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS In connection with Mr. Ganz's article, the writer here- with cites an incident that happened in the city of Buffalo which fully bears out the statement that stray electric cur- rents on gas and water mains are not only destructive to the main but often cause explosions at distant points from the main. In one of the fire engine buildings situated in the center of the city a tin gas meter was hung from the wall near the ceiling, in close proximity to a water pipe connected with the city water ser\ace. At the time of the accident several firemen then on duty were seated within plain view of the meter. Apparently, without any known cause, a flash occurred about the meter, melting same and instantly starting a fire, which of course on account of its quick dis- covery was easily distinguished without any great damage. If this had happened under most any other circumstances it very likely would have caused a disastrous fire. While this case created considerable wonderment it was soon solved and the cause attributed to stray currents jump- ing from either the water pipe to the meter or vice versa and melting the solder on the meter. With reference to the foregoing, it will be noted that on page 452 under ''Installing Domestic Meters" the author states: "In cities having street car sendee do not set the meter near any water or artificial gas pipes." ELECTROLYSIS REMEDIAL MEASURES. "The following form of ordinance has been prepared for the purpose of pro- viding regulations which will relieve dangerous conditions due to currents escaping from electrical distribution systems, which currents are a constant source of damage and create a serious hazard to the public and to the property of public utilities. The provisions of the ordinance are based upon the present state of the art as de- termined by extended studies and practical experience in this country and abroad. Considering the dangers to be guarded against and the magnitude of property interests to be protected, the provisions of this ordinance are, in our opinion, neces- sary and reasonable, and its enforcement will not impose an undue burden upon those affected by its terms. ALBERT F. GANZ, Consulting Electrical Engineer, Professor of Electrical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J. HOWARD S. WARREN, Engineer, American Telephone and Telegraph Companv, New York, N. Y. SAMUEL S. WYER, Consulting Engineer, Columbus, Ohio. New York, N. V., April 11, 1913. 416 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS (^RDIXANCK No To Protect the Lives and Property of Persons From Danger Due to Stray Electric Currents Through Ground. WHEREAvS, electric currents escaping into the ground from electrical distribution systems are a constant source of danger to the lives and property of the public and a constant source of injury to underground water-pipes, gas-pipes, cable-sheaths, and other underground metallic structures; and. WHEREAvS, it is deemed necessary for the general safety of the public and the necessary conduct of the public ser\ace to restrict and limit the escape of electric currents from electrical distribution systems: BE IT ORDAINED bv the Council of the of .' , vState of Ohio : SECTION ONE. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm or corporation to construct, operate or maintain within the limits of the municipality of any system of circuits used by such person, firm or cor- poration, for carrying electric currents, which system at any one time conveys from any one point to any other point more than one (1) kilowatt of electric power, unless such current- carrying electric circuits are so constructed, operated and maintained as to fulfill the requirements hereinafter set forth. SECTION TWO. All metallic conductors forming parts of such current-carrying electric circuits shall be in sulated from the ground wherever it is practicable so to insulate them; or if in the case of any particular metallic conductor such insulation shall be impracticable, then and in such case the said particular metallic conductor which can not be insulated shall be so constructed and maintained as to afford as high a resistance to ground as practicable. SECTION THREE. Whenever any such metallic conductors forming parts of such current-carrying electric circuits are not insulated from the ground, such circuits shall be designed, installed, operated and maintained, so that the average potential difference during any ten (10) 417 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS consecutive minutes between any two (2) points one thous- and (1,000) feet apart on said metallic conductors will not exceed one (1) volt, and further, so that the average poten- tial difference during any ten (10) consecutive minutes, be- tween any two (2) points more than one thousand (1,000) feet apart within the limits of on such metallic conductors, will not exceed seven (7) volts. SECTION FOUR. To aid in determining whether or not the requirements of this ordinance are being complied with, every person, firm or corporation referred to in Section One hereof, constructing, operating or maintaining metallic conductors not insulated from the ground, forming parts of such current-carrying electric circuits, shall provide and maintain insulated potential wires extending from some common point located within the limits of to an adequate number of points on said metallic conductors, such points to be designated from time to time b}" the author- ized representative of the municipality, and such person, firm or corporation shall also provide an adequate number of voltmeters so arranged with reference to the said insulated potential wires that the potential differences between the said points on said metallic conductors may be readily and accurately measured; and the potential differences betw^een some one of said points and each other of the said points, as determined by readings of said voltmeters taken at least once every thirty (30) seconds during ten (10) consecutive minutes, shall be measured and recorded, said readings to be taken at least once every w^eek, on a business day, during the one (1) hour of maximum difference of potential. In lieu of such readings there may be substituted the continuous records from an adequate number of recording voltmeters installed as aforesaid. The authorized representative of the municipality and any other interested person shall have access to such potential wires, voltmeters and records, and shall have the right to be present and witness such measure- ments, and shall further have the right to make such addi- tional measurements as he may consider necessary or de- sirable. SECTION FIVE. Any person, firm or corporation violating any of the provisions of this ordinance shall, upon conviction, be fined not more than Three Hundred Dollars ($300.00) for each offense, and each day's operation of such 418 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS system of current-carrying electric circuits contrary to this ordinance shall constitute a separate and distinct offense. SECTION SIX. This ordinance shall take effect and be in force from and after four (4) months from its passage and legal publication." The foregoing ordinance has been adopted by several cities in Ohio, and in one instance validated in court. Fire Alarm in Gas Office — Some gas companies, es- pecially in the South where wood construction predominates and cellars are lacking, have installed a fire alarm (same as at a fire engine house) in the superintendent's or other office of the company and have a man on duty both day and night with motor cycle and tools, to answer all alarms. In case of an explosion it permits the gas company to obtain first hand information. Gauge Alarm — When it is desired to make a gauge alarm to be used either on a high pressure line entering a low pressure feeding station or on an intermediate or belt line pressure, the following method can be employed: use an ordinary spring gauge and drill a J/s"^^^^^ ^o^^ about 1 inch from the outer circumference of the glass dial. Remove the insulation from the end of a wire and insert same into the hole in the glass dial to within i^-inch of the graduated gauge dial, taking care, however, that it does not touch the latter. Attach another wire to the pipe leading to the gauge. The two wires can be strung any distance to a common electric bell and dry batteries. The wire in the glass dial of the gauge should be turned to a position opposite the pressure on the dial at which it is desired that the bell should ring. When the pressure drops to this point, the gauge hand will make a contact with the wire, thereby caus- ing the bell to ring. Stealing Gas — The consumer who tampers with a gas meter, or uses a by-pass to obtain gas without registration, 419 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS commits a crime the same as thougii he walked into the gas office and stole money from the cash drawer. Many companies, especiahy those employing the con- tinuous meter reading system, offer a regular scale of rewards to their meter readers and employees for detecting by- passes, tampered meters (diaphragm punctured, or other- wise injured to cause meter to run slow) tipping meters, leaks at meters, leaks in street, etc. Some companies are paying the following rewards: By-pass (whole house) S2 . 00 Straight connection 1 .00 Line off service 75 Leak in meter case 10 " at dial 05 Meter binding 10 Not registering on low fire 15 Not registering 50 Leak in service curb box 10 Leak in main line 25 Using auto tires over 3500 miles 1 .00 Some meter readers reading meters continually use the extra three or four days a month not employed in reading, to scout about their route and find gas steals or leaks. When this method is employed the salary paid is usually under the customary salary paid for reading meters only. The rewards bring the amount of money earned to above the regular salary. Employees soon become exceptionally keen in detecting the odor of escaping gas or in finding gas steals. A similar method is employed with bookkeepers in de- tecting gas steals. The bookkeeper keeps continual watch on the amount of each month's gas bill. If he finds it par- ticularly small he reports it and if it proves to be a case of gas stealing he is rew^arded accordingly. Suggestions to Gas Companies and Employees — Never forget the danger and results of a gas explosion. One care- less act may cost the company a 5110,000 law suit. Polite- 420 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS ness and courtesy in dealing with consumers will overcome the natural suspicion the public holds toward the gas com- pany. Practically all suspicion of gas company's methods starts with the employees or representatives. Remember in talking to a consumer that you — at one time — knew as little about natural gas as the consumer you are talking to. A good complaint man is the most valuable of employees of a gas company. Never leave a large leak unrepaired or unguarded. Do not depend upon sense of smell, hearing, rain, or flies to determine if your low pressure mains are gas tight. None of the foregoing will tell you accurately or conclusively. Except to ditch down to the main — the bar test is the only accurate method of determining leaks in gas mains. It is good practice, in cities, to take samples of gas from sewer manholes and have the gas analyzed. The results will show the percentage of natural gas to air or sewer gas. Gas will travel through an entire sewer system. If any natural gas is shown in the analysis, find the manhole showing the greatest percentage of natural gas, then look for leaky mains in that vicinity. In one city the writer found a gas engine w^orking with gas sucked from a sewer. In this instance the leak which had been caused by electrolysis, was located one block away from the engine. After the leak had been re- paired the gas engine was compelled to receive its gas through a gas meter. Wireless Pipe Locator- -This instrument consists of a special form of vibrator and an induction coil with six batteries, together with detector coil and receiver for tracing the circuit. The advantage of this outfit is that it enables the operator to locate lost gas services, mains or water pipes under the ground between two points. In operating the locator it is necessary to attach one wire to the main in the street or curl) box and the other wire 421 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS to the gas service in the building or on the main at the other known point. After attaching the wires at these two points the operator can trace the pipe intervening between the two points by holding the receiver to the ear and following the noise or tone. In noisy streets or where the line lays deep it is necessary to use from ten to twelve dry cells. It will not locate stub lines, but only a pipe line between two points where wires can be properly attached. Where gas lines in a house are connected with a hot water heater, disconnect the gas meter and make connection on the inlet connection of the service line. Otherwise part of the current is liable to follow the water lines, making it hard to detect the tone. Fig. 171—PULMOTOR BEING USED TO RESTORE LIFE TO A PERSON OVERCOME BY GAS 422 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Purifiers for Natural Gas for Domestic Service Where natural gas contains a high percentage of sulphur gas, the excess can be removed by using a small tank holding about a bushel of shavings and oxide of iron and provided with a cover flange that will permit the removal and changing of the shavings and oxide of iron at least once a year. It is practically the same process in a small way as is practiced in the producer gas plants. This tank should be installed on the inlet side of the domestic meter. As there are only a few instances in the country where this purifying of natural gas is necessary, the gas companies are obliged to have their own tanks specially built. The tank might be described as being about the size of a dish pan wath a cover, the inlet and the outlet on the op- posite sides. The outlet and inlet connections are generally for 1-inch or IJ^-inch pipe. Safety or Pop Valves — Where metal safety valves are smaher in diameter than the size of the main, they will not take care of a sudden rise of pressure in a low pressure main. In order to be effective the safety valve should be of the same diameter as the gas main. Oil tanks can be used only on low^ pressure system. For high or intermediate pressure, use a specially made safety valve. This style of valve is generally used on intermediate or belt line pressure. 423 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Low Pressure Gauges — The mercury gauge which is most commonly used on low pressure systems consists of a cast-iron body, and a glass tube %-^L^' for the mercury column, with a scale (in pounds) back of the glass tube. Each space is divdded into sixteen parts or ounces, each large division representing one pound. This gauge is not read in tenths of one inch but in ounces and pounds, and is made in 3, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, Fig. 172—SAFETY VALVE ^^^ ^^ ^' ^^^^^• Siphon or ''U" Gauges— These are the most convenient low pressure gauges in use, being portable and simply screwed to the piping wherever it is desired to take the pressure. They consist of a U-shaped tube made of one piece of glass tubing bent to shape in sizes from 4-inch to 10-inch; and, in larger sizes, of two straight glass tubes connected at the bottom by a brass bend. Between the two sides or legs of this tube is set a scale graduated in inches and tenths, or pounds and ounces, as desired. A bent brass tube, or goose-neck, is connected to the "U" tube at the top and runs down the side to the gas connection. A filling screw is pro- vided for the water or mercury and a vent where the goose- neck is connected to the "U" tube to relieve the gas pressure on the inlet side after shutting off the gas at the pipe. When used the gauge is filled with water or mercury to the center of the scale, which is zero. The gauge is con- nected to the gas supply and the pressure turned on. The liquid will fall below zero on the inlet side of the "U" tube and rise on the opposite side the same distance. The distance between the two levels of the liquid as shown by the scale will give the amount of pressure in inches and tenths or in pounds and ounces, according to the graduation. 424 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS While the gauge is in use the downward motion of the hquid in one column, due to the pressure of the gas, should equal the rise of liquid in the opposite column. In case the water, after being set at zero, should not drop on the pres- sure side as much as it rises on the other side, it is an indication that the glass tubes are not of equal diameter, and both columns must be read, their sum being the true pressure. Water is generally used in siphon gauges in testing domestic meters and measuring small gas wells. It is also used in testing large capacity meters in the field. The glasses in the sizes from 4-inch to 12-inch are set in with special cement. The other sizes have the joints set with rubber gaskets tightly screwed up, which permit of broken glasses being readily removed and replaced. The scales are of boxwood and the graduations and figures are clearly marked. The 4-inch gauge is fitted with a ground joint for con- \ enience in making connections when carried about the district. The bottom section of the ground joint has an inside thread, ,^s-inch iron pipe size. From the O-incli size up, the gauges have screw connections for suitable iron pipe sizes. Fig. 173— MERCURY PRESSURE GAUGE 425 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS The sizes usually manufactured run from 4-inch to 24- inch (by 2-inch steps). Larger sizes than 24-inch can be made specially to order. These gauges are also made with square Oends and fitted with gaskets so that if the glass should be broken it can be easily re- placed and with lower bracket of iron in case thev are desired to be used with ~ mercury. They can also be fitted with a metal scale if so required. Differential Gauges — These are of the siphon or "U" gauge form mounted on an oak board. The "U" tube has a cock at the top on each side and is connected at one side to one line of gas and at the other side to another line. The pressure in either line can be indi- cated or the difference in pressure between the two lines. When both top cocks are closed and both lines of gas are on the gauge, the difference in pressure can be ^J read on the scale. ^J When either line of gas is shut off and the top cock on that side is opened to the air, the pressure in the other line is indicated, as with an ordinary siphon gauge. They are made in sizes from 6-inch to 30-inch Fig. 175—DIFFEREN by 2-inch steps. tial gauge Fig.l74—SIPHON OR '•U" GAUGE FOR LOW PRESSURE 426 D I S T R I B U T O N O F GAS Fig. i: ■POCKET GAUGE The Equivalents of Ounces, per Square Inch, in Inches of Height of Columns of Water and Mercury. Ounces Inches of Inches of Ounces Inches of Inches of ; Water Mercury Water Mercury .146 0.25 .018 7 12.11 .892 .292 0.51 .037 8 13.85 1.019 .438 0.76 .055 9 15.58 1.146 .584 1.01 .074 10 17.31 1.277 1 1.73 .127 11 19.05 1.401 2 3.46 .255 12 20.78 1.528 3 5.19 .382 13 22.51 1.655 4 6.92 .510 14 24.24 1.783 5 8.65 .637 1 15 25.97 1.910 6 10 38 .765 16 27.71 2 037 27.71 inches of water and 2.0374 inches of mercur\' equal one pound per square inch at atmospheric pressure and 62 deg. fahr. temperature. Mercury is 13.59 times as heavy as water. 427 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS SERVICES AND HOUSE PIPING— (Section) Ff?. 177— TAPPING MACHINE Tapping for Services — Tapping machines for making taps for services in low pressure mains are found very practi- cal. By using the cup in making the tap, considerable gas can be saved that otherwise would be lost. Care should be used to note that the machine is abso- lutely tight on the main before starting to drill. PROPER SIZE TAP DRILLS TO BE USED FOR THE DIFFERENT SIZED PIPES. Nominal Size Tap Drill Inch Inch Vs M H 7 T6 Vs ¥2 16 Ya. 16 1 lA Wa ^Vo Nominal Size Inch 2 2>y2 3 3^ 4 Tap Drill Inch 2H ^16 3M 428 D I S T R I B U T O N O F GAS Services In tajjpin*,^ a low pressure gas main for domestic use, connections should be made with two street ells. Do not use smaller than 134-inch ell or ser- vice. The larger the pipe the better the service. Stop cocks should be placed on the service near the curb on the walk side and a curb box placed over same. Prior to placing the stop cock in the line, the core of same should be oiled to enable it to be easily turned by a long wrench, purposely made for use in curb boxes. Expansion sleeves can be used to good advantage. If the street service and curb box are installed first and the service line laid by a plumber or gas litter later, should be slightly out of line, the sleeve will take care of the discrepancy and make a tight joint. Leave a 10- or 12-inch nipple on outlet of curb cock to be used for sleeve connection. Nipple should be capped or plugged on outlet side till sleeve and ser\'ice are laid. Steel Pipe — Do not use small-sized steel pipe in house piping wdicre it is desired to make any bends in the pipe. Fig. 178—COMMOX CURB BOX Testing House Piping — After piping a residence for natural gas and before turning the gas into the piping, an air test should be made with fifteen pounds pressure on the house piping prior to connecting house piping to meter. This test should be made in the presence of a representa- tive of the gas company before a permit is issued to the consumer to use gas. The method of detecting leaks under air pressure is either by using soap suds applied to the joints or using ether in the air that is pumped into the line. 429 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Fig. 179— GAS PROVING PUMP AND GAUGE In making this test, the test gauge should be placed in a vertical position. Gas Proving Pump and Gauge — Fig. 179 shows a gas proving pump and gauge used for making air tests in house piping. A com- mon spring gauge can be used instead of mercury column. The pump is equipped with cup for ad- mitting ether into piping, in which case leaks can be detected from the smell of leaking air and ether. Rules and Regulations for Gas Fitting— For a complete set of rules and regulations for house piping, setting up domestic meters, etc., the following sug- gestions are submitted. While various companies publish different rules, an effort has been made to select such rules and regulations as are most generally used. Rule 1 — In piping new houses the gas company will decide where gas meter shall be located and the fitter shall extend the riser to terminate within 18 inches of the pro- posed location of the meter and to the right of same. Rule 2 — Provision must be made to place the meter on a solid support where it can be conveniently read and pro- tected from the weather. Meters shall not be located under side-walks, or show-windows, near furnaces or ovens; locked in compartments, or placed in other positions where they will be inaccessible to adjust. Under no conditions shall plumbers, fitters or other parties disconnect any meter, connect to, or disturb piping on inlet side of meter after once set. Rule 3 — To accommodate different tenants the com- pany will set as many meters as there are separate consumers 430 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS in a given building, connecting the meters to one ser\ice pipe, providing the serA'ice is large enough to provide an ample supply, and that the risers or pipes leading to the different tenants are extended to within 18 inches of the proposed locations of the meters. Rule 4 — Risers must not be scattered but must be dropped together in alignment to the room where meters are set. They must be kept at least three inches apart and ex- tended not less than twenty inches from the floor. Rule 5 — Elbows and not tees shall be used on all meter inlet connections. All connections or disconnections of meter for any purpose will be made by employees of company only. Ride 6 — All gas pipes must be graded from meter to risers, free from traps or sags and properly supported with screws and gas pipe hooks or hangers. When it is impossible to prevent a trapped gas pipe, a suitable drip shall be pro- vided, consisting of a nipple and cap located in an accessible place. Rule 7 — Rubber hose connections or fittings arranged for rubber hose connections for gas heaters or similar appli- ance will not be allowed. Rule 8 — Cement shall not be used or caulking done to repair faulty fitting work, and all imperfect fittings must be replaced. Rule 9 — In no case shall valves or unions be placed be- tween ceiling and floor or in an inaccessible place so that the stuffing box of the valves cannot be repacked or union gasket replaced. Rule 10 — Where globe valves are used on fire con- nections, the stems must be packed with asbestos packing. "Soft seat" valves must not be used. Rule 11 — In running a line through a flue great care must be taken to see that pipe and fittings are free from defect. 431 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Rule 12 — Lead pipes must not be used under any circumstances. Rule 13 — Use as few elbows as possible. Elbows not absolutely necessary will be condemned. When impossible to get through an obstruction such as a beam, off-set the pipe rather than use elbows. Rule llf. — Cast iron fittings will not be permitted. Rule 15 — Air mixers must not be placed in air-tight ash boxes, but where a free flow of air can reach them at all times. Use adjustable mixers. Rule 16 — The burr left on inside of gas pipes must in every case be reamed out. Rule 17 — All outlets or risers where fixtures are not placed must be left securely capped. Rule 18 — -All drops and openings for lights must pro- ject at least 1 inch beyond plaster of wall or ceiling, and must be securely fastened to joists or studding or to notched or cross pieces fastened to joists, or upright studding. Rule 19 — Unions or bushings shall not be used except- ing to connect stoves or fires. Rule 20 — No more than one elbow will be allowed between burner and mixer. Rule 21 — Burners must have threaded connections. "Slip joints" will not be allowed. Rule 22 — In re-modeling or extending old gas piping, connections must be made where sizes can be maintained. If this cannot be done, a new line must be run to meter. Rule 23 — All gas piping must be tested with air pressure on a mercury or spring gauge showing ten pounds, which shall be maintained for fifteen minutes without falling. Gas will be turned on by an authorized agent of the company only, after such test has been properly made and report of same filed with the gas company. If meter stop is closed, 432 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS do not open under any circumstances. Application must be made to the company for gas to be turned on. Fire tests will not be allowed under any circumstances on inside work. Rule 24 — Where pipe runs through a stone or brick wall opening around the pipe must be cemented. Rule 2d — Place a damper in all stove-pipe and chimney throats. The tables following shall govern the greatest length of pipe of the various sizes specified to be used for fuel and illuminating purposes: For 1 Stove, 1-inch Pipe. For 2 Stoves, 1-inch Pipe to first, ^4-inch to second. For 3 Stoves, 1-inch Pipe to first and second, ^-inch to third. For 4 Stoves, Ik^-inch Pipe to first and second, 1-inch to third %-inch to fourth. Size of Pipe Inches Gas Lighting Greatest Length Allowed Inside Building Feet 15 Greatest Number of Burners 1 1 . 2 1 10 4 25 . 6 40 15 70 35 100 60 150 100 200 200 ^-inch pipe will in no case be allowed. Size of Pipe Inches Gas Ranges Greatest Length Allowed Inside Building Feet 40 70 Heater No. Automatic Water Heaters Greatest Length Size of Pipe Allowed Inside Building Inches Feet 1 70 II4 100 Wi 100 2 125 433 DISTRIBUTION OF GAS Instantaneous Water Heaters Greatest Length vSize of Pipe Allowed Inside Building Inches Feet % 40 1 70 iH 100 Fires Greatest Length Size of Pipe Allowed Inside Building Number of Inches Feet Fires M 10 1 M 30 1 1 100 1 IM 350 1 M 20 2 \\i 60 2 11^ 160 : 2 1 40 3 IM 120 3 1 20 4 \M 90 4 IM 70 5 V/i 125 5 \M 40 6 V/i 90 6 1^ 30 7 IH 75 7 IM 15 8 V/i 50 8 \y2 40 9 1^ 30 10 Hot Air Furnaces For hot air furnaces, boilers, etc., using burners having two or three mixers, use Ij^-inch pipe. 434 DISTRIBUTION O F GAS Capacities of Orifices — The capacity per hour, in cubic feet, of thin orifices similar to openings in air and gas mixers is given in the following table; the plate one-eighth inch thick and the pressures as indicated. Capacities of Thin Orifices in Cubic Feet per Hour. Diam- Pressure (Inches of Water) eter OF 1 1 1.7 3.4 5.2 6.9 8.6 Inches Capacity per Hour (in Cubic Feet) 32 64 6.3 10.3 13.3 20.4 25.4 40.2 61. 131. 173. 222. 8.2 12.5 15.9 18.4 13.6 19.4 23.9 27.3 18.4 26.5 32.1 37.4 26.5 37.1 45.9 53.2 34.7 49.8 61.6 72. 52.9 79.5 95.7 111. 82.5 119. 147. 168. 178. 253. 300. 352. 229. 333 409. 467. 294. 418. 514. 600 20. 30.7 41.1 57.8 80.3 124 191. 400. 529. 654. Note — The above table was made from actual tests. Specific Gravity of gas 0.64. Atmospheric pressure 14.4 i)ounds. Measurement basis 4 ounce. rig. 180—iySTALL.\TIOX OF FAIRMOXT GAS A \ f) LIGHT CO., FAIK- MOXr. W. ]'A. Sho'.i'iuji two S()(i II. P. .Single Tmniem Gas Comf^rc'^sors 435 PART TAVELVE Income and Office vSuggestions INCOME— PER CAPITA INCOME TABLES— SER- VICE APPLICATION— DOMESTIC METER IN- STALLATION FORM— METER DEPOSIT CARD —OFFICE GAS BILL CARD— METER READER'S RECORD SHEET AND VARIOUS REQUEST, RE- MITTANCE AND RECEIPT FORMS. Income — -The average annual income of a domestic meter in small cities where natural gas sells for 25 cents per thousand cubic feet is approximately $30. In large cities the average will be slightly higher. The foregoing is true in the southern as well as in the northern states. Percentage of Natural Gas Sold for Domestic Purposes Each Month in the Year 1908 in the Following Cities in the State of Kansas: Topeka January 13.88 February 15.18 March 13.43 April 8.83 May 6.61 June 3.81 July 3.13 August 2.74 September 3.20 October 4.73 November 10. 13 December 14.33 100.00^, 436 Lawrence Kansas City 16.23 15.83 16.60 17.15 11.50 11.22 7.14 7.39 5.39 5.67 2.66 2.77 2.04 2.42 2.07 2.43 2.44 2.98 7.26 6.20 10.62 10.64 16.05 15.30 100.00% 100.00% INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS Table Showing Number of Domestic Meters Required for Towns and Cities of Different Population, Approximate Amount of Gas Required to Supply Same on the Coldest Day and the Approximate Income with Gas at 25, 30 and 35 Cents per Thousand Cubic Feet. Approximate Annual Income Number Approximate * Pop Il- lation Amount of Gas of Required for At 25c At 30c At 35c Meters Coldest Day per 1000 per 1000 per 1000 Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. Cu. Ft. 1,000 200 200.000 S 6.000 S 6.800 S 7.400 2,000 400 400.000 12.000 13,600 14.800 3,000 600 600.000 18.000 20.400 22.800 4,000 800 800.000 24.000 27.200 29.600 5.000 1.000 1.000.000 30.000 34.000 37.000 7.000 1.400 1.400,000 42.000 47.600 51.800 10,000 2,000 2,000,000 60.000 68.000 74.000 15.000 3.000 3,000,000 90,000 102.000 111.000 20.000 4.000 4,000,000 120,000 136,000 148,000 25.000 5.000 5,000,000 150.000 170,000 185,000 30,000 6.000 6,000,000 180,000 204,000 222,000 40,000 8.000 8,000,000 240,000 272,000 296.000 50.000 10,000 10,000,000 300,000 340.000 370.000 60.000 12.000 12,000,000 360.000 408.000 444,000 70.000 14.000 14.000.000 420.000 476.000 518.000 80.000 16.000 16,000,000 480.000 504.000 592.000 90,000 18,000 18.000.000 540.000 612.000 666.000 100,000 20,000 20.000.000 600.000 680.000 740,000 'No allowance made for colored jiopulation. Fig. tsi. 437 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS o > O O < z O a. < u > Pi w CAD :^ ^^ ^ c G O > y u ^-^ < ■ § : o • O 1^ C ^ z ^ ^ .'^' ^ s •-0 <^ ^ 'rT" 5; s: s 8 I -^ 438 COME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS < ^ O ^ o I— ( H < Oh < "^ t -^ i o u o o Q O ^ O '■**» «XC S i-i c O r. 5 M) ^ ^ -^ ^ >i^ ^ ^ ^ s O C3 7i 3 ' O 'A O ^ 1A X! •;:: o ^ "S J:: a ^ ^'^ i^' 2 o.t; -sic; -a c c en OJ <^ O-E. O r: o 5: >: -^a, •«^ --. Ci o^ 439 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS DOMESTIC METER INSTALLATION RECORD Doesville Gas Company Fort Worth. Tej 19 No. 24933 X7 . Connect Meter For i4-^C^^ . /0-<$-^ Disconnect Meter For - .. .. Remarks _ Street Remarks -... Conneeted Meter -^o. ...3.3.A..^.>:'0..... Kind "P^rZ^C^^^^^^^^t^ 3Ute ^.<^^5£^^ Date 3~ y^^ - /fZ-y^ Diaconnected Meter No. Kind _ . State Date Fitter. EBterad Ledger, folio >^ ^.line... >-./ Entered Meter Index, folio ^ <0. Entered Ledger, folio line Entered Meter Index, folio _ Inetmetion*— Fitter must use indeliWe pencil for fiUing in his portion of this blank. If the fitter makes a mistake in entering "Stat«" he is not to erase the figures first written, but should run his pencil through same and then insert correct figures; Fig. 18i— DOMESTIC METER IXSTALLATIOX RECORD FORM {Reduced in Size Approximately One-Half) METER DEPOSIT RECORD CARD Deposit No Name INTEREST PAID. To. To. To. To. To. To. Fig. 18.5— METER DEPOSIT RECORD CARD 440 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS STATE OF METER. A No. (^JVyL^^^^ a^ 41 *i 4* ** s. '^0/\/& L.No. 1 i 1 1915 1916 DATE Jan* 1917 1918 Feb. Mar* Apr. May June jjuly Aug. Sept. 1 1 Oct i Nov. Decl Fig. 186 METER READER'S RECORD SHEET (To be used in loose leaf binder) 441 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTION SI6I 3 +j • < o u < O O O 03 as O P i i r^ o O cc P 1—1 ;d a -- o o ;» S a; u ^ ^ -i -M e a ^ W .^ ^ ^ CO - H 5 "S ^ rt s ^ ^ 4h jj -U *J ^ S 3 t- O O o o 4) Q. Q. O — bo V ■=5 3 2- M O C 0) V •JVC > V. i ^-^ 3 «0 (U Ou a u c c £ §00 4) 4> .SO* -I "5 s (« ^ o 443 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS Office Gas Bill Card— To be used when regular mailing card is lost. To the FORT WORTH GAS COMPANY, Dr. 1001 Throckmorton Street FORT WORTH, TEXAS OFFICE HOURS. 8 30 a. m. to .5 p. m Gas by Meier, Month of. State Present Month .... State Last Taken ... 000 . . . .000 Cubic Feet Consumed 000/ Gas at 50c Received Payment, FORT WORTH GAS COMPANY By Fig. 189^0FFICE GAS BILL CARD FORM Notice Requesting Payment of Discount When Remittance Without Discount was Received at Gas Office After the 10th of the Month. 191... Dear Sir: We have your check for in payment of Gas Bill. This is the NET amount due, hut as your remittance was not mailed until the inst., you are due the gross amount $. . . Your remittance will he applied on account, leaving a halance due us of $ Kindly favor us with your check for halance due. FORT WORTH GAS CO. By Fig. 190— DISCOUNT REQUEST FORM 444 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS Order No.. NAME HOUSE FITTER'S AND METER SETTER'S REPORT. Bill No ..Loeitlon.. Slie Number »■"••"• s.„ ;nu»i»,| »-.um II Six. *^n1 Nipples 1 1 1 1 BURNERS „ 1 ^^ „ ., , Heat 1 1 1 ., 1 1 , . „ 1 1 luT ....... E,K „ 1 i 1 OraU. Sheet Iron . 1 1 ' ^^ 1 Hoor PUtes M Lea.U(-et) _, Crowfeet „ Eit'n Rods Cocks Rcducere ' i-.s. " " N'.P. " •■ "L.S. M'fr Covir, Uood Caps .. . kog. " Brass Collars " •• "L.S. .. .. .vpj ! Manifold PI " " "L.S. Pipe %iii. r«t .. Bushings 1 Lip Tnions MUers (Jlo. Br. N.P. Kittg. " Kittg. Slip 1» •^■ippl™ „ 1 Filter... Helper.. Helper.. Fin. 1!)1 REPORT BLANK FDR L.ABOR AND MATERIAL iSED I\ HOUSE PIPING AM) METER SETTING JOBS 445 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS Order No. . Service for Approved: Street e.„. » I HI. K) mi:ti:» Sire «».b., -'- Oescnjticn Si« Nurnter trntunl Bnshings— Malleable Caps Caps Cock— Servire Cock— Meter Collars Collars Couplines— Dresser Couplings— Dresser Curb Boxes Ells— Malleable Ells-Malleable ■• Street Klls— Street Kxpanslon Joints Kxpansion .loinf: Nipples X Nipples N X X X X Plags-nin.k Plucs— Black Reducers " Reducers " Saddles Tees-M:.lleable Tces-Malleal.le Union Flange Valve— Oate — fi? ^ '" Pipe 1 ilKl. Pipe 1 iUL-l. Pipe 1% in.b Pi,H. I'A inch Pipe IK incl. Pipe iViinch Pipe '^ inch 1 Pipe 2in. b Pipe iiuh 1 P.pe in.), L.b« Hate Hours Rat. Foreman Foreinun i Helper Jlelpe. Ilelpor llelpei Helper Helper Helper Helper Helper Helpei Helper Helpe, Ti.tal Tol;,l =_ Fig. 192 FOREMAN'S REPORT FOR LABOR AXD MATERIAL USED OX IXSTALLIXG SERVICE LIXE 446 INCOME AND OFFICE SUGGESTIONS n DIAGRAM OF SERVICE LINE REPORT-MAIN TO CURB. rBlcTioNi— To complete lliis Keport. lengths and sizes of I alwve diagram by drawinf; a line from tUo centre of nearest si Street Main is tapped, tben a line to right -angle from this poi Indicate dislan.es and sizes of tUe Street Main and I'ipe from M ve tbe line for distances and below the line for size of Pipe re to be clearly indicated fn lerseciion to the point at whi' h tbe premises Curb hy ligures Fig. 193 REVERSE SIDE OF FOREMANS REPORT BLANK, Figure No. 192. 447 PART THIRTEEX Domestic Meter FLAT RATE— INSTALLING METER— METER HOUSE — DISCONNECTING METER — PROVING — RE- PAIRING METERS — CONTINUOUS METER READING— CAPACITIES— TIN METER PARTS- STANDARD PROVER— CUBIC FOOT BOTTLE- ERRATIC METERS. Flat Rate System — Changing from a flat rate system to a meter system will result in a saving of from sixty to seventy per cent, of the gas previously consumed. This great differ- ence can be attributed to various causes, principally as follows : On a flat rate system consumers wall invariably use cheap, wasteful burners; they w411 drill out the mixer when the pressure is low in an endeavour to get a larger supply; they pay no attention to turning oft' the gas when work is finished or the temperature of the house is sufficiently high; and when the temperature does get too high, the tendency is to open the doors and windows in preference to turning down the fire. In fact, fires and lights are left burning night and day. All of these practices do the consumer no good and waste thousands of cubic feet of this ideal fuel. It should be borne in mind that gas is a luxury and should not be wasted. With a meter installed, it is an easy matter to test piping for leaks by turning off all fires and lights and noting by the small dial whether there is any gas passing through the meter. This is impossible on a flat rate. With a meter system the life of any gas field will be prolonged several years over a flat rate system. 448 DOMESTIC METER Domestic Gas Meter — All things considered, the gas meter is the most reliable measuring apparatus made. This may be a startling statement; nevertheless, it is true. If, in a test for accuracy, one hundred of the best watches were compared with one hundred gas meters, for one, two, three or more years, both operating under the same conditions, i. e., exposed to the action of gas, heat, cold, etc., the average registration of one hundred meters would be more accurate than that of the one hundred watches. The following is a brief description of the tin gas meter shown in Figure Number 198. The diaphragms — two in number — are in the lower part of the meter; the valves and fittings in the upper part. The index registers the quantity of gas delivered by the meter. The principle of a gas meter can be readily understood. We are all familiar with bellows such as are used at fireplaces. Let us assume a pair of bellows is empty; then that the handles are extended and the bellows filled with air. If the handles are afterwards brought together the air is expelled. If a stop be placed on the bellows, both when closed and when opened, they must make a certain fixed stroke and receive and give out a fixed quantity of air with each motion. The diaphragm of a gas meter does the same thing. It receives a certain fixed quantity of gas and then expels it, having the same stroke every time. By means of the attach- ments in the meter each stroke is registered and translated into cubic feet on the index, which is a simple piece of geared mechanism by which the cubic feet are recorded by the thou- sand. In a gas meter there are tw^o diaphragms or bellows. as only one would give an intermittent supply. The gas meter may also be likened to a steam engine. Steam is admitted through the slide valves of an engine, the valves being of the same kind as are used in gas meters; the piston is pushed forward and a certain amount of steam admitted to the cylinder — the cylinder of the engine corre- 449 DOMESTIC METER sponding to the diaphragm of the meter. Steam is then taken on the other side of the piston and the piston pushed back again. Each complete stroke requires or takes a given, fixed quantity of steam. Knowing the quantity of each stroke, the steam could be registered in thousands of cubic feet, if it were desired to do so, as gas in a meter. The steam engine is also similar to the gas meter, in that the steam would rather not work the engine if it could help it. If there should be a leak in the valve, around the piston rings, or elsewhere, the steam would pass out, as it would be easier than pushing the engine. It is a well-known law of physics that fluids will take the path of least resistance. Gas acts the same way in the meter, having a tendency to pass through without working the bellows if it can find any point for leakage. For this reason the general average of gas meters is slow, or against the gas company. Prepayment, or "slot," meters are regular meters with a mechanical attachment so that coins can be inserted and a proportionate amount of gas purchased. A valve closes gradually, to give warning, w^hen the gas paid for has been consumed. It is the custom of gas companies to inspect meters regularly and so keep them in good condition. This practice is a protection to both the consumer and the company. Records are kept of the test on each meter, and it is sur- prising how close the results are. It can be safely said the average net result is slow, or in favor of the consumer, and, at the same time, this average error is less than 2 per cent. It is a fact of public record that the bulk of meters, even when complained of, will show slow regis- tration. Some few meters register fast, owing to occasional derangement of the meter, which it is not possible to avoid with any mechanical appliance; but the total number of fast meters, in proportion to all meters in use, is relatively very insignificant. This can easily be verified from the 450 DOMESTIC METER records of city or state meter inspectors anywhere in the United States or throughout the world. Many people, without thinking about the matter, believe that gas is wrongfully charged to them; this is a mistake. Gas meters are made by manufacturers who specialize in this work, and these manufacturers do not send out incorrect meters; in fact, they take as much professional pride in their product as do the makers of watches or clocks. The workmen who prove the meters are also sworn to let no meter pass if it is not correct. vSome law suits have occurred over gas bills, and, after scientific testimony, the meter has been upheld in every case. There are several reasons to account for the popular distrust of gas meters. One is that very few are familiar w4th the principle of a meter, and without knoudedge of its construction they do not realize that the meter, is a scientific measuring instrument. Another reason is that bills are usually paid after the gas has been consumed. People pay more willingly for what they have on hand yet to be used than they do for material or commodities already used, as in the case with gas. Another reason is that the meter will always deliver gas when called upon and not forget to record it. Very few people remember how many lights have been burned, or how long the gas stove has been used during the month. Dark and cloudy weather causes greater consump- tion, and in severely cold weather people stay at home and gas heaters are used more frequently and continuously. Other things afTect gas bills which, in reality, are under the control of the householder. A dark wall paper, for instance, will absorb light, while a light coloring will reflect it. Reading a Domestic Gas Meter — A general recognition of the amount of gas burned would be better understood if people would read the registration on the index of their gas meter. The accompanying view represents the ordinary- type of index as generally used in gas meters. In reading. 451 DOMESTIC METER always take the last figure the hand or pointer has passed, and always read the numerals in sequence, beginning with the highest dial on the index. Remember when the pointer is between two figures always take the smaller figure. It is never necessary to reset a meter index. When the finger on the circle of highest denomination has made a complete revolution, all fingers will correspondingly revert to zero, and the entire index will, therefore, automatically reset itself. In reading an index keep a record of the amount of gas consumed, and on taking the next reading deduct the amount of previous reading and the difi'erence will represent the amount of gas consumed in the period between the pre- sent and the previous reading of the meter. CUBIC FEET J^* v^^Hi^/V * 01:^2^^. ^o-^S^/l./,* ^tiBi^V TO READ YOUR METER Each hand moves in a different direction, indicated by the arrows. Read the figure that the hand has actually passed, beginning with the dial to the left—add two ciphers to the right of your figures DIAL AS ABOVE READS 108,400 Subtract the last month's reading from the present index and the difference will be the gas used to date in cubic feet. Pi^ 194—COXSL'MERS I XSTRUCTIOX C ARD FOR READING METERS If in doubt about the accuracy of your meter, ask the gas company to test it, and be present at the test if you wish. The method of testing or proving is simple and easily understood. 452 DOMESTIC METER Continuous Meter Reading — This system has many advantages in favor of both the consumer and the gas company. Primarily where gas companies formally required six meter readers to complete the work in the last few days of the month they would need under the new system but one who would be reading meters from twenty to twenty-five days a month. The one reader would naturally become more efficient and less liable to make mistakes, working continu- ously, than the greater number working but a few davs each month. With the old system it was often necessary to retain men throughout the month even though they had little other work to do, in order to have competent meter readers. This was an unnecessary expense but could not be very well avoided. It prevents inconvenience to the public by doing away with the "waiting line" at the gas office so common on the 1 0th of the month. It does away with the extra clerks necessary to receive the money during the last day of discount under the old system. There is practically no difference to the consumer as the meter is read on the same date each month. Capacity of Domestic Meters — The true method of judging the maximum capacity of meters is by determining the amount of gas a meter will pass with a certain intake pressure and a certain discharge pressure while the meter is connected in a service line working under conditions similar to those found in the average house. The average range of low pressure in domestic ser\'ice is from 4 to 8 ounces, and it is essential to deliver gas to the stove or range at about three oinices pressure. Consequently in selecting the proper size meter, it is good policv to determine 453 DOMESTIC METER the capacity by what the meter wiU pass with a four ounce pressure on the intake or inlet and a three ounce pressure on the discharge or outlet. While one may compare the open flow capacities of diff- erent makes of domestic meters, it is impossible to judge the rated capacity under working conditions by this method. Open flow capacity means the amount of gas or air a meter will pass under certain intake pressure and with the discharge open into the atmosphere. Differential Pressure — Is the absorption of gas pressure by the working of the meter while the gas is passing through it. Installing Domestic Meters — Do not install a domestic meter outside of a building. If it is found necessary to do so, it should be covered with a small box or house especially built for it. A metal box can be con- structed so as to permit the use of a seal on the box and connections to the meter. This will decrease the liability of any tampering with the meter. An opening can be made in the metal box so that the dial can be read with- out removing the box. Fit over this opening a cover or lid similar to that used on tin meters. Fig. 193— DOMESTIC METER HOUSE USED BY THE OHIO FUEL SUPPLY CO. Note the method of sealing. 454 DOMESTIC METER The meter should be set in a dry place, preferably on a shelf, with the dial facing away from the wall. In cities having street car service, do not set the meter near any water or artificial gas pipes. In case gas has previously been used in the building, see that the stop cock or valve back of the meter (inlet side) is shut ofiF; also see that the shelf and meter connections are in good condition. Turn the gas on at the curb stop cock first. Go through the house or building and cellar and examine all lines and connections from the meter and see that there are no openings. Do not take the word of anyone in regard to this, but examine them personally. If any connections are found open it is better to cap or plug them at company ex- pense. Then turn the gas through the meter and watch the foot or index hand for five minutes to ascertain whether the lines through the building are tight. If they are not tight, shut off the gas at the street. If they are tight turn on the gas, light the hxtures in the house, making sure that the air is all forced out of the house lines, and that the gas supply is good, and watch the meter to see that it registers. See that there are no unions or connections back of the meter other than the regular meter connections. Test connections and meter for leaks. Take the number and reading of the meter just before you set it. Meters should be set with the clock box properly sealed and with cap lock boxes on the inlet meter connection. The gas must not be turned on at the meter under any circumstances when the occupants of the building are not at home. A meter setter or reader must not enter an occupied house or building which is locked or try to gain admittance with a skeleton key. Disconnecting Domestic Meter — Examine and find out the number of meters on the service line. Shut off the gas at 455 DOMESTIC METER the curb and try to light a fire to see if it is shut off. vShut off stop cock back of meter, that is, on the inlet side of the meter. Remove the meter, capping or plugging the end of the service line. Take the number and state of the meter. Great care should be taken in securing the name of maker, size, number and meter reading. Reports must be made out on the premises. In apartment houses where there is more than one meter and the gas cannot be shut off at the curb, shut the stop-cock back of the meter, plug the opening in the header, and seal the stop cock. In houses where there is only one meter on a ser\^ice, the meter must not be removed under any circumstances until after the gas has been shut off at the curb. If, for any reason, the curb stop can not be shut, do not disconnect the meter, but return the "disconnect order" to the shop or office, noting on same, in writing, the reason why curb stop cock cannot be closed. The foreman should see that the curb box or stop is repaired at once and meter removed. In case a building is being torn down, if the cellar wall is in good condition and is not going to be disturbed, shut off the gas at the curb, and plug or cap the service in the cellar. Where the wall is being disturbed, cut the line and plug the stop cock at the street box until new building is completed. Foreman should keep a record of all buildings torn down and services plugged until they are restored to usual conditions. All stop cocks on the inlet side of meters should be locked with a stop lock and all inlet meter connections should have a cap lock box. Street or curb boxes should not be installed without a base. The base prevents the box being jammed onto the service line and injuring it. Where one or more buildings are supplied from the same connections to a street main, separate stops and curb boxes 456 DOMESTIC METER should be placed on each line, as nearly in front of the build- ings as is possible. Meter setters or inspectors should not use a light in look- ing for leaks or making inspections. Use a large-necked bottle with soap suds. Apply suds with a small brush. Before leaving unfinished street work for the night, the foreman in charge should see that at least two red lanterns are burning at all ditch openings or street obstructions. If the ditch can be closed with an hour's overtime work, it is better to complete the work than to leave. Repair all leaks on company lines at once. If unable to do so, report to the office in writing as to location and size of leak. Do not set meters where they are difficult to read or to change. Dials should be set at zero at the meter shop where they can be properly sealed. Treat domestic consumers in a courteous manner. Give consumers all possible information that will tend to better the conditions of their heating, lighting, or cooking appliances. Proving Domestic Meters — Prior to proving, the meter should stand in the proving room until it attains the same temperature as that of the room. The writer has known cases where a meter brought into the proving room on a cold winter day and immediately tested was found to be 15 per cent slow, while after it became thoroughly warmed tested O. K. The method employed is simply that of comparing a known volume of air in the prover with the reading on the small dial of the meter, the air passing through the meter by its own pressure, usually two inches of water. The error allowed is two per cent, fast or slow. To be considered accurate the small dial of the meter must register within two per cent of the volume indicated upon the prover scale. The water seal in the prover should have the same temperature as the temperature of the room. The meter 457 DOMESTIC METER should be proved on two volumes; in other words, at two dififerent speeds, and be adjusted so as to register alike on both. For the ordinary house meter these volumes are at the rate of fifty and two hundred and fifty cubic feet per hour. After proving, the meter should be sealed and a record, giving date of test and proof, should be kept in a book for that purpose. Fig. 196— HYDRO PXEUMATIC METER TESTER FOR TESTING TIN METERS FOR OUT- SIDE LEAKS WITH TWO TO THREE POUNDS PRESSURE 458 ^ DOMESTIC METER Repairing Domestic Meters — Meters should not be re paired or taken apart unless they are afterward proved on a prover. It requires some experience to properly repair, test and correct a domestic meter. Tin Meter Repairing — Tin meters should be tested from one to three years after being placed in use, the frequency of the tests depending upon the quality of the gas measured and the work performed. To repair the meters remove front, back and top plates, examine diaphragms carefully, and clean valve seats and covers with gasolene. If a valve cover rocks, it is probable that a small quantity of gas will pass the meter without registering. In this case, valve covers and seats should be carefully ground, using line emery paper placed over a small flat-surfaced iron plate. After the meter has been repaired, and is ready for test- ing, a test should be made with a small light at the meter outlet to determine if meter will register on a small volume. Diaphragms in tin meters are tested for leaks with five inches water pressure. The cases are tested with seven inches water pressure. After meters are completed, a test for leaks is made under three pounds pressure, by immersing the meters in water. In proving tin meters, one and one-half inch water pres- sure is used where they are to measure artificial gas, and two inches w'ater pressure is used where they are to measure natural gas. To correct erratic tin meters, move the tangent wrist outward on fast meters and toward the center for slow meters. The distance to move a tangent wrist to correct for one per cent., varies on different sized and different makes of meters. 459 DOMESTIC METER Fig. 197 — Top View of Glover Type of Domestic Meter. Instructions for Setting Valves in Tin or Slide Valve Meter — Set the back valve cover "B" so that the port "E" to the diaphragm is completely open, and the front valve cover "A" is covering both ports of its seat. Then the tangent "C" should be soldered so that it will be in a straight line with the link "D" as shown at "F". Above instructions are for right hand meters. For left hand meters reverse the positions of valves A and B. Diaphragm Oil — Use equal parts of the following oils: greasite, pale meter oil and dark cylinder oil. Allow diaphragms to soak in the oil thoroughly ; then wipe ofif the excess oil before placing the diaphragms in the meter. This combination of oils can be used on any standard make of tin or iron meters. 460 DOMESTIC METER Fig. ntS — Interior \' ieu' of Glover Tyl^e Pomestir Melt 461 DOMESTIC METER LIST OF TIN METER PARTS X umber in Diagram on Page JfO I 101 Index 118 Valve Cover Wire 102 Axle or Index Shaft 119 Valve Cover Wire Guide 103 Axle Wheel or Index Shaft 121 Valve Wrist and Pin Wheel 122 Valve Link 104 Axle Bearing or Index Shaft 123 Valve Seat Rest 129 Short Flag Arm 105 Worm 130 Crank 106 King Post or Crank Frame 131 Flag Arm Rivet 107 Click 132 Crank Stuffing Box *108 Tangent Jamb Xut 134 Crank Stuffing Box Cap *109 Tangent Post or Bat 201 Disc *110 Tangent Post Pin 202 Disc Guide *111 Tangent Arm 203 Diaphragm tll2 Long Flag Arm 204 Disc Wire tl29 Short Flag Arm 205 Disc Wire Bracket 113 Flag Wire (same as 208) §206 Flag ill4 Flag Stuffing Box Cap §207 Rock Shaft and Carriage 1115 Flag Stuffing Box 208 Flag Wire (same as 113) 117 Valve Cover 209 Flag Wire Step *Parts Nos. lOS, 109, 110 and 111, Tangent complete. tParts Nos. 112 and 129. Flag Arm complete. jParts Nos. 114 and 115, Flag Stuffing Box complete. §Parts Nos. 206 and 207. Flag complete. Rating of Tin Meter Capacities — The first rated capacity of meters was based on the then vStandard EngHsh Burner, consuming six cubic feet an hour. Under this rating the hourly capacity of a three-light meter would be 3 x 6, or 18 cubic feet. A five-light meter, 30 cubic feet, and A ten-light meter, 60 cubic feet. Others in proportion. While the meters as made to-day still have the original rating and are proved under this racing as required by law, it is by no means their actual working capacity, which is now generally determined by the amount of gas which they will pass under a certain differential in pressure, usually five- tenths, with a one and one-half-inch or two-inch water pres- sure on inlet of meter. 462 DOMESTIC METER Standard Meter Provers — The meter provcr is the stand- ard instrument by which the proof of a meter is ascertained. All meter provers should be cali- brated by means of a cubic foot bottle which has been standard- ized by the Bureau of Stand- ards at Washington, D. C. The meter prover consists of a tank containing water i n which is suspended a bell or hold- er having a supporting chain go- ing over a large balance wheel. At the end of this chain is a weight holder with weights to give the desired gas pressure inside the bell. To the axis of the balance wheel is attached an involute with a counterpoise weight, the purpose of which is to maintain a uniform pressure (fj at all points of travel of the bell. The wheel, chain, involute and weights are supported by a frame- work consisting of three columns and a triangular bridge across the top of the columns. The bases of the columns are screwed to sockets in the top of the tank. Fig. UJO^S TA XDARD METER PROVER The bell is guided by three rollers at the bottom and three at the top of the bell. On the front of the bell is a scale properly graduated in cubic feet and fractions thereof by means of which is ascer- tained the exact ainount of gas or air passed through a meter during its test. 463 DOMESTIC METER On the front of the body is a channel having at its top a valve and two cocks — right and left-hand. A hose is at- tached to either one of the cocks, as desired. On the outer end of this hose is a coupling for attaching to the meters to be tested. The connection to the meters is made by using intermediate reducers or increasers called inlet connections, except for one size which the hose coupling will fit, usually the ten-light meter. Tw^o thermometers are provided for each prover — one to give the temperature of the w^ater and the other that of the air. A six inch siphon gauge is also furnished to give the pressure under which the prover is being operated. These provers are usually constructed of galvanized iron throughout, either japanned or plainly painted. They are also made with brass tank, or body, japanned, and polished copper bell, this latter form being preferred by many on account of its great durability. The regular sizes are 2-foot, o-foot, 10-foot and 20-foot capacity. Cubic Foot Bottle — This instrument is the basis of all gas measurement. The correctness of any gas measuring device is, in its final analysis, determined by the cubic foot bottle. It is standardized by the Bureau of Standards at Wash- ington, D. C, and its accuracy is beyond dispute. The principle that it works on is the simplest of the simple, namely, a volume of one cubic foot of gas being displaced by a volume of one cubic foot of water. The mechanical detail required to do that conveniently and accurately is not so simple. As can be seen from the illustration, there is a cabinet containing and supporting the cubic foot bottle, its system of piping and its tanks. The bottle, as the copper receptacle in the center of the cabinet is called, has a capacity of one 464 DOMESTIC METER cubic foot. At its top and bot- tom are gauge glasses with point- ers. When the water rises from the bottom pointer to the top one, one cubic foot of gas has been deHvered. The operation is as follows : The lower tank is filled with wat- er and this water is pumped to the upper tank. All temperatures of water, room and instrument tobe tested are equalized. Then close all cocks, open the vent above the bottle and open the cocks that admit the water from the top tank to the bottom of the bottle and allow the water to come to the pointer on the lower gauge glass. At this instant close the lower cock. Then close the vent and open the cocks in the line of piping leading to the article being tested. Then reopen the cock admitting water to the bottle. Allow the water to fill the bottle and to come to the pointer on the upper gauge glass. Close the water cock and the piping cock. Then one cubic foot of air has been delivered. Next open the vent and the cock ad- mitting water to the lower tank and allow the water to drain out of the bottle. Next pump the water from the lower tank to the upper. Then repeat the method of procedure of 465 Fig. 200 CUBIC FOOT BOTTLE FOR TESTIXG PROVERS DOMESTIC METER operation of the bottle if successive cubic feet are desired. Extreme care must be exercised to always have tempera- tures exact and unvarying. In some instances the opera- tion must be conducted in a room in which the air is saturated with aqueous vapor. Correction of Erratic Meters {By F. H. OUpkant) — A fast meter is one which registers too many cubic feet and a slow meter is one which registers too few cubic feet, as compared with a prover which measures the correct number of cubic feet and which is the standard to which all meters are compared. The multipliers in the following tables are all less than one for fast meters and greater than one for slow meters. A meter on which the dial shows 10.5 cubic feet when the prover shows 10 cubic feet is called five per cent, fast and must be multiplied by .952 to reduce the quantity to standard. A meter on which the dial shows 9.5 cubic feet when the prover shows 10 cubic feet is called five per cent, slow and must be multiplied by 1.053 to bring it up to the standard. Because the dial of many meters cannot be read as accurately as the scale on the prover, it is preferred in some cases to pass the air or gas through meter and prover until the meter registers 10 cubic feet, then shutting off" and reading the prover scale. For this use a second table is introduced which, however, is consistent with the first. This method simplifies the computation for the multiplier, which shows directly from the prover scale, being one-tenth the value of the prover scale reading. The correction factor or multiplier to correct erratic meters is determined by the following formula: Prover Readim ^Multiplier ^i5 Meter Readin Example: — Say the reading of a meter is 10.0, while the 12 5 prover reads 12.5, then the multiplier — — = 1.25. Or, say 466 DOMESTIC METER c the prover scale reads 8 when the meter reads 10. Then— = .8 is the multiplier. The formula for determining the percentage that a meter is fast is as follows: (Meter Reading — Prover Reading) Prover Reading 100 = percentage error fast. Example: — Say a meter registers 10 cu. ft. while the ^ (10—8) X 100 200 .^.,., , ^ prover shows 8, = -^ = 2r>% error last. o o The formula for determining the percentage error of a slow meter is as follows : (Prover Reading — Meter Reading) ^^ . .... ^ — X 100 = percentage Prover Readmg error slow. Example: — vSay a slow meter registering 10 showed 12.5 , ^ ' (12.5-10)^ 100 250 ^^ cu. It. on the prover, then -— = — — = ZO per cent, error slow. The multipliers for slow and fast meters are determined by the following formulas. Multipliers for meters that are slow = Multipliers for meters that are 100 — per cent slow. 100 fast = 100 + per cent fast. Example: — Suppose a meter is said to be 20 per cent. slow, how is the correction factor or multiplier to be deter- 100 100 mined^ In this case, the multiplier = ~~rz rr. = 'zz = lUO — 2U oU 1.25. On the other hand, suppose a meter is reported 25 per 100 100 cent. fast. Here the multiplier = , ,,,. , ^_ = 77:^ = .80. 100 -\r lo 12.0 467 DOMESTIC METER Table Giving Multipliers for Correction of Erratic Register of Meters Slow and Fast Slow Meters Fast Meters Meter Read- Percent- Multi- Percent- Multi- ing Cu. Ft. Prover Reading Cu.Ft. age of Variation (Prover being pliers to Correct Slow Meters Prover Reading Cu. Ft. age of Variation (Prover being pliers to Cor- rect Fast Standard) Stand'd) Meters 10 13.7 27.00 1.37 10.0 0.00 1.00 10 13.6 26.47 1.36 9.9 1.01 .99 10 13.5 25.93 1.35 9.8 2.04 .98 10 13.4 25.37 1.34 9.7 3.09 .97 10 13.3 24.81 1.33 9.6 4.17 .96 10 13.2 24.24 1.32 9.5 5.26 .95 10 13.1 23.66 1.31 9.4 6.38 .94 10 13.0 23.08 1 30 9.3 7.53 .93 10 12.9 22.48 1.29 9.2 8.70 .92 10 12.8 21.88 1.28 9.1 9.89 .91 10 12.7 21.26 1.27 9.0 11.11 .90 10 12.6 20.63 1.26 8.9 12.36 .89 10 12.5 20.00 1.25 8.8 13.63 .88 10 12.4 19.35 1.24 8.7 14.94 .87 10 12.3 18.70 1 23 8.6 16.28 .86 10 12.2 18.03 1.22 8.5 17.65 .85 10 12.1 17.35 1.21 8.4 19.05 .84 10 12.0 16.67 1.20 8.3 20.48 .83 10 11.9 15.97 1.19 8.2 21.95 .82 10 11.8 15.26 1.18 8.1 23.46 .81 10 11.7 14.53 1.17 8.0 25.00 .80 10 11.6 13.80 1.16 7.9 26.58 .79 10 11.5 13.04 1.15 7.8 28.20 .78 10 11.4 12.28 1.14 7.7 29.87 .77 10 11.3 11.50 1.13 7.6 31.58 .76 10 11.2 10.71 1.12 7.5 33.33 .75 10 11.1 9.91 1.11 7.4 35.13 .74 10 11.0 9.09 1.10 7.3 37.00 .73 10 10.9 8.26 1.09 7.2 38.88 .72 10 10.8 7.41 1.08 7.1 40.84 .71 10 10.7 6.54 1.07 7.0 42.86 .70 10 10.6 5.66 1.06 6.9 44.93 .69 10 10.5 4.76 1.05 6.8 47.06 .68 10 10.4 3.85 1.04 6.7 49.26 .67 10 10.3 2.91 1.03 6.6 51.51 .66 10 10.2 1.96 1.02 6.5 53.85 .65 10 10.1 0.99 1.01 6.4 56.25 .64 10 10 0.00 1.00 6 3 58.73 .63 468 DOMESTIC METER Examples: vSuppose 10 cubic feet in a meter showed only 7.5 cubic feet in the prover, the meter is 33.33 per cent, fast. In the table opposite 7.5, multipHer .75 is found. vSay a meter in use recorded 42.250 cubic feet when disconnected and w^as found to be 33.33 per cent, fast, then 42.250 X .75 = 31,687.5 cubic feet, which is the corrected quantity. On the other hand, if a meter recording 10 cubic feet gave 11.5 cubic feet in the prover, the meter is 13.04 per cent, slow, and in the table opposite 11.5 cubic feet a multiplier of 1.15 is recorded. If the meter registered 42.250 cubic feet when disconnected, then 42.250 X 1.15 = 48,587.5 cubic feet is the correct quantity. It will be observed that the multiplier for correcting erratic meters is the quantity recorded by the prover with the decimal point moved one figure to the left. Then if the prover shows 11.5 cubic feet and the meter 10 cubic feet, the correcting multiplier is 1.15. On the other hand, if the prover shows 7.5 cubic feet and the meter 10, the correcting multiplier is .75. If the prover should show 10.125 and the meter 10 cubic feet, the multiplier \vill be 1.0125, etc. It is much more direct to use the multiplier than reduce the percentages to get the corrected quantity from an erratic meter. 469 DOMESTIC METER Complaint Meter — P'igure Number 201 shows a Com- plaint Meter with top open, and with recording chart in position on drum. This meter is so constructed that its clockwork runs for one week, and when set in the house of a consumer will record on the paper chart of the cylinder the exact amount of gas consumed, marking the hours gas was consumed, either day or night. This makes such a convincing record that the consumer cannot dispute the facts shown, and learns to his own satisfaction that his bills are correct. On the other hand, should the consumer be positive that no all-night lights are used, and yet the meter records consumption during the night period, it would show practically that there is some house-pipe leakage in the dwelling. The c^dinder is so con- structed that in its re- volution it gradually works on the worm-gear horizontal shaft from one side of the meter to the other, taking the full seven days to complete the run, the small marker shown in front of the cylinder making an ab- solute record of gas con- sumed during each hour of that period. These record sheets or charts are detachable from the cylinder, and upon com- pletion of any week's work may be taken off and new charts substituted, making the meter continuous in its op- eration. 470 Fig. 2ni~C0MPLAIXr METER DOMESTIC METER In the Figure Number 202 is shown a record taken from a com- plaint meter after having been through a complete week's run, extending from Monday, the seventh of the month, about 10:55 a.m., until the following Monday, the fourteenth of the month, at about 2:05 p. m. By following the lines drawn by the marker on this chart it is easily seen that the first gas passed through this meter at about 4:50 p. m. on the afternoon of the seventh, the meter maintaining a good average consumption until 10 o'clock in the evening. From that time on the meter showed appar- ently a slight consumption until 7 o'clock in the morning of the eighth, from which time until 4:45 in the afternoon there was no gas con- sumed. On the evening of the eighth of the month the family was evidently out for the evening, as very little gas was passed, etc. The history as to further consumption can be readily traced out by the chart through the successive days. Figure Number 201 shows a five light meter equipped with the In this size meter each dash on chart represents two feet of gas passed. In larger sized meters each dash would represent a greater amount of gas passed. Fig. 302— TAPE OR CHART . . , . FROM COMPLAIXT METER COmplamt dcVlCC 471 PART FOURTEEN Domestic Consumption of Gas High Gas Bills— When a consumer considers his gas- bill too high, before complaining to the gas company, he should test the house piping for leaks. This is very easily done by turning out all fires, lights or hot water burners and watching the small dial on the meter for at least fifteen minutes to see if it registers any gas passing. If the hand on this dial moves it indicates leakage in the house piping. If small dial registers in 15 minutes Cubic Feet per month leakage Loss per month with gas at 30c. per 1000 cubic feet 1 cu. ft. 2 " 3 " 4 " 5 " 2,880 5,760 8,640 11,520 14,400 10.86 1.73 2.59 3.46 4.32 The small hand or any other hand on the dial will not revolve and register gas unless there is gas passing through the meter. According to S. S. Wyer (see chart on page 182) of the volume of gas actually delivered to the domestic consumer about 16 per cent, is wasted through leakage on the premises of the consumer and about 36 per cent, through loss in heat energy at the burners. The remainder, or about 47 per cent., represents the percentage of the volume from which the consumer derives full benefit in heat units or energy. In other words, in the average gas bill of any amount — for instance, in a bill for 100,000 cu. ft. of gas for one month only the number of heat units in 47,000 cu. ft. of gas are actually used while the amount of leakage is 16,000 cu. ft. 472 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS The yellow flame in a stove burner is a waste of gas and helps to increase the gas bills. There is less heat units in a yellow than in a blue flame. All flames should burn with a blue color tinged with red. In cooking it is not necessary to leave a burner turned on full. head with the flames burning around the sides of a kettle or spider. It is a waste of gas. When through cooking turn off the gas. Likewise with heating stoves, do not open the doors and windows w^hen the temperature of the room becomes too high. Turn down the gas instead. The consumer should consider the use of gas the same as he would the use of coal. If he were obliged to purchase gas in quantities the same as he would purchase coal or other fuel, and could from time to time watch the diminishing supply, he would naturally be more economical in its use and less likely to think his gas bills too high. Is it at all surprising that the consumer should complain? Of course the complaint is made to the gas company as they are the only ones to benefit financially from the sale of the gas, but what control has the gas company over the waste of gas on the consumers premises? They have no more con- trol over the use of gas in one's home than the grocer has over the groceries he sells you. One may purchase a peck of potatoes and w^aste one half in the paring and of course never think of complaining to the grocer. It would be far better for the gas company were the consumers to use the gas with reasonable care and economy. It would lessen the individual gas bills, create personal w^orkers for new consumers and naturally increase the sale of gas by the increased number of consumers. Again, if all leakage in the house piping were stopped it would remove a very expensive liability due to explosion caused by gas from leaks in house piping. Wlienever an 473 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS explosion occurs it invariably means a law suit and often takes years for the courts to determine whether the leak was on the outside or the inside of the house. If the consumer would obtain 80 to 90 per cent, efficiency from the gas purchased through the meter, he would have little reason to complain of high gas bills and if practiced generally by gas consumers it would be one great step to- ward the conserv^ation of our natural gas resources. Proper Color of Flame in Stove Burners — The proper color of the flame in burners should be blue tinged with red. It is quite common for the burners and mixers to become dirty when the gas will not properly mix with air. This condition causes a yellow flame. When this condition exists the burners and mixers should be taken apart and washed clean with hot soap and water, and the mixer should be readjusted till the proper color of flame is obtained. Fig. 203 474 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS Fig. 204 — A low flame requires more time to boil water but by raising burner, a most economical fire can be maintained. Pressure ^ 9 ounce. Fig. 21).', Fig. 205 —The proper size flame for the average gas range. Pressure 2 ounces. Height of flame, 4 inches. Fig. 205 Fig. 206 — Shows gas being wasted. Pressure 5 ounces. Height of flame 103/2 inches (measured without kettle over stove hole). Fig. 206 Gas Range Burner Tests — The following tests were made on a modern gas range burner by boiling eight pounds of water with different color flames or mixer adjustments and at difTerent pressures. Temperature of water at start of each test was 70° fahr. and at completion of test 206° fahr. or boiling point. Pressures were taken at the burner. With yellow flame — Test No. Height of flame at center of burner. Pressure in oz. Time required. Cubic feet of gas burned. 1 2 3 4 4 inches lOH 2 3 4 5 20 min. 17H " 20 21 3.0 3.2 4.3 5. 475 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS With blue flame — Test No. Height of flame at center of burner. Pressure in oz. Time required. Cubic feet of gas 5 6 7 8 4 inches 63^2 " 83^ " lOM " 2 3 4 5 193^ min. 163^^ " 15 14 2.8 3. 3.1 3.4 From the foregoing tests it is shown that the most economical use of natural gas is with the 2-ounce pressure and the blue flame. Lights — Often the mixer and the screen in the burner will become clogged with dust. By removing the mantle the dust can be blown out with one's breath. The screen in the cap directly under the mantle can be removed or blown out. Clean the pin hole through which the gas enters the mixer. A hat pin will be found most convenient for this. Do not increase the size of the hole unless the amount of gas is too small to give a full sized blue flame. Summary of House Heating Furnace Tests — The fol- lowing table, showing the result of tests made by Samuel S. Wyer for the Ohio Fuel Supply Company in 1912, gives a summary of experiments made on furnaces which were in no way specially prepared for the tests, and the results repre- sent actual operating conditions in a home. The figures, however, do not consider the cost of handling ashes, damage to home furnishings from coal soot, labor in looking after a solid fuel furnace and the fact that with gas the fuel con- sumption can be stopped instantly, whereas with solid fuel the hre must be allowed to burn out. 476 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION O F GAS Fuel and Furnace Natural Gas, spe- cial gas furnace. Natural Gas, ordi- nary natural gas furnace furnace fitted with burner No. 2, 3 8-inch mixers Natural gas, coal furnace fitted with burner No. 3, ^-inch mixers Coke, coal furnace. 19-inch fire pot . Hocking Nut Coal, coal furnace, 19- inch fire-pot. . . . Pocahontas Nut Coal, coal fur- nace, 19- inch fire-pot Cost of Fuel De- livered Per Cu. Ft. SO. 30 .30 .30 .30 Per Ton So. 50 3.25 4.50 Heat Units in Fuel Per Cu. Ft. 980 980 980 Heat Units from $1 Worth of Fuel FuelCon- sumption per Hour 980 Per Lb 2,023,000 1,109,000 924,000 967,000 13,500 867,000 12.000 14,000 Cu. Ft. 83 156 Temi). of Smoke deg. fahr. 100 100 987,000 1,250,000 220 482 467 602 over 1000 over 1000 Wer 1000 Suggestions for Domestic Consumers — Do not look for a leak with a lighted match or candle. Upon first discovery of a leak open all doors and windows. A leak in house piping can be temporarily stopped by covering the opening with soap and a bandage. If this is resorted to permanent repairs should be made as quickly as possible. Sweating on walls in a residence is caused by bad drafts, open top of stove or lack of chimney connection. It is more apt to occur in winter when the houses are kept closed. There is about ten per cent more moisture in burnt fumes from manufactured gas than from natural gas 477 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS Keep the damper in the stove pipe partially closed according to the amount of lire in the stove. Natural gas does not require a great amount of draft, but what little it does require must be perfect. Do not use rub- ber tubing for con- necting gas to heat- ing stoves, hot plates or cook stoves, and for light connections it is allowable only with perfect connec- tions at the burner and the hose cock. When rubber tubing is used for lights use the valve at the gas fixture. Flexible me- tallic tubing is safer than rubber tubing. A great many as- phyxiations and fires have been directly accounted for by rub- ber hose connections. Heating or cook stoves should not be used without a chim- ney connection to carrv off the burnt Fig. .?'/?— .A V EXPLOSIOX ()/■' AM 7 I'K.XL IX A PRIVATE HOME IXDIREl I lA DUE TO USIXG RUBBER TUBIXG FOR STOVE COXXECTIOXS gases. The effect of burnt gases on the room itself is a condensation of the moisture on the waUs or windows, often causing the paper to drop from the walls. Gas stoves should be placed at a safe distance from the wall, with a sheet of metal underneath. 478 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS Domestic consumers should learn to read their own meter and thus be able to verify the correctness of their monthly gas bill. This will also give an apportunity of determining how much gas any particular stove w^ill burn an hour. Cooking and Heating with Natural Gas When Pressure is Low or a Shortage of Gas Exists — The majority of con- sumers consider that when the gas pressure is low they are being cheated by the gas company and that a refund should be given. Actually, however, the gas company is the loser. If it had more gas to sell, it would be receiving greater returns during the period of shortage. No gas company desires to have a shortage and invariably does everything in its power to forestall anything of this nature. The efforts put forth by gas companies in this direction are seldom known and rarely appreciated by the consumer. A shortage has never taken place but that the gas company could have sold more gas during the period than it actually had to sell. The consumer may state that "the gas is low" and that the gas obtained by him is "no good" and has air in it. The first statement is justifiable in case of a shortage, but the latter two are unreasonable though they must be answered with all due politeness and consideration. The writer has never known of an instance where air has been "pumped" into a gas line, either at high or low pressure, to increase the meter bills. The fact that it is a most danger- ous practice is too well known to natural gas men. Without question, the consumer is getting the same quality of gas, during the shortage, as when the pressure is normal. It has been proven that with low pressure during a gas shortage (as, for instance, one or two ounces) more actual benefit is received by the consumer per cubic foot of gas than when the pressure is high or normal. 479 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS When the fire in a cook stove actually blows or roars, it is a true indication that a full benefit of the heat units in the gas is not being taken advantage of and considerable waste exists. In a heating stove practically the same number of heat units per cubic foot of gas are obtained when the pressure is low as when the pressure is high or normal. The consumer can state honestly that he is not getting enough gas for his wants, but as to the quality of the gas being different or poor, this is a mistaken idea. It should be borne in mind by the consumer that during exceptionally cold weather, when shortages are likely to take place, natural gas is a luxury given us by nature and is not simply a case of "put on more coal" to increase the supply. Comparison of Domestic Meter Bills by the Consumer — Distributing companies commonly receive complaints from patrons that their friends, neighbors or acquaintances with smaller homes, fewer people in the family, and with extrava- gant appliances, have smaller bills. First, make sure that the meter is accurate, either by looking up the record and learning that the meter in question has lately been tested, or by making a special test. Then carefully and politely take up the comparison of grocery or other household bills. It wih be found that they will not foot up the same. The number of rooms in a house has as little to do with the gas bill as the number of people in the family has to do with the grocery bill. No two families are alike with regard to their home wants and requirements. It might be added that it is just as reasonable for the gas man to sell gas by the stove or flat rate as it is for the grocery man to contract to supply groceries for a home by the number of persons in it. 480 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF GAS Water Condensation from Burnt Gases ( By Professor Ilau'ort/i) "Wlien burned, one volume of methane (the main constituent of natural gas) unites with two volumes of oxygen, which is equivalent to ten volumes of air. The products of combustion are two volumes of water vapor and one volume of carbon dioxide. The production of water vapor becomes apparent in the combustion of natural gas, the water vapor condensing and collecting on any cold object near the burning gas. This gives rise to the popular belief that the gas as it comes in the pipes is wet or loaded with water. A simple calculation will show us the remark- ably large amount of water produced in the burning of 1000 cubic feet of methane. Each 1000 cubic feet of methane produces on combustion twice its own volume or 2000 cubic feet of water vapor. This weighs 100.13 lb. and is equal to approximately 12 U. S. gallons of liquid water. Now if we have a natural gas con- taining ninety-live per cent, of pure methane, it would give ninety-five per cent, as much water per 1000 cubic feet, that is 95 lb. or 11.4 gallons. This shows that the production of a large quantity of water is an inevitable accompaniment of the combustion of natural gas, and it is no evidence of a good or a bad quaHty of gas itself, excepting that the quantity of water thus pro- duced increases as the percentage of methane in the gas in- creases. It therefore should be considered a sign of good quality instead of bad. The heat of combustion of methane is 100-3 B. t. u. per cubic foot of gas." Incandescent Light Mantles — The original research work in the invention of the incandescent light mantle was begun by Carl Auer von Welsbach in 1880 at the Bunson Labora- tory at the University of Heidelburg. 481 DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION O F GAS Fig. 208— A GAS OFFICE WINDOW DISPLAY Depicting the "Before" and "After" by the Introduction of Natural Gas. Not until 1890 did this young man bring the invention to a successful standard. The preparation consisted of 1 per cent, cerium and 99 per cent, thorium. The cerium is re- sponsible for the high luminous eifect. Artificial fibre, cotton, and ramie thread are used to support the coating of cerium and thorium. The cotton and ramie thread are hollow while the artificial fibre is like a solid rod. The shrinkage of mantles is generally due to the cotton or ramie thread collapsing after burning. Before using, the mantles must be burnt off, leaving the "ash" of the original make-up, this ash being the real light producer. 482 PART IIITEKX Industrial Consumption of Gas COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUE— FACTS AND FIGURES ABOUT NATURAL GAS USED IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIES — BOILER INSTALLA- TION (Section)-~GAS ENGINE {Seclio n)~FOWER (Section). Comparative Fuel Value of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas — Good practice, with boilers of proper construction and pro- portioned to the work : 1 lb. of coal will evaporate 9 lb. of water from and at 212 deg. fahr. 1 lb. of oil will evaporate 13 lb. of water from and at 212 deg. fahr. lib. of natural gas will evaporate 15 lb. of water from and at 212 deg. fahr. 1 lb. of coal will equal 12 cu. ft. of natural gas. 1 ton of coal (2000 lb.) will equal 24,000 cu. ft. of natural gas. 1 lb. of oil will equal 17 cu. ft. of natural gas. 1 bbl. (42 gal.) will equal 5,000 cu. ft. of natural gas. 5 bbl. (42 gal.) will equal 1 ton of good coal. 1 cu. ft. of natural gas will evaporate 0.75 lb. of water. 1 cu. ft. of natural gas contains 990 B. t. u. gross. 1000 cu. ft. of natural gas contains 990,000 B. t. u. 1 ton of coal contains 28,000,000 B. t. u. 1 bbl. of oil contains 5,600,000 B. t. u. 1 bbl. of oil 41 deg. gravity, weight 287.5, U.S. bbl.. contains 5.615 cu. ft. 1 cu. ft. of water at 39.8 deg. fahr. at 30 inches of mer- cury, atmospheric pressure, weighs 62.42 lb. 483 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Under fair conditions a 100 h. p. boiler will use about 4000 lb. of R. M. bituminous coal in ten hours. In the foregoing values only good quality coal, gas and oil are considered. Natural gas varies greatly in B. t. u. tests from 748 B. t. u. to 1100 B. t. u. 990 is a good average quality. The quality of coal with reference to B. t. u. varies greatly in different mines and commonly in the same mine. It should be borne in mind that in the use of coal there is always a waste of fuel in starting the fire under a boiler and after the work is finished. With gas or oil for fuel, less time is required in starting the fire, and after the work is completed the fire can be put out immediately. Facts and Figures about Natural Gas as Used in Various Industries. Electricity — Cost of installation per h. p. of an electric plant, in which electricity is developed by steam — .S60 to $70 per h. p. and where gas engine is used .$80 per h. p. The amount of gas required in making electricity with steam mstdllation, using gas for fuel, is 40 cu. ft. per kilowatt hour. With a gas engine the amount of gas required for making electricity is about 18 cu. ft. per kilowatt hour. Cement — The amount of gas required to make one barrel of cement, in plants of more than 1000 barrels daily capacity, is 3000 cu. ft. For the burning only of one barrel of cement in kilns, 1750 cu. ft. of gas is required. Smelter — The amount of gas required in a smelter to burn one block of 640 retorts for twenty-four hours is between 600,000 and 700,000 cu. ft. of gas, dependent on the kind of ore smelted. In plants of three blocks or more, it is generally figured 1,000,000 cu. ft. of gas is required for each block, which figures include roasting, pottery, and boiler use. 484 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Brick — The amount of gas required in making one thousand brick is as follows : For burning 12,000 cu. ft. For drying 1,700 cu. ft. For steam 1,900 cu. ft. Total 15,600 cu. ft. Carbon Black — The manufacture of carbon black from natural gas has become an extensive industry through the gas fields of West Virginia. Invariably the factories are located in gas fields in remote sections and away from anv thickly settled districts or cities. While the use of natural gas for this purpose has been criticised on account of the small financial return per thousand cu. ft. of gas, considera- tion must be given to the fact that if the same gas were piped to a market and a larger gross income received the actual profit would not be much different from that obtained from making carbon black. It takes about fifteen hundred cubic feet of gas to make one pound of carbon black, and the factories usually operate twenty-four hours a day. Generally a carbon black factory consists of a row of low, sheet iron buildings in which are long rows of troughs. Under these troughs the gas is burned through common jet burners, the combustion taking place with an insufficient supply of air, resulting in a heavy deposit of unconsumed carbon, or soot, on the under side of the troughs. This soot, or carbon black, is then scraped off and packed in twelve- and-one-half pound bags, which in turn are barreled for shipment. In this process no use is made of the heat energy of the gas, other than that required to separate the carbon from the hydrogen and other constituents, and it is therefore very wasteful. 485 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS BOILER BURNER INSTALLATION (Section) Boiler Burners for Natural Gas — The secret of success in the use of gas burners under boilers is to thoroughly mix the proper amount of air and gas before these factors reach the point of ignition. Complete combustion requires the union, under high temperature, of one atom of carbon to two atoms of oxygen. The combustion of one pound of carbon, when supplied and thoroughly mixed with the above amount of oxygen, will produce 14,500 B. t. u.; while one pound of carbon, when supplied with half the above amount of oxygen, will produce only about 4500 B. t. u. In the first case the resulting pro- duct of combustion is carbon dioxide, CO2, and in the second, carbon monoxide, CO. It is very important that the gas and oxygen be thoroughly mixed after they have been brought together, as the completeness of combustion obtained will depend upon the manner in which they have been mixed. A perfect mixture can be obtained only by putting gas and oxygen in violent agitation before reaching the combustion chamber, for even though the proper proportion of oxygen be present, it may not have a chance to reach all of the carbon atoms to unite with them before the gases pass out of the combustion chamber and become chilled below the temperature of ignition. For this reason it is also necessary to supply more air than is theoretically required for complete combustion. Temperature of Natural Gas Combustion — Natural Gas combustion, when supplied with the exact amount of air necessary for complete combustion, should burn at a tem- perature of about 4200 deg. fahr. On account of the excess of air that is necessary for dilution, however, the actual temperature of combustion is about 2200 deg. fahr. It is not always desirable to use an extremely high temperature, as in some cases it would injure the products of the furnace 486 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Fig. 209— NATURAL GAS INSTALLATION UNDER WATER TUBE BOILERS in which it is being used. This would apply to the burning of brick or any other material which is placed in a kiln, and tired after the setting is completed. For this purpose the temperature should be very low when started, and gradually increased as the kiln is heated. When combustion of gas takes place, much moisture is liberated in the form of vapor, which will be condensed on the surface of any object which is at a low temperature and will be absorbed by any object which will retain moisture. This is objectionable for some purposes. 487 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS X « CO Q ^5 488 NDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Installation of Natural Gas Burners Under Boilers- While there can be a great many different methods employed in instaUing natural gas burners under boilers, they all vary but slic^htlv from each other. In covering this subject, we 489 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS are making some general suggestions as adopted by gas burner experts. Cover the entire grate surface (or bottom of furnace if grates are not used) with lire brick or any material that will stand a high temperature, for the purpose of excluding all air and to protect the grates from the heat of the furnace. Primarily it must be borne in mind that the greatest success with natural gas under boilers is to burn all the combustible with the proper mixture of air. Place the burners under the fire doors or through holes cut in the front of the furnace as shown in cuts. If burners are placed through the doors, the opening around the burners should be built up with brick and mortar. The burners should not extend beyond this brick wall. The distance from the end of the burners to the checker- wall will vary under different conditions. Checker-walls should be nine inches thick, and where a three-foot or higher wall is required the thickness should be increased at the bottom and tapered off towards the top. If the wall is not increased in thickness at the bottom, it will not be apt to stand long where it is three feet high or over. A space of one or two inches should always be left at each end of the wall where it joins the side wall to the furnace. These two spaces are for the purpose of allowing expan- sion and contraction, which would be liable to throw the wall down unless provided for as above specified. The height of the wall will depend upon the construction of the furnace, the purpose for which it is being used, and the amount of gas to be consumed. If it is to be used in a boiler furnace and it is desired to work the boiler at or above its rating, care should be taken that the wall is not built up too close to the boiler, as the heat generated will be intense if confined too much in front of the furnace by reason of the checker-wall being built too high or the openings too small. 490 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS The object of the checker-wall is to retard slightly the velocity of the burning gas in order to obtain greater benefit where needed, rather than to have the burning gas pass quickly into the hood and stack, spreading the effects of the heat en route. Should the work the boiler is required to do be light, and at no time exceed the rating of the boiler, the checker-wall can be built with smaller openings and closer to the boiler with better results. In case the draft is very poor and not sufficient for the amount of work being done, a second checker-wall, placed about one foot back of the first, will give better results. If the second wall is used, some air should be admitted from the bottom of the furnace between the two checker-walls. In a furnace covered by an arch and entirely surrounded with tire-brick, a small amount of checker- wall will be suffi- cient. In many cases none is required, as the heat generated will be all the furnace will stand without any checker-wall. As all furnaces are not alike, it is impossible to give instructions that will cover every case. Therefore, any wall or combination of walls that wall giv^e the best results is the proper thing to use in that particular case. In a boiler with a horizontal baffle, where the gases pass to the rear of the furnace, the checker-wall should be about thirty inches from the front wall of the furnace. In selecting the proper size header for a boiler setting, we would suggest the following formula by Gwynn: A = v'B X C A = Diameter of pipe in inches. B = Area of gas connection to burner. C = Number of burners used. Example — It is proposed to install ten live-inch gas burners with one-and-one-half-inch gas connections; what size header would be required? A one-and-one-half-inch gas pipe equals 2.036 in area. As ten burners are to be fed from 491 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS this header, the area required would be the area of gas connection to burner, multipHed by the number of burners to be used. In applying these figures to the above formula, the result would be about a five-inch pipe, which would be the smallest size pipe used in this case. A valve should be placed in the header at the side of the boiler for the purpose of regulating the volume of gas sup- plied to all burners at one time. Continue away from header with a gas line of the same size. If this line extends more than twenty or thirty feet, a larger size should be used, as the gas pressure will decrease very rapidly in a long line, especially if there are many turns. Use of Steam or Compressed Air in Boiler Burner In- stallations — In very few cases the use of steam in connection with boiler burners is a benefit. In all of such cases some of the following conditions will be present : insufficient draft to carry away the products of combustion; insufficient burner capacity; insufficient boiler or furnace capacity to do the w^ork required; insufficient gas pressure at the burner; installations not properly made; burners not operated in the proper manner. Any or all of these conditions might be present at the same time. When steam is used it is only for the purpose of forcing the proper mixture between the gas and air when this cannot be done in any other manner. This is accomplished by the steam entering the mixing chamber under the same pressure through several very small jets with a spiral or rotary motion and causing a partial vacuum in the air tube, which, in turn, causes the air to flow into the burner and become thoroughly mixed with the gas before reaching the point of ignition. Compressed air may be used for this purpose with much better results, as the only loss will be the power required to compress the air. 492 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS — -m.s i X///////////////A ■'^'. M 1 K4^ " i% m i ^ -f ^ ^ ' ' 493 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS FITTINGS ON GAS MAIN Symbol C-1 5 12-inch Cast Iron Flanged Tees, faced and drilled. C-2 2 10-inch Cast Iron Flanged Tees, faced and drilled. C-3 3 12-inch Cast Iron Flanged Ells, faced and drilled. C-4 2 10-inch Cast Iron Flanged Ells, faced and drilled. C-5 3 10-inch Cast Iron Flanged Gate Valves. C-6 12 12-inch Cast Iron Flanges faced and drilled. C-7 6 5-inch Cast Iron Flanges, faced and drilled (5-inch pipe tap, outside diameter 19 inches). C-8 1 10-inch Cast Iron Flange, faced and drilled (10-inch pipe tap, outside diameter 19 inches). Symbol C-9 5 10-inch Cast Iron Flanges, faced and drilled, (10-inch pipe tap, outside diameter 16 inches). C-10 3 12-inch Wrought Iron Pipes (threaded), about 22 feet 4 inches long. C-11 2 12-inch Wrought Iron pipes (threaded), about 3 feet 5 inches long. C-12 1 12-inch Wrought Iron Nipple, (threaded), about 10 inches long. C-13 1 10-inch Wrought Iron Nipple (threaded). C-14 1 10-inch Wrought Iron Nipple. C-15 1 10-inch Wrought Iron Pipe, about 3 feet 3% inches long. BILL OF MATERIAL FOR ONE BOILER Symbol A-1 15 5-inch Gas Burners. A-2 1 5- inch Wrought Iron Header. A-3 1 5-inch Cast Iron Cap. A-4 1 5-inch Cast Iron Ell. A-5 1 5-inch Cast Iron Gate Valve. A-6 1 5-inch Wrought Iron Long Nipple, 12 inches long. A-7 1 5-inch Wrought Iron Pipe (threaded), about 3 feet 10 inches long. A-8 15 l3<4-inch Wrought Iron Long Nipples, 6 inches long. A-9 9 iK-inch Wrought Iron Long Nipples, 8 inches long. A-10 12 114-inch Wrought Iron Symbol A-11 15 l3/i-inch Cast Iron Stop Cocks. A-12 15 l}4-inch Malleable Iron Dart Unions. A-13 9 l3<4-inch Nipples, 6 inches long. B-1 Long Nipples, long. 242 9-inch Fire Brick, to cover grates. (Use second quality.) B-2 232 9-inch Fire Bricks, for checker wall. (Use Ben- ezet. ) B-3 10 9x43 2xl34-inch Fire Brick Splits, for filling doers, inches B-4 1 Sack Fire Clay. 494 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS The use of steam in a gas-lired luriiace is always attended with a loss, as the heat absorbed by the reduction of one pound of steam to hydrogen and oxygen is much greater 495 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS in amount than the heat generated by the union with the carbon of oxygen thus set free. This loss may be partially recovered if the furnace is kept at the proper temperature to quickly reduce the steam to hydrogen, which will be con- sumed with the gas. Draft — In lighting a furnace which has been closed down, care should be used to see that the damper is open and that there is enough draft to carry away the products of com- bustion; otherwise, the flame will soon be extinguished and the escaping gas may cause trouble if re-ignited. Any serious obstruction to the draft while boiler or furnace is in operation might have the same effect. A very simple method of increasing the economy of the burning of gas under a boiler, whether an analysis of stack gas is made or not, is to use a screw damper in connection with a common siphon gauge to measure the stack draft. As a rule the screw damper is a home-made affair designed to regulate the draft and carry continually a suction or minus pressure in the stack as shown on the gauge. A common four-inch siphon gauge should be located in close proximity to the damper regulator or screw and the damper regulated according to the pressure. The screw attachment on the damper permits of delicate and careful regulation of the damper opening. The best suction pressure or draft to carry must be determined by actual tests. After once determined it should be checked by subsequent tests two or three times a year. To make this test the screw^ damper and gauge must be in- stalled first and a certain stack pressure carried on the gauge continuously during the entire length of each individual test. It is a well known fact that changes in atmospheric con- ditions such as barometer, temperature and humidity greatly affect the draft in any chimney or stack. With the 496 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS screw damper and siphon gauge, an even stack pressure best suited to the boiler conditions can be carried at all times. A special draft gauge will indicate the suction or minus pressure more closely than the common siphon gauge but is a more expensive instrument. Generally the draft of medium sized stacks or chimneys will be about one or two-tenths water pressure. Section '/r-B" Pilot Light Sect f ON C-'O' Elevation u'z? NATURAL GAS BURNERS AS APPLIED TO VERTICAL TUBULAR BOILERS 497 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Draft Gauge — The draft gauge is a modification of the ordinary U tube gauge, one of the tubes being expanded in a reser\^oir and the other inchned at an angle to the latter, the angle of inclination being in accordance with the desired length of the scale. This lengthens each one inch of vertical scale into a scale five or ten inches long as desired, and thus 1-100 of an inch pressure on the differential gauge is as easily determined and read as 1-10 of an inch on the or- dinary gauge. The fluid employed for filling is the oil known as "Mineral vSeal," having a specific gravity 39 to 40 Beaume, and is Fig. 215— DRAFT GAUGE preferable to water because its capillary attraction is much less, thus producing more accurate indications. The evapor- ation is also much less than water. The instrument is made of an aluminum casting, finely finished or of finely finished wood. It is portable and readily adjustable to position. Connections are tapped for one-eighth-inch gas pipe. Made in one-inch and three-inch sizes. Operation of Natural Gas Burners for Boiler Use — In addition to careful installation, the success of a gas burner depends somewhat on the manner in which it is operated. After the installation has been completed and the burners are ready to put in operation, see that all the valves of the 498 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS gas line leading to the burners are closed, aho that the damper in the stack is open enough to carry away the product of com- bustion. A torch can be lighted and placed through the center of a burner or through an opening beside it before gas is turned on to this individual burner. When one burner has been lighted the others can be turned on, one at a time, each igniting from the preceding one ; or if too far apart each will have to be lighted as was the first one. Under no consideration should a gas valve be opened until the light has been put into the furnace, as enough gas will accumulate in the furnace in a few seconds to do some damage if lighted suddenly. After burners have all been put in operation, see that there is sufhcient draft to carry away the products of combustion. Where there have been just two or three burners used and the checker-walls have become "white heat" and the burners have either accidentally been turned off or gone out, the lighted torch should be placed in the furnace to ignite the gas before a burner is turned on again. It should not be expected that gas will ignite from the white heated checker-wall. Actual ignition is apt to be de- layed until considerable gas has accumulated in the furnace, thereby causing a dangerous explosion. Under no circum- stances, in case the gas flame goes out, should one depend upon the white heated checker-wall to ignite the gas. When the furnace is cold it should be heated up slowly, as it might damage the brick work if heated too rapidly. Only enough burners should be used to do the work required, as their economy will be better when they are worked at their full rating. Gas should not be used at a greater pressure than ten or twelve ounces. Results will not be so satisfactory as if used at a lower pressure. vSatisfactory results have been obtained on small installations witli burners as low as one-half oimce pressure. 499 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS A good draft is absolutely essential, especially if the fur- nace is working at a high rating, and should always be main- tained. A gas-fired furnace should burn with a clear blue flame and white heat and with as little white flame as possible. The presence of white flame indicates carbon monoxide. (CO), which means bad combustion. As no two boilers or furnaces will work exactly alike, no positive instructions can be given which will cover all cases. The object, however, is to secure as nearly perfect combus- tion as possible. Therefore, any valve or combination of valves or other conditions which will obtain that result are the proper ones to use, regardless of any other instructions. SOME CAUSES RESPONSIBLE FOR FAILURES WITH NATURAL GAS BURNERS Leak of gas supply at burner. Pipes too small and too many turns. Pipes clogged by corrosion or other foreign matter. Burner openings clogged with dirt. Burner capacity too small for work it does. Draft not sufficient for work being done. Burners not properly installed. Burners not properly operated. It is not probable that all these defects will be present in any one case, but some of the above defects will be found to exist where failures result. Boiler Testing — There have been many cases where boiler tests have shown a great loss of fuel through improper mixture of gas and air in the burner. Although the cost of the boiler test is rather expensiv^e, and though it may not show any possibilities of saving fuel, it is a great satisfaction to the interested party to learn whether they are obtaining the full benefit from the gas. 500 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS In making a boiler test where natural gas is used as fuel in a patent burner, the following suggestions should be followed : Prior to making test the boiler should be thorough- ly examined and should be absolutely free from any scale. The area of the heating surface should be figured next, using the diameter of the tube next to the water. The surface below the mean level of the water is termed as a rule, "water heating surface," and the surface above the mean level of the water is called "super-heating surface." Install new or lately tested gas and water meters, using a low pressure regulator back of gas meter to enable the carrying of an even pressure of gas. In laying out the gas line it should be provided with a mercury gauge and a thermometer well to obtain the pressure and the tempera- ture of the gas. Inasmuch as the temperature of the feed water should be kept as high as possible in order to get the maximum efficiency from the gas, it is necessary to use a hot water meter. If a feed pump is used, the meter should work on the boiler side of the pump and the working pressure of the pump be kept as constant as possible. If an injector is used on the water line feeding the boiler, it should receive the steam directly from the boiler while being tested, and the feed water should be passed through the hot water meter after being thrown out by the injector. Prior to starting test, the boiler should be heated up for at least three or four hours and put into service on the main steam line. A test should last from ten to twenty-four hours and a log sheet kept of all meter readings, temperatures, drafts and steam pressures. All notations should be made hourly or oftener. The reading of gas and water meters should be taken at the beginning and every twenty minutes thereafter to the end of the test. At the time of starting a test the level of the water should be marked on the gauge glass by scratching with a file or tying a piece of wire or string around the glass. 501 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Temperatures should be taken of the steam, feed water, stack, and gas and air in the engine room and outside of the building. The draft should be measured with water in a U tube both in the furnace and the hood of the stack. The steam pressure and gas pressure should be noted hourly. Any heavy or sudden pull on the boiler should be mentioned under the head of "Remarks." The test should be absolutely uniform with respect to load to get the conditions of maximum economy, but to show the sensitiveness of the burner and boiler, a variable load should be used. A calorimeter test is important to ascertain the quality of the steam, i.e., whether the steam is "saturated" or con- tains the quantity of heat due to the pressure according to standard experiments; second, whether the quantity of heat is deficient, causing the steam to be wet; and third, whether the heat is in excess and the steam superheated. The method commonly employed is the barrel calori- meter, which with careful operation and fairly accurate instruments may generally be relied upon to give results within two per cent. The calorimeter is described as follows: A sample of steam is taken by inserting a perforated one-half-inch pipe into and through the main pipe near the boiler and con- ducted by a hose, thoroughly felted, to a barrel holding preferably 400 pounds of water, which is set upon a plat- form scale provided with a valve for allowing the water to flow to waste and with a small propeller for stirring the water. The barrel is filled with water, the weight and tempera- ture ascertained, steam blown through the hose outside the barrel until the pipe is thoroughly warm, when the hose is suddenly thrust into the water and the propeller operated until the temperature of the water is increased to a desired 502 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS point, usually about 110 deg. The hose is then withdrawn quickly, the temperature noted, and the weight again taken. An error of one-tenth pound in weighing the condensed steam or an error of one-half degree in temperature will cause an error of over one per cent, in the calculated per- centage of moisture. The calculation of the percentage of moisture is made as follows (Kent's "Mechanical Engineer's Book"): e= H — T\_w J () = Quality of steam, dry saturated steam being unity. // = Total heat of one pound of steam at the observed pressure. T = Total heat of one pound of water at the temperature of steam of observed pressure. // = Total heat of one pound of condensing water, original. hi = Total heat of one pound of condensing water, linal. W = Weight of condensing water corrected for water- equivalent of the apparatus. w = Weight of the steam condensed. Percentage of moisture = \ — Q. If Q is greater than unity, the steam is superheated, and the degrees of superheating equal 2.0833 (// — T) {Q — 1). For accurate determination, all the steam made by the boiler should be passed through a separator, the water separated should be weighed, and a calorimeter test made of the steam just after it has passed the separator. The percentage of water extracted by the separator should then be added to that determined by the calorimeter to give the total percentage of mixture in the steam. 503 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS The throttling calorimeter is a convenient and accurate instrument for determining the quality of the steam. For description, see any treatise on boiler or boiler testing. The analysis of gas to be used, while not always required, is necessary for an exhaustive test, and from this analysis the calorific value of the fuel can be calculated; or, better still, this value may be directly determined by some standard form of calorimeter, such as the Junker's. A chemical analysis of the stack gas should be carefully made by a chemist to determine the existence of unburnt gases caused by improper mixture of gas and air in the burner. Samples of stack gas should be taken hourly and the analysis can be made by the common Orsat apparatus to show the carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxygen and nitrogen. From these results the excess of air used by the burner can be calculated. (vSee Stack Gas Analysis, following page.) The method for calculating the boiler efficiency is as follows: Divide the heat absorbed per hundred feet of gas by the calorific value of one hundred cubic feet of gas sup- plied. From the results obtained from the log sheet, the approximate heat balance or statement of the distribution of heating value of the gas may be obtained. The gas per hour should be calculated, together with the gas per square foot of heating surface per hour. The total weight of water feed can be calculated from the meter read- ings, and the feed water temperature by referring to any table which gives the weight per cubic foot of water under different temperatures. The equivalent water fed to the boiler from and at 212 deg. fahr. may be ascertained from a table of factors of evaporation, after having been corrected for moisture in the steam. The horse power which is determined at 34)^ pounds of water evaporated from and at 212 deg. fahr. may be figured from the last results. The builder's rated horse power is 504 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS obtained from the boiler specifications and the percentage of boiler's rated horse power calculated. One boiler horse power is the evaporation of 343/^ pounds of water per hour from a feed water temperature of 212 deg, fahr., to steam at the same temperature (spoken of as "from and at 212 deg. fahr."j and is equal to 33,305 B. t. u. per hour. Testing Gas Burners — The only fair way of testing a gas burner is to analyze the flue gases, a sample of which should be taken as near the point of combustion as possible, having all air leaks well stopped in the boiler setting back of the flue box. The amount of CO, CO2 and free oxygen contained in this sample will determine whether the right quantities of gas and oxygen were properly mixed at the point of ignition. Stack Gas Analysis — ^To every boiler user this branch of engine room work is very important. In fact it is more so than is generally realized. Very few, if any, factories where natural gas is used as fuel are equipped with gas analysis apparatus. The writer does not desire to state that the analyzing of stack gas will show a loss in every case; but where no loss is shown it is a great satisfaction to know that fuel gas is being used with economy. Sampling Apparatus — A glass tube tive-eighth-inch in diameter and about three feet long, drawn down to one- fourth-inch at one end, is inserted in the stack just above the hood. For this purpose a three-quarter-inch hole is drilled in the stack and the space around the glass tube is stopped with putty or wet cotton waste. Prior to taking the sample, all openings other than legitimate ones for draft should be carefully closed. The stack gas must be sucked into the tube by use of a pump or steam jet. When samples are taken infrequently an ordinary double-ended syringe bulb, provided with a hard rubber valve, may be used. 505 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS There are many methods that may be devised, but the main thing to bear in mind is to obtain a true sample of the stack gas absolutely free from air. The principle of making an analysis is the same as in analyzing natural gas (see page 80), i.e., by absorbing the different constituents in the stack gas sample one by one, and measuring the decrease in volume caused by such ab- sorption. The following chemical solutions are used for the absorption process. For carbon dioxide (carbonic acid), potassium hydrate. For oxygen, alkaline solution of potassium pyrogallate. For carbonic oxide, cuprous chloride. After the sample has been subjected to the absorption action of each of the above chemicals and correct deductions made, the residue may consist of nitrogen (the principle constituent), hydrocarbons and hydrogen. If desired, a sample of the flue gas can be taken — leaving as little water in the apparatus as possible — and sent to a competent chemist for analysis. Gas Pressure — Pressure should be measured at the burner, not at the meter or regulator. The greater the gas pressure, the greater the velocity of the gas leaving the burner, creating a better vacuum and thereby causing a greater volume of air to enter the mixing chamber, which will increase the capacity of the burner. Eight-ounce pressure gives the best results, with a working range of from five to twelve ounces. Results — It is not possible to derive the same boiler efficienc}' in all gas fields, but assuming that the gas contains 1000 B. t. u. per cubic foot, the boiler or furnace should develop an efficiency of at least seventy per cent, or greater. 506 Sample Sami)le Sample No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 . 0.45 0.15 0.50 . 0.00 0.00 0.15 . 0.20 30 0.25 .81.05 83.20 83.40 .17.60 15.55 15.40 . 0.00 0.20 00 . 0.15 0.10 0.00 . 0.55 0.50 0.30 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS BOILER TEST OF NATURAL GAS Made by Jay M. Whitham at Parsons Pulp & Paper Com- pany, Parsons, W.Va., on Six 250 Horse Power Cook Vertical Water Tube Boilers. Analysis of Gases Used and Taken from Nine Wells in Lewis County, West Virginia — lUuminants Carbonic oxide Hydrogen Marsh gas Ethane Carbonic acid 0.00 Oxygen 0.15 Nitrogen B. t. u. in a cubic foot of gas at 60 deg. fahr. and 14.7 lb. barometer available for use- ful effect 1030 1020 1025 Test number 812 Duration, hours 9 Barometer, pounds 14.25 Boiler gauge pressure, pounds 132.7 Draft in front of damper, inches 0.20 Gas pressure at meter, pounds 18.0 Gas pressure at burners, ounces 6.4 Temperature of air, deg. fahr 69 Fire room, deg. fahr 73 Natural gas, deg. fahr 70 Feed water, deg. fahr 185 Chimney, deg. fahr 494 Gas, metered cubic feet 541.420 Equivalent gas at 70 deg. fahr. and under 4 ounces pressure 537,197 Water evaporated, pounds 435,625 Ivquivalent water at and from 212 deg. fahr., pounds 467,948 Boiler h. p. made 1507.0 Cubic feet of gas, actual, per boiler h. p. per hour 39.92 Cubic feet of gas at 4 ounces and 60 de^. fahr. per boiler h. p. per hour 39.6 507 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS GAS ENGINES (Section) Gas engines are divided into two general classes com- monly known as two cycle and four cycle. These terms are derived from the number of strokes of the piston required to complete a cycle, during which time only one impulse is given to the piston. The two cycle engine gives one impulse to the piston for each revolution of the crank shaft and is more flexible in speed control than the four cycle engine which gives but one impulse to the piston for each two revolutions of the crank shaft. For steady work such as driving a pumping station the four cycle engine is best suited. For fluctuating work such as cleaning out wells the two cycle engine is most desirable. Ignition is usually effected by allowing the compressed mixture to enter an iron tube, kept at a bright red heat by a Bunsen flame surrounding it. Electric ignition is frequently used, in which case the electric current is generally furnished by a magneto so arranged to generate a maximum current at the proper firing instant. The proper firing instant varies according to load, speed and quantity of mixture. The length of the hot tube may be varied to suit local conditions. INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Average Amount of Natural Gas Required to Operate Gas Engines or for Steam Engines where Natural Gas is used as Fuel Under Boilers, in Cubic Feet per Indicated H. P. per Hour. Type of Engine Cubic Feet of Gas per Horse Power per Hour Large natural gas engine, highest type Ordinary natural gas engine Triple expansion condensing steam engine Double expansion condensing steam engine Single cylinder and cut-off steam engine Ordinary high pressure, without cut-off, steam engine Ordinary oil well pumping steam engine 9 13 16 20 40 80 130 From ten to twelve cubic feet of air are necessary for the complete combustion of one cubic foot of natural gas. The natural gas engine has been most successfully introduced as a source of power throughout the entire gas belt. The first engines were from ten to fifteen horse power, and were used in pumping oil wells. Of late they have also been used to some extent for drilhng wells. Many natural gas engines working up to 2,500 horse powder, are in use at this date compressing natural gas, where the original pressure is not sufficient to carry the required quantity to market. Horse Power of Gas Engines — The horse power of a gas engine is usually rated as the actual power delivered to the belt on average fuel. This power delivered to the belt bears a close relationship to the power developed in the cylinder and the more excellent the design and construc- tion of the engine the more nearly will these two powers be equal. Power is developed by compressing a mixed charge of gas and air in the cylinder and then igniting it. The heat produced by the combtistion causes the gases to expand and 509 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS exert a pressure on the piston which drives the latter forward to the end of its stroke when the pressure is released by means of the exhaust valve. The pressure due to rapid combustion is the same for any size engine provided the compression and mixture are the same and the horse power of the engine depends upon the size of the cylinder. Various ratings are used to designate the size of an engine but the surest guide to comparative power is to compare the sizes of cylinders. Size for size a two cycle engine will develop some- thing less than twice the power of a four cycle engine. In buying engines, do not be guided altogether by horse power rating but look well into cylinder sizes to determine whether the engine is large enough to justify its rating. Size of Gas Supply Pipe — Multiply the horse power of the engine by .03 and add 3^-inch to lind the proper size of gas supply pipe. Length and Diameter of Services for Gas Engines. 50 Feet 100 Feet 150 Feet 225 Feet lorse Power of Pipe of Pipe of Pipe of Pipe of Engine Diam. In. Diam. In. Diam. In. Diam. In. 5 1 1 IM IM ]0 Hi W2 IH Wi 15 IVa 2 2 2 20 \Vi 2 2 2 30 Wl 2^ 2^ 2^ 40 2 23^ W2 3 50 2M 23^ 3 3 Exhaust Pipe — The exhaust pipe should be as straight and free from bends as possible also the outlet should be shielded to prevent rain collecting therein. The diameter of the exhaust pipe should be between one-third and one-quarter of the cylinder diameter. 510 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Circulating Water Waaler must be kept circulating in the jacket of the engine cylinder to cool the walls and make lubrication possible. This requires from four to six gallons per horse power per hour. Where a tank is used its capacity should be such as to allow twenty to forty gallons per horse power. The water circulating pipes should be free from bends and the top or return pipe should be one-half-inch larger than the bottom or inlet pipe. The return pipe should enter the tank below the top level of the water therein. When hard water is used for the jacket put a handful of ordinary washing soda into the tank about once a month. COMPARATIVE ACTUAL OPERATING COSTS OF 100 H. P. IN THE VARIOUS PRACTICAL FORMS OF POWER NOW AVAILABLE Based on a Ruxxing Day of 10 Hours; 310 Days per Year; Full Load Continuously for Entire Ten Hours. In making comparisotis with his own actual costs of operation, the power user should take the total cost of a single horse power, as given in synopsis below; and, figuring from the basis of the actual load his power plant is carrying, cut from, or add to, all the other figures proportionately. Steam engines are sold at their indicated horse power, which is from 10 per cent, to 18 per cent, higher than their brake horse power. Gas engines are sold at brake horse power, and a 100 h. p. gas engine has from 10 per cent, to 18 per cent, greater efficiency than a 100 h. p. steam engine. 511 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Ordinary Steam Engine Fuel 1 $3,720.00 Attendance 7 775.00 Oil, waste, cleaning materials 75.00 Packing 5.00 Water 11 77.50 Repairs 13 109.50 Depreciation 17 255.50 Interest on investment— 69r 219.00 Complete actual cost of oper- ation 85,236.50 Compound Condensing Engine 2 $2,092.50 7 775.00 75.00 5.00 387.50 13 175.50 17 409.50 351.00 $4,271.00 Electricity 3 $6,975.00 8 77.50 50.00 52.50 175.00 105.00 $7,435.00 Fuel Attendance Oil, waste, cleaning materials Packing Water Repairs Depreciation Interest on investment — 6% Complete actual cost of oper- ation Gas Engine Illuminat- ing Gas 4 $4,216.00 9 155.00 75. uO 46.50 75.00 187.50 225.00 $4,980.00 Gas Engine Natural Gas 5$ 1,116.00 9 155.00 75.00 46.50 75.00 187.50 225.00 $1,880.00 Gas Engine Producer Gas 6$ 639.37 10 258.33 75.00 77.50 85.00 187.50 381.00 $1,703.70 1. Based on 8 lb. coal, at $3 per ton, per B. h. p. hour; covering operation and stand by consumption. 2. Based on 4J/^ lb. coal, at S3 per ton, per B. h. p. hour; covering operation and standby consumption. 3. 1000 Watts equal 1 Kilowatt; 100 h. p. equals 75 Kilowatts; 75 Kilowatts at 3c per hour equals $22.50 per day. 4. Based on consumption of 17 cubic feet per B. h. p. hour at 80c per M equals $13.60 per day. 512 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS o. Based on consumption of 12 cubic feet per B. h. p. hour, at 30c per M equals S3. 60 per day. 6. Based on 1.5 anthracite screenings, at S2.50 per ton, per B. h. p. hour, including stand-by losses, equals 1,650 lb. per day. 7. One licensed engineer at $2.50 per day. 8. Average of one hour's attendance per day of man at $2.50. 9. 2 hours per day will cover all attendance necessary; licensed engineer not obligatory. 10. One-third of one man's time, at $2.50 per day, will take care of plant. 11. Based on price of 5c per M. gals., which is about same when pumped by condenser pump. 12. 3 gals, per B. h. p. per hour. By use of tank same water can be used over and over, and water expenses eliminated. 13. Estimated at 3 per cent, of entire cost of plant per annum, including boiler. 14. Estimated at 3 per cent, of entire cost of plant per annum. 15. Estimated at 2 per cent, of entire cost of plant per annum. 16. $10.00 per annum will more than cover all repairs on producer plant, as same is subject to no stress or strain; 2 per cent, is estimated as repairs on gas engine poriton of plant. 17. Estimated at 7 per cent, of entire cost of plant. 18. Estimated at 10 per cent, of entire cost of plant. 19. Estimated at 3 per cent, of entire cost of plant. 20. $10.00 per annum in repairs will keep producer portion of plant in perpetual good condition, and depreciation is therefore figured on gas engine only. 513 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Synopsis of Above Tables of Actual Operating Costs of 100 Horse Power. Ordinary steam engine. . Compound steam engine Electricity Illuminating gas Natural gas Producer gas Comparative annual operating costs of 100 h. p. in proportion to initial cost of plant Actual annual operating cost of different forms of power per h. p. $52.36 42.71 74.35 49.80 16.94 14.90 Compounded vSteam Engine is 29 per cent, cheaper to operate than an ordinary steam engine. Electricity is 30 per cent, dearer to operate than an ordinary steam engine. Gas engine (ilium, gas) is 5 per cent, cheaper to operate than an ordinary steam engine. Gas engine (natural gas) is 68 per cent, cheaper to operate than an ordinary steam engine. Gas engine (producer gas) is 73 per cent, cheaper to operate than an ordinary steam engine. Electricity is 43 per cent, dearer to operate than a compound steam engine. Gas engine (illuminating gas) is 16 per cent, dearer to operate than a compound steam engine. Gas engine (natural gas) is 61 per cent, cheaper to operate than a compound steam engine. Gas engine (producer gas) is 65 per cent, cheaper to operate than a compound steam engine. Gas engine (illuminating gas) is 33 per cent, cheaper to operate than electricity. 514 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Gas engine (natural gasj is 77 per cent, cheaper to oper- ate than electricity. Gas engine (producer gasj is 80 per cent, cheaper to operate than electricity. Gas engine (natural gas) is 62 per cent, cheaper to operate than illuminating gas. Gas engine (producer gas) is 70 per cent, cheaper to operate than illuminating gas. Gas engine (producer gas) is 12 per cent, cheaper to operate than natural gas. {Courtesx Bessemer Gas Engine Co.) Fig. 217— 100 H. P. GAS EXGIXE WITH DIRECT C()\ X ECTIOX TO 100 K. \V. GEXERATOR 515 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Fig. 218~TRANSV ERSE CURRENT HEATER INSTALLED WITH A 100 H. P. GAS ENGINE 516 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS Transverse Current Heater for Gas Engines — It is a well known fact that in the use of gas for power in a gas engine but a small percentage of the total B. t. u. in the gas is used. vSome engineers claim this to be but 25^ [ and that the balance of the heat units in the gas are wasted in the exhaust or burnt gas from the engine. The transv^erse heater is attached to the exhaust pipe of any gas engine and the exhaust gas, in passing through and around the water coils within the heater, as illustrated in Figure Number 219, heats a volume of flowing water. This hot water is mainly valuable for heating although it is used for other purposes. After the heater is once installed there is practically no further expense. The heater is especially adapted where gas engines or compressors are in use twenty-four hours daily. Fig. S19— SECTIONAL VIEW OF TRANSVERSE HEATER. 517 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS W H < W H W w > ^< SH m ^ W O (D . O^ £ S S ° Co -t-» (D ex t> .s o oi o PQ '^ pq { PQ' G 3 >. ooocooooo CvJOOCOOOOO .-lOiLCXr-iCDMOOCO C ^ 2;k »_J.-(COCOCi00CiCDCQO5 rH r-H C\J CO CO o 8 ^■OOOOOOOOO o 1 ^S^Hg^8§8S8 o O 00 Z>5^g|8||8S OlOOiOCOOOO r-iCvJOt-OiCOiOO (MiOOiO.-(r-(CVj(MC0 nH >-( CQ CO '^ lO CO i_JooxcO'*coc:;cocvj i-HCVJOO'^CDXCi ^_ X t- CD lO (M O t~ lO H-JOOXt-CDLOOOi— IXCD rH(>J00lOt>XO OiOOtOOOOOO COt-iO(MOiOOLOO ■T^Or-H(MCO'^CDt-Ci .-HCMCO-^CDXOW ■-HCVj-'^lOXi— ITJ^CO t-i0Ot~O'*Ot-C0 i-tOJiOCDOCOOCDOO i-l rH CM CM 00 OJ -^ lO t> X o o c 5 ^ ^ C -M ~ rt '"" o '■« >. CL>^ -^ .X! >J /■v^ -l-> '^ ^ ^'ti^ " j3 o t- C -^ > o w rt M d 'C ■ X ^ ei = (J '— "5 *-' hr, ^ cic >. = -^ o e-^ 3 u ^ 518 INDUSTRIAL CONSUMPTION OF GAS § g (D ^ -§ >^ p < W ex ^ . -♦-> i ^'^ 3 W .sj PQ .ti ? § i5 > ^ O O 0) O (u c« +-» no cS •^ (D 3 H ■ u ^ o From Exhaust only oinoiocoQOO ^ t- lO O) O lO O iO o t- t> i.O CO .-1 CO O} t- CO cor-Hcomt-O'^t-.-i COCT!Xt-CDiOCO.-lO .-H Ol CO lO t- C5 r-( From Jackets & Exhaust 87380 218540 436900 655350 873800 1310070 1747600 2184500 2621400 Amount of Water Heated in One Hour from Ivxhaust only o 2 CM H-TCMiOr-jCOgJCO^iOg 1 •lOOiOOOLOOiOQ H-J i X rt^ CO c: r^ CO '-' ^^cv}C0^CO£> 1—1 ^0}OCOw^sOOC>^iCX 1 ^•§88888888 o Lb. 365 910 1825 2730 3650 5475 7300 9125 10950 Amount of Water in Lb. Heated in One Hour from both lixhaust and Jackets 210° ^•lOO^OOOOOOO -^TtCOTjO'*£>'-H o r— ( ^?5gg^8SS28 ^Xr-iCOi-Ct-O'^X.-i CvjTtiCOXC0CO.-HiQ r-H .-H CVi CV} Sq. ft. of Heater l-H .-H CM CM CO -o o ^ O i, .-iCMrt<0£>XO'-, ^ Oi -H t~_ CO CO rt ■■^.cvj 00' T^' co' co" co' v_> r- '■♦^ . 00 CO (M -^ Tt< t> Oi K — • i: 00 t- .-H t- CM_^ t-^^ ■^ ri ■^ cm' cm' lO ^' "^"^ X 2 ,•>• 1> CM i> 00 '^ C '0 05 t- CO t> CO r— 1 1— ( r}<' 4t Price per gallon. ■^ CD CO n-l CO 00 00 CD Oi ^ 05 CO r-l rH r^ < ^ ^ CO CO i-H CO CM lO ^ H 7} U ^ -jg^CMO ^. p "rt co' t-' co' di cm" ,-H lb > .-1 .-< £> 05 .-( ■^ >^ ^ lO CM r-l r-t I-H pq ;^ ^ <^ CO 01 Oi -rt^ lO CO Oi CO 05 >. 8,13 1,10 8,71 5,64 0,69 ^. c~ T-l C :::2 >-i -^ r-H t>- Tj^ 00 00 d ^ 00 q_ i> >o^ 0^ CO Q 3 a ^ lO Cm"^ rA nH p-T cm' & < >> ' -i-i S CO rt< r-H 01 X X C<3 , ,'•'- ^ CO CM Oi .-1 CO CO iH ^ 00 lO t- Oi CO q^ CM 05 "a cm' i>' "-<' co' cm' ,_^ iH X ^CMr-l ^ CO 5 ri S £ h 5 5 l>0O0O00t--^CMi-l s rJ— < ^ '-^ .2 5 "c'c •&^ rado. . York ijcky S >.^ c u; /;;[; "rt t;; S.Hi^S = ^ ^ c c .^ oJ=^ c:S- '-J ij J~' 2^ C-c '^ Ccj:::: U^^ 1 529 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS ij 1 1 -. 1 ^ a> ^ n s £> o 00 cvi o: lo __2 lO O CD T}< i> lO 00 ■^ OJ CO (M .-H CO CO CM < .s u o i> Cvj CO Oi 00 o CM CO Tti 00 CO CO Oi CM ^ CO t:- t- LO C\3 lO cd' r3 --H oi ^ co' co' t> CD K* 00 00 r-l O CD r-H lO -a ^ '"''"' |>. l§§§§§ § i O tc oi" co' cd' lO cd' cvi 1— ( rl O lO ':J^ CVi Ci ■<^ .^2 --H lO o -^^cvj o ■^^ ■^ rt <: --*' (m' (M' cd' ■^' co' Oi' '^ 5, sx .-1 £- CO Tj^ o 00 W~ !^ Ci^ lO 00_^ --^^ t- (M CQ (M' .-T (m" 05 o G to Ttl T}< r-H t^ lO 00 CM .3^ ^^ ■^ lO Gi O 00 cvj c: CM ^^ O 00 i-H O O O O 'O CO -^ CD t- rJH CD O Tt< 00 CVJ O t- CO ^ o Tj< C: f-H CVJ Tt^^ C lO S cm' CO 'c 00 00 CD J> i> CD i> r— 1 tr. ^1 c^^ 05 CD CI Tt^ 00 CM o _'^ 5-' Tj^^ C5 O J> CD 00 00 ■^ ^ oi CM O O CM --H ::::::; CD CD 00 CD t> cm § rt ~j CD Tti CD ■<*i O i> o a O t> cd' co' oo' cm' ^' >> to >..- 2o 00 i>-iO CM 00 lO §00 CO O CO -^ CD ■^ "3 rA ,-h' cm' •^ oo' i>' cm' iy5 (^00 CD CM CM lO 1— 1 rt in rt K ^gc lOOCO-^^CMCMCOrH ^ c a o t-H T}< .— i 1— 1 •^ ,— ( ^ ■^ 5 o-^ i-H .-1 ^ 00 Z G u CJ 1 umb of pera tors C0C2OCML0CDCMC0rH,-H CM CD .-H O --H CM CO CM ^ ° .2 '.2 ■ 'S : "S : I-- 'est Virgi klahoma cnnsylva alifornia hio "c olorado.. ew York ansas. . . entucky 1- c 1 ^O^UC W^U^U^ ^ Q 530 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Ions hou- i cu- fcet biO >'.oooo ^ C C' On lO uO >' rt V, C ^ Ci 00 .-H CO CQ TJH lO Q C (m' u- Ti< lO d o ^s-^ O < g§38S:?3^^8§S^B^:2 ^' Pi 00 00 -^ 00 CO Oi .-( 00 CO lO ■ • • T}< 00 o CO CVjCDCOC:2Tl<(MOOOOO--lC---i.-iOOQ C- Ol C:i CVJ -^ Cvj .-H CTJ O lO 05 OI Ol t- o * ?H .-(r-(.-t.-(.-(^.-H.-l(M.-H ,-(^^01 t-c:i'^-<^a>t-oooiT}HcooiiOin'^co ooiOcoio.-it>-<^.-HO'-i£>a500iOO M o o CVJOOCMTf^OOOO-^CMC^iOO-^oOOOOlCM N CDOOOOXOIiOiOOr-H'^CJ-^OiaiCM ^ o CviOrHO:0.-i>0.-HOCOX-l.-l(M(M(M.-l.-t , A rt (M(M(M(M(MW(MCM(M(M(M(MCvJ(M(M u ^ l.l o O'—t "—I >— li— t 1— (i— (rH o o O r- ^^oo^^O^^^^co^^^^ ^ +J o OOcoSOcoS^COqo-COC _. z" :z::2 :z::z; z z'^o^^zzz c 2 >> c S^oSSogo||o^||| fe X o oo'-.oo^o'-^oc"' .ooo ~ o ^ ZZ'=>ZZ z :zz^^Z2:2: C/3 < u, C X a rt O O T3 s h^J u^-^- " ZZ-^ZZ 22 -- 2^22 c < >. o — U O rt ^3 <; o • r: o >^ 1 t/^ d o t: r-HiOiOCOOCMCvJ OCO hiOOCOiOiOC\JOiiO.-HCiiO(MX(MiO (;^--liOOOTtOOC^JCvJ^T^COCO(M.-l ■X. d O CJ ^ r-" u o 03 u c^ C > d • > • d 2 o 'c c _o d o O ►4 be C 3iH c g3 ^ ^£ C/5 < d O O u G . " > 5 u ffi G H ':?: d . - ■:5 5 c 1 CO 00 (M CO r-(CM'-i.-i00.-tO--'00O f 1— 1,— (I— (.— If— li— (i-Hr-Hr-lr-l H 0:c3i0505Ci0iC7;0iai0i O 'x I— ( 1— 1 1— 1 1— 1 I ^"^"s'^^-Ss^'^^'^'^'s's^'ss^'s 3: Q 3 <^S2 U. •— ,1— >C < 2 •— .^ ^ «^ X OO(Mt-00t~.-iiOiO00(MC0'<^Xin) ■ON s isXpuy O 0^ CM CV * cv i Cv. - 1> I cv t- a 11 5 T}< or- ss 531 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS C/3 5 CO s o H ^^ o Nitro- gen V o o o cocMiooas-^xiooooiO d-HO-HOOoooo-M «0 '. ex o • oiio a; C a a o ;-! t> CD O ^ ^ ^ q oi q t> CD 00 CM -^ Oi q lo 00 CM q Oi o.> oi oi T}< CO CO 00 CM § rt| 00 05 Ti< q lo .-H n-j 05 CO q Tj<_ ^^ CVJ CO t- Oi t~ iO OiOO^iO o 00 eo Heating value per Cu. Ft. (0°C. and 760 mm. pressure) ^ Oi 00 S OOOOCD-^.-HCDiOX.-iOO.-i . 00 CD jS O O CD rH CM --I Cvi O CO O (M ■^ r-H Tj<__ "• "i. O 00^ q CM CD 00^ 0:_^ .-H f-J^ t>(M Q^ rH CM "^ CM >-H cm' cm' cm' i-H .-T Cm"^ cm' cm' CO Specific gravitya (air=l). Tt< Oi lO IT CD CO CO <- O r-H ^ r- 1— 1 o r-H 00 CM I-H o 1 < O o Q Z >■ . . a; > a; • o 3 3^ si ^ p 03.2 C biD c/) C s CM "O ^ £ IP X! S a. o a; ^ 1 •ONS SXjBUV - < CM CO "^ ir cc f> oc a c 1-H 1-H M CO r-H 532 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE GROM NATURAL GAS 1 S .? £ < z 2 b o 2 ^ -J < o ^ o 5 z 2 1 1 -i £ a. t ^ I .e9-,9S .801 0) s 5 a- •* S-.99 r- .90l-.«/ ai -c (O ^ o 00 ^ O ^ o CO fO t^ CO E^-^^ ii» o fO O 00 00 h- «P 'T lO cv — '5 • lO •fO ■r o o lO o lO Ch CO (7) 00 ^-« J * •; ♦ « • S 3 « X r r r r r r r r r r r X « ^ ^ . ^ „ , e s « 5- o u u u u u u o o O u o 0) c UJ 1 < z c d 9) 2 0) c d 5 c o c d 0) c d c C d 0) c d O- 0) c d a) C o - =^13 ll .js !»« ^ ^ X ^ X o ^ ^ s C 1 X ill a a ^ ."^^•1 ^ § § « > ^ '5x1s 2-2-S be 2 g to li^^ o r3 '" ^ X 15: ml CO ^ X +J .-H Cl. X r- ill §11 2 Oh C2. ^-30. m S • -giJ^^g • ■ --tj a- 1 o lo to eo § °^§^5;2^gg8S8S§8g8 8 •>; ^ ^ 'Z IZ; CQ CO rH W r-l (M CO ^ T}< 00 ri U^ CO O CV} ^ lO COOOOOCOCOOCO-^CDCOOlTj^r-iQXtOCO CO coocot-.-Hoot-t>oioxo;ciOOco(M CVJ P-^ CO Tjl Tl< O o I— 1 i-H 1— ( >—(.—< I— Ir-H 1— < i—ti— (I— I I-H -io-JK ^ cooooac^Mc-i u:-»oo«o»o;i ^ - « „ c ^ O OOP>«^»^-5 0JMOt~«0(»0=>'!<0 = 3 -i 00 t^ O O «; -J -■ ^ .J c=' o o ^ C3 O -^ t-" 00 -H t- o 00 X 1- CI 00 'JO .n 1-0 to a M -r in a; = f. E<2"^ § O 'I- t- c ^ w 8 uuuu u u'uuuuuud'o*6"o"od"ocjud' _U
  • ^o6cocvio6o6'^CQ{>c;cdoit>cvic6od Cvi 00CO.-((MCOCDCOCVJ-^COCO-^C0>OCD(Mt> t> J o -^ r-l CO 00 Tt* CO <-^° d > o C^ cti c > CT c: r cri a: > J •J ci §2 h4 a; oj T3 1, > >-^ c O Cd -H (A Uh oJ O c: ' c t PC 3-^ 8-^ =^ ^ O ^ ^J:i.i t: 2:: 'X S « H S '►:CH U cH O O U 1 lO Tt* 05 l> ' CO lO Tt iC iO(M{>COt>TjOiOO>0 0{>iOi-iOiiO lO •5^.2 o 05 coa5CO'^t>05cot>coT} .-1 l> lO -"^ 00 00 Cvi -=: lO t> -^ t~ - 00 o CO Tti . -^.S C^ CO CO CO ^ =^ " rt rt c^ rt ^o 05 00 00 05 1 1 + + Illumi- nating value British candle- power 5.0 /? 35.0 // 53.9 Heating value per cubic foot atO°C. and 760 mm.r .CD COiOThiO^ ■*- q 00 q ■^_^ c\j_ q f^' •— ' 1— 1 C^ 00 -"^ lO Weight of 1 litre Grams 0.7159 1.3567 1.9660 2.594 Specific gravity (atO°C. and 760 mm. ; air=l) 0.554 1.049 1.520 2.004 be 'o'o PQ & 1 o u uuuuuu c o Si s c -Pot c:: X -it , ?i ^ w:^ « Oi Nc, J iS5d,S Li" 'C "" ^^ X X •-': i2 ^ °?.?.-o~ s. ;± S - - c . ^ « c J3 C C IJ c l^ii 5:^:^5- "^ ^"i h^-£ u — <:- ::-r'r^ Or- ■ir; >. '^ • - O O ""' -) ;^j= vjzjz --jc C O O 5^ o ■^ 5 p « .2:- .'i = iC ^ ^^ ^_^_^ o i; — — ^ .^ - o rt ^•s "^-s-s^f "^ .= t-ii tL "o >> ^^■^;:^ ^ .- — u ^ -"-'.- -< ri - :^- = ~ — ." ." .z .— il a. fcS >.^ C C " ."% 5 iS'^i 5 2 5^ 3 3 .C ■_ -^ ~ >—, V j; ■ 539 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Fig. 2^4— ORSAT APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING CARBON DIOXIDE AND OXYGEN IN NATURAL GAS Specific Gravity Outfit — The specific gravity outfit is a particular advantage to the operator in determining whether the gas from any one lease or well is of proper density to carry a sufficient amount of hydrocarbons to warrant having an analysis or test made. By making a gravity test the density of the gas can be accurately determined. If in testing the gravity of a certain gas it is found to be near .6 which is the gravity of natural gas — to proceed further and have an analysis made would be useless. However, if the gravity proved to be .80 or greater (air = l) there would be little doubt of the gas carrying 540 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS enough hydrocarbons to make it profitable to compress and refrigerate. If the gas proved to have a gravity of .80 or better than .80 it would be advisable to send a sample of the gas to some well known chemist or laboratory for analysis or better still to install a small portable compressor and cooling system to make a practical test to determine the actual amount and gravity of the gasoline extracted. Because the gas is heavy it does not necessarily follow that it will yield gasoline in paying quantities. P^'uU instructions for using specific gravity outfit is given on page 85. Interpretation of Results of Tests (from Bulletin Xo. 88 Bureau of Mines) — "Many experiments have shown that gasoline may be obtained from natural gas having a specific gravity of 0.80 and higher (air = l). Some inconsistencies have been noted, however, so that the authors would hesitate to recommend the installation of a plant to handle a gas that tests showed to have a specific gravity as low as 0.80 or to have an absorption percentage of 30.0 (Bureau of Mines test), although the gas might be all right for the purpose, especially if it were from wells in a field where other gases of low specific gravity were already producing gasoline. The authors do believe, however, that a gas with a tested specific gravity as high as 0.95 and an absorption percentage as high as 40 might warrant an installation. Natural gases differ much in composition. A so-called 'wet' gas might, for instance, contain a very large proportion of methane, with little ethane, propane, or butane, but enough of the gasoline hydrocarbons to warrant a plant installation. Such a gas when subjected to comparatively low pressures would deposit the gasoline vapors. Another gas of the same specific gravity might contain a compara- tively small proportion of methane and ethane and a large proportion of propane and butane, but not enough of the 541 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS gasoline hydrocarbons to warrant plant installations. There- in lies the reason why specific gravity, solubility, or com- bustion tests can not always be relied on. As regards a natural gas of low specific gravity and low absorption percentage (known as a 'lean' gas), the safest recourse is to test by means of a portable outfit consisting of a gas meter, small gas engine, compressor, cooling coils, and receiver. vSuch an outfit can be hauled from place to place on a wagon. This method is in all cases to be recommended as having distinct advantages over laboratory tests. How- ever, it is true that tests made with the portable outfit may be misleading unless in charge of a careful and experienced person. The authors have also used a small stationary outfit consisting of a meter with a capacity of 15,000 cubic feet per 24 hours, a small compressor, driven by a steam engine, 100- foot cooling coils made of 1-inch pipe, immersed in a tank of water, and a storage tank 5 feet high made of a 6-inch piece of pipe. To the latter was attached a relief valve which could be set to operate at the desired pressure. A trap was installed between the compressor and the cooling coils to catch oil that was sometimes brought from the wells with the gas. A glass gauge was connected to the storage tank to indicate the volume of condensate produced. In conducting tests of a gasoline plant the plant is first operated for an hour or two to insure that everything is w^orking well. The meter and oil pressure gauges must be in good order. The cooling coils should dip enough to drain readily the gasoline into the storage tank. The efficiency of the cooling coils can be ascertained fairly well by measuring the temperature at different places in the water of the tank. At the point where the coil enters the water it will be hot enough to warm the water appreciably, but if the tank is large and a sufficient length of pipe for cooling purposes is installed the warming of water is only local. 542 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Compression and Liquefication of the Constituents of Natural Gas in Plant Operation— The condensation of gaso- line from natural gas is essentially a physical process. If any chemical reactions take place, they are slight and inap- preciable. The authors tested residual gases from 10 different plant operations to determine whether carbon monoxide or olefin hydrocarbons were produced. These gases with others are found when the higher paraffins arc decomposed at high temperatures and pressures in the absence of air. Neither carbon monoxide nor olefin hydrocarbons were found. Three Commercial Processes — At present three pro- cesses for the extraction of gasoline from natural gas are used commercially. The one most generally used involves com- pressing the gas to a certain pressure and subsequently cooling it by means of water or air. A second consists in simply cooling the gas without compression by means of a refrigerant, such as liquid ammonia, evaporating under reduced pressure. A third is a combination of the other two. RESULTS OF TESTS OF THE GRADE AND QUANTITY OF GASOLINE PRODUCED WHEN CRUDE NATURAL GAS IS SUBJECTED TO DIFFERENT PRESSURES Pressure Tempera- ture of cooling water Gravity of gasoline Yield of gasoline per 1,000 cubic feet of gas Pounds per square inch 110 10 10 10 °B. Gallons 1 8 140 190 90 94 3.0 4.5 It has been found by experiment at tiiis pLuil that pressures of 140 to 150 pounds per square inch produced the most marketable gasoline. It will be observed that a |)res- sure of 190 pounds produced more gasoline. The extra llo 543 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS gallons, however, was of such a volatile character that it only escaped into the atmosphere upon exposure to the air; hence high pressures at this plant were unnecessary. Gaso- line could be obtained by the application of pressures as little as 50 pounds per square inch, but the yield was small. As natural gas is of different character in many dififerent sections of the country and even in the same oil field, data obtained at one plant can not always be used as a basis for operating other plants — that is, as far as the pressures that should be used are concerned. Each operator should thoroughly test his own gas. Different pressures should be applied and the quantity and character of the gasoline, noted. A reliable meter for measuring the gas becomes indispensable. If, in certain plants operating to-day, meters were installed and a series of tests conducted as above out- lined much greater efhciency of operation could be attained. Other apparatus that could be used to advantage are ther- mometers, graduated vessels for measuring the gasoline, hydrometers for determining the specific gravity of the gasoline, and gas-analysis apparatus, especially an apparatus for detecting air leaks in pipes through analyses of the gas for oxygen." Air in Casing Head Gas — Incidents have been known to the writer where the analysis of casing head gas from oil leases showed as much as 55% air while being pumped under minus or "vacuum" pressure. This was due to leaky casing heads or faulty fittings. It is good practice to have the pipe line system on each lease or group of leases so ar- ranged that it is possible to put a pressure test on same and determine the leakage. Invariably a pressure test will show a number of small leaks and not any single leaks of large size. All leaks should be stopped. The only true method of determining the amount of air in casing head gas from any one lease or group of leases is by analyzing the gas for oxygen with what is known as the Orsat Analyzing Apparatus fully described on page 538. 544 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Orifice Well Tester This instrument is simple in con- struction, consisting of a short two inch nipple with pipe thread on one end, and a thin plate disc on the other. The disc carries a one-inch orifice and a hose connection for taking the pressure. It is specially intended for testing small gas wells and ' 'casing head' ' gas from oil wells. As a rule the flow of gas from an oil well is rather small and it is not advisable to test the flow of the well with a pi tot tube such as is used in testing large gas wells. In using the orifice tester it is necessary to know the specific gravity of the gas in order to obtain the flow^ The majority of gasoline com- panies possess the specific gravity apparatus. To use the orifice well tester, be- fore attaching to casing head, allow well to blow into atmosphere until the head is reduced and the gas reaches its nor- mal flow. Then attach the orifice tester and read the pressure on a syphon gauge. By referring to the tables on pages 543-545, the flow of the well will be found opposite the gauge reading. Capacities for various gravities are given in diiTerent columns. The orifice in the instrument should be kept dry and uninjured, otherwise it will not give an accurate reading on the gauge. For wells making a volume of gas of less than 15,000 cubic feet per 24 hours, use one or two domestic meters. By this method it is not necessary to know^ the specific gravitv to obtain the . r ,, a ' P'S. ^^5~0RltlLE WELL measurement oi the now. tester 545 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS CAPACITIES, IN CUBIC FEET, PER 24 HOURS, OF A ONE-INCH THIN PLATE ORIFICE. THICKNESS OF PLATE, ig-INCH Used in Testing Small Gas Wells and "Casing Head" Gas FROM Oil Wells. Specific Gravities— .6 to 1.75. Temperature — 60° fahr. Atmospheric pressure — 14.4. Pressure in Inches .6 .65 .7 .75 .8 .85 Water. 1 26,440 25,440 24,500 23,660 22,920 22,220 2 37,510 36,040 34,750 33,600 32,520 31,530 3 46,440 44,640 43,000 41,540 40,240 39,020 4 52,630 50,590 48,740 47,060 45,600 44,200 5 57,880 55,630 53,610 51,790 50,160 48,640 6 63,140 60,720 58,480 56,490 54,720 53,060 7 68,110 65,470 63,090 60,910 59,040 57,210 8 73,050 70,220 67,680 65,350 63,310 61,390 9 77,680 74,680 72,000 69,500 67.340 65,280 10 82.340 79,150 76,270 73,650 71,370 69,190 11 86,680 83,320 80,300 77,540 75,120 72,840 12 90,720 87,190 84,000 81,140 78,600 76,220 Mercury . Vi 67,200 64,600 62,300 60,100 58,200 56,500 1 95,200 91,500 88,200 85,100 82,500 80,000 IH 116,600 112,000 108,000 104,300 101,000 97,900 2 134,600 129,400 124,700 120,400 116,700 113,100 2J^ 145,600 139,900 134,900 130,200 126,200 122,400 3 164,900 158,500 152,700 147,500 142,900 138,600 ^Yi 178,200 171,300 165,100 159,400 154,500 149,800 4 190,400 183,000 176,400 170,300 165,000 160,000 5 212,900 204,600 197,200 190,400 184,500 178,900 6 233,200 224,100 216,000 208,600 202,100 195,900 7 251,900 242,100 233,400 225,300 218,300 211,700 8 269,400 258,900 249,500 240,900 233,400 226,400 9 285,700 274,600 264,700 255,600 247,600 240,100 10 301,200 289,500 279,000 269,400 261,000 253.100 11 315,800 303,600 292,500 282,500 273,700 265,400 12 328,400 315,700 304,200 293,800 284,600 276,000 546 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS CAPACITIES, IN CUBIC FEET, PER 24 HOURS, OF ONE-INCH THIN PLATE ORIFICE. THICKNESS OF PLATE, ' s-INCH L^SED inTestinc. Small Gas Wells and "Casixo Head" Gas FROM Oil Wells. Specific Gravities — .6 to 1.75. Temperature— 60° fahr. Atmospheric pressure — 14.4. Pressure in Inches .9 .95 1. 1.05 1.1 1.15 Water. 1 21,600 21,020 20,520 20,010 19,560 19,120 2 30,640 29,800 29,080 28,360 27,720 27,120 3 37,940 36,880 36,000 35,130 34,320 33.550 4 42,980 41,800 40,800 39,790 38,880 38.040 5 47,280 45,980 44,880 43,770 42.760 41.830 6 51,600 50,180 48,960 47,760 46,650 45,640 7 55,630 54,120 52,800 51,500 50,320 49,220 8 59,680 58,050 56,640 55,240 54,000 52,800 9 63,480 61,720 60,240 58,800 57,430 56.160 10 67,270 65,420 63,840 62,280 60,860 59,520 11 70,800 68,880 67,200 65.560 64.080 62.660 12 74,110 72,000 70,320 68.610 67.030 65,560 Mercury. Yi 54,900 53,400 52,100 50,800 49,6C0 48,600 1 77,800 75,600 73,800 72,000 70,300 68.800 1^ 95,300 92,600 90,400 88,200 86,200 84,300 2 110,000 107,000 104,400 101,800 99.500 97,300 23^ 118,900 115,700 112,900 110,100 107,600 105.300 3 134,700 131,000 127,800 124,700 121,800 119,200 33^ 145,600 141,600 138,200 134,800 131,700 128,800 4 155,600 151,300 147.600 144,000 140,700 137.600 5 174,000 169,200 165,000 161,000 157,300 153.900 6 190,500 185,300 180,800 176,400 172.300 168,600 7 205,800 200,200 195,300 190,600 186,200 182.100 8 220,100 214,000 208.800 203,700 199.100 194.700 9 233,500 227,000 221,500 216.100 211,200 206.500 10 246,100 239,300 233.500 227,800 222,600 217.700 11 258,000 250,900 244.800 238,900 233,400 228,300 12 268,400 261,000 254.600 248.400 242.700 237.400 54: CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS CAPACITIES, IN CUBIC FEET, PER 24 HOURS, OF A ONE-INCH THIN PLATE ORIFICE. THICKNESS OF PLATE, H-INCH Used in Testing Small Gas Wells and "Casino Head" Gas FROM Oil Wells: Specific Gravities — 6 to 1.75. Temperature — 60° fahr. Atmospheric pressure — 14.4. Pressure in Inches 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Water. 1 18,720 18.000 17,320 16,750 16,200 15,720 2 26,540 25,480 24,570 23,760 22,990 22,290 3 32,850 31,560 30,400 29,370 28,440 27,600 4 37,220 35,760 34,460 33,310 32,230 31,270 5 40,940 39,360 37,920 36.620 35,470 34,410 6 44,680 42,960 41,370 39,960 38,680 37,530 7 48,190 46,320 44,610 43,100 41,730 40,480 8 51,690 49,680 47,850 46,220 44,760 43,410 9 54,960 52,800 50,880 49,170 47,610 46.200 10 58,240 55,960 53,920 52,100 50,440 48,960 11 61,320 58,920 56,780 54,860 53,110 51.520 12 64,170 61,680 59,400 57,400 55,580 53,920 Mercury. Yi 47,500 45,700 44,000 42,500 41,100 39,900 1 67,300 64,700 62,300 60,200 58,300 56,600 Wi 82,500 79,200 76,300 73,800 71,400 69,300 2 95,300 91,500 88,200 85,200 82,500 80,000 23^ 103,000 99,000 95,400 92.200 89,200 86,500 3 116,600 112,000 108,000 104,300 101,000 98,000 3M 126,100 121,200 116,700 112,800 109,200 105,900 4 134,700 129,400 124,700 120,500 116,600 113,200 5 150,600 144,700 139,400 134,700 130,400 126,500 6 165,000 158,500 152,700 147.600 142,900 138,600 7 178,200 171,200 165,000 159,400 154.300 149,700 8 190.600 183,100 176,400 170,500 165,000 160,100 9 202,100 194,200 187.100 180,800 175,000 169,800 10 213.100 204,700 197,300 190,600 I 184,500 i 179,000 11 223,400 214,700 206,800 199,900 193,500 187,700 12 232,400 223,300 215,100 207,900 201,200 1 195,200 548 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Pipe Line Capacities for Gas at a "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Specific Gravity .6, for other Specific Gravities see table, page 560. Capacity of 2" Pipe Line, 1 Mile Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressurk. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- Lb. per phere. sq. in. 3 lb. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"- 10"— 5" — 10"— 50,000 38,000 5"— 66.000 58,000 43,000 Atmos. 81,000 75,000 65,000 48,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 100,000 95,000 87,000 75.000 58.000 6 119,000 114,000 108.000 99.000 86.000 64,000 10 143,000 139.000 1 134,000 I 127,000 118,000 102.000 Capacity of 2" Pipe Line, 2 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. DiscH.^RGE Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. 3 11). Minus Pressure. 30"- 15"— i 10"— 5"— 10"— 35,000 27,000 5"— 47.000 41,000 53.000 31,000 46,000 Atmos. 58,000 34.000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 71,000 67,000 62.000 53.000 41,000 6 84,000 81.000 76.000 i 70.000 1 61.000 1 45.000 10 101.000 99.000 95.000 90,000 83,000 72,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page '^6'S. .349 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 2" Pipe Line, 3 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at ''Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 29,000 22.000 5"— 38,000 33,000 25,000 Atmos. 47,000 43,000 37,000 28,000 . Lb. per sq. in. 3 58,000 55,000 50,000 44,000 34,000 6 68,000 66,000 62,000 57,000 50,000 37,000 10 83,000 80.000 77,000 73,000 68,000 59,000 Capacity of 3" Pipe Line, 1 Mile Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10" — 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 138,000 106,000 183,000 161,000 121,000 Atmos. 227,000 209,000 180,000 134,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 279,000 265,000 243,000 210,000 162,000 6 331,000 318,000 300,000 275,000 240,000 177,000 10 399,000 389,000 374,000 354,000 328,000 285,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page 563. 550 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 3" Pipe Line, 2 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches o f Mercury —Minus F ressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 98,000 75,000 5"— 130,000 114,000 85.000 Atmos. 161,000 148,000 127,000 95,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 197,000 187,000 171,000 149,000 115.C00 6 234,000 P25,000 212,000 194,000 170,000 125,000 10 282,000 275,000 264,000 250,000 232,000 201,000 Capacity of 3" Pipe Line, 3 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure Inches of Mercurv Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure, 20"— 15"— 10"— 5" — 3 lb. 10"— 80,000 61,000 5" 106,000 93,000 70,000 Atmos. 131,000 121,000 104,000 77,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 161,000 153,000 140,000 121,000 94,000 6 191,000 184,000 173,000 159,000 139,000 102,000 10 230,000 224,000 216,000 204,000 189,000 164,000 These Tables are based on gas of .0 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page 50;i. 551 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 3" Pipe Line, 4 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at ''Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury- Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 69,000 53,000 5"— 92,000 80,000 60,000 Atmos. 114,000 104,000 90,000 67,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 140,000 132.000 121.000 105,000 81,000 6 165,000 159,000 150,000 138,000 120,000 89,000 10 199,000 194,000 187,000 177,000 164,000 142,000 Capacity of 4" Pipe Line, 1 Mile Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 286,000 219,000 5"— 379,000 332,000 249,000 Atmos. 469,000 432,000 372,000 276,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 577,000 547,000 501,000 435,000 336,000 6 683,000 658,000 621.000 568,000 497,000 366,000 10 824,000 803,000 773,000 731,000 677,000 588,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page .563. 552 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 4" Pipe Line, 2 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"- 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 202,000 155,000 5"— 268,000 235,000 176,000 Atmos. 332,000 305,000 263,000 195,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 408,000 387,000 354,000 308,000 237,000 6 483,000 465,000 439,000 402,000 351,000 259,000 10 582,000 568,000 546,000 517,000 479.000 416.000 Capacity of 4" Pipe Line, 3 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury— Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"- 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 165,000 126,000 . . . 5"— 219,000 192,000 144,000 Atmos. 271,000 249,000 215,000 160,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 333,000 316.000 289,000 251,000 194,000 6 394,000 380.000 358.000 328,000 287.000 211.000 10 476,000 464,000 446,000 422.000 391,000 340,000 These Tables are leased on gas of .(> specific graxity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier fouiui in Tahlc. page r>(i;^. 553 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 4" Pipe Line, 4 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 143,000 109,000 5"— 190,000 166,000 125,000 Atmos. 235,000 216,000 186,000 138,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 288,000 273,000 251,000 217,000 168,000 6 342,000 329,000 310,000 284,000 248,000 183,000 10 412,000 ' 402.000 386,000 366,000 339,000 294.000 Capacity of 4" Pipe Line, 5 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"- 5" — 3 lb. 10"— 128.000 98,000 5"— 170,000 148,000 111,000 Atmos. 210,000 193,000 166,000 124,000 Lb. per so. in. 3 258,000 245,000 224,000 194,000 149,000 6 306,000 294,000 278,000 254,000 222,000 164,000 10 368,000 359.000 346.000 327,000 303,000 263,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, appl^' multiplier found in Table, page 563. 554 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 1 Mile Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10" - 796,000 610,000 5" — 1,056,000 924.000 695,000 Atmos. 1,307,000 1.203,000 1.037,000 770,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,607,000 1,524,000 1,396,000 1,211,000 935,000 6 1,904,000 1,834,000 1,729,000 1,584,000 1,384,000 1,020.000 10 2.295.000 2,237.000' 2,1.52.000 2.037,000 1.886.000' 1.638.000 Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 2 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at ''Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"- 5" — 3 11). 10"— 563,000 431,000 5"— 747,000 654,000 491,000 Atmos. 924,000 851,000 733,000 661,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,137,000 1,078,000 987,000 857,000 659.000 6 1,346.000 1,297,000 1.223.000 1,120.000 978.000 721.000 10 1,623,000 1,582.000 1.522,000 1.441.000 1.334.000 1.158.000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page o63. CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 3 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 459,000 352.000 5"— 610,000 534,000 401.000 Atmos. 755,000 695,000 599,000 445,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 928,000 880,000 806,000 699.000 540,000 6 1,099,000 1,059,000 998,000 914,000 799,000 589,000 10 1,325,000 1.292.000 1,243,000' 1,176,000 1,089,000 946,000 Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 4 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5" — 3 lb. 10"— 398.000 305,000 5"— 528,000 462,000 347,000 Atmos. 654,000 602,000 518,000 385,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 804,000 762,000 698,000 606,000 468,000 6 952,000 917,000 865,000 792,000 692,000 510,000 10 1,147,000 1,119.000 1,076,000 1,019,000 943.000 819,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page 563. 556 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 5 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 1 15"— 1 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10" 356 000 273.000 5"— 473,000 413,000 311,000 Atmos. 585,000 538.000 464,000 344,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 719.000 681,000 625.000 542.000 415.000 6 851,000 820,000 773,000 708,000 619,000 456.000 10 1,026,000 1.000,000 963,000 911,000 844,000 732,000 Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 6 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 325,000 249.000 5"— 431.000 377,000 284,000 Atmos. 534,000 491,000 423,000 314.000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 656.000 622.000 570,000 495,000 382.000 6 777.000 749,000 706,000 644,000 565.000 416.000 10 937.000 913,000 879.000 832.000 770.000 669.000 These Tables are based on gas of ii specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page o03. 557 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 6" Pipe Line, 8 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at ''Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 281 ,000 216,000 5"— 373,000 327,000 246,000 Atmos. 462,000 425,000 367,000 272,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 568,000 539,000 494,000 428,000 331,000 6 673,000 648,000 611,000 560,000 489,000 360,000 10 811,000 791,000 761,000 720,000 667,000 579,000 Capacity of 6'' Pipe Line, 10 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury— Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 252,000 334,000 193,000 5"— 292,000 220,000 Atmos. 413,000 380,000 328,000 243,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 508.000 482,000 442,000 383,000 296,000 . 6 602,000 580,000 547,000 501,000 438,000 322,000 10 726,000 707,000 681,000 644,000 596,000 518,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page 563. 558 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 1 Mile Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minns I^ressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 1,659,000 1.271.000 5"— 2,202,000 1,927,000 1,448,000 Atmos. 2.725,000 2.507.000 2,161,000 1,605,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 3,350,000 3.176,000 2,910,000 2,525,000 1,949,000 6 3,967,000 3,822,000 3,604.000 3,300,000 2,884,000 2,125,000 10 4.783,000 4,663,000 4.486,000 4,246.000 3,931,000 3,144,000 Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 2 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at **Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. IVIinus Pressure. 20"- 15"— 10"— 5" — ' 3 lb. 10"— 1,173,000 899,000 5"— 1,557,000 1,362,000 1,024,000 Atmos. 1,927,000 1,773,000 1,528,000 1,135,000 Lb. iK-r sq. in. 3 2,369,000 2,246,000 2,058,000 1.786,000 1,378,000 6 2,805,000 2,702,000 2.548.000 2.334.000 2.039.000 1,503,000 10 3.382.000 3.297,000 3,172.000 3.003.000 2,780.000 2,414,000 These Tables are based on gas of .() specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table, page oG;i. 559 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 3 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at ''Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 958,000 734,000 5"— 1,271,000 1,112,000 836,000 Atmos. 1,573,000 1,448,000 1,248,000 927.000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,934,000 1,834,000 1,679,000 1,458,000 1,125,000 6 2,291,000 2,206,000 2,081,000 1,905,000 1,665,000 1,227,000 10 2,762,000 2,692,000 2,. 590, 000 2,452,000 2,270,000 1,971,000 Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 4 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5" — 3 lb. 10"— 829,000 636,000 5"— 1,101,000 963,000 724,000 Atmos. 1,362,000 1,254,000 1,081,000 802,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,675,000 1,588,000 1,455,000 1,262,000 975,000 6 1,984,000 1,911,000 1,802,000 1,650,000 1,442,000 1,063,000 10 2,392,000 2,331,000 2.243,000 2,123,000 1,966,000 1,707,000 These Tables are based on gas of .() specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apph' multiplier found in Table, page 5G.3. 560 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 5 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"- 15" 10"— ' 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 742.000 .ofiS 000 5"— 985,000 862,000 647,000 Atmos. 1,218,000 1,121,000 967,000 718,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 L498,000 1,420,000 1,302.000 1,129,000 865,000 6 1,774,000 1,709,000 1,612,000 1,476,000 1,290,000 950,000 10 2,139,000 2,085,000 2,006,000 1,899,000 1,758,000 1,525,000 Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 6 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Merciiry Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10" - 677,000 519,000 5"— 899,000 786,000 591.000 Atmos. 1,112,000 1,024,000 882.000 6.55.000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,367,000 1,297.000 1.188,000 1,031,000 796.000 6 1.620,000 1,560.000 1,471.000 1.341,000 1.178.000 868,000 10 1,9.53,000 1,904,000 1,832,000 1,734,000 1,605,000 1,394,000 These Tables are based on gas of .(i specific i^ravity. For other specific gravities, apply multiplier found in Table. i>age oiV.i. 561 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 8 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 586,000 449,000 5"— 778,000 681,000 512,000 Atmos. 963,000 886,000 764,000 567,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1.184,000 1,123,000 1,029,000 893,000 689,000 6 1,403,000 1,351,000 1,274,000 1,167,000 1,020,000 751,000 10 1,691,000 1,649,000 1,586,000 1,501,000 1,390,000 1,207,000 Capacity of 8" Pipe Line, 10 Miles Long, for 24 Hours at "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure. Intake Pressure. Discharge Pressure. Inches of Mercury Inches of Mercury — Minus Pressure. Atmos- phere. Lb. per sq. in. Minus Pressure. 20"— 15"— 10"— 5"— 3 lb. 10"— 524,000 402,000 5"— 696,000 609,000 458,000 Atmos. 862,000 793,000 683,000 507,000 Lb. per sq. in. 3 1,059,000 1,004,000 920,000 798,000 616,000 6 1,255,000 1,208,000 1,140,000 1,044,000 912,000 672,000 10 1.513,000 1,475,000 1,419,000 1,343,000 1,243,000 1.080,000 These Tables are based on gas of .6 specific gravity. For other specific gravities, apph' multiplier found in Table, page ,563. 562 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Multipliers to be Used for Gas of Specific Gravities Other than .6. .6 1.00 1.20 .707 .65 .96 1 25 .692 .7 .925 1.30 .679 .75 .894 1.35 .666 .8 .866 1.40 .654 .85 .84 1.45 .643 .9 .816 1.50 .632 .95 .794 1.55 .622 1.0 .774 1.60 .612 1.05 .755 1.65 .603 1.10 .738 1.70 .594 1.15 722 1 75 .585 Measuring Gasoline Gas — When gasoline gas is pur- chased by the cubic foot it is necessary to provide some means of securing an accurate measurement of it. A large capacity dry meter is built for this character of work whether the gas measured is under pressure or at a minus pressure commonly spoken of as a "vacuum." It is only necessary to keep the meter clean and note the condition of the diaphragms from time to time. The heavy gas has a tendency to dry out the leather diaphragm quicker than in measuring any other kind of gas. If the gas is at a minus pressure the recording volume and vacuum gauges are necessary. In installing meters for this work it is essential to set the meter far enough away from the compressor so that the 563 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Fig. 2m— A LARGE CAPACITY METER SPECIALLY BUILT TO MEASURE GASOLINE GAS suction of the piston will not be felt in the meter. This can be done by utilizing a series of large pipe coils directly ad- joining the compressor building between the compressor and the meter without creating any appreciable increased friction due to additional pipe. The greater the area of the pipe the less will be the number of coils necessary to overcome the vibration in the meter. To determine the presence or ab- sence of vibration, attach a mercury or spring gauge to the meter and if the mercury or gauge hand vibrates the effects of the piston in the compressor have not been eliminated. In this case, either place the meter further from the station or increase the coils. 564 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS All gas lines leading to the compressor should be buried. If possible lay through wet ground or creeks. This method assists in preventing condensation of gasoline in lines before it passes through compressor, where provision is made for trapping it. fc=t TEC rO/7 TC^TJNG tV/TH Fig. -INSTALLATIOX OF A I.ARGF CAPACIIA' MFTFR FOR MEASL'RIXG GASOLIXE GAS Table to Determine the Proper Size Meter in Measuring Gas at a "Vacuum" or Minus Pressure, in Inches of Mercury, where the Maximum Volume per 24 Hours or per Hour is Given at Four Ounces Pressure Above an Atmospheric Pressure of 14.4 Lb. per Square Inch. Capacity i OF Met ERs AT Different Maximum Volume Maximum Volume Pressures in Ci T. Ft. pek Hour Per 24 Hours per Hour 5" 10" 15" 20" 50,000 2,080 3M 3M 6M lOM 100,000 4,160 6M lOM lOM 20M 150,000 6.250 lOM lOM 20M 20M 200,000 8.330 lOM 20M 20M 35M 250,000 10,410 20M 20M 20M 35M 300,000 12,500 20M 20M 35M 50M 400,000 16.660 20M 35M 35M 50M 500,000 20.830 35M 35M dOU 75M 600,000 25,000 35M 50M 50M 75M 800,000 33,330 50M 50M 75M lOOM 1.000,000 41,660 50M 75M lOOM 125M 1.500.000 62.500 75M lOOM 125M *200M 2,000,000 83.300 lOOM 125M *200M *275M *Meaus use two or more meters in battery form. 565 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Volume and Pressure Recording Gauge— This type of gauge is fully described and illustrated, see figure number 153 on page number 383. It is of great assistance in measuring gasoline gas at various plus or minus pressures. Fig. 228— VOLUME AND PRESSURE RECORDING GAUGE CHART One great advantage in the use of a pressure and volume recording gauge when used on a large capacity meter in measuring gasoline gas is fully illustrated in the cut number 228. In this instance the meter was installed on a six-inch line leading from an oil lease to the main compressor station 566 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS The compressor was using residue gas for fuel and during the morning of the 28th (the chart was removed on the 29th) the engineer noticed that the engine was "getting air." On visiting the nearby meters the source of trouble was soon located and remedied. It was discovered that the line on which this meter and gauge were located had been broken and the compressor was "getting air" through this meter. The pressure on the oil wells at the end of this line was about 12 inches mercury minus pressure or vacuum when being pumped, and as the atmosphere w^as about 29.5 inches mer- cury pressure naturally this higher pressure caused the meter readings to jump up and the compressor to pump more air than it did gas at the lower pressure through this line. As each dash on the chart indicated a volume of 10,000 cubic feet, approximately 160,000 cubic feet of air meter reading had passed the meter which without the pressure and volume recording gauge would have been paid for at five cents per thousand. With this type of gauge the gasoline company could show just when the break occurred, when it was repaired and how much meter reading should be de- ducted in making settlement for gasoline gas at the end of the month from that particular lease. Condensation in Meters — As gasoline gas is a com- bination of natural gas and higher hydrocarbons in a gaseous state, all that is needed to cause condensation is that the temperature of the flowing gas be lower than the temperature of the metal that confmes it. As gas flows through a pipe line it has the tendency of giving or taking the same tem- perature as the pipe line. But as it enters a meter or drip the velocity of gas decreases, due to the enlarged size of same and as the meters or drips are generally above the ground there is greater opportunity for condensation of higher hydro- carbons than in a pipe line. The fact is where a pipe line is buried and the meter exposed in the open, the meter acts, in cold weather, as a cooler or radiator to the gas. This 567 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS condition often causes considerable condensation which interferes with the accuracy of the meter unless precautions are taken. To overcome this there are two remedies. One is to place a torch or heater back of the inlet of the meter (at a safe distance) and to warm the gas enough so that the meter will also have a warm temperature. The other is to cover the line and meter with manure which will give the meter the same temperature as the pipe line. Either of the above will prevent condensation of the higher hydrocarbons and greatly assist in accurately measuring the gas. Testing Large Capacity Meters with Gasoline Gas — In testing with the funnel meter use the residue gas. Take the specific gravity of the gas every three or four hours while testing, even though working on one meter. It is commonly found that the gravity of the residue gas will run as high as 1.1 even after the gasoline has been extracted. This is due to the fact that while the very highest hydro-carbons have been extracted they evaporate and pass out with the residue gas. The gravity of the residue gas will be highest in warm weather. Greater caution should be used in testing with this gas than with natural gas as the residue gas being so heavy will lav near the ground and not raise. Do not run any tests within a building. Construction of Gasoline Plant — If the range of pres- sures through which the gas is to be compressed exceeds seven or eight compressions, it is necessary to use a two- stage compressor in order to keep the temperature within proper working limits. For this class of work a single two- stage unit, with an intercooler forming a part of it, is satis- factory. 568 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS It is also desirable to have the compressor belt-driven, to permit of housing it in a separate building minimizing the danger. An added precaution can be taken by having the compressor rods packed off with double stuffing boxes pro- vided with a vent pipe leading out of the building, in order to prevent the escape of the highly inflammable gas into the room in case of any leak due to defective packing. Gas engines utilizing residual dry gas as a fuel, fur- nish an ideal motor power, and an excellent method of transmitting the power from engine to compressor is by means of belting, through a counter shaft. This permits of operating both engine and compressor at the proper speeds to secure highest economy from both, and furnishes a convenient means of driving such small machine tools as may be needed about the plant, such as lathe, drill press and electric light dynamo. After the gas is compressed, it is passed through the water cooling coils; thence into the expansion cooling coils, where it is rendered very cold while still at a high pressure by means of the expansion of dry gas from which the gasoline had previously been extracted. This extraction of heat while under high pressure causes the gasoline vapors to condense, and the gas and liquid are then passed into the separating tanks, where the velocity of the gas is greatly reduced and the gasoline separated from it. The dry gas then passes out into the expansion nozzle of the expansion cooling coils, and takes its turn in expanding from a high to a low pressure, thus cooling the compressed gas that passed through the compressor and water cooling system after it did. It is then piped away into dry gas lines to be used as fuel for the gas engines and for any other purpose desired. The safest ignition system to use on gas engines is the make and break system, furnished with current from storage batteries, the latter being charged at night from the electric light system. 569 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Water, of course, has to be used to keep the gas engine cool and to cool the compression cylinders of the compressor, but only a very small quantity is necessary for this purpose and it can be circulated indefinitely. It is necessary for the successful operation of a plant that the stock and making houses be built of cement in order to exclude the heat, so far as possible, during the hot season. GasoHne is so very volatile that heat produces a high pressure in the storage tanks. Description of Ordinary Ammonia Refrigerating Machine (from Bulletin 88, Bureau of Mines) — "An or- dinary ammonia refrigerating machine, such as is used for cooling purposes, in general consists essentially of three parts — a refrigerator or evaporator, a compression pump and a condenser. The refrigerator, which consists of a coil or a series of coils, is connected to the suction side of the pump, and the deHvery from the pump is connected to the condenser, which is generally of a somewhat similar construction to the re- frigerator. The condenser and the refrigerator are joined by a pipe in which is a valve called the regulator. Outside the refrigerating coils is the air, brine, or other substance that is to be cooled in the refrigeration system; and outside the con- denser is the cooling medium, which is water. The Hquid ammonia passes from the bottom of the condenser through the regulating valve into the refrigerator in a continuous stream. As the pressure in the refrigerator is reduced by the pump and maintained at such a degree as to give the desired boiling point — which is, of course, always lower than the temperature outside the coils — heat passes from the sub- stance outside through the coil surfaces and is taken up by the entering liquid, which is converted into vapor. The vapors thus generated are drawn into the pump, compressed, and discharged into the condenser, the temperature of which is somewhat above that of the cooling water. Heat is 570 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS transferred from the compressed vapor to the coohng water, and the vapor is converted into a Hquid which collects at the bottom and returns by the regulating valve into the re- frigerator. The compressor may be driv^en by a gas engine or in any other convenient manner. The pressure in the condenser varies according to the temperature of the cooling water, and that in the refrigerator is dependent upon the temperature to which the outside substance is cooled. Anhydrous ammonia is a gas at ordinary temperatures and under atmospheric temperatures. The liquid anhydrous ammonia is commercially sold in iron drums in which it is contained under a pressure varying between 120 and 200 pounds per square inch, the pressure in the drum depending on the temperature of the liquid in it. Some idea of the nature of the natural gas condensate obtained can be had by considering the liquefaction points of the constituents that are found in natural gases used for gasoline condensation. The boiling point of liquid propane is — 45° C. (—49° fahr.), and of liquid butane 1° C. (34° fahr.). The lowest temperature obtained in the refrigerating coils of the OHnda plant is — 10° C. (14° fahr.). Hence it can be accepted that no propane is liquefied, but some butane and higher paraffins are. The efficiency of the extraction of the condensible constituents from the natural gas for any given temperature will depend upon the velocity of the gas through the coils, or, what is the same thing, the area of cooling surface. Heat is of course extracted from the natural gas when it enters the cooling system. If the cooling area of the pipes is not great enough, the residual natural gas will leave the system still containing gasoline vapors that could have been condensed by further cooling treatment. By proper experimentation the amount of cooling surface re- quired to produce the greatest quantity of salable condensate can be ascertained. Presumably the operators of the Olinda 571 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS plant have made such a determination. The authors are not closely aquainted with the operations. They believe that the refrigeration method offers much promise and that more plants of this type will be installed. In the United States at least 85 per cent, of the refrigera- tion plants used for various purposes use ammonia as the refrigerant. Other refrigerants that may be used are sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapor." 572 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Lighting Plant — While there is danger of explosion due to the breaking of an incandescent light bulb in an explosive mixture of gas and air, nevertheless the electric light fur- nishes the least dangerous method of lighting a gasoline-gas plant and should invariably be used. Good ventilation should always be provided to prevent the accumulation of gas, and all light bulbs should be guarded to prevent breakage. Fig. £30— GAS RELIEF VAL\'E OR REGULATOR FOR XATLRAL GAS GASOLINE PLANTS Gas Relief Regulator — This regulator is of special in- terest to gasoline makers. After the gasoline has been compressed to a high pres- sure, generally about three hundred pounds, per square inch, this tvpe of regulator will reduce the pressure to twenty or thirty pounds and retain that pressure. If the pressure ahead of the regulator drops below that at which it is set, it will cut off. In other words it acts the opposite of a standard regulator used in distributing gas. Percentage of Vapor Condensed by Compression and Cooling (from Bulletin 88, Bureau of Alines) "The change in the raw gas that takes place in the compressors and coolers of a plant consists in the conversion of certain vapors and 573 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS gases into liquid condition, and the solution of gases in these liquids. To give exact figures for the proportions of gas and vapor that disappear is impossible. An approximation, how- ever, can be reached. One gallon of liquid propane when converted into gas produces about 31 cubic feet of gas at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure. One gallon of propane in the liquid condition produces about 4.5 cubic feet of gas. One gallon of butane produces 37 cubic feet of gas. Butane and pentane are probably the tw^o paraffins that are removed in greatest quantity. Aside from such liquefaction a certain amount of gas is absorbed by the liquid, as stated above. It is small as regards the total disappearance of gas. The authors estimate that at some plants about 35 cubic feet of gas disappears for each gallon of condensate produced from 1,000 cubic feet of gas. If 4 gallons of condensate per 1,000 cubic feet of gas is ob- tained, then 140 cubic feet, or about 14 per cent of the gas treated, has disappeared. At some plants, however, as much as 50 per cent of gas disappears, and at others the quantity of residual gas is almost insignificant. Results of Analyses of Gases from Different Stages of Plant Operation — Table following shows the results of laboratory tests of various gases derived from the different stages of plant operation. The percentage of air was calcu- lated from the oxygen content as determined by analysis. Regarding the results shown in table on page 572, the chemical analysis, the specific gravity determination, and the claroline oil absorption show the gas represented to be a rich one. It will be seen that little difference existed between the composition of the crude gas and the same gas after it had been compressed to a pressure of 50 pounds per square inch. Only after the compression to a pressure of 250 pounds per square inch and cooling, did the composition of the gas mixture change appreciably. 574 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS X o i; ?? « - -^ o = X o r^ , C . '^ t^^ rt 0^ ■ '■^- ,— "- > O ^ !£- CU ^ ri X rt g rt O O -i^ f2^ 'w J> CM u « n • X o: (M ■* ir: 00 ^ r- «: 05 .— ( CD t- CJ a^ lO Oi CM t- _^ n: T:^ u <^ u < a^ •n? JO r^ (M CD c co •an gg ifq peqjos - q B uotviodojj S 00 S3 n 00 CD (.•l=IIB) CO CD 00 ^ X lO •tain09ipu?-0o0 •>* Tf CM Tf oc >— ' IB L\\Kzi^ ogioads -^ ^ ^ -^ ^ ■intno9:pnB"OoO ;b y no j^d aniSA s iC t> CM CM O :gnnB^q ssoj3 ibq =Q w w Cv} CM CM CM ^ o 1 ■ '-' A p X a 1- o cu H X^^ti o ^5 i!^ P c3 o ^'^9. X X ^<- u o O x(M X =^ E X o c:J O V^ t- rt ^ bJC c rt I— bfi j:^. b« o !=JC^ _, _^ Ul. ,™ ^~ — 'A X 5 pressio Residua remova c ? 2 > ^ o X :i i:^ CM £S^ C rt > C u '{■ JC c CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Under existing methods of plant operation, condensate is extracted from natural gas that ranges in specific gravity from as low as 0.83 to as high as 1.59 (air = l) and the solubilities of the gas in claroline oil ranges from 36.9 (air free) to 85.7 per cent, according to the well from which it comes. The authors hesitate to recommend the installation of a plant to handle natural gas that shows results as poor as the minimum values given in the table. Such gas might produce gasoline in paying quantities and might not. Probably the safest extremes would be a specific gravity of 0.95 (air= 1), and a claroline-oil absorption of 40 per cent. The natural gas supplied to Pittsburgh, Pa., with which the authors are most familiar, contains little of the gaseous hydrocarbons, has a specific gravity of 0.64 (air = 1), and has a claroline-oil absorption of about 16 per cent. It is a dry gas and is un- suitable for gasoline production. Specific Gravities and Absorption Numbers of Natural Gases Used for Condensation of Natural Gas (Bureau of Mines, Bulletin Xo. 88. By G. A. Burrel, F. M. Seibert and G. G. Oberfell) — The authors have compiled the following table to show at a glance the specific gravities and absorp- tion numbers of natural gases used for the condensation of natural gas. The table is compiled from the results shown in the table preceding. The compilation will be useful for reference in predicting the results that may be obtained from other samples of natural gas. Specific Absorp- , Specific Absorp- No. gravity tion i No. gravity tion (air=l) number (air=l) number 1 1.46 86 7 1.37 48 2 1.41 84 8 1.38 44 3 1.03 39 9 1.21 54 4 1.59 43 10 1.29 50 5 .83 23 11 1.07 38 6 1.38 65 12 1.00 37 576 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS LOW EXPLOSIVE LIMITS FOR PARAFFIN GASES AND VAPORS, a (Bureau of Mines) The following table shows the small percentages of gases and vapors occurring in natural gas that are required to form explosive mixtures with air: Proportion of Proportion of gas-air mix- 1 gas-air mix- Hydrocarbon ture consti- Hydrocarbon ture consti- tuting low tuting low explosive explosive limit limit Per cent. Per cent. Methane 5.60 to 5.70 N butane 1.60 to 1.70 Ethane 3.00 to 3.20 N pentane 1.35 to 1.40 Propane 2.15 to 2.30 According to the above table, even if a natural gas con- sisted almost entirely of methane, as some natural gases do, an explosion would follow an ignition of a mixture of air and natural gas containing o.oO per cent, of methane. Solution of Gas in Condensates — As previously stated, one of the physical changes occurring in the operation of a gasoline plant has to do with the solution of gas in the con- densate, that is, wdien the residual gas is in contact with the condensate in the storage tank. The following experiment and calculation by the authors will serve to show how small and insignificant this change may be. A residual gas from an operating plant was shaken with refinery naphtha. The naphtha had a specific gravity of ()1° B. The solution was effected at a temperature of 20° C. (68° fahr.) and atmospheric pressure. The naphtha was shaken with the gas supply tnitil no more gas would go into solution. It was found that 1 liter of the naphtha dissolved a Burgess, M J., and Wheeler, R. V., The lower limit of the inflammability of mixtures of the paraffin hydrocarbons with air; Trans. Chem. Soc, vol. 99. 1911, pp. 2013, 2o;in. 577 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS 1,760 liters of the gas; or 500 gallons of the naphtha would have dissolved 3,331.7 liters of the gas. If the assumption be made that this residual gas was ethane only, then it can be calculated that 3,331.7 liters of gaseous ethane at 16° C. (60° fahr.) and 30 inches of mercury is equivalent to 2.7 gallons of liquid ethane. This quantity of liquid is so small as to seem insignificant, although as regards raising the vapor pressure of the condensate it is important. Evaporation Losses in Blending — The following table shows the results of some blending tests made by the authors. The condensate, as it was drawn from the storage tank, was allowed to stand in graduated vessels, and the loss sustained by evaporation over different periods of time was noted. The containers were graduated glass cylinders having a capacity of 1,000 c. c. Their inside dia- meter was 2^/8 inches and they were 13 inches high. Some of the same condensate, as it was drawn from the storage tanks, was also mixed with naphtha and allowed to stand and the loss noted." EVAPORATION LOSSES OF DIFFERENT MIXTURES OF NATURAL GAS CONDENSATES AND REFINERY NAPHTHAS Propor- tions in mixture Specific gravity of— ■> 6 End of 1 hour End of 2 hours o o rt >- -t-J £ 3 rt C5 X X :^ jz; o 4= ^? '^^ ^i- -(-> "^ -c •^ CI 'o ■> X Z"^ X C rt o a a a2 X O ai X O H ^ 12 U Z CO tn be h4 'Jl tuO P. ct. P.ct. °B. °B. °B. °B. Perct. °B. Perct. 1 50 50 93 60 76.5 76 4 75 10 2 70 30 93 44 76 75.5 6 74.5 14 3a 70 30 95 44 74.5 74 13 72.5 20 4a 50 50 95 44 67 65.5 8 65 16 578 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS End of 3 p:nd of 4 Proportions Specific "o hours hours in mixture gravity of — >. C! rt 2 t be;:; o >> CJ >> c X, c js >< z q- *- yU -M rj y= T t/3 X ■3 > C 0) T3 -2 J5 a ■?.= ,"" a2 O C i^ =/: ^' OS Q. H C/5 WJ >— ' Xfi bfl v4 u Z U Z m °5. P.ct. °B. P. a. p. f/. F. f7. °5. °B. °5. 1 75 12 74 16 50 50 93 60 76 5 2 73.5 20 72.5 24 70 30 93 44 76 3a 72 26 71.5 29 70 30 95 44 74 5 4a , , , . 64 20 64 22 50 50 95 44 67 End of 5 End of 6 End of 7 End of 24 ._ hours hours hours hours - ^ 6 >> /^ >^ ^ >^ ^ >^ u x" ^ M= -M y3 4J tp ;? '^ C w > ir. > ^2 > ^2 iT. > 1 ^ H C/2 M •_r X bfi ►4 m ^ h4 t/i t« a °5. p. C/. °5. P. ct. °B. P.ct. °B. P. c/. °fahr. °c. 1.... 74 18 73 22 70.5 31 67 43 65to70 18to21 9 71.5 71 29 30 71 69 30 34 3a .. 68.5 37 65 50 60to70 16to21 4a . . . 63 25 62 30 61 36 56 1 54 60to70 16to21 Hauling Gasoline — In some cases where high gravity gasoline is hauled in drums by wagons, it is good policy to cover the load well with wet blankets. The blankets can be drenched with water en route at any convenient watering place. This method will keep the gasoline cool and insure safe delivery, especially in warm weather. a In conducting this test the mixture was exposed to the atmosphere to a greater extent than in tests 1 and 2. It was poured from one vessel to another eight times, thus exposing more liquid surface to the atmosphere and causing more rapid evaporation than would have occurred if it had been allowed to remain in the the same vessel all time without disturbance. 579 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Market for High Gravity Gasoline — There is a large demand for gasoline of 88 deg. Beaume test by canning factories for soldering, by plumbers and tinsmiths, and for burning off paint from buildings by painters. Racing auto- mobiles also use it for power. PRESSURES GENERATED BY HEATING GASOLINE AND CONFINED LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (Bx C. A. Bur rein 3era- re Pressures Generated by— Tern] tu Refinery gasoHne (80°B.) Natural Gasoline Obtained at— 50 pounds pressure 250 pounds pressure 400 pounds pressure °C. °Fahr. 32 Pounds Pounds Pounds 107 Pounds 360 5 41 9 117 375 10 50 12 130 398 15 59 16 144 423 20 68 ' 20 154 453 25 77 5 25 175 482 30 86 10 30 193 510 35 95 16 34 210 545 40 104 26 40 231 585 45 113 41 46 251 630 50 122 92 52 275 690 55 131 350 58 ... 755 60 140 ... 65 580 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS TABLE OF HEAT VALUES OF THE LIGHTER HYDRO- CARBON PRODUCTS FROM CRUDE OIL Commercial Term Beaume B. t. u. per lb. B. t. u. per Standard U. S. Gallon Gasoline 100 95 22,250 22,050 90 21,850 ] 15,805 85 21,650 117,343 80 21,450 119,476 76 21,290 120.927 75 21.250 121,337 73 21,170 122,150 70 21.050 123,142 68 20,970 123.932 65 20.850 125,100 64 20,810 125,484 62 20,730 126,453 Kerosene : (Water White) . . . 58 48 20,570 20.170 127.945 132.516 46 20.090 133,397 44 20.010 134.467 42 19,930 135,524 40 19,850 136.369 A gallon of ()5 cleg, gasoline, which weighs 5.999 pounds, will produce 22.7 cubic feet of gas; and one gallon of 70 deg. gasoline, weighing 5.85 pounds, will produce 2o.l cubic feet of gas. Temperature 60 deg. fahr. 581 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS Effects of Different Weather Conditions on the Manu- facturing of Gasoline — In dry hot weather it is difficult to obtain adequate cooling water and as a consequence the production of gasoline is smaller than during the cold winter months. Operating Cost — The cost of operating a plant capable of making seven hundred gallons of gasoline per day should not exceed Slo per day including everything, and can be installed for S10,000 complete. Since there is a ready market for gasoline, it is easy to appreciate that there should be a good profit in it. Shipping Gasoline — Wooden barrels should not be used to ship gasoline extracted from natural gas. Steel drums of the very best type manufactured should be used and must stand a pressure of forty pounds per square inch without any leaks whatever. A fifty-five gallon drum should weigh not more than seventy pounds without hoops and a one- hundred-and-ten gallon drum should weigh not less than one hundred and thirty pounds without hoops. If a drum, such as is used for shipping gasoline and high distillates, filled with 64 deg. Beaume gasoline is allowed to stand in the sun with the thermometer registering 95 deg. fahr. with a pressure gauge attached, it will show that the heat has caused a gas pressure of twenty-nine and one-half pounds. For the purpose of transporting gasoline, special drums have been designed to withstand over eighty pounds pressure. Do not use w'ooden plugs. Metal plugs should be close fitting, using a gasket of asbestos. Glycerine drums are not satisfactory holders of gasoline. Drums should not be filled full, but only to within about two inches of the top, to allow for expansion. Safety Valves for Gasoline Tank Cars^Safety valves on tank cars should be set to blow oif at ten pounds. It is better 582 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS to use several safety valves set at ten, fifteen, twenty, and twenty-five pounds than to use one valve set at ten pounds. Rules of the Interstate Commerce Commission^ — The final rules of the Interstate Commerce Commission regarding the shipment of natural gas gasoline are presented below : Regulations for the Transportation on Railroads of Natural Gas Gasoline a — Liquefied petroleum gas is a con- densate from the "casing-head gas" of petroleum oil wells, whose vapor tension at 100° fahr. (38° C.) (90° fahr. or 32° C. — November 1 to March 1) exceeds 10 pounds per square inch. Liquefied petroleum gas must be shipped in metal drums or barrels which comply with "Shipping-Container Specifications No. 5," or in tank cars especially constructed and approved for this servnce by the Master Car Builders' Association. When the vapor tension at 100° fahr. (38° C.) exceeds 25 pounds per square inch, cylinders as prescribed for com- pressed gas must be used. (The Commission has not deemed it best at this time to prohibit the use of good wooden barrels in shipping inflam- mable liquids with a flash point below^ 20° fahr. ( — 7° C.) It is, however, expected that their use for that purpose will be gradually discontinued and that within a reasonable time metal barrels will come into general use for such shipments.) Packages containing inflammable liquids must not be entirely filled. Sufficient interior space must be left vacant to prevent distortion by containers when heated to a tem- perature of 120° fahr. (49° C). This vacant space must not be less than 2 per cent, of the capacity of the container including the dome capacity of tank cars. 1. The provisions of "Shipping-Container Specifica- tions No. 5" apply to all containers specified therein that are a From "Regulations of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the Trans- portation of explosives and other Dangerous .Articles by Freight and by Express, and Specifications for Shipping Containers," published by the Bureau for the Safe Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles, in Januarv, 1912, pp 72, 148. 1-44. and 14.5. EfTective March 81. 1912. 583 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS purchased after December 31, 1911, and used for the ship- ment of dangerous articles other than explosives. Each such container purchased subsequently to December 31, 1911, shall have plainly stamped thereon the date of manufacture thereof. 2. An iron or steel barrel or drum with a capacity of from 50 to 55 gallons must have a minimum weight in the black, exclusive of the weight of rolling hoops, of 70 pounds, and the minimum thickness of metal in any part of the com- pleted barrel must not be less than that of No. 16 gauge United vStates standard. 3. An iron or steel barrel or drum with a capacity of from 100 to 110 gallons must have a minimum w^eight in the black, exclusive of the rolhng hoops, of not less than 130 pounds, and the minimum thickness of metal in any part of the completed barrel or drum must not be less than that of full No. 14 gauge United States standard. ■1. Each barrel or drum must stand without leaking a manufacturers' test under water by interior compressed air at a pressure of not less than 15 pounds per square inch sustained for not less than two minutes, and the type of barrel or drum must be capable of standing without any serious permanent deformation and without leaking a hydro- static test pressure of not less than 40 pounds per square inch, sustained for not less than five minutes. 5. When filled with water to 98 per cent, of its capacit\" the type of barrel or drum must also be capable of standing without leakage a test drop on its chime for a height of 4 feet upon a solid concrete foundation. (). Bungs and other openings must be provided with secure closing devices that will not permit leakage through them. Threaded metal plugs must be close fitting. Gaskets must be made of lead, leather, or other suitable material. Wooden plugs must be covered with a suitable coating and must have a driving fit into a tapered hole. 584 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS 7. The method of manufacturing the barrel or drum and the materials used must be well adapted to producing a uniform product. Leaks in a new barrel or drum must not be stopped by soldering, but must be repaired by the method used in constructing the ])arrel or drum. Liquefied Gas: A By-Product from Gasoline Gas (By Walter 0. SjicUing) — "During the past few years some promising work has been done toward the production of pure homogeneous liquid products from natural gas, suitable for the cheap and convenient lighting of isolated dwellings. Efforts have been made for many years to utilize compressed natural gas as a means of lighting, and cases are known where cylinders of compressed natural gas have been so used and in the near vicinity of natural gas fields, but outside of the range of popular distribution. The pressures which result from the compression of natural gas are, however, very considerable. The average steel cylinder used in the distribution of compressed oxygen, for example, has an actual capacity usually ranging from three-fourths cubic foot to one cubic foot. Upon compressing up to 100 volumes of natural gas in such a cylinder the pressure reaches 100 atmospheres, or ] ,500 pounds per square inch, and it is of course wholly impossible for cylinders holding as little as 100 cubic feet of natural gas to be utilized commercially. These two experiments in the compression of natural gas were the forerunners of a series of experiments made toward liquefying the higher members of the paraffin series present in oil-well gases, and as a result of these studies a method has been devised by which there is now being prepared commercially a liquefied natural gas, known under the trade name of "Gasol," and which seems destined to have an im- portant part in tiie solution of the problem of the lighting of isolated dwellings. Realizing that the simple compression of natural gas would not produce a ])roduct which could be commercially 585 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS handled on account of the high pressure present in the con- tainer, efforts were directed toward separating as a homo- geneous and pure material the ethane and propane present in the heavier or "wet" gases from oil wells. The simple compression of such material produces a condensation of all the hydrocarbons present, including hexane and pentane, and considerable quantities of ethane, propane and butane. Preliminary experiments were made to utilize this condensate, but the fact that it was entirely lacking in homogeneity, and that the gases given off in its volitalization were different from moment to moment, showed such a plan to lack feasi- bihty. As a result of an extended series of studies, we succeeded in 1911 in preparing pure products of ethane and propane, these having been separated from natural gas con- densates by a system of fractionation based on selective condensation on heated oils. The principle involved in the separation of these pure products consists primarily in the vaporization of all of the hydrocarbons present under a very high pressure, usually from 800 to 1,000 pounds per square inch, and while under this high pressure condensation is effected upon coils which are heated intermediate between the critical temperature of part of the gases present. As a result it was found possible to entirely separate hexane and pentane from the ethane and propane, and to liquefy the ethane and propane in separate containers. The commercial preparation of the new gas involves the compression of "wet" natural gas, with consequent liquefac- tion of a large part of the hydrocarbons contained, the sepa- ration of the more easily condensed products, particularly hexane and higher isomers, and the rectification of the remaining product by means of selective condensation upon heated coils while the gas is under high pressure, usually in excess of 1,000 pounds per square inch. The heated coils are maintained at such temperatures as to cause the separate gases to condense, one after another, depending upon the 586 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS relation of their vapor pressure to the temperature of the coil and the pressure existing within the rectifier. The "Gasol" which is produced is a perfectly colorless and trans- parent liquid, which remains as a liquid at a temperature of 70 deg. cent, or lower, but which, at normal conditions of temperature, only exists in the form of a liquid when under a pressure in excess of 400 pounds per square inch. Any release of this pressure causes it to change at once into gas, this gas having the remarkably high calorific power when expanded to atmospheric pressure of 2,400 B. t. u. per cubic foot. When it is remembered that the heating value of ordinary coal-gas is only about 600 B. t. u. per cubic foot, and manu- factured oil gas is less than 650 B. t. u. per cubic foot, it Fig. 231- -LIQUEFIED GAS TANKS AXD REGILATORS FOR HOrSE IXSTALLATIOXS 587 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS will be seen that the new gas has about four times the heat- producing capacity, when equal volumes are considered, of either coal-gas or manufactured oil-gas. In addition its flame temperature is much higher, being decidedly higher than the flame temperature of natural gas or any other of the common gases used for heating. The flame temperature of ordinary natural gas burning in air is about 2,150 deg., and the flame temperature of ethane burning in air is about 2,205 deg. The flame temperature of the new gas is about 2,300 deg., and since the amount of light produced from the Welsbach mantle bears an important relation to the temperature of the flame, the reason is here seen for the remarkable brilliancy of the light produced by the new gas, which excels in this respect all gases previously known. The liquid is distributed in steel bottles, about forty-four inches high and eight inches in diameter, each bottle holding forty pounds of the liquid gas, and producing the equivalent in heating power of somewhat over 2,000 cubic feet of or- dinary coal gas. . The experimental development of "Gasol" has been going on for more than a year, and its commercial use dates back a few months. It is now being used in the lighting of country dweflings, where the only care given to it is the exchange of bottles as an old bottle becomes empty (usually about one a month), and in actual practice in the lighting of country homes this gas is proving to be remarkably well suited to such use. The light which it gives with the inverted Welsbach mantle is superior to the light which can be pro- duced from either natural or coal gas. For cooking, the gas is also very satisfactory, giving a small but intensely hot flame, free from even the slightest disposition to soot. 588 PART s 1 : y K X T 1 : i : x Power Horse Power The use of the term "horse power" as indicating the measure of an engine's work came naturally from the fact that the first engines were built to do work that had formerly been performed by horses. John vSmeaton, who built atmospheric engines before Bolton and Watt placed their more complete machines upon the market, had valued the work done by a strong horse as being equivalent to lifting a weight of 20,000 pounds one foot high in one minute. When Bolton and Watt began to bid for public favor, they agreed to place their engines "for a value of one- third part of the coals which are saved in its use." They also increased the value of the "horse power" to 33,000 pounds, so that their engines were half again as powerful for their rated power as those of their competitors. In this way they established the value of horse power. The following are the value of a horse power: 33,000 foot pounds per hour. 550 foot pounds per minute. 2545 thermal units per hour. 42.42 thermal units per minute. The horse power of a boiler depends upon its capacity for evaporation. The evaporation of thirty pounds of water from 100 deg. fahr. into steam at 70 pounds gauge pressure (equaling 34 1 9 pounds from and at 212 deg. fahr.) is equal to a horse power. To fmd the mean effective pressure of a simple steam engine, using steam at an initial pressure of 80 pound gauge, 589 POWER divide the length of cut-off by the total length of the stroke, both in inches, and take the mean effective pressure from the following table : Cut-off ^ of stroke 10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40 .45 .50 M. E. P. lb. per sq. in 18 27 35 42 48 53 57 61 64 Super-heated steam is steam which has a greater tem- perature than that due to its pressure. To determine the heating surface in the tubes of any boiler, multiply the number of feet of the tubes by the decimal .523 for 2-inch; .654 for 23/^-inch; .785 for 3-inch; .916 for 334-inch; and by 1.047 for 4-inch. Steam — Steam is an elastic fluid generated by the action of heat upon water. Steam, when separated from water, from which it is generated, follows the law of all other gases, expanding ttt of its volume for each additional degree of heat, the pressure remaining the same; and, while the temperature remains the same, the pressure is in inverse proportion to the volume. The temperature of the steam is equal to that of the w^ater from which it is formed, and its elastic force is equal to the pressure under which it is formed. Total heat of steam at 212 deg. fahr. is 1150 B. t. u. Latent heat of steam is found by subtracting its sensible heat (called heat of the liquid) from the total heat, and is equal to 970.4 B. t. u. at 212 deg. fahr. or 14.7 lb. atmo- spheric pressure. Latent heat of steam is composed of two elements — the heat required to evaporate the water into steam at the same temperature and pressure, and that necessary to do the o9() POWER external work required l^y the steam to make room for itself against the pressure of the surrounding steam or atmosphere. It is not evidenced by any increase in temperature. To fmd the quantity of water required to condense a given quantity of steam, substract the heat of the liquid at the temperature of the hot well from the total heat of the steam to be condensed. Then divide this difference by the difference in temperature between the hot well and the injection water, and multiply the quotient by the number of pounds of steam to be condensed. The result will be the weight of injection water required. Steam Horse Power — The amount of water which a boiler will evaporate at an economical rate in an hour, divided by the above quantity, is its commercial horse power. A unit of evaporation is the heat required to evaporate a pound of water from and at 212 deg. fahr. and is equal to 970.4 thermal units. A thermal unit is the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water a fahrenheit degree in temperature at the point of maximum density, namely, 39 deg. fahr. One thermal unit is equivalent to 778 foot pounds. The horse power of engines varies directly as the product of the piston area, piston speed, and mean effective pressure. Hence with the same m. e. p., the power of engines varies directly as their piston speed, and as the square of the diameter. To Find Horse Power of a Steam Engine — To find the horse power of a steam engine, multiply the diameter of the piston in inches by itself, and this result by .7854, which will give the area of the piston in square inches. Multiply the area so found by the speed of the piston in feet per minute ; or, if the speed is taken in inches, divide the product by 12, after multiplying. (Speed of piston is found by multiplying twice the length of stroke by the number of revolutions per minute.) ^Multiply speed of piston by the mean effective r)9l POWER TABLE OF AREAS OF CIRCLES DIAM. DIAM. DIAM. DIAM. AREA AREA AREA AREA INCH. INCH. INCH. INCH. Vs .0123 73/^ 47.17 183^ 268.80 373^ 1104.5 Va .0491 8 50.27 19 283.53 38 1134.1 y% .110 834 53.46 193^ 298.65 383^ 1164.2 ¥2 .196 83^ 56.75 20 314.16 39 1194.6 H .307 8M 60.13 20>^ 330.06 393^ 1225.4 % .442 9 63.62 21 346.36 40 1256.6 'A .601 9M 67.20 21^ 363.05 403^ 1288.2 1 .785 93^ 70.88 22 380.13 41 1320 . 3 13^ .994 9M 74.66 221^ 397.61 413^ 1352 . 7 IM 1.227 10 78.54 23 415.48 42 1385.4 1% 1.485 1034' 82.52 23^^ 433.74 423/2 1418 6 13^ 1.767 103^ 86.59 24 452.39 43 1452 2 1^ 2.074 lOM 90.76 24M 471.44 433^ 1486 2 IM 2.405 11 95.03 25 490.87 44 1520 5 VA 2.761 1134 99.40 253/2 510.71 443^ 1555 3 2 3.142 113/2 103". 87 26 530.93 45 1590 4 2M 3.976 1134 108.48 26M 551 . 55 453^ 1626.0 2K 4.909 12 113.10 27 572 . 56 46 1661 9 2% 5.940 12M 117.86 27^ 593.96 463^ 1698 2 3 7.069 123^ 122.72 28 615.75 47 1734 9 3M 8.296 12^ 127.68 283^ 637.94 473^ 1772.1 33^ 9.621 13 132 . 73 29 660.52 48 1809 6 3M 11.05 13M 137.89 29^ 683.49 483/^ 1847 5 4 12.57 133^ 143.14 30 7C6.86 49 " 1885 7 4K 14.19 13M 148.49 30^2 730.62 493/2 1924.4 43^ 15.90 14 153.94 31 754.77 50 1963.5 4% 17.72 14M 159.48 313^ 779.31 503^ 2003 5 19.64 143^ 165.13 32 804.25 51 2042 . 8 534 21.65 1434 170.87 321/2 829.58 513^ 2083 . 1 53^ 23.76 15 176.71 33 855.30 52 2123.7 5^ 25.97 153^ 182.65 33H 881.41 523/2 2164.8 6 28.27 15^ 188.69 34 907.92 53 2206.2 6^ 30.68 15^ 194.83 3434 934.82 533^ 2248.0 63^ 33.18 16 201.06 35 962 . 11 54 2290 . 2 6M 35.79 163^ 213.82 35K 989.80 543^ 2332 8 7 38.49 17 226.98 36 1017.88 55 2375 8 734 41.28 173/^ 240.53 363^ 1046.3 553^ 2419.2 7^ 44.18 18 254.47 37 1075.2 56 2463.0 592 POWER (average) pressure of steam upon the piston which can only be determined by applying the indicator), and divide the product by 33,000, which gives the actual horse power. Directions for Determining the Correct Setting of Engine Valves — First, equalize travel in steam chest by turning eccentric on shaft so throw is extreme one way, measuring the port opening; then turn eccentric extreme travel oppo- site, measuring port opening the same. If any difference, divide it up by lengthening or shortening the valve rod or eccentric rod. After port openings are equal at both ends, turn crank on dead center; then turn eccentric on shaft so valve opens the port at the end of cylinder where piston is located, about 1-16 opening or lead. Fasten eccentric to shaft ; then turn on the other dead center,when opening or lead should be the same. In determining which way an engine is to run, bear in mind the crank pin ahvays follows the throw of the eccentric. Electrical Horse Power — The quantity of electricity flowing in a wire per second is measured in units called the ampere. The electrical pressure producing the flow^ is measured in volts, while the powxr an electrical current is capable of producing is equal to the product of amperes and volts and is measured in units called the watt. One watt is equal to one ampere multiplied by one volt. A kilowatt is 1000 watts. The same work can be done with great current strength and low e. m. f. or with small current and high e. m. f. For instance, 100 amperes, times 10 volts, equals 1000 watts; or 10 amperes, times 100 volts, equals 1000 watts. One electrical horse power equals 746 watts; hence, the electrical work of a dynamo may be expressed: amperes X volts h. p. = 746 593 POWER The mechanical horse power necessary to drive a dynamo is generally ten to twenty per cent, higher than the electrical horse power yielded by the dynamo. For Every-day Use in an Engine Room — To find diameter of cylinder for a given power: Multiply horse power of engine by 33,000. Divide product by the product of cylinder area x steam pressure x piston speed in feet per minute. Rule for finding contents in cubic feet of a cylinder of any given diameter. Multiply the square of diameter in inches by .7854 and this product by length of stroke in inches. Divide last product by 1728, and the result is contents of cylinder in cubic feet. The diameter of the valve rod should be 1-10 to 1-12 of the cylinder diameter, or from 1-350 to 1-300 of unbal- anced area of slide valve. This last is considering the valve as a piston. vSteel rods, of course, will bear being made smaller. Don't depend too much upon the glass gauge, but try the cocks often enough to keep your hand in in telling the height of water by them. If a gauge cock has a tendency to leak, fix it thoroughly; if you do not you will neglect to use it for fear of the work which you may have to stop the leak after using. vSafety valves should be allowed to blow straight out into the room and should not be hitched on to a leading pipe which may allow water to stand on the valve, increasing its weight, or be liable to freeze if the boiler is laid up. When the valve blows into the room it will be known when steam is escaping, whether from leakage or over pressure. The economy of an engine should always be rated by the amount of steam or water which it consumes per horse power per hour. The amount of coal burnt per horse power per hour involves the economy of the whole plant, and is 594 POWER not a measure of the performance of the engine taken in- dependently. Horizontal engines, when practicable, should be run over rather than under, as the thrust will then come down- ward upon the foundation rather than upon the caps of the boxes and the upper guides. In calculating horse powers of steam boilers, consider for: Tubular boilers, 15 square feet of heating surface, equivalent to 1 horse power. Portable boilers, 12 square feet of heating surface, equivalent to 1 horse power. Cylinder boilers, 10 square feet of heating surface, equivalent to 1 horse power. Fig. 23£— BOILER IXSTALLATIO.W 595 PART EIGHTEEN Miscellaneous CAPACITIES OF OIL LINES— CAPACITIES OF TANKS —SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF LIQUIDS— WEIGHT AND TENSILE STRENGTH OF WOOD, IRON- WEIGHT OF ROUND IRON AND STEEL RODS- MELTING POINT OF METALS— WOOD FUEL EQUIVALENTS — CONVERSION TABLES, METRIC TO U. S.— NATURAL GAS ASSOCIA- TION. Tank for Separating Gas from Oil Flowing from Well — Tanks are often used on oil leases showing large quantities of gas where the oil flows or is pumped. The gas taken from the oil is of first-class quality to run a gas engine at the power house, or could be "squeezed" to extract the gasoline, Fig. 233 A UTOMA TIC OIL AND GAS SEPARA TOR 596 MISCELLANEOUS provided there is a sufficient quantity of gas to make it pay. The separating tank should be set high enough to allow the oil, after separation, to flow freely to the regular oil tanks. Fig. 234— A I^L'R-MXU OIL WELL l\ THE CADDO OIL FIELD ^LA.) 597 MISCELLANEOUS Number of Barrels (3V •? Gallons) Contained in Tanks cr. rrS* CO. 00 C<1 CO __ --^^.^^^ c:cooccoot-iococccocoiot>03^c:-— icoiOtr-cir-tro <-i CO. 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