UC-NRLF
Au'" 'r?.i-i9?-0
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
Experimental Research As a Factor
In Commercial Education
BY
FRANK HENRY KRAMEfi
A THESIS
PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE. OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
u
THE SOMERVILLE PUB. CO.
SOMERVILLE, N. J.
1920
EXCHANGE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA
Experimental Research As a Factor
In Commercial Education
BY
FRANK HENRY KRAMER
, A THESIS
PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
'•■> I ■'•1 3 .,
THE SOMERVILLE PUI5. CO.
SOMERVILLE, N. J.
1920
x>\'
<•
\
■XQM^i'j!^;'-
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
a. Present status of experimental research in education.
b. The need for experimental research in commercial education.
c. An ideal otitline for this thesis.
d. The limitations which make it impossible.
e. The otitline chosen.
f . A brief description of the scope of Part I and Part II.
g. Finality not the aim of this thesis — simply pioneer work.
PART I. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN COMMERCIAL EDUCA-
TION IN THE WAY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH,
AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR
CONTEMPLATED
'a. The method of obtaining the bibliography:
Reading.
Result.
Letters sent to the variotts agencies and individuals wdio would
be most likely to be able to furnish a bibliography of
experiments condticted in this field.
Replies received.
Letters sent to the schools and departments of eductaion, de-
partments of psychology, and experimenters.
Copy of the letter.
List of those to whom it was sent.
List of those who replied.
List of those who reported nothing.
b. Bibliography of the experiments — and so-called experiments —
in Commercial Subjects, made or contemplated, giving the
following information concerning each:
Name or nature of the experiment — grouped by subjects.
By whom conducted.
Where, or in connection with what institution.
Where the record of it is to be found.
l*\n-lher details concerning it.
PART II. SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN UN-
SOLVED IN SOME OF THE MORE STRICTLY COMMER-
CIAL SUBJECTS, AND A SUGGESTED METHOD OF
PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENTATION ALONG
THESE LINES
A. Introduction. K.
B. Subjects chosen.
425627
C. Some typical problems remaining unsolved in these subjects,
for which experiments will be suggested.
D. Form used in writing up these experiments.
The outline.
A development of this outline.
E. The Experiments.
a. TYPEWRITING.
1. Does emphasizing speed in typewriting interfere with
accuracy, and, if so, to what extent"''
2. The age at which it is most economically advantageous
for a person to begin the study of typewriting.
3. The development of a typewriting norm.
4. Should we teach the Touch ^lethod or rhe Sight Meth-
od of Typewriting in our schools?
5. Should the schools have open or blank keyboards on the
typewriters used for instruction purposes?
b. STENOGRAPHY.
1. The number of presentations necessary to fix an outline.
2. The number of ideas that can be presented in a lesson.
3. Intervals of repetition.
4. A method of determining those unfit for high speed in
shorthand.
5. Forearm vs. finger movement in shorthand.
6. The drill that would be most valuable to shorthand stu-
dents.
7. The proportion of time that should be spent in reading
back notes.
c. BOOKKEEPING.
1. Gradation in Mastery.
2. Use of Suggesters.
3. The use of forms compared with the use of only the text
book in bookkeeping.
F. Appendix.
5 J 111-)
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AS A FACTOR IN COMMERCIAL
EDUCATION
Introduction
In the last five or ten years considerable thought has been giVen to the
matter of experimental research in a nimiber of the subjects taught in
our schools. Compared with what has been done in other fields, very
little scientific study has been given to the commercial stibjecls. It is
with the hope that stich study may be increased, that this thesis is
attempted.
Experimental Research in Education itself is as yet an experiment. Its
procedtires are in process of development. It has not even reached the
stage where it has convinced everyone that it is worth while. In fact, it
will take considerable time to cast ofi^ the opprobrium which has been
heaped upon its head. Much of this negative attitude is due, not to real
scientific experimentation, but to pseudo-scientific experimentation.
Experimenters in their enthusiasm have not been careful to be truly
scientific. They have offered, as valid, experiments which have failed
to observe the most ordinary scientific precautions. They have presented
and interpreted with statistical exactness data which in itself has been
worthless. They have read into the results unwarranted concktsions.
Persons outside of the field of experimental research saw these weak-
nesses and formed an unfavorable opinion of all work conducted in that
field.
But there is no reason why truly scientific experiments should not be
conducted in educational lines as well as in other fields. It is true that,
in dealing with human beings, it is harder to maintain the uniform condi-
tions essential to valid research, than it is in dealing with some clearly
defined combination in chemistry. But, if we can isolate the factors we
want to test, there is no reason why we cannot get good restilts. Even
with the little work done in this field up to the present time, some reliable
conclusions have been reached. With each rigidly scientific experiment,
those which follow become easier. Mr. Edison did not succeed with his
incandescent electric lamp until after his thousanrlth attempt, and his
experiments with the alkaline storage battery ran up [o tens of thousands
before he was satisfied with the commercial type of battery. If success
comes so slowly in the well-established field of the physical sciences,
2 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
workers in the comparatively new field of applied mental science must not
become disheartened at tedious hours and small results.
Since educational research is a new phase of science, since the com-
mercial subjects have but recently come into our public school curriculum,
and since there are not many scientifically minded teachers of these sub-
jects, it is hardly to be expected that very much research work has been
done in determining efifective methods of teaching in this field.
An ideal outline for a thesis on the subject in mind would be the fol-
lowing :
Part I. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN THIS FIELD AND
WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CON-
TEMPLATED.
Part II. WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE.
a. A LIST OF THE PROBLEMS.
b. A SOLUTION FOR EACH PROBLEM.
Something approaching a satisfactory treatment of Part I is possible,
and, therefore, it will be included in the outline that will be adopted.
But it is much more than one man's task to work out Part II. It is
unwise to pronounce finality on a subject of this kind, because it will al-
ways be possible to find someone else who has thought of a problem that
has never entered one's own mind. To conceive all the problems in this
field would be impossible, and it seems hardly necessary to argue the
point.
But even if a list of all the problems in the field could be obtained, it
would be out of the question to find a solution for everyone of them,
and, if it were possible to find the solutions, this would obviously be the
work of more than one person.
Hence, to use this ideal otitline would be to attempt the impossible,
and, with this thought in mind, the outline will be modified by choosing
several of the more strictly commercial subjects, stating some typical
problems in each of them, and suggesting a method of procedure for
experimentation along these lines.
This thesis then will have two main parts as above, but modified as fol-
lows :
PART I.
WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN THIS FIELD AND
WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CONTEM-
PLATED.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3
PART II.
SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN
UNSOLVED IN SOME OE THE MORE STRICT-
LY COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS, AND
A SUGGESTED METHOD OF PROCEDURE
FOR EXPERIMENTATION ALONG THESE
LINES.
PART I contains an exhaustive list of the efforts made in Commercial
Education to solve problems by experimenting. Attempts have been in-
cluded that are not scientific, as well as those that are, for the reason that
the purpose of this thesis is a practical one, and, even though an experi-
ment may not be scientific, it may contain suggestions which may help
someone who is trying to solve the same problem scientifically. It may do
no more tlian point out the things to be avoided when the experiment is
tried again, but this is sufficient ground for including it.
In PART II no attempt has been made to state all that remains to be
done either in the listing of the problems in the commercial field that are
not settled, or in the developing of methods of procedure to solve these
problems. A few outstanding commercial subjects have been selected and
the procedure for typical experiments in these subejcts will be suggested.
The methods suggested are not given as absolutely valid methods. That
judgment cannot be pronounced upon them until after they have been
tried out thoroughly. Care has been taken in thinking them out, but any-
one who has spent some time in a seminar where work of this kind
is conducted knows only too well that, even with 15 or 20 persons passing
judgment upon the validity of the method, it is possible to overlook some
important details which are not discovered until after the experiment has
been completed.
This thesis is written as pioneer work in commercial studies and is
therefore likely to have all the shortcomings that we find in such work.
It is earnestly hoped that a considerable number of commercial teach-
ers will, before long, become interested in this line of work and that, by
criticising, improving, expanding, and testing the methods presented, they
will make it possible to build up a body of scientific data for teaching
commercial subjects.
PART I
WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IX THIS FIELD AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR
CONTEMPLATED
A thesis on this subject should contain a complete bibliography of the
experiments already conducted in the field. To this end a careful search
has been made of the
Monthly Record of Current Educational Publications, U. S. Bu-
reau of Education
Reader's Guide to Periodical List
Reports of Educational Associations
and books of the type of the following :
Mind in the Making, Swift
Principles & ^Methods in Commercial Education, Kahn & Klein
Principles of Teaching, Thorndike
Educational Psychology, Thorndike
Psychology of Learning, Thorndike
The Army Trade Tests
\^ocational Psychology, Hollingworth
Survey of the Needs in Commercial Education, Rochester Cham-
ber of Commerce
Experiments in Educational Psychology. Starch
Methods of Teaching in High School, Parker
The American High School, Brown
High School Education, Johnston et al.
Psychological Principles of Education. Home
In addition to this, letters asking for a bibliography of educational
experiments in commercial subjects and for information concerning such
experiments under way or contemplated were addressed to a number of
institutions and individuals who would be likely to have information on
the matter, among them :
The Congressional Lil)rary
Pennsylvania State Library
\J. S. Bureau of Education
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
General Education Board
Russell Sage Foundation
Pan-American Scientific Congress
National Associated Schools of Scientific Business
Director of Cleveland Educational Survey
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 5
Women's Industrial & Kdncational Union
Division of Reference & Research, Department of Education, The
City of New York
Department of Educational Investigation & Measurement, The
School Committee of the City of Boston
Bureau of Experimental Research. New York City
Chamher of Commerce, Boston
Chamber of Commerce. Cleveland
Chamher of Commerce, Chicago
Chamber of Commerce, Rochester
F. V. Thompson, Asst. Supt. of Schools, Boston
Cheesman A. Herrick, Pres., Girard College
Miss Bertha M. Stevens, Secy, of Educational Committee, New
York City
Rochester Bureau of Efficiency, Board of Education, Rochester,
N. Y.
Director of Research & Efficiency, Board of Educa+ion, Kansas
City, Mo.
New Orleans Dept. of Education & Research, Board of Education,
New Orleans, La.
Detroit Dept. of Education t^ Research, Board of I'Iducation, De-
troit, Mich.
Negative answers were received from the following, stating that they
'Could furnish no such bibliography or knew of no experiments :
The Congressional Library
Pennsylvania State Library
U. S. Bureau of Education
Carnegie Institute of Washington
General Education Board
The Survey Committee of The Cleveland I'^oundation
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education
Division of Reference & Research, Dejit. of Education, The City
of New York-
Department of Educational Investigation & Measurement, The
School Committee of the City of Boston
Joseph P. O'Hern, Asst. Supt.. Dept. of Public Instruction. Ro-
chester. N. Y.
Geo. Melcher, Director Bureau of Research & Efficiency, Kansas
City, Mo.
Several did not re])ly (at least, the reply was not received) and most
•of the others furnished no information that proved to be what was
wanted.
A letter, asking for a list of the ex])eriments conducted in commercial
branches, was sent to a num])er of Schools and Departments of Education
of the higher educational institutions in the United Slates and Canada;
.also to the Department of Psychology of several of the universities where
6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
the experimentation is carried on by that department rather than by the
Department of Education. The letter was also sent to a number of indi-
viduals who are authorises on experimental education.
The letter sent, read as follows :
University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Pa.. March i8, 1918.
Dear Sir : As a basis for further experimentation on efficiency in the
teaching of the commercial branches, I am compiling 3 bibliography of
experiments bearing upon that field, including Stenography, Typewriting,
Bookkeeping, Rapid Addition, Commercial Arithmetic, Commercial Geog-
raphy, Commercial Law, Economics, Advertising. Business English and
Penmanship.
\V\\\ you have some one send me a list of the experimcn s along this
line, made or to be made at your university, — printed or unprinted. In
the event that there is nothing to report, I would appreciate word to that
effect. If you wish it, I will, in return, send vou a Hst of the experiments
reported to me.
Yours very truly,
It was sent to the following:*
University of Alabama
University of Arizona
University of Arkansas
University of California
Pomona College
University of Southern California
University of Redlands
College of the Pacific
University of Santa Clara
Leland Stanford Junior LTniversity
University of Colorado
University of Denver
Yale University
Delaware College
Catholic University of America
George Washington University
Howard University
John B. Stetson University
University of Florida
University of Georgia
Atlanta University
Mercer University
Lhiiversity of Idaho
Illinois Wesleyan University
De Paul University
University of Chicago
*Listed alphabetically by states, per Educational Directory of the U. S. Bureau:
of Education.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 7
James Millikin Cniversity
Northwestern University
University of Illinois
Indiana University
Indiana Central University
Purdue University
Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts
Iowa State Teachers College
Drake University
Central University of Iowa
Baker University
Kansas City University
University of Kansas
Friends University
State University of Kentucky
Louisiana State University & Agricultural & Mechanical College
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.)
Bowdoin College
Bates College
University of Maine
Johns Hopkins University
Western Maryland College
Boston University
Simmons College
Harvard University
Radcliffe College
Smith College
Mount Holyoke College
Wellesley College
Clark University
University of Michigan
University of Detroit
University of Minnesota
Carleton College
Hamline University
]\Iississippi College
University of Missouri
Washington University
University of Montana
University of Nebraska
Graduate' School of Education, Creighton University
University of Omaha
Nebraska ^^' esleyan University
State University of Nevada
Dartmouth College
Rutgers College
University of New Mexico
New York State College for Teacliers
Alfred University
Colgate University
^ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Cornell University
College of the City of New York
iNew lork University
Teachers College
University of Rochester
Syracuse University
University of North Carolina
.Shaw University
University of North Dakota
Ohio University
University of Cincinnati
Ohio State University
Ohio \\>sleyan Universitv
Oberlin College
Miami University
Otterbein University
University of Oklahoma
University of Oregon
Pacific University
Willamette University
University of Pittsburg
University of Porto Rico
Brown University
Universit)- of South Carolina
Dakota Wesleyan University
University of South Dakota
University of Chattanooga
University of Tennessee
University of Texas
Southwestern Universitv
Baylor University
University of Utah
MiXbu^yto^:™™' ^'" -^'"^ ■^»-'"'""-' College
University of Virginia
Randol])h-Macon Women's Colle-e
University of \\'ashington "^
West Virginia University
University of Wisconsin
University of A\ yoming
University of Toronto
McGill University
Replies ^^■ere received from the followin- •
University of Alabama
University of Arizona
University of Arkansas
Pomona College
IN CO^niERCIAL EDUCATION
University of Santa Clara
Lcland Stanford Junior University
University of Colorado
University of Denver
Yale University
Delaware College
Catholic University of America
George Washington University
Atlanta University
University of Chicago
University of Illinois
Indiana University
Purdue University
Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts
Kansas City University
University of Kansas
U. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.)
Bates College
Johns Hopkins University
Boston University
Simmons College
Harvard University
Clark University
University of Michigan
Universitv of Detroit
University of Minnesota
Nebraska W'esleyan University
Dartmouth College
Rutgers College
University of New Mexico
Alfred University
Colgate University
Cornell University
College of the City of New York
New York University
Teachers College
Shaw University
University of North Dakota
Ohio University
University of Cincinnati
Ohio State University
Ohio W'esleyan University
Oberlin College
Ottcrbein University
University of Porto Rico
University of South Carolina
Dakota \Vesleyan University
University of South Dakota
University of Chattanooga
lo EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
University of Tennessee
University of Texas
Southwestern University
University of Utah
University of Vermont & State Agricultural College
Middlebury College
University of Virginia
Randolph-]\Iacon Women's College
University of Washington
University of Wisconsin
University of Wyoming
University of Toronto
McGill University
The following had nothing to report :
University of Alabama
University of Arizona
University of Arkansas
Pomona College
University of Santa Clara
Leland Stanford Junior University
University of Denver
Yale University
Delaware College
Catholic University of America
Atlanta University
University of Illinois
Purdue University
Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts
Kansas City University
University of Kansas
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.)
Bates College
Simmons College
Harvard University
Clark University
University of Michigan
University of Detroit
University of Minnesota
Nebraska Wesleyan University
Dartmouth College
Rutgers College
University of New Mexico
Alfred University
Colgate University
Cornell University
College of the City of New York
Shaw University
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION u
University of Xorth Dakota
Ohio University
Ohio State University
( )hi() W'esleyan University
Otterl)ein University
University of Porto Rico
University of South Carolina
Dakota Wesleyan University
Universitv of Chattanooga
University of Tennessee
University of Texas
Southwestern University
University of Utah
University of Vermont (!\: State Agricultural College
Middlehury College
University of Virginia
Randolph-Macon Women's College
University of Washington
University of Wisconsin
University of Wyoming-
University of Toronto
McGill University
SUMMARY
Schools written to 120
Answers received 67
Schools that had nothing to report 56
Sciiools that did not reply 53
The present investigation has disclosed the following experiments:*
TNPEWRITING
William I<"rederick Book, "The Psychology of Skill with Special Refer-
ence to Its Acc|uisition in Typewriting." Montana University
Publications. 1908.
A very elabf)rate piece of work. Its aim was to obtain a prac-
tice or learning curve and to obtain from self-observations and ob-
jective records, data to explain the curves, ii subjects took part
in the experiment.
Frederic Lyman W ells, "On the Psychomotor ^Mechanisms of Typewrit-
ing," American Journal of Psychology, Jan., 1916, Vol. XXVII
pp. 47-70.
Its aim was to infjuire into increasing the efficiency of type-
writing on the psychological side. Two subjects took part.
*The search was not confined to the sul)jects mentoiiied in tlie letter on p. 6.
12 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Clark University reported that Prof, (then Major) M. E. Haggerty of
the University of ^Minnesota had obtained some vakiable results
on the teaching of typewriting.
Simmons College reported that Mr. TuUos of Harvard University had re-
cently been conducting some investigations on the work in type-
writing and telegraphy in their classes.
George Washington University, Dr. Ruediger reported that one of his
graduate students, Mrs. Daisy I. HuiT was working on her master's
essay on the subject of teaching Shorthand and Typewriting. It
had not been completed.
Hill, Rejall & Thorndike, on "Practice in the case of Typewriting" Peda-
gogical Seminar, Dec. 1913, Vol. XX, pp. 516-529.
William A. Cook, University of Colorado, reported an experiment he
had under way to map the curve of progress from month to month,
with the ultimate establishment of norms in mind.
University of Chicago reported three unpublished theses (masters) by C.
L. Kjerstad, "An Experimental Study of the Form and Fluctua-
tions of Learning Curves of Typewriting."
C. G. Bradford, "Experiments in Typewriting," Pedagogical Seminar,
Vol. XXII, pp. 445-460. Four subjects took part in this experi-
ment.
SHORTHAND
William A. Cook, University of Colorado, reported that he also had un-
der way an experiment in stenography.
George Washington University, Dr. Ruediger, reported that one of his
graduate students, Mrs. Daisy I. Fluif, was working on her mas-
ter's essay on the Teaching of Shorthand and Typewriting. It had
not been completed.
University of Texas reported that Miss Ina Thomas, Secretary of the
National Commercial Teachers Association, had recently made
some experiments in stenography.
COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC
University of Chicago reported three unpublished master's theses by Geo.
Amos Beers, "Tests of various methods of drill in Commercial
Arithmetic."
Paul H. Hanus and K. D. Gaylord, "Courtis Arithmetic Tests applied to
Employees in Business Houses." Educational Administration and
Supervision, Nov. 1917.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 13
ADVERTISING
Hollingworth, "The Psychology of Advertising and Business Practice."
Reported by Dr. Thorndike, Teachers College.
R. H. Stetson, "The Optimal Size of Type for Advertising Headlines."
Reported by Oberlin College.
MISCELLANEOUS
University of North Dakota reported that Prof. Joseph Kennedy would
have a short article for the School of Education Record suggest-
ing experimentation along different lines in the schools of the
state.
Johns Hopkins University reported that Miss Flora D. Sutton had made
a very interesting study on failures in different subjects of stu-
dents in four dift'erent high schools.
In searching through the Monthly Record of Current Educational Pub-
lications, of the U. S. Bureau of Education, a considerable list of material
on Handwriting and Spelling was found. These are not strictly commercial
subjects, but it was thought advisable to include the list, though it was
not deemed necessary to give an evaluation, as they have no particular
bearing on the experiments under consideration.
The list is as follows :
HANDWRITING
1913 — Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1912. The Writing-
Abilities of the Elementary & Grammar School Pupils of a City
School System, Measured by the Ayres Scale.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1913. Starch. The
Measurement of Handwriting.
1914 — School & Home Education, April 1914. Helps from the Use of
Standard Scales of Attainment in School Subjects. Writing.
Elementary School Journal. Xov. 1914. School Subjects as Ma-
terial for Tests of Mental Ability. Writing.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1914. A Comparison of
the Ayres and Thorndike Handwriting Scales.
American School Board Journal, May, 1914. A Method of Meas-
uring Handwriting. Witham.
191 5 — Starch. The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading, Writing,
Spelling and English. The College Book Store, 1914. Madison,.
Wisconsin.
14 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Elementary School Journal, Jan. 15. The Use of an Objective
Scale for Grading Handwriting.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. 15. Slarch, The Meas-
urement of Efficiency in Handwriting.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. 191 5. Training of
Judgment in the Use of the Ayres Scale for Handwriting.
Starch. Journal of Educational Psychology, Mar. 1915. The
Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling and the Overlapping of
Grades in Combined Measurements of Reading, Writing and
Spelling.
Elementary School Journal. 1915 April. An Analytical Scale for
Judging Handwriting. Freeman.
School & Society. Oct. 30, 1915. An application and Critique
of Ayres Handwriting Scales.
National Society for the Study of Education, 14th Year Book.
Handwriting, F. N. Freeman. Univ. of Chicago Press.
Russell Sage Foundation. Ayres. A Scale for Measuring the
Handwriting of Adults.
Teachers College Record, Vol. XV, No. 5. Teachers' Estimates
of the Quality of Specimens of Handwriting. Thorndike.
Educational Administration & Supervision, May, 191 5. A Means
-of Measuring School Achievement in Handwriting. Thorndike.
Educational Administration & Supervision, May, 1915. All the
Elements of Handwriting Measured. Witham.
1916 — Elementary School Journal. Feb. 1916. Measuring quality of
Handwriting.
Elementary School Journal. Feb. 1916. Handwriting tests for
use in school surveys. Freeman.
Journal of Educational Psychology. Oct. 1916. A study
in Handwriting.
James H. Harris. Supt. of Schools, Dubuque, la. A study of
handwriting in the public schools of Dubuque, Iowa.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1912. Writing Abilities
of Elementary and Grammar School Pupils of the City School
system by the Ayres Scale.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 15
1917 — N. Carolina High School Bulletin, Oct. 1916. A comparison of
Ayres and Thorndike Handwriting Scales.
Educational A(lniini>trati()n and Supervision. Nov. 1916. A
Comparison of Writing, Spelling and Arthmetic Abilities, of the
Country and City Children.
Elementary School Journal. Rhythm in Handwriting. Eeb. 1917.
Measuring and Standardization of Handwriting in a School sys-
tem. Elementary School Journal. March 1917.
1918 — A. X. Palmer Co. New York City. 8 leaflets. Standards for the
valuation of Efficiency in Palmer methods of Handwriting.
Elementary School Journal, Eeb., 1918. The Determination of
Estimate Standards of Quality in Handwriting in the Public School.
Elementary School Journal, Feb. 1918. The Comparative Ac-
curacy of the Ayres Handwriting Scale, Gettysburg Edition.
journal of the N. Y. State Teachers' Assn., March 1918. Pen-
manship Scales — Their Merits and Limitations.
Elementary School Journal, June 1918. The Results of Some
Classroom Measurements. (Portsmouth, N. H., Schools).
Zaner & Bloser, Columbus, Ohio. 1917 (?). Handwriting
iMeasurements, Standards and Methods. Report and Results of
Cliillicothe, Ohio, Surveys in Writing.
Elementary School Journal, Sept. 1918. The Use of a Score Card
in Measuring Handwriting.
Louisiana Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. i, June 1918. Report on
Spelling and Penmruiship in Coimtry Schools.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1918. An Analytic Scale
of Handwriting.
Bulletin of the Northern Normal & Industrial School. Oct. 1918.
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Spelling in the City and Town
Schools of South Dakota in 1917-18.
19 1 9 — Business Education. Dec. 1918. Some Measurements in Com-
mercial Education.
Pittsburgh Board of Pub. Ed. Research & Measurement Bulletin
No. 3. Writing Test, June 4, 1918.
i6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Journal of Educational Psychology, Apr. 1919. The Effect of Ex-
empting Pupils Proficient in Handwriting.
School & Society, Feb. 18, 1919. Starch. A Scale for Measuring
Handwriting.
Boston. Dept. of Educational Investigation & Measurement. Bul-
letin No. 17. Organization & Administration of the Intermediate
Schools of Boston.
Wisconsin State Dept. of Education Bulletin No. i, Studies in
Educational Measurement. 1916-17. Report on the Use of Some
Standard Tests.
SPELLING
1913 — Ayres Spelling Vocabularies of Personal & Business Letters. Rus-
sell Sage Foundation. Pamphlet E-126.
Va. Journal of Education, Dec. 1912. An Experiment in Spelling.
Education, Sept. 1913. A Review of Pedagogical Studies in the
Teaching of Spelling. (Describes the different tests.)
Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 59. B. R.
Buckingham. Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and Distribu-
tion, 1 91 3.
1914 — Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1914. Further Experi-
mental Research on Learning to Spell.
School World, Nov. 191 3. Report of an Investigation into Spell-
ing. Experiment at Manchester, England.
Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1913. Experimental
Researches on Learning to Spell.
191 5 — Starch. The ^Measurement of Ef-ficiency in Reading, \\'riting,
Spelling and English. The College Book Store, 1914, ]\Iadison,
Wis.
Starch. Journal of Educational Psychology, ^lar. 191 5. The
Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling and the Overlapping of
Grades in Combined ^leasurements of Reading, Writing and
Spelling.
Pedagogical Seminary, Sept. 191 5. Critical Study of Rice's Spell-
ing Efficiency Investigation.
School and Society, Oct. 9 and 16, 191 5. Spelling Efficiency in
the Oakland Schools.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 17
Russell Sage Foundation. Ayres. A Measuring Scale for Abil-
ity in Spelling.
North Carolina High School Bulletin, Apr. 191 5. High School
Pupils Tested on Spelling.
National Society for the Study of Education. 14th Year Book.
Spelling, H. C. Pryor. Univ. of Chicago Press.
Educational Administration & Supervision, ]May 1915. A Means
of ^Measuring School Achievements in Spelling. I'horndike.
1916 — Poi)ular Educator. Dec. 191 5. Tacoma Spelling Survey. E. E.
Crook, Supt. of Schools, Tacoma, W'ash.
Elementary School Journal, Dec. 1915. The Relation of Spelling
Ability to General Intelligence and to Meaning Vocabulary.
Oakland, Calif., Board of Education 191 5. Bur. of Inf., Stat., &
Ed. Res. Publication. Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland Schools.
Report of the Oakland Spelling Investigation of Oct. 1914.
School & Society, Dec. 18, 191 5. Measuring a School System by
the Buckingham Spelling Scale.
Elementary School Journal, Mar. 1916. Measuring Progress.
\\'ichita, Kansas, Spelling Tests.
Journal of Educational Psychology. Feb. 1916. Additional Re-
searches on Learning to Spell.
A Descriptive & Critical Study of Buckingham's Investigation of
Spelling Efficiency. Educational Administration & Supervision
i\Iay 1916.
Elementary School Journal, June 19 16. Testing the spelling abil-
ities of Iowa .School Children 1)y the lUickingham Test.
J. W. Studebaker Spelling; Results of an Investigation of pupils'
ability to spell. Newson & Co., N. Y. 1916.
Midland Schools. Sept. 1916. The Relation Between Spelling
Judgment and Spelling Ability.
School & Society. Aug. 26, 1916. Difficulty of Ayres Spelling
scale, as shown by 560 students.
School &• Society. Oct. 28. 1916, Nov. 4, tt. t8. 1916. The Relia-
bility of Spelling Scales Involving A Deviation Formula for Cor-
relation.
i8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
1917 — Educational Administration and Supervision. Nov. 1916. A
Comparison of Writing, Spelling and Arithmetic Ability of Coun-
try and City Children.
Weighing the Scales. English Journal, Alarch 1917. Resume of
Different Measurements for testing Spelling, etc., University Chi-
cago Press.
I
Boston. Dept. of Educational Investigation & ^Measurement. Bul-
letin XL Spelling. The Teaching of Spelling.
1918 — Elementary School Journal, Nov. 1917. Extent and Meaning of
the loss in transfer in Spelling.
Journal of the New York State Teachers' Assn. March 191 8. A
Practical Application of Standard Tests in Spelling, Language and
Arithmetic.
Cleveland, Ohio, Board of Education. Division of Reference &
Research. Bulletin No. 2, Alarch 11, 1918. The Results of a
Spelling Test.
Elementary School Journal, May 1918. Practical Application of
Standard Tests in Spelling, Languages, and Arithmetic.
New York (City) Dept. of Ed., Division of Reference & Research.
Publication No. 16. Report on some Measurements in Spelling in
Schools of the Borough of Richmond, City of New York.
Elementary School Journal. June 191 8. The Results of Some
Classroom Measurements. (Portsmouth, N. H.).
Louisiana Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. i. June 1918. Report on
Spelling and Penmanship in Country Schools.
1919 — Teachers College Record. ^lar. 1919. The Psychological Exam-
ination of Poor Spellers.
Colo. State Teachers' Bulletin, Ser. 18. No. 12, Alar. 1919,
Research Bulletin No. 2. A Study in Spelling.
Louisiana State Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. 6, May 1919. Report
on Spelling in the City of Alexandria, Rapides Parish.
Elementary School Journal. May 1919. An Experiment in Column
versus Dictation Spelling.
Washington Ed. Assn. Annual for the Year 1918, con-
taining report on Spelling by Dr. Clifford Woody.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 19
Elcnientury School Journal. June 1919. An Experimental Eval-
uation of Method in Spelling.
Journal of Educational Psychology, May-June 1919. Standard-
ized Illustrative Sentences for the Springfield Spelling List.
General Education Board. Stuart A. Courtis. The Gary Public
Schools. Measurement of Classroom Products.
Los Angeles School Dept. Div. of Ed. Res. ist Year Book Sec. i.
School Document No. 13. Gives results in Writing & Spelling.
Commercial Tests & How to Use Them. Sherwin Cody.
Pittsburgh Bd. of Pub. Ed. Research & Measurement Bulletin
No. 3. Writing Test, June 4, 1918.
Bulletin of the Northern Normal & Industrial School, Oct. 1918.
Reading, Writing, Spelling, and Arithmetic in the City and Town
Schools of South Dakota in 1917-18.
University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, First Series No. 24, Nov.
25, 1918. Bui. No. 43. Iowa Spelling Scale.
PART II
SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN UNSOLVED IN SOME OF THE MORE
STRICTLY COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS AND A SUGGESTED METHOD OF
PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENTATION IN THESE LINES
From PART I it will be seen that the commercial education field is
still open for much research work along experimental lines.
In accordance with the plan laid down in the introduction, a few of
the strictly commercial subjects have been chosen and an effort has been
made to develop a method of procedure for some typical experiments in
these subjects.
The subjects chosen are :
Typewriting
Shorthand
Bookkeeping
Some typical problems, remaining unsolved in these subjects, are the
following :
TYPEWRITING
1. Does emphasizing speed in typewriting interfere with ac-
curacy, and, if so, to what extent?
2. The age at which it is most economically advantageous for
a person to begin the study of typewriting.
3. The production of a typewriting norm.
4. Should we teach the Touch Method or the Sight [Method
of Typewriting in our schools?
5. Should the schools have open or blank keyboards on the
typewriters used for instruction purposes?
STENOGRAPHY
1. The number of presentations necessary to fix an outline.
2. The number of ideas that can be presented in a lesson.
3. Intervals of repetition.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
21
4. A method for deterniinino" those unfit for high speed in
shorthand.
5. I'orearni vs. linger movement in shortliand.
6. The drill that would be most valuable to shorthand students.
7. The i)roportion of time that should be spent in reading
back notes.
BOOKKEEPING
1. Gradation in mastery.
2. Use of suggesters.
3. The use of forms vs. the use of only the text book, in
bookkeeping.
FORM USED IN WRITING UP THE EXPERIMENTS
In writing up the method of procedure for the experiments just listed,
it was thought wise to follow the outline used in the Pedagogical Seminar
conducted by Dr. A. Duncan Yocum at the University of Pennsylvania.
This outline was developed in the Seminar under Dr. Yocum's direction
and was formulated by Dr. Ambrose H. Suhrie, a former member of the
Seminar.
As will be seen from the outline, it has been planned for use in a semi-
nar. It covers every stej) in an experiment, from the time the problem is
first conceived until the experiment is completed, and the results are
printed and distributed. Since the experiments herein given are not be-
ing presented to a seminar, certain portions of the outline will, of course,
"be omitted in the treatise and a few slight modifications will be made to
suit the needs of presenting the subject outside of a seminar.
It was thought well to use this oiuline:
Because it is a good one and seems to answer the ])urjK)se satis-
factorily.
Because it has been used in writing up a number (if e\])eriments
and is familiar to a mnnber of students in this field of work;
therefore, they would know just^ where to look for any par-
ticular details of an experiment in which they are interested.
Because in these days of standardization, the value of a standard
outline for experiments of this kind will be a])preciated.
22 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The outline worked out in Dr. Yocum's Seminar and written up by Dr.
Suhrie is given below :f
I. FORMULATION OF A PROBLEM FOR EXPERIMENTA-
TION. {Foniiulation)§
1. Introduction.
a. A statement in very general terms of some controverted point
or of some unsolved problem in educational method. {Gen-
eral Statement).
b. A brief survey of experiments made in the same general field
for the scientific determination of the value of factors in edu-
cational method, and a summary of results. {Survey of Ex-
periments Made).
c. Difi^erentiation of problem proposed from any or all others
attempted in the same general field — or a brief statement of
reasons for resubmitting a problem to test. {Differentiation)
or (Reasons for Restibniittiiig ).
2. Specific statement of problem so worded as to clearly define the
field of the experiment and isolate the factor to be tested.
{Specific Statement).
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY FOR EXPERIMENTS.
{Selection of Laboratory)
1. Grades or Groups of Pupils selected and a statement of reasons for
the particular choice. {Groups Chosen).
2. Schools chosen — because of:* {Schools Chosen).
a. General character of student body — describe.
b. Accessibility to experimenter.
fSee "The Inductive Determination of Educational Methods" by Ambrose L.
Suhrie, published by Warwick & York, Inc., Baltimore, Md.
§The headings in parenthesis and italics are not those of Dr. Suhrie but of the
writer. For the sake of brevity, these will be used in the experiments which fol-
low, instead of the very complete headings Dr. Suhrie has given.
*Dr. Suhrie's outline reads :
2. Schools chosen — because of :
a. Ideal external conditions.
(i) General character of student body — describe.
(2) Accessibility to experimenter.
b. Co-operation of supervisory officers — reasons for assuming this.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 23
c. Co-operation of all concerned— reasons for assuming this,
d. Any other reasons.
3. Teacher in charge of grades or groups. Selected because: (Teach-
ers in charge).
a. Intelligent with reference to controlling conditions of test, in
co-operation with experimenter or investigator. Precautions
taken to insure this.
■
b. His scientific attitude of mind. Reasons for believing this.
c. Professionally interested in results of test.
d. Any other reasons.*
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR OF EXPERIMENT. {Choice of
Conductor)
1. A consideration of each of the following agents or any combina-
tion of them collaborating as best adapted to the purposes of
the experiment and most likely to secure valid results.
a. The investigator — why or why not?
b. The teacher in charge of the grade or group — why or why not ?
c. The principal in charge of a building — why or why not?
d. The superintendent in charge of a system — why or why not?
e. Anyone else — why or why not ?*
2. The agent (or agents) selected as determined by: {Agent selected).
a. Ideal desirability.
b. Expediency.
c. Necessity.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENT.
( Dcz'clopincni uf Procedure)
I. Content — should include a full consideration of: {Content).
*Added hv the writer.
24 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
(General plan briefly stated. )$
a. Difficulties encountered and plans for overcoming them. {Dif-
ficulties).
( I ) f Tests — pre-preliminary
preliminary
equalization
final
(2). Preliminary conferences with school officials and
teachers.
(3). Any other difficulties.*
b. Dates and days on which instruction, drills or tests are to be
given. ( Time ).
c. Time of day when presentations, drills or tests are to be given.
{Period ).
d. Subject-matter to be used as basis of instruction, drills or tests.
{Subjeef-inatfer ) .
e. Details of procedure proposed for experimenter or his as-
sistants in conducting the experiment. For example: {De-
tails of procedure) .
(Details in general. )§
( T ) . Copies of instruction to be given to helpers with state-
ment of precautions to be observed.
(2). Time limits fixed for periods of instruction, drills or
tests — with ])recautions to be observed.
(3). Form, order, and method of giving directions to group
to be tested. Precautions to be observed.
:j:The writer finds that, for the purpose of this thesis, it would be well, in the
case of some experiments, to include such a plan at this point.
fAltered by the writer to suit his particular needs in this thesis.
Dr. Suhrie's outline is :
(i). Preliminary tests to find: (a) the "unknown,' (b) disturbing fac-
tors, (c) suitable subject-matter, (d) time limits, (e) suitable labor-
atory, (f) etc.
*Added by the writer.
vjlnserted l)y the writer to meet the needs in some of the experiments given
in this thesis.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 25
(4). Record to be made of:
(a), interruptions to attention of class or of any con-
siderable number of students (in some cases of
even only one or two)* by visitors, messengers,
storm or rain, accident, discipline, etc. ;
(b). weather conditions during each successive period
of presentations, drills or tests;
(c). temperature of laboratory (classroom);,
(d). condition of ventilation;
(e). missteps in carrying out instructions by slight or
considerable variations in form of a definitely
planned procedure, as, for instance, the inver-
sion of order or the varying pronunciation of
words.
Form — A statement in full detail and in order of steps to be taken
in the preparation and presentation of material of test and in
full conduct of experiment. (Form).
V. CONDUCTING OF EXPERIMENT. (Conduciing of
Experiment)
Under conditions agreed upon with such slight modifications only
as are made necessary by exigencies of a given situation.
I'ull, detailed, and explicit record — at the time — of all variations
from a])pr()ved procedure, together with any observations
which might introduce varying factors.
\"I. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENT AND PRELIMINARY
REPORT. {Prcliniiiiary Report)
1. A full statement by experimenter and assistants — in person, when
possible — to Seminar of all information, whether recorded or
not, which has bearing direct or remote, upon interpretation
of results and validity of same.
2. Tentative i-n'line of scheme for tabulation of data with sugges-
ti()n:> ;. > possible or significant correlations to be found, dia-
grams 1. be made, and points to be emphasized in formal re-
})(>rt fur ])ublication.
*Added bv the writer.
26 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
VII. FORMAL REPORT AND PUBLICATION. (Formal Report)
1. Preparation of report by individual or committee.
2. Principles governing form of report as determined by the uses to
which it is to be put.
a. The abstract
b. The simimary
c. The detailed report
3. Review, criticism, and, if need be, complete or partial revision by
Seminar.
4. Dissemination of the several kinds of reports by most effective and
economical means, so as to hasten the development of a sci-
ence of educational method and favorably aifect current edu-
cational practice.
A development of the outline jtist given is next in order, but, before
proceeding with this, it might be well to make a few remarks on edu-
cational experimentation in general, to afford a viewpoint to those who
are unfamiliar with this field.
There are several things to be borne in mind with regard to educational
experimentation :
I. Educational experimentation is a new branch and is, therefore, un-
developed and imperfect, and much remains to be learned about it. Its
methods of procedure are not so well established as those of chemistry
and physics are at present, but these sciences also made a crude begin-
ning.
" 2. We must recognize our limits, which will, however, broaden from
time to time as our knowledge of the subject increases. The solution of
many problems is still much beyond us. due to our not being able to con-
trol all the conditions that enter. The chemist can now control most
of the conditions entering into his experiments, even to very fine dift"er-
ences in weight, quantity, quality, and temperature. By continued effort
we shall learn luore about the material with which we deal and the laws
under wdiich it operates.
3. The patience of an Edison will be needed on the part of the experi-
menter. If the type of material which Edison handles requires 10,000 at-
tempts* before success is attained, we can form an idea as to what is be-
fore us with at least some experiments. We shall have to improve our
method of procedure until our results are constant, or until we can sat-
isfactorily explain why they are not.
*See p. r.
1
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION zy
Two precautions sh(,uld he kept constantly in niincl l)y the experimen-
ter :
1. We must not hecome so enthusiastic as to lose regard for facts. The
chief reason educational experimentation has come into disfavor is that
some would-be ex])erimenters have tried something and, with reckless
■disregard for truth, have claimed certain things as a result. The shallow
thinkers have accepted these claims and have spread the news as Gospel
trntli. The careful thinker finds many flaws in the proof, and, if he forms
his ()])inion of educational experimentation from a case of tliis kind, he,
of corrse, has no i)atience with it. Statistics are often very carelessly
compiled and are thus also the cause for loss of faith in the method. Some
people believe that merely because figures are ])resented they cannot lie,
but statisticians know better.
2. We must not, on the other hand, become so bound to the red tape of
an experiment that we therebv shut out the truth. For instance, in the
Seminar at th.' L^niversity of Pennsylvania there was a student who was
inclined to adhere absoluely to conditions as laid down, merely because
they were laid down in the procedure. He did this, regardless of the ef-
fect cr the value of an individual case ; e. g., in a typewriting experiment,
when it came to the }Joint where we considered which were the students
whose records should be included in the results, we naturally excluded all
those who had been absent during the period of the experiment — they did
not meet the- requirements laid down, one of which was that they had to
be j-.resent. Then there was brought up for consideration a special case —
a boy who had d:ne absolutely nothing, though he had been present all
the time. The rest of the class hid worked. His record was considerably
below that of anybody's else, in fact, so much so that anyone would imme-
diately conclude that his was a special case. The rest of the students
showed a uniform record. If he were included in the result, it would re-
duce the average of the class considerably. It was contended that this
boy's record should not be included since he had not done the work prop-
erly, but had simply gone through the motions of it. By including him we
should get a perverted idea of the effect of the work upon the class. The
meiuber of the Seminar in ([uestion said, "He was present every time and
fulfilled the conditions of the experiment and, therefore, you will have to
include him."
The opposite contention was that, when dealing with a small group of
pupils, one cannot pronounce such a sua]) judgment. Though this boy was
present each day at the recitation, and though he went through the motions
of the recitation, he did not do the work with the same spirit as the rest
of the class, and, therefore, should not be included. He was abnormal on
28 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
the face of the results and abnormal by the judgment of the teacher wha
saw him day after day. It would be much more helpful to Education, it
would seem, to discard his record entirely, for the other members of the
class showed a uniform record. It would be proper, of course, to append
a note saying that the results given were for all of the class except one,
who did not meet the conditions and then give his record. If one were
considering the averages of a thousand children, the result would not be
noticeably affected by a case of this kind, but, where one considers the
average of a small group, it does figure considerably and should be
guarded against.
The term "ex]:)eriment" as used in this thesis will be taken to include:
The process of testing pupils in order to obtain a norm, as for in-
stance, in the Courtis Arithmetic Tests, so that we can tell what
the average attainment is for the children of the country in that
subject and can make comparisons.
The process of trying to determine the relative value of two or
more methods, or the re-action of various pupils to one method ;
i. e., varying one factor and keeping all others constant, or compen-
sating for or eliminating any that are not.
We are now ready to proceed to the development of the outline men-
tioned.
It is felt that this should be done before proceeding with the experi-
ments, because :
. I. There are a number of general conditions which hold in most experi-
ments and which, if covered fully here, would avoid much repetition.
2. It would furnish a catalogue of the considerations that arise under
each heading in connection with an educational experiment.
Dr. Suhrie's complete headings will be used, as well as the shorter ones
of the writer.
I. FOR^IULATION OF A PROBLEM FOR EXPERIMENTA-
TION. (Formulation)
1. Introduction.
I'
a. A statement in very general terms of some controverted point
or of some unsolved problem in educational method. (Gen-
eral Statement).
It would seem logical to begin by stating, in a very general way, some
controverted point or some unsolved problem, on which the contemplated
ex]:»eriment is expected to throw light. The matter would be more easily
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 29
understood by everyone if the existing conditions were described in de-
tail, the various methods presented, and the claims stated that arc made
for each. The flaws or alleged flaws in each of the claims should be
pointed out. The experimenter's ideas as to the lines along which the ex-
periment should be made, might also be given here.
For instance, in Typewriting, on the question of Speed and Accuracy,
the present situation should be stated ; viz., that, so far as is known, there
is nothing but opinion to support the methods used. Then the present
methods should be given — some teachers place all the emphasis on accur-
acy, some on speed, and some on a combination of the two. The claims
for each method should be stated, and the flaws or defects pointed out
by those using some other method should be mentioned. The experimen-
ter, in giving his ideas on the subject, might, in reviewing the situation,
ask what is the business man's attitude toward the requirements of the
class room. Do his requirements throw out any of the methods under
consideration ? How can we obtain what he wants ?
It might be well for the experimenter to add whether or not, in his opin-
ion, there really is a valid question here, and to give his reasons.
Sometimes it might be well to review at this point, the historical side of
the question.
Possibly our first difficulty will be to analyze properly the situation in
hand and pick out the elements for which we want to test. A teacher may
feel that there is something about a method which is not just as it should
be, and }"et he cannot make the matter clear enough to anyone else to sug-
gest a remedy. Then again, he may know just what is wrong, or where
the trouble lies, but have difificulty in finding a remedy. Or, he may know
just what the situation is and be able to explain it, he may know just what
must be done, but he may not know of any way of isolating the elements
for which he must test in making the experiment. A discussion of these
points might find place here.
Under this heading it was intended that the situation should be dis-
cussed in the Seminar so as to have the benefit of group judgment in ana-
lyzing the conditions and isolating the proi)er factor which is sought in the
test.
b. A brief survey of the experiments made in the same general
field for the scientific determination of the value of factors in
educational method and a summary of the results. (Survey
of Experiments Made).
Of course, it is only proper that a scientific undertaking should con-
sider efiforts that have been made along the same line.
A question that will confront a person making up such a list is whether
30 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
or not he should include all attempts or only the valid attempts. One will
find that many people, even educators and university department heads,
do not understand what is meant by the term "experiment," as was proved
by some replies to the letter on p. 6. One may find, if he writes for a
list of the experiments in a given field, that there will be included some
things that he would not call an experiment, let alone a valid one. It does
not seem wise to spend much time in determining what to include and
what to exclude. The better policy would call for the inclusion of every-
thing that has even the semblance of an experiment, leaving it to the read-
er to determine whether or not the thing in question has any use in solving
his problem. This policy will keep before us some undertakings which
may at some time throw light on other points. Sometimes they at least
point the way to the things that should be avoided. It is easier to discard
what we do not want, than to seek for something that has been lost.
Bibliographies of some experiments are beginning to appear, which
should be consulted.
Information concerning unlisted experiments could be obtained from
the various universities conducting experimental work of this kind.
Some of the Research and Test Bureaus of the more progressive educa-
tional systems conduct experiments and might be consulted.
It would seem that, in this survey of experiments already made, the fol-
lowing information should be given concerning each :
Name or nature of the experiment
By whom conducted
Under what auspices (university, etc.)
Where made
When made
Where the complete report is to be found
Results briefly stated
Comments on the results, if deemed advisable.
c. Dififerentiation of the problem proposed, from any and all
others attempted in the same general field — or a brief state-
ment of reasons for resubmitting the problem to test. ( Dif-
ferentiation — Reasons for Resubmitting).
If the experiment in mind diiTers from the ones already tried, it would
be in order to state the diiTerence. Or. if the experiment is the same, it
would seem logical to give some reasons for doing it over again. The rea-
sons may not at once be apparent to the reader and. therefore, should be
stated plainly. Sometimes a flaw is later discovered in the method or in
the carr\ing out of the method, and this mav necessitate its resubmission.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3E
For instance, it may be discovered later that a serious clerical error, which,
cannot now be corrected, was made in reporting the results of the exper-
iment ; or it may be discovered that a teacher or several teachers did not
carry out the instructions properly and feared to hazard their positions,
by letting this be known before the report of the experiment was made.
2. Specific statement of the problem so worded as to clearly de-
fine the field of the experiment and isolate the factor to be
tested. (Specific Statement).
Here should be given a very definite statement of the problem under-
taken. This should be very carefully worded so that the exact scope and
field of the experiment will be clear.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY FOR EXPERIMENTA-
TION. (Selection of Laboratory)
I. Grade or groups of children selected and a statement of rea-
sons for the particular choice.
Under this heading should be determined what classes or groups of
pupils are considered the proper ones as subjects for the experiment. Very
few experiments can be tried on all classes. There are usually some rea-
sons why one particular class is the best for the experiment.
Some of the important considerations follow :
The experiment may require that we select :
1. Pupils of a certain class — kindergarten class, ist to 8th grades,
some secondary school class, some post-secondary school class.
2. Pupils taking a certain subject.
3. Pupils of a certain age.
4. Pupils of a certain maturity.
5. l'ui)ils of a certain general intelligence.
6. Pupils having received certain marks.
7. Pupils alphabetically arranged.
8. Pupils having a certain environment.
9. i'upils having equal ability in a subject.
10. Pupils having a certain ability to understand the English lan-
guage.
11. Pupils having the same teacher.
32 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
12. Pupils having a certain teacher.
13. Pupils of the only grade that seems fit for the subject-matter
of the experiment.
14. Pupils of one sex.
15. Pupils of the only grade available for experimentation.
1. We may decide to take the pupils in any one or more of cur reg-
ular classes as we find them in the kindergarten, or in any of the eight
grades, or in the junior or the regular high school, or in the normal school,
college or university.
2. Or we may want to take special groups within any of these classes,
or groups made up of a combination of any of the classes. If we were
seeking a norm, as, for instance, in typewriting, we should want the reg-
ular classes in typewriting, just as they are organized, which may not coin-
cide with the regular senior class, junior class, etc.
A choice of beginners in a subject, might call forth some pupils from the
senior, junior, sophomore, and freshman classes in a high school where the
■elective system is much in vogue. The same thing would happen if inter-
mediates in a subject were desired, or advanced pupils.
The experiment might require us to rule out those w^ho are repeating the
subject, thus breaking up the regular class formation. We might have to
rule out those who had previous contact with a subject, as in bookkeeping,
because some of the students worked in an office during the summer va-
cation ; or in typewriting, due to some of the students having "picked it
up" themselves.
Sometimes the only reason we have for taking a certain grade or class
is because the subject under consideration is taught there.
Sometimes it is because the experiment must be made at a certain stage
in the subject and the grade chosen is the one in which the work is being
done.
3. Pupils of a certain age might be desired, which would take them
from the various regular class groups mentioned on p. 31 under i.
4. Pupils of a certain maturity might be desired, which would have
like efifect.
5. This would also be true if pupils of a certain general intelligence
were wanted.
6. It may be that the previous marks are to be used as a basis, either
the marks in general or in a particular subject — the marks for one year, or
more, or less ; or it may be the marks from one teacher or from a group of
teachers.*
*See Equalization tests, p. 50.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 33
7. It may be necessary to divide the pupils of a class into two or more
sections alphabetically.
8. It may be necessary to choose pnpils having a certain environment,
either at home or on the streets, or in school, etc.
9. It may be necessaray so to choose the groups that all sections will
start on an equal basis, so far as the experiment is concerned. $
For instance, it would not do to put into one section a larger number
of pupils better adapted to the work, than into another section. They
might be brighter, more industrious, more energetic, more co-operative,
etc. One can readily see, without any argument, that if the A Section con-
tains all of the industrious pupils and the B Section has the laggards, the
A Section will by all means show the better results. A test at the end of
the given period will not necessarily show the result of the method em-
ployed with the A Section as compared with the method employed with
the B Section, but will, in all probability, show the result of the applica-
tion of the pupils of the one group as compared with the lack of applica-
tion of the pupils of the other group. Even if the methods are reversed
(and this is a good way to verify the validity of the results), and the one
which was used on the A Section is now used on the B Section, and vice
versa, it is altogether likely that the A Section would still show the bet-
ter results. Right here we have the big flaw in most experiments. How
can we tell that both sections are at the same starting point in relation to
the experiment in hand ? How can we tell that the one section does not
have certain advantages over the other at the start, which predestine it 10
make a better showing, no matter what the method employed is?
Most people will grant that where extreme conditions exist, as in the
case given, there is no valid experiment, but some are not so willing tO'
grant that there is a difference worth noting in a group known as "bright""
students. Some people would not even grant that there is a difference be-
tween those that one teacher considers bright and those that another con-
siders bright. Such a basis for equalizing classes is altogether too un-
scientific. We cannot simi)ly take a group of pupils whom the teachers
consider the bright ones, jjut half into one section and half into another
section and feel content that we have equalized sections.
One often has trouble in determining on what basis the groups should
be equalized. For instance, in typewriting one would pronounce an a
priori judgment that the student who plays the piano has an advantage
over those who do not in learning typewriting, because his fingers are sup-
ple from the piano ])ractice. Yet. this student may make a poor typist.
JSee Equalization tests, p. 49ff.
34 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
This should be made the subject of a thorough mvestigation. The records
of the West Chester High School show the following:
Those
of very
No.
No.
No. who
high speed
No. in
No
. pass-
who play
not pass
- play
not
Class A —
Class
ing-
piano
ing-
piano
piano
piano
Present year . . .
31
23
9
8
1
3
2
Last year ....
25
21
7
4
1
1
3
Year before . . .
29
29
9
1
1
Class B
17
11
3
6
1
Class C
26
23
1
3
2
Class D
29
19
4
10
H we have a norm for the subject under consideration, our troubles
will be relieved considerably by applying the norm and forming our sec-
tions according to it.
In the absence of a norm, we must devise some tests which will equalize
our sections. Much difficulty will usually be experienced here. We should
give these as pre-preliminary* tests, to see whether or not they actually
give us a method of equalizing. A great deal of effort must be put on
these tests. When we have found a valid method, it can be used as an
equalization test.
It may be necessary in a typewriting class to ecjualize the sections on the
basis of speed. It may be necessary to equalize the sections of another
class according to their ability in any of the elements that make up the
subject-matter to be studied ; for instance, in typewriting, limberness of
fingers ; in advanced bookkeeping, a knowledge of debits and credits.
Equalization would not ordinarily be necessary when dealing with thou-
sands, as the large number would absorb individual inequalities. This, of
course, could not be true in a small group.
10. In a school containing many foreign-born pupils, it ma}' be neces-
sary to group them according to their ability to understand the English
language.
11. The experiment may require two or more sections taught by the
same teacher. These conditions will often determine our choice by neces-
sity. The matter of the personality of teachers enters to such an extent,
that success or failure of classes often can be traced almost wholly to
this factor. "The individuality of the teacher may affect results more
strongly than variation in the method that is being investigated. "f There-
fore, it is often best for one teacher to take all sections of a class in an ex-
periment.
*See p. 48ff.
fFrom Dr. Yocum's "Precautions, etc., needed to the Validity of an Experi-
ment."
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
35
12. Sometimes we may choose to take a certain group because their
regular teacher is the one best fitted in the school for conducting experi-
ments of this kind, or because the experimenter is the teacher and wishes
to observe the work himself.
13. Sometimes we may have to take a certain grade or class because the
subject-matter seems best to fit that grade.
14. Occasionall}' we desire to know whether or not there is any differ-
ence in the way a certain method or subject affects the boys and the girls.
In that case we would choose on the basis of sex.
15. Not infrecjuently we must take a certain grade or class because it
is the only one available for the experiment. If the conditions seem to
indicate that this will not be a serious drawback, it might be advisable to
try the experiment, in order to see what results one actually does get under
the circumstances. A full statement of conditions should always accom-
pany the results, however, so that no one will be misled and no unwar-
ranted conclusions be spread broadcast.
2. Schools Chosen — because of: (Schools Chosen).
In choosing the schools best suited for the experiment in mind, we may
select :
1. Schools of a certain grade — elementary, secondary, or higher.
2. Schools of a certain tyj)* — business, normal, or art.
3. Schools of a certain type — public or private.
4. Schools having pupils of a certain maturity.
Schools having certain types of pupils:
5. high, medium, or low.
6. American or foreign.
7. white, colored, red. or yellow.
8. industrious or lazy.
9. Schools in a certain type of town.
10. Schools having juipils from certain sections of the community.
11. Schools to which the experimenter has access.
12. School or schools in which the experimenter is a teacher.
13. Schools where the pupils are not antagonistic to experiments,
but decidedly co-operative.
14. Schools where the administrative conditions are good, or bet-
ter than elsewhere.
36 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
15. Schools having the best laboratory facilities.
16. Schools where the teachers are known by the experimenter.
17. Schools nearest at hand.
18. Schools designated by the school authorities.
19. Any school or schools.
20. The only school or schools available.
a. General Character of Student Body — Describe.
1. It may be necessary to choose an elementary, secondary, or higher
school — kindergarten, grade school, regular high school, junior or senior
high school, junior college or regular college, or university.
2. It may be necessary to choose a school because of the general
maturity of its students.
3. It may be necessary to choose a special type of school like a normal
school, business school, art school, or trade school, because of the work
or type of pupils.
4. One may have to decide between a public and a private school, be-
cause of the difference in the character of the student body. It may have
to be a choice between the academy and the high school.
5. The School may be chosen because the type of student wanted is
high, low, or medium, or because the student body is considered a normal
one, or a superior or an inferior one, either by people who know and have
grounds for their judgment or by hearsay.
6. A certain school may be chosen because it has a high type of Ameri-
can child or because it has a foreign element.
7. A school may be selected because it is one for white or colored
children, for the Red Indian or for the Yellow Oriental children.
8. It may be because the pupils in that school do good work or do poor
work ; or because they are industrious or are likely to be lazy.
9. It may be because the school is in an industrial, a mining, a milling,
or a residential town.
10. It may be because the pupils enrolled come from the industrial
section of the town or from the residential section.
b. Accessibility to experimenter.
11. A school may be chosen because the experimenter has access to it.
12. It may be because the experimenter is a teacher or an officer there.
A general condition that applies to all experiments is that the school
should be accessible to the experimenter, either personally, through a
representative, or through the mails — in other words, that there should
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 37
l)e no obstacles put in the way of his freely coniniunicating with the
people who are conducting the experiment.
The only way an experimenter has of knowing that the plans laid down
for the experiment are being carried out is by ascertaining how the work
is progressing, and being able to get into touch with the people conducting
the work, in order to make matters clear.
In some experiments the conditions are so complicated that it would be
difficult to explain the whole matter through written instructions, and a
personal conference with the teachers is very desirable, if not absolutely
necessary.
In other cases, however, wdiere the experiment is purely routine, this
is not so necessary, as the instructions can be written and handed to the
teachers. Any teacher, sufficiently intelligent to carry on the experiment,
ought to be able to read the instructions in such a case and understand
them.
Sometimes it is absolutely necessary for the experimenter himself to
conduct the experiment, and in such cases, of course, he should have the
perfect freedom of the school and be able to reach the school as often as
the conduct of the experiment requires. This would apply in cases where
a very complicated or highly technical procedure is necessary.
In the case of a personal conference, of course, the school should be
accessible to the experimenter in a geographical sense ; that is, it should
be sufficiently near at hand for him to api)ear in person ; but just as e(|ually
im])ortant is it that the authorities do not block matters by forbidding him
to enter the building. We all know how stubborn some school authorities
have become, and the report of an experiment should contain a definite
statement that the school was or was not accessible according to these
various meanings.
In the case where written instructions are all that arc necessary, the
school should be accessible to the experimenter in the sense that when he
sends the written instructions through the mail or otherwise, the principal,
or the person to whom he addresses them, will see that they are delivered
to the proper teachers in due time.
If the experimenter lived in San Francisco, and it was a very compli-
cated experiment that rec[uired several conferences, and the experiment
was to be conducted in Philadelphia, it would be plainly evident that he
could not come to Philadeli)hia very often, wliich fact may bring about in-
valid results through misunderstandings. If he does come to Philadelphia
as often as is necessary to make matters clear, that fact should be definite-
ly stated (saying just how often the visits were made), so that complete
38 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
information is at hand in case matters do not work out properly and the
cause therefore is sought.
In some experiments it will be necessary for the experimenter to hold
several conferences with the teachers who are conducting the experiment.
Of course, conditions will have to be such that this can be done. If a very
complicated procedure or a very indefinite procedure is mapped out, and
the teachers cannot keep in touch with the experimenter to have disputed
points cleared up, it is very doubtful that the experiment is going to be car-
ried out so as to insure valid results. All the necessary conferences should
be held with the persons concerned and a statement to that eflfect should
be made in reporting the experiment so that the matter will not be left in
doubt. One slip in any of the conditions may make the results invalid. If
they are invalid, we want to know it, so that we can tell whether our meth-
od of procedure is wrong or whether the trouble lies in the conduct of the
experiment.
The experimenter may train a corps of workers and send them out over
the country to conduct the experiment, when complicated procedure is
involved and one person cannot do it all.
In some experiments the experimenter will have to be present in order
to be certain that the instructions are being carried out just as he intended.
This is necessary in very complicated ones, and in those in which unex-
pected re-actions are likely to take place where a quick decision as to the
course of procedure will have to be made. Naturally only he, because he
knows most about the experiment, will be able to render a wise judgment.
In the exi)eriments recorded, where the conditions just envmierated hold,
a mere statement that the school should be accessible to the experimenter
will be made, together with a reference to this section.
c. Co-operation of All Concerned — Reasons for Assuming This. (Co-
operation ) .
It may be necessary to find schools where the pupils are not antagonis-
tic to experimentation, Init decidedly co-operative.
14. It may be that schools are recjuired where the administrative con-
ditions are good, or better than elsewhere.
One essential in every experiment is that there should be the necessary
co-operation on the part of the class, the teacher, the principal, the super-
visory officers, the superintendent, and the investigator or experimenter —
in short, on the part of everybody concerned in the experiment.
A long explanation as to the necessity of this is hardly called for. One
can readily see that, no matter how carefully an experiment is planned,
valid results can hardly be expected, if the teacher refuses to carry it out
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 39
properly, or shows b\ her attitude that she does not care whether the
work is done properly or not. Or the class may become antagonistic and
will carry out the instructions only formally, if even that much ; or may,
just for sheer contrariness, put down the wrong answers, as is often done
in questionnaires ; or the principal, or superintendent, or supervisory officers
may interfere and raise objections to one part of the experiment and may
not permit another part of it to be carried out, or may create an unfavor-
able atmosphere in the class room, etc.
Neither is it worth while to experiment in a school where the powers
that be. or the teachers, are opposed to experimental methods. We all
know of types of principals, superintendents, supervisors, and teachers,
who are very much opposed to anything called progressive — anything dif-
ferent from what they have been accustomed to for years. It is not
worth while in those schools whose teachers, either through failure, or
exceptional success without knowing why they have had success, con-
clude that teaching is simply a complicated problem, which can never be
disentangled, and that these experiments are useless ; or in those whose
teachers are so material that, while they can readily see how a person can
analyze a chemical compound, they cannot see how the psychical elements
can be isolated for experimentation. Where persons absolutely oppose
this type of investigation, it is questionable w^iether the experiment wall
be conducted properly or not.
Co-operation on the part of the students* is also absolutely necessary.
Otherwise the resuhs will be invalid. The freshman of the West Chester
High School were given the Otis intelligence test in 1919 under conditions
which made the students decidedly antagonistic and affected the results.
11ie class was divided into two sections. Much time was lost in con-
ducting the test WMth the first section, which made the second section late
in starting the test. Before completing it, the dismissal ])cll rang. The
students became very uneasy but were required to finish the work. On
ciuestioning some of them the next day they said they did not care what
they put down, they "wantefl to get out." The results of that test cannot
be counted as valid. They cannot show a true state of affairs wi'h regard
to the freshmen of that high school, and yet the experimenter intended
to use them as such at one of our Eastern universities, despite all ]:iro-
tests to the contrary.
Numerous other examples could be given, but it is believed that the
reader sees the absolute necessity for co-operation, without going into
the matter further.
If it should happen that, in the conduct of an experiment, any lack of
*See p. 54.
40 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
co-operation becomes evident, an explicit note, stating just what form it
takes and to what extent it has interfered with the experiment, should
be made, so that the matter may be borne in mind when the results are
considered.
Reasons for assuming that this co-operation exists should be given ;
e. g.. the spoken or written promises to that effect, attitude and actions
in preliminary meetings and throughout the test, professional inter-
est of the persons involved, such as taking university courses in the sub-
ject, progressive attitude along educational lines, attitude in previous simil-
ar experiments, etc. These persons may be conducting experiments them-
selves. It may be that they are in the department of the school system
which regularly does this work.
Nothing should be left in doubt. It is better to err by inserting too much
detail in the report than not enough. \Miat now appears to be useless de-
tail in a report of this kind, may some day help to solve a question raised.
As this applies to all experiments, the mere fact that co-operation is
necessary will be stated in the experiments that follow, and a reference
will be made to this section for further detail, in order to save unnecessary
bulk in printing.
d. Any Other Reasons.
15. A school may be chosen because it has the proper laboratory fa-
cilities.
16. It may be because the experimenter knows the teachers at that
school, and can vouch for their attitude toward the matter in hand.
17. A school may be chosen because of the proximity of its location,
making it possible for the experimenter to have personal conferences with
the teachers who are to conduct the work.
18. A certain school may be chosen because there is an understanding
wath the school authorities to use that school, or there may be permission
from headquarters to do so, implying that other schools may not be used.
It may be that the school board has given permission to have the experi-
ment tried there.
It may be difficult to find a school or schools where the experiment can
be given, because the school authorities object to experimenting on general
grounds.
Or it may be that the objection is raised because there is too much at
stake. If the plan does not seem very plausible, it may happen that one
section of the class advances faster than the other and then there is that
deficiency to be made up, because of which the authorities would not want
to have it tried on any great number of students. Or it may be that
seniors in high school are the students to take the work. Each senior'
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
41
iiui ^t reach a certain standard in order to graduate. Even a short period
required for an experiment might throw one or hoth sections so far he-
hind that it is only with the greatest (hfhcuhy that tlie work could he made
lip he fore graduation.
The time required for an experiment may he over too long a period,
and the authorities may feel that they cannot very well consent to the loss
of that time hy experimentation.
While they might grant that it would he a gain to the students as a whole,
it might be a loss to certain students, and they might not feel justihed in
attempting it because of this.
19. Any school or schools may he chosen as .in the case of standardized
tests, where it is the object to obtain the status of things under conditions
as they exist.
20. A school may be chosen because it is the only one available, either
for tlie purpose, or to the experimenter.
3. Teachers in Charge of Grades or Groups. Selected because :
( Teachers Chosen ) .
A teacher may he chosen because:
a. I. Of her intelligence.
2. Of her co-operation.
b. 3. Of her scientihc attitude of mind.
c. 4. Of her i)rofessional attitude.
5. The sttulents have confidence in her al)ility.
d. 6. The group has been chosen by II-i and the regular
teacher must take charge of the grout).
7. She has sufficient resourcefulness to handle two sec-
tions usin<r different methods.
8.
9-
a.
She has foresight enough to notice varying conditions.
Because the students are familiar with her and if some-
one else were to conduct the work, there would be a
disturbing element introduced which might affect the
results.
intelligent with reference to controlling conditions of test,
in co-operation with experimenter or investigator. Pre-
cautions taken to insure this.
I. If a teacher is to conduct the experiment, she* should be the best
*She — generic.
42 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
teacher available for the purpose. She should be sufficiently intelligent to
understand the experiment thoroughly, and capable of mastering all the
details. She should be thoroughly capable of breaking away from her
trodden path and carrying out the lesson in accordance with a new idea.
She should not be "sot in her ways."
She should be one who can thoroughly grasp the importance of the ex-
periment and the idea contained in it.
2. She ought to be capable of co-operating with the experimenter and
willing to co-operate, by actions as well as by words.
The necessity for co-operation is given on p. 38 11.
b. Scientific attitude of mind. — Reasons for believing this.
3. She should be a teacher with the scientific attitude ; that is, she-
should be one who takes the stand that, while we do not know everything
in Education at present, we shall know a great deal more if we keep study-
ing the subject. She must be one who believes that, out of the tangle of
conditions found in the class room, we ought to be able to pick the separate
threads and by diligent, careful experimenting, to be able to get some
light on the subject. She should be open-minded and not prejudiced in
any way, and should be willing to throw overboard her pet theories if
they are wrong, and she ought not to be unwilling to test them out fairly.
It may be that she has taken work at a university along this line or is a
member of a seminar, committee, or commission that does work of this^
kind, and has successfully conducted other experiments.
She may have shown her scientific attitude by previous work done or'
by interest shown in this work through actions, words, or deeds.
Reasons for believing that the teacher meets these requirements should
be given in the report.
c. Professionally interested in results of test.
4. She should be a teacher who takes pride in her profession and is
willing to advance it wherever she can. She should be progressive, being
on the watch for new methods and for the latest findings in Education,
and therefore interested in what can be learned for the profession through
an experiment of the kind in mind. She ought to be interested in trying
to get the body of knowledge in Education so well organized that all fair-
thinking people will grant that Education is a science.
Her professional interest could be ascertained by her general attitude in
school work — being interested in obtaining the best possible results in her
room and her work and, therefore, being willing to try to find the best
possible method of doing it.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 43
Reasons for believing the teacher to be of this kind, should be given in
the report.
4. She should be a good disciplinarian, so that the most favorable
conditions for attention will prevail in her room. She should be a teacher
with whom the pupils co-operate and one who does not antagonize them.
She should not be of the type that has the pupils so frightened that they
lose their thinking powers and become nervous and upset while being test-
ed. A kindly-disposed, helpful teacher, whom the pupils love and not
fear, and with whom they are intimate, would be the best. Thus she can
get the fullest co-operation of the children.
5. She must be a teacher v.ho has a sufficient reputation among the
students for knowing what she is doing, so that, if the experiment requires
their working in the dark for a time, their confidence in her saying that
everything will come out all right, will keep them diligently at work on it.
d. Any other reasons.
6. wShe may be selected because the group has been chosen by any of
the reasons under ll-i, p. 31, and she is the regular teacher who must take
charge of the group.
7. She must have sufficient resourcefulness to be able to handle two
or more sections, each using a different method.
8. She should be a keen observer and be able to detect any varying con-
ditions that might have weight in the test, and be able to size them up at
the time. She should have foresight enough to recognize any unlooked-
for re-actions or turns of events which might ]jrove important when con-
sidering the results. These incidents should be written out in full detail
at the time and the memorandinii handed to the experimenter.
9. Sometimes an experiment w ill not permit a strange person coming
in and taking charge of the class. If a class is accustomed to a certain
teacher, it dees not always readily adjust itself to the ways, mannerisms,
voice, and requirements of a new person. Of course, this would have
considerable effect on some experiments, and for that reason the regular
teacher is sometimes needed.
10. It may be necessary to choose a certain teacher l)ecause no other
is available. When we must resort to anything of this kind, it should al-
ways be stated when giving out results.
Reasons for believing the teacher to fulfill the requirements should be
given in the report.
Of course, in much of the foregoing, ideal requirements have been
given. It will not always be possible to obtain just the type of teacher
44 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
wanted. The proper type of pupils will often be available but no teacher
of the kind required. It may happen that the teacher will not affect the
pupils as would be expected, and that valid results will be obtained never-
theless. But it may also happen that she proves to be a considerably dis-
turbing element and consequently throws results far off. If information
concerning her is at hand, an allowance can be made accordingly when
considering the results.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR OF EXPERIMENT. (Choice of
Conductor)
By "conductor of the experiment" is meant the person who is actually
doing the work of carrying on the experiment with the pupils. For this
purpose any one or more of the following persons could be used : the in-
vestigator or experimenter, one of the teachers, the school principal, the
school superintendent, or anyone else who has the necessary qualifications.
In planning an experiment, each of these should be considered as a pos-
sibility, and the reasons for and against should be jotted down so they can
be incorporated in the final report, so that, if a question arises on the mat-
ter of choice of conductor, the reasons for making the choice outlined will
be available.
One thing that must he borne in mind is that when these terms are
used, the person himself is not thought of, but the position with respect
to the experiment that the person holds. For instance, the experimenter
may also be the teacher of the class, or the principal may be the experi-
menter, or the superintendent may be the experimenter, etc. What
is said about the teacher in charge of the experiment applies to the person
acting in that capacity, whether it be the investigator, principal, superin-
tendent, or anyone else. When we speak of the principal, we mean the
person as such, and in that capacity only.
I. A consideration of each of the following agents or any combi-
nation of them collaborating as best adapted to the pur-
pose of the experiment and mo.st likely to secure valid re-
sults.
a. The Investigator — why or why not ?
The investigator or experimenter may be chosen because he is or he
is not the teacher of the class, for the same reasons as given under
II-3, p. 41, for Teacher in Charge.
In this thesis the words "investigator" and "experimenter" will be used
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 45
synonymously. Generally speaking, the investigator is not the best per-
son to conduct the experiment. The regular teacher answers the pur-
pose better, as stated under the next heading. There are, however, some
experiments so complicated, or reciuiring so much technical knowledge
with which the investigator alone is familiar, that it becomes necessary
for him to conduct the experiment. If this happens to be the case, full
details of the situation should be given in the report. Of course, if the
experimenter happens to be the teacher of the class on whom the experi-
ment is to be tried, that alters the situation.
b. Teacher in charge of the grade or group — why or why not?
The teacher in charge of the grade or group may be chosen for any of
the reasons given under II-3, p. 41.
Generally speaking, the teacher in charge of the class is the most suit-
able person for conducting the expermient. She should be chosen in cer-
tain cases because the students are familiar with her and therefore there
will be no disturbing element as there woidd be by bringing into the group
a strange person to conduct the experiment.
In the case of an experiment that starts with the beginning of a year
or term, before the pupils have become acquainted with the teacher, it does
not matter so much, and someone else could conduct it just as well, but
many experiments involve teaching or drilling somewhere in the middle
or at the end of the term and this can only be done well by the teacher who
had the class right along, or at some previous time. To bring in another
person would mean that some time would be lost by the pupils in becom-
ing familiar with the person and in becoming accustomed to her ways —
method, discipline, voice, requirements, manners, standards, etc.
Someone else could also conduct an experiment where there is no teach-
ing to be done — where it is merely a matter of finding the present status,
of affairs, as, for instance, ascertaining the present speed of pupils in
typewriting; but even then, the mere presence of a stranger in the room
and the consciousness on the part of the pupils that a stranger is timing
them instead of their regular teacher, may prove a disturbing element and
make considerable difference with certain types of "nervous" pupils, and
if there were any of that type in the class, it would not be well to let the
experimenter do even this simple act, when he is not the regular teacher.
c. The principal in charge of a building — why or why not?
The traditional principal is not a good person to conduct the experi-
ment, because the pupils fear him and that introduces an unnatural ele-
46 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
ment into the matter, and we can hardly expect the best resul's. Usually
the principal is not in the good graces of the students and will not be
able to get their co-operation. If he is not of the traditional type, or if he
is the regular teacher of the class, that alters the case.
The same reasons given under II-3. p. 41, would apply here also.
d. The superintendent in charge of a system — why or why not ?
The traditional superintendent is feared possibly even more than the
principal, and it would not be wise, under these circumstances, to have
him conduct the experiment, if that factor is likely to enter into the re-
sults. If he can go into the class room, however, without causing any
changed attitude on the part of the students, it would be a different
matter.
The reasons given under II-3, p. 41, would also apply.
e. Anyone else.
The reasons given for experimenter, teacher, principal, and superinten-
dent would apply to anyone else in charge of the experiment.
2. Agent* (or Agents) Selected as Determined by: (Agent Selected).
a. Ideal desirability.
Of course, in many experiments, it is desirable to have ideal condi-
tions in every respect, and this would include choosing the ideal person
to conduct the experiment.
b. Expediency.
But this is often impossible and then it becomes necessary to take the
next best, that is, the expedient, as it is worded in the outline ; not that
thereby just as good results are obtained as would be the case if ideal con-
ditions prevailed, but simply that it is thought better to deal with what is
available and find out what those conditions will reveal, than not to try at
all. Trying out the experiment under conditions that even fall short of
the ideal will shed some light on the problem at least, which will no doubt
be helpful and may point the way out of some difficulty. Of course, before
an elaborate experiment is tried on a large scale, it is well to consider
whether the conditions obtainable approach the ideal sufficiently to war-
*By "agent" is meant the conductor of the experiment.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
47
rant the expenditure of so much money. Meanwhile, efforts would better
be confined to experiments on a small scale, with the object of learning as
much as possible about them before investing in them a very large sum of
money, time, and effort.
Whenever it is not possible to obtain just what is wanted, the grounds
upon which the choice was made should be stated.
c. Necessity.
When ideal conditions are unobtainable and no choice in the matter is
given, it sometimes becomes necessary to take what circumstances thrust
upon one. This applies in general, as well as to the matter of choosing the
agent for conducting the experiment. On the whole, it is better to con-
duct the experiment even under such conditions (though not for publica-
tion), for some illuminating side-lights, which may be of considerable
help in various ways, may be brought forth.
The conditions which forced such a course should always be stated.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENT.
(Development of Procedure)
I. Content — should include a fi;ll consideration of:
General plan in brief.
In some experiments the development of the procedure will be better
understood by the reader, if the genral plan is briefly given at this point.
This is especially the case when the method is very complicated. There-
fore it has been thought well to include it in some of the experiments cov-
ered by this thesis.
a. Difficulties encountered and plans for overcoming them. (Dif-
ficulties).
(i). Tests.
Some definitions are necessary at this point.
FINAL TEST. By this term we shall mean a test which is given to the
pupils at the end of the time allotted for an experiment, the results of
w^hich test will be used in determining the progress made by each group
during the experiment. Each experiment will have a final test of some
kind.
EQUALIZATION TEST. By this term we shall mean a test given be-
4§ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
fore the experiment begins, given for the purpose of equahzing the sec-
tions or groups of a class so that one group will not be handicapped in the
experiment because of not having the same chance at the start. For in-
stance, in a typewriting experiment which involved speed work, we would
not want one section to have a higher speed than the other at the start.
One section would have an advantage over the other. The test we would
give to the students to equalize the speed of the sections would be an
equalization test.
Sometimes one test will answer the purposes of the equalization test and
the preliminary test. This is the case in some typewriting experiments.
PRELIMINARY TEST. By this term we shall mean the test given at
the beginning of an experiment for the purpose of obtaining data which
will be compared with those of the final test. The difference between the
results of the two tests will show the gain that has been made during the
time of the experiment.
PRE-PRELIMINARY TEST. By this term we shall mean any tests
which are not a part of the experiment itself, but which are given for the
purpose of clearing up any situation in connection with a contemplated ex-
periment.
It seems necessary in our terms to distinguish between such a test and
the one described under the term "Preliminary Test." Dr. Suhrie does
not use the term "pre-preliminar}" but uses "preliminary" in the sense
here used for "])re-iireliminary." A word had to be found for another
class of tests and in the Seminar the word "i)re-preliminar) " was used,
although half in jest. It may not be elegant but inasmuch as it clearly ex-
presses the idea of tests taken even before the preliminary test can be
taken, and inasmuch as a number of students in educational research are
familiar with the term, its use is felt justified.
A consideration of the tests will now l)e undertaken.
PRE-PRELIMINARY TESTS should be used in every experiment
where we are not absolutely sure of our grounds. They should be used
to determine whether or not the idea in mind is practicable. There are
so many factors entering into an educational experiment that no one can
be certain that a plan he has in nnncl will actually work out uiuil it has
been tried. Pre-preliminary tests are to be used in determining this.
Even after an experimenter has a workable procedure he should try
out the whole experiment in a small way Ijefore going to the expense of
undertaking one on a large scale. Sometimes the actual working out of
an experiment in this pre-preliminary way brings us revelations which are
quite surprising.
Pre-preliminary tests may be used to ascertain the "unknown" in con-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
49
nection with any experiment. There are hkely to he several factors
which escaped the exjierimenter, even after careful thought. A pre-
preliminary test may hring some of them to light.
There mav he a numher of disturbing factors connected with an experi-
ment, that a pre-preliminary test may help to discover. A numher of sit-
uations may prove quite annoying to the students, which we do not feel
would he noticeable.
It may he very difficult to select subject-matter for the actual experi-
ment or for the equalization, preliminary, or final tests. The easiest way
out of the difficulty is to prepare what is thought to he a suitable test for
equalization, for the preliminary, or the final test, and give it to the stu-
dents. Likewise it is ])0ssible to try out on the students in this pre-pre-
liminary way, the kind of drills that are contemplated for the exj^eriment
itself.
The time element may require some testing. It may l)e difficult to tell
how long an equalization, a preliminary, or a final test to give. A pre-
preliminary test should be given for the j^urpose of determining this. If
one test is found too long, another should be tried. If that is found too
short, a medium one could be tried, etc.
It may be a question of the length of the instruction period, or drill
period. The experimenter should decide upon a period he thinks proper
and then try it out. making it longer or shorter, as may be necessary. In
the case of not knowing the length of time to devote to an experiment, it
will simplv mean making several pre-preliminary experiments until that
element is properly adjusted.
It may not be known whether the work can be done properly in the
room assigned for it. The only way to be absolutely certain is to try
it out l)y giving a pre-preliminary test in that room.
Auv other questions that arise in connection with a contemplated ex-
periment should be tried out with pre-preliminary tests, given under the
same conditions as will obtain in the experiment itself. For example, we
may wish to kncnv whether any students would be disturbed by a person
walking around the room during a typewriting test : or whether there is
much difference in the jjcrsonal co-efficients of a class. We may want
to know how much time it takes to do a certain thing. A pre-prelim-
inary test would help to decide these questions.
EQUALIZATION TI<:ST. The need for eciualization has already
been mentioned on p. t,t, fi".
To devise the proper equalization test may give us more trouble than
anything else in the experiment. It can readily be seen that if the two
sections of a class are not equalized in some way. the results cannot be
50 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
counted valid because some of the students may have had a considerable
handicap in any number of respects. For instance, in experimenting with
a class in Rapid Addition, where two parallel sections are needed, it
would be decidedly unfair to put all the rapid adders and the accurate
adders into one section and the others into another section. The only
way we can be sure we are not doing this is to give an equalization test.
It is going to require a number of years before we can find satisfactory
equalization tests for some subjects. It is not merely a question of care-
fully thinking out a test, but the test itself must be tried out on a large
scale, and the results must show that it really does what it was intended
to do. Then also, the results of the test must be verified, which often
takes a considerable time. For example, to obtain a test of the typewrit-
ing ability of students about to take up the work, which test could be
used to equalize the sections of a beginners' class on which we wish to
experiment, it would be necessary, in the first place, to decide what factors
we believe constitute typewriting ability, and to give the tests to a large
number of students. Then we would have to wait a year or so, to see
whether the progress made by those students is in accordance with the
prediction of the test. At the end of another year or so, the comparison
should again be made for the same purpose. If we find uniform agree-
ment, w^e can feel that we have found a test such as we are seeking.
Of course, the question is raised as to what we shall do in the mean-
while w^ith typewriting experiments that require this test. We may pro-
ceed with them as best we can, for three reasons :
1. The dififerences in typewriting ability may not be so great as
we think, and this factor may be a very minor one in the ex-
periment, which the results are likely to show.
2. If large numbers are involved, these individual dififerences
would be absorbed.
3. Testing out the rest of the procedure may be a justification.
The correctness of this portion will be established or disproved.
It is not a very satisfactory method to equalize sections on the basis of
the marks or grades which the students have made, represented by the
judgment marks of the teachers, although if the marks for the entire
group are given by the same teacher or teachers and cover a considerable
period of time, they are less apt to be worthless for our purpose, than if
they were given by dift'erent teachers or for only a short length of time.
PRELlillNARY TEST. As a rule we shall need two sets of data,
which will be made the basis of calculating the results of the experiment.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 51
We shall want one set at the beginning and one set at the completion of
the experiment. These will be compared and will show the progress made
during the experiment. The data will usually be obtained by giving some
kind of a test. The one at the beginning of the experiment we shall call
the "Preliminary Test," and the one at the end we shall call the "Final
Test."
Frequently the equalization test can also be used as a preliminary test.
FINAL TESTS. Note what has been said under "Preliminary Test."
(2) Preliminary conferences with school officials and teachers.
An experimenter may have considerable difficult)- in obtaining satis-
factory conferences with school officials and teachers, preliminary to the
experiment.
Of course, there are some experiments where the procedure is so sim-
ple that it could be written out and sent to the teachers, but there are oth-
ers so complicated that it would be necessary to instruct the teacher in
person. If the school officials and the teachers will not co-operate to the
extent of having the necessary conferences with the experimenter, the
project might just as well be abandoned in that school, because, without
the necessary co-operation, the results obtained could not be counted as
valid.
(3) Other difficulties.
There may be a number of other difficulties, which may be encountered,
viz. :
SCORING
Let us grant that we have found the proper tests. Our real troubles
have not vanished. How shall the papers be marked ? Shall we con-
sider answers as being either right or wrong, or shall we give credit
for fractional parts of the answers which are correct? One way out of
this difficulty is to bear the fact in mind, when making up the questions^
and arrange them so that the answers will be either right or wrong.
Give no place for middle ground.
In bookkeeping, let us say, we have given the student some transactions,
for w hich entries arc to be made ; he is also to post and take a trial bal-
ance. Are we going to count the whole matter wrong because he cannot
get his trial l)alance ? He may have everything correct but the addition of
one small column, whicli throws out his trial balance. Are we going to
52 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
count it entirely wrong or give him some credit? If some credit is given,
then how much? Suppose in a journal entry he has the debit correct and
the credit wrong, shall we count the whole transaction wrong, or say it is
half correct ? Suppose he has the debit correct and also the credit, but he
has put down the wrong figure, say, for the debit. Shall we count it all
wrong, half wrong, one quarter wrong, or what?
In typewriting, for instance, before 1918 only 5 points were deducted
for an error, while the next year the penalty was increased to 10 points
for each error. Which should we use ?
Where questions require answers that run into any number of w-ords,
or where the answer involves several ideas, it is sometimes difficult to
know how to mark the answer. Shall we give the student credit for
knowing the answer, even if he does not state it clearly, when we know it
is clear in his mind, possibly from a conversation with him right before
class? We are trying to find what is in his mind, and, if we really know,
that is the data we should use, and not the data that is on paper and incor-
rectly placed there. Placing things on paper is simply a means that we
have adopted to ascertain what is in the mind. The method we are using
may be wrong. We are seeking what the student knows. On the other
hand, if we follow a certain plan with one pupil, it would be unfair to
others, who may be in the same position.
To what extent w'ill English enter into the question? Are we going to
mark for neatness of papers, or only for the subject-matter? In book-
keeping, are w^e going to ])enalize the bookkeeping mark for the poor pen-
manship, which is responsible for the untidy appearance of the books?
Are we going to deduct from his mark, supposed to show his bookkeeping
knowledge, any lack of preparation in fundamentals, as in addition, etc.?
To be sure these are necessary to make a good bookkeeper, but possibly
it is his understanding of bookkeeping that we are trying to measure,
and that would primarily mean the system of debits and credits, and not
ability in addition or subtraction.
Possibly the best way out of difficult marking is to analyze the situation
and see what elements should be included in the answer to the question.
For instance, take the question : "Tell what the Negotiable Instruments
Law is." In answer to this question, the student should include the fol-
lowing ideas : It is a law, drawn up in the U. S. A., by the American Bar
Association, within the last few decades, with the idea of making it pos-
sible for all our states to have uniform laws regarding negotiable instru-
ments. There are five ideas. If the students has given all of the five, we
shall count his answer correct. If any one is missing, we shall deduct one
f^fth.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
53
Our scheme is spoiled, however, when the student has correctly an-
swered all of the question and then adds something that is not right. Are
we going to give him full value for this question? If not, how much are
we going to deduct ?
To be specific, take the commercial law question just stated; suppose
some student gives much more information than that above (and all of it
is correct ). are we going to give him the same mark as the person who has
given only the five ideas enumerated ? It does not seeem fair, and yet,
we made it plain to the class that we require only the chief ideas, and
others, proceeding on this assumption have given us the five. Should they
get any less than a correct mark for the question ?
Another question that arises is this : By whom are the papers to be
marked? May the pupils do it or must the teacher or some clerical force
do it? In some things, where there is little possibility of cheating, the pu-
pils may be trusted to do it, but in other cases this cannot be done.
The book. "Commercial Tests and How to Give Them."* suggests hav-
ing the paper marked by the person who has written it. after it has been
checked by another pupil whose name is affixed, and re-checked by still
another pupil whose name is also affixed. This gives a very close check
on the marking, and saves a great deal of work on the part of the teacher.
PROCEDURE WITH KNOWLEDGE OR WITHOUT
A question that is sometimes hard to decide is this : Shcnild the pupils
do the experiment with a full knowledge of the reasons for it. elc. or
should they not ? Should they even know that an experiment is going
on — that it is not regular class work that is being done i^
The arguments are :
That we can hardly expect the student to give us what we want, if he
does not know fully what is expected. For example, if we tell the pujiils
that a test is being made, the results of whicli are going to the university,
or are to be compared with other schools of the state or country, we imme-
diately prompt some students to do their best. l)ui others are made so
nervous that they cannot do well. If the pupils do not know just what
we want, the most resourceful one might, out of his originality, do just
we want, had he known it. If a student does not know that he is to hurry,
we want, if he knows it. If a student does not know that he is to hurry,
he will take his time. He might be able to do more than he does, and
would do it, if he knows speed is desired. No boy is on his toes all the
time and we may be marking him unfairly.
*By Sherwiii Cody, pulilished by World Book Co., "S'onkcrs, X. Y.
54 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Some students are prompted to be "smart" as soon as they know some-
thing of this nature is going on. An illustration is the tests of Bible
knowledge given college students. They knew someone was trying to
ascertain how stupid they were on matters of this kind, and they did not
want to disappoint him.
If the students know it is an experiment, those antagonistic to such
things will immediately withhold their co-operation.
If two methods are being tried out and one of these methods is dis-
tasteful to the students (irrespective as to whether or not it produces the
better results), and if they suspect that the policy after the experiment
will be determined by the results of the experiment, they are likely to put
their heads together and defeat the method that is distasteful to them.
It is indeed difficult to know just how much to tell the students.
ANTAGONISTIC ATTITUDE OF PUPIL AND REFUSAL TO
CO-OPERATE
Trouble may be caused by a considerable number of pupils, or even a
few, taking an antagonistic attitude towards the experiment and some of
them absolutely refusing to co-operate. One case in mind is that of a
girl who did not see any sense in experiments. She was not getting along
any too well with her regular work and this afiforded her more ground to
find fault. It would seem that the only proper course, in a case of this
kind, would be to exclude her results when figuring the results of a small
group. If a large group were being averaged, her peculiarities would be
lost in the average, but they would not be in the average of a small
grotip. The one reporting an experiment should not absolutely ignore
her, but should state the conditions and the results obtained by her. If
later a cjuestion should arise about the wisdom of excluding her in the
average, she may still be included without any trouble, if judgment pro-
noimces it wiser.
■ INABILITY OF PUPILS TO DO WORK
Another case comes to mind which should not be counted in a small ex-
periment when averaging results. This was also in a typewriting experi-
ment. The girl in question came to school each day in such condition that
she was not really able to do the work as it should be done. She was a
society butterfly, being out late to dances nearly every night during the
week, coming to school at the last stroke of nine and being half asleep
when she got there. It was plainly seen that she could not do efficient
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
55
work and for that reason was not meeting the requirements of the ex-
periment and should not be included when averaging the results.
In a small group, an experimenter is often concerned for fear there may
not be many whose results may be figured in the average, because a num-
ber of the students have made themselves ineligible by reason of absence,
inability or indisposition to do the work.
Dates and days on which instruction,
given. (Time).
Irills or tests are to be
In considering the time for an experiment, there are several , things
which should not be omitted :
The dates of the beginning and ending of the experiment should be set
definitely, if the nature of the experiment allows it. That involves the
length of the period during which the experiment is to take place. We
must look ahead and see that our time calculation is not affected by holi-
days (both regular and special) and by vacations. If one is not careful,
he finds, after having nearly completed an experiment, that a holiday or
vacation interferes and upsets everything. This would be very serious in
an experiment where the time element must be carefully considered. Gen-
tiles must bear in mind the fact that if the group to take the experiment
contains a considerable nuiuber of children of the Jewish faith, the Jew-
ish holidays must also be taken into consideration.
As far as can be the case, wq should also consider possible epidemics in
this connection. For instance, when the Spanish Influenza was sweeping
nearby districts, it would have been unwise to have started an experiment,
because the likelihood was very great that any schools in question would
be closed, or else there would be so many absent that the efifort of tlie
experiment would be practically useless.
If normal conditions are essential, it is unwise to begin an experiment
when war time excitement prevails as has just been the case in our land. It
is too niucli of a disturbing element both for the teacher and the pupil.
If it is known that for any reason many ])ui)ils are likel\- to be absent,
the experiment should be postponed until another time. It means that in
the results under such conditions only a small number of students could
be taken into the account. We all know that it is more desirable to have
the largest possible number of students eligible for the results. It helps
to eliminate the individual element and gives us an average from a great-
er number.
In considering the end of the experiment, we must bear in mind that
while we must make the experiment long enough to really sIkjw results,
yet there are cases where it would defeat its object, if the time were too
56 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
long. If the same subject-matter is used and a long period of time is giv-
en, both sections are likely to master the subject-matter because of the
mere drill they have had on it, regardless of the method used.
Or if the time is too long, the students may become disinterested and the
conditions of the experiment would not be met. The time must not be
long enough to be tiring, especially if the method is not very self-recom-
mending.
On the other hand, it cannot be so short that neither method has had an
opportunity to work.
We must be particular in choosing the day for the final test. It should
not come immediately after a week-end, holiday, or vacation. In some ex-
periments this would be a considerable item. In typewriting, for instance,
speed tests would show better results if given at the end of the week, than
immediately after a vacation, or even a few days' rest.
The days of the week on which the experiment is to be conducted must
also be determined. This will involve the interval of repetition. In ex-
periments requiring every-other-day meetings of the groups, we face the
uncompromising odd day in the week. We could hardly keep perfect every-
other-day intervals, for no one would want to come to school on Sundays
or Saturdays when necessary. Yet this obstacle is not so important as it
looks at first sight, because even if we did ascertain what could be done
under a perfect every-other-day schedule, it would be of very little practi-
cal value to us because we do not and could not run our schools that way.
It would be more practical to ascertain what could be done with Monday-
Wednesday-Friday classes. If the interval is the important factor, holi-
days must be watched or they will upset our plans.
Another vexatious question is, how are we to decide what the proper
intervals are or should be. Pre-preliminary tests might help to answer
this.
c. Time of day when presentations, drills and tests are to be given.
(Periods).
This consideration is likely to give us some trouble when trying to work
out experiments. In the first place, we have to decide what periods or
hours of the day are most suitable for the experiment under consideration,
and, in the second place, we shall have a try to have the school schedule
arranged to suit.
In determining the most desirable period of the day we must bear sev-
eral things in mind, which may affect the proposed experiment. We must
avoid periods when the students are fatigued because of the work done in
the periods immediately preceding. It should not be the end of a heavy
session, either morning or afternoon.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
57
It should iioi be ininit'cliately after any classes that reqtiire an undue
amount of concentration, which will leave its effect on the minds of the
students throui;h fatigue. A combination of Algebra, Latin, and Frig-
onometry classes, immediately before the experiment period, would be
unfortunate.
W'e must avoid periods following those wherein the sttidents have had
a hilarious time and becattse of that fact cannot immediately settle down
to work.
A\'e must consider what the students' preceding activities are. as well as
his inactivities. Sometimes the inactivities are more disastrous to the
experiment than the activities.
The period whicli follows may be a factor. The anticii)ation of it may
be a disturbance.
We must avoid all periods that follow any wherein the students have
been made tmlit. through any cause, for the immediate application of
their minds to the work in hand.
We must avoid also the periods when the teacher for any reason is not
in shape to be most efficient.
in the case of typewrting, during the winter months, the first period
of a session would not be the most desirable, because for some of the
late-comers, the fmgers might still be so cold that they could not do
efficient work in manipulating them. If no other period is available, it
may be necessary to postpone the experiment tmtil another season of the
year.
If a particular laboratory is necessary, as, for instance, in typewriting,
we must be certain that the periods decided upon are those when the room
is at our disposal.
It will not always be possible to arrange a school schedtile to fit the
ideal desiral)ility of an experiment, and then it would mean either condtict-
ing the experiment during the periods that are available or not conducting
it at all. It would I)e a qtiestion of choosing the lesser of the two evils.
Ordinarily it would seem best to try the experiment even under the ad-
verse conditions, imless they were extremely so. Of cotirse, the restilts
ought not to be given otit without clearly stating that the desired con-
ditions did not ])rev.'iil .'uid that therefore the results are not absolutely
reliable.
Our report of the experiment should always state what precedes the
period, for the session at least. It wotdd do no harm to give the com-
plete schedule of the students for the whole day up to that period.
d. Subiect-matter to be tised as basis of instruction, drill or tests.
(^Sul)ject-matterj.
58 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The subject-matter of the instruction, drills, or tests, will have to be de-
termined next. Of course, that can be determined only after we clearly
know for what we are testing or experimenting. If any questions arise
as to practicability, we might save time by using pre-preliminary tests as
mentioned on p. 48 ff.
We should be very definite in our report. We should give all the de-
tails of the study, so that any one reading the outline, even if he did not
know the subject taught, would be able to appreciate the points and con-
tentions held.
The drills and tests should be given in detail, as well as an example, at
least, of the lessons under each method.
We should state the subject in which the experiment is being given, the
sections of the subject to be covered, name of text (if one is to be used),
and pages or paragraphs to be covered, also name of publisher. This
will make for definiteness, and be valuable for future reference.
e. Details of Procedure proposed for experimenter or his assist-
ants in conducting the experiment. For example :
(i) Copies of instruction to *be given to helpers with state-
ment of precautions to be observed.
We now come to a consideration of all other details of procedure that
have not been covered.
We must work out the instructions which are to be given to the helpers,
and the precautions that must be observed. These should be handed to
the assistants in written form, regardless of any personal conferences. It
is so easy to forget unless instructions are in definite, written form.
(2) Time limits fixed for periods of instruction, drill or test
— with precautions to be observed.
\\'e should consider the precautions necessary so far as observing the
time limits in the drills, instructions, and tests, is concerned.
(3) Form, order and method of giving directions to group
to be tested. Precautions to be observed.
Next we should consider the directions to be given to the group to be
tested. \\"e should determine the method of giving the directions,
whether orally or in writing. We must determine upon the order in
which the instructions are given, being sure that we give first, the thing
we want first, and last, the thing we want last. There should be a state-
ment in the instructions that the order is not to be changed, if that is the
desire.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
5'J
These instructions slioiild include:
What to say first, what to say seconch etc.
What It) say, what not to say. We should give the teacher the reasons
for this, so that in case it is necessary for her to make any decisions at the
nionien!, she may l)e ahle to decide wisely in our absence, .^he will then
know the lines of thought that the experimenter is following.
\\ hat to do first, what to do second, etc.
W hat to do and what not to do.
We shall have to decide just what form the direction.s shall take. Shall
the teacher read the directions as they are printed? Where we want
absolute uniformity, that is the best way of obtaining it. We may decide
that the teacher may give the sense of the printed directions in her own
words.
The pupils must not become excited. The experiment should be per-
fectly normal and ordinary, so as not to arouse excitement of suspicions.
The children should be told exactly what we re([uire, so that they will not
be under wrong impressions and give us the wrong result.
Precautions to be observed in connection with all these considerations,
should <aho be given, both those to be told the students and those to be
observed by the teacher.
(4) Record to be made of (a) interruption to attention of class
or of any considerable number of students by visitors, mes-
sengers, storm or rain, accident, discipline, etc.
(a ) Weather conditions during each successful period of pre-
sentation, drill or test.
(c) Temperature of laboratory (class room).
(d) Condition of ventilation.
(e) Mis.steps in carrying out instructions by slight or consid-
erable variations in form of a definitely planned procedure, as,
for instance, the inversion of order or the varying pronuncia-
tion of words.
We must not overlook to mention in the instructions that there arc a
number of things which we cannot ordinarily control, and which are im-
portant enough to be disturbing elements in some cases. 1^he teacher
should have these in nnnd and make a complete note of them in her re-
port, stating definitely whether or not any of the disturbances occurred
and to just what extent they interfered according to her observation.
(a) The attention of the class or of any members of the class may be
disturbed by visitors, messengers, storm, lightning, thunder, rain, snow,
hail, accident, di.scipline, noises of various kinds on the street, street ped-
dlers, organ grinders, street musicians, fire alarms or passing of fire en-
I
I
I
I
6o EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
gines, fire drills, parades in the street, and numerous other things. Tardy
students may also cause disturbance. Complete note of interruptions should
be made at the time, so as to get all of the details before they are forgotten.
(b) Weather conditions.
Weather conditions should be noted for each period, presentations and
drills as well as tests. It may be thought that it is not necessary to keep
a record of the weather conditions if an experiment extends over a long
period, that is, several months, but in the interest of science, it should be
done.
A long succession of gloomy days when one section is reciting and a
long succession of bright days for the other section may have considera-
ble bearing on the results, ^^^e all know that we can work better on a
bright, crisp day than on a dull, close day. These conditions may or may
not interfere with our experiment ; it would depend largely upon the na-
ture of the experiment. However, if there is an unexpected difference,,
we want to have the exact data before us concerning it.
The teacher should state whether the day was :
bright, dull, sunny, part cloudy, cloudy,
rain, snow, hail, showers (how long during experiment),
storm (how long and what kind — terrific or mild, thunder or wind,,
cloud-burst, tornado, etc.)
humid, damp, sultry, sticky, close,
clear, crisp, brisk, invigorating.
This information should be stated for the period during which the
experiment took place and for the preceding part of the day, if any sudden
change occurred, that might have a bearing upon it.
Atmospheric Conditions.
Atmospheric conditions may upset our plans.
Work done in a clear, dry atmosphere, it would seem, has the advantage
over work done in a humid atmosphere. The conditions of the atmosphere
should be noted, as it might account for differences in results of experi-
ments made at several different places. Sticky, humid days occur fre-
quently in New York City, and make considerable difference to certain
pieces of apparatus. The old Remington Typewriter, with its wood key
bars, was very much subject to weather conditions. The wood bars used
to swell on humid days, and the machines would not work as well as on
bright, crisp days. That trouble is now eliminated from the new Reming-
ton, as metal is used in place of wood, but it would have been very unfair
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 6i
to compare a class being tested with these machines on a humid day and
a class taking the test under more favorable weather conditions.
(c) Temperature.
The temperature of the class room or laboratory should be taken each
day during the experiment. A hot summer day would not be so invigo-
rating as a pleasant fall day. Better work might be looked for in a room
where the temperature is 70 F. than where it is 105 F.
Of course, if each section had an equal number of days of the same
kind, it would seem logical to say that there ought to be no difiference in
the results because of this factor. But the days may be so distributed that
the one section has considerably more vm favorable days than the other.
Even if each section averaged the same number of favorable and unfav-
orable days, there might be a difference if for one section the favorable
days occurred at the most difficult lessons and if for the other section the
imfavorable days came at that time. Not knowing those lessons thor-
oughly might considerably hamper the students in the work that follows.
Some experiments may be devised that must be conducted under cer-
tain weather conditions and no others would do so well.
One may have trouble keeping the temperature of the room at the
proper point. In typewriting one cannot accomplish much if the room is
cold and the fingers cannot get warmed up enough to be limber. If they
are cold and stiff, we do not have absolute control over them and they
cannot move fast and accurately.
A\'e must not be misled by thermometers, however, especially in win-
ter. Some thermometers are known to have registered 68 while the stu-
dents in certain parts of the room complained of the heat and they had
grounds for their discomfort. The thermostat thermometer was far from,
the hottest part of the room, and, of course, the thermometer could not
be moved. Neither could windows be opened, for such action would
disarrange the delicate thermostat system. If such conditions exist, the
teacher should tell what the thermometer read but should supplement it
by a statement as to the actual condition of affairs.
(d) Ventilation.
Condition of ventilation should also be noted. A poorly ventilated room
cannot encourage the energy that a well ventilated room does, and if one
section is in the room on more days when it cannot be properly ventilated,
than the other section, it would be a disadvantage which might affect re-
sults.
62 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The report should state whether the ventilation is good, fair, or poor,
and if the room is close and stuffy, a note should be made accordingly.
(e) Missteps.
Where we have a definitely planned procedure and the instructions are
to follow it, the teacher should make a complete note of any missteps in
carrying out the instructions or any slight or considerable variation in the
form ; e. g., the inversion of order, the varying pronunciation of words,
having to say a thing more than the number of times called for, or any
variations made necessary by the exigencies of anything that might arise.
2. Form — A statement in full detail and in order of steps to be
taken in the preparation and presentation of material of test
and in full conduct of experiment. (Form).
After all has been determined, the complete procedure for the experi-
ment should be written up, so as to have it in definite form.
V. CONDUCTING OF EXPERIMENT. (Conducting of Experi-
ment)
' I. Under the conditions agreed upon with such slight modifica-
tions only as are made necessary by the exigencies of the case.
The experiment is to be conducted under the conditions agreed upon,
with such slight modifications only as are made necessary by the exigency
of the circumstances. It is very difficult to foresee all the things that are
likely to occur in an experiment and therefore it often happens that while
the experiment is in process and before the experimenter can be consult-
ed, a decision must be made on the part of the conductor which is not in
the plan of the experiment. The conductor should be careful not to
make any considerable changes from the outline as laid down, but slight
deviations, which will not seriously affect the validity of results, may be
made. Of course, a complete memorandum of the variation should be
made at the time, so that all the information will be at hand in considering
the results, and so that, if discrepancies occur between experiments con-
ducted at various places, it can be determined whether the judgment, made
at the time as to the seriousness of the interference, was wise or not.
2. Full, detailed and explicit record of variations from procedure
made at the time. Also observations which might introduce
varying factors.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 63
Any teacher conducting an experiment should be keenly observant for
any occurrences which might have a bearing on the results. She should
make a detailed and "explicit record of them at the time, because some of
the details may be forgotten later. This also applies to any variations,
however slight, from the approved plans. Nothing should be hidden,
even if it is the teacher's own fault, or the fault of the experimenter.
We cannot arrive at proper conclusions unless we know the exact state
of affairs.
VI. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENT AND PRELIMINARY REPORT.
(Preliminary Report)
1. A full statement by experimenter and assistants — in person
when possible — to Seminar of all information, whether record-
ed or not, which has bearing, direct or remote, upon interpre-
tation of results and validity of same.
Dr. Suhrie wrote up this outline for use in the seminar. He, no doubt,
felt that the matter of experimentation in educational method is in such
an undeveloped stage that group judgment would be far better on these
questions than individual judgment, and that we would get further with
the science in that way.
Hence this outline requires presenting to the seminar in person, when
possible, by the experimenter and assistants, a full statement of the
experiment, thus having the matter gone over thoroughly and having no
hasty conclusions drawn and published as valid. In the seminar the full-
est possible information should be stated, both that which is recorded and
that which is not, for only in this way, with all the data at hand, can an
intelligent conclusion be reached.
2. Tentative outline of scheme for tabulation of data with sugges-
tions as to possible or significant correlations to be found, dia-
grams to be made and points to be emphasized in writing up.
The experimenter should also present to the seminar a tentative outline
of the scheme for tabulation of the data, with suggestions as to the pos-
sible or significant correlations to be found, diagrams to be made and
points to be emphasized in the formal report.
Some of the experiments which will be outlined in this thesis have been
talked over in the seminar but the others have not. It were better if all
could be.
64 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
VII. FORMAL REPORT AND PUBLICATION. (Formal Report)
This section is also written with the idea in mind that the seminar will
pass on all experiments and this will have to be remembered when reading
the following experiments.
I. Preparation of report l)y individual or committee.
After the preliminary report has been presented to the seminar and the
matter has been talked over, the formal report should then be prepared,
either by an individual or a committee. If only one person was involved
in the experiment, he might just as well write it up, but if the report is a
long affair, each one might write up the particular section in which he was
involved. Or, if any particular one has the faculty of putting things
clearly, etc., the writing of ceriain sections that particularly call for that
ability could be given to that person.
2. Principles governing form of report as determined by the
uses to which it is to be put.
The form of report should be governed by the use to which it is to be
put. It would be advisable to have three reports — an abstract, a sum-
mary, and a detailed report.
There shcuild be a brief abstract for the use of teachers in improving
their method.
The summary should be more complete and should be written from the
standpoint of the reader. If it is to go to some scientific magazine, then
it should bring out the scientific points in detail, etc.
The detailed report should be very complete and concise, and should
be written with the idea of serving scientific investigators in the field of
experimental research in method. Every detail should be plainly given,
so that in correlating the work in the future with other similar work, dif-
ficulties in the one may throw light upon the other because all the details
will be at hand.
All three of these can be printed either separately or in one volume, and
should be in the order mentioned.
Of course, the publication in this elaborate form presupposes that the
method of the experiment is sound and that no hitches occurred which in-
validate the results. Only by labeling that which really is scientific, will
there ever be a science of educational experimentation.
3. Review, criticism, and if need be, complete or partial revision
by Seminar.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
6:
This report, after having been prepared, should then be presented to
the seminar again for review, final criticism, and such revision as may be
necessary. This will insure its being; presented to the public in the best
possible shape.
4. Dissemination of the several kinds of reports by most effective
and economical means so as to hasten the development of a
science of educational method and favorably affect current ed-
ucational practice.
It is felt that there is not much use in working out these experiments
behind the seminar doors if we do not let the teachers of the country know
about them, and, therefore, this heading has been included, under which
is to be considered the dissemination of the several kinds of reports by
the most effective and economical means so as to hasten the development
of a science of educational method, and favorably affect the current edu-
cational practice.
It is suggested that for the experiments which follow, the jjrief ab-
stract might best be published through the business education journals, as
it will reach most of the commercial teachers in that way. It might also be
presented to the Commercial Teachers' Conventions.
The summary might be sent to such journals as the
Journal of Educational Psychology.
School & Society.
Journal of Educational Administration & Supervision.
The U. S. Bureau of Education might be willing to publish either the
abstract or the summary.
The detailed report should be filed with a few of the universities inter-
ested in this type of work.
E. THE EXPERIMENTS
\\'e shall now i^roceed to the experiments themselves,
a. TYPEWRITING:
On this subject there will be developed methods of procedure for five
experiments.
The first one is on the question of speed and accuracy.
^f
oyt ttr V
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•'.«t>lv afei?r iMiiur tiiiSittrrturr. ami tet -iipw^ti 'will fstic .aur
•»«»J'<^ mssw^tl tteFWOtxt tint' nirmistf n : tkt: aisiniir.
c onm: ^moiituswi tasit
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 67
question arises : "Do these two factors bear an equal relation to each
other r"
An easy solution seems to appear when we consider the matter from the
demands of the business world. We are preparing the students for bus-
iness. What does the business man want ? Does he issue any regulations
that no erasers may be used in his office? Investigation has brought to
light only one man who claims he has done this. Undoubtedly, by far
the large majority of business offices have no such regulations. Yet there
are teachers in our schools who will not permit an eraser within the
class room, despite the fact tliat they must know that everyone of their
siudents uses an eraser after he leaves the school. The business man
wants neither speed nor accuracy ; he wants the combination. He wants
the person who can turn out for him the greatest number of acceptable
letters, and by this word "acceptable" he means correctl\- transcribed and
neatly written. He does not care whether the stenographer has used an?
eraser or not. As long as the stenographer has made a good job of it and
has gotten out her day's work, he does not care how many times she has
used the eraser. That is the business man's test.
To meet the exact conditions of the test it would be necessary for us
to measure how much time is lost in erasing. Here is the problem : Can
this girl, who writes fast and must erase occasionally, turn out in a day
more work that is acceptable than the girl who writes more slowly but
does not lose any time erasing? That is the exact problem, but there are
so many factors entering into it, that at this stage we cannot attempt to
solve it completely. Some such factors are : length of time taken by dif-
ferent individuals to make the same erasure, time required by the same
person at different times for erasures, the nature of the mistake, and,
therefore, th6 kind of erasure necessary, the fact that we do not know
what relation the mistakes bear to the speed being used, etc.
Since the ideal is beyond reach at this time, we must search for the
best substitute that will answer our purposes in teaching.
There is a substitute in the way of a marking system, which may throw
some light on the matter in the meanwhile, and will, no doubt, answer our
purpose, for it takes account both of sj^ed and accuracy and is the one
commonly used in many typewriting rooms. The details will be given
later.
The more one thinks about the problem, the less likely he is to be abso-
lutely sure that his solution is the correct one. Hence, it is in an effort to
get this matter cleared up, that this experiment is undertaken.
I
68 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
b. SURVEY OF EXPERIMENTS MADE.
The search for experiments made in this field has revealed but one. that
by Frederick Lyman Wells, "On the Psychomotor Mechanisms of Type-
writing," printed in the "American Journal of Psychology," January
1916, Vol. XXVII, pp. 47-70.
c. Differentiation.
This experiment was undertaken with a broader object in view than the
one under consideration, viz., that of inquiring into increasing the effici-
ency of typewriting on the psychological side. As a by-product the ex-
perimenter has made some observations on the relation of speed and ac-
curacy. The experiment was made with two typists as subjects.
The one under consideration will deal particularly with speed and accu-
racy and is planned for a much larger scale.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether emphasizing
speed in typewriting interferes with accuracy or not, and. if so, to what
extent.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen. .
To conduct this experiment two groups of pupils will be rfecessary. one
to be known as Section A (Accuracy Section) and the other as Section
B ( Speed Section ) .
The pupils may be those of any class* — beginners, advanced students
or experts — and the experiment need not be confined to those of any one
age. It might be of advantage to see how the experiment works with differ-
ent classes of pupils, and with pupils of a wide range in age, always being
certain, however, that an e^iual number of pupils of the same class or age
is in each section, so as to keep them balanced. It may be that the rela-
tion of speed and accuracy is entirely different with pupils of the grades
than with those of the high school, and even a wider difference may be
noted if we were to test out expert typsists, who have been in business
*The procedure outlined presupposes that students have at least reached the
-stage where their speed in typewriting can be tested.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 69
for several years. Therefore, the wider the range of groups tested,
the better it would be, provided in each case, complete information on this
point accompanies the results.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. As implied above, it will be well to test the matter out in as many
schools as possible and in several grades of schools, to see whether the
result remains uniform or not.
b. The schools should, of course, be accessible to the experimenter as
-mentioned on p. 36 ff.
c. The necessary co-operation should exist, as referred to on p. 38 ff.
The laboratory should be the typewriting room of the school.
3. Teachers Chosen.
One teacher should have charge of both groups, to eliminate differences
in personalities. She should be the regular teacher for the class and
should meet the requirements set forth on p. 41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
It would seem best to have the regular teacher take charge of the work
■during the course of the experiment.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I. Content.
General Plan in Brief.
The ])rocedure in this experiment requires that one section emphasize
speed while the other emphasizes accuracy. The sections are to be equal-
ized by a series of tests and, at the expiration of the time determined,
final tests will be given which are to be compared with the preliminary
tests.
a. Difficulties.
(i) Tests.
Preliminarv test.
70 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
A preliminary test will be necessary in order to obtain data which will
represent the typewriting ability of the pupils at the beginning of the ex-
periment.
Equalization test.
An equalization test will be necessary to insure the equality of the two
sections in typewriting ability at the beginning of the experiment.
One test can answer the purposes of the preliminary and equalization:
tests. In designating it, use will be made of the name that indicates the
purpose in mind at the time.
If we had a typewriting norm, our work would be made easy by using
it, but since we have none, the following equalization test is suggested :
Give the students a ten minute speed test similar to the monthly tests-
encouraged by the Underwood Typewriter Co., using the same rules and
copy matter. Give a series of these tests and on the basis of the number
of net words written per minute, classify the students, placing in each-
section an equal number of students having the same speed, and rating"
the section by the sum total of all the performances. For instance, if there-
are four students having 20 words per minute, we shall place two in Sec-
tion A and two in Section B. Section A would then have a sum total o£
40 words, and Section B would have the same, etc.
A ten-minute period seems to be the proper length and is the one recom-
mended by the Underwood Typewriter Co. and used in many schools. In
the absence of any better rules, those of the International Typewriting
Contest should be used. They are not as scientific as could be desired, but
they are objective, at least, and very definite. The penalty is arbitrary but
it takes cognizance of the accuracy factor in typewriting.
A series of tests has been suggested. It would not be fair to classify
the students on the basis of one test. Very few students show a uniform,
record in typewriting tests. There is considerable difiference between two
successive days and even between two tests given during the same period.
See Appendix, p. ii, for data regarding this. Any one of a number
of causes may be responsible for this variation.
How many tests should constitute the series? The greater the number
of tests, the fairer would seem the average. But an unlimited number of
tests is undesirable for several reasons :
I . Time would not permit. No school system could spend several
months in a preliminary or final test just for the sake of get-
ting averages.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 71
2. The students would become tired of the matter ; interest would
lag; and it is a question as to whether or not we would really
be getting the kind of work from the students that would
properly show their average speed.
3. The test would take the form of a drill, and both sections would
have had so much of the work alike that the comparatively
short time devoted to the experiment would have very little
efifect. All the tests should be on the identical material to get
an average, and that would be drill indeed for both sections.
The line must be drawn somewhere. Three have been chosen as possi-
bly the most desirable number in view of the objections raised above.
The average of the three preliminary tests may then be taken to be con-
sidered the speed of the student before the experiment begins.
The average of the three final tests may then be taken to be considered
the speed of the student after the experiment has been completed.
The difference between the two would then show what the student has
gained during the time the experiment was in progress.
When the question was being considered in the Seminar, it was the con-
census of opinion that the average speed should be taken as the basis for
these tests and the writer fully agreed with this view. He is now some-
what inclined to think that this may not be the proper thing, favoring the
use of the student's best record out of the three as the basis for classifica-
tion. When asking an athlete for his speed he does not give it in terms of
an average but of his best performance. The same is true of race horses ;
and experience with typists has shown that they almost invariably give
their best record when asked what their speed is. This basis uses the
maximum attainment of the typist, and if our purpose is to see how much
speed he has gained, it would seem that the maximum would more truly
tell the tale. Therefore it is suggested that three tests be given in a series
but that the highest speed of the three be used as a basis for classificaion.
Conduct of Test.
The test is conducted in this way :
At a given signal, the students write from copy for 10 minutes. At the
end of 10 minutes the teacher gives the signal and all machines stop. The
words written are counted. This gives the total number of gross words
written in 10 minutes. This total divided by 10 (the number of minutes)
gives the number of gross words per minute. The teacher then reads
aloud from the copy and the students mark the errors. The errors are
counted and multiplied by the penalty, which is 10 for each word wrong.
&
72 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
(Prior to 1918 the penalty was 5 for each word wrong.) The total pen-
alty is subtracted from the total number of gross words for 10 minutes
and this gives the total number of net words for 10 minutes. Divide by 10
(the number of minutes) and we get the number of net words per minute
— the important figure and the one by which the student is to be rated.
For example: One has written 750 words; 750 is the total gross for 10
minutes; dividing by 10, one gets 75. which is one's gross speed per min-
ute. Suppose one makes 4 errors; multiply the 4 by 10, the penalty, and
one gets 40. which is the total penalty. Subtract the total penalty from
the gross (40 from 750) and one gets 710, the total net words for 10
minutes; dividing by 10, one gets 71 as the net number of words per min-
ute. We say that ones speed is 75 words gross, 71 words net, per minute.
The papers should be marked in this way by three different students
to insure care, each student signing his name to the paper.
This is very definite and very objective, and something that is exactly
understood in typewriting circles.
The International Typewriting Contest Rules, under which this test is
conducted, are given in the Appendix, p. i ff.
A more accurate way of calculating typewriting speed would be by
movements rather than by words. Words are of such varying lengths that
they would seem to afford no accurate method of measuring. And yet, on
investigation it develops that the material used in the International Type-
writing Contests is surprisingly uniform in the long run. While there
may be some lines that contain 20 words and others that contain only 10
words, when it comes to 500 words, they cover very nearly the same num-
ber of line (see Appendix, p. ii or iii), and therefore there is not so much
variation as would appear on the face.
Mr. Sherwin Cody, Managing Director of Business Standards Asso-
ciation, New York City, has devised a method of counting stroke-words.
He says, "The average word in ordinary business letter writing is a frac-
tion over four strokes and for convenience I have adopted the standard
stroke-word of four strokes and with one space. This makes five strokes."
One of the test letters sent out by the Association, containing 200 stroke-
words, totals 184 actual words. A page of the International Typewriting
Contest material, taken at random, was counted and found to contain 507
stroke- words and 551 actual words. Counting stroke- words requires con-
siderably more time than the other.
Final Test.
A final test will be given at the conclusion of the experiment to ascer-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
/o
tain the speed of the students at that time. The test will be similar in all
respects to the preliminary or equalization test — the same number in the
series and the same copy.
(2) PVeliminary Conferences.
As the procedure for the experiment is not difficult, it will not be neces-
sary to have extended conferences with the school officials. Complete in-
structions could very well be sent by mail.
(3) Other Difficulties. .
Procedure with knowledge or without.
Another question that faces us is: "Shall the students be told the pur-
n-^co <5f fi-jg experiment, etc., or shall they not?"
Undoubtedly it will be found that something must be said to the stu-
dents. They will ascertain that there is a difference in the work of the two
sections and w ill begin lo ask and then form suspicions of their own. So
the teacher might just as well tell them frankly at the beginning and thus
avoid further questionings. The first time the present experiment was
conducted an attempt was made (on the recommendation of the Seminar)
to proceed without telling the students anything, but it could not be done,
and, finally, with the consent of the Seminar, something was told them.
Therefore, when trying the ex])eriment again, the classes were told
at the start, "W'e are now going to pit the two sections of the class against
each other for six weeks, and we are going to see which section can come
out ahead. Your section will be given work slightly different from the
other section." That was sufficient information to satisfy the great ma-
jority and things i)roceeded nicel\'. One class even became very indifferent
to the information, whereas if they had not been told, they would likely
have kept asking until something had been told them.
The chief reason for the Seminar not wishing anything said was that
they felt that if the students got the notion that the determination of the
future policy rested ui)on the experiment and that the school would intro-
duce the one which showed up best, they would work according to their
own i)rejudices and would see to it that the method they disliked did not
succeed, irrespective of its merits. But the way to bridge this difficulty
lies in not telling them too nuich ; i. e.. they should not be told thai any
future policy depends u})on it, but it may be said that this is being done in
connection with work at the University, which immediately satisfies many.
b. Time.
74 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The experiment could be undertaken at almost any time when vacations
do not interfere.
c. Periods.
The precautions laid down on p. 56 ff. should have consideration in
determining the periods for this experiment. Typewriting is not work
that requires much concentration, to be sure, but yet if one section has
more favorable periods than the other, this factor may cause a difference
in the results.
d. Subject-matter.
For the tests, any non-technical matter would be suitable. The copy
used in the International Typewriting Contests and the monthly Under-
wood tests would be thoroughly satisfactory. Both of these can be ob-
tained from the Underwood Typewriter Co.
For the regular class work, during the experiment, the typewriting text
book in use at the school would be suitable for the accuracy work. Any
of the material suggested for the tests could be used for speed work. Of
course, it should not be the identical thing used in the preliminary or final
tests.
e. Details of Procedure.
Details in General.
Each of the classes will be divided into two sections. They will be
known in the school as Section A and Section B. That group of each class
which devotes all its time to accuracy we shall call the Accuracy Group ;
and that group which devotes part (say half) of its time to accuracy and
part of its time to speed (i. e., it is emphasizing speed) we shall call the
Speed Group.
While each is doing the accuracy work they will both follow the identi-
cal schedule ; the only point of differentiation will come on the speed
days.
While a group is devoting its time to accuracy it v/ill do the regular
typewriting exercises of the class.
Accuracy will be emphasized by not permitting the student to pass to
the next exercise until he has presented an absolutely perfect copy of the
previous one. As already explained, one group will be required to follow
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
/D
this jjrocedure all the periods during the week, while the other group will
be required to follow it only part of the time.
While Section B is devoting its time to speed, it will be conducted as
follows :
The co})y used in any of the International Typewriting Contests can be
used as subject-matter. The class will be instructed that for the period
they will do speed work — they will write just as fast as they can without
becoming careless, but yet paying no attention to errors. They will not
stop to correct errors.
For the purpose of creating some interest, various ones of the class
may be selected as pace-makers. The choice is usually made from among
those near the head of the class for speed. At a given signal all will start
at a given place in the copy and write until the pace-maker reaches the bot-
tom of the page, say. He is told to raise his hand as a signal when he has
reached the bottom of the page. Then time is called and notes are com-
pared to see how far each student has gotten. By way of variety it may
also be done this way : Each student will write just as fast as he can. The
first one reaching a certain point in the copy will raise his hand. Then
time will be called and notes compared. Another slight variation will be
to write for 5 or lo minutes and see who gets the furthest. In this way
the students will work at top notch speed.
( I ) Copies of Instructions with Precautions.
The copies of instructions given to the helpers should give the details
of procedure.
The copy matter used in the tests should be put out of reach of the pu-
pils, so that no one can use the copy for practice.
The teacher should see to it that no student in the experiment does any
typewriting outside of the regular typewriting period. It would be un-
fair if some of the students were permitted to come into the typewriting
room for practice after school during the period of the experiment. Care
must also be taken to see that no student uses a machine outside of the
school during the progress of the experiment. In other words, the time
element must be kept the same for all the students in the experiment.
■Otherwise that permits another varying factor which would absolutely in-
validate the results. Only by permitting each person the same amount of
practice can the results be expected to show anything valid.
(2) Time Limits.
The next thing to be considered is the length of time that is to be de-
voted to the actual experiment. Regarding this we can give certain broad
76 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
statements only. It would appear that the longer the period of the ex-
periment, the better. But we can hardly find a school system that would
be willing to devote a w^hole year to the experiment. The danger of put-
ting one section at too great a disadvantage over the other must be con-
sidered. It is c[uestionable whether or not a teacher could keep the stu-
dents of both sections working at top notch for so long a period. Some
would become disgruntled and not do their best, and that, of course,
would bring in a factor that would destroy the validity of the results. For
valid results, we assume that both sections are working at a high point of
efficiency, and that there is no such disturbing element as antagonism.
The question as to the time that can be devoted to the experiment will
depend largely upon the period the authorities are willing to give. West
Chester tried it for six weeks because that was all the time it was felt
could be devoted to it. This, together with the preliminary and final tests,,
made it a matter of more than two months with some of the classes, de-
pending upon the number of times they recited during the week.
In setting aside the time one wants to be sure that there will be no such
disturbing elements as an extended vacation occurring in the middle of
the experiment ; for instance, Christmas vacation or Easter vacation. The
experiment would better be tried between these two vacations so that they
will not interfere. The preliminary tests would best not be conducted at
the first recitation after returning from the Christmas vacation, for the-
students' fingers will be stiff and the tests will not be fairly representative.
(3) Form, Order and Method.
There is no particular form, order, or method of giving directions in
this experiment. The teacher may use her own words to make the matter
clear to the students.
( 4 ) Record should be made of any interruptions, etc., as mentioned
on p. 59 fit'.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline covers conditions which are very general and
apply to all the experiments. Since they are given fully on p. 62 fif., it
11 will not be necessary to repeat them here.
a. TYPEWRITING.
Experiment No. 2. The Proper Age at Which to Begin Typewriting,
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION j-j
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
Among the numerous unsettled matters of the typewriting room is the
question of the most advantageous age for beginning the study of
Typewriting. The subject is now taught in many of our high schools.
The question of teaching it in the jimior high school has come up. Some
schools are already teaching it in the grades. Is it a subject that the pupils
in the grades or in the junior high school can learn economically?* By
"economically" is meant obtaining the proper returns for the amount of
time and effort spent on the subject. We get "yes" and "no" for the
answer. At any rate, what is the proper age at which to begin the study
of Typewriting, or at what age is it most economical to begin the study of
Typewriting ?
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The search for experiments has revealed nothing along the line of the
one under consideration.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine the age at which it is
most economically advantageous for a person to begin the study of Type
writing.
By "economically" is meant getting the most returns for the amount of
time expended. Effort, of course, may enter as an offsetting factor. We
find pupils who are very ambitious and put forth a great deal of effort.
Others put forth very little. But these are rather the extremes. The ma-
jority of students in a typewriting room, we can say, put forth a normal
amount of effort, and that is what we take for granted is being done. Of
course, if a child puts forth an unusual amount of effort, he will accom-
*This, of course, is not the only question to be solved if we are going to take
pupils into the typewriting room from the grades. There is the question of how
are we going to stretch out the subject over 5 or 6 years. The students must have
it in their senior year to be in shape when they get out into business. Special
equipment will have to be furnished, which means added expense. The machines
in the high school cannot be used. Seats are too high and the feet of the grade
children will dangle. Drop-top desks cannot be used or the teacher will have to
open the desks for many of the pupils who do not have sufficient strength.
78 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
})lish more in an hour than otherwise, but reference is made to the gen-
eral run of students. If we know what to expect for the general run of
students, the exception must then either outstrip them or fall below their
record.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
For this experiment pupils of various ages should be chosen. It would
be well to have groups with two years intervening between them. If we
take groups with only one year's difference, it might be difficult to get the
required number whose birthdays are close enough to really make a differ-
ence in the groups. For instance, if a child were lo years and 5 months
old and another were 10 years and 7 months old, putting the one into the
lo-year-old grou|) and the other into the ii-year-old group (classifying
them according to their nearest birthday) would not give us much of a
difference in the groups. On the other hand, if we were to disregard the
months and simply take into consideration the years, then the lo-year-ii-
month-old child would not be far enough from the 11 -year- 1 -month-old
child to place them in separate groups, and we would have the same diffi-
culty. Therefore, by making the difference two years, we are more likely
to be able to get different groups.
The next question is : How near should a pupil be to the year set for
the group and still be included in that group? It is rather difficult to set
a definite age ; for instance, to say 3 months and then rule out someone
who is a day or two outside of that limit. For the purposes of the experi-
ment, to be sure, the person of that age would answer just as well as the
one coming entirely within the limit. Possibly the best that can be done
is to lay down some broad principle and then let the experimenter decide
each individual case that gives trouble.* It will likely be agreed by all,
that no one of the intervening year should be included. For instance, if
we make groups of 8, 10, and 12 years, the students of 9 and 11 years
should be excluded. Or, it might be worked this way : Let the groups
contain those a half year each side of 8, of 10, and of 12.
After having decided the range of each group, let us say 2 years, it will
then be necessary to ascertain how many groups are to be included in the
experiment. Since the object is to determine the most suitable age, the
*0f cour.se, all this should be noted in the write-up of the experiment, so that
if any variation is noticed, some facts may be at hand, which can be searched for
a cause.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 79
experiment should include as large a scope in this direction as possible.
Therefore, it would seem wise to take a group from the youngest teachable
age for typewriting, let us say 10 years old4 We also want them just as
old as they can be obtained. So let us take these from the high school,
which might give us some 18 years of age. This then would give us 5
groups, viz., 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 years of age, respectively.
These groups should be as large as possible, keeping the number in
each group vuiiform. The groups will be designated as follows: the 10-
year-old group, the 12-year-old group, the 14-year-old-group, the 16-year-
old group, the 18-year-old group.
It may not be possible to get as many in the 18-year-old group as in the
others, but even if only a few can be secured, it would be better to include
them than not to have any of that age at all. The results need not neces-
sarily be included as part of the findings of the experiment, but on the
other hand they may throw some interesting light on the matter.
The students making the highest marks (say 90 and above) would af-
ford the most enthusiastic material for a teacher to work upon, and it is
suggested that these be the ones used for the experiment. They can be
selected without nuich difficulty, and if it is found that the younger groups
are not making the progress that the older groups are, we can safely say
that mediocre and poor students from the same groups will not make any
more progress.
If we are going to take all the students as we find them, it will be neces-
sar\' to give an intelligence test for there are likely to be mental defectives
among the younger ones, and, according to word from The Training
School at Vineland, N. J., they have had no success with this kind of work.
2. School Chosen.
a. . The school chosen will, of course, have to be one that is equipped
for teaching typewriting, and the experiment will take place in the type-
writing room.
b. Accessibility.
The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p.
36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
JThis experiment was tried in West Chester, Pa. In talking the matter over
with the grade teachers from whose classes the prospective students were to be
taken, it was fcnmd that they agreed unanimously and positively that ten years
was as low as they would advise taking anybody into this experiment. They felc
quite certain that it would be useless to work with the 8-year-old pupils. The
6-year-olds, of course, do not know how to read and write, and we could not con-
sider them for the experiment.
8o EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
It should also be a school where the co-operation of all concerned can
be assured, as explained on p. 38 fit". Without co-operation on the part of
the grade teachers and the students, it may result in not having a sufficient
number present during the whole experiment to give results. A teacher
may on slightest provocation detain the pupil after school. The pupil
may make it necessary to be kept in. (This is assuming that the ex-
periment is to be conducted after school.)
3. Teachers Chosen.
The teacher in charge of the experiment would best be the experimenter
himself.
If it is necessary to place someone else in charge of the experiment, then
a teacher should be chosen, who, because of her ability, can be depended
upon to carry out the experiment successfully. See p. 41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
As mentioned above, the experimenter would be the most desirable per-
son to conduct the experiment, as he is, it is assumed, in possession of the
most complete information on the subject of the experiment, and can
most wisely make quick decisions on points of emergency that arise during
the performance.
See p. 44 ff.
/ IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
1. Content.
(a) Difficulties.
Equalization Tests.
It is assumed that each of the pupils is beginning with zero ability in
the matter of typewriting, but are we correct?
Of course, one factor in typewriting is nimbleness of the fingers. So far
as this is concerned, we may have considerable variation at the start, which
must be guarded against. But this condition can be met very well, by in-
sisting that none of the pupils who have done anything that would give
them nimble fingers, such as piano playing, violin playing, etc., be ad-
mitted to the experiment.
It would be profitable to permit these students to take the work, but
their records must be kept separate from the others. A comparison would
tell whether or not we are justified in excluding them.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 8l
Conducting the experiment on a large scale would eliminate any other
individual differences.
Final Tests.
At the conclusion of the experiment a series of speed tests should be
given similar to those in Experiment No. i, explained on p. 71. The
same material, time, and method of scoring should be used, with this ex-
ception : namely, that if the progress made by the class has not taken them
beyond the use of the shift key and punctuation marks, the students should
not be required to use these in writing the test.
(2) Preliminary Conferences.
If the experimenter does not do the work himself, he will have to con-
duct preliminary conferences with the teachers, and if he uses assistants in
a large room where he has charge, it will be necessary to have a confer-
ence with them.
b. Time.
The time element will be uniform. Of course, it is to be expected that
the 18-year-old pupils will be able to cover more ground than the lo-year-
old pupils ill a given time. We have a choice of varying either the ground
covered or the time devoted to the work. It would be much more difficult
from the standpoint of the experiment to keep the ground-covered element
the same ; it would be easier to keep the time element the same.
Furthermore, one of the factors in teaching typewriting is the time ele-
ment, and that should be considered in pronouncing judgment upon a per-
son's ability to acquire skill in typewriting.
By choosing non-commercial students, the experiment could be under-
taken at any time of the year, and any day or days could be used unless
certain days contained something unusual in the program which might
prove disadvantageous to those taking the work that day.
It woulfl be better, however, if lessons could be given every day, so as
not to permit any intervals that may be too great to do efficient work.
c. Periods.
All of the students could be taught in one section, if the typewriting
room is large enough. Then any period of the day would answer our pur-
pose.
It would not be detrimental to the experiment, however, if the students
are taught in sections. The instruction given could easily l)e kept uniform.
The chief factor is the practice done by the student himself, and he can do
82 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
that as effectively whether there are three others taking it with him or 30,
and whether they are the same age or not.
If they are taught in several sections, the periods would have to be so
chosen as not to place any section at an advantage over the others. See p.
56 ff.
A bad feature to this experiment will be caused by the fact that the
children of the grades may have to take the work after school, at the end
of their day, a time when they may not be in the most enthusiastic state of
mind. Yet the novelty of the change may keep them in good spirits. In
West Chester volunteers were tried and they showed no fatigue when the
period began at 3.35 (school dismissing at 3.30) and showed no signs of
even a lack of interest during the 40 minute period. The pupils were,
however, all of high grade, being those making 90 and above in their reg-
ular work.
All students should take it at the same time of day, the program pre-
ceding being approximately equal. If the grades take the work after
school, the high school students should take it at that time also.
The length of the period should be whatever the school requires for the
regular typewriting classes. Three-fourths of an hour is used in a great
many schools — possibly in most of the schools in the country.
d. Subject-matter.
The pupils ought to be taught whatever is given in that particular school
to beginners in typewriting. It ought not to make any difference what
typewriting manual is used, as long as the manual used is a good one
and as long as all the students use the same manual. The teacher, of
course, will have to use simpler words in her explanations to the younger
students than to the high school students ; aside from this, the method of
teaching would be the same. It does not seem wise for the purposes of
the experiment to give more than the minimum essentials of the mechanical
details. For instance. "Cylinder stop spring lever," etc., would engulf the
lo-year-olds. Most of the time should be spent on actual typewriting.
Touch typewriting is the method used in most of the schools of the
country and should be taught in this experiment.
It might be well to measure the progress at dift'erent stages, say every
two months, to see whether the advance of the one group over the other
steadily follows any given ratio.
This could be done bv the speed tests described in Experiment No. i, p.
71 ff.
Since each student started at zero ability in typewriting, his gain is eas-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 83
ily measured by the average speed which he has at the time the experi-
ment closes. Possibly it would be better to take the maximum speed, as
explained on p. 71 ff.
Of course, it is impossible to say in advance what the result will be and,
therefore, how the results should be interpreted. If, however, it should
be found that any one group is considerably ahead of the other groups, we
can rather safely assume that the age of that group is a better time to be-
gin the study of typewriting than that of any of the other groups. If
there is not very much ditference, the question would still be an open one
and could only be determined by further experimentation. The question
may arise as to what is meant by the word MUCH in the preceding sen-
tence. It would be difficult to state definitely, so that it would hold in all
cases, and, therefore, each experimenter must decide that for himself.
If there is no more than 5% or 10% difference between any two of
them, it would seem safe to say that there is no dift'erence. If there is
100% difference between any two of them, all would likely agree that
there is an actual difference in favor of one group over the others.
No conclusions should be hastily made. The experiment should be
tried several times with different sets of pupils, and if the result remains
uniformly the same, it will then be safe to assume that the results are
valid.
.Vfter the experiment has been tried by using the best pupils, it might be
tried out on the poorer pupils, or on the mediocre ones.
If it could be done on a sufficiently large scale, it would be interesting
to take the students as they come, making no distinction except to see that
none of them had any special training in the way of limbering their fin-
gers, and even this condition might be waived.
If these experiments show no appreciable difference, then the proce-
dure should be examined carefully, for, on a priori grounds, it does not
seem possible that the same result should be obtained if all the groups are
on the same basis except as to age.
e. Details of Procedure.
( I ) Instructions and Precautions.
If this experiment is given in a large typewriting room, the experi-
menter may wish to have some assistants present. They should be handed
a copy of the instructions. There are no special directions, however, ex-
cept that simple language must be used for the younger pupils. Other-
wise, what holds for the one group, also holds for the others.
None of the students, of course, should have access to a typewriter out-
84 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
side of the regular periods assigned to them, that is, the time element must
be kept uniform.
(2) Time limits.
The time limits should be fixed before the experiment is undertaken, at
least, tentatively. The beginning date can be fixed definitely, but possibly
not so with the concluding date.
The time to be covered by the experiment is a difficult cjuestion. Shall
it be two weeks, which would be ten lessons ; or two months, which would
be 40 lessons ; or 4 months, which would be 80 lessons ?
In some schools typewriting is given twice a week during the first year,
and for nine months (barring holidays and vacations) this would give 72
lessons. Two months' work, then, reciting once a day, would be the equiv-
alent of half a year's work at a school of this kind. That might be a satis-
factory period. Of course, there is no objection to making the experiment
cover a year's time, if it can be done. This would be much better, for 72
lessons ought to bring out any dififerences, if great dififerences exist among
the groups.
It may be that at certain stages in the learning of the subject, pupils of
certain ages may advance more rapidly than others. From the practical
viewpoint we are interested in the permanent results — which group will
permanently find it the most advantageous. The longer the experiment
could be continued, the more accurately would the conclusion answer our
question. It might prove very illuminating, however, to keep record of
the progress at the different stages. Progress, of course, would likely be
interpreted according to the custom of the school in which this is being
done. It might be rather indefinite and might need defining.
It might be argued that it is very essential that the length of the experi-
ment be just right, for, if the period is too long, all, irrespective of age,
would do fairly well; and if it is too short, so little will be produced that
all will do poorly. This holds in many experiments, but it does not appear
to carry much weight in the present one. The longer this experiment is
continued, the better, it would seem, would be the conclusion, because we
are after permanent results, and if there is only a temporary gain of one
group over the others at an unknown point, we would be more likely to
have gone beyond it, the longer we do the work. Typewriting practice is
not quite like drill in some other subjects. In typewriting it is a continuous
drill and the limit of efficiency is never reached.
(3) Form, Order and Method.
No particular directions are necessary. See p. 58 ff.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 85
(4) Record, etc.
See p. 59 ff.
2. Form.
The balance of the outhne apphes uniformly to all experiments and is
fully covered on p. 62 ft.
a. TYPEWRITING.
Experiment No. 3. Typewriting Norm.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
A most valuable thing for the typewriting room would be a measuring
stick, a scale, a norm, by which it would be possible to tell whether or not
any student of typewriting is progressing as well as the average person
in his grouix Of course, a still better thing would be to have some means
of determining whether or not the student is progressing as rapidly as he
should, but to determine that takes in so many factors which we are un-
able to handle at present ( for instance, his mental ability, temperament,
disposition, perseverance, etc.), that it would seem wise to attempt noth-
ing more than to ascertain what the average student does attain at given
periods. Or, if anv one objects to the words "average student," let us
put it this wa\ : we would like to know what most of the students of the
country are doing. We could at least have the satisfaction of knowing
whether we were in their class, above them, or below them. That is. at
least, more than we know now. Even this would be a great help. It would
be something objective and would do away with the subjective phase of
the question. It would be another addition to the group of measuring
scales already provided for several of the branches, such as arithmetic,
spelling, penmanship, English, modern languages, etc.
We shall not consider producing a scale for measuring what the pro-
gress of a student SHOULD be. We shall leave that to the future. We
shall simjjly attem])t to find what the average student at ))resent DOES at-
tain.
I
86 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The search for experiments has brought to hght information on one
that was being conducted by Wilham A. Cook at the University of Colo-
rado.
c. Differentiation.
The plan differs in the following respects from the one herein proposed :
Only the students who have one-half unit or more credit and are
present on the day of test, are to be included.
All tests are to be taken in the presence of the Visitor.
The papers are to contain a statement of the periods of practice al-
ready had by the writer, but nothing is said about the intervals.
The scoring differs from the International Typewriting Rules in
that the penalty is not uniform for all errors.
The rules are not clear as to whether the tests are to be taken
monthly by each student or only as often as the visitor comes
to the school.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to produce a typewriting norm,
that is, to determine what progress the average student in typewriting does
make at stated periods.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
For this experiment it will be necessar)', of course, to take all grades of
pupils. We want to know what the pupils who take typewriting are act-
ually doing. We cannot, therefore, pick out a group of excellent ones,
and hold them up, because that would be too high for the majority of
pupils to attain. It would be far more satisfactory to take the pupils as
we find them under actual teaching conditions and ascertain how much
progress the majority of them have made at the end of one month, at the
end of two months, at the end of three months, etc. A month would seem
to be a good dividing point, since our marks in school are, as a rule, figured
by months. We could make a month actually 20 school days, as is the
meaning of school month in many places.
It would seem as though some differentiation should be made in the pu-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 87
pils. Not knowning what age is best fitted for starting the subject of
typewriting, it would hardly seem most scientific to take mixed groups. It
would be a good deal better to keep separate records of pupils by ages.
This would not necessitate re-arranging classes. The classes
may be conducted as they normally would be, but separate records should
be kept.
Or, a record of the students should also be kept according to their year
in high school. For instance, if we could say that it is found that the
average person beginning typewriting in the junior year in high school at-
tains a speed of 10 net words at the end of a month, it would be more defi-
nite than saying that for pupils beginning typewriting the average speed
at the end of one month is 10 net words, for the reason that in some of
our high schools a two year commercial course is given, and typewriting
is given in the freshman year, which corresponds to approximately 14
years of age or less, while in some others where a four year course is
given, the students do not begin typewriting until the junior or senior year,
which would be about 16 or 17 years. Furthermore, some of the seniors
may be 18 while taking typewriting for the first time, and if it should be
found in the experiment on age, that there is very much variation between
the 18-year-old beginner and the 14-year-old beginner, general figures,
without reference to age, would not mean very much. Inasmuch as we are
still somewhat at sea in the matter, it would seem best to keep complete
individual records, each record to show the year in high school during
which the study was begun and also the age of the student at the time of
beginning. When all the results are turned in. it would be well to group
them both according to age and high school year. We could then say
that for the students beginning typewriting in their junior year at high
school, we find the average speed at the end of a month to be so many
net words, and for the students beginning typewriting at the age of 16,
we find the average speed at the end of a month to be so many net words.
This would give us definite information and we could then use whichever
we find to be the most desirable for our ])urpose.
It might be that these figures j^-esent a problem, in that when consid-
ering the speed of a 15-year-old beginner it may be 10 words, and when
considering the sophomore in high school it may be 15 words. We may
wish to ascertain what the progress of a certain 15-year-old sophomore
should be when compared with what is done over the country at large and
find that a sophomore should have a si:»eed of 15 words and that a 15-year-
old boy should have 10 words. Which figures shall we take? For the
■decision of this question we must wait until w c know something about the
ability of students at diiTerent ages. If we find that there is much differ-
88 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
ence between the ages, then it would seem better to use the scale based on
ages. If we find no difiference in the ability at different ages, we will sim-
ply have to say that we have no scientific means of knowing which of
the scales to take. This, however, may be found out later, and so it would
not be worthless to try the present experiment. It would simply be a
question of having two scales and not knowing which is the more accurate
of the two for our purpose. Each would give this much satisfaction at
least: we would know that according to the one basis, certain things ob-
tain, and that according to the other basis, certain other things actually ob-
tain. We would have to decide whether we wished to use either of these
or neither.
Another factor might enter into this situation, and that is the question
as to how often the subject is taught. It may be that a student having
had twenty typewriting lessons, taking them twice a week, would not have
the same speed as a student having had twenty typewriting lessons, taking
them each day for five days a week. This factor will have to be stated in
the name of the scale, thus: "Speed in net words, found to be attained by
the average 15-year-old pupil taking typewriting twice a week during his
junior year." Of course, to have the scales serviceable to all. we should
be able to say what the actual finding is for pupils taking typewriting
twice a week, three times a week, and five times a week, and if there are
any schools giving it four times or ten times a week, they would desire to
know what the finding is for that number of recitations a week.
Of course, still another factor enters. One method of typewriting may
be more efficient than another, and that will make some students attain bet-
ter results. But we are not trying to decide what the average is with the
best method known (a question impossible to deternfine, at least at pres-
ent) ; all we are trying to say is what we have found to be the average
speed attained after having tested out a great number of pupils, and, of
course, that will take in many methods, as the experiment should be under-
taken on a large scale and should include a great many school systems.
We can then say, as we do with spelling grades, that the average for alV
the cities tested is so much, the average for New York is above or below
that. The average for a certain method which is taught in, say, one or
two schools in New York is so much. The average for the classes taught
by such and such a teacher is either above or below this line.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. General Character of Student-Rody.
A great manv schools should be chosen for this experiment and they
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 89
■shnuld be schools from a great many cities — the more the better — because
we w ant to find what is actually being done today iu the representative or
the larger schools of the country where we can assume that the teachinj^
15 being done intelligently. Of course, this will include all sorts and con-
ditions of students, good ones, mediocre ones, and poor ones. It will in-
clude those who have had their fingers limbered up before taking up the
subject, and those who have not. It will include those who do only as
much work as called for in the class room, and those who do extra work.
We are not trying to ditferentiate here. We are simply trying to ascertain
what is actuall}- being done under the ordinary conditions that now exist.
b. Accessibility.
All the schools tested need not be accessible personally to the experi-
menter. He would not even need to visit them. All that would be neces-
sary is to have clearly formulated instructions and be assured that the
teachers who are to carry out the instructions understand them and are
in sympathy with the idea, so that they give reports of actual conditions
-and do not color them either favorably or unfavorably.
c. Co-operation.
There must, of course, be co-operation on the part of all concerned, as
explained on ]>. 38 ff., so as to get accurate results.
3. Teachers Chosen.
This would really be more of a survey than an experiment in the nar-
rower sense of the word, and so it would not be necessary to make any
change in the teaching staff. We want to know what the teachers are
actually doing, and not what they would do under any special system of
instruction. We would want to be sure, though, that the person who is
obtaining the information for us is thoroughly conversant with the idea in
mind and is in sympathy with it, and is professional and scientific enough
to see that the tests are proj^erly given and that the records are correctly
made, so that they will actually show conditions existing, uncolored by any
personal views or wishes.
Even if the actual teacher of the class is antagonistic to the idea, if the
experimenter sees that the tests are properly given and she does not influ-
ence the students to be abnormal at the time, her antagonism can hardly
invalidate the result of the whole experiment.
90 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
By the preceding page it is decided that the regular teacher will conduct
the experiment. See also p. 44 fif.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURE
I. Content.
a. Difficulties.
( I ) No preliminary nor equalization test is necessary.
(2) Personal preliminary conferences will not be necessary. The in-
structions are simple and could be written out so that no teacher would
have any trouble in following them. They could be sent to the various
schools by mail.
(3) Any other difficulties.
To carry out this experiment it will first be necessary to find a number
of schools with typewriting students aggregating a thousand or more (the
more the better) who would be willing to assist in getting the necessary
data.
After having found the schools, it will be necessary to make sure that
some one in each of these schools will make himself or herself responsible
for carrying out the instructions properly. In the larger school systems, it
is likely to be the head of the department or the supervisor. In the small-
er schools it would likely be the principal or the teacher herself.
The instructions as to how the experiment is to be carried on should be
written out in full detail and copies should be in the hands of the teachers.
The experimenter should be very careful to have the instructions so clear
and complete that there will be no misunderstanding about them.
b. Time.
The experiment should start at the beginning of the school year— Sep-
tember, in most cases — and it should include all the students taking type-
writing, both the beginners and the advanced students. In reporting the
advanced students, the details should show how old they are at present,,
in what class and how often they are taking typewriting during the week.
It should also show data on their past typewriting performance, such as
how many years they have been typewriting, in what class of the high
school they began the subject, their age at that time, how many times a
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 91
week they took the subject, and how many weeks in the school year. The
length of the periods should also be mentioned.
c. Periods.
It might also be well just for the sake of making individual compari-
sons, to state at what time of the day the recitation took place and what
immediately preceded it. Of course, the tests will take place during the
regular typewriting periods.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter will be the regular typewriting instruction given in
that particular school for that particular class. We are trying to find out
what the average is for all the systems and schools and methods. It can
be assumed, however, that touch typewriting is being taught. Mention
should be made if it is not the method.
Next we come to the more difficult part of the experiment, and that is
the testing.
This, it would seem, should take i)lace at the end of every 20 school
days, or a school month. That is a convenient reckoning period in our
present practice, and would therefore afiford a basis for the month's
marks and be ])ractical in tliis respect.
The tests should be conducted in the manner described for the prelimi-
nary and final tests in the first experiment of this thesis, p. 71 iT, using
the International Typewriting Contest Rules.
The same Qopy matter should be used by all students and for each
monthly test. Care should be used that the student does not have access
to it in the interim.
A slight exception might be made in the case of beginners. Students
who are taking typewriting twice a week will not have progressed very
far at the end of the first month. According to some methods of instruc-
tion they will not have had capital letters nor punctuation marks. For
these, a slight variation nnght be made in this respect : Expect of them
only what they have been taught. That is, if they have not had capital
letters, allow them to use the small letters in ])lace of the capitals when-
ever the capitals are called for on the copy, and if they have not had punc-
tuation marks, permit them to omit those called for in the copy. Another
suggestion might be in order. If the beginning students have not had any
practice in sentence writing, that is, if they have only been practicing iso-
lated words, they should, before taking the test, write for say 10 or 15
92 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
minutes from copy in which continuous sentences are given, so that they
may become accustomed to sentence work.
The question arises, "How many tests should be given at the end of each
month, one test, or several as recommended in the other experiment?"
It will take a great deal of time to give three tests at the end of each
month. Furthermore, it will interfere a great deal with the teaching pro-
cess which we are testing. Our results will then have a disturbing ele-
ment in them of sufficient proportions to be considerable and therefore,
will not properly measure the students who are doing the regular work,
which is what we want to test.
Furthermore, in the previous experiment we were not figuring on such
a large number of students in the test, and the possibility for individual
variation was much greater. In this experiment it is not likely that all
of the students will have an off-day each time a test comes along, when it
comes regularly once a month, and other subjective factors will not play
so large a role.
Then again, in the other experiment we wanted one figure at the be-
ginning and one figure at the end of the experiment, to show the pupil's
ability. Here we have a record every month over the whole year's work
for the same student. Even in the individual record, one off-day would
likely be balanced by the next record, and so on. Progress should
be shown by the succession of records made by each student. Hence,
it would appear that one test at the end of the month is sufhcient,
for the subjective factor is taken care of through our largely increased
number of tests, as well as the number of students. ]More tests than one
a month, would interefere with the very thing we are testing and so much
time could not be taken out of the regular work.
The matter of marking so many papers would also be a serious proposi-
tion, and it would seem that the added work would not justify the dif-
ference in the results.
It is suggested that each pupil mark his own work, while the teacher
reads the copy aloud. Then, have the papers exchanged with a neighbor,
and have the neighbor write on the paper, "Checked by ," and sign
his own name. The teacher will again read the copy aloud, while the stu-
dents mark the papers. The papers will be exchanged once more, and
marked : "Rechecked by ," the student again signing his own name.
This should insure a very accurate record of the work and save much
time in marking. This method is suggested in Cody's Commercial Tests
and How to Give Them.
Along with the record of each test should go the following information
IN CO]MMERClAL EDUCATION ■ 95
for each class, so that if any considerable variation is noticed in one set of
papers, we may be able to look intelligently for the cause :
Time of day the test was given.
^^'hat the students did in the periods immediately preceding.
Temperature of the room.
Atmosphere, i. e., humid, close, etc.
Kind of day, i. e., bright, pleasant, dull, rainy, etc.
There should also be noted any unusual disturbing elements, such as fire
drill, unlooked-for accident, etc., which would disturb the class in
the test.
After all this information has been collected at. the end of the year, it
would require a considerable force to tabulate it. It would be better to
collect the material each month and work on it as it comes in. Care, of
course, should be used to make the recoi-ds accurate.
The data should be arranged as follows :
Keep the record for each class separate.
Group the classes of each school.
Group the schools of one city.
Group the cities.
A\'e want the above arrangement according to averages.
Grou]) the papers in the way mentioned above, and from these groups
tabulate the following information :
13-year-old pupils beginning typewriting:
List A. Those taking typewriting twice a week.
List B. Those taking typewriting 3 times a week.
List C. Those taking typewriting 4 times a week.
List D. Those taking typewriting 5 times a week.
List E. Those taking typewriting more than 5 times a week, with
a footnote showing how often.
Re-group these according to the 13-year-old pupils taking it in the
Freshman year, Sophomore year, Junior year. Senior year, in
high school.
'te'
Make the same kind of a record for the 14-year-old pupils begin-
ning typewriting.
Ditto for the 15, 16, 17, and 18-year-olds.
Then we should make a table showing:
14-year-old pupils taking the second year of typewriting.
94 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Giving as preliminary information what they had the previous year,
i. e., the number of periods altogether, whether they came
twice, three times, etc., a week.
List F. Those taking it twice a week.
List G. Those taking it 3 times a week.
List H. Those taking it 4 times a week.
List L Those taking it 5 times a week.
List J. Those taking it more than 5 times a week, noting how
often.
Re-group these according to the 14-year-old pupils taking it in the
Sophomore year, Junior year. Senior year, of high school.
Make the same record for the 15-year-old pupils taking the second
year of typewriting.
Ditto for 16, 17, and 18-year-olds, taking the second year of type-
writing.
Then in a similar way take the 15-year-old pupils taking the 3rd year of
typewriting, etc.
Then the 16-year-old pupils taking the 4th year of typewriting, etc.
This data should also be arranged in the following manner :
Speed of the students at the periods mentioned below :
. Schedule for the students taking the work twice a week :
At the end of 8 lessons.
At the end of 16 lessons,
At the end of 24 lessons.
At the end of t,2 lessons, etc.
! .Schedule for the students taking the work three times a week:
At the end of 12 lessons.
At the end of 24 lessons.
At the end of 36 lessons,
f A-t the end of 48 lessons, etc.
Schedule for those taking it 4 times a week:
At the end of 16 lessons.
At the end of 32 lessons.
At the end of 48 lessons, etc.
Schedule for those taking it 5 times a week :
At the end of 20 lessons.
At the end of 40 lessons.
At the end of 60 lessons, etc.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 95
Schedule for those taking it more than 5 times a week:
At the end of lessons, etc.
It would also be profitable to have the data in the following form, if we
find that many schools follow this arrangement of hours :
Schedule for those taking it twice a week during the first year, 3
times during the second year, and 5 times during the 3rd year.
At the end of 8 lessons till 80 lessons.
At the end of 92 lessons .till 200 lessons.
At the end of 220 lessons till 400 lessons.
Also:
Schedule for those taking it five times during the first year and five
times during the second year :
At the end of 20 lessons till 200 lessons.
At the end of 220 lessons till 400 lessons.
In this way a school could readily find at any time, the status of the
schools running the same schedule as its own.
(e) Details of Procedure.
(1 ) Instructions.
Since this experiment covers a wide territory, it will be necessary for
the experimenter to make most of the arrangements by mails, and there-
fore the instructions should be carefully written up so that there will be
no misunderstanding on the part of the teacher conducting the work.
It might be well, in sending out the instructions, to state that, if the
matter is not clearly understood, the question should be raised on the
points that are not clear. The instructions should be put into the hands
of the teachers so that they will be available for the beginning of the
school year.
(2) It should be stated that the test is to be given at the end of each
school month for a year and it should take place during the regular type-
writing period.
(3) There are no instructions to be given to the class, and therefore
we need not concern ourselves with this part of the outline. If the class
is not familiar with the marking system used in the International Type-
writing Contests, it will be necessary for the teacher to explain it to the
96 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
students. That will in no way affect the experiment itself, however. She
can make that explanation in her own words.
(4) If anything occurs to interrupt the test, a note of it should be
made in full detail. See p. 59 ft".
(2) Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 ff.
a. TYPEWRITING.
Experiment No. 4. Should A\'e Teach the Touch Method or the Sight
Method of Typewriting in Our Schools?
I. FORMULATION.
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
It is difficult to say whether or not an experiment on this question is
justified. The investigator had thought it was universally granted that
the touch method is superior to the sight method of typewriting, which be-
ing the case, there is not much use in trying to prove something on which
everybody is agreed, especially since there are so many other things on
which people are not agreed, which need attention. Not that common
opinion is always right and that it is not worth while testing out those
things to see whether they are scientifically founded, but a matter of this
kind could rest a while with less loss, apparently, than some other matters ;
and, furthermore, the proof appears to be so self-evident.
However, it is found that there are still some business schools advertis-
ing in their catalogues, that they teach both the touch and the sight sys-
tems. If it is still an open question, possibly it would not be energy wasted
to prove it scientifically.
The point at issue is this : according to the one method the student looks
at his fingers while he is writing and according to the other he does not
- — under the sight method the typist watches his fingers while he writes
and under the touch method he does not watch his fingers while he is
writing but keeps his eyes on the book or paper from which he is copying.
Teachers in the typewriting room have put it this way to their begin-
ning pupils :
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 97
"Now, under the old sight method you would look at yoiu- hook and
read a few words. Then you would write those words and watch your
fingers to see that you struck the correct keys. Then you would look at
your book again, hunt the place, read a few words, and then write them ;
and so on. ( The teacher would demonstrate while she explained. ) P>ut
under the new method, the touch method, you kee}) your eyes right on
your book and keep writing at the same time, like this. (Then the teacher
would demonstrate.) Onl\' when you reach the end of a line and have to
bring your carriage over, do you have to look at your fingers,' and then
only to see that your fingers are back in the proper place, that is, on the
position keys. After a while you won't even have to do that. In this way
you save a great deal of time that would be lost in looking on and ofif, as
you would have to do with the sight method. Speed is the thing we are
after, and if you can be writing while the other fellow is looking ofif and on
and hunting his place, you will be able to write just so many more words,
and that will increase your speed. That is why we want yoti to learn the
touch method."
Someone occasionally objects and says, "Don't you get used to hunting
your place and can't you find it quickly after a while ?" "Yes," the teacher
will answer, "you can find it somewhat quicker after a great deal of prac-
tice, but even then, you lose time because yoti stop typewriting while you
read what you are going to write next."
The argument is so evident that a person wonders why the sight method
is taught at all, and one difficulty in conducting this experiment would be
the apparent unfairness to the section that is taking sight typewriting, for
it is almost universally agreed ( it is believed this can be said without fear
of being contradicted) that the touch system is by far the better. It
might be difficult to find a school system that would be willing to permit
the experiment to be tried, becatise from the outset it aj)pears that one
section would be at a great disadvantage over the other.
In most experiments we simply do not know which of several ways is
the best, and it is a sense of satisfaction to a school system to know for
itself which is the best, so that it can be guided accordingly in the future,
but where a system takes the stand that touch typewriting is far superior
to sight typewriting, it would be hard to get permission to conduct the ex-
periment. But those schools \\ hich advertise in the way mentioned above,
would seem to be the places to perform the experiment, for they evidently
are not absolutely prejudiced in favor of touch tyi)ewriting.
b. Survey of Experiment ]\Iade, and Differentiation.
C. G. Bradford reports "An Experiment in Typewriting" in the "Peda-
98 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
gogical Seminar," December 1914, Vol. XXII, pp. 445-468, in which some
data on Touch and Sight Methods is given, but the experiment does not
have for its aim a verdict on the question of Sight vs. Touch. In all, four
typists were involved and two of them took the Sight Method at first and
then the Touch Method, which brings a disturbing factor into the situa-
tion.
William Frederick Book made a study of typewriting, "The Psychology
of Skill with Special Reference to Its Acquisition in Typewriting," Uni-
versity of Montana Publications.
For this experiment two of the subjects used the Sight Method and
two used the Touch Method.
He has made a very minute analysis of learning to write by Sight and
by Touch. His evidence (which is in favor of touch typewriting) is from
the standpoint of the learning process ; the experiment under considera-
tion seeks evidence from the standpoint of the results obtained, and is to
be worked out on a much larger number of pupils.
d. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine (scientifically)
whether we should teach the Touch or Sight ]\Iethod of typewriting in
our schools.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
1. Groups Chosen.
The pupils selected for this experiment should be beginners in type-
writing, it matters not whether they are in the junior high school, in the
regular high school, or in a business school.
They should be beginners because at the beginning is the place to decide
whether they will be sight or touch operators.
They should be of all grades and classes, because one method may pos-
sibly afifect younger students different from older students and if it does,
we want to know it. If it does not, as scientific investigators, we want to
know that too.
There should be two sections, one using the Sight Method and one using
the Touch Method.
2. Schools Chosen.
In this experiment it is our desire to know how the methods work under
all conditions and therefore, we can take matters largely as we find them
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 99
and do not have to select certain schools because the character of their
student body is ideal or high, or because the children of the school come
from high type American homes, etc.
Of course, the school should be accessible to the experimenter so that he
may observe the conditions and see that the experiment is properly under-
stood by the teachers and properly carried out. See complete reference to
this on p. 36 fif.
b. Co-oi)eration.
There is very little use in conducting any experiment in a school where
the experimenter does not have the co-operation of all concerned. See p.
38 ff. relative to co-operation.
Because of the apparent one-sidedness of the cjuestion, we may have
difficulty in obtaining the necessary co-operation. The student should be
given the choice as to the method. If forced into the section he does not
want, he may not co-operate.
3. Teachers Chosen.
The teacher chosen should meet the conditions set forth on p. 41 IT.
\\'e may have to look largely to the business schools for the working out
of the question in hand, and we may find difficulty in obtaining teachers
who have the scientific attitude, as many such teachers have had no nor-
mal training.
d. Any Other Reasons.
The same teacher should be in charge of both groups, because otherwise
another factor might enter into the experiment in the way of the person-
ality of the teachers.
One dilificulty in connection with this experiment may be in getting a
teacher who can teach both methods without [)rejudice.
But the schools which advertise both the sight and the touch method,
would seem to be the ])lace to go for helj) in this direction, for they are
evidently not absolutely prejudiced in favor of touch typewriting. We
would try first, of course, to get a teacher who could undertake to teach
both methods, but if this could not be done (both sections meeting at the
same period, for instance, etc.), then it will be necessary to get two teach-
ers as nearly alike as possible — whose personalities have about the same
efTect upon the ])upils, that is, two with whom the pupils will co-operate to
loo EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
very nearly the same degree (specify in the report which has the greater
and which the lesser co-operation, if any), and whose personalities have
just about the same amount of force in putting things over to the pupils.
If it is hard to decide that any two teachers available are alike or nearly
alike, the experiment cannot be expected to give valid results and it would
not be expedient to try it because this factor is an important one.
However, the schools in question are business schools and in such
schools the students are usuall\- taught individually (not by classes), as
the pupils enter at any time during the year. This would make it impossi-
ble to conduct the experiment in classes. If it were going to be done in
these schools, it would have to be done individually, which, while not ab-
solutely impossible, requires more work and care. The teacher would have
to be sure that the instruction given to each individual was the same as that
given to others, in effect at least. She would have to be on guard continual-
ly. Special care would have to be taken to see that the records of each pupil
are taken at the proper date, that is, the tests given at the proper time, so
that one pupil will not have had a longer period for the same test than an-
other. She should have a standard individual record for each student, so
that nothing will be overlooked.
In the subject of typewriting, however, the teacher does not enter into
the matter so largely in some schools as she does in most subjects. Some
text books in typewriting are so arranged that the student is merely start-
ed by the teacher and then seeks his own salvation, and this kind is very
often used in business schools, because of the individual method of in-
struction. If the experiment is tried in a school where this type of text
book is used, we would not have to put so nuich consideration on the
choice of a teacher to conduct the experiment, because it would largely
depend upon the i)upil himself. We would have to ascertain just how
much attention is given by the teacher and be sure that when it is given,
it is of the right kind for the purpose of the experiment in mind. A full
statement of this in great detail should be made in the report.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
1. The best person to conduct this experiment would be the regular
teacher of the class. But inasmuch as the students have not become ac-
customed to any teacher in this subject, some other person, who had
the necessary qualifications, could do it. See the consideration of this sub-
ject on p. 44 ff.
2. Agent selected. If the regular teacher is not ideal for any reasons,
then we shall have to choose the next best person available. If the only
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION loi
person available falls short of our requirements by any considerable
amount, we shall have to postpone the experiment until we can get the
proper person.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A I'ROCEDURE
I. Content.
a. Difficulties.
(i) EQUALIZATION TEST.
It is a very difficult matter to equalize sections of a jirospective class of
typewriting students. All we can do at present is to exclude from an ex-
periment those students who we believe have ai; advantage at the start
through possessing pliable fingers as the result of piano or violin playing.
Aside from this we are not able to isolate any of the factors that con-
stitute typewriting ability. Considerable experimenting will be necessary
before we can accomplish this, and, in the meanwhile, our experiments
with other phases of typewriting must be conducted on a sufficiently large
scale to eliminate what unknown inequalities exist.
FINAL TESTS.
Tests are to be sriven
tn '
immediately before the shift key is used,
after it has been mastered,
one month after beginning typewriting, and
each month thereafter.
The first three tests will act as a check on ottr equalization.
It is not expected that any considerable difference will appear before
the first month.
We have assumed that each student started with zero typewriting abil-
ity. The number of net words written per minute in the tests will there-
fore show his progress and will be the basis of comparing the sections.
International Typewriting Contest material and Rules will be used in
these tests. See page i ff. for details. Capitalization and punctuation
vi'ould have to be ignored uniil the student karns lu)w to do this work.
After the students go out into business, they should be tested each year
•or half year, if it is possible to get them back to the school for the test.
r t
r r r • ,< » '
% < <
102 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The point at issue may have been proved conchisively to the students long
before this and the one set may have refused to continue their method.
If it does run into years, the amount of practice a student has had in
business in the course of the year should be calculated as nearly as possi-
ble and this taken into consideration in the result. We would expect a
difference between the student who worked at the machine all day and the
one who worked only half a day. Minutes and seconds would not be con-
sidered when we are talking of years of experience in typewriting.
(2) Preliminary Conferences.
Inasmuch as the details of this experiment are not difficult to under-
stand, it will not be necessary to hold any preliminary conferences. The
procedure can be easily understood from the written instructions.
(3) Any other Difficulties.
It will be difficult to keep the pupils from doing extra typewriting, that
is, from doing it outside of the regular period. The teacher will have to
handle the situation very tactfully. It may even be necessary, in order to
keep the co-operation of the pupils, to tell them that they will receive no
mark on what they do outside, but only on what they do in the class room,
and that the basis for marking will be, not the amount of work they cover
but how well they do the work in that period and how carefully they fol-
low instructions. It would be very difficult to keep students from doing
any extra typewriting for a whole year, if the students are like those of
West Chester, Pa., for whom six weeks was too long a period.
Another difficulty may be that if the results show up so much more fav-
orably in one section than the other, it may become apparent to the stu-
dents themselves and it may be difficult to hold the other section to its
plan. It may be argued that this would be proof in itself. It might not be^
because sometimes there is a zone w'here one method (and usually the
poorer one) keeps ahead of the other for just a little while, and after a
certain point is passed, the other makes rapid, permanently-advanced
strides, and the only way to tell is by keeping the experiment going long
enough.
b. TIME.
The date for the beginning of the experiment should be definitely set.
It must be, by the nature of things, at the time typewriting is begun. If
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 103
the subject is conducted by class instruction, the time will likely be Sep-
tember or February. If it is taught by the individual method, of course,
it will take place whenever a student is ready for the work.
A test should take place just before the students are ready to use the
shift key, another after they have mastered it, and a test regularly each
month counting from the day the student begins typewriting.
\\'ith the individual method we must be certain to keep an accurate rec-
ord of dates. The test immediately preceding the use of the shift key and
the one after mastering it, will not come at the same time for each student
by this method, and there seems to be no way of controlling it. This will
not be an important item, however, because his other tests will come at
monthly periods, dating from the time he begins typewriting. Most im-
portance will be attached to the monthly tests.
It will be necessary to decide how often the subject will be given and
on what days of the week.
c. PERIODS.
Both sections should meet, if possible, at similar periods of the day.
This can easily be done when the class recites only twice a week, or if the
room is large enough to accommodate both sections at one time.
d. SUBJECT-MATTER.
The subject-matter is to be the regular typewriting lessons of the school
where the experiment is given. It is regular work we are testing out by
two different methods. The w^ork should be the same in both sections and
any text can be used.
The text used should be mentioned in the report. It would be well to
state how^ much of the text had been covered at the time of each test.
For the tests we can use such material as the monthly tests of the Un-
derwood Typewriter Co., or the material used in the International Type-
writing Contests, copies of which are furnished by the Underw'ood Type-
writer Co.
e. DETAILS OF PROCEDURE.
( I ) Copies of Instructions and Precautions.
Among the precautions should be mentioned the fact that special care
must be taken to see that the touch students adhere absolutely to touch.
104 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The others will not have to be watched so much because it is more or less
laisscs-faire with them, and there is very little danger of their doing the
touch method if they are not compelled to do it.
If the individual method is used, the teacher should be cautioned to see
that the tests are taken regularly each month. See p. 83 ff. for further
suggestions relative to the details of procedure.
2. Form. •
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 fi.
a. TYPEWRITING.
Experiment No. 5. Should the Schools Have Open or Blank Key-
boards on the Typewriters Used for Instruction Purposes ?
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
Typewriters can be had eitlu-r with the open keyboard or the blank key-
board. .\n open keyboard is one that has letters on the keys ; a blank key-
board has no mark on the kevs to indicate what thev are. Both of these
are used in schools. Some teachers absolutely insist on the blank key-
board and would not tolerate anything else in their class rooms. If these
machines are so much superior to the others, that such a positive stand can
be taken by many teachers, all of the schools should use them. But why
do they not? If there is a great advantage, it should not be difficult to
prove it scientifically. That is the purpose of this experiment.
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
No experiments along the line of this question have been found in the
present research. The Underwood Typewriter Company was asked the
following questions :
"Does your Comi)any express any preference with regard to
blank or open keyboards? Do you know whether anyone has act-
ually tested the thing out, either on individuals or classes ?"
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 105
The following" reply was received from the Manager of the Educational
Department :
"Our Company has no preference with regard to blank or
open keyboards. So far as I have been able to learn, schools that
have tested the matter out prefer the blank keyboard."
On inquiring relative to the tests mentioned, no further information
was obtained.
c. Differentiation.
In view of the above, no differentiation is necessary, as the experiment
suggested stands by itself.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether the schools
should use open or blank keyboards on the typewriters used for instruc-
tion purposes.
li. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
1. Groups Chosen.
The groups chosen could be any class of pupils wdio are beginners in
Typewriting. They could be pupils in the junior high school, senior high
school, or business school.*
The class chosen must be divided into two sections, one using the open
keyboard and the other using the blank keyboard. The sections do not
necessarily have to meet at separate times or places, but the names of the
pupils must, at least, be kept on separate lists. There is no diff'erence
whatever in the instruction, the only difference being in the typewriter
used, and because of this, both sections could be carried on at the same
time.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. General Character of the Student P>odv.
♦Business School will be used as the term mcaniusr all private business schools,
whether they use in their incorporated title the misnomer of Business "College,"
or the less pretentious but more correct term of Business School or School of
Business.
io6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH '
No particular effort need be made to obtain any certain type of stu-
dent body. We are seeking information relative to the effect that these
keyboards have on pupils of various types. Pupils of many classes are
taking up the study of typewriting. Whatever class the student may be,
he is obliged to submit to the machine which the head of the department or
teacher has decreed, whether it be a blank or open keyboard. Therefore,
we do not want to discriminate and choose merely one kind of student. If
the problem works one way in one school and another way in another, we
want sufficient information at hand to decide whether the difference lies in
the type of the student or in some other factor. Therefore, the report
should give full information regarding the kind of pupils taking the work.
b. Accessibility.
The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p.
37 ff-
c. Co-operation.
The necessary co-operation should exist on the part of all concerned, as
described on p. 38 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
The teacher chosen should be sufficiently intelligent to handle the ex-
periment. She should have the scientific attitude of mind and be profes-
sionally interested in the results, as explained at length on p. 41 ff.
One teacher should have charge of both sections of the class, so that
the matter of personality will not enter as a varying factor.
She should not be prejudiced in favor of either method and must not
even express her opinion or choice so that it will reach the students. It
will require keen observation to see that the pupils do not look at the key-
board. She cannot be a teacher who does not see things that transpire.
She should not give more attention to one section than to the other.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
The regular teacher will generally be the person who would be most
likely to conduct this experiment, although anyone else having the neces-
sary qualifications could do so, since it comes at the beginning of a sub-
ject before the students have become accustomed to any one particular
person.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 107
TV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I. Content.
a. Difficulties,
(i) Equalization Test.
Final Tests.
What has been said under Experiment No. 4 in this regard, also applies
in this case. See p. 101 fF.
(2) I'rcliniinary Conferences.
What has been said in the above mentioned Experiment under this
heading, applies here also. vSee p. 102 tT.
( 3 ) Any other difficulties.
We must be on guard so as not to confuse the point at issue in this ex-
periment with anything else. \\'e are trying to decide which keyboard is
the better for touch typewriting. We are not trying to decide whether
touch typewriting is better than sight; that is the subject of an experi-
ment by itself. If we do not keep close check on our thinking, we may
find that ai the knotty points, we run into the other problem.
The requirements of touch typewriting must be taken into account at
all times. The teacher must constantly be on guard to see that none of
the students watch their fingers during the regular practice ])eriods or at
any other time. If a teacher finds that she must keep closer watch on the
students who have open keyboards than on the students who have blank
keyboards, it should be a consideration in deciding the matter of the value
of the one as against the other. Therefore, the teacher in this experiment
should be very observant and make record of her efl'orts in keeping stu-
<lents to the things they should do. Her record should show the number of
times each student has not used his eyes properly, whether she has actually
been able to speak to him individually each time regarding it or not. This
record would at least prove very interesting as a side light, if not as tiie
chief evidence in determining a question of this kind. She could have a
list of the names of the students with columns ojjposite, wherein could
he noted the number of times she is obliged to speak to each student each
io8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
day during practice, because of watching the keyboard. This information-
should be tabulated for each section.
One considerable difficulty will be that of determining the basis for our
conclusions.
We have three kinds of data in this experiment, that could be used in
determining the value of the open keyboard as against the blank one :
We could determine it on the basis of the effort necessary on
the part of the teacher, to produce touch typists with each kind of
keyboard.
We could determine it on the basis of the student's ability to
do the touch typewriting during a test.
W^e could determine it on the basis of the speed attained by
the student.
The last basis would not be absolutely correct. Up to a certain point it
is to be expected that sight operators make better speed. If the students
using the blank keyboards make better speed than the others, it would be
important, but nothing could be inferred as against the blank keyboards,
if the speed of the pupils using lettered keyboards was better, because this
experiment is not planned to run over a sufficiently long time to consider
permanent speed. It is simply a temporary speed that is being recorded,
which is believed by many to turn in favor of touch typewriting after a
certain point — the point where looking off ones copy loses more time than
watching ones fingers gains.
The second basis would be a method that would economize the teacher's
time, and yet would seem valid. The strain of exceedingly careful watch-
ing would last for the period of the test only. It would seem to be fair to
the student, nevertheless, because if the student did touch typewriting, he
should be able to demonstrate it in a ten-minute test. It would be inter-
esting to notice whether or not the student changed his tactics in succeed-
ing tests.
The first basis would require the most work on the part of the teacher.
She would be required to keep an accurate record of each occasion on
which it was necessary to speak to the student about watching his keys,
whether she actually did speak or not. This w^ould seem to be a valid
means, however, of comparing the relative value of the two kinds of key-
boards for touch typewriting. Touch typewriting requires that the stu-
dent does not watch his fingers or keys. If the students with lettered keys
require much more attention on the part of the teacher in order to acquire
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 109
touch typewriting, than those using blank keys, it would certainly show an
advantage in favor of the blank keys. It would hardly seem necessary
to have more proof to establish the superiority of machines with the blank
keys.
It is rather difficult to decide which of the last mentioned bases is the
better. To dispose of much argument, we could, without much trouble^
obtain the data for both. If one is just as valid as the other, the results
ought to confirm each other, and we would have the more reason to believe
that we had used a valid procedure.
It is suggested, therefore, that wherever the experiment is tried, a rec-
ord be kept both as to the teacher's efforts to produce touch typists, and,
also, the ability of the students to do touch typewriting in a ten-minute
test.
During the tests, however, no one should be allowed to look at his key-
board. Anybody doing it disqualifies himself on the matter of his ability
to do touch typewriting and his record counts against that of his section.
For the benefit of those who do not know the requirements of the touch
system, it might be well to make a few statements at this point. By touch
typewriting we do not mean that a student must never look at his fingers
or the keyboard. There are times when a student must look. After he
has had his fingers off the keys, for instance, when he has brought his
carriage over to the beginning of a new line, a student must get his fingers
properly placed on the keyboard before he can proceed. Beginners cannot
be expected to place their fingers on the proper keys without looking where
they place them. This is perfectly permissible. Any other like reason
would also allow the students to look at their fingers a second or two..
But that is quite a different thing from being obliged to look at the fingers
in order to be able to strike the correct keys. A person experienced in
touch typewriting can very easily tell whether the puj^il is looking be-
cause of valid reasons or because he is not a touch operator.
b. Time.
For the purposes of the experiment it would not make any difference
how often a class meets, as long as both sections have the same advan-
tages. It could be twice a week, three times a week, or more.
A test should be given when the class completes its work on the small
letters and is just about ready to proceed with the shift key. Another one
could be given after they have had some practice with the shift key, un-
less it came too close to the regular monthly test ; another should take
place one month from the day the first instruction was given, and subse-
no EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
quent ones at regular monthly intervals thereafter, for whatever time the
experiment continues.
The final date of the experiment cannot be definitely set. It will de-
pend largely upon how long one section survives, and that is part of the
answer for which we are experimenting. If one or two months show that
one section is at great disadvantage, it would seem wise to discontinue that
method at once.
The section that survives with the greatest number of touch operators
would indicate the method that should be followed in cur schools. There
should be a considerable difference between the two sections in order to
show any decided tendency. If one section had 29 survivors 'and the oth-
er had 28, we could not say that one keyboard was superior to the other.
If one, however, produced 30 and the other 5, and all conditions were
scrupulously met, it would point strongly in favor of the 30. If these are
valid results, they should duplicate themselves approximately in similar
experiments tried elsewhere.
If the results appear absolutely contrary to sound reasoning, we shall
have to look for the trouble-making-factor ; if they are in accord with
sound reasoning, we can consider the results valid.
c. Periods.
Both sections should take the work during the same period of the day
if possible, taking for granted that their schedule is the same every day.
We insist that one teacher should have charge of both sections, and, there-
fore, there are only two possibilities of having both sections meet during
the same period of the day. If the two sections met as one class, in a room
where both blank and open keyboards were in use, it would be possible.
Also, if the class met only twice a week — one section on Monday and
Thursday at, let us say, the fourth period, and the other section on Tues-
day and Friday at the 4th period.
If neither of the two arrangements just suggested are possible, then
the next best thing would be to have the sections meet at such periods
Avhen they would be equally fatigued or equally prime. The work which
precedes would have to determine that, as explained on p. 56 ff.
If any of this work is to be done during the cold weather, it would not
he wise to hold the meeting of the class during the first period of any ses-
sion, because those who come in late — just from the cold — would have
stiff fingers and would not be able to do good work until their fingers
were warmed up.
d. Subject-matter.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION iii
The subject-matter to be used would be the regular typewriting text
book in use by the school.
Ten-minute tests on the International Typewriting Contest matter and
rules should be given. In the first test, of course, before the pupil has
learned the use of punctuation and capitals, he should not be required to
use them in the test, and should be marked accordingly.
Of course, the touch typewriting method will be taught. There would
be no purpose in trying this experiment with any other method, as the
blank keyboards were introduced as an aid to touch typewriting. The
blank keyboard does not claim any advantages for the sight operator.
There should be but one varying factor, namely, the keyboards. Other-
wise everything" should be uniform, instruction included.
e. Details of procedure.
(i) Copy of Instructions.
The instructions should state that there should be two sections, one
with the open keyboard and the other with the blank keyboard. The two
sections need not necessarily meet at different times. See p. 220, Section c.
The teacher should be cautioned to be very keenly on the watch for
those who use their eyes improperly, that is. for those who look at the
keyboard when they should not. All through the regular lesson practice
period, she will have to keep close watch, and especially so when the tests
take place.
(2) Time limits.
A definite date should be set for the beginning of the experiment. The
first test given after the class is organized will be immediately before the
shift key is used ; another when the pupils have had sufficient time to be-
come accustomed to the shift key ; another, one month after beginning
typewriting; and others thereafter at regular monthly periods. The final
date of the experiment will depend on each separate class. See p. no.
(3) Form, order, and methods of giving directions. The teacher need
not tell the students anything about the experiment. The instruction for
both sections will be exactly alike, and the work they do will be the same.
The only difference is that there are some operating blank keyboards and
others operating open keyboards. There might be many reasons for find-
ing two kinds of keyboards in one school or in one room. This need
arouse no suspicions. i-Vt West Chester blank keyboards are desired,
but during the War it was necessary to take what machines could be ob-
tained, and a year and a half after the Armistice was signed, they still
must use some open keyboards because these machines were not blank
112 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
when sent, and the man who is to do the blanking, has not been able to
find the time to come to West Chester to attend to the matter. On a pre-
vious occasion a long wait was necessaray to get all the machines of the
room blanked.
The teacher should urge each student to make the best individual rec-
ord. Nothing need be said about sections at all. If the students suspect
that the result of the test may take away the open keyboards, they may
conspire to make that impossible, by purposely producing other results.
(4) Record of interruptions, temperature, weather, ventilation, mis-
steps, etc., should be made. See p. 59 ff.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all the experiments and
is fully covered on p. 62 ff.
b. SHORTHAND.
On this subject the methods of procedure for six experiments will be
developed :
1. The first one is an attempt to get information which will enable
a teacher to know when she may expect the students of her
" class to have fixed in their minds any outlines that she had
presented to the class, that is, how many presentations are
necessary to fix an outline.
2. The second is an attempt to get a basis for judging the length of
a lesson, to know how many new ideas can be presented in a
lesson with a reasonable expectation of their being retained.
3. The third is an attempt to get data that will help in making up
schedules, to know what is the best method of arranging
classes — every day, every other day, or is every third day too
infrequent to reasonably expect much progress — in other
words, intervals of repetition.
4. The fourth is an attempt to predetermine those who will never
make high-speed stenographers because of high personal co-
efficient.
5. The fifth is a question of forearm movement versus finger move-
ment in stenography.
6. The sixth is an attempt to determine what drill would be most
valuable to the shorthand student.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 113
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. i. The Number of Presentations Necessary to Fix
an Outline.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
]\Iany shorthand teachers have no doubt been frecjuently exasperated
to find that after they have put a certain outhne on the board time and time
again, there are still some in the class who have not absorbed it. We all
know full well that one presentation to a class is not sufficient. A few
may remember it from one presentation, but the majority will not. Since
we must expect to give more than one presentation, after how many may
we feel that the idea should begin to take root with the greater part of the
class ?
One thing that will have to be considered in this is the time element —
the interval of repetition — but that is a factor by itself. It would seem
reasonable to say that we could not expect fewer presentations to do the
work if the interval is greater than if the interval is very short. There-
fore, our first task will be to find how many presentations we must make
with a comparatively short interval, or practically no interval, and after
we know that, it may guide us as a minimum number of presentations, to
be used in determining the other factor, that of interval.
If we can succeed in getting an experiment that will be valid, then a
teacher wall not be wasting time by presenting the outline more times than
necessary, and, on the other hand, she will not be doing inefficient w^ork by
not presenting it often enough to reasonably expect the students to get it.
It will make for efficiency in our teaching, and give the teacher some ob-
jective basis for her method.
This involves psychology, of course, and some experiments may be ap-
plied to it, and inferences drawn from it. Some experiments should be
conducted in the subject itself where the principles are to be applied, how-
ever. It may be an entirely analogous case and it may not be. The only
way to be certain is to try it. ]\Iany vmforeseen factors loom up in situa-
tions that had appeared to be identical but which later proved not to be so.
If the fields arc identical, nothing will have been lost, because the conclu-
sion reached will confirm that of previous experiments, and help to make
the result all the more certain of being soundly grounded. If the result
114 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
does not bear out the former conclusion, it will show that there was some
element in the situation which had not been anticipated and therefore
there is all the more reason for treating it as a separate case.
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The investigation has disclosed no experiment in this field.
c. Differentiation.
Therefore, no differentiation is necessarv.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is planned to help answer the cjuestion, "How many
presentations are necessary to fix a shorthand outline?"
H. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
Beginners in the study of Shorthand should be chosen.
The number of presentations necessary to fix an outline, of course, will
depend upon the number of associations a student can make to retain the
outline. It will depend upon his apperception or the manysidedness of his
knowledge, and of his ability to apply that manysidedness. \A'hen one
reaches the point where he might make many connections and thus help
himself to fix an idea, another factor may enter into the experiment — the
ability or desire to make the connection, the influence of which factor it
would be difficult to determine. In other words, let us say that we are
presenting an idea which can be hitched up to a great many ideas in the
possession of all the students. Some of them will make all the connections
and therefore get the idea firmly fixed, while others, through inattention
or lack of desire to exercise the necessary mental concentration, will not
make the connections, and, therefore, will not get the idea so well fixed.
It would be difficult to determine whether the number of presentations is
the element responsible for not getting the work, or mental laziness.
This, then, is a factor to be avoided if possible. It can be greatly elimi-
nated by choosing for experimentation elementary things in a subject,
which things as yet do not have many connections in the mind of the stu-
dent. In Shorthand it would, therefore, seem best to experiment on be-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 115
ginners' classes and to experiment on the alphabet, which takes them at a
point where the whole subject-matter is new to them and where there are
very few connections with what is already in their minds, and where they
must get it from the presentation of the teacher. If an advanced class is
taken, it seems to the writer that the results would not be just as valid for
laying down a general principle, because the element of interconnections
would enter, as mentioned above. It would, nevertheless, be interesting
to have some experiments made on advanced students to see just how
much our supposition regarding them is warranted and how the results
compare with those obtained from the beginners.
The present experiment is planned for beginners in the subject of Short-
hand.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. General Character of Student Body.
The experiment should be tried in as many schools as it is possible to
get to undertake the matter, and it should be undertaken with the Pitman ic
systems as well as the Gregg and others.
The object of this experiment, as of some of the others, will be, not to
ascertain what is the result with an ideal class under ideal conditions.
That \\ill be a development of the years to come, but the object of this ex-
periment will be to ascertain how many times do we find it necessary to
present ideas to the students at present in our schools, taking them just as
they are — bright, dull, mediocre, etc. — and under normal school conditions
existing today, with good teachers, poor teachers, and medium teachers.
W^e shall then at least be able to say that a certain class gets it or does not
get it, after having had the number of presentations required by the aver-
age for the schools tested ; or if we find that the average will not give us
a correct understanding of what is needed, we can use whatever other fig-
ure seems best. This would be a decided step in advance of present condi-
tions. From this we could work out the matter more ideally.
Therefore, the exjieriment could be tried in any school and with any
student body. It would be of value if some details were given in the re-
port, as to the character of the school and student body, whether the
shorthand work is considered first class or not, and whether the students
come from the better families of the community or from the foreign ele-
ment. Some of these remarks, of course, will only be opinions, and will
be regarded as such, but they might throw some light on variations.
b. Accessibilitv.
ii6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The school should be accessible to the experimenter as mentioned on
p. 36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
There should be co-operation on the part of everyone, as explained on
p. 38 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
Because of the complex method involved, it will be necessary to obtain,
for the experiment, teachers of more than ordinary intelligence. It would
be better for the experimenter to conduct the work himself, but, if this
is impossible, the next best thing would be to have a good teacher do it,
"being sure that the instructions are written out fully for her and in such
a way that she understands them.
The teacher should meet the conditions specified on p. 41 fi.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
It would be well, if possible, for the experimenter to do the work him-
self. The subject-matter is new to the students, they have not become ac-
customed to any teacher in that subject, and therefore no disturbing ele-
ment would enter by having anyone else than the regular teacher take
charge.
The teacher herself could undertake it if she is fully conversant with the
instructions.
What has been said on p. 44 ff. regarding choice of conductor also ap-
plies here.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I. Content.
a. Difficulties.
(I) Tests.
There will be no need for preliminary tests, as we are going to take
things as we find them. It would help in reconciling variations, however,
if the report contained some information about the students, such as the
age, to which class in high school they belong, whether they are taking
t
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 117
the two year or four year commercial course, whether the room in which
the instruction was given is so arranged that all the students could well
see the work on the board, whether they are a high, medium, or low type
■of student, generally speaking, etc. The time between ])re-entations
might be noted.
See p. 118. under Details of Procedure, for final tests.
(2) If the investigator is going to do this work himself, of course,
there will be no need of conferences with teachers, but unless he does that,
he should have conferences with the teachers to explain just what is to be
done, and to state clearlx that the essential thing is to make only the num-
ber of presentations called for and to make them properly. A carefully
planned, written set of instructions should be handed to the teachers for
them to study in advance of the time for the experiment.
(3) Other Difficulties.
The essential feature will be testing the student after each presentation,
to see whether or not that presentation has fixed the idea. It will dift'er
from Experiment No. 2 under Shorthand, in that only one idea will be
presented at a time in the present experiment and then tested for. The ob-
ject of this experiment is not to see how many ideas can be presented at
one time and how many repetitions are necessary. There are two factors
in such a question, as will readily be seen. This experiment merely tries
to determine how many times an idea must be presented by itself in order
to stick, and its practical api)lication comes when in the midst of
a lesson a student will ask, "How do you write such and such a
word ?" That is a single idea at a time. How many times is it reasonable
to answer that question for that class? That is the purpose of this experi-
ment. The one chief difficulty will be that there will be considerable mark-
ing of papers and the method will likelv interfere with the teacher's reg-
ular way of presenting the alphabet to the class, and it may delay the
class somewhat in its scheduled progress. But it is worth while if scien-
tific data can be obtained thereby.
b. Time.
The experiment should be conducted during the regular shorthand
period and the number of letters presented will be linfited by the length of
the period. That will have to be adjusted in each case, and a record kept
of it. At the beginning of each ])eriod there should be a test on the work
of the previous period to see how much has really been retained. ( If the
teacher could take the time to glance at these papers before proceeding
M"ith the work of the class, they might cast light on some flaws that ob-
ii8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
tained in the last recitation.) The experiment will necessarily be con-
ducted at the beginning of the study of shorthand, whenever that takes
place.
c. Periods.
The time of day will be the regular shorthand period. Of course, the
efficiency of the work will depend greatly upon what preceded. A note
should be made of the lessons that preceded, so that this data may be
taken into account when considering the results. Ideal conditions, of
course, would likely give a dift'erent result but we now wish to ascertain
how many times, under existing conditions, it is necessary to present an
idea in order to fix it. With this as a guide, we will then be better able
to proceed with the experiment to help determine how many ideas can be
presented at one time.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter to be used for the experiment will be the shorthand
alphabet, no matter what system is being taught. The object is to give the
students the most elementary things — things for which they have up to
this time the least number of mental connections to which to- hitch them.
In the Pitmanic systems, the consonants will be taken first and then the
vowels, although there is no particular reason against reversing the order,
or mixing the consonants and vowels. We may find that we shall be
obliged to reach one decision for the consonants and another for the vow-
els, in the Pitman systems, because of the difirerence in the nature of the
marks for these letters.
e. Detail of Procedure.
(i) Following is a detail of the procedure which should be handed tO'
the teachers in charge of the classes :
The object of this experiment is to ascertain how many times it is neces-
sary to present an idea to a regular class (that is, not an ideal class, but a
class as we find it in our school) before the majority of the class get it in
such a way that it becomes fixed.
The experiment will be conducted with the beginners in shorthand and
it will cover only the period taken by the class for the alphabet. No text
books should be handed to the class for the reason that if they are, the
students can, before the next lesson, look at the page giving the alphabet
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION
119
and have some presentations which will not be recorded and the results,
therefore, will be made invalid.
Those teaching any of the Pitmanic systems will present 8 of the con-
sonants at a lesson, and then six vowels, in the following order, let us say:
p, t, ch, k, b, d, j, g,
f, th, s, sh, V, dh, z, zh,
m, n, mb, ng, 1, r, y, w,
the three light dots and three heavy dots,
the three light dashes and three heavy dashes,
the dipthongs.
It will be fovmd that the matter of getting papers ready and arranged
takes up considerable time. One thing that must be borne in mind is that
we cannot give the students any opportunity to get even an unrecorded
glance at a letter. This must carefully be taken into consideration.
Therefore, the papers must either be collected after each presentation
and test or else the papers must be so arranged that they can be folded,
thus making it imi)ossible for the student to see what he has already writ-
ten.
The following method was tried in the West Chester High School :
The class was given the regular pages torn from shorthand note books,
which had been cut crosswise in this fashion :
Name, Date
They were not cut quite to the end, so that it would be easier to pass
the papers out, and so that the student could put his name on them. After
the papers were distributed, the student was asked to write his name and
date on each of the slips, and also to number them consecutively. After
the first presentation w^as made the students were asked to write the letters
on the top slip. This was torn otif, turned face downward at once and col-
lected. The letters were presented again, the test given (the second slip
being used for that), the slip torn off, turned face down and collected, and
so on. This made it absolutely certain thai the student difl not see his
former paper, but it wasted time.
The folUnving method is better and could be used without any fear of
invalidating the results, j)roviding the teacher will see that the students do
120 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
as they are told. It would save much time. The regular note book sheets
could be used. Have each student write his name and date at the top.
Present the letters. Then ask the student to write them. After they have
done this, instruct them to fold the paper, making two folds at the top so
as to be sure they cannot look at what has been written. In telling them
to fold, it will be necessary to say definitely how many inches. It should
be 3^2 inch, at least, for each fold. Then give another presentation and
another test and have them fold over the paper in the same manner. An-
other advantage of this method would be that all the work of one student
would be on the same sheet of paper and comparison of individaul work
could be made more easily. Of course, in the case of the slips torn off,
they could be pasted together again and in that way the work of each
student would be assembled. But the loss of time in collecting papers is
the objection to the separate slip method.
If the separate slip method is used, time could be saved by having the
sheets numbered in series, having the student put his name only on the
first. The only time lost then would be in collecting and, if the teacher is
a good manager, that might be done quickly.
It is suggested that the first lesson be conducted as the particular teach-
er would do it under ordinary circumstances. After whatever introduction
she saw fit to give, she might proceed somewhat as follows :
"The system we shall learn is called the Benn Pitman (or whatever it
ma}- be) system, after Benn Pitman, the man who developed it. When
you started writing longhand, down in the early grades, the first thing you
had to do was to learn how to write the letters of the alphabet. That is
exactly what we must do. You will remember that there are two kinds of
letters, consonants and vowels. We shall learn the consonants first.
"Now, the Benn Pitman system belongs to those systems which are
called geometrical systems because they are made up of straight lines and
curved lines, for instance, taking a circle, we cut it thus (cut it into cpiad-
rants, using vertical and horizontal diameters) and another thus (cut it
into quadrants, using oblique diameters). Now I shall give you some of
the letters. I shall give you eight today. The first one is this straight
line." Point to it in the cut circle. Then write it separately on the board
where all can see, making it large, and saying, "This represents the sound
of the letter 'p,' and is called "pu' ( or 'pee', whichever method is in use in
the school in question)." Then pau.se a little while for that to make
its impression, but do not repeat.
"The next is this line, ( t )." Point to it in the circle and make it on the
board, saying, as you make it, "It represents the sound of the letter 't'
and is called 'tu' ". Say this very forcefully and deliberately, so as to give
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 121
it the greatest possible chance of penetrating. In this way proceed with
the rest of the first eight straight Hnes. Be sure to show the connection
between the heavy and hght sounds and the heavy and hght marks. When
you have finished the last one, just calmly erase all that you have ])ut on
the board. Then ask the students to take their papers and pencils and
write down as many of the letters you name as they can remember. Then
call them oiT to the students, distinctly and slowly enough for the students
to get them, repeating only when the letter has not been heard. Then have
the papers torn off and placed face down on the desk and have them col-
lected. Or if the second method is used, have the students fold down
the paper twice. Then proceed with the same eight letters again, putting
each shorthand character on the board, telling what sound it represents
and giving its name ; then erase the characters quickly and have the stu-
dents write them from dictation. It might be advisable to give the first
set in the order in which they were presented, but each of the other sets
should be given in a different order. For the second test the following
order is suggested: ch, k, d. p, j, b, g, t. Collect the papers or fold them
over, and proceed again as before. Do this as many times as the period will
permit. Stop long enough before the end of the period to assign home-
work for the next time.
The papers should be marked, and record made as follows :
LETTERS WHICH EACH STUDENT FAILED
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
presen-
presen-
presen-
presen-
presen-
tation
tation
tation
tation
tation
.John Smith
1
- \ /
- \ /
I - /
-/
- /
Geo. Green
—
Wm. .Jones
/
/-/-
1 -
Presenta-
tions neces-
sary before
6th
7th 8th
9th
10th
student got
pres.
pres. pres
pres.
pres.
aH perfect
John Smith
/
7
Geo. Green
(»
3
W'm. Jones
5
3)15
5
This record will show the teacher first, where the weakness of each stu-
dent is, and which letters need most emphasis. It may reveal something
about the order of presentation. It may show that the last letters pre-
sented are the ones which it takes longest to straighten out. It may show
122 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
that the student at the third test got a certain letter correct but failed on
it in the 4th test, etc., which, of course, calls for an explanation. The final
column should then be added and the average found. That would then
show how many times it had to be presented before the majority of the
class fixed the idea.
(2) Time Limits.
Date for beginning experiment should be definitely given. The final
date will depend on the number of letters in the alphabet of the system be-
ing taught.
(3) Form, Order and Method.
The paper having been given out, and the names of the students and the
date having been w-ritten thereon, the teacher can proceed with the les-
son as described under Detail of Procedure, p. 118.
(4) Record of Interruptions, etc.
Careful record should be made of any interruptions, mis-steps, etc., as
mentioned on p. 59 tf.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline is uniform for the experiments and is fully
covered in ]). 62 iT.
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 2. The Number of Ideas That Can be Presented in a
Lesson.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
This experiment somewhat involves the preceding one.
The whole matter of preparing a lesson involves the questions of how
nnich should be given and how often it must be gone over. No doubt, the
one has bearing on the other. If we give the student too much, we shall
have to go over the work often, and if we give him only a very small
quantity, we may not have to go over it often at all. We must, however,
try to find how each of these stands alone, for it may enable us the better
to understand the combination. This experiment tries to dwell particular-
ly on one feature — quantity.
IX CO^nrERCIAL EDUCATION 123
W e arc reaching the time when efficiency will play a much larger pari in
•our teaching than it does today. To be efficient, we must know just how
much to exi)ect from the students and retjture all of that from them. ( )ur
commercial teaching should he in such shape that we can be most efficient
in it. ]\Iore things are crowding into the commercial ctu'riculum, and. if
all these things must be done in four years of high school, we must do
theiu in the most economical w av.
in l-jeginners' Shorthand, are we going to give the students so few ideas
at a time that they will absolutely master them very easily? If so, it will
take considerable time to cover certain ground, and possibly some of the
class will lose interest in the subject because it presents no problem to the
active mind. Or, shall we overload the students with so many ideas that
thev cannot begin to master them, which will in the end mean lost time?
Or, are we going to give the students just enough so that all can be mas-
tered and quick progress can be made at the same time?
To he sure, we are dealing with the individual sttident in each case, and
the teacher must, in the last resort, decide how each of the students she has
before her is cajiable of taking a lesson and then base her assignment upon
that jtidgment. Rut suppose she decides that most of her class are very
bright, how many ideas will she give them in a lesson ? She has nothing
objective to use as a standard, unless she has done some experimenting
along this line herself. She merely guesses at it. She may get the num-
ber too large or too small, in either case the efficiency is not the highest.
We ask her why she gives a certain amount and she answers, "That is
what John Smith gives." He may be a man of good judgment, but many
people may disagree with the statement that he is a man of good judgment,
and for them his opinion will not cotmt for anything. She may say,
"They do it that way in a certain high school." But unless that high
-school has looked into the matter scientifically, that mere statement does
not produce any scientific data. Consequently most of the teachers are at
sea. By having the results of some scientific investigation before her, this
teacher can, at least, reason in this way : "The average student in the
schools tested is ])rogressing w iih so much of an assignment. Most of the
schools in this list are of a reputation that is below our school. There are
no cases noted of classes of very bright students. My students are very
bright. They should be able to do. at least, what the average student in
these other schools does. 1 shall try them on this first. If this works
well, I can increase their assignment each day, till I tind the maxinumi
amount they can do."
This teacher then wotild have some acttial jjoint from which to start,
^vhich she does not have at present. Teachers who have tried out this
124 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
objective scale can then report, or, rather, will soon be interested enough-
to express opinions, as to whether the matter is working out satisfactorily
or not. If not, then more work will have to be put on it, until the scale
does prove satisfactory.
A method is required in this experiment which will give presentations of
an increasing number of ideas, with tests to check up how the ideas be-
come fixed. We need not start at one, then take two, and so on. It is
safe to assume, a priori, that everyone with mental equipment can absorb
one idea in a lesson, if it is clearly presented. The same can be said of
two ideas. Yet we cannot say that everyone could absorb 50 ideas in a
lesson. Somewhere between these extremes is the point where most of
our present-day students reach their limit. To find that, if we can, is our
problem.
Again, as before, we shall try to ascertain what the situation is in our
schools as we actually find it today. We are not so much concerned with
W'hat might be done by an ideal class under ideal conditions. We do not
have these classes in our schools and while it is a good thing to know
what to expect under ideal conditions, it would seem to be of much more
value to us to know what to expect under present conditions.
There should be a pre-preliminary test on this, so as to be able to find
the lower and upper limits, so that the test itself may be undertaken with-
out the loss of unnecessary experimentation.
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
No experiments have been found that take up the matter of presenta-
tions in shorthand, although the psychological laboratories have under-
taken experiments on presentations in general.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to deternfine the number of ideas
that can be presented in a shorthand lesson.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
So far as the pupils selected for the experiment are concerned, it is sim-
ply necessary to say that they should be beginners in the subject of short-
hand. I'here is likely to be a difference in the work of the older ones and
I
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 125
the younger ones. Therefore, the record should contain the age of the
pupil, and his class.
2. Schools Chosen.
The experiment should be conducted in as man}- schools as possible.
The wider the range, the better the result would be. It should be under-
taken with the Pitmanic systems as well as the Gregg and others.
What is said in the previous experiment on p. 115 ff. also applies here.
b. Accessibility.
The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as stated on p.
36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
There should be co-operation on the part of everyone, as explained on
p. 38 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
The same conditions hold as in the preceding experiment. See p. 41 ff.
111. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
It would be best, if possible, for the experimenter to do the work him-
self. What has been said regarding the matter in the preceding experi-
ment. J). 116, also applies here.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I. Content.
General Plan.
The plan to be followed in this experiment would seem to require giving
the students a certain number of ideas that they have not had before. The
shorthand alphabet would answer the purpose nicely. If it is found that
the students readily learn the number that has been given, it should be in-
creased.
126 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
a. Difficulties.
Pre-preliminary Tests.
Before the experimenter can proceed, it will be necessary for him to
ascertain roughly, at least, the minimum number of letters that can be i)re-
sented in one lesson. He may have to decide that arbitrarily. All would
agree that one is too small a number. All would also agree on twc, but
somewhere along the line a disagreement would take place. Therefore,
some pre-preliminary tests will be necessary to determine the minimum
number of ideas to be presented — in this case, the minimum number of
letters.
The following is suggested for this pre-preliminary test, and the experi-
menter should conduct this himself.
The work should be tried on a beginners' class in shorthand.
Some number must arbitrarily be decided upon, as the number of letters
to use in the lesson, after which that number must be tried out to see
whether or not it works. Let us take 8 letters. Any eight would do. A
Pitman teacher might take the 8 straight stems.
We shall follow the same procedure as in the last experiment, that is :
present the letters to the class in the way shown and then ask the students
to reproduce the characters from dictation. This process is to be contin-
ued as long as the period lasts. These results could also be compared to
advantage with the results from the previous experiment. The papers
should be recorded on a schedule similar to the one used in the last ex-
periment.
Not much could be told by this one performance. However, it would
tell by the number of presentations necessary before the majority of the
iclass fixed the ideas, whether eight letters are too few or too many.
At the next lesson, the experimenter should give the class a test on what
•was given them the last time. Just one test is to be given, to see how they
have retained over the extended period. Then he may proceed with the
experiment itself.
Let us say that eight was found to be too small a number, that most
of the class had mastered these in a small number of presentations and
after that were writing them correctly. This being the case, we might
find that lo did not make much dift'erence, and, since the number of char-
acters in our alphabet is limited, we must make good use of them. There-
fore, it is suggested that we try 12 the next time. After 12 have been
presented, the papers should again be marked and record made as in the
former lesson.
Now we can begin to make some comparisons. Did the majority of
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 127
the class write the 12 characters correctly after the early presentations?
If so, then we must conclude, it would seem, that 12 is too small a num-
ber. Possibly then, the next lesson should deal with 15 or 16. Let us
say that the majority of the class retained the 8 letters in six presentations,
and the majority of the class retained the 12 letters in 12 presentations.
We would then know that 12 is entirely too large a number to give at one
time and the next lesson would better be confined to 10.
Furthermore, we should consider which letters caused the trouble. Were
they among the first six presented or among the last six? Could they be
confined to the last four or the last two? If there is a consistent failure
on the last two letters, could we assume that I2was too large a number
and that 10 would more nearly come within the ability of the students?
Or do we find that the letters that were not learned well are mixed and do
not seem to follow any particular order. Do our findings bear out the
findings of the psychological laboratory with respect to retention?
However, the next test should be made with 10 letters, presented in the
same way as in the former ones. The papers should be marked and the
record kept just as in the other case. We desire to know whether the gain
has been any greater than with the 12. or just as great as with 8. Then
we would say that 10 is the proper number to present in this kind of short-
hand lesson.
Now then, let us say that the experimenter is going to try this on a large
scale, so large that individualities need not be considered. Then it would
be well for him to give one set of experiments in certain schools, using 10
letters a lesson in each of the experiments, vmtil the complete alphabet is
used. Another year, or with another set of schools, he could try 8 letters
a lesson; w^ith another set, or another year, 12 letters. In the last case,
the teachers would have to be on the lookout and not let this interfere
with the efficiency of their teaching. It would only affect three lessons,
however, and the damage done in three lessons, if 12 letters were beyond
the reach of the students, could easily be remedied.
These results should be graphed by the experimenter and they would
show valuable information. On a large scale like this, even though the 8,
10 and 12 were not tried on the same pupils, the results would be valid
because individualities have been balanced by large numbers. The diffi-
culty is that after the student has once learned the alphabet, we cannot
try any other number with him, and it is therefore necessary to try the ex-
periment on an altogether different set of students.
In this experiment we should keep all other factors alike, except the
number of letters presented. That is the factor for which we are testing.
(2) Preliminary conferences may be necessary in order to get the
128 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
matter clearly before the teachers. It might be, however, that written in-
structions would suffice. It would depend largely on how clearly they can
be written up.
b. Time.
The experiment should start when the subject of shorthand is begun.
In order that the interval of repetition may not be a large factor, the les-
sons should be given on succeeding days. Since the alphabet is small, it
would not take much time to complete the experiment at the rate of 8 or
more letters given each day.
c. Periods.
The work should take place during a period when the students are not
fatigued, upset, or otherwise incapable of serious work. The report should
state what preceded, at least, for the session, and should state at what
period the work was done. See p. 56 fif.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter will be the alphabet of the shorthand system taught
in the school where the experiment is made. Sign-words are not such
good material because there are more interconnections for them than there
are for the letters of the alphabet, and we could not control that factor, as
some students make good use of interconnections and others do not.
It may be that the results will be diiTerent in the various systems of
shorthand.
e. Details of Procedure.
(i) The copies of instructions should clearly state the method of the
instruction and tests. Similar precautions are to be given as in the case
of the preceding experiment.
(2) Time Limits.
The time limits should be stated definitely. The length of the experi-
ment will depend on the shorthand system taught, which would condition
the number of characters to be presented.
(3) There are no special instructions regarding form, order and
method. See p. 58 ft'.
(4) Interruptions of any kind might be a very disturbing factor and
should be carefully noted, as mentioned on p. 59 tf.
2. Form.
I
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 129
The balance of the outHne apphes uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 If.
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 3. The Proportion of Time Spent in Reading Back
Shorthand Notes in Class.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
In the statement of this problem we come to another of the practical
questions that confront the teacher of shorthand. Shall we have the stu-
dents read back to us (and that is the only way of being sure they do read
it back ) all the shorthand that is dictated? It would be a good thing if we
had the time, but reading back is such slow work with some students and
it would not leave very much time for the dictation itself. Of course, the
students could be told to read back their day's dictation as homework, but
conscientious work along that line is an impossible thing to check up
and so we must dismiss that idea at once. There is a real problem here
for the teacher of shorthand. The students must be able to read their
notes quickly. Without practice they will not be able to do this and the
teaching is a failure.
Time docs not permit having them read back all of their notes in class
and still receive a considerable quantity of dictation. If we give it to them
for homework, we are not sure that they are doing it, and we have a
problem that we must try to work out.
Information regarding the practice of other teachers in this regard was
desired and therefore a questionnaire was sent to a list of high school teach-
ers of the country. The question read as follows : "W' hat proportion of
the time do you think students should spend on reading back their notes,
i. e., do you have the students read back all their notes ? Do you use half
the period reading back, or what method do you have ?"
The following information has been tabulated from the answers re-
ceived :
Schools requiring that all the notes be read back 8
Schools that read back i)ractically everything. . . 7
Various methods used i
Read back as much as possible 3
130 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Read and re-read i
Schools using 1-3 of period reading back notes. . 3
Schools using ^ of period 4
Schools using ^4 o^ period i
Considerable difiference of opinion exists, as will be noted.
b. Survey of Experiments made.
The search has revealed no experiments made along this line.
■->
Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken with the purpose of trying to decide what
proportion of the time in class should be spent in reading back shorthand
notes.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
/
1. Groups Chosen.
The pupils on whom this experiment is to be tried should be advanced
students in shorthand — students who are taking dictation.
Two sections of each group will be needed, and some equalization test
will have to be found for determining the sections.
We desire to ascertain what procedure we should follow with classes
as we find them today, and therefore, we shall not exclude any students
except such as necessary in order to equalize the sections.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. General Character of Student-body.
In this experiment we would like records from as many schools and as
many different types of schools as possible. A statement should accom-
pany the report of each school, giving some information regarding the
type of students tested.
b. Accessibilitv.
The schools should be accessible to the experimenter as explained on
p. 36 fif.
c. Co-operation.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 131
The necessary co-operation of all concerned should exist as explained
on ]x T,^ tf.
3. Teachers Chosen.
The teachers chosen should he sufficiently intelligent to undertake the
work and should have the proper attitude of mind, as explained on p.
41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
I. The regular teacher would seem to be the one best suited to take
charge of the class. The students are accustomed to her and would not
be disturbed as they would be by bringing in an outsider for the work.
One teacher, however, should have charge of both sections, to avoid
variation in personality.
See p. 44 ft. regarding choice of conductor.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I . Content.
a. Difficulties.
( I ) Pre-preliminary tests.
Our difficulties seem to be these :
If we devote less time to dictation, it will be more difficult to acquire
the speed necessary for the students. If we devote more time to reading,
they should be able to read more rapidly.
And vice versa.
We have two varying factors in the consideration. \\'e must make one
of them constant and permit the other to vary.
It would seem logical to make the dictation factor constant and let the
reading factor vary. But how can we accomplish this?
If we had a norm or scale in shorthand, showing the amount of speed
that should be gained each month, etc., it would solve our problem quickly.
In the absence of such a scale it will become necessary to arbitrarily set
a certain number of words of dictation per minute, as the increase in the
writing ability of the students for say one month. The dictation given to
both sections is to have that objecti\e in mind. The dictation should be
given at the same rate to both sections. One section, however, devotes
132 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
more time to reading back than the other, which means, of course, that it
devotes less time to taking dictation. The test at the end of the month is
to ascertain which section can best read its notes, taken at the required
speed for that month.
To find out which section can best "read its notes" we could use either
of the two methods following:
The most accurate but least practical method (because it takes too much
time of the teacher) would be to have the students read back their notes
privately to the teacher, the teacher having stop watch in hand and noting
the time required to do the reading.
A less accurate method would be to have the students transcribe their
notes on the typewriter. This would not be purely a reading test. It
would also involve a person's ability to typewrite quickly. If this method
is used, the result would have to be expressed in a ratio representing the
person's speed on the typewriter while transcribing his notes. His speed
in copying from a printed page w^ill usually be considerably greater than
his ability to copy shorthand notes — at least it would be so with advanced
students. It is his inability to read his notes more quickly that hinders
him from attaining the same speed in transcription as in copying printed
matter. Three lo-minute speed tests from copy matter, using Interna-
tional Typewriting Contest Rules, ought to give a fair idea of the student's
absolute speed on the machine. (See Typewriting Experiment No. i,
page 71. for further details on conducting such tests.) Three letters of
say 100 words each, taken at the designated speed for the month, and
transcribed just as fast as the student can do so, ought to give a fair idea
of his transcription speed. The average of the three in each of these cases,
should be taken. In the transcription tests we should not count typogra-
phical nor mere spelling errors (except where the spelling indicates that
the student did not read aright) and the student should be so told. If we
divest the tests of all these things, we will more nearly approach the stu-
dent's real reading ability.
There should be an EQUALIZATION TEST at the beginning of the
experiment, based on reading ability at a given speed in dictation. The
sections should be formed on the results of this test.
If the students are to read back their notes orally to the teacher in pri-
vate, she will take the time required by means of a stop watch and note
the speed of reading each of the three letters. The average we shall call
the student's reading speed, and from this we shall make up the sections.
The dictation would all have to be given at one time, and the students
w'ould be required to put their notes out of sight until their turn came.
How disturbing an element the wait would be for the last ones called up.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 133
is hard to tell. A pre-preliminary test along that line should shed some
light on that point. The waiting-period would he shortened if several
teachers could hear the reading.
If the students are to transcribe their notes, we shall have to form the
sections on the basis of the ratio of the transcription speed to their copying
speed.
It w t)uld prove interesting to ascertain whether the sections would be
made up just the same, no matter which method were used. A pre-limi-
nary test should be conducted to determine this.
The FINAL TESTS, given at the end of the prescribed time, would
have to be taken in the same way, and scored accordingly. In the case of
the transcription basis, the average speed in copying printed matter should
again be obtained, and this figure used in the ratio. The student has had
time to increase his absokite speed and the ratio would not be correct if the
equalization test speed were taken.
In the case of the oral reading, we would have to get some sort of mark-
ing basis for judging. Possibly the easiest way would be to use the num-
ber of words read per minute minus a certain penalt\- for each word in-
correctly read. In typewriting, according to the International Typewrit-
ing Contest Rules, 10 points are deducted for each word wrongly written.
Would 10 be too great a deduction for each word incorrectly read, the
basis being the reading of roo words? Correctness is an essential in the
reading, and possibly we cannot penalize too heavily for it because of its
importance.
To illustrate, the proposition would work out in this way on the above
basis. John Jones is in the A section. The A section is taking dictation
for half the time and reading back half the time. In the e([ualization test
John Jones receives 90, let us suppose ( he read orally to the teacher at
the rate of 100 words per minute bitt made one mistake, for which we
have penalized him 10 points). In the final test John Jones makes 120.
(He read back at the rate of 120 words per minute with no errors).
William Snnth is in the B section. The B section is taking dictation for
three quarters of the time and reading back for one cpiarter of the time.
In the Equalization test William Snnth gets 90, let us say, reading at the
rate of 100 words per minute with one word wrong, a penalty of 10, leav-
ing 90. John Jones and \\ illiam Snfith were on the same basis at the
start. In the final test, however, William Smith gets 80, let us say, for an
average. 100 words and 2 errors, making a penalty of 20. As the matter
stands John Jones now gets 120 ond William Snfith 80. whereas they were
both at the same starting point. Would it be a valid assumption to say
that the one section, the B section, is not getting enough reading practice,
134 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
if the records of the rest of the class ran in about the same way? It would
seem so.
To illustrate the other basis of forming the sections : We find that the
average of Jack Green for his three speed tests in copying from printed
matter, is 40 gross words per minute. We find that his average for
transcribing three 100-word letters is 20 words per minute, allowance hav-
ing been made for all errors which are not strictly reading errors, and a
penalty of 10 being imposed for each error that is a reading error. We
shall say that his beginning speed is 20:40 (or 20/40). Jack Green is put
into the A section. Dan W^ilson, who has the same average, 20 140, is put
into the B section to balance matters. The A section reads half the time
and takes dictation the other half. Jack Green's final average is 30:42.
The B section takes dictation three quarters of the time and reads back
the other quarter. Dan Wilson's average for the final is 19:43. These
records are typical of the respective sections, let us say. Are we justified
in saying that the half and half distribution of time is better than the one
quarter and three quarters ?
Before this experiment is tried on a large scale, a number of pre-pre-
liminary tests should be made to try out the several factors that enter
into it.
In the first place, we ought to try out the division of the periods, that
is, half and half, three quarters and one quarter, and any other combina-
tions that we may think appropriate. There may be a number of reasons
why any one of these cannot be worked from the practical standpoint.
Certain combinations would require the re-reading of certain notes too
often, as for instance where the dictation period is short and the reading
period long. Memorization may take place and no reading, after the first
time a letter is read back. On the other hand, it nfight be found that with
some classes, if things were reversed, too much time would be given for
dictation and not enough for reading, to cover any ground worth mention-
ing. Classes dififer so much in their make-up and ability that some sur-
prises may be presented to us. After we have found a division of time that
works, it could be used as the basis for the experiment on a large scale.
The viewpoint is being taken that if measured by time, the experiment
would be easier and more accurate and practical than if we measured the
amount of work done, which would often be very difficult and might not
be very accurate.
It would seem better to plan the experiment upon a time basis rather
than a quantity basis, for it would be far easier to keep account of one
than the other, and it would lessen the opportunity for another varying
element to creep in.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 135
Another pre-preliininary test should be made to determine whether or
not we can actually make an equalization of sections on the ratio basis,
such as 20 :40, etc.
There should be no trouble in obtaining the oral reading speed of a stu-
dent. It has often been done and some teachers in fact, take that into
consideration when making up the shorthand mark for the month.
A pre-preliminary experiment ought to be made before trying it on a
large scale, because there are several elments in it that seem sound in
theory but which might be badly upset by actual trial. Some that have
seemed more sound than these, have been upset and consequently even
many of the simplest operations should actually be tried out.
(2) Preliminary conferences. While the procedure of this experi-
ment is rather large in detail, nevertheless it is not exceedingly compli-
cated. A teacher of ordinary intelligence should be able to handle it from
written instructions. If it is found, however, that this does not work, the
experimenter will have to resort to personal conferences with those con-
cerned.
See also p. 51 ff regarding this.
b. Time.
This experiment could be conducted during any time of the year when
the advanced stenographic students are available. It is not the intention
to upset school schedules, and therefore, the classes would meet on the
regular days for the subject. In most schools advanced students in .short-
hand take the subject every day.
A decision will have to be made as to whether the experiment is to con-
tinue one month or longer.
Dates for equalization and final tests will have to be set.
c. Periods.
The sections would most likely meet at their regular periods. It will
be necessary to change the schedule to make it possible for the one teacher
to have both sections.
A record should be made as to the programme of the students for the
preceding part of the session, at least, as a help in trying to account for
differences. See also p. 56 ff.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter would be the regular shorthand dictation work of
136 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
the class. For the typewriting speed tests from copy matter, any of the
material used for the International Typewriting Contests, would do. The
same matter should be used in all three final tests. The letters dictatecS
for transcription or oral reading should be ordinary business letters, oi
about the same degree of difficulty and should be devoid of technical
terms. The identical letters should be used in both sections, in the tests,
and also in practice work, as far as possible. ( It will not be absolutely
possible in practice work because one section gets more dictation than the
other, unless we confine ourselves to certain letters, and require the one
section to use up their surplus time in going over those as often as neces-
sary to use up the time. )
e. Details of Procedure.
(i) The instructions should be written out very carefully, so that the
assistants may have no difficulty in understanding the matter. Students
should be instructed that there is to be no reading of shorthand notes out-
side of class.
(2) The instructions should state when the experiment will begin and
end, and when the tests are to be given.
(3) No particular form, order, or method of giving directions to the
students is necessary.
(4) An accurate record is to be kept of all interruptions, etc., as ex-
plained on p. 59 fi.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all ex])eriments and is
covered fully on p. 62 fif.
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 4. Intervals of Repetition.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
Another practical question that concerns shorthand teachers, especially
those who have anything to do with the arranging of a schedule, is the
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 137
folluwing-; "llow often should the various classes meet in order to pro-
duce the best results?"
Psychology tells us that an idea will remain with us for a certain time.
Before the expiration of that i)eriod it can be recalled but after the expira-
tion of that period, recall no longer is possible and then it requires re-
learning. What is the period for shorthand as it is now taught?
We have this situation: Possibly the majorit}- of the teachers believe it
would be best if we could have shorthand every day. But that is impossi-
ble in many schools for various reasons. Then a choice must be made be-
tween twice or three times a week for the subject. Are we agreed to
say that three times a week means just three-fifths of the efficiency that
could be secured from five times a week? Or that twice a week means two-
fifths of the efficiency? It would be interesting, if not instructive, to have
some data on this. The present experiment tries to present a method for
obtaining information on the relative merits of these methods.
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The search has revealed no experiments made in shorthand to determine
the interval of repetition, although a number of experiments have been
made in psychological laboratories to determine the interval of repetition
in general.
d. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken for the purpose of trying to determine
the relative effects of various intervals of repetition in shorthand.
II. SELECTION OF A LABORATORY
1. Croups Chusen.
h'or this experiment it is suggested that beginners in shorthand be used,
and since it is desired to find out how the matter works imder actual con-
ditions, all beginners could be admitted into the experiment.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. Genera! Character of .Student-body.
The investigation should be undertaken in as many schools as possible.
138 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
b. Accessibility.
The schools should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p.
36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
The necessary co-operation of all concerned should be assured, as per p.
38 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
The teacher in charge should be intelligent enough to handle the work.
She should also have the proper attitude and interest, as explained on p.
41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
The teacher will most likely be the one chosen for the work, although
anvone having the necessary qualifications could do it without injecting a
disturbing element. The experiment will be conducted at the beginning of
the subject, before the students have had an opportunty to become accus-
tomed to any one teacher.
See also p. 44 ft', regarding this.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I . Content.
General Plan in Brief.
It would seem that the best wS'y of obtaining our information is to have
three sections, each being taught by the same teacher — one section receiv-
ing shorthand five times a week (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs-
day, and Friday), another three times a week (Monday, Wednesday and
Thursday) and the third section twice a week (say jNIonday and Thurs-
day or Tuesday and Friday). We w^ould map out a certain amount of the
ground to be covered, working it out definitely by lessons. After a cer-
tain number of lessons, each section will be tested and the results of this
test will be the basis of our judgment. The plan requires that the teacher
give the same lesson to each section and cover the same amount of
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 139
ground in each Icssnn. She may hnd that she cannot cover the ground
with one or two sections. If the sections had actually been equalized at
tht start, the trouble must be due to the interval — too much forgotten
from last recitation that must be reviewed each time. It would seem wise
in that event to take the section as fast as possible over the work, but
no faster than the pupils can stand it, and then compare the ground covered
at th:' expiration of the assigned number of lessons.
I f a school can have only two sections, it would be better to have it
tried on two than not at all.
An equalization test should be devised because of the many factors
that constitute shorthand ability. In the absence of such a test, large
numbers will have to be used to eliminate individualities.
The detailed instructions covering the procedure in the class room should
be written. The essential things are :
1. That all sections should have the same teacher so that there
is no varying factor in that respect.
2. That she should give the lesson to each section in as nearly the
san:e manner as it is possible to give the same lesson to two
different groups. We do not want any varying factor in the
way the lessons are given nor in the quantity given at a lesson.
This leaves the teacher free to choose the method she thinks will best
•enable her to teach the class effectively.
Naturally, the section having the lessons five times a week will reach
the goal much sooner than the others. At the time it does, it should be
tested and the same thing should be done with each of the other sections.
A .school system may not feel like trying an experiment of this kind for a
whole year. In that case a shorter period should be chosen and the sec-
tions re-united. This may also be done where a teacher may be willing to
carry the extra burden for the time, but could not do it for a year. It
would not be very hard work to equalize the sections so that they can be
carried on as one class thereafter.
It has been said that a teacher could use her own methods in the class
room. This is true, but at the same time the teacher should keep a record
of her lesson plan so that in case the data is needed when the comparison
is made, to shed light on any point, it will be available.
a. Difficulties.
Final test.
I40 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The final test will consist of a fair examination on the essential points
covered up to that time. And these should be minimimi essentials. The
experimenter should be very careful to give a test that really tests the
thing we are after, namely the student's grasp on shorthand. For in-
stance, if it had been decided that the stopping point should be after the
alphabet, circles, and loops had been learned, in the Pitman systems, then
the student should be expected to know the alphabet ; to know what the
circles and loops represent ; when to use the circles and loops, and when
to use the stems; how to use them in connection with stems, i. e., where
to place them on straight stems and where on curved stems. That would
cover the minimum essentials and would seem to be a fair examination to
test the attainment of the students to that point.
The results should be tabulated for each section, graphed, and compared..
They should also be compared with the results from other schools.
It may be that a teacher cannot cover the same work with all the sec-
tions. If that is so, a note should be made of it. It wotild help in de-
termining the value of several intervals. It would indicate that the inter-
val was too long and too much work had to be re-learned.
b. Time.
The dates of the beginning and end of the experiment should be defi-
nitely set, and of course, it will be decided on what days of the week the
sections will meet.
c. Periods.
The periods should be so arranged that none of the sections will be at a
disadvantage from fatigue or any other reason. See p. 56 ff.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter will be the regular shorthand work of the school
where the test is given. It will cover a certain portion of the subject like,
for instance, the alphabet, or the alphabet, circles, loops, etc. The final
test is to be given on the subject-matter covered and should be for mini-
mum essentials only.
e. Details of Procedure.
No special instructions are necessary.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 141
A record should be kept of all attendant circumstances, such as inter-
ruptions, weather, etc. See p. 59 ff.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 ft".
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 5. A Method of Predetermining Those Unfit for High
Speed in Shorthand.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
The object of this experiment is to help those schools which have a
very high rate of speed in shorthand, as a requirement for graduation.
It is common knowledge that the average business man does not dictate
rapidly, that his thoughts do not come to him quickly and that, therefore,
in order to be of service in the business world, one does not absolutely re-
quire a speed of 100 words per minute.
In this experiment it is not the purpose to determine whether or not
a person is unfit for a position as a stenographer. Any one of ordinary
mentality, it would seem, ought to be able to acquire enough mastery of
the principles of a shorthand system, to be able to take shorthand dictation
fast enough so that he could do the work for the slowest dictator in the
business world. Therefore, let us assume that every shorthand writer will
be of some use to the business world, even though he may not be able to
earn more than the minimum. But our schools are not satisfied to prepare
students for the undesirable positions and, therefore, they have set a high
standard for graduation, in many cases making it 100 or 125 words per
minute.
It is to help decide beforehand, whether or not a person is capable of
reaching this speed, that this experiment is undertaken. We would like to
know, say, when a person begins to study shorthand, whether or not he
will be able, so far as mental or psychologic equipment is concerned, to
meet the requirements for graduation. Not that a person after reaching
80 words per minute finds that this is his limit and after spending two or
142 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
three years on the subject, finds that he cannot graduate in that course and
must go out and seek a position without graduation. The person might
have been able to equip himself for other work without the loss of time
entailed, if he could have known sooner, that he could never reach the re-
quired speed of lOO words per minute.
This would seem to be a question of psychology rather than a question
of methods of teaching, and therefore some psychologic test would seem
to be the thing required.
If there is such a thing as a slow re-action to stimuli and this slow re-
action is constantly uniform to all kinds of stimuli, it would be fair to
assume that a test of any kind that would give the time necessary for the
re-action, would be a proper basis for judging the re-action in the case
of the dictation and taking it down in shorthand.
There mav, however, be some varving factors, of which we know noth-
ing, in this connection, and it would be better, therefore, to get as near
the actual situation under consideration as possible — to take something
that is actually shorthand work, actually dictation, if such a thing can be
found.
Shorthand work is out of the question, because by the time the person
is able to take it, he is very near the end of his course, and we desire to
1<now the possibilities of a student at the time he wishes to take up the
study of shorthand. Furthermore, the slow re-acticn in the case of writ-
ing shorthand may be due to other factors than a natural slow re-action.
It may be due to not knowing the shorthand outline well enough, through
non-application, etc.
Longhand dictation is therefore suggested. The essential thing is to
Tiave something with which the student is absolutely familiar, so that there
may be no possibility of any hesitation on his part because he does not
know the thing we want him to write. We desire to time his re-action to
something he knows perfectly well.
Every student entering the high school should know the longhand al-
phabet. There would be no question on this score. Therefore the alpha-
bet could be taken as material for the test.
We could approach more closely the actual situation in taking shorthand
dictation, if we were to use a sentence containing words which should
cause no hesitation on the part of any high school pupil ; for instance,
"The book was on the table in the other room."
The test will have to be undertaken individually or else there will have
to be as many teachers as pupils. Of course, the first plan is more prac-
tical.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 143
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The Search has revealed no experiments along this hne.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to find a method by which we can
predetermine those who, because of their psychological make-u]), are unfit
for high speed in shorthand.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
The test outlined is to be given to all pupils who are entering the short-
hand classes, and is to be given as early as possible after entrance, or pos-
sibly before, if that can be arranged.
The reason for doing it early is so that, if the child does not measure up,
he can be so told, and he will have an opportunity to change to another
subject if he desires.
(The object is not to i:)rohibit the student from taking shorthand, but
to tell him, that, as far as we can tell, he can never attain a high speed in
shorthand, and w ill likely not be able to graduate in the subject, and that
if he does pursue it as his vocation, he will have to be satisfied with any-
thing but first class positions. "Do you want to continue in the face of
this or do you want to take up something else?" Of course, what has just
been said is based upon our finding a test which actually does what we
want it to do. Before we can talk so positively, however, we must have
proved our case. If a student insists on taking the course, despite the in-
dications from the test, record should be kei)t of the progress of the
student to see whether or not the theory does carry out.)
As an experiment, the tests should be tried on the classes without tell-
ing them the reason. Record shovdd be kejjt where neither the teachers
nor the pu])ils can have access to it. At the end of the course these records
should be compared with the progress the student has made, to see if the
work of the student bears out the prediction. The object in keeping the
record from the teachers is that no one may be able unduly to alter the out-
come.
The reason for making ever\- pu])il take the test is that w hat might be a
bright pupil in other subjects might not be one adapted to shorthand writ-
ing and possibly the judgment based on progress in other subjects, would
144 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
not be valid here. What might appear to be such a case has been found in
the West Chester High School — a girl who is considered in the academic
departments as being too bright to be in the commercial department, and
yet she appears almost hopeless at times in her shorthand, and the teacher
wonders if she will ever become an efficient stenographer.
Furthermore, if the test is given to all students at the beginning of the
course in shorthand, the records can be compared with the ability of the
pupils to take dictation at high speed and it will act as a check on the test
and determine whether or not the test is dependable.
2. Schools Chosen.
a. Character of Student Body.
This should be tried in as many schools as possible, so as to reach the
greatest variety of students in order to be able to tell whether or not it
really carries out under all conditions, and, if not, to try to ascertain under
what conditions it does carry out and under which ones it does not.
b. Accessibility.
The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p.
36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
There should be the necessary co-operation on the ])art of all concerned
as mentioned on p. 38 it.
3. Teachers Chosen.
Since no actual teaching is involved in the experiment jiroper, there
need be no thought given as to the teachers, unless the teacher is to con-
duct the test.
III. CHOICE OE CONDUCTOR
The one who conducts the test, whether it be the teacher or the experi-
menter, should have the following qualifications :
He should know enough about psychology to be able to handle the sit-
uation intelligently and to appreciate unlooked-for situations that might
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 145
present themselves. He should also have had some experience in a psycho-
logical laboratory, so that he may be familiar with the methods of psycho-
logical tests, or he should have the necessary fitness that a person, who has
taken such a course, would have.
He must have the scientific attitude of mind, be unbiased and be work-
ing only for the true solution of the problem and not be inclined to help
matters one way or another. He must be exceedingly accurate because
when we consider one-fifth of a second, it is an easy matter to make an er-
ror, and, since the time between high and low personal coefficients is not
very great, the work must be accurately done. It is not a thing that any-
one could do, and before the person hands in any results to be used as a
record, he should do some practice work and, after he feels he has ac-
quired a reasonable amount of skill in conducting the tests, he can then
proceed with the commercial students, whose records are to figure in the
experiment.
In short, the person selected should be some one who is posted on psy-
chology, has had experience in a psychological laboratory, if }jossible, is
keen, quick, observant and accurate.
See also p. 44 ff.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
General Plan.
In giving the test, the students would best be called in one at a time, and,
after they have finished, they should be instructed not to tell the others
what has taken place. Another person could do this instructing, in case
the teacher wished to proceed as quickly as possible with the timing.
The student should be called up to the desk and given paper and pencil
and told briefly that he is to write on the paper the letters and words
that are dictated to him.
The question arises, should he be told any more than this, or not. It is
not a test in spelling nor penmanship. Some students may think it is and
lose time in that respect unless they are told. On the other hand, telling
them that, may bring about an abnormal condition. If it is decided to
test them on a sentence, all the words should be ones they know how to
spell.
The hesitation in writing, which is the factor we are seeking, would
take place if the student did not know how to spell a word, i. e., if he did
not know how to begin it ( for that is the only part with which we are
concerned in this test). If he hesitated after he had started the word, it
146 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
would not make any material difference for our test, since we are noting
the time when he begins to write. The penmanship, whether good or bad,
would not count in the test, because all we are seeking is the time necessary
to re-act and the moment the student touches the paper with the pencil, is
the one with which we are concerned and nothing more than that. There-
fore, it would not seem to be necessary to give any instructions at all ex-
cept to write what he is told.
Should the student be instructed to write it as quickly as he can ? The
argument pro is, that he w^ould be taking the test intelligently, that is, he
would know what he is expected to do. The argument contra is, that it
might produce a confusing element because he may try to go faster than
he is able and get things wrong. Of course, in taking shorthand dictation,
he knows he is to go as fast as he can, and yet similar trouble happens
there, because the person, who tries to go faster than he is able, becomes
confused.
The teacher, watch in hand, with his eyes on the pencil of the student,
says the word or letter, and so saying, starts the stop watch. Just as soon
as the student touches the paper with the pencil, in an attempt to write
something, the watch is stopped.
This time should be noted on the record opposite the word dictated and
under the name of the person taking the test.
So on with the rest of the words.
Ten words would seem to be a fair number on which to get an average.
Add up the time required and divide by lo to get the average.
After all the pu|)ils have been tested, tabulate the averages.
I. Content.
a. Difficulties.
Pre-preliminary Tests.
It may be necessary to do some pre-preliminary testing, to find suitable
material for the ])reliminary test, and in order that the conductor may be-
come acquainted with the method.
Preliminary Tests.
For the preliminary test the material will be either letters of the alpha-
bet or a short sentence containing familiar words.
The following letters have been chosen as the best ones for pre-prelim-
inary testing :
e, h. i, 1, n, r, s, u, v, y.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 147
They arc the ones tliat can he made most quickly and do not have several
variations, which would make it impossible to com]xu-e the time of one
person with another (should we later find that necessary) because we
could not figure on the extra time, and to tell a person to write an "a", for
instance, different from his accustomed way, would introduce a factor
which would be responsible for the hesitation.
Several students were timed for their re-action. It was explained to
them that certain letters were going to be named and that they were to
write them down just as fast as they could. No reason was given the
student. The stoj) watch was started as soon as the word was said and
stopped as soon as the student began to make the first stroke — 'just as soon
as one could see the re-action take place. The following is the result :
student Xo.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
e
4
6
4
4
312
3
4
h
7
51/2
4
5
31/2
8
5
i
4
6
5
4
41/2
9
5
I
5
5
3
4
41/2
4
5
n
5
31/2
4
4
3%
7
5
r
5
4
3
51-!
41/2
10
5
s
4
41/2
3
5I2
4
3
5
u
5
51/2
4
4
41/2
9
4
V
4
5
5
4
4
6
5
y
4V2
31/2
4
3
41.2
5
3
47V2
481/2
39
43
41
06
46
This time is given in fifths of a second.
From this table it will be noticed that the shortest average time is 3.9
while the longest is 6.6, very nearly twice that of the other.
On the basis of this table, would it be correct to assume that while the
first person could re-act to an average of about 80 dictation stimuli per
minute, tlie second could re-act to approximately not more than 50 per
minute on the average? On its face, that would seem correct. It would
be necessary to jirove this, however, from actual cases tested both ways,,
that is, on the alphabet in longhand and also in shorthand dictation.
Several other students were also tested on the letters and, in addition,
on a short, easy sentence. The sentence chosen was, "The book was on
the table in the other room." No high school student should have to hes-
itate in writing any of these words, either because of the spelling or for
any other reasons. The student was told that he would be given a sen-
tence, one word at a time, and that he was to write the word as quickly as
he could. The stop watch was started as soon as the w^ord was pro-
nounced, and stopped as soon as the pencil started the first stroke of the
word. The following table shows the results :
148
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
to
-a
K
e 2 3 3
h 4 2 4
i 4 3 5
1 5 3 4
n 4 3 4
r 3 3 4
s 4 3 4
u 4 3 4
V 5 4 3
y 4 4 4
£
z
rf
c3
-t-j
-i-i
0/
"5
T-l
III
I— t
Tl
72
c
CI
1-i
n
•I.
"3
4
4
3
4
6
1
6
6
6
5
6
4
4
3
6
5
5
7
5
41/2
5
6
4
3
2
4
5
8
4
6
6
5
4
3
4
3
4
6
6
4
5
4
1
4
3
4
3
6
6
6
4
6
4
5
4
4
4
2
6
9
7
4
6
6
8
6
4
4
2
5
6
7
4
4
4
6
5
4
4
3
5
6
6
4
6
5
5
41/2
3
4
2
4
6
1
6
5
5
5
6
4
3
2
5
6
6
4
6
4
6
7
Total
39
31
39
37
38
25
49
61
65
47
55
481/2
57
521/2
The
5
3
5
4
3
3
6
7
4
4
6
41/2
5
10
book
4
3
6
5
4
2
6
6
5
6
4
41/2
5
5
was
5
4
3
3
3
2
7
4
5
6
4
4
7
6
on
5
4
3
2
2
2
7
6
6
4
4
5
5
5
the
4
3
4
3
2
3
5
5
8
4
5
31/2
rr
(
6
table.
3
2
3
2
•7
6
5
5
3
5
4%
5
41/2
in
4
3
3
2
3
2
6
6
5
5
7
4
5
5
the
3
3
3
3
3
6
4
7
4
5
4
5
4
other
5
3
4
3
3
3
6
8
5
4
5
4
5
5
room
4
3
4
4
3
3
6
5
8
4
4
4
8
6
Total 42 31 38
Student
Sex
1
F
2
M
3
M
4
M
5
M
6
M
7
M
30 28 25 61 56 58 44 49 42 58
Age Class Course
17 Senior Commercial
17 Senior Commercial
16 Senior Commercial
17 Fresh-Soph. Commercial
15 Soph. Vocational
15 Fresh-Soph. Commercial
15 Fresh-Soph. Scientific
571/2
Erom these tables several things will be noted :
1st, that while there is a general uniformity, there is not absolute uni-
formity throughout. It is most likely similar to the situation in typewrit-
ing. We try to measure the speed of a person on the machine. Today he
writes 40 net words per minute and tomorrow he writes only 20. Or it
may be that 10 minutes after he has written 40, he writes only 30. There is
considerable variation and yet in spite of it we gauge a person's value in
typewriting, largely by speed. Why do we not give it up and find another
method if this one is so varying? The fact of the matter is that the only
way to ascertain what the speed of a person is, is to try him out. He may
do better today than yesterday. He may do somewhat worse tomorrow.
Nevertheless, it is more definite information than if we were merelv to
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 149
guess at it. There are many factors which niay enter into the test, which
we cannot eHminate just at the time we want to do so, hut we are at least
enabled to say this much, that this person has written so many words per
minute, just as we say that a certain horse has run a mile in so many min-
utes.
The table tells us at least that there is considerable difference between
pupil No. 3. who in the second attempt averaged 2^ fifths of a second,
and pupil No. 4, who averaged over 5}^ fifths of a second in the 2nd at-
tempt.
2nd, it shows that while some students re-acted in 2 fifths of a second at
times, other students never made it in 2 fifths' and never made it in less
time than 4 fifths ; see students Nos. 4 and 7. If this is their quickest re-
action to something which they know as well as the long-hand alphabet
and the easy sentence given, is their comparative re-action likely to be
any quicker after learning a shorthand system, which we have good cause
to believe they do not learn as thoroughly as they do their longhand alpha-
bet ? This would seem to be a logical conclusion, but the only way to
prove it is to make the test and compare the finished product with the
results of the test.
The value of some such test can readily be appreciated by commercial
teachers, and it is hoped that other teachers will give seme thought to the
problem and try to find a better method than the one here suggested.
No equalization test need be given, because the object of this experi-
ment is to ascertain a certain innate ability or lack of ability, which we
believe we cannot equalize in any way.
Final Test.
The final test will consist in checking up the student's record at the
end of his shorthand course with the record of the preliminary tests.
If the student has not survived until the end of his course, some effort
ought to be made to ascertain the reason for his withdrawal. If he was one
of those whose preliminary test showed a slow re-action and he could not
make progress in his shorihand, this should be borne in mind in consider-
ing his record.
By ascertaining the slowest re-action of those who did complete their
course, we will get some idea to hel]) us over the troublesome nfiddle
ground. That is, we can easily agree that the ([uickest students would be
fit and that the slowest would likely not be fit, but it would be difficult to
tell about the others. If we have an accurate record covering several
years' tests, we can say to students that so far no one of \our re-action ha;
made good, or that two or three of yours have made good. That will be
another step in the direction of definiteness.
150 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Other Difficulties.
The greatest difficulty in this undertaking is that the most important
factor, the time element, is measured by such exceedingly short periods.
The difference between the students who can gain high speed in shorthand
and those who cannot gain it must be very little in time required to re-act
on each word or letter. But the sum of these for the period of one min-
ute would be considerable. Since the difference in each case is so small,
it will take keen observation and accurate w^ork to obtain a record of the
time. To overcome this difficulty, a stop watch is the instrument to use.
Sometimes a watch loses a fraction of a second in starting, that is. it does
not respond quickly enough to the touch in starting it. A watch that
measures smaller periods than fifths of a second would be of considera-
ble value in this experiment. There are instruments, of course, which
measure smaller fractions of a second than fifths, but the price of these is
prohibitive for the ordinary school, and we must try to find a method that
can be used by the schools in general.
b. Time.
The test could be given at any time convenient to the persons involved.
It should be given at the beginning of the shorthand course if it is to be of
much value.
c. Periods.
There being no classwork in this experiment, we do not have to con-
sider the matter of proper periods.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter of the tests should be material with which the stu-
dents are absolutely familiar, so that there may be no hesitation due to any-
thing else than innate ability to re-act.
All high school pupils are taken to know the longhand alphabet. It
could therefore be used as suitable material.
The stenographer's test comes in taking words and net letters. A short
sentence, containing familiar words, is therefore suggested as being bet-
ter than letters. There may be no difference in these two, and again there
may.
See p. 146 for suggested letters and p. 142 for a suggested sentence.
Care should be used in i)ronouncing the "n" so that the student is not
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 151
obliged to pause in trying to determine whether "n" or "m" was said.
Some students did not immediately understand the word "The" because
the vowel was not pronounced as they were accustomed to hearing it.
"When a pupil hesitates in that wa}', a note should be made on the record,
to help reconcile any differences.
It is suggested that both letters and sentences be used, as a check on
each other.
It will be noticed from the table on p. 148 that there is some difference
in the re-action between the tirst time the letters were given and the second
time. This is likely due to the fact that the student does not know just
exactly what is wanted the first time, on account of the novelty of the
thing and the brief explanation given, and it would therefore seem wise to
give each student two tests, one immediately following the other. This
data may prove of value later on.
e. Details of Procedure.
( I ) The instructions to the helpers should urge the greatest care to
be accurate and to pronounce very distinctly.
(3) It would not make any material difference if the order of giving
the letters is inverted, but it might cause some hesitation on the part of the
student, if, in giving the sentence, the words are inverted, and the stu-
dent, having been led to believe that a sentence would be given, stops to
get sense out of something which does not make sense with inverted
words. The brighter students would be the ones most likely to suffer on
this account, as they would more quickly sense the fact that something is
wrong and would hesitate because of it.
(4) Record should be made of any interruptions, misunderstandings,
niis[)ronunciations, etc., which would in any way aff'ect the test. If it should
happen that the student appearing for test is fatigued, the test should be
given at another time, rather than give it and make note that he was fa-
tigued.
If a word does not fairly represent the student's re-action because of
misunderstanding, etc., it would seem that it should be thrown out in cal-
culating the average. Misunderstandings will probably be the greatest fac-
tor accountable for variety in the recorded re-action time for a student,
and where it is definitely known that the student has not had a fair oppor-
tunity, it seems wrong to include it. It will not always do to rej)eat the let-
ter or word. That may ])roduce too short an interval, on account of the
student's half expecting it and being ready for it. Another letter could eas-
ily be substituted, but it is not so easy in the case of a sentence.
152 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
2. Form.
The balance of the outhne appHes uniformly to all the experiments and
is covered fully on p. 62 ft".
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 6. Forearm vs. Finger Movement in Shorthand.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
Penmen have demonstrated the ethcitncy of the forearm movement in
longhand over the finger movement. The question occurs : Does it also
have a place in the writing of shorthand? Various opinions have been ex-
pressed when the question has been put to commercial teachers, as is
shown by the following :
Pitman writers who |)referred forearm, i
combined, 2
finger, 5
Gregg writers who preferred forearm, 6
combined, 4
finger, 2
Graham writer who preferred combined, i
vSeveral said that they did not know.
Several others answered negatively that a certain one could not be
used, but did not say which one could be used.
However, most of these are expression of opinion and those that are
more than this are not sujiported by data in such a way that it would carry
weight. Therefore, it would be well to try this out and see what could be
done to obtain a scientific determination.
As will be noted, the Gregg writers claim that the forearm movement
has a place in their system. Exercises for such practice, for use in the
Gregg system, are published. The opinion, it will be noticed, however, is
not unanimous.
Pitman writers do not think the forearm movement has so large a place
in their system, their o])inion being based, it is understood, on the fact
that shading is required in the Pitman systems and not in the Gregg. If
i
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 153
the shading is the disadvantageous feature for forearm movement, what
must we say about forearm movement for scroll work, engrossing, etc., of
which we see considerable in penmanship magazines? If it is used to ad-
vantage for the shading in this kind of work, it might be used to advantage
in shorthand.
1). Survey of Experiments Made.
No experiments along the line tuider consideration, have been found.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to see if any light can be shed on the
question as to whether or not the forearm movement would be of more
advantage in writing shorthand than the present finger movement (or com-
bination of movements).
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
1. Groups Chosen.
It w(;uld seem that the experiment could be tried out on advanced pu-
pils as well as beginners in shorthand. It ought not to be too late for the
advanced student to "'mend."
2. Schools Chosen.
Any school could be chosen where the conditions of necessary co-oper-
ation exist. See p. 38 fif.
3. Teachers Chosen.
What is said about teachers in general on p. 41 tt. also applies here.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
I'he regular shorthand teacher would seem to be the most suitable person
to conduct the classes, provided she knows the subject of shorthand pen-
manship.
The general reasons given on p. 44 ff. also hold here.
154 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE |
I. Content.
General Plan.
Inasmuch as the question of shorthand penmanship has been raised,
it would seem worth while to decide the matter by obtaining some relia-
ble data for the various systems of shorthand.
We can take either a beginners' class or an advanced class. We should
have two sections of the class, one taking forearm penmanship work and
the other practicing with finger movement, and at the end of a given time,
results should be compared.
Or we may have only one section of advanced students, and compare
the shorthand penmanship of the students before and after having had
special forearm drill in the work.
Let us take a beginners' class, which will be divided into two sections.
In addition to the regular work of the class, each section will have, say,
15 or 20 minutes on shorthand penmanship. In the one section they
would practice shorthand marks with the finger movement, and in the
other, with the forearm movement, both sections taking the same amount
of practice ( so far as time is concerned ) and practicing on the same ma-
terial. At the end of a month and again at the end of two months, we
would give them a final test. This would be dictated at a fairly rapid
rate, considering the advancement of the students, and they would be
asked to write it in shorthand. The work in their final tests could then
be compared with the work of the preliminary or equalization test.
Let us take an advanced class, which will be divided into two sections,
both under the same teacher. The sections will be given 10 or 15 min-
utes of shorthand i)enmanship, one section forearm and the other finger
movement. The results here may be diiTerent from those of the begin-
ners because of the fact that these students are doing much more phrasing
and the outlines are consequently longer. They should be tested on mat-
ter which is entirely familiar to them, and the test should be given at the
speed which is the normal speed for the part of the course in which they
are working. Then, a comparison of the papers should be made, as with
the beginners.
Preliminary Test.
Some test will have to be given at the start, whether it be a preliminary
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 155
test or an ecjualization test. If it is decided that an e([ualizaiion test is
reL'essary, we can use that test as a prehminary test al-o.
The purpose of the prehminary test is to have specimens of the short-
hand penmanship taken at the beginning of the experiment, so that we
can observe the progress made during the special shorthand drill.
The preliminary test should consist of writing in shorthand from dicta-
tion. Of course, the speed of the dictation nuist be gauged 1)\- the pro-
gress of the class. In the case of beginners we shall have to wait until
they have learned the alphabet, at least.
Equalization Test.
Do we require an equalization test? If so, what nature shall it take?
\\'e shall likely agree that the ability of all persons to do forearm move-
ment in shorthand, is not alike, and therefore we will have to equalize the
■class in some way.
Contrary to many experiments, we do not want to get an equal number
of each kind of student into each section. We are testing forearm writing
and finger writing. The most logical thing to do, it would seem, would be
to put the forearm writers into one section and the finger writers into the
other. In this way each student is with his own clan and more co-opera-
tion will result than would be the case if some who never reconciled them-
selves to the forearm movement are put into that section. It would seem
useless to put the forearm writers into the finger writing section and try
to accustom them to this method. They would most likely unconsciously
write with the forearm movement, and we would not be testing at all the
thing we thought we were. Therefore, we must find some method of de-
termining who the forearm writers are, and put them into the forearm sec-
tion.
Possibly the best method of determining this would be to have the
penmanship teacher observe the students in their writing and classify
them.
If it is found that a considerable number of students use a combination
of finger and forearm movement, it might be well to make a third section,
and permit them to do their shorthand penmanship practice in line with
this combined method.
Final Tests.
Monthly intervals between final tests would seem to be reasonable.
The test should be on matter familiar to the class, and should be given
156 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
at a speed which the class can take. The matter should be dictated. We
do not want to give this test at too slow a speed, for that is not the way
shorthand is taken, and, furthermore, it would permit the finger writers
to draw their outlines, instead of writing them.
Other Difficulties.
Our one great diffictilty will be the scoring of the papers.
We could quickly find our way out of the difficulty if we had a short-
hand penmanship scale, similar to those we have for longhand penman-
ship. So far as the present research has shown, however, there is none.
The only thing left for us to do in the absence of such a scale, is to sep-
arate the papers into three classes : excellent, poor, and mediocre. It will
be easy to select from the class the most excellent ones and also the poor-
est ones, but those on the border line will give trouble. However, since
we have no better method at present, we must use it. And, though it is
not a closely graded method of classification, it is better than none at all.
One method of comparing preliminary with final tests, would be to see
how many of the mediocre and poor class reached the excellent class and
how many of the poor class reached the mediocre class.
Another method would be to compare each student's preliminary test
with his final tests. This might be very convincing for the teacher who
has the papers in front of her. but in the absence of a scale, it would be
very hard for her to convey to others, who cannot see the papers, the
amoiuit of improvement that has taken place. We would be obliged to
take her word that there was much or little improvement, and we would
not get a very definite idea from it.
This experiment will be more convincing to the person making it. than
it can be to others. But, even in spite of this disadvantage, it does seem
worth while to undertake it. The papers of the preliminary and final
tests should be kept on file, so that in case a shorthand penmanship scale
is evolved, more definite information can be given, regarding the results.
b. Time.
The experiment could be tried practically any time of the year, after the
beginners have learned at least their alphabet.
The penmanship work should come as often as the regular shorthand
instruction is given. The easiest way to do would be to take part of the
shorthand period for it, say 15 or 20 minutes.
The final test could be given at the end of one month, two months, or
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 157
more, if it were found that the results were sufficiently promising to war-
rant conducting the experiment for that length of time.
c. Periods.
Periods would not seem to make much difference. Penmanship does
not require a large amount of concentration and would not be fatiguing.
We ought to be sure, however, that one section does not have an advan-
tage over the other in the choice of periods. See p. 56.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter of the drills would be the shorthand characters
which the students are using at their stage of advancement. For the be-
ginners it would be largely alphabet and simply words. For the advanced
students it would involve phrasing.
The tests should be on familiar matter.
e. Detail of Procedure.
No particular instructions need be given for this experiment. The
general considerations mentioned on p. 58 ft'., under this heading, would
apply.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 ff.
b. SHORTHAND.
Experiment No. 7. The drill most valuable to the shorthand student.
1. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
This problem is similar to the one in spelling. We have reached the
point where, instead of trying to learn the spelling of all the words of the
dictionary, we select those that we think are the ones most frequently
158 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
used, and drill on them. It is unwise to try to give shorthand students all
the words they may ever use. It would seem much wiser to drill them
thoroughly on the words which they will use frequently.
In spelling, one man selects loo Spelling Demons, another selects 542
words from 2000 miscellaneous letters, another selects words from 270
newspaper articles by 200 different writers, etc.
How shall we obtain the list for shorthand drill ? That is our problem.
b. Survey of Experiments IMade.
The search for experiments in this field brought none to light.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken with the ho[)e of helping to determine
what phrases and words would afford the most valuable drill for the short-
hand student.
This undertaking will be somewhat different from the other experi-
ments, insofar as the greatest part of the work will not be done with
classes. The material will be obtained from sources outside of the school.
The only connection the school will have will be to prove or disprove, by
the efficiency of its students, the value of the words and phrases selected.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
1. Groups Chosen.
Any shorthand pupils could be used for the work.
2. Schools Chosen.
Any schools would be suitable, where the necessary co-operation ex-
ists. See p. 38 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
Any efficient shorthand teacher could be chosen. She should have both
sections of the class. See p. 41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
Because the work will extend over a long period, the teacher of the class
is the most suitable person to conduct the experiment. See p. 44 ff.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
OBTAINING THE LIST.
It would seem that the words chosen should be from business letters.
i
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 159
Taking the dictation of business letters will be the most important work of
the majority of stenographers, outside of the court stenographer, and he
of course, is a finished product, as compared with the student we have in
mind. Therefore, we can ignore him in this consideration.
It would be better, it would seem, to get actual letters from business,
rather than compose them ourselves.
It would be well to get the permission of several establishments, like
John W'anamaker, etc. (one of say each important kind), and for say a
week, collect all the letters they write. Of course, permission would have
to be obtained from these concerns, and the understanding would be that
the person receiving the letters would keep strictly confidential any mat-
ter contained therein. If there should happen to be a personal letter or
two written during the da\-, which were very confidential and of which the
firm would not want the copy to leave the office, that copy could be omitted
without affecting the work at all. It is the bulk of the regular work that
we desire and not an occasional exceptional letter.
These letters could best be obtained by having the stenographer make
an extra carbon copy. The co-operation of the stenographers would have
to be enlisted, or else many of the carbons would not come through, or
would be omitted in the making. That, however, is an easy matter to
overcome. Possibly some check on the number of letters written a day
by each stenographer, would assist. Possibly a posted record in the office,
showing the number of letters turned out, would encourage care along
the line desired. One stenographer would not want the other to beat him
in the number of letters turned out, and, of course, if the record is made
from the carbons turned in, it will be an incentive to the stenographers to
make the extra carbon copy ; otherwise, they will not be given credit for it
on the efficiency list.
An efficiency competition could be instituted as a camouflage for the
real reason for wanting the copies, and possibly something offered to the
person who reaches the highest efficiency, if that is not becoming too mer-
cenary. But that would be a matter for the concern to decide and would
not affect the list at all, so long as carbon copies are obtained of all the
letters written during the period.
The stenographers should not know the purpose of the carbons. It may
not make a difference and again it may.
An efficiency contest could be instituted in several concerns over the city
at the same time, and inter-firm competition started, if so desired.
Many firms might welcome this opportunity of ascertaining just how
much work the various stenographers do.
From all the carbons obtained, the words could be listed and checked
i6o EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
off, putting a dot after the word for each time it occurs. Then those most
frequently used could be made the basis of drill.
A list of the phrases used should also be made. Both lists should be
utilized in the drill.
One awkward situation just at this time is the fact that we are trying to
get our high school students away from the hackneyed phrases which have
been used in business. We teach the pupils one thing in school, and yet
when they get out into business they come into contact with a great num-
ber of older men who never learned Business English and who are still
using the time-worn expressions and phrases. Some years hence, when
the control of business is in the hands of the students at present in our
high schools, who are being taught the better English, this difficulty will
be overcome. At that time another list of words and phrases will be neces-
sary.
GENERAL PLAN FOR TRYING OUT THE LIST.
After we have the list, we would have two sections of a class. The one
section would be conducted just as it wovild be if no list were known. The
other section would be drilled in the words and jihrases in the list, as part
of their regular shorthand work. Of course, that means time must be tak-
en away from their regular work. In all other respects their work should
be the same as that of the other section.
The hnal test should consist of typical business letters, given to both
sections, at various speeds, say lOO, 120, 140 or any other grading deemed
wise. The object would be to see how many from each section could take
correctly, the letters at the higher speeds.
Preliminary Test.
The eciualization test will serve the purpose of a jireliminary test.
Equalization Test.
If we are to use this list with beginning students in shorthand, we shall
be obliged to equalize the class on the same basis mentioned in Experiment
No. 4, ]). 139; but since we have no satisfactory basis as present, we shall
have to conduct the experiment on a large scale, to eliminate individual
differences.
If we are going to begin using this list with advanced students, we are
in position to have some idea as to their ability in shorthand, by the marks
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION i6i
they have made thus far in the subject. These may be subjective, to be
sure, and the judgment of one teacher, but if we can subdivide the class of
one teacher, it will not make so much difference. Each section should
contain an equal number of the best of the class, as well as the poorest,
etc.
A more objective basis could be obtained by giving the students a tran-
scription test, in which no typographical errors are counted, but merely the
errors due to the shorthand notes. A penalty should be imposed for every
error, and the section could be formed on that basis.
Final Test.
As mentioned above, the final test should consist of taking from dicta-
tion say three typical business letters, one set being given at lOO words per
minute, another set at a slightly higher speed and another at a still higher
speed, etc. These should be letters that the students have not been prac-
ticing.
b. Time.
The drill will be given at the regular shorthand period for a part of
that period, and will last over an extended time, possibly till the end of
the course. That iteiu can be determined better by the person who has
the work in charge and has an opportunity to see how things are working
out.
c. Periods.
The periods should be the regular shorthand periods. Care should be
taken, however, in arranging the schedule, to see that one section is not at
a disadvantage so far as fatigue is concerned, when it reports for its
shorthand work. See p. 56 ff.
One teacher should have both sections.
d. Subject-matter.
Both sections will pursue the regular shorthand course ; only one sec-
tion will have drill on the list of words and phrases. Of course, this will
mean that some other work must be omitted from the period. It is sug-
gested that whatever drill has regularly been given to the classes be
omitted for this section and that drill on the list of words and phrases
i62 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
be substituted. If no drill had been given at all, and the class was simply
conducted by taking dictation and reading back, there will have to be less
dictation and reading back, to allow time for the drill.
The letters collected for the list would make good dictation material, if
the consent of the firms could be obtained for that purpose. The regular
dictation book used in the school should also be used for both sections.
e. Details of Procedure.
i
No particular instructions are necessary, except that the teacher try to
keep as nearly uniform as possible the work of the two sections outside of
the drill material.
If there are any interruptions at the time the final test is taken, note
thereof should be made. See p. 59 fif.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 If.
c. BOOKKEEPING.
Experiment No. I. Gradation in ^Mastery.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
In teaching a number of subjects there are two distinct methods fol-
lowed by teachers. By the one method the pupil absolutely masters each
step before he proceeds to the next. By the other, the pupil goes to
the end of a stage and then the lost ends are picked up; in the review
those things are cleared up which he did not understand.
Very often things resolve themselves not into a question of one method
or the other, but of a combination of the two.
In the present case, consideration will be given to the following ques-
tion : Is bookkeeping taught with better results by mastering step by step
or by proceeding to the completion of a suitable section of the subject
and then picking up lost ends ?
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 163
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
The search has revealed no experiments in the held of bookkeeping tak-
ing up the consideration of Gradation in Mastery.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken with the idea of trying to determine
whether better results are obtained when each step in the study of book-
keeping is mastered before proceeding, or whether better results are ob-
tained when each stage of the subject is taught without halting for abso-
lute mastery of the steps, depending on the review to clear up those
matters which any of the students did not grasp.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
For this experiment beginning students in bookkeeping should be select-
ed. The two methods would not apply to advanced bookkeeping, because
that is more a matter of understanding how the rules are applied to the
various lines of business and to concerns of different sizes.
It might be tried with pupils of the junior high school, of the regular
high school, and of business schools.
The results in the different schools may show a difference, due to
the maturity of the students.
2. Schools Chosen.
It may be that pupils of a certain type succeed better with one method
than with the other. Therefore, the experiment should be tried on pupils
of as many different types as possible ; in each case, however, being very
careful to note fully the type of pupil, so that if the results do not agree,
we may look for some light in the different types and possibly find the
principle that operates in this connection. For instance, i)ossibly in a
school where the students were chiefly born of illiterate Slavs or Russians,
one method might work better than the same one would with a high type
American home as the base. Children steeped with the German idea of
thoroughness might advruice more rapidly by thoroughly mastering every
step. They may become absolutely confused if they do not master the
preceding steps.
i64 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
b. Accessibility.
The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as mentioned on p.
36 ff.
c. Co-operation.
The necessary co-operation should exist, as referred to on p. 38 ff.
3. Teacher Chosen.
The same teacher should have charge of both sections, so that the ques-
tion of personality will not enter into the results. See p. 41 ff.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
As mentioned above, the regular teacher in charge of the class should
be the conductor of the experiment. See p. 44 ff'.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
T . Content.
a. Difffculties.
Equalization Test.
No equalization test seems necessary. If we did give one, it would have
to be a test in ability to do bookkeeping. By our hypothesis the students'
knowledge of bookkeeping is nil, since we are to try the experiment on
beginners.* Therefore none of them will have any knowledge of book-
keeping except such as are repeaters, or at some other time have had
bookkeeping. They, of cotirse, must be eliminated from the records. They
may take the work in the regular course with the others, and may even
take the tests, but the results of their tests are not to be counted.
To balance any other factors which may cause inequality, the experi-
ment will have to be conducted on a large scale.
Final Test.
The final test should be a fair test of the student's knowledge of book-
keeping up to a certain point. See p. 166.
A little time should elapse after the review before the final test is given.
*See p. 163.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 165
'Otherwise the matter mi_£^ht he too fresh in the minds of the students who
just completed the review.
b. Time.
The experiment is to be conducted for such length of time as may be
felt can be given to it. It will, at least, have to cover a particular section
of the subject to the point where a review could profitably be given. If
one section takes much longer than the other and does not get it as thor-
oughly by the tests, the first would seem to have the better method.
c. Periods.
The periods would be the regular ones of the class. Care should be
taken to see that one section does not meet at a period when it is more
fatigued than the other section. See p. 56 iT.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter to be used for instruction and test would depend
upon the part of bookkeeping to l)e covered.
The study of debits and credits for all kinds of transactions, entries
being made in the journal, might be one phase.
In the one section, the general rule for debits and credits will be given
and explained. Then, without stopping to master il, the class will ])ro-
ceed w'ith the rule for debiting and crediting Cash, say, and then for
Mdse., Personal Accounts, Interest, Discount. Expense, etc., all entries
being made in the journal. (If the text book in use does not give this
order, follow the text book).
In the other section, the general rule for debits and credits will be
given and explained. The students will master it and will not proceed
until the rule is thoroughly understood and mastered. ( Complicated trans-
actions should not be used). When that is done, the students will be
given the rule for debiting and crediting Cash and will master it thor-
oughly. In the same way will be given the rule for ]\Idse., then for Per-
sonal Accounts, etc.
At the end of the time necessary for this, or at the end of the time
available, both sections will be given the same test and tlie results will be
compared. Of course, the test should be on the material that was being
studied. For instance, a test might be given involving ten entries, includ-
ing the following transactions: cash received, cash ])aid out. a debit or a
i66 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
credit to a personal account, Mdse. purchased or sold both for cash and
on account, etc.
In scoring the papers, the debits and the credits will be the important
items. If the debit is correct, i point will be counted; if the credit is
correct, i point will be counted.
The students will not be given any arithmetic in the tests. All the
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division will be done for them
because this is not a test in arithmetic and nothing which might be a
disturbing factor should enter into the test. A student may understand
the bookkeeping part of the transaction and yet not do his arithmetic
correctly. He is not an efficient bookkeeper, to be sure, but that question
is not to be decided by the test. The object of the test is to ascertain
whether or not he knows the principles of bookkeeping — the debits and
credits. There would be no sense in testing his arithmetic to get this
information.
There should be an explanation written in the book as parL of the entry,,
of course, but it is suggested that no account l)e taken of this in the scor-
ing, for the reason that it was not emphasized in the work in mind.
Furthermore, it applies to all entries alike, and if the student understands
the transaction and knows what is called for in writing the explanation,
there should be no trouble in getting that correct.
In choosing another phase of elementary bookkeeping, the study of the
uses of the different books might be taken. For this, however, an ec[uali-
zation test would be necessary. Debits and credits must be understood
for this work and it would be poor procedure to put into one section all
those who thoroughly knew debiting and crediting, while the other sec-
tion contained those students who did not know it so well. A test involv-
ing the knowledge of debits and credits should l)e given, and the sec-
tions formed on the basis of this test, putting an equal number of each
grade of student into each section.
After the sections have been formed, the procedure would be as fol-
lows :
The use of the cash book would be explained, the sales book, the invoice
book, etc. — whichever books the text gives and in the order given in the
text.
In the one section each book would be mastered before proceeding to
the next.
In the other section the plan would require going from one book to the
next, without any delay, and, after all the ground has been covered, a
review would be given to clear up the unsettled points.
^\'hen this has been done, a test would be given, which would consist of
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 167
a number of transactions covering the important kinds that have been
studied. The student would be told to enter them properly in the re-
spective books. Paper should be given the students, properly ruled and
named, i. e., Cash Book, Salesbook, etc. (This would reduce the number
of disturbing elements.) The transactions should not involve any arith-
metic nor complicated wording that would give the student dit^culty in
understanding the transaction. We are trying to test the student's ability
to make the proper entries in the proper books, for ordinar\- business
transactions as they would occur in business. We are not trying to test
his ability to work out puzzles, as is the practice of some of the text books.
The transactions should be plainly stated so as not to inject any factors
whicii will confuse the student.
In marking the papers, the following basis is suggested :
If the correct book is used, count 4 points, because that is the ele-
ment on which the stress was laid.
If the correct account has been debited, count i point.
If the correct account has been credited, count i point.
If the student used the proper name of the account, for instance,
John Smith, and put it on the wrong side of the cash book, it
would seem as though we should count one right and one
wrong. His mistake was in the cash part of the transaction.
The John Smith part was made correctly. It was put on the
wrong side. Many students are taught to decide on what
side of the Cash Book to make the entry, and then to enter the
name of the other account. Unless special emphasis was laid
on handling this as two separate entries (a Dr. and a Cr.), we
can hardly count both wrong.
The explanation, written in the explanation column, will also give
us trouble. It does not seem proper, for the i)urpose of the
test, to count this.
First, because many students consider it the least important part of
the entry, and so possibly it is. Because they consider it thus,
it is the last thing they write and the one to which they give
least thought. They are particular about the amount, the Dr.,
the Cr., and the date.
Because they give it so little thought, the entry does not always in-
dicate what they know about it.
We are searching for what the student knows, and this item is
likely to make us more trouble in this respect than it is worth
i68 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
It is a part of every entry, and when the student once understands
it thoroughly, there should be no trouble in his applying it to
any transaction whatever. Whereas, suppose he does not un-
derstand the principle back of the explanation, and gets it
wrong in every one of the ten transactions given in the test,
he is penalized ten times for a single item, which makes his
record look worse than it is. It does not mean that his knowl-
edge of bookkeeping is ten times less than the boy who got one
Dr. wrong. They both missed in one particular, but in the
case of the one student that one particular was repeated ten
times.
Furthermore, consider an entry like this : an entry is properly
made on the credit side of the Cash Book except that the ex-
planation reads "Received on account." whereas the money
was "Paid on account." The manner in which the student has
handled his other receipts and expenditures shows that he
understands how to handle the matter, but that this was mere-
ly a slip. He unthinkingly puts down something that he does
not intend.
If it is decided to count the explanations, then our next difficulty
is, how are we going to count this one ?
We are convinced that the student knows how to make the entry.
If we are trying by our test to ascertain what he knows, there
is only one thing to do. ^^'e are satisfied he knows it and we
must, therefore, count it right.
But the paper does not show his knowledge in that particular in-
stance, though it does in some others. If we count it right for
him, there may be others who should also be counted right, if
we knew the facts. Here is the flaw of our ])resent method
for testing students, and it may be responsible for a great
many discrepancies in the results of experiments in Educa-
tion.
However, we are more concerned with obtaining a record of facts
as they exist than wn'th scrupulously adhering to any method
of marking, which in reality is simply thought to be a means
to an end. If we know this one instance where the paper
does not show facts, we should count it correct, for then our
marks will be at least one point nearer the true state of alTairs
than they would be if we marked according to the traditional
manner.
All this argument can be avoided by simply paying no attention to
the Explanation Column in marking the test j^apers. The stu-
dent should know it to be a proficient bookkeeper, but because
of the nature of the thing, it does not concern us in the tests
for this experiment.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 169
e. Details of Procedure.
Ill the instructions given to the teachers, the method of marking the
papers should be clearly explained, as well as the method of conducting
the classes.
If it is found that one section is slower than the other in covering the
ground mapped out, thf time limit will have to be extended for the slow
section. Tt would then l)e a question as to whether or not the slow sec-
tion understands the work more thoroughly. The tests should tell.
For interruptions, etc., see p. 59 fif.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 ff.
c. BOOKKEEPING.
Experiment No. 2. Use of Suggesters.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
Dr. A. Duncan 'S'ocum. Professor of Educational Research at the L^ni-
versity of Pennsylvania, has for some time believed that much would l)e
gained by the pupil if he were helloed in his work by the use of sug-
gesters.
By "suggesters" Dr. \()cum means some main topics — three or four or
five, not many — in any subject, around which the student can organize
the material both in studying and in recalling. Ilie topics must be broad
enough sn that they can carry through the greater part of the subject, at
least.
For instance, in Commercial Geography, there are four main topics
which the student should have in mind when studying the subject, and
each time he comes to the consideration of a new cmtntry, he should look
for this information, namely:
1 Xanira! advantages or disadx'antages
2 Production
3 Manufactures
4 Transportation
170 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
He should group his information around them and thus get good
interconnection for re-call.
When heing tested on the suhject. he can use these suggesters for an
outline, about which to organize his material. It gives the student some-
thing definite, about which to arrange and group his thoughts.
From experiments already tried in other fields it is shown that this
is a better method than the old way. Dr. Yoctuu would like to have the
theory tried out in as many fields as possible.
In bookkeeping the use of suggesters would seem to be of considerable
advantage and to ascertain this definitely this experiment is undertaken,
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
No record has been found of the use of suggesters otitside of the
group attending Dr. Yocum's Seminar.
A list of the experiments conducted along this line is given by Dr.
Yocum in his article "The Most Immediate Concern of Educational
Research During the Struggle for Democracy." which appeared in "School
and Society," Vol. VII, No. 163, pp. 151-156, Feb. 9, 1918, as follows:
Experiment by Saml. L. Chew
" A. S. Martin, using suggesters for a manufactur-
ing city
" P. A. Boyer
" " R. F. Stevens, using suggesters for mechanical
powers in high school physics
" " Dowett Sondberg, using suggesters for climate
" " Wm. J. Lowry, using suggesters for the topic
Progress in Useful Arts
" " Mrs. Scott Anderson, using suggesters in the kin-
dergarten
c. Differentiation.
The same general plan which was used in the above-named experi-
ments will be used in the present one.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether or not the
use of suggesters in the study of bookkeeping would make for efficiency.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
The pupils chosen for this experiment should be beginners in book-
keeping, although suggesters could also be found for the use of some-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 171
what advanced students, as, for instance, suggesters covering the study
of notes and drafts.
2. Schools Chosen.
It would he well to try this in as many schools as possible. See p. 35 ff.
3. Teachers Chosen.
There will be two sections of each class and one teacher will lie in
charge. She must be a teacher capable of handling two different methods
for the same subject, and must be willing to go to the extra trouble
•of becoming acquainted with the suggesters herself.
She must also meet the general requirements laid down on p. 41 ft'.
III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR
The regular teacher would be the most likely person for condticting the
work, as she is familiar with the pupils and the work extends over too
long a period to have a strange person take it.
See p. 44 ft.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE
I. Content.
a. Difficulteis.
Equalization Test.
Two sections of the class are necessary and they will have to be
equalized.
First, we must eliminate all those who have had bookkeeping in any
form or quantity. Of course, if there are any in the class who do not
understand English well enough, they must also be eliminated from the
results.
The remaining ones will then form the group to be used in the experi-
ment.
The knowledge of bookkeeping possessed by the students is nil. by our
hypothesis.
Their ability to do bookkeeping should be tested, but we have no test
172 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
for that purpose. It would take considerable time to procure one. It
would be necessary first to devise a suitable test, and then to try it out for
a few years, to see whether it really is practical.
Under these conditions, the only thing that can be done, after eliminat-
ing those with previous knowledge of the subject, is to have the experi-
ment tried on such a large scale that the individual differences will be ab-
sorbed.
Final Test.
The final test should be on material that was covered in the work, and
should be marked on the basis of bookkeeping only. See p. 173.
b. Time.
The work will be done at the time assigned for the regular bookkeeping
classes. It is difficult to say what the duration of the experiment should
be. The chief difficulty is that if too long a time is taken to cover a sub-
ject, there will have been so much time that both sections could not help
but get the subject-matter. A method that is more efficient does not show
forth in that case. The outline of suggesters given is one that practically
covers elementary bookkeeping. It might be desirable to give a test after
the debits and credits are learned, one after posting has been learned, and
another after closing has been learned.
If it is found that the section using the suggesters can proceed more
rapidly than the other, and comes out just as well in the tests, that would
be a ])oint in favor of the suggesters.
c. Periods.
The periods should be the regular bookkeeping periods. Neither sec-
tion should be at a disadvantage on account of fatigue, etc., as explained
on p. 56 ff.
d. .Subject-matter.
The subject-matter will be the regular bookkeeping work of the class.
One section will follow it just as the work of the class would have been
carried on had nothing been known of suggesters.
The other section will be given the suggesters and will be drilled in their
use in connection with their regular work. This section must be told not
to give their suggesters to the other section or to even mention them to the
other pupils.
The suggesters should be in the hands of the students. They may copy
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 173-
them from the board or mimeographed copies may be handed to them. The
students should have the suggesters before them whenever doing book-
keeping and should make constant use of them. The suggesters should be
impressed upon the minds of the students as much as possible. The lesson
should be explained in the light of the suggesters and the answers should
be called for in the light of the suggesters. They should be hammered
home so that the pupils cannot help but think in terms of them.
The following suggesters could be used with beginners in bookkeeping:
For work in books of original entry :
In considering the entry for a transaction,
Decide : WHAT BOOK
WHAT DR.
WHAT CR.
Then make the entry, adding amount, date, explanation.
In POSTING, we must learn
WHEN to post
WHAT to post
HOW to post, i. e., whether it goes to Dr. or Cr. side.
In CLOSING or ruling off, we must learn
W^HAT i. e., which accounts, to close
WHEN i. e., at what periods, (Personal Accts. whenever they^
balance, etc.)
HOW i. e., which columns to rule off, which single and which
double.
The words in capitals are the suggesters. The rest is simply added by
way of explanation and to show how the words are interpreted. The whole
scheme should be given to the class, but the suggesters are the words that
should be emphasized and drilled on.
The following scheme for marking the test papers is suggested :
Book, if it is in the projier bonk, give the student i point
Dr., if the proper account is debited, give the student i point
Cr., if the proper account is credited, give the student i jjoint
Entry, if the entry is correctly made so far as date, amount, and
explanation is concerned, give the student I point
If any of these three parts of the entry is lacking, give O
In Posting.
When, if answered correctly, give the student i point
How, if posted to proper side, give the student i point
What, if amount, date, and postmarking are correct, give the stu-
dent I point
174 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
In closing.
What, if the correct account is closed, give i point
When, if it is closed at proper time, give i point
How, if the ruling is properly done, and amounts put in where they
belong, give i point
(The question arises, shall we count the addition in considering the
amounts, or simply the place where the amounts are put ? It is
suggested that the addition be disregarded for the purpose of
this test.)
e. Details of Procedure.
The instructions to the teachers should contain a caution regarding the
care that must be used lest the methods be mixed and the suggesters be
used with the section that is not to have them.
The suggesters must be kept from the section not supposed to use
them. This may prove a difficult thing in some places. It did not prove
so when tried out in West Chester, Pa. The teacher will have to use her
ingenuity to meet this situation. If it does happen that the suggesters
do get into the hands of the wrong section, a note of the fact should l)e
made in the report. A good plan would be for each section to keep from
the other, the work they are doing.
Record of interruptions, during test, should be made, etc. See p.
59 ff-
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 ff.
c. BOOKKEEPING
Experiment No. 3. The Use of Forms in Bookkeeping Compared with
the Use of Text Book Only.
I. FORMULATION
I. Introduction.
a. General Statement.
As one takes up a bookkeeping text book, he will often find in the
preface, a statement to the effect that the book is so arranged that it can
be used with or without the forms. By "forms" it means handling the
actual papers that would be used in business. For instance, if the trans-
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 175
action is one which involved the receiving of money, the student will ac-
tually receive the money ( a slip of paper about the size of a regular
greenback, printed somewhat after the fashion of our government green-
backs) or he may actually receive the check, as the case may be. If it is
a Notes Receivable transaction, he will actually handle the note referred
to, etc.
The inexperienced teacher asks, "Which is the better method?" ScMiie
teacher of experience will say, "I have found that the method of using
the forms is by far better." It is merely her opinion, at best based upon
observation, more or less accurate. Some teacher may actually have
tested out both methods, but in the present investigation no record of any
has been found. Therefore, it might be well to have some on record,
and with this in mind, the following experiment is undertaken.
b. Survey of Experiments Made.
No experiments along the line under consideration have been disclosed.
2. Specific Statement.
This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether or not the
use of forms in bookkeeping in connection with the text book is better
than simply using the text without the forms. By "better" is meant giv-
ing a more thorough understanding of transactions and bookkeeping.
II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY
I. Groups Chosen.
Any beginners in bookkeeping wotild be suitable pupils for this experi-
ment. There should be two sections, one using the forms and one not
using them.
The methods should be tried on pupils in the junior high school. The
more concrete method might work l)etler with the younger students.
2. Schools Chosen.
Any schools having the necessary conditions for co-operation, etc.,
would answer the purpose. See p. 35 IT.
3. Teachers Chosen.
176 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
One teacher should be in charge of both sections of a class. Any
teacher meeting the requirements set forth on p. 41 ff. could undertake
the work.
III. DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURE
I. Content.
General Plan.
There should be two sections (both under the same teacher), one tising
the forms in connection with the text, and the other using the text book
only.
It will be necessary to equalize the sections in some way, or conduct the
experiment on a large scale.
The instruction given by the teacher should be the same for both
sections. Of cotirse. good pedagogy wotild require that when she ex-
plains checks or notes, etc., she have in her hand a paper of the kind
that she is explaining, no matter which section of the class is before her.
The same explanation must be given to both sections,
A final test would be given on the work covered and this would be used
as to the basis of determining the value of the two methods.
The likelihood is that the section not using the forms will cover a cer-
tain amount of ground in less time than the other section. W'e cannot
permit both the time element and the grotmd covered, to vary. It would
be easier from the standpoint of making out the test, to have both sections
cover a certain amoimt of ground and take the test as soon as they have
finished it. If the one section completes the work first and makes
a better showing in the test, we shall have to hand the palm to that
method. If the slower method shows the better percentage in the test, it
will show that these students tmderstand the work more thorotighly. Of
course, not much importance should be attached to the results of one ex-
periment. The matter should be tested out in several places, and if it is
found that the results are uniformly alike, we can speak with some au-
thority. There may be a number of vmknown factors hidden beneath
one experiment, which may not be brotight to light until the work is tried
again.
a. Difficulties.
Equalization Test.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 177
In the matter of equalization test, it w ill be necessary to follow the same
plan as in the preceding experiment, p. 171.
Final Test.
At the completion of the assigned work, a final test will be given to each
section. The test should be based on the subject-matter as far as the
class has covered it, and should be straight bookkeeping. The transactions
should be simply stated because that is the way most of them occur in Inis-
iness.
Complexly worded transactions should have no place in this work. To
confuse the student in the wording, is not testing his knowledge of the
way to handle the transaction itself. It is testing his ability to under-
stand the transaction, not his ability to make the entry for it. He must
understand the transaction before he can make the proper entry, and if
he is not given a fair chance to understand it, it is not correct to charge
that against his knowledge of bookkeeping.
As little arithmetic shoidd be required of the student as possible. Time
is saved, and in a given period we can test more of his actual bookkeeping
knowledge, if he is not obliged to use up the time by doing arithmetic. To
obtain his cash balance, however, and similar items, he will have to add
the columns himself. That is a thing we cannot do for him. The use of
round figures will help greatly.
Properly ruled paper would also help to expedite matters. One need not
necessarily mark the paper to show what book it represents, but it would
save time to merely have the paper ruled and given to the pupils. The pu-
pil can then choose the kind he believes should be used.
In marking the final test, tlie following method is suggested:
If the transaction is entered in the proper book, count i point.
If the proper account is debited, count i point.
If the proper account is credited, count i point.
If the amount is correct, count i point.
If the explanation is put in the proper place and answers the pur-
pose, count I ])oint.
If the general form of the entry is correct, i. e., if the date is in the
proper place, explanation in the proper place, debits and cred-
its and amounts in the proper places, with respect to columns,
margins, indentations, etc., count i point.
It will be noted that no count is given for neatness, penmanship, etc.
Some teachers mark heavily for these items in grading bookkeeping. They
are necessary for a good bookkeeper but for the purpose of the experi-
ment they may be ignored.
178 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
b. Time.
The work would take place during the regular recitation periods for
bookkeeping.
The test would be given each section as it finished the work to be done.
c. Periods.
The regular periods would answer if in line with the suggestions set
forth an p. 56 fit.
d. Subject-matter.
The subject-matter would be the regular bookkeeping work of the text
book covered by the pages assigned.
The final test would be straight bookkeeping taken from the ground
covered. See p. 177 ft".
e. Details of Procedure.
The instructions to the teachers should urge caution to see that none of
the work is done outside of the regular bookkeeping periods.
Record should be made of disturbances, weather, etc., during both the
regular class periods and the test periods, as mentioned on p. 59 fif.
2. Form.
The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is
covered fully on p. 62 fif.
APPENDIX
A summary of the International Typewriting Rules coverning errors
and the marking of papers, is given as follows :
All writing should be double space on legal size paper.
The marginal stops should be set so as to make the writing line seventy
spaces long.
Paragraphing may be done with an indentation of five or ten spaces,
but must be uniform throughout the work.
In all matter which is rewritten, the first writing only will be consid-
ered, the rewritten matter being penalized as an error.
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 179
For every error named below, *Five Words will he deducted from the
total nuinlxT written:
Striking wrong letter.
Improper spacing.
Omission of word .
Transposition of words or letters.
Piling letters at the end of line, or elsewhere.
Failure to commence line at starting point.
Deviation from copy in i)unctuation, paragraphing, capitalization, etc.
Inclined margin, caused by improper insertion of paper.
Faulty use of shift key.
Undue margin at bottom of sheet.
But one error shall be counted in any one word.
SUGGESTIONS FOR MARKING PAPERS
^^'he^ counting figures a word is allowed for each group of three figures
— 50,000 is counted two words.
When several words are omitted, each omitted word should be counted
an error.
When a line or sentence is rewritten, the first writing only is counted,
but the rewritten matter should be penalized as one error, whether it be a
word, a line, or a paragraph. It is considered that the time consumed in
rewriting is sufficient penalty. If, however, the rewritten matter itself
contains errors, these should be counted.
The student cannot correct an error by striking one letter over another.
All such cases should be ])enalized.
Either two or three hyphens should be used to indicate a dash, never
one, even if spaces are left on each side of it. All dashes must be uniform
throughout.
Comj)Ounded words are counted as man\ words as are in the compound.
Paragraphs may be indicated by either five or ten spaces, but the num-
ber nuist be uniform throughout the work.
Either two or three spaces may be made after a period, but the work
must be uniform throughout in this respect : similarly either two spaces or
one may be used after an interrogation point or an exclamation point ac-
cording to the habit of the operator — but it must be uniform throughout.
When words arc transposed only one error should be marked, as but
one word is out of place.
*Increased to ten in 1918 (or 17).
i8o
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Words iniproperl}- divided at the end of the Hue should be penaHzed.
Both insertion and omission of punctuation points are errors, but where
a word and a following punctuation point are both omitted, only one error
is counted, the point being treated as part of the word.
TABLE SHOWING THE VARIABILITY OP PERFORMANCE IN TYPEWRIT-
ING TESTS
Figures given are the number of words, gross and net, written in ten minutes.
The same copy matter was used each time.
1st
Test
2nd
Test
3rd
Test
4th
Test
Student
gr.
net
gr.
net
gr.
net
g-r.
net
A
518
348
529
479
564
504
551
451
B
467
347
469
389
476
406
409
319
C
540
430
550
430
545
435
D
500
400
471
261
502
342
494
214
E
448
378
458
388
479
419
P
419
219
412
112
416
331
429
259
G
506
305
541
281
492
362
H
527
487
509
459
529
459
I
564
434
572
452
583
463
J
444
354
438
358
460
400
436
346
K
533
192
488
138
547
377
524
346
L
519
300
502
72
511
321
520
250
M
458
318
394
154
459
329
484
374
N
477
357
430
300
518
428
402
312
O
407
247
430
310
434
344
447
347
P
492
302
506
336
491
351
Q
427
257
466
356
433
293
444
254
R
495
345
398
368
499
410
526
416
S
507
427
525
425
525
425
550
450
T
474
323
451
221
500
260
U
497
427
527
397
531
461
520
490
Y
484
414
469
369
485
405
513
353
W
418
368
448
408
453
393
X
489
419
486
336
523
483
498
408
Y
528
238
509
349
500
280
512
232
Z
549
359
532
352
520
420
553
323
A A
370
270
380
190
387
337
AB
465
395
513
443
AC
439
379
452
372
AD
469
380
469
420
500
410
495
420
The first test was given at 10:09 one school morning. The day was a
dreary, rainy one. Temperature was 70.
The second test was given 10:22 the same morning.
The third test was given the day following, at io:OQ A. M. It was a
bright sunny day. Temperature 70.
The fourth test was given the next day at 10:10 A. ]\I. It was
also a bright sunny day. with temperature at 70.
To ascertain whether there was any uniformity in the length of the
words used in the International Typewriting Contest copy matter, several
pages were picked at random and were typewritten. Legal paper was
IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION i8i
used, a line was drawn the length of the paper at each margin, and the
words were written as close to the margin as possible. Paragraphs
were disregarded, so as to get a solid block of typewriting. The count
was taken at the end of the 33rd line, which happened to be the last
on the sheet. The result was as follows :
Page a, 488 words
b. 492 "
c. 474
d. 497
e. 494
f. 492
g. 484
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Struggle for Democracy. School & Society, Vol. VII No. 163,
pp. 151-156, Feb. 9, 1918.
Outline for the Mastery of Fundamental Features of Procedure
through the Cumulative Collection of Instances Involving Each.
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NOV 27 1935
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