UC-NRLF Au'" 'r?.i-i9?-0 UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Experimental Research As a Factor In Commercial Education BY FRANK HENRY KRAMEfi A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE. OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY u THE SOMERVILLE PUB. CO. SOMERVILLE, N. J. 1920 EXCHANGE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Experimental Research As a Factor In Commercial Education BY FRANK HENRY KRAMER , A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY '•■> I ■'•1 3 ., THE SOMERVILLE PUI5. CO. SOMERVILLE, N. J. 1920 x>\' <• \ ■XQM^i'j!^;'- CONTENTS INTRODUCTION a. Present status of experimental research in education. b. The need for experimental research in commercial education. c. An ideal otitline for this thesis. d. The limitations which make it impossible. e. The otitline chosen. f . A brief description of the scope of Part I and Part II. g. Finality not the aim of this thesis — simply pioneer work. PART I. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN COMMERCIAL EDUCA- TION IN THE WAY OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH, AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CONTEMPLATED 'a. The method of obtaining the bibliography: Reading. Result. Letters sent to the variotts agencies and individuals wdio would be most likely to be able to furnish a bibliography of experiments condticted in this field. Replies received. Letters sent to the schools and departments of eductaion, de- partments of psychology, and experimenters. Copy of the letter. List of those to whom it was sent. List of those who replied. List of those who reported nothing. b. Bibliography of the experiments — and so-called experiments — in Commercial Subjects, made or contemplated, giving the following information concerning each: Name or nature of the experiment — grouped by subjects. By whom conducted. Where, or in connection with what institution. Where the record of it is to be found. l*\n-lher details concerning it. PART II. SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN UN- SOLVED IN SOME OF THE MORE STRICTLY COMMER- CIAL SUBJECTS, AND A SUGGESTED METHOD OF PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENTATION ALONG THESE LINES A. Introduction. K. B. Subjects chosen. 425627 C. Some typical problems remaining unsolved in these subjects, for which experiments will be suggested. D. Form used in writing up these experiments. The outline. A development of this outline. E. The Experiments. a. TYPEWRITING. 1. Does emphasizing speed in typewriting interfere with accuracy, and, if so, to what extent"'' 2. The age at which it is most economically advantageous for a person to begin the study of typewriting. 3. The development of a typewriting norm. 4. Should we teach the Touch ^lethod or rhe Sight Meth- od of Typewriting in our schools? 5. Should the schools have open or blank keyboards on the typewriters used for instruction purposes? b. STENOGRAPHY. 1. The number of presentations necessary to fix an outline. 2. The number of ideas that can be presented in a lesson. 3. Intervals of repetition. 4. A method of determining those unfit for high speed in shorthand. 5. Forearm vs. finger movement in shorthand. 6. The drill that would be most valuable to shorthand stu- dents. 7. The proportion of time that should be spent in reading back notes. c. BOOKKEEPING. 1. Gradation in Mastery. 2. Use of Suggesters. 3. The use of forms compared with the use of only the text book in bookkeeping. F. Appendix. 5 J 111-) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH AS A FACTOR IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Introduction In the last five or ten years considerable thought has been giVen to the matter of experimental research in a nimiber of the subjects taught in our schools. Compared with what has been done in other fields, very little scientific study has been given to the commercial stibjecls. It is with the hope that stich study may be increased, that this thesis is attempted. Experimental Research in Education itself is as yet an experiment. Its procedtires are in process of development. It has not even reached the stage where it has convinced everyone that it is worth while. In fact, it will take considerable time to cast ofi^ the opprobrium which has been heaped upon its head. Much of this negative attitude is due, not to real scientific experimentation, but to pseudo-scientific experimentation. Experimenters in their enthusiasm have not been careful to be truly scientific. They have offered, as valid, experiments which have failed to observe the most ordinary scientific precautions. They have presented and interpreted with statistical exactness data which in itself has been worthless. They have read into the results unwarranted concktsions. Persons outside of the field of experimental research saw these weak- nesses and formed an unfavorable opinion of all work conducted in that field. But there is no reason why truly scientific experiments should not be conducted in educational lines as well as in other fields. It is true that, in dealing with human beings, it is harder to maintain the uniform condi- tions essential to valid research, than it is in dealing with some clearly defined combination in chemistry. But, if we can isolate the factors we want to test, there is no reason why we cannot get good restilts. Even with the little work done in this field up to the present time, some reliable conclusions have been reached. With each rigidly scientific experiment, those which follow become easier. Mr. Edison did not succeed with his incandescent electric lamp until after his thousanrlth attempt, and his experiments with the alkaline storage battery ran up [o tens of thousands before he was satisfied with the commercial type of battery. If success comes so slowly in the well-established field of the physical sciences, 2 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH workers in the comparatively new field of applied mental science must not become disheartened at tedious hours and small results. Since educational research is a new phase of science, since the com- mercial subjects have but recently come into our public school curriculum, and since there are not many scientifically minded teachers of these sub- jects, it is hardly to be expected that very much research work has been done in determining efifective methods of teaching in this field. An ideal outline for a thesis on the subject in mind would be the fol- lowing : Part I. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN THIS FIELD AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CON- TEMPLATED. Part II. WHAT REMAINS TO BE DONE. a. A LIST OF THE PROBLEMS. b. A SOLUTION FOR EACH PROBLEM. Something approaching a satisfactory treatment of Part I is possible, and, therefore, it will be included in the outline that will be adopted. But it is much more than one man's task to work out Part II. It is unwise to pronounce finality on a subject of this kind, because it will al- ways be possible to find someone else who has thought of a problem that has never entered one's own mind. To conceive all the problems in this field would be impossible, and it seems hardly necessary to argue the point. But even if a list of all the problems in the field could be obtained, it would be out of the question to find a solution for everyone of them, and, if it were possible to find the solutions, this would obviously be the work of more than one person. Hence, to use this ideal otitline would be to attempt the impossible, and, with this thought in mind, the outline will be modified by choosing several of the more strictly commercial subjects, stating some typical problems in each of them, and suggesting a method of procedure for experimentation along these lines. This thesis then will have two main parts as above, but modified as fol- lows : PART I. WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IN THIS FIELD AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CONTEM- PLATED. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3 PART II. SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN UNSOLVED IN SOME OE THE MORE STRICT- LY COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS, AND A SUGGESTED METHOD OF PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENTATION ALONG THESE LINES. PART I contains an exhaustive list of the efforts made in Commercial Education to solve problems by experimenting. Attempts have been in- cluded that are not scientific, as well as those that are, for the reason that the purpose of this thesis is a practical one, and, even though an experi- ment may not be scientific, it may contain suggestions which may help someone who is trying to solve the same problem scientifically. It may do no more tlian point out the things to be avoided when the experiment is tried again, but this is sufficient ground for including it. In PART II no attempt has been made to state all that remains to be done either in the listing of the problems in the commercial field that are not settled, or in the developing of methods of procedure to solve these problems. A few outstanding commercial subjects have been selected and the procedure for typical experiments in these subejcts will be suggested. The methods suggested are not given as absolutely valid methods. That judgment cannot be pronounced upon them until after they have been tried out thoroughly. Care has been taken in thinking them out, but any- one who has spent some time in a seminar where work of this kind is conducted knows only too well that, even with 15 or 20 persons passing judgment upon the validity of the method, it is possible to overlook some important details which are not discovered until after the experiment has been completed. This thesis is written as pioneer work in commercial studies and is therefore likely to have all the shortcomings that we find in such work. It is earnestly hoped that a considerable number of commercial teach- ers will, before long, become interested in this line of work and that, by criticising, improving, expanding, and testing the methods presented, they will make it possible to build up a body of scientific data for teaching commercial subjects. PART I WHAT HAS BEEN DONE IX THIS FIELD AND WHAT IS NOW UNDER WAY OR CONTEMPLATED A thesis on this subject should contain a complete bibliography of the experiments already conducted in the field. To this end a careful search has been made of the Monthly Record of Current Educational Publications, U. S. Bu- reau of Education Reader's Guide to Periodical List Reports of Educational Associations and books of the type of the following : Mind in the Making, Swift Principles & ^Methods in Commercial Education, Kahn & Klein Principles of Teaching, Thorndike Educational Psychology, Thorndike Psychology of Learning, Thorndike The Army Trade Tests \^ocational Psychology, Hollingworth Survey of the Needs in Commercial Education, Rochester Cham- ber of Commerce Experiments in Educational Psychology. Starch Methods of Teaching in High School, Parker The American High School, Brown High School Education, Johnston et al. Psychological Principles of Education. Home In addition to this, letters asking for a bibliography of educational experiments in commercial subjects and for information concerning such experiments under way or contemplated were addressed to a number of institutions and individuals who would be likely to have information on the matter, among them : The Congressional Lil)rary Pennsylvania State Library \J. S. Bureau of Education Carnegie Institution of Washington Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching General Education Board Russell Sage Foundation Pan-American Scientific Congress National Associated Schools of Scientific Business Director of Cleveland Educational Survey National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 5 Women's Industrial & Kdncational Union Division of Reference & Research, Department of Education, The City of New York Department of Educational Investigation & Measurement, The School Committee of the City of Boston Bureau of Experimental Research. New York City Chamher of Commerce, Boston Chamber of Commerce. Cleveland Chamher of Commerce, Chicago Chamber of Commerce, Rochester F. V. Thompson, Asst. Supt. of Schools, Boston Cheesman A. Herrick, Pres., Girard College Miss Bertha M. Stevens, Secy, of Educational Committee, New York City Rochester Bureau of Efficiency, Board of Education, Rochester, N. Y. Director of Research & Efficiency, Board of Educa+ion, Kansas City, Mo. New Orleans Dept. of Education & Research, Board of Education, New Orleans, La. Detroit Dept. of Education t^ Research, Board of I'Iducation, De- troit, Mich. Negative answers were received from the following, stating that they 'Could furnish no such bibliography or knew of no experiments : The Congressional Library Pennsylvania State Library U. S. Bureau of Education Carnegie Institute of Washington General Education Board The Survey Committee of The Cleveland I'^oundation National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education Division of Reference & Research, Dejit. of Education, The City of New York- Department of Educational Investigation & Measurement, The School Committee of the City of Boston Joseph P. O'Hern, Asst. Supt.. Dept. of Public Instruction. Ro- chester. N. Y. Geo. Melcher, Director Bureau of Research & Efficiency, Kansas City, Mo. Several did not re])ly (at least, the reply was not received) and most •of the others furnished no information that proved to be what was wanted. A letter, asking for a list of the ex])eriments conducted in commercial branches, was sent to a num])er of Schools and Departments of Education of the higher educational institutions in the United Slates and Canada; .also to the Department of Psychology of several of the universities where 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH the experimentation is carried on by that department rather than by the Department of Education. The letter was also sent to a number of indi- viduals who are authorises on experimental education. The letter sent, read as follows : University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.. March i8, 1918. Dear Sir : As a basis for further experimentation on efficiency in the teaching of the commercial branches, I am compiling 3 bibliography of experiments bearing upon that field, including Stenography, Typewriting, Bookkeeping, Rapid Addition, Commercial Arithmetic, Commercial Geog- raphy, Commercial Law, Economics, Advertising. Business English and Penmanship. \V\\\ you have some one send me a list of the experimcn s along this line, made or to be made at your university, — printed or unprinted. In the event that there is nothing to report, I would appreciate word to that effect. If you wish it, I will, in return, send vou a Hst of the experiments reported to me. Yours very truly, It was sent to the following:* University of Alabama University of Arizona University of Arkansas University of California Pomona College University of Southern California University of Redlands College of the Pacific University of Santa Clara Leland Stanford Junior LTniversity University of Colorado University of Denver Yale University Delaware College Catholic University of America George Washington University Howard University John B. Stetson University University of Florida University of Georgia Atlanta University Mercer University Lhiiversity of Idaho Illinois Wesleyan University De Paul University University of Chicago *Listed alphabetically by states, per Educational Directory of the U. S. Bureau: of Education. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 7 James Millikin Cniversity Northwestern University University of Illinois Indiana University Indiana Central University Purdue University Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts Iowa State Teachers College Drake University Central University of Iowa Baker University Kansas City University University of Kansas Friends University State University of Kentucky Louisiana State University & Agricultural & Mechanical College H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.) Bowdoin College Bates College University of Maine Johns Hopkins University Western Maryland College Boston University Simmons College Harvard University Radcliffe College Smith College Mount Holyoke College Wellesley College Clark University University of Michigan University of Detroit University of Minnesota Carleton College Hamline University ]\Iississippi College University of Missouri Washington University University of Montana University of Nebraska Graduate' School of Education, Creighton University University of Omaha Nebraska ^^' esleyan University State University of Nevada Dartmouth College Rutgers College University of New Mexico New York State College for Teacliers Alfred University Colgate University ^ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Cornell University College of the City of New York iNew lork University Teachers College University of Rochester Syracuse University University of North Carolina .Shaw University University of North Dakota Ohio University University of Cincinnati Ohio State University Ohio \\>sleyan Universitv Oberlin College Miami University Otterbein University University of Oklahoma University of Oregon Pacific University Willamette University University of Pittsburg University of Porto Rico Brown University Universit)- of South Carolina Dakota Wesleyan University University of South Dakota University of Chattanooga University of Tennessee University of Texas Southwestern Universitv Baylor University University of Utah MiXbu^yto^:™™' ^'" -^'"^ ■^»-'"'""-' College University of Virginia Randol])h-Macon Women's Colle-e University of \\'ashington "^ West Virginia University University of Wisconsin University of A\ yoming University of Toronto McGill University Replies ^^■ere received from the followin- • University of Alabama University of Arizona University of Arkansas Pomona College IN CO^niERCIAL EDUCATION University of Santa Clara Lcland Stanford Junior University University of Colorado University of Denver Yale University Delaware College Catholic University of America George Washington University Atlanta University University of Chicago University of Illinois Indiana University Purdue University Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts Kansas City University University of Kansas U. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.) Bates College Johns Hopkins University Boston University Simmons College Harvard University Clark University University of Michigan Universitv of Detroit University of Minnesota Nebraska W'esleyan University Dartmouth College Rutgers College University of New Mexico Alfred University Colgate University Cornell University College of the City of New York New York University Teachers College Shaw University University of North Dakota Ohio University University of Cincinnati Ohio State University Ohio W'esleyan University Oberlin College Ottcrbein University University of Porto Rico University of South Carolina Dakota \Vesleyan University University of South Dakota University of Chattanooga lo EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH University of Tennessee University of Texas Southwestern University University of Utah University of Vermont & State Agricultural College Middlebury College University of Virginia Randolph-]\Iacon Women's College University of Washington University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming University of Toronto McGill University The following had nothing to report : University of Alabama University of Arizona University of Arkansas Pomona College University of Santa Clara Leland Stanford Junior University University of Denver Yale University Delaware College Catholic University of America Atlanta University University of Illinois Purdue University Iowa State College of Agriculture & Mechanic Arts Kansas City University University of Kansas H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College (Tulane Univ.) Bates College Simmons College Harvard University Clark University University of Michigan University of Detroit University of Minnesota Nebraska Wesleyan University Dartmouth College Rutgers College University of New Mexico Alfred University Colgate University Cornell University College of the City of New York Shaw University IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION u University of Xorth Dakota Ohio University Ohio State University ( )hi() W'esleyan University Otterl)ein University University of Porto Rico University of South Carolina Dakota Wesleyan University Universitv of Chattanooga University of Tennessee University of Texas Southwestern University University of Utah University of Vermont (!\: State Agricultural College Middlehury College University of Virginia Randolph-Macon Women's College University of Washington University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming- University of Toronto McGill University SUMMARY Schools written to 120 Answers received 67 Schools that had nothing to report 56 Sciiools that did not reply 53 The present investigation has disclosed the following experiments:* TNPEWRITING William I<"rederick Book, "The Psychology of Skill with Special Refer- ence to Its Acc|uisition in Typewriting." Montana University Publications. 1908. A very elabf)rate piece of work. Its aim was to obtain a prac- tice or learning curve and to obtain from self-observations and ob- jective records, data to explain the curves, ii subjects took part in the experiment. Frederic Lyman W ells, "On the Psychomotor ^Mechanisms of Typewrit- ing," American Journal of Psychology, Jan., 1916, Vol. XXVII pp. 47-70. Its aim was to infjuire into increasing the efficiency of type- writing on the psychological side. Two subjects took part. *The search was not confined to the sul)jects mentoiiied in tlie letter on p. 6. 12 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Clark University reported that Prof, (then Major) M. E. Haggerty of the University of ^Minnesota had obtained some vakiable results on the teaching of typewriting. Simmons College reported that Mr. TuUos of Harvard University had re- cently been conducting some investigations on the work in type- writing and telegraphy in their classes. George Washington University, Dr. Ruediger reported that one of his graduate students, Mrs. Daisy I. HuiT was working on her master's essay on the subject of teaching Shorthand and Typewriting. It had not been completed. Hill, Rejall & Thorndike, on "Practice in the case of Typewriting" Peda- gogical Seminar, Dec. 1913, Vol. XX, pp. 516-529. William A. Cook, University of Colorado, reported an experiment he had under way to map the curve of progress from month to month, with the ultimate establishment of norms in mind. University of Chicago reported three unpublished theses (masters) by C. L. Kjerstad, "An Experimental Study of the Form and Fluctua- tions of Learning Curves of Typewriting." C. G. Bradford, "Experiments in Typewriting," Pedagogical Seminar, Vol. XXII, pp. 445-460. Four subjects took part in this experi- ment. SHORTHAND William A. Cook, University of Colorado, reported that he also had un- der way an experiment in stenography. George Washington University, Dr. Ruediger, reported that one of his graduate students, Mrs. Daisy I. Fluif, was working on her mas- ter's essay on the Teaching of Shorthand and Typewriting. It had not been completed. University of Texas reported that Miss Ina Thomas, Secretary of the National Commercial Teachers Association, had recently made some experiments in stenography. COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC University of Chicago reported three unpublished master's theses by Geo. Amos Beers, "Tests of various methods of drill in Commercial Arithmetic." Paul H. Hanus and K. D. Gaylord, "Courtis Arithmetic Tests applied to Employees in Business Houses." Educational Administration and Supervision, Nov. 1917. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 13 ADVERTISING Hollingworth, "The Psychology of Advertising and Business Practice." Reported by Dr. Thorndike, Teachers College. R. H. Stetson, "The Optimal Size of Type for Advertising Headlines." Reported by Oberlin College. MISCELLANEOUS University of North Dakota reported that Prof. Joseph Kennedy would have a short article for the School of Education Record suggest- ing experimentation along different lines in the schools of the state. Johns Hopkins University reported that Miss Flora D. Sutton had made a very interesting study on failures in different subjects of stu- dents in four dift'erent high schools. In searching through the Monthly Record of Current Educational Pub- lications, of the U. S. Bureau of Education, a considerable list of material on Handwriting and Spelling was found. These are not strictly commercial subjects, but it was thought advisable to include the list, though it was not deemed necessary to give an evaluation, as they have no particular bearing on the experiments under consideration. The list is as follows : HANDWRITING 1913 — Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1912. The Writing- Abilities of the Elementary & Grammar School Pupils of a City School System, Measured by the Ayres Scale. Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1913. Starch. The Measurement of Handwriting. 1914 — School & Home Education, April 1914. Helps from the Use of Standard Scales of Attainment in School Subjects. Writing. Elementary School Journal. Xov. 1914. School Subjects as Ma- terial for Tests of Mental Ability. Writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1914. A Comparison of the Ayres and Thorndike Handwriting Scales. American School Board Journal, May, 1914. A Method of Meas- uring Handwriting. Witham. 191 5 — Starch. The Measurement of Efficiency in Reading, Writing, Spelling and English. The College Book Store, 1914. Madison,. Wisconsin. 14 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Elementary School Journal, Jan. 15. The Use of an Objective Scale for Grading Handwriting. Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. 15. Slarch, The Meas- urement of Efficiency in Handwriting. Journal of Educational Psychology, Feb. 191 5. Training of Judgment in the Use of the Ayres Scale for Handwriting. Starch. Journal of Educational Psychology, Mar. 1915. The Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling and the Overlapping of Grades in Combined Measurements of Reading, Writing and Spelling. Elementary School Journal. 1915 April. An Analytical Scale for Judging Handwriting. Freeman. School & Society. Oct. 30, 1915. An application and Critique of Ayres Handwriting Scales. National Society for the Study of Education, 14th Year Book. Handwriting, F. N. Freeman. Univ. of Chicago Press. Russell Sage Foundation. Ayres. A Scale for Measuring the Handwriting of Adults. Teachers College Record, Vol. XV, No. 5. Teachers' Estimates of the Quality of Specimens of Handwriting. Thorndike. Educational Administration & Supervision, May, 191 5. A Means -of Measuring School Achievement in Handwriting. Thorndike. Educational Administration & Supervision, May, 1915. All the Elements of Handwriting Measured. Witham. 1916 — Elementary School Journal. Feb. 1916. Measuring quality of Handwriting. Elementary School Journal. Feb. 1916. Handwriting tests for use in school surveys. Freeman. Journal of Educational Psychology. Oct. 1916. A study in Handwriting. James H. Harris. Supt. of Schools, Dubuque, la. A study of handwriting in the public schools of Dubuque, Iowa. Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1912. Writing Abilities of Elementary and Grammar School Pupils of the City School system by the Ayres Scale. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 15 1917 — N. Carolina High School Bulletin, Oct. 1916. A comparison of Ayres and Thorndike Handwriting Scales. Educational A(lniini>trati()n and Supervision. Nov. 1916. A Comparison of Writing, Spelling and Arthmetic Abilities, of the Country and City Children. Elementary School Journal. Rhythm in Handwriting. Eeb. 1917. Measuring and Standardization of Handwriting in a School sys- tem. Elementary School Journal. March 1917. 1918 — A. X. Palmer Co. New York City. 8 leaflets. Standards for the valuation of Efficiency in Palmer methods of Handwriting. Elementary School Journal, Eeb., 1918. The Determination of Estimate Standards of Quality in Handwriting in the Public School. Elementary School Journal, Feb. 1918. The Comparative Ac- curacy of the Ayres Handwriting Scale, Gettysburg Edition. journal of the N. Y. State Teachers' Assn., March 1918. Pen- manship Scales — Their Merits and Limitations. Elementary School Journal, June 1918. The Results of Some Classroom Measurements. (Portsmouth, N. H., Schools). Zaner & Bloser, Columbus, Ohio. 1917 (?). Handwriting iMeasurements, Standards and Methods. Report and Results of Cliillicothe, Ohio, Surveys in Writing. Elementary School Journal, Sept. 1918. The Use of a Score Card in Measuring Handwriting. Louisiana Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. i, June 1918. Report on Spelling and Penmruiship in Coimtry Schools. Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1918. An Analytic Scale of Handwriting. Bulletin of the Northern Normal & Industrial School. Oct. 1918. Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Spelling in the City and Town Schools of South Dakota in 1917-18. 19 1 9 — Business Education. Dec. 1918. Some Measurements in Com- mercial Education. Pittsburgh Board of Pub. Ed. Research & Measurement Bulletin No. 3. Writing Test, June 4, 1918. i6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Journal of Educational Psychology, Apr. 1919. The Effect of Ex- empting Pupils Proficient in Handwriting. School & Society, Feb. 18, 1919. Starch. A Scale for Measuring Handwriting. Boston. Dept. of Educational Investigation & Measurement. Bul- letin No. 17. Organization & Administration of the Intermediate Schools of Boston. Wisconsin State Dept. of Education Bulletin No. i, Studies in Educational Measurement. 1916-17. Report on the Use of Some Standard Tests. SPELLING 1913 — Ayres Spelling Vocabularies of Personal & Business Letters. Rus- sell Sage Foundation. Pamphlet E-126. Va. Journal of Education, Dec. 1912. An Experiment in Spelling. Education, Sept. 1913. A Review of Pedagogical Studies in the Teaching of Spelling. (Describes the different tests.) Teachers College Contributions to Education, No. 59. B. R. Buckingham. Spelling Ability; Its Measurement and Distribu- tion, 1 91 3. 1914 — Journal of Educational Psychology, Oct. 1914. Further Experi- mental Research on Learning to Spell. School World, Nov. 191 3. Report of an Investigation into Spell- ing. Experiment at Manchester, England. Journal of Educational Psychology, Nov. 1913. Experimental Researches on Learning to Spell. 191 5 — Starch. The ^Measurement of Ef-ficiency in Reading, \\'riting, Spelling and English. The College Book Store, 1914, ]\Iadison, Wis. Starch. Journal of Educational Psychology, ^lar. 191 5. The Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling and the Overlapping of Grades in Combined ^leasurements of Reading, Writing and Spelling. Pedagogical Seminary, Sept. 191 5. Critical Study of Rice's Spell- ing Efficiency Investigation. School and Society, Oct. 9 and 16, 191 5. Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland Schools. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 17 Russell Sage Foundation. Ayres. A Measuring Scale for Abil- ity in Spelling. North Carolina High School Bulletin, Apr. 191 5. High School Pupils Tested on Spelling. National Society for the Study of Education. 14th Year Book. Spelling, H. C. Pryor. Univ. of Chicago Press. Educational Administration & Supervision, ]May 1915. A Means of ^Measuring School Achievements in Spelling. I'horndike. 1916 — Poi)ular Educator. Dec. 191 5. Tacoma Spelling Survey. E. E. Crook, Supt. of Schools, Tacoma, W'ash. Elementary School Journal, Dec. 1915. The Relation of Spelling Ability to General Intelligence and to Meaning Vocabulary. Oakland, Calif., Board of Education 191 5. Bur. of Inf., Stat., & Ed. Res. Publication. Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland Schools. Report of the Oakland Spelling Investigation of Oct. 1914. School & Society, Dec. 18, 191 5. Measuring a School System by the Buckingham Spelling Scale. Elementary School Journal, Mar. 1916. Measuring Progress. \\'ichita, Kansas, Spelling Tests. Journal of Educational Psychology. Feb. 1916. Additional Re- searches on Learning to Spell. A Descriptive & Critical Study of Buckingham's Investigation of Spelling Efficiency. Educational Administration & Supervision i\Iay 1916. Elementary School Journal, June 19 16. Testing the spelling abil- ities of Iowa .School Children 1)y the lUickingham Test. J. W. Studebaker Spelling; Results of an Investigation of pupils' ability to spell. Newson & Co., N. Y. 1916. Midland Schools. Sept. 1916. The Relation Between Spelling Judgment and Spelling Ability. School & Society. Aug. 26, 1916. Difficulty of Ayres Spelling scale, as shown by 560 students. School &• Society. Oct. 28. 1916, Nov. 4, tt. t8. 1916. The Relia- bility of Spelling Scales Involving A Deviation Formula for Cor- relation. i8 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 1917 — Educational Administration and Supervision. Nov. 1916. A Comparison of Writing, Spelling and Arithmetic Ability of Coun- try and City Children. Weighing the Scales. English Journal, Alarch 1917. Resume of Different Measurements for testing Spelling, etc., University Chi- cago Press. I Boston. Dept. of Educational Investigation & ^Measurement. Bul- letin XL Spelling. The Teaching of Spelling. 1918 — Elementary School Journal, Nov. 1917. Extent and Meaning of the loss in transfer in Spelling. Journal of the New York State Teachers' Assn. March 191 8. A Practical Application of Standard Tests in Spelling, Language and Arithmetic. Cleveland, Ohio, Board of Education. Division of Reference & Research. Bulletin No. 2, Alarch 11, 1918. The Results of a Spelling Test. Elementary School Journal, May 1918. Practical Application of Standard Tests in Spelling, Languages, and Arithmetic. New York (City) Dept. of Ed., Division of Reference & Research. Publication No. 16. Report on some Measurements in Spelling in Schools of the Borough of Richmond, City of New York. Elementary School Journal. June 191 8. The Results of Some Classroom Measurements. (Portsmouth, N. H.). Louisiana Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. i. June 1918. Report on Spelling and Penmanship in Country Schools. 1919 — Teachers College Record. ^lar. 1919. The Psychological Exam- ination of Poor Spellers. Colo. State Teachers' Bulletin, Ser. 18. No. 12, Alar. 1919, Research Bulletin No. 2. A Study in Spelling. Louisiana State Dept. of Ed. Bulletin No. 6, May 1919. Report on Spelling in the City of Alexandria, Rapides Parish. Elementary School Journal. May 1919. An Experiment in Column versus Dictation Spelling. Washington Ed. Assn. Annual for the Year 1918, con- taining report on Spelling by Dr. Clifford Woody. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 19 Elcnientury School Journal. June 1919. An Experimental Eval- uation of Method in Spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, May-June 1919. Standard- ized Illustrative Sentences for the Springfield Spelling List. General Education Board. Stuart A. Courtis. The Gary Public Schools. Measurement of Classroom Products. Los Angeles School Dept. Div. of Ed. Res. ist Year Book Sec. i. School Document No. 13. Gives results in Writing & Spelling. Commercial Tests & How to Use Them. Sherwin Cody. Pittsburgh Bd. of Pub. Ed. Research & Measurement Bulletin No. 3. Writing Test, June 4, 1918. Bulletin of the Northern Normal & Industrial School, Oct. 1918. Reading, Writing, Spelling, and Arithmetic in the City and Town Schools of South Dakota in 1917-18. University of Iowa Extension Bulletin, First Series No. 24, Nov. 25, 1918. Bui. No. 43. Iowa Spelling Scale. PART II SOME TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT REMAIN UNSOLVED IN SOME OF THE MORE STRICTLY COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS AND A SUGGESTED METHOD OF PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENTATION IN THESE LINES From PART I it will be seen that the commercial education field is still open for much research work along experimental lines. In accordance with the plan laid down in the introduction, a few of the strictly commercial subjects have been chosen and an effort has been made to develop a method of procedure for some typical experiments in these subjects. The subjects chosen are : Typewriting Shorthand Bookkeeping Some typical problems, remaining unsolved in these subjects, are the following : TYPEWRITING 1. Does emphasizing speed in typewriting interfere with ac- curacy, and, if so, to what extent? 2. The age at which it is most economically advantageous for a person to begin the study of typewriting. 3. The production of a typewriting norm. 4. Should we teach the Touch Method or the Sight [Method of Typewriting in our schools? 5. Should the schools have open or blank keyboards on the typewriters used for instruction purposes? STENOGRAPHY 1. The number of presentations necessary to fix an outline. 2. The number of ideas that can be presented in a lesson. 3. Intervals of repetition. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 21 4. A method for deterniinino" those unfit for high speed in shorthand. 5. I'orearni vs. linger movement in shortliand. 6. The drill that would be most valuable to shorthand students. 7. The i)roportion of time that should be spent in reading back notes. BOOKKEEPING 1. Gradation in mastery. 2. Use of suggesters. 3. The use of forms vs. the use of only the text book, in bookkeeping. FORM USED IN WRITING UP THE EXPERIMENTS In writing up the method of procedure for the experiments just listed, it was thought wise to follow the outline used in the Pedagogical Seminar conducted by Dr. A. Duncan Yocum at the University of Pennsylvania. This outline was developed in the Seminar under Dr. Yocum's direction and was formulated by Dr. Ambrose H. Suhrie, a former member of the Seminar. As will be seen from the outline, it has been planned for use in a semi- nar. It covers every stej) in an experiment, from the time the problem is first conceived until the experiment is completed, and the results are printed and distributed. Since the experiments herein given are not be- ing presented to a seminar, certain portions of the outline will, of course, "be omitted in the treatise and a few slight modifications will be made to suit the needs of presenting the subject outside of a seminar. It was thought well to use this oiuline: Because it is a good one and seems to answer the ])urjK)se satis- factorily. Because it has been used in writing up a number (if e\])eriments and is familiar to a mnnber of students in this field of work; therefore, they would know just^ where to look for any par- ticular details of an experiment in which they are interested. Because in these days of standardization, the value of a standard outline for experiments of this kind will be a])preciated. 22 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The outline worked out in Dr. Yocum's Seminar and written up by Dr. Suhrie is given below :f I. FORMULATION OF A PROBLEM FOR EXPERIMENTA- TION. {Foniiulation)§ 1. Introduction. a. A statement in very general terms of some controverted point or of some unsolved problem in educational method. {Gen- eral Statement). b. A brief survey of experiments made in the same general field for the scientific determination of the value of factors in edu- cational method, and a summary of results. {Survey of Ex- periments Made). c. Difi^erentiation of problem proposed from any or all others attempted in the same general field — or a brief statement of reasons for resubmitting a problem to test. {Differentiation) or (Reasons for Restibniittiiig ). 2. Specific statement of problem so worded as to clearly define the field of the experiment and isolate the factor to be tested. {Specific Statement). II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY FOR EXPERIMENTS. {Selection of Laboratory) 1. Grades or Groups of Pupils selected and a statement of reasons for the particular choice. {Groups Chosen). 2. Schools chosen — because of:* {Schools Chosen). a. General character of student body — describe. b. Accessibility to experimenter. fSee "The Inductive Determination of Educational Methods" by Ambrose L. Suhrie, published by Warwick & York, Inc., Baltimore, Md. §The headings in parenthesis and italics are not those of Dr. Suhrie but of the writer. For the sake of brevity, these will be used in the experiments which fol- low, instead of the very complete headings Dr. Suhrie has given. *Dr. Suhrie's outline reads : 2. Schools chosen — because of : a. Ideal external conditions. (i) General character of student body — describe. (2) Accessibility to experimenter. b. Co-operation of supervisory officers — reasons for assuming this. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 23 c. Co-operation of all concerned— reasons for assuming this, d. Any other reasons. 3. Teacher in charge of grades or groups. Selected because: (Teach- ers in charge). a. Intelligent with reference to controlling conditions of test, in co-operation with experimenter or investigator. Precautions taken to insure this. ■ b. His scientific attitude of mind. Reasons for believing this. c. Professionally interested in results of test. d. Any other reasons.* III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR OF EXPERIMENT. {Choice of Conductor) 1. A consideration of each of the following agents or any combina- tion of them collaborating as best adapted to the purposes of the experiment and most likely to secure valid results. a. The investigator — why or why not? b. The teacher in charge of the grade or group — why or why not ? c. The principal in charge of a building — why or why not? d. The superintendent in charge of a system — why or why not? e. Anyone else — why or why not ?* 2. The agent (or agents) selected as determined by: {Agent selected). a. Ideal desirability. b. Expediency. c. Necessity. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE FOR EXPERIMENT. ( Dcz'clopincni uf Procedure) I. Content — should include a full consideration of: {Content). *Added hv the writer. 24 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (General plan briefly stated. )$ a. Difficulties encountered and plans for overcoming them. {Dif- ficulties). ( I ) f Tests — pre-preliminary preliminary equalization final (2). Preliminary conferences with school officials and teachers. (3). Any other difficulties.* b. Dates and days on which instruction, drills or tests are to be given. ( Time ). c. Time of day when presentations, drills or tests are to be given. {Period ). d. Subject-matter to be used as basis of instruction, drills or tests. {Subjeef-inatfer ) . e. Details of procedure proposed for experimenter or his as- sistants in conducting the experiment. For example: {De- tails of procedure) . (Details in general. )§ ( T ) . Copies of instruction to be given to helpers with state- ment of precautions to be observed. (2). Time limits fixed for periods of instruction, drills or tests — with ])recautions to be observed. (3). Form, order, and method of giving directions to group to be tested. Precautions to be observed. :j:The writer finds that, for the purpose of this thesis, it would be well, in the case of some experiments, to include such a plan at this point. fAltered by the writer to suit his particular needs in this thesis. Dr. Suhrie's outline is : (i). Preliminary tests to find: (a) the "unknown,' (b) disturbing fac- tors, (c) suitable subject-matter, (d) time limits, (e) suitable labor- atory, (f) etc. *Added by the writer. vjlnserted l)y the writer to meet the needs in some of the experiments given in this thesis. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 25 (4). Record to be made of: (a), interruptions to attention of class or of any con- siderable number of students (in some cases of even only one or two)* by visitors, messengers, storm or rain, accident, discipline, etc. ; (b). weather conditions during each successive period of presentations, drills or tests; (c). temperature of laboratory (classroom);, (d). condition of ventilation; (e). missteps in carrying out instructions by slight or considerable variations in form of a definitely planned procedure, as, for instance, the inver- sion of order or the varying pronunciation of words. Form — A statement in full detail and in order of steps to be taken in the preparation and presentation of material of test and in full conduct of experiment. (Form). V. CONDUCTING OF EXPERIMENT. (Conduciing of Experiment) Under conditions agreed upon with such slight modifications only as are made necessary by exigencies of a given situation. I'ull, detailed, and explicit record — at the time — of all variations from a])pr()ved procedure, together with any observations which might introduce varying factors. \"I. REVIEW OF EXPERIMENT AND PRELIMINARY REPORT. {Prcliniiiiary Report) 1. A full statement by experimenter and assistants — in person, when possible — to Seminar of all information, whether recorded or not, which has bearing direct or remote, upon interpretation of results and validity of same. 2. Tentative i-n'line of scheme for tabulation of data with sugges- ti()n:> ;. > possible or significant correlations to be found, dia- grams 1. be made, and points to be emphasized in formal re- })(>rt fur ])ublication. *Added bv the writer. 26 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH VII. FORMAL REPORT AND PUBLICATION. (Formal Report) 1. Preparation of report by individual or committee. 2. Principles governing form of report as determined by the uses to which it is to be put. a. The abstract b. The simimary c. The detailed report 3. Review, criticism, and, if need be, complete or partial revision by Seminar. 4. Dissemination of the several kinds of reports by most effective and economical means, so as to hasten the development of a sci- ence of educational method and favorably aifect current edu- cational practice. A development of the outline jtist given is next in order, but, before proceeding with this, it might be well to make a few remarks on edu- cational experimentation in general, to afford a viewpoint to those who are unfamiliar with this field. There are several things to be borne in mind with regard to educational experimentation : I. Educational experimentation is a new branch and is, therefore, un- developed and imperfect, and much remains to be learned about it. Its methods of procedure are not so well established as those of chemistry and physics are at present, but these sciences also made a crude begin- ning. " 2. We must recognize our limits, which will, however, broaden from time to time as our knowledge of the subject increases. The solution of many problems is still much beyond us. due to our not being able to con- trol all the conditions that enter. The chemist can now control most of the conditions entering into his experiments, even to very fine dift"er- ences in weight, quantity, quality, and temperature. By continued effort we shall learn luore about the material with which we deal and the laws under wdiich it operates. 3. The patience of an Edison will be needed on the part of the experi- menter. If the type of material which Edison handles requires 10,000 at- tempts* before success is attained, we can form an idea as to what is be- fore us with at least some experiments. We shall have to improve our method of procedure until our results are constant, or until we can sat- isfactorily explain why they are not. *See p. r. 1 IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION zy Two precautions sh(,uld he kept constantly in niincl l)y the experimen- ter : 1. We must not hecome so enthusiastic as to lose regard for facts. The chief reason educational experimentation has come into disfavor is that some would-be ex])erimenters have tried something and, with reckless ■disregard for truth, have claimed certain things as a result. The shallow thinkers have accepted these claims and have spread the news as Gospel trntli. The careful thinker finds many flaws in the proof, and, if he forms his ()])inion of educational experimentation from a case of tliis kind, he, of corrse, has no i)atience with it. Statistics are often very carelessly compiled and are thus also the cause for loss of faith in the method. Some people believe that merely because figures are ])resented they cannot lie, but statisticians know better. 2. We must not, on the other hand, become so bound to the red tape of an experiment that we therebv shut out the truth. For instance, in the Seminar at th.' L^niversity of Pennsylvania there was a student who was inclined to adhere absoluely to conditions as laid down, merely because they were laid down in the procedure. He did this, regardless of the ef- fect cr the value of an individual case ; e. g., in a typewriting experiment, when it came to the }Joint where we considered which were the students whose records should be included in the results, we naturally excluded all those who had been absent during the period of the experiment — they did not meet the- requirements laid down, one of which was that they had to be j-.resent. Then there was brought up for consideration a special case — a boy who had d:ne absolutely nothing, though he had been present all the time. The rest of the class hid worked. His record was considerably below that of anybody's else, in fact, so much so that anyone would imme- diately conclude that his was a special case. The rest of the students showed a uniform record. If he were included in the result, it would re- duce the average of the class considerably. It was contended that this boy's record should not be included since he had not done the work prop- erly, but had simply gone through the motions of it. By including him we should get a perverted idea of the effect of the work upon the class. The meiuber of the Seminar in ([uestion said, "He was present every time and fulfilled the conditions of the experiment and, therefore, you will have to include him." The opposite contention was that, when dealing with a small group of pupils, one cannot pronounce such a sua]) judgment. Though this boy was present each day at the recitation, and though he went through the motions of the recitation, he did not do the work with the same spirit as the rest of the class, and, therefore, should not be included. He was abnormal on 28 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH the face of the results and abnormal by the judgment of the teacher wha saw him day after day. It would be much more helpful to Education, it would seem, to discard his record entirely, for the other members of the class showed a uniform record. It would be proper, of course, to append a note saying that the results given were for all of the class except one, who did not meet the conditions and then give his record. If one were considering the averages of a thousand children, the result would not be noticeably affected by a case of this kind, but, where one considers the average of a small group, it does figure considerably and should be guarded against. The term "ex]:)eriment" as used in this thesis will be taken to include: The process of testing pupils in order to obtain a norm, as for in- stance, in the Courtis Arithmetic Tests, so that we can tell what the average attainment is for the children of the country in that subject and can make comparisons. The process of trying to determine the relative value of two or more methods, or the re-action of various pupils to one method ; i. e., varying one factor and keeping all others constant, or compen- sating for or eliminating any that are not. We are now ready to proceed to the development of the outline men- tioned. It is felt that this should be done before proceeding with the experi- ments, because : . I. There are a number of general conditions which hold in most experi- ments and which, if covered fully here, would avoid much repetition. 2. It would furnish a catalogue of the considerations that arise under each heading in connection with an educational experiment. Dr. Suhrie's complete headings will be used, as well as the shorter ones of the writer. I. FOR^IULATION OF A PROBLEM FOR EXPERIMENTA- TION. (Formulation) 1. Introduction. I' a. A statement in very general terms of some controverted point or of some unsolved problem in educational method. (Gen- eral Statement). It would seem logical to begin by stating, in a very general way, some controverted point or some unsolved problem, on which the contemplated ex]:»eriment is expected to throw light. The matter would be more easily IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 29 understood by everyone if the existing conditions were described in de- tail, the various methods presented, and the claims stated that arc made for each. The flaws or alleged flaws in each of the claims should be pointed out. The experimenter's ideas as to the lines along which the ex- periment should be made, might also be given here. For instance, in Typewriting, on the question of Speed and Accuracy, the present situation should be stated ; viz., that, so far as is known, there is nothing but opinion to support the methods used. Then the present methods should be given — some teachers place all the emphasis on accur- acy, some on speed, and some on a combination of the two. The claims for each method should be stated, and the flaws or defects pointed out by those using some other method should be mentioned. The experimen- ter, in giving his ideas on the subject, might, in reviewing the situation, ask what is the business man's attitude toward the requirements of the class room. Do his requirements throw out any of the methods under consideration ? How can we obtain what he wants ? It might be well for the experimenter to add whether or not, in his opin- ion, there really is a valid question here, and to give his reasons. Sometimes it might be well to review at this point, the historical side of the question. Possibly our first difficulty will be to analyze properly the situation in hand and pick out the elements for which we want to test. A teacher may feel that there is something about a method which is not just as it should be, and }"et he cannot make the matter clear enough to anyone else to sug- gest a remedy. Then again, he may know just what is wrong, or where the trouble lies, but have difificulty in finding a remedy. Or, he may know just what the situation is and be able to explain it, he may know just what must be done, but he may not know of any way of isolating the elements for which he must test in making the experiment. A discussion of these points might find place here. Under this heading it was intended that the situation should be dis- cussed in the Seminar so as to have the benefit of group judgment in ana- lyzing the conditions and isolating the proi)er factor which is sought in the test. b. A brief survey of the experiments made in the same general field for the scientific determination of the value of factors in educational method and a summary of the results. (Survey of Experiments Made). Of course, it is only proper that a scientific undertaking should con- sider efiforts that have been made along the same line. A question that will confront a person making up such a list is whether 30 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH or not he should include all attempts or only the valid attempts. One will find that many people, even educators and university department heads, do not understand what is meant by the term "experiment," as was proved by some replies to the letter on p. 6. One may find, if he writes for a list of the experiments in a given field, that there will be included some things that he would not call an experiment, let alone a valid one. It does not seem wise to spend much time in determining what to include and what to exclude. The better policy would call for the inclusion of every- thing that has even the semblance of an experiment, leaving it to the read- er to determine whether or not the thing in question has any use in solving his problem. This policy will keep before us some undertakings which may at some time throw light on other points. Sometimes they at least point the way to the things that should be avoided. It is easier to discard what we do not want, than to seek for something that has been lost. Bibliographies of some experiments are beginning to appear, which should be consulted. Information concerning unlisted experiments could be obtained from the various universities conducting experimental work of this kind. Some of the Research and Test Bureaus of the more progressive educa- tional systems conduct experiments and might be consulted. It would seem that, in this survey of experiments already made, the fol- lowing information should be given concerning each : Name or nature of the experiment By whom conducted Under what auspices (university, etc.) Where made When made Where the complete report is to be found Results briefly stated Comments on the results, if deemed advisable. c. Dififerentiation of the problem proposed, from any and all others attempted in the same general field — or a brief state- ment of reasons for resubmitting the problem to test. ( Dif- ferentiation — Reasons for Resubmitting). If the experiment in mind diiTers from the ones already tried, it would be in order to state the diiTerence. Or. if the experiment is the same, it would seem logical to give some reasons for doing it over again. The rea- sons may not at once be apparent to the reader and. therefore, should be stated plainly. Sometimes a flaw is later discovered in the method or in the carr\ing out of the method, and this mav necessitate its resubmission. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 3E For instance, it may be discovered later that a serious clerical error, which, cannot now be corrected, was made in reporting the results of the exper- iment ; or it may be discovered that a teacher or several teachers did not carry out the instructions properly and feared to hazard their positions, by letting this be known before the report of the experiment was made. 2. Specific statement of the problem so worded as to clearly de- fine the field of the experiment and isolate the factor to be tested. (Specific Statement). Here should be given a very definite statement of the problem under- taken. This should be very carefully worded so that the exact scope and field of the experiment will be clear. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY FOR EXPERIMENTA- TION. (Selection of Laboratory) I. Grade or groups of children selected and a statement of rea- sons for the particular choice. Under this heading should be determined what classes or groups of pupils are considered the proper ones as subjects for the experiment. Very few experiments can be tried on all classes. There are usually some rea- sons why one particular class is the best for the experiment. Some of the important considerations follow : The experiment may require that we select : 1. Pupils of a certain class — kindergarten class, ist to 8th grades, some secondary school class, some post-secondary school class. 2. Pupils taking a certain subject. 3. Pupils of a certain age. 4. Pupils of a certain maturity. 5. l'ui)ils of a certain general intelligence. 6. Pupils having received certain marks. 7. Pupils alphabetically arranged. 8. Pupils having a certain environment. 9. i'upils having equal ability in a subject. 10. Pupils having a certain ability to understand the English lan- guage. 11. Pupils having the same teacher. 32 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 12. Pupils having a certain teacher. 13. Pupils of the only grade that seems fit for the subject-matter of the experiment. 14. Pupils of one sex. 15. Pupils of the only grade available for experimentation. 1. We may decide to take the pupils in any one or more of cur reg- ular classes as we find them in the kindergarten, or in any of the eight grades, or in the junior or the regular high school, or in the normal school, college or university. 2. Or we may want to take special groups within any of these classes, or groups made up of a combination of any of the classes. If we were seeking a norm, as, for instance, in typewriting, we should want the reg- ular classes in typewriting, just as they are organized, which may not coin- cide with the regular senior class, junior class, etc. A choice of beginners in a subject, might call forth some pupils from the senior, junior, sophomore, and freshman classes in a high school where the ■elective system is much in vogue. The same thing would happen if inter- mediates in a subject were desired, or advanced pupils. The experiment might require us to rule out those w^ho are repeating the subject, thus breaking up the regular class formation. We might have to rule out those who had previous contact with a subject, as in bookkeeping, because some of the students worked in an office during the summer va- cation ; or in typewriting, due to some of the students having "picked it up" themselves. Sometimes the only reason we have for taking a certain grade or class is because the subject under consideration is taught there. Sometimes it is because the experiment must be made at a certain stage in the subject and the grade chosen is the one in which the work is being done. 3. Pupils of a certain age might be desired, which would take them from the various regular class groups mentioned on p. 31 under i. 4. Pupils of a certain maturity might be desired, which would have like efifect. 5. This would also be true if pupils of a certain general intelligence were wanted. 6. It may be that the previous marks are to be used as a basis, either the marks in general or in a particular subject — the marks for one year, or more, or less ; or it may be the marks from one teacher or from a group of teachers.* *See Equalization tests, p. 50. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 33 7. It may be necessary to divide the pupils of a class into two or more sections alphabetically. 8. It may be necessary to choose pnpils having a certain environment, either at home or on the streets, or in school, etc. 9. It may be necessaray so to choose the groups that all sections will start on an equal basis, so far as the experiment is concerned. $ For instance, it would not do to put into one section a larger number of pupils better adapted to the work, than into another section. They might be brighter, more industrious, more energetic, more co-operative, etc. One can readily see, without any argument, that if the A Section con- tains all of the industrious pupils and the B Section has the laggards, the A Section will by all means show the better results. A test at the end of the given period will not necessarily show the result of the method em- ployed with the A Section as compared with the method employed with the B Section, but will, in all probability, show the result of the applica- tion of the pupils of the one group as compared with the lack of applica- tion of the pupils of the other group. Even if the methods are reversed (and this is a good way to verify the validity of the results), and the one which was used on the A Section is now used on the B Section, and vice versa, it is altogether likely that the A Section would still show the bet- ter results. Right here we have the big flaw in most experiments. How can we tell that both sections are at the same starting point in relation to the experiment in hand ? How can we tell that the one section does not have certain advantages over the other at the start, which predestine it 10 make a better showing, no matter what the method employed is? Most people will grant that where extreme conditions exist, as in the case given, there is no valid experiment, but some are not so willing tO' grant that there is a difference worth noting in a group known as "bright"" students. Some people would not even grant that there is a difference be- tween those that one teacher considers bright and those that another con- siders bright. Such a basis for equalizing classes is altogether too un- scientific. We cannot simi)ly take a group of pupils whom the teachers consider the bright ones, jjut half into one section and half into another section and feel content that we have equalized sections. One often has trouble in determining on what basis the groups should be equalized. For instance, in typewriting one would pronounce an a priori judgment that the student who plays the piano has an advantage over those who do not in learning typewriting, because his fingers are sup- ple from the piano ])ractice. Yet. this student may make a poor typist. JSee Equalization tests, p. 49ff. 34 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH This should be made the subject of a thorough mvestigation. The records of the West Chester High School show the following: Those of very No. No. No. who high speed No. in No . pass- who play not pass - play not Class A — Class ing- piano ing- piano piano piano Present year . . . 31 23 9 8 1 3 2 Last year .... 25 21 7 4 1 1 3 Year before . . . 29 29 9 1 1 Class B 17 11 3 6 1 Class C 26 23 1 3 2 Class D 29 19 4 10 H we have a norm for the subject under consideration, our troubles will be relieved considerably by applying the norm and forming our sec- tions according to it. In the absence of a norm, we must devise some tests which will equalize our sections. Much difficulty will usually be experienced here. We should give these as pre-preliminary* tests, to see whether or not they actually give us a method of equalizing. A great deal of effort must be put on these tests. When we have found a valid method, it can be used as an equalization test. It may be necessary in a typewriting class to ecjualize the sections on the basis of speed. It may be necessary to equalize the sections of another class according to their ability in any of the elements that make up the subject-matter to be studied ; for instance, in typewriting, limberness of fingers ; in advanced bookkeeping, a knowledge of debits and credits. Equalization would not ordinarily be necessary when dealing with thou- sands, as the large number would absorb individual inequalities. This, of course, could not be true in a small group. 10. In a school containing many foreign-born pupils, it ma}' be neces- sary to group them according to their ability to understand the English language. 11. The experiment may require two or more sections taught by the same teacher. These conditions will often determine our choice by neces- sity. The matter of the personality of teachers enters to such an extent, that success or failure of classes often can be traced almost wholly to this factor. "The individuality of the teacher may affect results more strongly than variation in the method that is being investigated. "f There- fore, it is often best for one teacher to take all sections of a class in an ex- periment. *See p. 48ff. fFrom Dr. Yocum's "Precautions, etc., needed to the Validity of an Experi- ment." IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 35 12. Sometimes we may choose to take a certain group because their regular teacher is the one best fitted in the school for conducting experi- ments of this kind, or because the experimenter is the teacher and wishes to observe the work himself. 13. Sometimes we may have to take a certain grade or class because the subject-matter seems best to fit that grade. 14. Occasionall}' we desire to know whether or not there is any differ- ence in the way a certain method or subject affects the boys and the girls. In that case we would choose on the basis of sex. 15. Not infrecjuently we must take a certain grade or class because it is the only one available for the experiment. If the conditions seem to indicate that this will not be a serious drawback, it might be advisable to try the experiment, in order to see what results one actually does get under the circumstances. A full statement of conditions should always accom- pany the results, however, so that no one will be misled and no unwar- ranted conclusions be spread broadcast. 2. Schools Chosen — because of: (Schools Chosen). In choosing the schools best suited for the experiment in mind, we may select : 1. Schools of a certain grade — elementary, secondary, or higher. 2. Schools of a certain tyj)* — business, normal, or art. 3. Schools of a certain type — public or private. 4. Schools having pupils of a certain maturity. Schools having certain types of pupils: 5. high, medium, or low. 6. American or foreign. 7. white, colored, red. or yellow. 8. industrious or lazy. 9. Schools in a certain type of town. 10. Schools having juipils from certain sections of the community. 11. Schools to which the experimenter has access. 12. School or schools in which the experimenter is a teacher. 13. Schools where the pupils are not antagonistic to experiments, but decidedly co-operative. 14. Schools where the administrative conditions are good, or bet- ter than elsewhere. 36 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 15. Schools having the best laboratory facilities. 16. Schools where the teachers are known by the experimenter. 17. Schools nearest at hand. 18. Schools designated by the school authorities. 19. Any school or schools. 20. The only school or schools available. a. General Character of Student Body — Describe. 1. It may be necessary to choose an elementary, secondary, or higher school — kindergarten, grade school, regular high school, junior or senior high school, junior college or regular college, or university. 2. It may be necessary to choose a school because of the general maturity of its students. 3. It may be necessary to choose a special type of school like a normal school, business school, art school, or trade school, because of the work or type of pupils. 4. One may have to decide between a public and a private school, be- cause of the difference in the character of the student body. It may have to be a choice between the academy and the high school. 5. The School may be chosen because the type of student wanted is high, low, or medium, or because the student body is considered a normal one, or a superior or an inferior one, either by people who know and have grounds for their judgment or by hearsay. 6. A certain school may be chosen because it has a high type of Ameri- can child or because it has a foreign element. 7. A school may be selected because it is one for white or colored children, for the Red Indian or for the Yellow Oriental children. 8. It may be because the pupils in that school do good work or do poor work ; or because they are industrious or are likely to be lazy. 9. It may be because the school is in an industrial, a mining, a milling, or a residential town. 10. It may be because the pupils enrolled come from the industrial section of the town or from the residential section. b. Accessibility to experimenter. 11. A school may be chosen because the experimenter has access to it. 12. It may be because the experimenter is a teacher or an officer there. A general condition that applies to all experiments is that the school should be accessible to the experimenter, either personally, through a representative, or through the mails — in other words, that there should IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 37 l)e no obstacles put in the way of his freely coniniunicating with the people who are conducting the experiment. The only way an experimenter has of knowing that the plans laid down for the experiment are being carried out is by ascertaining how the work is progressing, and being able to get into touch with the people conducting the work, in order to make matters clear. In some experiments the conditions are so complicated that it would be difficult to explain the whole matter through written instructions, and a personal conference with the teachers is very desirable, if not absolutely necessary. In other cases, however, wdiere the experiment is purely routine, this is not so necessary, as the instructions can be written and handed to the teachers. Any teacher, sufficiently intelligent to carry on the experiment, ought to be able to read the instructions in such a case and understand them. Sometimes it is absolutely necessary for the experimenter himself to conduct the experiment, and in such cases, of course, he should have the perfect freedom of the school and be able to reach the school as often as the conduct of the experiment requires. This would apply in cases where a very complicated or highly technical procedure is necessary. In the case of a personal conference, of course, the school should be accessible to the experimenter in a geographical sense ; that is, it should be sufficiently near at hand for him to api)ear in person ; but just as e(|ually im])ortant is it that the authorities do not block matters by forbidding him to enter the building. We all know how stubborn some school authorities have become, and the report of an experiment should contain a definite statement that the school was or was not accessible according to these various meanings. In the case where written instructions are all that arc necessary, the school should be accessible to the experimenter in the sense that when he sends the written instructions through the mail or otherwise, the principal, or the person to whom he addresses them, will see that they are delivered to the proper teachers in due time. If the experimenter lived in San Francisco, and it was a very compli- cated experiment that rec[uired several conferences, and the experiment was to be conducted in Philadelphia, it would be plainly evident that he could not come to Philadeli)hia very often, wliich fact may bring about in- valid results through misunderstandings. If he does come to Philadelphia as often as is necessary to make matters clear, that fact should be definite- ly stated (saying just how often the visits were made), so that complete 38 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH information is at hand in case matters do not work out properly and the cause therefore is sought. In some experiments it will be necessary for the experimenter to hold several conferences with the teachers who are conducting the experiment. Of course, conditions will have to be such that this can be done. If a very complicated procedure or a very indefinite procedure is mapped out, and the teachers cannot keep in touch with the experimenter to have disputed points cleared up, it is very doubtful that the experiment is going to be car- ried out so as to insure valid results. All the necessary conferences should be held with the persons concerned and a statement to that eflfect should be made in reporting the experiment so that the matter will not be left in doubt. One slip in any of the conditions may make the results invalid. If they are invalid, we want to know it, so that we can tell whether our meth- od of procedure is wrong or whether the trouble lies in the conduct of the experiment. The experimenter may train a corps of workers and send them out over the country to conduct the experiment, when complicated procedure is involved and one person cannot do it all. In some experiments the experimenter will have to be present in order to be certain that the instructions are being carried out just as he intended. This is necessary in very complicated ones, and in those in which unex- pected re-actions are likely to take place where a quick decision as to the course of procedure will have to be made. Naturally only he, because he knows most about the experiment, will be able to render a wise judgment. In the exi)eriments recorded, where the conditions just envmierated hold, a mere statement that the school should be accessible to the experimenter will be made, together with a reference to this section. c. Co-operation of All Concerned — Reasons for Assuming This. (Co- operation ) . It may be necessary to find schools where the pupils are not antagonis- tic to experimentation, Init decidedly co-operative. 14. It may be that schools are recjuired where the administrative con- ditions are good, or better than elsewhere. One essential in every experiment is that there should be the necessary co-operation on the part of the class, the teacher, the principal, the super- visory officers, the superintendent, and the investigator or experimenter — in short, on the part of everybody concerned in the experiment. A long explanation as to the necessity of this is hardly called for. One can readily see that, no matter how carefully an experiment is planned, valid results can hardly be expected, if the teacher refuses to carry it out IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 39 properly, or shows b\ her attitude that she does not care whether the work is done properly or not. Or the class may become antagonistic and will carry out the instructions only formally, if even that much ; or may, just for sheer contrariness, put down the wrong answers, as is often done in questionnaires ; or the principal, or superintendent, or supervisory officers may interfere and raise objections to one part of the experiment and may not permit another part of it to be carried out, or may create an unfavor- able atmosphere in the class room, etc. Neither is it worth while to experiment in a school where the powers that be. or the teachers, are opposed to experimental methods. We all know of types of principals, superintendents, supervisors, and teachers, who are very much opposed to anything called progressive — anything dif- ferent from what they have been accustomed to for years. It is not worth while in those schools whose teachers, either through failure, or exceptional success without knowing why they have had success, con- clude that teaching is simply a complicated problem, which can never be disentangled, and that these experiments are useless ; or in those whose teachers are so material that, while they can readily see how a person can analyze a chemical compound, they cannot see how the psychical elements can be isolated for experimentation. Where persons absolutely oppose this type of investigation, it is questionable w^iether the experiment wall be conducted properly or not. Co-operation on the part of the students* is also absolutely necessary. Otherwise the resuhs will be invalid. The freshman of the West Chester High School were given the Otis intelligence test in 1919 under conditions which made the students decidedly antagonistic and affected the results. 11ie class was divided into two sections. Much time was lost in con- ducting the test WMth the first section, which made the second section late in starting the test. Before completing it, the dismissal ])cll rang. The students became very uneasy but were required to finish the work. On ciuestioning some of them the next day they said they did not care what they put down, they "wantefl to get out." The results of that test cannot be counted as valid. They cannot show a true state of affairs wi'h regard to the freshmen of that high school, and yet the experimenter intended to use them as such at one of our Eastern universities, despite all ]:iro- tests to the contrary. Numerous other examples could be given, but it is believed that the reader sees the absolute necessity for co-operation, without going into the matter further. If it should happen that, in the conduct of an experiment, any lack of *See p. 54. 40 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH co-operation becomes evident, an explicit note, stating just what form it takes and to what extent it has interfered with the experiment, should be made, so that the matter may be borne in mind when the results are considered. Reasons for assuming that this co-operation exists should be given ; e. g.. the spoken or written promises to that effect, attitude and actions in preliminary meetings and throughout the test, professional inter- est of the persons involved, such as taking university courses in the sub- ject, progressive attitude along educational lines, attitude in previous simil- ar experiments, etc. These persons may be conducting experiments them- selves. It may be that they are in the department of the school system which regularly does this work. Nothing should be left in doubt. It is better to err by inserting too much detail in the report than not enough. \Miat now appears to be useless de- tail in a report of this kind, may some day help to solve a question raised. As this applies to all experiments, the mere fact that co-operation is necessary will be stated in the experiments that follow, and a reference will be made to this section for further detail, in order to save unnecessary bulk in printing. d. Any Other Reasons. 15. A school may be chosen because it has the proper laboratory fa- cilities. 16. It may be because the experimenter knows the teachers at that school, and can vouch for their attitude toward the matter in hand. 17. A school may be chosen because of the proximity of its location, making it possible for the experimenter to have personal conferences with the teachers who are to conduct the work. 18. A certain school may be chosen because there is an understanding wath the school authorities to use that school, or there may be permission from headquarters to do so, implying that other schools may not be used. It may be that the school board has given permission to have the experi- ment tried there. It may be difficult to find a school or schools where the experiment can be given, because the school authorities object to experimenting on general grounds. Or it may be that the objection is raised because there is too much at stake. If the plan does not seem very plausible, it may happen that one section of the class advances faster than the other and then there is that deficiency to be made up, because of which the authorities would not want to have it tried on any great number of students. Or it may be that seniors in high school are the students to take the work. Each senior' IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 41 iiui ^t reach a certain standard in order to graduate. Even a short period required for an experiment might throw one or hoth sections so far he- hind that it is only with the greatest (hfhcuhy that tlie work could he made lip he fore graduation. The time required for an experiment may he over too long a period, and the authorities may feel that they cannot very well consent to the loss of that time hy experimentation. While they might grant that it would he a gain to the students as a whole, it might be a loss to certain students, and they might not feel justihed in attempting it because of this. 19. Any school or schools may he chosen as .in the case of standardized tests, where it is the object to obtain the status of things under conditions as they exist. 20. A school may be chosen because it is the only one available, either for tlie purpose, or to the experimenter. 3. Teachers in Charge of Grades or Groups. Selected because : ( Teachers Chosen ) . A teacher may he chosen because: a. I. Of her intelligence. 2. Of her co-operation. b. 3. Of her scientihc attitude of mind. c. 4. Of her i)rofessional attitude. 5. The sttulents have confidence in her al)ility. d. 6. The group has been chosen by II-i and the regular teacher must take charge of the grout). 7. She has sufficient resourcefulness to handle two sec- tions usinlv afei?r iMiiur tiiiSittrrturr. ami tet -iipw^ti 'will fstic .aur •»«»J'<^ mssw^tl tteFWOtxt tint' nirmistf n : tkt: aisiniir. c onm: ^moiituswi tasit IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 67 question arises : "Do these two factors bear an equal relation to each other r" An easy solution seems to appear when we consider the matter from the demands of the business world. We are preparing the students for bus- iness. What does the business man want ? Does he issue any regulations that no erasers may be used in his office? Investigation has brought to light only one man who claims he has done this. Undoubtedly, by far the large majority of business offices have no such regulations. Yet there are teachers in our schools who will not permit an eraser within the class room, despite the fact tliat they must know that everyone of their siudents uses an eraser after he leaves the school. The business man wants neither speed nor accuracy ; he wants the combination. He wants the person who can turn out for him the greatest number of acceptable letters, and by this word "acceptable" he means correctl\- transcribed and neatly written. He does not care whether the stenographer has used an? eraser or not. As long as the stenographer has made a good job of it and has gotten out her day's work, he does not care how many times she has used the eraser. That is the business man's test. To meet the exact conditions of the test it would be necessary for us to measure how much time is lost in erasing. Here is the problem : Can this girl, who writes fast and must erase occasionally, turn out in a day more work that is acceptable than the girl who writes more slowly but does not lose any time erasing? That is the exact problem, but there are so many factors entering into it, that at this stage we cannot attempt to solve it completely. Some such factors are : length of time taken by dif- ferent individuals to make the same erasure, time required by the same person at different times for erasures, the nature of the mistake, and, therefore, th6 kind of erasure necessary, the fact that we do not know what relation the mistakes bear to the speed being used, etc. Since the ideal is beyond reach at this time, we must search for the best substitute that will answer our purposes in teaching. There is a substitute in the way of a marking system, which may throw some light on the matter in the meanwhile, and will, no doubt, answer our purpose, for it takes account both of sj^ed and accuracy and is the one commonly used in many typewriting rooms. The details will be given later. The more one thinks about the problem, the less likely he is to be abso- lutely sure that his solution is the correct one. Hence, it is in an effort to get this matter cleared up, that this experiment is undertaken. I 68 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH b. SURVEY OF EXPERIMENTS MADE. The search for experiments made in this field has revealed but one. that by Frederick Lyman Wells, "On the Psychomotor Mechanisms of Type- writing," printed in the "American Journal of Psychology," January 1916, Vol. XXVII, pp. 47-70. c. Differentiation. This experiment was undertaken with a broader object in view than the one under consideration, viz., that of inquiring into increasing the effici- ency of typewriting on the psychological side. As a by-product the ex- perimenter has made some observations on the relation of speed and ac- curacy. The experiment was made with two typists as subjects. The one under consideration will deal particularly with speed and accu- racy and is planned for a much larger scale. 2. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether emphasizing speed in typewriting interferes with accuracy or not, and. if so, to what extent. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY I. Groups Chosen. . To conduct this experiment two groups of pupils will be rfecessary. one to be known as Section A (Accuracy Section) and the other as Section B ( Speed Section ) . The pupils may be those of any class* — beginners, advanced students or experts — and the experiment need not be confined to those of any one age. It might be of advantage to see how the experiment works with differ- ent classes of pupils, and with pupils of a wide range in age, always being certain, however, that an e^iual number of pupils of the same class or age is in each section, so as to keep them balanced. It may be that the rela- tion of speed and accuracy is entirely different with pupils of the grades than with those of the high school, and even a wider difference may be noted if we were to test out expert typsists, who have been in business *The procedure outlined presupposes that students have at least reached the -stage where their speed in typewriting can be tested. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 69 for several years. Therefore, the wider the range of groups tested, the better it would be, provided in each case, complete information on this point accompanies the results. 2. Schools Chosen. a. As implied above, it will be well to test the matter out in as many schools as possible and in several grades of schools, to see whether the result remains uniform or not. b. The schools should, of course, be accessible to the experimenter as -mentioned on p. 36 ff. c. The necessary co-operation should exist, as referred to on p. 38 ff. The laboratory should be the typewriting room of the school. 3. Teachers Chosen. One teacher should have charge of both groups, to eliminate differences in personalities. She should be the regular teacher for the class and should meet the requirements set forth on p. 41 ff. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR It would seem best to have the regular teacher take charge of the work ■during the course of the experiment. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE I. Content. General Plan in Brief. The ])rocedure in this experiment requires that one section emphasize speed while the other emphasizes accuracy. The sections are to be equal- ized by a series of tests and, at the expiration of the time determined, final tests will be given which are to be compared with the preliminary tests. a. Difficulties. (i) Tests. Preliminarv test. 70 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH A preliminary test will be necessary in order to obtain data which will represent the typewriting ability of the pupils at the beginning of the ex- periment. Equalization test. An equalization test will be necessary to insure the equality of the two sections in typewriting ability at the beginning of the experiment. One test can answer the purposes of the preliminary and equalization: tests. In designating it, use will be made of the name that indicates the purpose in mind at the time. If we had a typewriting norm, our work would be made easy by using it, but since we have none, the following equalization test is suggested : Give the students a ten minute speed test similar to the monthly tests- encouraged by the Underwood Typewriter Co., using the same rules and copy matter. Give a series of these tests and on the basis of the number of net words written per minute, classify the students, placing in each- section an equal number of students having the same speed, and rating" the section by the sum total of all the performances. For instance, if there- are four students having 20 words per minute, we shall place two in Sec- tion A and two in Section B. Section A would then have a sum total o£ 40 words, and Section B would have the same, etc. A ten-minute period seems to be the proper length and is the one recom- mended by the Underwood Typewriter Co. and used in many schools. In the absence of any better rules, those of the International Typewriting Contest should be used. They are not as scientific as could be desired, but they are objective, at least, and very definite. The penalty is arbitrary but it takes cognizance of the accuracy factor in typewriting. A series of tests has been suggested. It would not be fair to classify the students on the basis of one test. Very few students show a uniform, record in typewriting tests. There is considerable difiference between two successive days and even between two tests given during the same period. See Appendix, p. ii, for data regarding this. Any one of a number of causes may be responsible for this variation. How many tests should constitute the series? The greater the number of tests, the fairer would seem the average. But an unlimited number of tests is undesirable for several reasons : I . Time would not permit. No school system could spend several months in a preliminary or final test just for the sake of get- ting averages. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 71 2. The students would become tired of the matter ; interest would lag; and it is a question as to whether or not we would really be getting the kind of work from the students that would properly show their average speed. 3. The test would take the form of a drill, and both sections would have had so much of the work alike that the comparatively short time devoted to the experiment would have very little efifect. All the tests should be on the identical material to get an average, and that would be drill indeed for both sections. The line must be drawn somewhere. Three have been chosen as possi- bly the most desirable number in view of the objections raised above. The average of the three preliminary tests may then be taken to be con- sidered the speed of the student before the experiment begins. The average of the three final tests may then be taken to be considered the speed of the student after the experiment has been completed. The difference between the two would then show what the student has gained during the time the experiment was in progress. When the question was being considered in the Seminar, it was the con- census of opinion that the average speed should be taken as the basis for these tests and the writer fully agreed with this view. He is now some- what inclined to think that this may not be the proper thing, favoring the use of the student's best record out of the three as the basis for classifica- tion. When asking an athlete for his speed he does not give it in terms of an average but of his best performance. The same is true of race horses ; and experience with typists has shown that they almost invariably give their best record when asked what their speed is. This basis uses the maximum attainment of the typist, and if our purpose is to see how much speed he has gained, it would seem that the maximum would more truly tell the tale. Therefore it is suggested that three tests be given in a series but that the highest speed of the three be used as a basis for classificaion. Conduct of Test. The test is conducted in this way : At a given signal, the students write from copy for 10 minutes. At the end of 10 minutes the teacher gives the signal and all machines stop. The words written are counted. This gives the total number of gross words written in 10 minutes. This total divided by 10 (the number of minutes) gives the number of gross words per minute. The teacher then reads aloud from the copy and the students mark the errors. The errors are counted and multiplied by the penalty, which is 10 for each word wrong. & 72 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH (Prior to 1918 the penalty was 5 for each word wrong.) The total pen- alty is subtracted from the total number of gross words for 10 minutes and this gives the total number of net words for 10 minutes. Divide by 10 (the number of minutes) and we get the number of net words per minute — the important figure and the one by which the student is to be rated. For example: One has written 750 words; 750 is the total gross for 10 minutes; dividing by 10, one gets 75. which is one's gross speed per min- ute. Suppose one makes 4 errors; multiply the 4 by 10, the penalty, and one gets 40. which is the total penalty. Subtract the total penalty from the gross (40 from 750) and one gets 710, the total net words for 10 minutes; dividing by 10, one gets 71 as the net number of words per min- ute. We say that ones speed is 75 words gross, 71 words net, per minute. The papers should be marked in this way by three different students to insure care, each student signing his name to the paper. This is very definite and very objective, and something that is exactly understood in typewriting circles. The International Typewriting Contest Rules, under which this test is conducted, are given in the Appendix, p. i ff. A more accurate way of calculating typewriting speed would be by movements rather than by words. Words are of such varying lengths that they would seem to afford no accurate method of measuring. And yet, on investigation it develops that the material used in the International Type- writing Contests is surprisingly uniform in the long run. While there may be some lines that contain 20 words and others that contain only 10 words, when it comes to 500 words, they cover very nearly the same num- ber of line (see Appendix, p. ii or iii), and therefore there is not so much variation as would appear on the face. Mr. Sherwin Cody, Managing Director of Business Standards Asso- ciation, New York City, has devised a method of counting stroke-words. He says, "The average word in ordinary business letter writing is a frac- tion over four strokes and for convenience I have adopted the standard stroke-word of four strokes and with one space. This makes five strokes." One of the test letters sent out by the Association, containing 200 stroke- words, totals 184 actual words. A page of the International Typewriting Contest material, taken at random, was counted and found to contain 507 stroke- words and 551 actual words. Counting stroke- words requires con- siderably more time than the other. Final Test. A final test will be given at the conclusion of the experiment to ascer- IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION /o tain the speed of the students at that time. The test will be similar in all respects to the preliminary or equalization test — the same number in the series and the same copy. (2) PVeliminary Conferences. As the procedure for the experiment is not difficult, it will not be neces- sary to have extended conferences with the school officials. Complete in- structions could very well be sent by mail. (3) Other Difficulties. . Procedure with knowledge or without. Another question that faces us is: "Shall the students be told the pur- n-^co <5f fi-jg experiment, etc., or shall they not?" Undoubtedly it will be found that something must be said to the stu- dents. They will ascertain that there is a difference in the work of the two sections and w ill begin lo ask and then form suspicions of their own. So the teacher might just as well tell them frankly at the beginning and thus avoid further questionings. The first time the present experiment was conducted an attempt was made (on the recommendation of the Seminar) to proceed without telling the students anything, but it could not be done, and, finally, with the consent of the Seminar, something was told them. Therefore, when trying the ex])eriment again, the classes were told at the start, "W'e are now going to pit the two sections of the class against each other for six weeks, and we are going to see which section can come out ahead. Your section will be given work slightly different from the other section." That was sufficient information to satisfy the great ma- jority and things i)roceeded nicel\'. One class even became very indifferent to the information, whereas if they had not been told, they would likely have kept asking until something had been told them. The chief reason for the Seminar not wishing anything said was that they felt that if the students got the notion that the determination of the future policy rested ui)on the experiment and that the school would intro- duce the one which showed up best, they would work according to their own i)rejudices and would see to it that the method they disliked did not succeed, irrespective of its merits. But the way to bridge this difficulty lies in not telling them too nuich ; i. e.. they should not be told thai any future policy depends u})on it, but it may be said that this is being done in connection with work at the University, which immediately satisfies many. b. Time. 74 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The experiment could be undertaken at almost any time when vacations do not interfere. c. Periods. The precautions laid down on p. 56 ff. should have consideration in determining the periods for this experiment. Typewriting is not work that requires much concentration, to be sure, but yet if one section has more favorable periods than the other, this factor may cause a difference in the results. d. Subject-matter. For the tests, any non-technical matter would be suitable. The copy used in the International Typewriting Contests and the monthly Under- wood tests would be thoroughly satisfactory. Both of these can be ob- tained from the Underwood Typewriter Co. For the regular class work, during the experiment, the typewriting text book in use at the school would be suitable for the accuracy work. Any of the material suggested for the tests could be used for speed work. Of course, it should not be the identical thing used in the preliminary or final tests. e. Details of Procedure. Details in General. Each of the classes will be divided into two sections. They will be known in the school as Section A and Section B. That group of each class which devotes all its time to accuracy we shall call the Accuracy Group ; and that group which devotes part (say half) of its time to accuracy and part of its time to speed (i. e., it is emphasizing speed) we shall call the Speed Group. While each is doing the accuracy work they will both follow the identi- cal schedule ; the only point of differentiation will come on the speed days. While a group is devoting its time to accuracy it v/ill do the regular typewriting exercises of the class. Accuracy will be emphasized by not permitting the student to pass to the next exercise until he has presented an absolutely perfect copy of the previous one. As already explained, one group will be required to follow IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION /D this jjrocedure all the periods during the week, while the other group will be required to follow it only part of the time. While Section B is devoting its time to speed, it will be conducted as follows : The co})y used in any of the International Typewriting Contests can be used as subject-matter. The class will be instructed that for the period they will do speed work — they will write just as fast as they can without becoming careless, but yet paying no attention to errors. They will not stop to correct errors. For the purpose of creating some interest, various ones of the class may be selected as pace-makers. The choice is usually made from among those near the head of the class for speed. At a given signal all will start at a given place in the copy and write until the pace-maker reaches the bot- tom of the page, say. He is told to raise his hand as a signal when he has reached the bottom of the page. Then time is called and notes are com- pared to see how far each student has gotten. By way of variety it may also be done this way : Each student will write just as fast as he can. The first one reaching a certain point in the copy will raise his hand. Then time will be called and notes compared. Another slight variation will be to write for 5 or lo minutes and see who gets the furthest. In this way the students will work at top notch speed. ( I ) Copies of Instructions with Precautions. The copies of instructions given to the helpers should give the details of procedure. The copy matter used in the tests should be put out of reach of the pu- pils, so that no one can use the copy for practice. The teacher should see to it that no student in the experiment does any typewriting outside of the regular typewriting period. It would be un- fair if some of the students were permitted to come into the typewriting room for practice after school during the period of the experiment. Care must also be taken to see that no student uses a machine outside of the school during the progress of the experiment. In other words, the time element must be kept the same for all the students in the experiment. ■Otherwise that permits another varying factor which would absolutely in- validate the results. Only by permitting each person the same amount of practice can the results be expected to show anything valid. (2) Time Limits. The next thing to be considered is the length of time that is to be de- voted to the actual experiment. Regarding this we can give certain broad 76 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH statements only. It would appear that the longer the period of the ex- periment, the better. But we can hardly find a school system that would be willing to devote a w^hole year to the experiment. The danger of put- ting one section at too great a disadvantage over the other must be con- sidered. It is c[uestionable whether or not a teacher could keep the stu- dents of both sections working at top notch for so long a period. Some would become disgruntled and not do their best, and that, of course, would bring in a factor that would destroy the validity of the results. For valid results, we assume that both sections are working at a high point of efficiency, and that there is no such disturbing element as antagonism. The question as to the time that can be devoted to the experiment will depend largely upon the period the authorities are willing to give. West Chester tried it for six weeks because that was all the time it was felt could be devoted to it. This, together with the preliminary and final tests,, made it a matter of more than two months with some of the classes, de- pending upon the number of times they recited during the week. In setting aside the time one wants to be sure that there will be no such disturbing elements as an extended vacation occurring in the middle of the experiment ; for instance, Christmas vacation or Easter vacation. The experiment would better be tried between these two vacations so that they will not interfere. The preliminary tests would best not be conducted at the first recitation after returning from the Christmas vacation, for the- students' fingers will be stiff and the tests will not be fairly representative. (3) Form, Order and Method. There is no particular form, order, or method of giving directions in this experiment. The teacher may use her own words to make the matter clear to the students. ( 4 ) Record should be made of any interruptions, etc., as mentioned on p. 59 fit'. 2. Form. The balance of the outline covers conditions which are very general and apply to all the experiments. Since they are given fully on p. 62 fif., it 11 will not be necessary to repeat them here. a. TYPEWRITING. Experiment No. 2. The Proper Age at Which to Begin Typewriting, IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION j-j I. FORMULATION I. Introduction. a. General Statement. Among the numerous unsettled matters of the typewriting room is the question of the most advantageous age for beginning the study of Typewriting. The subject is now taught in many of our high schools. The question of teaching it in the jimior high school has come up. Some schools are already teaching it in the grades. Is it a subject that the pupils in the grades or in the junior high school can learn economically?* By "economically" is meant obtaining the proper returns for the amount of time and effort spent on the subject. We get "yes" and "no" for the answer. At any rate, what is the proper age at which to begin the study of Typewriting, or at what age is it most economical to begin the study of Typewriting ? b. Survey of Experiments Made. The search for experiments has revealed nothing along the line of the one under consideration. 2. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken to try to determine the age at which it is most economically advantageous for a person to begin the study of Type writing. By "economically" is meant getting the most returns for the amount of time expended. Effort, of course, may enter as an offsetting factor. We find pupils who are very ambitious and put forth a great deal of effort. Others put forth very little. But these are rather the extremes. The ma- jority of students in a typewriting room, we can say, put forth a normal amount of effort, and that is what we take for granted is being done. Of course, if a child puts forth an unusual amount of effort, he will accom- *This, of course, is not the only question to be solved if we are going to take pupils into the typewriting room from the grades. There is the question of how are we going to stretch out the subject over 5 or 6 years. The students must have it in their senior year to be in shape when they get out into business. Special equipment will have to be furnished, which means added expense. The machines in the high school cannot be used. Seats are too high and the feet of the grade children will dangle. Drop-top desks cannot be used or the teacher will have to open the desks for many of the pupils who do not have sufficient strength. 78 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH })lish more in an hour than otherwise, but reference is made to the gen- eral run of students. If we know what to expect for the general run of students, the exception must then either outstrip them or fall below their record. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY I. Groups Chosen. For this experiment pupils of various ages should be chosen. It would be well to have groups with two years intervening between them. If we take groups with only one year's difference, it might be difficult to get the required number whose birthdays are close enough to really make a differ- ence in the groups. For instance, if a child were lo years and 5 months old and another were 10 years and 7 months old, putting the one into the lo-year-old grou|) and the other into the ii-year-old group (classifying them according to their nearest birthday) would not give us much of a difference in the groups. On the other hand, if we were to disregard the months and simply take into consideration the years, then the lo-year-ii- month-old child would not be far enough from the 11 -year- 1 -month-old child to place them in separate groups, and we would have the same diffi- culty. Therefore, by making the difference two years, we are more likely to be able to get different groups. The next question is : How near should a pupil be to the year set for the group and still be included in that group? It is rather difficult to set a definite age ; for instance, to say 3 months and then rule out someone who is a day or two outside of that limit. For the purposes of the experi- ment, to be sure, the person of that age would answer just as well as the one coming entirely within the limit. Possibly the best that can be done is to lay down some broad principle and then let the experimenter decide each individual case that gives trouble.* It will likely be agreed by all, that no one of the intervening year should be included. For instance, if we make groups of 8, 10, and 12 years, the students of 9 and 11 years should be excluded. Or, it might be worked this way : Let the groups contain those a half year each side of 8, of 10, and of 12. After having decided the range of each group, let us say 2 years, it will then be necessary to ascertain how many groups are to be included in the experiment. Since the object is to determine the most suitable age, the *0f cour.se, all this should be noted in the write-up of the experiment, so that if any variation is noticed, some facts may be at hand, which can be searched for a cause. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 79 experiment should include as large a scope in this direction as possible. Therefore, it would seem wise to take a group from the youngest teachable age for typewriting, let us say 10 years old4 We also want them just as old as they can be obtained. So let us take these from the high school, which might give us some 18 years of age. This then would give us 5 groups, viz., 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 years of age, respectively. These groups should be as large as possible, keeping the number in each group vuiiform. The groups will be designated as follows: the 10- year-old group, the 12-year-old group, the 14-year-old-group, the 16-year- old group, the 18-year-old group. It may not be possible to get as many in the 18-year-old group as in the others, but even if only a few can be secured, it would be better to include them than not to have any of that age at all. The results need not neces- sarily be included as part of the findings of the experiment, but on the other hand they may throw some interesting light on the matter. The students making the highest marks (say 90 and above) would af- ford the most enthusiastic material for a teacher to work upon, and it is suggested that these be the ones used for the experiment. They can be selected without nuich difficulty, and if it is found that the younger groups are not making the progress that the older groups are, we can safely say that mediocre and poor students from the same groups will not make any more progress. If we are going to take all the students as we find them, it will be neces- sar\' to give an intelligence test for there are likely to be mental defectives among the younger ones, and, according to word from The Training School at Vineland, N. J., they have had no success with this kind of work. 2. School Chosen. a. . The school chosen will, of course, have to be one that is equipped for teaching typewriting, and the experiment will take place in the type- writing room. b. Accessibility. The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p. 36 ff. c. Co-operation. JThis experiment was tried in West Chester, Pa. In talking the matter over with the grade teachers from whose classes the prospective students were to be taken, it was fcnmd that they agreed unanimously and positively that ten years was as low as they would advise taking anybody into this experiment. They felc quite certain that it would be useless to work with the 8-year-old pupils. The 6-year-olds, of course, do not know how to read and write, and we could not con- sider them for the experiment. 8o EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH It should also be a school where the co-operation of all concerned can be assured, as explained on p. 38 fit". Without co-operation on the part of the grade teachers and the students, it may result in not having a sufficient number present during the whole experiment to give results. A teacher may on slightest provocation detain the pupil after school. The pupil may make it necessary to be kept in. (This is assuming that the ex- periment is to be conducted after school.) 3. Teachers Chosen. The teacher in charge of the experiment would best be the experimenter himself. If it is necessary to place someone else in charge of the experiment, then a teacher should be chosen, who, because of her ability, can be depended upon to carry out the experiment successfully. See p. 41 ff. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR As mentioned above, the experimenter would be the most desirable per- son to conduct the experiment, as he is, it is assumed, in possession of the most complete information on the subject of the experiment, and can most wisely make quick decisions on points of emergency that arise during the performance. See p. 44 ff. / IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE 1. Content. (a) Difficulties. Equalization Tests. It is assumed that each of the pupils is beginning with zero ability in the matter of typewriting, but are we correct? Of course, one factor in typewriting is nimbleness of the fingers. So far as this is concerned, we may have considerable variation at the start, which must be guarded against. But this condition can be met very well, by in- sisting that none of the pupils who have done anything that would give them nimble fingers, such as piano playing, violin playing, etc., be ad- mitted to the experiment. It would be profitable to permit these students to take the work, but their records must be kept separate from the others. A comparison would tell whether or not we are justified in excluding them. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 8l Conducting the experiment on a large scale would eliminate any other individual differences. Final Tests. At the conclusion of the experiment a series of speed tests should be given similar to those in Experiment No. i, explained on p. 71. The same material, time, and method of scoring should be used, with this ex- ception : namely, that if the progress made by the class has not taken them beyond the use of the shift key and punctuation marks, the students should not be required to use these in writing the test. (2) Preliminary Conferences. If the experimenter does not do the work himself, he will have to con- duct preliminary conferences with the teachers, and if he uses assistants in a large room where he has charge, it will be necessary to have a confer- ence with them. b. Time. The time element will be uniform. Of course, it is to be expected that the 18-year-old pupils will be able to cover more ground than the lo-year- old pupils ill a given time. We have a choice of varying either the ground covered or the time devoted to the work. It would be much more difficult from the standpoint of the experiment to keep the ground-covered element the same ; it would be easier to keep the time element the same. Furthermore, one of the factors in teaching typewriting is the time ele- ment, and that should be considered in pronouncing judgment upon a per- son's ability to acquire skill in typewriting. By choosing non-commercial students, the experiment could be under- taken at any time of the year, and any day or days could be used unless certain days contained something unusual in the program which might prove disadvantageous to those taking the work that day. It woulfl be better, however, if lessons could be given every day, so as not to permit any intervals that may be too great to do efficient work. c. Periods. All of the students could be taught in one section, if the typewriting room is large enough. Then any period of the day would answer our pur- pose. It would not be detrimental to the experiment, however, if the students are taught in sections. The instruction given could easily l)e kept uniform. The chief factor is the practice done by the student himself, and he can do 82 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH that as effectively whether there are three others taking it with him or 30, and whether they are the same age or not. If they are taught in several sections, the periods would have to be so chosen as not to place any section at an advantage over the others. See p. 56 ff. A bad feature to this experiment will be caused by the fact that the children of the grades may have to take the work after school, at the end of their day, a time when they may not be in the most enthusiastic state of mind. Yet the novelty of the change may keep them in good spirits. In West Chester volunteers were tried and they showed no fatigue when the period began at 3.35 (school dismissing at 3.30) and showed no signs of even a lack of interest during the 40 minute period. The pupils were, however, all of high grade, being those making 90 and above in their reg- ular work. All students should take it at the same time of day, the program pre- ceding being approximately equal. If the grades take the work after school, the high school students should take it at that time also. The length of the period should be whatever the school requires for the regular typewriting classes. Three-fourths of an hour is used in a great many schools — possibly in most of the schools in the country. d. Subject-matter. The pupils ought to be taught whatever is given in that particular school to beginners in typewriting. It ought not to make any difference what typewriting manual is used, as long as the manual used is a good one and as long as all the students use the same manual. The teacher, of course, will have to use simpler words in her explanations to the younger students than to the high school students ; aside from this, the method of teaching would be the same. It does not seem wise for the purposes of the experiment to give more than the minimum essentials of the mechanical details. For instance. "Cylinder stop spring lever," etc., would engulf the lo-year-olds. Most of the time should be spent on actual typewriting. Touch typewriting is the method used in most of the schools of the country and should be taught in this experiment. It might be well to measure the progress at dift'erent stages, say every two months, to see whether the advance of the one group over the other steadily follows any given ratio. This could be done bv the speed tests described in Experiment No. i, p. 71 ff. Since each student started at zero ability in typewriting, his gain is eas- IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 83 ily measured by the average speed which he has at the time the experi- ment closes. Possibly it would be better to take the maximum speed, as explained on p. 71 ff. Of course, it is impossible to say in advance what the result will be and, therefore, how the results should be interpreted. If, however, it should be found that any one group is considerably ahead of the other groups, we can rather safely assume that the age of that group is a better time to be- gin the study of typewriting than that of any of the other groups. If there is not very much ditference, the question would still be an open one and could only be determined by further experimentation. The question may arise as to what is meant by the word MUCH in the preceding sen- tence. It would be difficult to state definitely, so that it would hold in all cases, and, therefore, each experimenter must decide that for himself. If there is no more than 5% or 10% difference between any two of them, it would seem safe to say that there is no dift'erence. If there is 100% difference between any two of them, all would likely agree that there is an actual difference in favor of one group over the others. No conclusions should be hastily made. The experiment should be tried several times with different sets of pupils, and if the result remains uniformly the same, it will then be safe to assume that the results are valid. .Vfter the experiment has been tried by using the best pupils, it might be tried out on the poorer pupils, or on the mediocre ones. If it could be done on a sufficiently large scale, it would be interesting to take the students as they come, making no distinction except to see that none of them had any special training in the way of limbering their fin- gers, and even this condition might be waived. If these experiments show no appreciable difference, then the proce- dure should be examined carefully, for, on a priori grounds, it does not seem possible that the same result should be obtained if all the groups are on the same basis except as to age. e. Details of Procedure. ( I ) Instructions and Precautions. If this experiment is given in a large typewriting room, the experi- menter may wish to have some assistants present. They should be handed a copy of the instructions. There are no special directions, however, ex- cept that simple language must be used for the younger pupils. Other- wise, what holds for the one group, also holds for the others. None of the students, of course, should have access to a typewriter out- 84 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH side of the regular periods assigned to them, that is, the time element must be kept uniform. (2) Time limits. The time limits should be fixed before the experiment is undertaken, at least, tentatively. The beginning date can be fixed definitely, but possibly not so with the concluding date. The time to be covered by the experiment is a difficult cjuestion. Shall it be two weeks, which would be ten lessons ; or two months, which would be 40 lessons ; or 4 months, which would be 80 lessons ? In some schools typewriting is given twice a week during the first year, and for nine months (barring holidays and vacations) this would give 72 lessons. Two months' work, then, reciting once a day, would be the equiv- alent of half a year's work at a school of this kind. That might be a satis- factory period. Of course, there is no objection to making the experiment cover a year's time, if it can be done. This would be much better, for 72 lessons ought to bring out any dififerences, if great dififerences exist among the groups. It may be that at certain stages in the learning of the subject, pupils of certain ages may advance more rapidly than others. From the practical viewpoint we are interested in the permanent results — which group will permanently find it the most advantageous. The longer the experiment could be continued, the more accurately would the conclusion answer our question. It might prove very illuminating, however, to keep record of the progress at the different stages. Progress, of course, would likely be interpreted according to the custom of the school in which this is being done. It might be rather indefinite and might need defining. It might be argued that it is very essential that the length of the experi- ment be just right, for, if the period is too long, all, irrespective of age, would do fairly well; and if it is too short, so little will be produced that all will do poorly. This holds in many experiments, but it does not appear to carry much weight in the present one. The longer this experiment is continued, the better, it would seem, would be the conclusion, because we are after permanent results, and if there is only a temporary gain of one group over the others at an unknown point, we would be more likely to have gone beyond it, the longer we do the work. Typewriting practice is not quite like drill in some other subjects. In typewriting it is a continuous drill and the limit of efficiency is never reached. (3) Form, Order and Method. No particular directions are necessary. See p. 58 ff. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 85 (4) Record, etc. See p. 59 ff. 2. Form. The balance of the outhne apphes uniformly to all experiments and is fully covered on p. 62 ft. a. TYPEWRITING. Experiment No. 3. Typewriting Norm. I. FORMULATION I. Introduction. a. General Statement. A most valuable thing for the typewriting room would be a measuring stick, a scale, a norm, by which it would be possible to tell whether or not any student of typewriting is progressing as well as the average person in his grouix Of course, a still better thing would be to have some means of determining whether or not the student is progressing as rapidly as he should, but to determine that takes in so many factors which we are un- able to handle at present ( for instance, his mental ability, temperament, disposition, perseverance, etc.), that it would seem wise to attempt noth- ing more than to ascertain what the average student does attain at given periods. Or, if anv one objects to the words "average student," let us put it this wa\ : we would like to know what most of the students of the country are doing. We could at least have the satisfaction of knowing whether we were in their class, above them, or below them. That is. at least, more than we know now. Even this would be a great help. It would be something objective and would do away with the subjective phase of the question. It would be another addition to the group of measuring scales already provided for several of the branches, such as arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, English, modern languages, etc. We shall not consider producing a scale for measuring what the pro- gress of a student SHOULD be. We shall leave that to the future. We shall simjjly attem])t to find what the average student at ))resent DOES at- tain. I 86 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH b. Survey of Experiments Made. The search for experiments has brought to hght information on one that was being conducted by Wilham A. Cook at the University of Colo- rado. c. Differentiation. The plan differs in the following respects from the one herein proposed : Only the students who have one-half unit or more credit and are present on the day of test, are to be included. All tests are to be taken in the presence of the Visitor. The papers are to contain a statement of the periods of practice al- ready had by the writer, but nothing is said about the intervals. The scoring differs from the International Typewriting Rules in that the penalty is not uniform for all errors. The rules are not clear as to whether the tests are to be taken monthly by each student or only as often as the visitor comes to the school. 2. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken to try to produce a typewriting norm, that is, to determine what progress the average student in typewriting does make at stated periods. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY I. Groups Chosen. For this experiment it will be necessar)', of course, to take all grades of pupils. We want to know what the pupils who take typewriting are act- ually doing. We cannot, therefore, pick out a group of excellent ones, and hold them up, because that would be too high for the majority of pupils to attain. It would be far more satisfactory to take the pupils as we find them under actual teaching conditions and ascertain how much progress the majority of them have made at the end of one month, at the end of two months, at the end of three months, etc. A month would seem to be a good dividing point, since our marks in school are, as a rule, figured by months. We could make a month actually 20 school days, as is the meaning of school month in many places. It would seem as though some differentiation should be made in the pu- IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 87 pils. Not knowning what age is best fitted for starting the subject of typewriting, it would hardly seem most scientific to take mixed groups. It would be a good deal better to keep separate records of pupils by ages. This would not necessitate re-arranging classes. The classes may be conducted as they normally would be, but separate records should be kept. Or, a record of the students should also be kept according to their year in high school. For instance, if we could say that it is found that the average person beginning typewriting in the junior year in high school at- tains a speed of 10 net words at the end of a month, it would be more defi- nite than saying that for pupils beginning typewriting the average speed at the end of one month is 10 net words, for the reason that in some of our high schools a two year commercial course is given, and typewriting is given in the freshman year, which corresponds to approximately 14 years of age or less, while in some others where a four year course is given, the students do not begin typewriting until the junior or senior year, which would be about 16 or 17 years. Furthermore, some of the seniors may be 18 while taking typewriting for the first time, and if it should be found in the experiment on age, that there is very much variation between the 18-year-old beginner and the 14-year-old beginner, general figures, without reference to age, would not mean very much. Inasmuch as we are still somewhat at sea in the matter, it would seem best to keep complete individual records, each record to show the year in high school during which the study was begun and also the age of the student at the time of beginning. When all the results are turned in. it would be well to group them both according to age and high school year. We could then say that for the students beginning typewriting in their junior year at high school, we find the average speed at the end of a month to be so many net words, and for the students beginning typewriting at the age of 16, we find the average speed at the end of a month to be so many net words. This would give us definite information and we could then use whichever we find to be the most desirable for our ])urpose. It might be that these figures j^-esent a problem, in that when consid- ering the speed of a 15-year-old beginner it may be 10 words, and when considering the sophomore in high school it may be 15 words. We may wish to ascertain what the progress of a certain 15-year-old sophomore should be when compared with what is done over the country at large and find that a sophomore should have a si:»eed of 15 words and that a 15-year- old boy should have 10 words. Which figures shall we take? For the ■decision of this question we must wait until w c know something about the ability of students at diiTerent ages. If we find that there is much differ- 88 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ence between the ages, then it would seem better to use the scale based on ages. If we find no difiference in the ability at different ages, we will sim- ply have to say that we have no scientific means of knowing which of the scales to take. This, however, may be found out later, and so it would not be worthless to try the present experiment. It would simply be a question of having two scales and not knowing which is the more accurate of the two for our purpose. Each would give this much satisfaction at least: we would know that according to the one basis, certain things ob- tain, and that according to the other basis, certain other things actually ob- tain. We would have to decide whether we wished to use either of these or neither. Another factor might enter into this situation, and that is the question as to how often the subject is taught. It may be that a student having had twenty typewriting lessons, taking them twice a week, would not have the same speed as a student having had twenty typewriting lessons, taking them each day for five days a week. This factor will have to be stated in the name of the scale, thus: "Speed in net words, found to be attained by the average 15-year-old pupil taking typewriting twice a week during his junior year." Of course, to have the scales serviceable to all. we should be able to say what the actual finding is for pupils taking typewriting twice a week, three times a week, and five times a week, and if there are any schools giving it four times or ten times a week, they would desire to know what the finding is for that number of recitations a week. Of course, still another factor enters. One method of typewriting may be more efficient than another, and that will make some students attain bet- ter results. But we are not trying to decide what the average is with the best method known (a question impossible to deternfine, at least at pres- ent) ; all we are trying to say is what we have found to be the average speed attained after having tested out a great number of pupils, and, of course, that will take in many methods, as the experiment should be under- taken on a large scale and should include a great many school systems. We can then say, as we do with spelling grades, that the average for alV the cities tested is so much, the average for New York is above or below that. The average for a certain method which is taught in, say, one or two schools in New York is so much. The average for the classes taught by such and such a teacher is either above or below this line. 2. Schools Chosen. a. General Character of Student-Rody. A great manv schools should be chosen for this experiment and they IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 89 ■shnuld be schools from a great many cities — the more the better — because we w ant to find what is actually being done today iu the representative or the larger schools of the country where we can assume that the teachinj^ 15 being done intelligently. Of course, this will include all sorts and con- ditions of students, good ones, mediocre ones, and poor ones. It will in- clude those who have had their fingers limbered up before taking up the subject, and those who have not. It will include those who do only as much work as called for in the class room, and those who do extra work. We are not trying to ditferentiate here. We are simply trying to ascertain what is actuall}- being done under the ordinary conditions that now exist. b. Accessibility. All the schools tested need not be accessible personally to the experi- menter. He would not even need to visit them. All that would be neces- sary is to have clearly formulated instructions and be assured that the teachers who are to carry out the instructions understand them and are in sympathy with the idea, so that they give reports of actual conditions -and do not color them either favorably or unfavorably. c. Co-operation. There must, of course, be co-operation on the part of all concerned, as explained on ]>. 38 ff., so as to get accurate results. 3. Teachers Chosen. This would really be more of a survey than an experiment in the nar- rower sense of the word, and so it would not be necessary to make any change in the teaching staff. We want to know what the teachers are actually doing, and not what they would do under any special system of instruction. We would want to be sure, though, that the person who is obtaining the information for us is thoroughly conversant with the idea in mind and is in sympathy with it, and is professional and scientific enough to see that the tests are proj^erly given and that the records are correctly made, so that they will actually show conditions existing, uncolored by any personal views or wishes. Even if the actual teacher of the class is antagonistic to the idea, if the experimenter sees that the tests are properly given and she does not influ- ence the students to be abnormal at the time, her antagonism can hardly invalidate the result of the whole experiment. 90 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR By the preceding page it is decided that the regular teacher will conduct the experiment. See also p. 44 fif. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF PROCEDURE I. Content. a. Difficulties. ( I ) No preliminary nor equalization test is necessary. (2) Personal preliminary conferences will not be necessary. The in- structions are simple and could be written out so that no teacher would have any trouble in following them. They could be sent to the various schools by mail. (3) Any other difficulties. To carry out this experiment it will first be necessary to find a number of schools with typewriting students aggregating a thousand or more (the more the better) who would be willing to assist in getting the necessary data. After having found the schools, it will be necessary to make sure that some one in each of these schools will make himself or herself responsible for carrying out the instructions properly. In the larger school systems, it is likely to be the head of the department or the supervisor. In the small- er schools it would likely be the principal or the teacher herself. The instructions as to how the experiment is to be carried on should be written out in full detail and copies should be in the hands of the teachers. The experimenter should be very careful to have the instructions so clear and complete that there will be no misunderstanding about them. b. Time. The experiment should start at the beginning of the school year— Sep- tember, in most cases — and it should include all the students taking type- writing, both the beginners and the advanced students. In reporting the advanced students, the details should show how old they are at present,, in what class and how often they are taking typewriting during the week. It should also show data on their past typewriting performance, such as how many years they have been typewriting, in what class of the high school they began the subject, their age at that time, how many times a IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 91 week they took the subject, and how many weeks in the school year. The length of the periods should also be mentioned. c. Periods. It might also be well just for the sake of making individual compari- sons, to state at what time of the day the recitation took place and what immediately preceded it. Of course, the tests will take place during the regular typewriting periods. d. Subject-matter. The subject-matter will be the regular typewriting instruction given in that particular school for that particular class. We are trying to find out what the average is for all the systems and schools and methods. It can be assumed, however, that touch typewriting is being taught. Mention should be made if it is not the method. Next we come to the more difficult part of the experiment, and that is the testing. This, it would seem, should take i)lace at the end of every 20 school days, or a school month. That is a convenient reckoning period in our present practice, and would therefore afiford a basis for the month's marks and be ])ractical in tliis respect. The tests should be conducted in the manner described for the prelimi- nary and final tests in the first experiment of this thesis, p. 71 iT, using the International Typewriting Contest Rules. The same Qopy matter should be used by all students and for each monthly test. Care should be used that the student does not have access to it in the interim. A slight exception might be made in the case of beginners. Students who are taking typewriting twice a week will not have progressed very far at the end of the first month. According to some methods of instruc- tion they will not have had capital letters nor punctuation marks. For these, a slight variation nnght be made in this respect : Expect of them only what they have been taught. That is, if they have not had capital letters, allow them to use the small letters in ])lace of the capitals when- ever the capitals are called for on the copy, and if they have not had punc- tuation marks, permit them to omit those called for in the copy. Another suggestion might be in order. If the beginning students have not had any practice in sentence writing, that is, if they have only been practicing iso- lated words, they should, before taking the test, write for say 10 or 15 92 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH minutes from copy in which continuous sentences are given, so that they may become accustomed to sentence work. The question arises, "How many tests should be given at the end of each month, one test, or several as recommended in the other experiment?" It will take a great deal of time to give three tests at the end of each month. Furthermore, it will interfere a great deal with the teaching pro- cess which we are testing. Our results will then have a disturbing ele- ment in them of sufficient proportions to be considerable and therefore, will not properly measure the students who are doing the regular work, which is what we want to test. Furthermore, in the previous experiment we were not figuring on such a large number of students in the test, and the possibility for individual variation was much greater. In this experiment it is not likely that all of the students will have an off-day each time a test comes along, when it comes regularly once a month, and other subjective factors will not play so large a role. Then again, in the other experiment we wanted one figure at the be- ginning and one figure at the end of the experiment, to show the pupil's ability. Here we have a record every month over the whole year's work for the same student. Even in the individual record, one off-day would likely be balanced by the next record, and so on. Progress should be shown by the succession of records made by each student. Hence, it would appear that one test at the end of the month is sufhcient, for the subjective factor is taken care of through our largely increased number of tests, as well as the number of students. ]More tests than one a month, would interefere with the very thing we are testing and so much time could not be taken out of the regular work. The matter of marking so many papers would also be a serious proposi- tion, and it would seem that the added work would not justify the dif- ference in the results. It is suggested that each pupil mark his own work, while the teacher reads the copy aloud. Then, have the papers exchanged with a neighbor, and have the neighbor write on the paper, "Checked by ," and sign his own name. The teacher will again read the copy aloud, while the stu- dents mark the papers. The papers will be exchanged once more, and marked : "Rechecked by ," the student again signing his own name. This should insure a very accurate record of the work and save much time in marking. This method is suggested in Cody's Commercial Tests and How to Give Them. Along with the record of each test should go the following information IN CO]MMERClAL EDUCATION ■ 95 for each class, so that if any considerable variation is noticed in one set of papers, we may be able to look intelligently for the cause : Time of day the test was given. ^^'hat the students did in the periods immediately preceding. Temperature of the room. Atmosphere, i. e., humid, close, etc. Kind of day, i. e., bright, pleasant, dull, rainy, etc. There should also be noted any unusual disturbing elements, such as fire drill, unlooked-for accident, etc., which would disturb the class in the test. After all this information has been collected at. the end of the year, it would require a considerable force to tabulate it. It would be better to collect the material each month and work on it as it comes in. Care, of course, should be used to make the recoi-ds accurate. The data should be arranged as follows : Keep the record for each class separate. Group the classes of each school. Group the schools of one city. Group the cities. A\'e want the above arrangement according to averages. Grou]) the papers in the way mentioned above, and from these groups tabulate the following information : 13-year-old pupils beginning typewriting: List A. Those taking typewriting twice a week. List B. Those taking typewriting 3 times a week. List C. Those taking typewriting 4 times a week. List D. Those taking typewriting 5 times a week. List E. Those taking typewriting more than 5 times a week, with a footnote showing how often. Re-group these according to the 13-year-old pupils taking it in the Freshman year, Sophomore year, Junior year. Senior year, in high school. 'te' Make the same kind of a record for the 14-year-old pupils begin- ning typewriting. Ditto for the 15, 16, 17, and 18-year-olds. Then we should make a table showing: 14-year-old pupils taking the second year of typewriting. 94 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Giving as preliminary information what they had the previous year, i. e., the number of periods altogether, whether they came twice, three times, etc., a week. List F. Those taking it twice a week. List G. Those taking it 3 times a week. List H. Those taking it 4 times a week. List L Those taking it 5 times a week. List J. Those taking it more than 5 times a week, noting how often. Re-group these according to the 14-year-old pupils taking it in the Sophomore year, Junior year. Senior year, of high school. Make the same record for the 15-year-old pupils taking the second year of typewriting. Ditto for 16, 17, and 18-year-olds, taking the second year of type- writing. Then in a similar way take the 15-year-old pupils taking the 3rd year of typewriting, etc. Then the 16-year-old pupils taking the 4th year of typewriting, etc. This data should also be arranged in the following manner : Speed of the students at the periods mentioned below : . Schedule for the students taking the work twice a week : At the end of 8 lessons. At the end of 16 lessons, At the end of 24 lessons. At the end of t,2 lessons, etc. ! .Schedule for the students taking the work three times a week: At the end of 12 lessons. At the end of 24 lessons. At the end of 36 lessons, f A-t the end of 48 lessons, etc. Schedule for those taking it 4 times a week: At the end of 16 lessons. At the end of 32 lessons. At the end of 48 lessons, etc. Schedule for those taking it 5 times a week : At the end of 20 lessons. At the end of 40 lessons. At the end of 60 lessons, etc. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 95 Schedule for those taking it more than 5 times a week: At the end of lessons, etc. It would also be profitable to have the data in the following form, if we find that many schools follow this arrangement of hours : Schedule for those taking it twice a week during the first year, 3 times during the second year, and 5 times during the 3rd year. At the end of 8 lessons till 80 lessons. At the end of 92 lessons .till 200 lessons. At the end of 220 lessons till 400 lessons. Also: Schedule for those taking it five times during the first year and five times during the second year : At the end of 20 lessons till 200 lessons. At the end of 220 lessons till 400 lessons. In this way a school could readily find at any time, the status of the schools running the same schedule as its own. (e) Details of Procedure. (1 ) Instructions. Since this experiment covers a wide territory, it will be necessary for the experimenter to make most of the arrangements by mails, and there- fore the instructions should be carefully written up so that there will be no misunderstanding on the part of the teacher conducting the work. It might be well, in sending out the instructions, to state that, if the matter is not clearly understood, the question should be raised on the points that are not clear. The instructions should be put into the hands of the teachers so that they will be available for the beginning of the school year. (2) It should be stated that the test is to be given at the end of each school month for a year and it should take place during the regular type- writing period. (3) There are no instructions to be given to the class, and therefore we need not concern ourselves with this part of the outline. If the class is not familiar with the marking system used in the International Type- writing Contests, it will be necessary for the teacher to explain it to the 96 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH students. That will in no way affect the experiment itself, however. She can make that explanation in her own words. (4) If anything occurs to interrupt the test, a note of it should be made in full detail. See p. 59 ft". (2) Form. The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is covered fully on p. 62 ff. a. TYPEWRITING. Experiment No. 4. Should A\'e Teach the Touch Method or the Sight Method of Typewriting in Our Schools? I. FORMULATION. I. Introduction. a. General Statement. It is difficult to say whether or not an experiment on this question is justified. The investigator had thought it was universally granted that the touch method is superior to the sight method of typewriting, which be- ing the case, there is not much use in trying to prove something on which everybody is agreed, especially since there are so many other things on which people are not agreed, which need attention. Not that common opinion is always right and that it is not worth while testing out those things to see whether they are scientifically founded, but a matter of this kind could rest a while with less loss, apparently, than some other matters ; and, furthermore, the proof appears to be so self-evident. However, it is found that there are still some business schools advertis- ing in their catalogues, that they teach both the touch and the sight sys- tems. If it is still an open question, possibly it would not be energy wasted to prove it scientifically. The point at issue is this : according to the one method the student looks at his fingers while he is writing and according to the other he does not - — under the sight method the typist watches his fingers while he writes and under the touch method he does not watch his fingers while he is writing but keeps his eyes on the book or paper from which he is copying. Teachers in the typewriting room have put it this way to their begin- ning pupils : IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 97 "Now, under the old sight method you would look at yoiu- hook and read a few words. Then you would write those words and watch your fingers to see that you struck the correct keys. Then you would look at your book again, hunt the place, read a few words, and then write them ; and so on. ( The teacher would demonstrate while she explained. ) P>ut under the new method, the touch method, you kee}) your eyes right on your book and keep writing at the same time, like this. (Then the teacher would demonstrate.) Onl\' when you reach the end of a line and have to bring your carriage over, do you have to look at your fingers,' and then only to see that your fingers are back in the proper place, that is, on the position keys. After a while you won't even have to do that. In this way you save a great deal of time that would be lost in looking on and ofif, as you would have to do with the sight method. Speed is the thing we are after, and if you can be writing while the other fellow is looking ofif and on and hunting his place, you will be able to write just so many more words, and that will increase your speed. That is why we want yoti to learn the touch method." Someone occasionally objects and says, "Don't you get used to hunting your place and can't you find it quickly after a while ?" "Yes," the teacher will answer, "you can find it somewhat quicker after a great deal of prac- tice, but even then, you lose time because yoti stop typewriting while you read what you are going to write next." The argument is so evident that a person wonders why the sight method is taught at all, and one difficulty in conducting this experiment would be the apparent unfairness to the section that is taking sight typewriting, for it is almost universally agreed ( it is believed this can be said without fear of being contradicted) that the touch system is by far the better. It might be difficult to find a school system that would be willing to permit the experiment to be tried, becatise from the outset it aj)pears that one section would be at a great disadvantage over the other. In most experiments we simply do not know which of several ways is the best, and it is a sense of satisfaction to a school system to know for itself which is the best, so that it can be guided accordingly in the future, but where a system takes the stand that touch typewriting is far superior to sight typewriting, it would be hard to get permission to conduct the ex- periment. But those schools \\ hich advertise in the way mentioned above, would seem to be the places to perform the experiment, for they evidently are not absolutely prejudiced in favor of touch tyi)ewriting. b. Survey of Experiment ]\Iade, and Differentiation. C. G. Bradford reports "An Experiment in Typewriting" in the "Peda- 98 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH gogical Seminar," December 1914, Vol. XXII, pp. 445-468, in which some data on Touch and Sight Methods is given, but the experiment does not have for its aim a verdict on the question of Sight vs. Touch. In all, four typists were involved and two of them took the Sight Method at first and then the Touch Method, which brings a disturbing factor into the situa- tion. William Frederick Book made a study of typewriting, "The Psychology of Skill with Special Reference to Its Acquisition in Typewriting," Uni- versity of Montana Publications. For this experiment two of the subjects used the Sight Method and two used the Touch Method. He has made a very minute analysis of learning to write by Sight and by Touch. His evidence (which is in favor of touch typewriting) is from the standpoint of the learning process ; the experiment under considera- tion seeks evidence from the standpoint of the results obtained, and is to be worked out on a much larger number of pupils. d. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken to try to determine (scientifically) whether we should teach the Touch or Sight ]\Iethod of typewriting in our schools. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY 1. Groups Chosen. The pupils selected for this experiment should be beginners in type- writing, it matters not whether they are in the junior high school, in the regular high school, or in a business school. They should be beginners because at the beginning is the place to decide whether they will be sight or touch operators. They should be of all grades and classes, because one method may pos- sibly afifect younger students different from older students and if it does, we want to know it. If it does not, as scientific investigators, we want to know that too. There should be two sections, one using the Sight Method and one using the Touch Method. 2. Schools Chosen. In this experiment it is our desire to know how the methods work under all conditions and therefore, we can take matters largely as we find them IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 99 and do not have to select certain schools because the character of their student body is ideal or high, or because the children of the school come from high type American homes, etc. Of course, the school should be accessible to the experimenter so that he may observe the conditions and see that the experiment is properly under- stood by the teachers and properly carried out. See complete reference to this on p. 36 fif. b. Co-oi)eration. There is very little use in conducting any experiment in a school where the experimenter does not have the co-operation of all concerned. See p. 38 ff. relative to co-operation. Because of the apparent one-sidedness of the cjuestion, we may have difficulty in obtaining the necessary co-operation. The student should be given the choice as to the method. If forced into the section he does not want, he may not co-operate. 3. Teachers Chosen. The teacher chosen should meet the conditions set forth on p. 41 IT. \\'e may have to look largely to the business schools for the working out of the question in hand, and we may find difficulty in obtaining teachers who have the scientific attitude, as many such teachers have had no nor- mal training. d. Any Other Reasons. The same teacher should be in charge of both groups, because otherwise another factor might enter into the experiment in the way of the person- ality of the teachers. One dilificulty in connection with this experiment may be in getting a teacher who can teach both methods without [)rejudice. But the schools which advertise both the sight and the touch method, would seem to be the ])lace to go for helj) in this direction, for they are evidently not absolutely prejudiced in favor of touch typewriting. We would try first, of course, to get a teacher who could undertake to teach both methods, but if this could not be done (both sections meeting at the same period, for instance, etc.), then it will be necessary to get two teach- ers as nearly alike as possible — whose personalities have about the same efTect upon the ])upils, that is, two with whom the pupils will co-operate to loo EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH very nearly the same degree (specify in the report which has the greater and which the lesser co-operation, if any), and whose personalities have just about the same amount of force in putting things over to the pupils. If it is hard to decide that any two teachers available are alike or nearly alike, the experiment cannot be expected to give valid results and it would not be expedient to try it because this factor is an important one. However, the schools in question are business schools and in such schools the students are usuall\- taught individually (not by classes), as the pupils enter at any time during the year. This would make it impossi- ble to conduct the experiment in classes. If it were going to be done in these schools, it would have to be done individually, which, while not ab- solutely impossible, requires more work and care. The teacher would have to be sure that the instruction given to each individual was the same as that given to others, in effect at least. She would have to be on guard continual- ly. Special care would have to be taken to see that the records of each pupil are taken at the proper date, that is, the tests given at the proper time, so that one pupil will not have had a longer period for the same test than an- other. She should have a standard individual record for each student, so that nothing will be overlooked. In the subject of typewriting, however, the teacher does not enter into the matter so largely in some schools as she does in most subjects. Some text books in typewriting are so arranged that the student is merely start- ed by the teacher and then seeks his own salvation, and this kind is very often used in business schools, because of the individual method of in- struction. If the experiment is tried in a school where this type of text book is used, we would not have to put so nuich consideration on the choice of a teacher to conduct the experiment, because it would largely depend upon the i)upil himself. We would have to ascertain just how much attention is given by the teacher and be sure that when it is given, it is of the right kind for the purpose of the experiment in mind. A full statement of this in great detail should be made in the report. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR 1. The best person to conduct this experiment would be the regular teacher of the class. But inasmuch as the students have not become ac- customed to any teacher in this subject, some other person, who had the necessary qualifications, could do it. See the consideration of this sub- ject on p. 44 ff. 2. Agent selected. If the regular teacher is not ideal for any reasons, then we shall have to choose the next best person available. If the only IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION loi person available falls short of our requirements by any considerable amount, we shall have to postpone the experiment until we can get the proper person. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A I'ROCEDURE I. Content. a. Difficulties. (i) EQUALIZATION TEST. It is a very difficult matter to equalize sections of a jirospective class of typewriting students. All we can do at present is to exclude from an ex- periment those students who we believe have ai; advantage at the start through possessing pliable fingers as the result of piano or violin playing. Aside from this we are not able to isolate any of the factors that con- stitute typewriting ability. Considerable experimenting will be necessary before we can accomplish this, and, in the meanwhile, our experiments with other phases of typewriting must be conducted on a sufficiently large scale to eliminate what unknown inequalities exist. FINAL TESTS. Tests are to be sriven tn ' immediately before the shift key is used, after it has been mastered, one month after beginning typewriting, and each month thereafter. The first three tests will act as a check on ottr equalization. It is not expected that any considerable difference will appear before the first month. We have assumed that each student started with zero typewriting abil- ity. The number of net words written per minute in the tests will there- fore show his progress and will be the basis of comparing the sections. International Typewriting Contest material and Rules will be used in these tests. See page i ff. for details. Capitalization and punctuation vi'ould have to be ignored uniil the student karns lu)w to do this work. After the students go out into business, they should be tested each year •or half year, if it is possible to get them back to the school for the test. r t r r r • ,< » ' % < < 102 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The point at issue may have been proved conchisively to the students long before this and the one set may have refused to continue their method. If it does run into years, the amount of practice a student has had in business in the course of the year should be calculated as nearly as possi- ble and this taken into consideration in the result. We would expect a difference between the student who worked at the machine all day and the one who worked only half a day. Minutes and seconds would not be con- sidered when we are talking of years of experience in typewriting. (2) Preliminary Conferences. Inasmuch as the details of this experiment are not difficult to under- stand, it will not be necessary to hold any preliminary conferences. The procedure can be easily understood from the written instructions. (3) Any other Difficulties. It will be difficult to keep the pupils from doing extra typewriting, that is, from doing it outside of the regular period. The teacher will have to handle the situation very tactfully. It may even be necessary, in order to keep the co-operation of the pupils, to tell them that they will receive no mark on what they do outside, but only on what they do in the class room, and that the basis for marking will be, not the amount of work they cover but how well they do the work in that period and how carefully they fol- low instructions. It would be very difficult to keep students from doing any extra typewriting for a whole year, if the students are like those of West Chester, Pa., for whom six weeks was too long a period. Another difficulty may be that if the results show up so much more fav- orably in one section than the other, it may become apparent to the stu- dents themselves and it may be difficult to hold the other section to its plan. It may be argued that this would be proof in itself. It might not be^ because sometimes there is a zone w'here one method (and usually the poorer one) keeps ahead of the other for just a little while, and after a certain point is passed, the other makes rapid, permanently-advanced strides, and the only way to tell is by keeping the experiment going long enough. b. TIME. The date for the beginning of the experiment should be definitely set. It must be, by the nature of things, at the time typewriting is begun. If IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 103 the subject is conducted by class instruction, the time will likely be Sep- tember or February. If it is taught by the individual method, of course, it will take place whenever a student is ready for the work. A test should take place just before the students are ready to use the shift key, another after they have mastered it, and a test regularly each month counting from the day the student begins typewriting. \\'ith the individual method we must be certain to keep an accurate rec- ord of dates. The test immediately preceding the use of the shift key and the one after mastering it, will not come at the same time for each student by this method, and there seems to be no way of controlling it. This will not be an important item, however, because his other tests will come at monthly periods, dating from the time he begins typewriting. Most im- portance will be attached to the monthly tests. It will be necessary to decide how often the subject will be given and on what days of the week. c. PERIODS. Both sections should meet, if possible, at similar periods of the day. This can easily be done when the class recites only twice a week, or if the room is large enough to accommodate both sections at one time. d. SUBJECT-MATTER. The subject-matter is to be the regular typewriting lessons of the school where the experiment is given. It is regular work we are testing out by two different methods. The w^ork should be the same in both sections and any text can be used. The text used should be mentioned in the report. It would be well to state how^ much of the text had been covered at the time of each test. For the tests we can use such material as the monthly tests of the Un- derwood Typewriter Co., or the material used in the International Type- writing Contests, copies of which are furnished by the Underw'ood Type- writer Co. e. DETAILS OF PROCEDURE. ( I ) Copies of Instructions and Precautions. Among the precautions should be mentioned the fact that special care must be taken to see that the touch students adhere absolutely to touch. 104 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The others will not have to be watched so much because it is more or less laisscs-faire with them, and there is very little danger of their doing the touch method if they are not compelled to do it. If the individual method is used, the teacher should be cautioned to see that the tests are taken regularly each month. See p. 83 ff. for further suggestions relative to the details of procedure. 2. Form. • The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is covered fully on p. 62 fi. a. TYPEWRITING. Experiment No. 5. Should the Schools Have Open or Blank Key- boards on the Typewriters Used for Instruction Purposes ? I. FORMULATION I. Introduction. a. General Statement. Typewriters can be had eitlu-r with the open keyboard or the blank key- board. .\n open keyboard is one that has letters on the keys ; a blank key- board has no mark on the kevs to indicate what thev are. Both of these are used in schools. Some teachers absolutely insist on the blank key- board and would not tolerate anything else in their class rooms. If these machines are so much superior to the others, that such a positive stand can be taken by many teachers, all of the schools should use them. But why do they not? If there is a great advantage, it should not be difficult to prove it scientifically. That is the purpose of this experiment. b. Survey of Experiments Made. No experiments along the line of this question have been found in the present research. The Underwood Typewriter Company was asked the following questions : "Does your Comi)any express any preference with regard to blank or open keyboards? Do you know whether anyone has act- ually tested the thing out, either on individuals or classes ?" IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 105 The following" reply was received from the Manager of the Educational Department : "Our Company has no preference with regard to blank or open keyboards. So far as I have been able to learn, schools that have tested the matter out prefer the blank keyboard." On inquiring relative to the tests mentioned, no further information was obtained. c. Differentiation. In view of the above, no differentiation is necessary, as the experiment suggested stands by itself. 2. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken to try to determine whether the schools should use open or blank keyboards on the typewriters used for instruc- tion purposes. li. SELECTION OF LABORATORY 1. Groups Chosen. The groups chosen could be any class of pupils wdio are beginners in Typewriting. They could be pupils in the junior high school, senior high school, or business school.* The class chosen must be divided into two sections, one using the open keyboard and the other using the blank keyboard. The sections do not necessarily have to meet at separate times or places, but the names of the pupils must, at least, be kept on separate lists. There is no diff'erence whatever in the instruction, the only difference being in the typewriter used, and because of this, both sections could be carried on at the same time. 2. Schools Chosen. a. General Character of the Student P>odv. ♦Business School will be used as the term mcaniusr all private business schools, whether they use in their incorporated title the misnomer of Business "College," or the less pretentious but more correct term of Business School or School of Business. io6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ' No particular effort need be made to obtain any certain type of stu- dent body. We are seeking information relative to the effect that these keyboards have on pupils of various types. Pupils of many classes are taking up the study of typewriting. Whatever class the student may be, he is obliged to submit to the machine which the head of the department or teacher has decreed, whether it be a blank or open keyboard. Therefore, we do not want to discriminate and choose merely one kind of student. If the problem works one way in one school and another way in another, we want sufficient information at hand to decide whether the difference lies in the type of the student or in some other factor. Therefore, the report should give full information regarding the kind of pupils taking the work. b. Accessibility. The school should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p. 37 ff- c. Co-operation. The necessary co-operation should exist on the part of all concerned, as described on p. 38 ff. 3. Teachers Chosen. The teacher chosen should be sufficiently intelligent to handle the ex- periment. She should have the scientific attitude of mind and be profes- sionally interested in the results, as explained at length on p. 41 ff. One teacher should have charge of both sections of the class, so that the matter of personality will not enter as a varying factor. She should not be prejudiced in favor of either method and must not even express her opinion or choice so that it will reach the students. It will require keen observation to see that the pupils do not look at the key- board. She cannot be a teacher who does not see things that transpire. She should not give more attention to one section than to the other. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR The regular teacher will generally be the person who would be most likely to conduct this experiment, although anyone else having the neces- sary qualifications could do so, since it comes at the beginning of a sub- ject before the students have become accustomed to any one particular person. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 107 TV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE I. Content. a. Difficulties, (i) Equalization Test. Final Tests. What has been said under Experiment No. 4 in this regard, also applies in this case. See p. 101 fF. (2) I'rcliniinary Conferences. What has been said in the above mentioned Experiment under this heading, applies here also. vSee p. 102 tT. ( 3 ) Any other difficulties. We must be on guard so as not to confuse the point at issue in this ex- periment with anything else. \\'e are trying to decide which keyboard is the better for touch typewriting. We are not trying to decide whether touch typewriting is better than sight; that is the subject of an experi- ment by itself. If we do not keep close check on our thinking, we may find that ai the knotty points, we run into the other problem. The requirements of touch typewriting must be taken into account at all times. The teacher must constantly be on guard to see that none of the students watch their fingers during the regular practice ])eriods or at any other time. If a teacher finds that she must keep closer watch on the students who have open keyboards than on the students who have blank keyboards, it should be a consideration in deciding the matter of the value of the one as against the other. Therefore, the teacher in this experiment should be very observant and make record of her efl'orts in keeping stu- Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken with the purpose of trying to decide what proportion of the time in class should be spent in reading back shorthand notes. II. SELECTION OF LABORATORY / 1. Groups Chosen. The pupils on whom this experiment is to be tried should be advanced students in shorthand — students who are taking dictation. Two sections of each group will be needed, and some equalization test will have to be found for determining the sections. We desire to ascertain what procedure we should follow with classes as we find them today, and therefore, we shall not exclude any students except such as necessary in order to equalize the sections. 2. Schools Chosen. a. General Character of Student-body. In this experiment we would like records from as many schools and as many different types of schools as possible. A statement should accom- pany the report of each school, giving some information regarding the type of students tested. b. Accessibilitv. The schools should be accessible to the experimenter as explained on p. 36 fif. c. Co-operation. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 131 The necessary co-operation of all concerned should exist as explained on ]x T,^ tf. 3. Teachers Chosen. The teachers chosen should he sufficiently intelligent to undertake the work and should have the proper attitude of mind, as explained on p. 41 ff. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR I. The regular teacher would seem to be the one best suited to take charge of the class. The students are accustomed to her and would not be disturbed as they would be by bringing in an outsider for the work. One teacher, however, should have charge of both sections, to avoid variation in personality. See p. 44 ft. regarding choice of conductor. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE I . Content. a. Difficulties. ( I ) Pre-preliminary tests. Our difficulties seem to be these : If we devote less time to dictation, it will be more difficult to acquire the speed necessary for the students. If we devote more time to reading, they should be able to read more rapidly. And vice versa. We have two varying factors in the consideration. \\'e must make one of them constant and permit the other to vary. It would seem logical to make the dictation factor constant and let the reading factor vary. But how can we accomplish this? If we had a norm or scale in shorthand, showing the amount of speed that should be gained each month, etc., it would solve our problem quickly. In the absence of such a scale it will become necessary to arbitrarily set a certain number of words of dictation per minute, as the increase in the writing ability of the students for say one month. The dictation given to both sections is to have that objecti\e in mind. The dictation should be given at the same rate to both sections. One section, however, devotes 132 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH more time to reading back than the other, which means, of course, that it devotes less time to taking dictation. The test at the end of the month is to ascertain which section can best read its notes, taken at the required speed for that month. To find out which section can best "read its notes" we could use either of the two methods following: The most accurate but least practical method (because it takes too much time of the teacher) would be to have the students read back their notes privately to the teacher, the teacher having stop watch in hand and noting the time required to do the reading. A less accurate method would be to have the students transcribe their notes on the typewriter. This would not be purely a reading test. It would also involve a person's ability to typewrite quickly. If this method is used, the result would have to be expressed in a ratio representing the person's speed on the typewriter while transcribing his notes. His speed in copying from a printed page w^ill usually be considerably greater than his ability to copy shorthand notes — at least it would be so with advanced students. It is his inability to read his notes more quickly that hinders him from attaining the same speed in transcription as in copying printed matter. Three lo-minute speed tests from copy matter, using Interna- tional Typewriting Contest Rules, ought to give a fair idea of the student's absolute speed on the machine. (See Typewriting Experiment No. i, page 71. for further details on conducting such tests.) Three letters of say 100 words each, taken at the designated speed for the month, and transcribed just as fast as the student can do so, ought to give a fair idea of his transcription speed. The average of the three in each of these cases, should be taken. In the transcription tests we should not count typogra- phical nor mere spelling errors (except where the spelling indicates that the student did not read aright) and the student should be so told. If we divest the tests of all these things, we will more nearly approach the stu- dent's real reading ability. There should be an EQUALIZATION TEST at the beginning of the experiment, based on reading ability at a given speed in dictation. The sections should be formed on the results of this test. If the students are to read back their notes orally to the teacher in pri- vate, she will take the time required by means of a stop watch and note the speed of reading each of the three letters. The average we shall call the student's reading speed, and from this we shall make up the sections. The dictation would all have to be given at one time, and the students w'ould be required to put their notes out of sight until their turn came. How disturbing an element the wait would be for the last ones called up. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 133 is hard to tell. A pre-preliminary test along that line should shed some light on that point. The waiting-period would he shortened if several teachers could hear the reading. If the students are to transcribe their notes, we shall have to form the sections on the basis of the ratio of the transcription speed to their copying speed. It w t)uld prove interesting to ascertain whether the sections would be made up just the same, no matter which method were used. A pre-limi- nary test should be conducted to determine this. The FINAL TESTS, given at the end of the prescribed time, would have to be taken in the same way, and scored accordingly. In the case of the transcription basis, the average speed in copying printed matter should again be obtained, and this figure used in the ratio. The student has had time to increase his absokite speed and the ratio would not be correct if the equalization test speed were taken. In the case of the oral reading, we would have to get some sort of mark- ing basis for judging. Possibly the easiest way would be to use the num- ber of words read per minute minus a certain penalt\- for each word in- correctly read. In typewriting, according to the International Typewrit- ing Contest Rules, 10 points are deducted for each word wrongly written. Would 10 be too great a deduction for each word incorrectly read, the basis being the reading of roo words? Correctness is an essential in the reading, and possibly we cannot penalize too heavily for it because of its importance. To illustrate, the proposition would work out in this way on the above basis. John Jones is in the A section. The A section is taking dictation for half the time and reading back half the time. In the e([ualization test John Jones receives 90, let us suppose ( he read orally to the teacher at the rate of 100 words per minute bitt made one mistake, for which we have penalized him 10 points). In the final test John Jones makes 120. (He read back at the rate of 120 words per minute with no errors). William Snnth is in the B section. The B section is taking dictation for three quarters of the time and reading back for one cpiarter of the time. In the Equalization test William Snnth gets 90, let us say, reading at the rate of 100 words per minute with one word wrong, a penalty of 10, leav- ing 90. John Jones and \\ illiam Snfith were on the same basis at the start. In the final test, however, William Smith gets 80, let us say, for an average. 100 words and 2 errors, making a penalty of 20. As the matter stands John Jones now gets 120 ond William Snfith 80. whereas they were both at the same starting point. Would it be a valid assumption to say that the one section, the B section, is not getting enough reading practice, 134 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH if the records of the rest of the class ran in about the same way? It would seem so. To illustrate the other basis of forming the sections : We find that the average of Jack Green for his three speed tests in copying from printed matter, is 40 gross words per minute. We find that his average for transcribing three 100-word letters is 20 words per minute, allowance hav- ing been made for all errors which are not strictly reading errors, and a penalty of 10 being imposed for each error that is a reading error. We shall say that his beginning speed is 20:40 (or 20/40). Jack Green is put into the A section. Dan W^ilson, who has the same average, 20 140, is put into the B section to balance matters. The A section reads half the time and takes dictation the other half. Jack Green's final average is 30:42. The B section takes dictation three quarters of the time and reads back the other quarter. Dan Wilson's average for the final is 19:43. These records are typical of the respective sections, let us say. Are we justified in saying that the half and half distribution of time is better than the one quarter and three quarters ? Before this experiment is tried on a large scale, a number of pre-pre- liminary tests should be made to try out the several factors that enter into it. In the first place, we ought to try out the division of the periods, that is, half and half, three quarters and one quarter, and any other combina- tions that we may think appropriate. There may be a number of reasons why any one of these cannot be worked from the practical standpoint. Certain combinations would require the re-reading of certain notes too often, as for instance where the dictation period is short and the reading period long. Memorization may take place and no reading, after the first time a letter is read back. On the other hand, it nfight be found that with some classes, if things were reversed, too much time would be given for dictation and not enough for reading, to cover any ground worth mention- ing. Classes dififer so much in their make-up and ability that some sur- prises may be presented to us. After we have found a division of time that works, it could be used as the basis for the experiment on a large scale. The viewpoint is being taken that if measured by time, the experiment would be easier and more accurate and practical than if we measured the amount of work done, which would often be very difficult and might not be very accurate. It would seem better to plan the experiment upon a time basis rather than a quantity basis, for it would be far easier to keep account of one than the other, and it would lessen the opportunity for another varying element to creep in. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 135 Another pre-preliininary test should be made to determine whether or not we can actually make an equalization of sections on the ratio basis, such as 20 :40, etc. There should be no trouble in obtaining the oral reading speed of a stu- dent. It has often been done and some teachers in fact, take that into consideration when making up the shorthand mark for the month. A pre-preliminary experiment ought to be made before trying it on a large scale, because there are several elments in it that seem sound in theory but which might be badly upset by actual trial. Some that have seemed more sound than these, have been upset and consequently even many of the simplest operations should actually be tried out. (2) Preliminary conferences. While the procedure of this experi- ment is rather large in detail, nevertheless it is not exceedingly compli- cated. A teacher of ordinary intelligence should be able to handle it from written instructions. If it is found, however, that this does not work, the experimenter will have to resort to personal conferences with those con- cerned. See also p. 51 ff regarding this. b. Time. This experiment could be conducted during any time of the year when the advanced stenographic students are available. It is not the intention to upset school schedules, and therefore, the classes would meet on the regular days for the subject. In most schools advanced students in .short- hand take the subject every day. A decision will have to be made as to whether the experiment is to con- tinue one month or longer. Dates for equalization and final tests will have to be set. c. Periods. The sections would most likely meet at their regular periods. It will be necessary to change the schedule to make it possible for the one teacher to have both sections. A record should be made as to the programme of the students for the preceding part of the session, at least, as a help in trying to account for differences. See also p. 56 ff. d. Subject-matter. The subject-matter would be the regular shorthand dictation work of 136 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH the class. For the typewriting speed tests from copy matter, any of the material used for the International Typewriting Contests, would do. The same matter should be used in all three final tests. The letters dictatecS for transcription or oral reading should be ordinary business letters, oi about the same degree of difficulty and should be devoid of technical terms. The identical letters should be used in both sections, in the tests, and also in practice work, as far as possible. ( It will not be absolutely possible in practice work because one section gets more dictation than the other, unless we confine ourselves to certain letters, and require the one section to use up their surplus time in going over those as often as neces- sary to use up the time. ) e. Details of Procedure. (i) The instructions should be written out very carefully, so that the assistants may have no difficulty in understanding the matter. Students should be instructed that there is to be no reading of shorthand notes out- side of class. (2) The instructions should state when the experiment will begin and end, and when the tests are to be given. (3) No particular form, order, or method of giving directions to the students is necessary. (4) An accurate record is to be kept of all interruptions, etc., as ex- plained on p. 59 fi. 2. Form. The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all ex])eriments and is covered fully on p. 62 fif. b. SHORTHAND. Experiment No. 4. Intervals of Repetition. I. FORMULATION I. Introduction. a. General Statement. Another practical question that concerns shorthand teachers, especially those who have anything to do with the arranging of a schedule, is the IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 137 folluwing-; "llow often should the various classes meet in order to pro- duce the best results?" Psychology tells us that an idea will remain with us for a certain time. Before the expiration of that i)eriod it can be recalled but after the expira- tion of that period, recall no longer is possible and then it requires re- learning. What is the period for shorthand as it is now taught? We have this situation: Possibly the majorit}- of the teachers believe it would be best if we could have shorthand every day. But that is impossi- ble in many schools for various reasons. Then a choice must be made be- tween twice or three times a week for the subject. Are we agreed to say that three times a week means just three-fifths of the efficiency that could be secured from five times a week? Or that twice a week means two- fifths of the efficiency? It would be interesting, if not instructive, to have some data on this. The present experiment tries to present a method for obtaining information on the relative merits of these methods. b. Survey of Experiments Made. The search has revealed no experiments made in shorthand to determine the interval of repetition, although a number of experiments have been made in psychological laboratories to determine the interval of repetition in general. d. Specific Statement. This experiment is undertaken for the purpose of trying to determine the relative effects of various intervals of repetition in shorthand. II. SELECTION OF A LABORATORY 1. Croups Chusen. h'or this experiment it is suggested that beginners in shorthand be used, and since it is desired to find out how the matter works imder actual con- ditions, all beginners could be admitted into the experiment. 2. Schools Chosen. a. Genera! Character of .Student-body. The investigation should be undertaken in as many schools as possible. 138 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH b. Accessibility. The schools should be accessible to the experimenter, as explained on p. 36 ff. c. Co-operation. The necessary co-operation of all concerned should be assured, as per p. 38 ff. 3. Teachers Chosen. The teacher in charge should be intelligent enough to handle the work. She should also have the proper attitude and interest, as explained on p. 41 ff. III. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR The teacher will most likely be the one chosen for the work, although anvone having the necessary qualifications could do it without injecting a disturbing element. The experiment will be conducted at the beginning of the subject, before the students have had an opportunty to become accus- tomed to any one teacher. See also p. 44 ft', regarding this. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCEDURE I . Content. General Plan in Brief. It would seem that the best wS'y of obtaining our information is to have three sections, each being taught by the same teacher — one section receiv- ing shorthand five times a week (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs- day, and Friday), another three times a week (Monday, Wednesday and Thursday) and the third section twice a week (say jNIonday and Thurs- day or Tuesday and Friday). We w^ould map out a certain amount of the ground to be covered, working it out definitely by lessons. After a cer- tain number of lessons, each section will be tested and the results of this test will be the basis of our judgment. The plan requires that the teacher give the same lesson to each section and cover the same amount of IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 139 ground in each Icssnn. She may hnd that she cannot cover the ground with one or two sections. If the sections had actually been equalized at tht start, the trouble must be due to the interval — too much forgotten from last recitation that must be reviewed each time. It would seem wise in that event to take the section as fast as possible over the work, but no faster than the pupils can stand it, and then compare the ground covered at th:' expiration of the assigned number of lessons. I f a school can have only two sections, it would be better to have it tried on two than not at all. An equalization test should be devised because of the many factors that constitute shorthand ability. In the absence of such a test, large numbers will have to be used to eliminate individualities. The detailed instructions covering the procedure in the class room should be written. The essential things are : 1. That all sections should have the same teacher so that there is no varying factor in that respect. 2. That she should give the lesson to each section in as nearly the san:e manner as it is possible to give the same lesson to two different groups. We do not want any varying factor in the way the lessons are given nor in the quantity given at a lesson. This leaves the teacher free to choose the method she thinks will best •enable her to teach the class effectively. Naturally, the section having the lessons five times a week will reach the goal much sooner than the others. At the time it does, it should be tested and the same thing should be done with each of the other sections. A .school system may not feel like trying an experiment of this kind for a whole year. In that case a shorter period should be chosen and the sec- tions re-united. This may also be done where a teacher may be willing to carry the extra burden for the time, but could not do it for a year. It would not be very hard work to equalize the sections so that they can be carried on as one class thereafter. It has been said that a teacher could use her own methods in the class room. This is true, but at the same time the teacher should keep a record of her lesson plan so that in case the data is needed when the comparison is made, to shed light on any point, it will be available. a. Difficulties. Final test. I40 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH The final test will consist of a fair examination on the essential points covered up to that time. And these should be minimimi essentials. The experimenter should be very careful to give a test that really tests the thing we are after, namely the student's grasp on shorthand. For in- stance, if it had been decided that the stopping point should be after the alphabet, circles, and loops had been learned, in the Pitman systems, then the student should be expected to know the alphabet ; to know what the circles and loops represent ; when to use the circles and loops, and when to use the stems; how to use them in connection with stems, i. e., where to place them on straight stems and where on curved stems. That would cover the minimum essentials and would seem to be a fair examination to test the attainment of the students to that point. The results should be tabulated for each section, graphed, and compared.. They should also be compared with the results from other schools. It may be that a teacher cannot cover the same work with all the sec- tions. If that is so, a note should be made of it. It wotild help in de- termining the value of several intervals. It would indicate that the inter- val was too long and too much work had to be re-learned. b. Time. The dates of the beginning and end of the experiment should be defi- nitely set, and of course, it will be decided on what days of the week the sections will meet. c. Periods. The periods should be so arranged that none of the sections will be at a disadvantage from fatigue or any other reason. See p. 56 ff. d. Subject-matter. The subject-matter will be the regular shorthand work of the school where the test is given. It will cover a certain portion of the subject like, for instance, the alphabet, or the alphabet, circles, loops, etc. The final test is to be given on the subject-matter covered and should be for mini- mum essentials only. e. Details of Procedure. No special instructions are necessary. IN COMMERCIAL EDUCATION 141 A record should be kept of all attendant circumstances, such as inter- ruptions, weather, etc. See p. 59 ff. 2. Form. The balance of the outline applies uniformly to all experiments and is covered fully on p. 62 ft". b. SHORTHAND. Experiment No. 5. A Method of Predetermining Those Unfit for High Speed in Shorthand. I. FORMULATION I. Introduction. a. General Statement. The object of this experiment is to help those schools which have a very high rate of speed in shorthand, as a requirement for graduation. It is common knowledge that the average business man does not dictate rapidly, that his thoughts do not come to him quickly and that, therefore, in order to be of service in the business world, one does not absolutely re- quire a speed of 100 words per minute. In this experiment it is not the purpose to determine whether or not a person is unfit for a position as a stenographer. Any one of ordinary mentality, it would seem, ought to be able to acquire enough mastery of the principles of a shorthand system, to be able to take shorthand dictation fast enough so that he could do the work for the slowest dictator in the business world. Therefore, let us assume that every shorthand writer will be of some use to the business world, even though he may not be able to earn more than the minimum. But our schools are not satisfied to prepare students for the undesirable positions and, therefore, they have set a high standard for graduation, in many cases making it 100 or 125 words per minute. It is to help decide beforehand, whether or not a person is capable of reaching this speed, that this experiment is undertaken. We would like to know, say, when a person begins to study shorthand, whether or not he will be able, so far as mental or psychologic equipment is concerned, to meet the requirements for graduation. Not that a person after reaching 80 words per minute finds that this is his limit and after spending two or 142 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH three years on the subject, finds that he cannot graduate in that course and must go out and seek a position without graduation. The person might have been able to equip himself for other work without the loss of time entailed, if he could have known sooner, that he could never reach the re- quired speed of lOO words per minute. This would seem to be a question of psychology rather than a question of methods of teaching, and therefore some psychologic test would seem to be the thing required. If there is such a thing as a slow re-action to stimuli and this slow re- action is constantly uniform to all kinds of stimuli, it would be fair to assume that a test of any kind that would give the time necessary for the re-action, would be a proper basis for judging the re-action in the case of the dictation and taking it down in shorthand. There mav, however, be some varving factors, of which we know noth- ing, in this connection, and it would be better, therefore, to get as near the actual situation under consideration as possible — to take something that is actually shorthand work, actually dictation, if such a thing can be found. Shorthand work is out of the question, because by the time the person is able to take it, he is very near the end of his course, and we desire to 1