1 1MB lr . •■ • ■ . . !!ipl!i|i| MB 'ff0'M WBMSi h<£$£i IIH ill ! 1 .■ I ill I! :' : ■: ;: ■ i i ii liiliiiiiiii iliiiiii iiiiiiii i iiiiliiiiisii iluiiiii. '<■ \ ;«$$ The Pronunciation of Standard English in America BY GEORGE PHILIP KRAPP PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS I < ' 1 I ■ Copyright, 1919 by Oxford University Press american branch PRINTED IN THE U S. A BY QUINN ft BODEN COMPANY. INC. RAHWAY, N. J. Kg* PREFACE Whether one thinks this should or should not be so, it is a fact that most cultivated persons in America nowa- days, and an increasing number in England, are more or less self-conscious about their speech. The present very general interest in the practical applications of the science of phonetics is one of the proofs of the truth of this state- ment. With our strange mingling of races, our widely separated but rapidly inter-communicating local units of population, our constantly shifting social boundaries be- tween class and class, it is inevitable that, in America at least, such should be the case. When people become conscious of so familiar an activity as speech, it means that changes are taking place in it. The universal possession of all persons in the land, the rich and the poor, the learned and the unlearned, of farmer, artisan, laborer and merchant, speech is not only the great social solvent which makes the nation one, but also the readiest test by which such differences as exist are measured and known. And where these differences and distinctions arise out of a rapidly developing civiliza- tion, as in America, it is often extremely hard to deter- mine their value. If we had but a single standard of speech, universally accepted and practiced, the task under- taken in this book would be easy, though obviously it would be unnecessary. But we have no standard beyond opinion, which in a democratic society must always be many-headed. If therefore in the following pages the iii IV PREFACE author has been at times less dogmatic than some of his readers think he should have been, his plea is that where there is a diversity of opinion and practice among reason- able people, there must be also an equally broad charity in judgment. Could anything be more absurd than to stigmatize as incorrect a pronunciation which is actually in general use, to put down in a dictionary only one pro- nunciation of a word when several are current among cultivated speakers? All cultivated speakers do not speak alike in America. If we think they should, that is a theory hard to enforce by compelling one group to yield to another. To be sure, opinion may be well-in- formed or ill-informed, and genuine blunders are usually due to lack of information, not to perversity. It is the purpose of this book to provide a rational method of examining pronunciation, the most important of the practical aspects of speech : in order that those who have a conscience in the matter may exercise it with justice both to themselves and to others. The materials of the book have been ordered under the several sounds of the language. To one experienced in phonetics, no other plan would seem possible, and though perhaps at first embarrassed by an unfamiliar method, the untrained student will in the end find this the most profitable way of approach to the subject. The im- portant thing is to acquire skill in hearing sounds as sounds, to be able to think of them as sounds apart from their representation in conventional spelling. The market is plentifully provided with dictionaries, with alphabetical lists of words said to be frequently mis- pronounced. The information contained in these books may or may not be trustworthy, but the best of them can offer little help to the student who wishes to observe the PREFACE V facts for himself and to arrive at his own judgments. And even the fullest of these lists cannot possibly be com- plete or contemporary. Pronunciation changes day by day, and dictionaries soon become antiquated. The in- telligent person is one who makes his own dictionary as he goes along. The author's intention has not been, therefore, to provide exhaustive lists of words which may be mispronounced, but to show how the whole sub- ject should be approached. Such words as are treated, however, will be found in alphabetical order in the index at the end of the book. Wherever a question of choice between two pronun- ciations arises, there is rarely any difficulty in making a choice after the facts are once known. It is the province of a book like this to show students how they may become sure of their facts, not to make their choices for them. The author has endeavored, however, not to make trouble where there really is none. It would have been easy to swell the number of ' mis-pronunciations ' by culling from the lists of books of the twenty-thousand-words- often-mispronounced kind. But most of the words recorded in such books are not mispronunciations. They are merely rare and learned words which few persons ever have any occasion to pronounce. A word can be said to have acquired a pronunciation in the English language only when it is current on the lips of English- speaking people. Otherwise it is an eye-word, without an established phonetic value. The instances discussed in the present volume are such as the author himself has observed. None are taken at second hand from books. Though they may not correspond to every other person's particular observations and special difficulties in pro- nunciation, what they may lack in inclusiveness will VI PREFACE perhaps be compensated for by the fact that they are neither traditional survivals from books nor fanciful dilemmas of a theorist, but genuine records of present speech in America. The professional student of phonetics seems to find it hard to resist the fascination which the game of inventing symbols exerts. The conventional alphabet is obviously inadequate for any scientific purposes, and scores of pho- netic alphabets have been invented to take its place. If a phonetic alphabet is an evil, it is a necessary evil. But moderation should be practiced in the exercise of this evil, for once started, there is obviously no limit to the number of symbols one may devise as records of his observations. It may be said, moreover, that in the end not even the most elaborate phonetic alphabet can record all the shadings and nuances of speech sounds current daily in good use. For one seeking absolute complete- ness and precision, some device, richer in possibilities than an alphabet must be discovered. In this book neither absolute precision nor a very high degree of precision in the notation of sounds has been attempted. The author's aim having been not to elabo- rate, but to simplify as much as possible, it may occasion- ally be felt that certain sounds have gone unrecorded. Thus the alphabet employed provides symbols for only two pronunciations of the vowel in got, hot, not, etc., that is the short of the vowels which appear in the first syllables of father and author. Perhaps a third inter- mediary sound should have been recorded, representing a vowel approximately with the same tongue position as the vowel of father, but with slight rounding of the lips. Likewise the two vowels of a word like city are not quite the same, though they have been indicated in the PREFACE Vll present volume by the same phonetic symbol. Yet again, the initial consonants in pairs of words like haul and heel, gone and geese, call and keel are acoustically different and are organically formed in different ways. The quality of the consonant, in these instances, is dependent upon the vowel by which it is followed. In a word like city, the second vowel may be said to be an unstressed variant of the first. And whenever it is possible to take account of sound variations in this way by means of a general explanatory statement, the author has chosen to do this in preference to adding to the number of symbols. Where one has several relatively slight variations in pronuncia- tion, as in the pronunciation of not, hot, got, etc., the author has again preferred to indicate what might be called the extremes of tendency by means of phonetic symbols, filling in the modifications between these ex- tremes by means of a descriptive statement. No intro- ductory work on phonetics can read like an algebraic formula, or if it did, no one would read it. Perhaps a word of explanation, if not of apology, is needed for the use of the word American as signifying the United States. In this the author is merely following general usage and does not mean to imply that the Eng- lish of Canada either is or should be like the English of the United States. Canada is fortunate in having the adjective Canadian, but we have no adjective form for the United States. If we seem to be appropriating a general term for a specific meaning, we would point out that such is not the case, for American has practically ceased to be a general term. By this same warrant of usage, the term English has been applied to the speech of America, just as it must be applied to every country where the English language is spoken. If a more exact Vlll PREFACE limitation of the general term is required, we must speak of American English, of British English, of Canadian English, of any of the half dozen varieties of English that have established for themselves local homes upon the face of the globe. Geographical limitations in American speech, especially American standard speech, are extremely difficult to determine with precision, and in this book have been indicated only in the most general terms. The reason for this is that American cultivated speech is extraor- dinarily mixed. Relatively few Americans spend all their lives in one locality, and even if they do, they cannot possibly escape coming into contact with Americans from other localities. The result is that a 'pure dialect,' if any such thing ever does exist, must be sought elsewhere than in our much-traveling and very adaptable cultivated and educated classes. The universal negative is the last form of dogmatism upon which the careful student of American speech will insist. It is safer to indulge in a universal affirmative, to say that any pronunciation which may occur in cultivated speech, may occur in any region of America. For several large divisions, especially in the speech of the more obviously typical local repre- sentatives, we have a fairly defined feeling. We can dis- tinguish with some certainty Eastern and Western and Southern speech, but beyond this the author has little confidence in those confident experts who think they can tell infallibly, by the test of speech, a native of Hartford from a native of Providence, or a native of Philadelphia from a native of Atlanta, or even, if one insist on infalli- bility, a native of Chicago from a native of Boston. This means of course that geographical distinctions are ^ not of prime importance in the discussion of standard PREFACE IX American speech. Cultivated Americans do not all speak alike, but on the other hand, they do not move in mutually exclusive and self-centered circles in their habits of speech. Holmes insists, in the Autocrat, that the accent of a word may tell you all you want to know about the origin and possibilities of a person. Perhaps it may, but it is well to remember that such judgments v are likely to place the placer quite as inescapably as they do his victim. The term standard speech, it will thus be seen, has been used by the author without a very exact definition. Everybody knows that there is no type of speech uniform and accepted in practice by all persons in America. What the author has called standard may perhaps be best de- fined negatively, as the speech which is least likely to attract attention to itself as being peculiar to any class or locality. As a matter of fact, speech does not often J attract notice to itself unless it is markedly peculiar. For the most part when one is listening to the speech of others, one is intent upon getting the meaning, not upon observ- ing the form. In consequence there is likely to be, even in what we may justly call standard speech, a considerable area of negligible variation, negligible, that is, from the point of view of the practical use of language. To the conscientious and critical listener, many of these varia- tions may seem reprehensible, but only so by the test of some theoretical or ideal standard. In the following pages, wherever the author has put down a form or several forms of speech without defining them as provincial, or dialectal, or vulgar, or artificial, he would have the usages taken as being, in his opinion, standard, and if two or more differing standard pronunciations are given, the implication intended is that a speaker is as likely to offend X PREFACE as many critical listeners by using one as by using an- other of the pronunciations. Perhaps it is not necessary to say that this book has not been prepared for the purpose of showing the differ- ence between American and British pronunciation, or of proving that either one of these is better than the other. Whenever reference has been made to British pronuncia- tion, the comparison has been made in order to indicate more definitely the facts of American pronunciation. The concern of the book is above all with these facts, and as it cannot well be denied that we have an attained result in the pronunciation of English in America, it would seem that our first obligation is to become aware of the facts, to recognize their existence just as we recog- nize the existence of our other distinctive social institu- tions. On the basis of such knowledge, one may at least intelligently proceed to the building of theories for the improvement of American speech, if one is so moved. Yet it seems scarcely credible that one who knows the facts should think it possible to impose British standards upon American speech, or to do anything but ally himself to the best tendencies, as each observer sympathetically views them, of our native American pronunciation. An important section of the book, to which it is sug- gested that the student give very special attention, is that at the conclusion, consisting of passages in phonetic transcription. These should be carefully studied in de- tail, and every student should make similar transcriptions, based upon his observations. The first five transcriptions here presented as examples are representations of standard pronunciation, as observed and recorded by the author himself. Passages six to twelve are records of the pro- nunciation of several individuals taken down for this PREFACE XI book. They represent varieties of standard pronuncia- tion, the intention being that they should be indicative but not exhaustive of the great number of current forms of standard speech. Passages thirteen to sixteen are phonetic transcriptions of literary records of American dialect speech, and they have been included to afford material for the comparison of standard with dialect speech. Finally passages seventeen to nineteen may be used for a comparative study of British and American speech. In England as in America differing opinions are held on the question of standard speech, though both scholars and general public seem pretty well agreed that Southern British has greater right to be regarded as standard than any other form of British speech. Northern British, however, stands a good deal closer to American English than does Southern British. In fact it is only rather extreme forms of Southern British which seem markedly different from American speech. For permission to reproduce the passage from Jane Eyre, the author acknowledges his obligations to Mr. Daniel Jones, Reader in Phonetics in the University of London. A similar obligation extends to other writers who have permitted him to make phonetic transcriptions of passages from their published works, and a greater to those persons who have submitted to his inquisitions and who have sacrificed time and convenience to enable him to make phonetic transcriptions of their pronunciation. Thanks are due to Professor H. M. Ayres for aid with the proof, and Mr. William Tilly who helpfully criticized some of the opening sections of the book. The author is in- debted also to the members of various classes before which he has lectured in the Summer Session as well as in the regular sessions of Columbia University. If one Xll PREFACE cannot travel everywhere in America, the next best substitute is to be seated at a great city university like Columbia, whither students come from every nook and cranny of the country, eager to impart as well as to receive information. Columbia University May, 1918. CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii Symbols xiv I. The Mechanism of Speech 1 II. Description of Sounds 14 III. Sounds and Their Occurrence 57 Exercises 143 Bibliographical Note 149 Transcriptions 151 Index of Words 213 Xlll SYMBOLS VOWELS Symbol Key Transcription W 710£ [nat] [ai] father ['faitSai] [a:] fast [faist] M hat [hat] [e], [e], [e:] vacation [ve r ke-$9n] late [le:t] [e] get [get] [e:] there [Sen] M about [e'baut] W bird [b9jd] [i], [i], M expediency [eks'pidiansi] freedom ['fridam] free [Mi] M sit [sit] [o], [<>•], [oi] locomotive [^loko'motiv] note [no it] [o] auditory ['odiHon] M law [lo:] [u], [m] altruistic [seltru'istik] true [tnii] M bush [buS] W but [bAt] [a:] hurt xiv [hAit] SYMBOLS XV DIPHTHONGS Symboi , Key Transcription Symbol Key Transcription [ei] play [plei] [an] house [haus] [ai] ride [raid] [01] boil [boil] [oo] go [gou] [ju] mute [mjut] CONSONANTS Symboi , Key Transcription Symbol Key Transcription [b] bib [bib] ['] first [fajst] [d] did [did] M best [best] [g] gw [gig] [z] rise [raiz] W house [haus] Bl wish [wig [J] yawl [joil] [3] pleasure ['ple^si] M king [kiq] [t] talk [toik] [i] land [land] [e] tiling [0ir>] [m] man [ma3n] [6] that [Saet] [n] not, knot [nat] [f] stiff [stif] fo] sing [sir)] [v] drive [draiv] M tap [tsep] [w] wet [wet] M very [veri] [*] whet [Met] : after a sound indicates a long sound, as in father ['fo-ooj], [joil]. • after a sound indicates a half-long sound, as in vacation [ve'ke-$9nj. ' indicates a full or main stress on the following syllable, as in about [a'bautj. k indicates a secondary or half stress on the following syllable, as in bookshelf ['buk v $elf]. j » » THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 1. Before it is possible to discuss intelligently or intelligibly the sounds of any speech, it is necessary to know by just what activities of the speech organs the sounds are formed, and to have some means of symboliz- ing the several sounds with approximate precision, that is, a phonetic alphabet. In this book all phonetic rep- resentations of sounds will be enclosed within square brackets and will immediately follow the conventional spelling when the two are employed together. The phonetic alphabet is that of the International Phonetic Association, with several slight modifications. 2. Though there is a very high degree of similarity in the way in which different persons form the various sounds of speech, all speakers do not necessarily produce what seems to be acoustically the same sound by exactly the same formations of the organs of speech. The prime reason for this is that the physical equipment, for example the number and arrangement of teeth or the angle of the jaws, is not the same in all persons. An experimental method, applied by each person upon himself, is there- fore a necessity in the study of speech. In the end all organic analysis of speech must be an analysis of indi- vidual speech, and one must always make a certain amount of allowance for personal peculiarities, both in one's own speech and in that of others. Extended observation, 1 ■J 2 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA however, enables one to make generalizations which hold f or a very considerable majority of cases. « 3. All speech sounds in English are made by air as it is expelled through the confining walls of the larynx, the mouth and the nose, the specific character of the sound being determined in each case by the special organ or group of organs which function most actively in shaping or obstructing the air passage. English has no indrawing sounds in articulate speech. 4. When all the speech organs are relaxed and the breath is allowed to issue without any constraint, it nor- mally produces no sound, though it may sometimes be heard as breathing or 'heavy breathing/ especially when one breathes with the mouth open or when the nasal pas- sages are abnormally obstructed. When the lips are closed and the breath is expelled forcibly through the nose, it pro- duces the familiar sniff of scorn or contempt, which is of course not an articulate speech sound. Articulate speech sounds are only those sounds which are articulated, or joined, to other sounds in the formation of sound groups or words. The articulate speech sounds of one language are not the same as those of another. French and English, for example, have some sounds which are alike, but in the main, each has its own system of sounds, specially selected from the practically limitless number of sounds which the human organs of speech are capable of produc- ing. 5. Voiced and Voiceless Sounds. When the rift between the vocal chords is so narrowed by the muscles which control the tightening and loosing of the chords that the air from the lungs as it is driven through this rift, known THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 3 as the glottis, sets the edges of the chords into vibration, the result is what is technically known as Voice or Voiced sounds (sometimes called Sonants). When the air issuing from the lungs produces a sound without setting the vocal chords in vibration, the sound is Voice- less (also called Breathed or Surd). The difference be- tween voiced and voiceless sounds is plainly audible to the observing ear. and may be further tested by placing the finger on the Adam's apple, when the vibrations will be distinctly felt in the case of the voiced sounds. In testing consonants in this way, the consonant proper should be distinguished from the vowel that accompanies it in the conventional names of the letters of the alphabet. v/All vowels are voiced, but some consonants are ac- companied by voice, e.g., b [b] in be, d [d] in do, g [g] in go, th [ft] in father, z, s [z] in prize, rise, while others are voiceless, e.g., p [p] in pay, t [t] in tea, k [k] in key, th [6] in thin, c, s [s] in rice, sing. Voiced and voiceless consonants usually go in pairs, that is, [b] represents a voiced sound of which [p] is the voiceless equivalent; so also [d] is voiced, [t] is voiceless; [g] is voiced, [k] is voiceless; [v] is voiced, [f] is voiceless; the medial consonant of pleasure [ r ple39j] is voiced, and its voiceless equivalent is the final consonant of wish [wi$]; th is voiced [tS] in then, but voiceless [6] in thin. It is advisable for students to train themselves carefully in observing the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds so that the distinction be- comes immediately clear with reference to any particular sound as soon as it is heard. 6. Consonants are often written in the conventional spelling with the symbol which ordinarily represents a voiced sound, but the sounds so written are pronounced 4 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA voiceless when they are assimilated to other voiceless sounds in their vicinity, as the final consonant in walked [woikt], stripped [stnpt]; or they are written with the symbol for a voiceless consonant which is assimilated to a neighboring voiced sound, as in eggs [egz]; paths [paiSz]; tags [taegz] as compared with tacks [taeks]; gooseberry ['guiz^beri], in which [s] of goose becomes [z] by assimila- tion to the voiced consonant [b]. 7. Frequently also a consonant which is under a stress and voiceless, becomes voiced when not under the stress, as in exhibition Peksi'bijon], but exhibit [eg'zibit]. It may be stated as a general rule that stress tends to pre- serve voiceless consonants as such, but lack of stress, or relatively light stress, tends to permit them to become voiced. This applies not only to stress within the word, but also to stress in the word group or phrase. Thus of is usually a lightly stressed word in its group, e.g., a man of ability, and its phonetic value is [gv], as in [o 'maen av a'biliti]. The adverb off [o:f] is etymologically the same word, but is stressed and consequently retains its voiceless consonant, as in it fell off [it 'fel 'oif]. 8. The symbol x of the ordinary spelling represents a double consonant sound [ks] as in tax [taeks]; j, 'also sometimes g, represents [ds] as in jug [d3Ag], gem [d3em]; ch stands for [t§] as in chin [t$m]. On the other hand, two symbols are used in the ordinary spelling for [S] [0], as in then [Sen], thin [0in], where the con- sonant is but a simple sound. The spelling q followed by u stands for [kw] as in quick [kwik]. 9. The Mouth. Besides the vocal chords, the organs most actively concerned in the production of speech THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 5 sounds are the tongue, the palate, the teeth, the gums (alveoli), the lips and the nose. The tongue, an extremely flexible combination of muscles, may be moved as a whole, and at the same time one part of it is commonly much more active than the rest. It is necessary to distinguish at least four main surface regions of the tongue, the back, which we may observe as being elevated to form the stoppage producing the initial consonant, a voiceless stop consonant, in call [ko:l]; the front (sometimes also called the middle) which is the region immediately in front of the back and which may be observed as forming the stoppage producing the voiceless stop consonant in kill [kil] ; the blade of the tongue, which is the surface just forward of the front, readily observed as functioning in the production of the vowel sound of seat [si:t]; and finally the point or tip of the tongue, which plays the most considerable part in the production of the sound of d [d], t [t], th [6] [<5]. In the analysis of some of the vowels, it is necessary to divide further the surface regions of the tongue between front and back. The term half-front means a position between front and back but nearer front than back, and half-back means a position between the two but nearer back than front. 10. The vertical position of the tongue as a whole may also be varied, and it is important to distinguish at least three vertical positions, high, mid and low. When the tongue is in high position, the body of it is raised so that it is felt along the roof of the mouth and against the upper teeth, as in the vowel of he [hi:]; when it is in the mid position, as in the stressed vowel of fetter ['fetai], it extends along the middle of the mouth and the point rests against the roots of the lower front teeth; when it 6 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA is in low position, as in the vowel of haul [hoil], the tongue rests on the floor of the mouth and the point touches the lower gums. The surface divisions and the vertical positions of the tongue are important in analyzing both vowel and consonant sounds, but more important for vowels than consonants. A looking-glass should be used as an aid in studying the movements and positions of the tongue. For a more exact analysis of the vertical positions of the tongue, one might consider five positions, as follows, high, high-mid, mid, low-mid, low. 11. Tense and Slack Sounds. One other distinction with respect to the tongue is significant, especially in the study of vowel sounds, that is, the degree of its muscu- lar tension. It may be slack (or relaxed), as in the vowel of sit [sit], or tense (or flexed), as in the vowel of he [hi:]. When the vowel is slack its vertical position is slightly lower than when tense, but not so much so as would follow a general shifting of the body of the tongue. The vowels of he and sit are both high vowels, the former being high blade tense, the latter high blade slack. The sides of the mouth and the lips generally are also likely to be held more firmly in pronouncing a tense than in pronouncing a slack sound. All long and stressed vowels are relatively tenser than short or unstressed vowels. A phonetic alphabet of high precision should have a means for indicating degrees of tenseness, but for practical purposes perhaps these general remarks and those to be found under the discussion of the separate sounds will * prove as useful as an elaborate system of representation, and less distracting. Speakers differ widely in the degree of tenseness and slackness of their sounds, a slow and lazy speaker often having none of the tense vowel sounds THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 7 which are characteristic of a cultivated and vigorous enunciation. The only way of testing the organic dif- ference between tense and slack sounds is by observing the difference in muscular sensation which attends the production of them. By focusing attention upon these sensations, one may become as clearly conscious of muscular tension in the tongue as of muscular tension in the arms or legs. 12. Stops and Continuants. The column of air as it issues may be completely stopped by the organs of speech, with a sudden release or explosion, or only par- tially stopped, with a gradual emission of the breath. When it is completely stopped, the sounds produced are stop consonants (also called explosives, or plosives), e.g., d in did [did], p in pip [pip], b in bib [bib]. When the air passage is only partly obstructed, the sound produced is a continuant consonant, e.g., the sounds represented in the conventional alphabet by r, 1, m, n, th, f , v, s, z, h, ch, sh, y. Stop consonants are instantaneous, but continu- ants share with vowels the possibility of being lengthened indefinitely. The difference between vowel and conso- nant is largely one of degree, a vowel being a sound pro- duced without any notable obstruction of the vocal passage, a consonant, one in which the air current is definitely obstructed, either wholly or partially. Certain vowels, such as the vowel [ii] when pronounced very tensely, or the vowel [u] pronounced with excessive rounding, shade imperceptibly into the continuant conso- nants [j],"[w]. Normally, however, the distinction between vowel and consonant is quite clear. The continuant consonants r, 1, m, n are sometimes called semivowels, and they may constitute syllables by themselves without 8 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA an accompanying vowel, as in winter ['wmtij, table ['teiblj, heaven ['hevn]. Words of this type may, of course, be pronounced with a vowel before the final consonant, that is, ['wmtai], ['teibol], ['hevon], but these would be very formal pronunciations. When a consonant is syl- labic, a dot may be placed under it to indicate this fact. This is not necessary, however, since a consonant which is syllabic will naturally be pronounced so without special direction. 13. Stop consonants, both voiced and voiceless, though especially the latter, are pronounced in English with such a violent explosion of the breath, that they are mechanically followed by a slight, but distinctly audible breath continuant, [h]. A more exact representation of the consonants in dig, toy, etc., would therefore be [d h ig h ], [t h oi], etc. This slight after-sound will not be indicated in the phonetic transcriptions of the present volume, the general statement here made being intended to cover all instances, but the phenomena should be care- fully studied. Note that there is a greater aspiration after an initial than after a final consonant, as in pop; or when a consonant stands alone, as in pool, than when in close combination with another consonant, as in spool, cf. also tin, sting, peach, speech, etc.; or when a consonant bears a relatively heavy stress, than when lightly stressed, as in the two stop consonants of paper, the two [t] sounds of potato, the two [k] sounds of cocoa ; or after a voiceless than after a voiced stop, cf. toe and dough. The extent to which the aspiration is present thus seems to depend upon the degree of intensity or energy with which the explosions are made. With some speakers the aspiration is scarcely audible at all, though such speakers are rare THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 9 and are usually of a somewhat listless habit in speech. On the other hand, an extreme of aspiration is present in some forms of dialect speech, see below, p. 202. 14. In words like better, winter, putty, and in general in words in which a stressed stop is followed by an un- stressed -er, or an unstressed vowel, the stop is sometimes pronounced without aspiration, the final syllable -er being ordinarily represented merely by a syllabic r, i.e., ['beta], ['winti]. But the pronunciation with the stop consonant aspirated is to be preferred. When a voiceless stop is not aspirated, it commonly «sounds like a voiced stop, as in pronunciations like ['windj], ['bedi], ['wodi], ['ledi], fpAdi], for winter, better, water, letter, putty. See § 240. 15. When two stop consonants come together, the first of the two is usually pronounced with an incomplete explosion of the breath. Thus words like looked or be- fogged are not pronounced with a fully formed [k] as in look, or a fully formed [g] as in fog, followed in the former case by [t], in the latter by [d]. If they were, the complete phonetic form of such words would be something like [luk h t h ], [bi'fog h d h ]. What happens is that the organic position for [k] or [g] is assumed, is then held for a moment, the organic position for the following stop being arrived at before any explosion takes place. In consequence, there is only one complete explosion in looked befogged, and many similar consonant combinations. There is, however, a very slight fricative consonant sound, a kind of [h], which is heard after the vowel and before the pause. Analytically, a word like looked would consist of the initial consonant, the vowel, the slight frictional glide before the stop position for [k] is completely assumed, a 10 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA pause, and finally the explosion which produces [t]. See §346. 16. Palate and Nose. The palate may be considered as composed of two parts, the soft-palate (or velum), at the back of the mouth, and the hard-palate, which forms the concave roof of the mouth. In front of the hard- palate lies the bony ridge of the alveoli or gums. The hard-palate is immovable, but the soft-palate is subject to muscular control and can be raised or lowered at will. When it is raised, as for the most part it is in speaking, it closes the entrance to the nasal canals, hence the name velum, 'veil.' When it is lowered, the air is permitted to pass through the nose, as in breathing or in the produc- tion of the nasal consonants n [n] as in sin [sin], m [m] as in him [him], ng [n] as in song, sing [son], [sin]. In pro- nouncing a nasal consonant, no breath is permitted to escape through the mouth, but the current is stopped either at the lips, as in [m], or within the mouth by the pressure of the tongue against the front of the roof of the mouth, as in [n], or further back, as in [n]. " 17. Nasal Vowels. English has no nasal vowels in recognized good use, though with many speakers in America, almost all the vowels, but especially the low and mid slack vowels, are nasalized, and at the same time are lengthened or 'drawled,' see §§ 80-82, 128. The nasal pronunciation of vowels is usually the result of a lazy and unenergetic enunciation. It is by no means peculiar to American speech, but is heard in England, if not as generally, often quite as markedly as in America. Since nasal vowels result from lowering the velum and thus permitting air to issue through the nose as well as the mouth, a good way to test their presence in one's THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 11 speech is to hold the nostrils shut while pronouncing the vowels. If one finds that one's vowels are the same, whether one holds the nostrils shut or does not, there can be no nasalization in the sounds. But if one finds that one produces a different vowel sound when one holds the nostrils shut from that which is produced when one does not, this means that the vowels are nasalized, the peculiar quality of the sounds in the first case being due to the fact that the air which normally escapes through the nose in pronouncing a nasal vowel is obstructed artificially by the pressure of the fingers on the nostrils. This produces the peculiar 'twang' described in the next paragraph. The fault of nasalization is one merely of/ habit and can be corrected by practice. It is most likely to occur in vowels which precede or follow a nasal consonant, whether [m], [n] or [rj], but with many speakers it is heard also in vowels not in nasal surroundings. Nasalization of vowels is so general in American speech that it often passes unnoticed, and is often present in the speech of persons who are quite unaware of the fact and who can be made to realize it only after much patient observation. Some speakers who do not ordinarily nasalize vowels are inclined to do so when they are tired. 18. Another kind of faulty nasal speech is sometimes heard in speakers who pinch together the walls of the nose at its outlet, raising the upper lip and tightening all the muscles of that region of the face, the result being a peculiar ' twang ' or resonance which is immediately corrected by relaxing these muscles and allowing the breath to issue freely from the nose in pronouncing nasal consonants, and in the case of vowels, by raising the velum so that the air does not enter the nasal canals at all. This 12 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA kind of nasalization is less common than that described in the preceding paragraph, though it is marked in some types of American dialect speech. 19. The 'talking through the nose' of a person with a cold in the head is not truly described by this phrase, for one of the main characteristics of this supposed talking through the nose is that the velum and the nasal passages being inflamed and swollen, the nasal channels are ob- structed mechanically, and the escape of the breath through the nose, which takes place when the velum is lowered in pronouncing a nasal consonant, or when it relaxes normally after the pronunciation of other conso- nants or a vowel, is prevented. The result is that in- stead of n [n], one with a cold will pronounce something like [d], and for m will pronounce [b], and for [rj] will pronounce [g], as in [gud 'boidig] for good morning; [sprig, ^edtl sprig] for spring, gentle spring; [q koild id bai do:z] for a cold in my nose. 20. The Lips. The form of the lips is also to be noted, especially in studying vowel sounds, and is easily ob- served. They may be drawn back (wide or spread) as they are in pronouncing the vowel of he, see, tea, etc., or they may be rounded (protruded or pouted) as they are in pronouncing the vowel of too, do, blue, etc. When they are neither wide nor rounded, but are in the normal position of rest, as in the first vowel of father, or the first vowel of about, they are said to be neutral. Various stages of widening are to be observed between neutral position and the extreme wide position of tea, and like- wise various degrees of rounding between neutral posi- tion and the extreme rounding of too. Even a slight shift from one position to another may modify the quality THE MECHANISM OF SPEECH 13 of a vowel. Many speakers tend to move their lips very little, and almost all English sounds can be made audibly, though monotonously and not clearly, with practically no motion of the lips. A clear and distinct enunciation, however, demands an active muscular control of the lips. II DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 21. Voiced Stops. The phonetic symbols for the voiced stops are [b], [d], [g]. The first of these is a voiced bilabial stop, as in beet [biit], baby ['beibi], bib [bib]; the second is a voiced point alveolar stop, as in do [dm], shady ['Jeidi], did [did]. The character of the sound represented by [g] varies considerably according to the quality of the vowel sounds with which it is combined. With a back vowel, as in the word gong [gon], the sound is a voiced back soft-palate stop. When the vocalic surrounding is front, as in geese. [gi is], fatigue [fae'tiig], the consonant is a voiced front hard-palate stop. The shading from the extreme of the back sound to the ex- treme of the front sound is gradual in differing combi- nations. As the front or back quality of this sound is dependent upon the vowel with which it is combined and is necessarily determined by it, in the interest of economy in the alphabet one symbol, [g], will be used in this book for all shades of the sound. 22. Voiceless Stops. The phonetic symbols for the voiceless stops are [p], [t], [k]. They are the voiceless equivalents of [b], [d], [g], the first being a voiceless bilabial stop, as in pay [pel], pope [poip]; the second a voiceless point alveolar stop, as in hit [hit], debtor ['detdi]. As with [g], the character of the sound repre- sented by [k] is determined by vocalic surrounding. In 14 DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 15 call [koil], the initial consonant is a voiceless back soft- palate stop, but in keel [kill] it is a voiceless front hard- palate stop. 23. Fricative Continuants. The term 'fricative con- tinuants' designates those consonants which produce an acoustic effect of whistling, hissing, puffing, 'rolling/ or merely 'rough breathing.' They are of several varieties and must be described separately. 24. [h] represents the voiceless glottal fricative and the voiceless front fricative. As a voiceless glottal fricative, [h] is produced with the tongue lying neutral on the floor of the mouth, as it does in normal breathing, but with the glottis so narrowed by a partial closure of the vocal chords that the air in passing between them causes an audible friction. If the vocal chords were drawn close together and the glottis quite closed, the air forcing its way through would set the chords vibrating and thus produce a vowel sound. Thus in the exclamation Ha! [ha:], the only change which takes place in the transition from the consonant to the vowel is a change at the glottis, which changes from half -closed in [h] to closed in [a:]. When [h] precedes a vowel the formation of which re- quires a departure of the tongue from that position of almost complete rest which it occupies in [a], the tongue position is assumed for the vowel even while the conso- nant is being pronounced, as in hat [hset]. And in general one may say that there are as many varieties of [h] as there are varieties of vowels before which it may stand. Before the high vowels, however, the glottal friction tends to be replaced by a friction made in the mouth, and [h] standing before a strongly stressed [ii], as in heed [hi id], becomes a voiceless front fricative, formed by 16 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA pressing the front of the tongue so hard against the palate that the air in escaping produces a consonantal noise. The main differences between [ii] and [h] in heed are that in the consonant the tongue is pressed closer to the palate, therefore forms more of an obstruction to the cur- rent of air, and that the consonant is voiceless, the vowel voiced. The voiceless front fricative is still more un- mistakeably heard in words like hue, hew, Hugh [hju:], huge [h]u:d3], humor ['hjuimaj]. It is both unnecessary and impracticable to record all shades of [h], and the one symbol will be here used to cover all varieties of the sound. 25. [j] represents the voiced front fricative, formed with the front of the tongue raised close to the hard-palate, the sound made by the breath escaping through the nar- row opening being accompanied by vibration of the vocal chords. Before a back vowel, as in yawl [joil], the [j] is formed slightly farther back than it is before a front vowel, as in yield [jiild], but the difference is not great. This sound is not strongly consonantal in English. The tongue position for it is almost the same as for [i], and this vowel slightly raised and intensified passes over into [j]. It is the first element in the so-called 'long u' sound, as in music ['mjurzik], pure [pjuu], etc. It is commonly represented in the ordinary spelling by y. 26. [m] may be described as a voiceless, back, lip- rounded fricative. The tongue is raised at the back, the lips are rounded so as to reduce the opening of the mouth, thus causing a friction that produces a slight whistling sound. Its corresponding voiced form is [w], though [m] is slightly more whistling than [w], the lips being more pursed and the breath expelled more ener- getically. The usual spelling for [ai] is wh, as in whit DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 19 narrow stream over the tongue and between the teeth. It may be described, therefore, as a voiceless, blade- alveolar point post-dental fricative. It appears in words like sin [sin], sieve [siv], cell [sel], psalm [sa:m], receive [ri'siiv], fancy ['faensi]. 34. The difference between normal [s] and a sharp, hissing sound sometimes heard for s is that in the latter the teeth are tightly closed, the tongue tense, and the breath sent forth with greater force than it is in [s]. In cultivated speech, [s] is a gentle rather than an energetic sound. 35. [z] is formed in the same way as [s], with the addition of voicing. The tongue may be very slightly lower and more relaxed in pronouncing [z] than it is in pronouncing [s]. The sound is commonly written as z or s, as in zinc [zirjk], zealous ['zelas], dizzy ['dizi], his [hiz], beds [bedz], music ['mjuizik]. 36. When [z] occurs at the end of a word, the sound is really composed of two parts. The main part is the voiced continuant represented by the symbol [z], but at its conclusion the sound changes from voiced to voiceless, from [z] to [s]. In their treatment of [z], some speakers, usually those of foreign tradition, have a very ' buzzing ' kind of pronunciation, due to the fact that their final [z] is pronounced voiced throughout. This makes the sound seem unusually long, though its peculiarity lies not in its length, but in the lack of the voiceless ending which is present in standard speech. 37. [$], as in ship [$ip], wish [wi$], chip [t$ip], shawl [Soil], bush [bu$], mission ['mi$n], ['mi$an], may be de- scribed as a voiceless, blade-dental point-alveolar frica- 20 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA tive. The blade of the tongue presses against the sides of the middle upper teeth, closing the openings there, the point almost touches the upper gums, the teeth are closed, and the breath issues along the channel between the tongue and the roof of the mouth through the openings between the upper front teeth. The channel through which the breath issues is broader than it is in pronounc- ing [s]. The sound is represented in a great variety of ways in conventional spelling, see § 327. 38. [3], as in pleasure ['ple39i], decision [di's^n], judge [d3Ad3J, is the voiced equivalent of [$]. It has no letter of its own in the conventional alphabet and is indicated in spelling in various ways, see §§ 328 ff. 39. [r] is produced by raising the body of the tongue so that the sides of it press against the upper teeth, tilt- ing the point of the tongue so that it just barely touches the bony ridge of the gums, and allowing the breath to escape with a distinctly audible friction over the point of the tongue and between the teeth, which are slightly open. It may be described, therefore, as an alveolar r, with reference to the position of the tongue. The vocal chords are in vibration and the lips are slightly drawn back. The breath escapes with considerable force be- tween the up-tilted point of the tongue and the alveoli, and it is here that the consonantal friction in [r] is pro- duced, not as the air passes between the teeth. The tongue positions for [r] are somewhat similar to those for BL feL DU t m M the teeth are open, in [$], [3] the upper and lower teeth are generally in close contact. 40. This is the sound commonly heard in American speech for r initially, as in red [red], between vowels, as DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 21 in very [Veri], and after consonants, as in dress [dres]. '' Before proceeding further with the consideration of various other kinds of r, the student is advised to observe extensively the occurrence of [r] in the three positions just mentioned in different words, and to study the sound itself so as to be able to distinguish the consonantal from the vocalic element in it. A voiceless r, which is merely frictional, should be compared with the voiced fricative [r], as for example the tr of tread pronounced separately without voicing as compared with red, read (preterite of the verb), pronounced [red] with voicing. 41. A trilled or rolled r, though not very common in American speech, is sometimes heard, especially for r between vowels, as in very, hurry, etc. It is commonly cultivated in stage pronunciation on the ground that it carries better than the fricative r. It is also cultivated by telephone operators in the pronunciation of three. It is formed by causing the point of the tongue to tap or vibrate against the gums, once or more, and in highly- developed forms of trilled r, a considerable number of times. This sound is so rare in American speech that it has not seemed necessary to provide a special symbol for it. It may be regarded as a variant form of [r]. 42. [j] is also a voiced sound, but the friction accom- panying the vocalic element is so slight that one might hesitate to group it with the fricatives, or with the con- sonants at all. Its orthographic representation, however, is r, and it is commonly thought of as being a variety of this sound. In pronouncing [i] the point of the tongue is not tilted as high as in [r], but if it were permitted to touch the roof of the mouth, which it does not do, it would strike 22 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA the region just back of the upper teeth and in front of the place where the concavity of the roof of the mouth begins. It is commonly heard in American speech before con- sonants and finally, as in part [pant], hard [hand], heard [hajd], cord [kojd], fir, fur [fsj], demur [di'maj], car [kau], dinner ['dmai], color ['kAlai], never ['nevaa], etc. There is less friction in the pronunciation of [j] than of [r], the space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth be- ing greater, and some phoneticians do not recognize any consonantal value for orthographic r before consonants and finally. It is true that [j] is regularly omitted by some speakers, especially in the East and South in Amer- ica, when it is final or stands before another consonant, the difference between taw and tore, pot and part, so far as there is one with such speakers, being altogether a difference of vowel quality or length. In unstressed position, as in never, the word ends, in this manner of speech, with the vowel [a], as in ['neva]. A word like part consists, in this pronunciation, of only three ele- ments, [p], [a:] and [t], giving [part]. But in all regions of the United States, especially away from the Atlantic sea- board, an orthographic r commonly has phonetic value before consonants and when final. Whether one calls this sound which is heard a consonant or not is of little importance, provided the existence and quality of the sound itself are recognized. Its presence can be easily demonstrated by observing the tongue positions in pro- nouncing a word like part. This word, in American pronunciation which is not typically Eastern, contains four elements, the first and last being stop consonants, the second and third resulting from a shifting of the tongue from mid to high position accompanied by curving or tilting of the point. In never, when the word ends DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 23 only in a vowel, as in Eastern American pronunciation, the tongue position at the conclusion of the word is that of [a], that is mid position, with the point of the tongue touching or on a level with the lower front teeth. With those, however, who are said to pronounce their r's, the word ends with the tongue in high position and the tip of the tongue on a level with the roots of the upper teeth, giving ['nevai]. The difference between [r] and [j] may- be tested by pronouncing the word never by itself, and then by letting it be followed by rains, as in it never rains. Of course if one has no final r, this would be simply [it 'neva reinz]. But if one pronounces final r's, the final consonant of never cannot simply be carried over, like a long consonant (see § 83), to satisfy the demand for the initial consonant of rains. A slight modification in articulation is observable in pronouncing the two r's, which is adequately represented, however it be named, by the two phonetic symbols [j] and [r]. 43. Some speakers, especially those of an unenergetic habit of enunciation, pronounce [j] for [r] even in the stressed initial position, between vowels, and after con- sonants. The pronunciation of [r] for [j], that is a strongly fricative consonant finally and before other consonants, as in fnevar], [pairt], etc., is current in localities, but is not general in standard American English. 44. Another variety of r is heard, especially in the North Central states and in the Middle West, which is produced by bending back the point of the tongue so far that if it actually came into contact with the roof of the mouth, it would strike about the middle of the hard- palate. This is often spoken of popularly as ' guttural r,' though it would be truer to the facts to call it a hard- 24 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA palate r, or simply, back r. Dialect story writers usually represent it by doubling the spelling, as in corrn, farrm, etc. The sound is often so marked in the regions in which it occurs as to constitute as distinct a dialect feature as the loss of [j] before consonants and finally is for the Atlantic seaboard. Speakers who have this back [r] are often said to 'roll their r's,' though as a matter of fact there is no more rolling or tapping of any of the organs of speech in pronouncing this r than there is in pronounc- ing the common [r], [i]. It is, however, sometimes pro- longed. Englishmen and Eastern Americans often find this sound offensive. 1 45. Lateral Continuants. Lateral or side continuants are represented in standard English only by 1 [1], as in land [land], million ['miljan], all [oil]. In forming this sound the point of the tongue is placed against the roots of the upper teeth, and the blade against the gums, which means that the whole body of the tongue lies in high position; the sides of the tongue are free and the air issues through the narrow channels at the sides of the mouth between the tongue and the cheeks. Normally the breath issues through both sides of the mouth, but the sound may be produced with the channel open only on one side of the mouth. Some speakers curve back the point of the tongue in producing this sound, so that the point 1 "She [one of the characters in a Mississippi Valley story who has returned home after having been ' cultured up ' in the East] did not say 'charrmed' like an alarm clock breaking out. She did not trundle his name [Orson Carver] like a wheelbarrow. Tudie rolled the 'r' on his eardrums as with a drumstick, and by contrast the sound came to him as: 'Misterr Carrverr comes from Harrvarrd. He calls it Havvad.' " — From "A as in Father," by Rupert Hughes, In a Little Town, p. 364. DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 25 presses against the front part of the hard-palate. It makes little difference in acoustic effect whether the breath issues through only one or through both sides of the mouth, but the curving back of the point of the tongue so that it presses against the hard-palate produces a variety of [1] which is not current in standard speech. This [1] is particularly noticeable when it is preceded by i or e, as in hilly, sell and similar words, the curving of the tongue for 1 affecting also the vowels and producing pronunciations somewhat like fhali], [sal]. It is notice- able also in final unstressed syllables, as in table, moral, feeble, people, and it is this ' dark ' or ' thick ' 1, as it may be described, which writers of the popular dialect some- times indicate by a spelling like peepul for people. It is a sound to be avoided in cultivated speech. 46. The quality of [1] in standard speech is not quite the same when it stands in the neighborhood of a front sound, as in lit [lit], ill [il], as when it stands in the neigh- borhood of a back sound, as in law [loi], all [oil]. The consonant takes color to some extent from its vocalic surrounding, and one may speak of a front and a back [1]. The difference is not so important, however, as to call for separate symbols for the two qualities. The sound is usually voiced, though it may sometimes be voiceless when it follows a voiceless consonant in an unstressed position, as in hospital ['haspitl], ['hospitl]. 47. Because of its vocalic character, [1] sometimes constitutes a syllable without any accompanying vowel, as in middle ['midl], table ['teibl], battle ['bsetl], special ['spe$l], not ['midol], ['teibol], ['bsetol], ['spejol], except in a very formal pronunciation. 26 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 48. Nasal Continuants. The nasal continuants are [m], [n], [rj], as exemplified respectively in may, no, song and sing. In [m] the lips are closed, the tongue is quiescent, the velum lowered, and the vocal chords in vibration, producing a bilabial nasal voiced continuant. In [n] the stoppage in the oral passage is made by the point of the tongue pressing against the upper gums, as in [d], the velum is lowered, allowing the air to pass through the nose, and the vocal chords vibrate, producing a point alveolar nasal voiced continuant. In [rj], as in song [son], the back of the tongue presses against the forward part of the soft-palate, forming a back soft-palate voiced nasal continuant. In sing [sin] the front of the tongue presses against the hard-palate, forming a front hard-palate voiced nasal continuant. The grades of [rj] correspond in formation to [g], with the addition of nasalization, and as in the case of [g], [k], [h], only one symbol, [n], will be used for all shades of this sound. 49. Compound Consonants. The initial and final con- sonants in church, judge, call for no special symbols, since ch is a combination of [t] and [§], and may therefore be written [t$], and j, dg, is a combination of [d] and [3], therefore written [d3]. It should be observed that th of the ordinary spelling does not stand for a double con- sonant, but for a sound which is as single as the sound of [s] or [f] or [z], and is therefore represented by a simple symbol, [t$] or [$]. See § 8. 50. Vowels. In analyzing the vowels, one must con- sider (1) the vertical position of the tongue, whether high, mid, or low; (2) the region of the tongue which is most elevated in producing the several vowels, whether the DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 27 back, the front, a region between the back and front, the blade, or point, though the point is rarely of significance in vowel formation; (3) the degree of tenseness of the tongue, whether tense (flexed) , or slack (relaxed) ; (4) the presence or lack of rounding of the lips. The tongue may lie also in altogether neutral position, with no part par- ticularly active, in which case it is said to be flat. In describing the vowels it will be clearest to start with the high front vowels as the ones whose method of formation is most easily observed. It is easy to analyze the vowels at the extremes, like [i:] in see [si:], which is the highest and farthest front of all vowels, or [o:] in saw [so:], which is the lowest and farthest back of all English vowels. As one approaches the mid and front positions of the tongue, however, the analysis becomes increasingly difficult, and vowels like [e] in set [set], [e:] in there [oeii], [a] in hut [hAt], [a:] in hurt [hA:t], with the r silent, [ad] in hat [haet], [a:] in fast [fa:st], [a] in hot [hat] differ from each other very slightly both in acoustic effect and in organic method of formation. Even slight variations, however, are often sufficient to draw attention to differing manners of pronunciation. 51. [i]. High blade tense wide. The body of the tongue is raised as high as it can be in the production of any English vowel sound. The blade and front are pressed up close to the hard-palate, the muscles of the tongue and the cheeks are tense or flexed, and the sides of the mouth are drawn back, making the lips wide. The point of the tongue rests against the backs of the lower teeth, as it does in almost all English vowel sounds. The mouth is open and the teeth apart about the space of the thick- ness of the tip of the little finger. This vowel may be 28 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA short or half-long, as in completely [kom'plrtli], deify ['di-i v fai], beatific pbia'tifik], seasonable ['srzanabl], or long, as in seed [si id], see, sea [si:], deceive [di'siiv], seethe [si:<5]. There is no difference in quality between [i] and [ii], though when final, [i:] may become somewhat diphthongal, see § 76. 52. [i]. High blade slack neutral. This vowel is formed exactly like [i], except that the muscles of the tongue and cheek are relaxed, and the lips are allowed to fall into neutral position. It is always a short vowel, and examples of it are found in sit [sit], city ['siti], finish ['fmi$], cylinder ['silandai]. When the tongue is relaxed in [i], it becomes slightly lower than it is in pronouncing [i]. In the two syllables of a word like city, the vowel is represented by the same symbol, though as a matter of fact, [i] in unstressed position is slightly lower than [i] in the stressed position. Separate symbols might be used to indicate this, or one may speak descriptively of [i] in unstressed syllables as being more open or lower than [i] in stressed syllables. It is the open [i] which is frequently heard in unstressed initial and final syllables, as in decide [di'said], begin [bi'gin], added ['aedid], basket ['bseskrtj. The vowel [i] also appears as the second element in diphthongs, see §§ 71, 72, 75. 53. [e]. Mid front tense wide. The whole body of the tongue falls a little into mid position in passing from the two preceding sounds to this sound. The point of the tongue touches the bases of the lower teeth, but the front is arched so that it touches the sides of the upper teeth. The tongue and cheek muscles are flexed, and the lips are wide, though not so wide as in [ii]. The jaw drops a little from the position for [i], so that the distance between the DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 29 teeth is about the thickness of the index finger. This vowel may be short or half-long, as in vacation [ve- 'ke-$9n], patriot ['pe-tmt], fatally ['fe-tali], complacent [kam'ple-sent], or long, as in raid [reid], fade [feid], place [pie is]. There is not usually any difference of quality between [e] and [ei], though the latter tends to become diphthongal when final or before voiced consonants and under full stress, see §§ 71, 207. 54. [e]. Mid front slack neutral. This sound occupies the same position relative to [e] that [i] does to [i]. It is always a short vowel in English, as in set [set], said [sed], medicine ['medisin], debt [det], perish ['pen$], ferry ['fen], guess [ges], led, lead (noun) [led], dense [dens], trench [trentj]. 55. [ei]. Mid half-front slack neutral. This is a long vowel which occurs only before r in stressed syllables, and is represented in spelling by e, ei, ea, a, ai, as in there, their [tfeu], pare, pair, pear [pen], fair, fare [feu], lair [leu], tear (verb), tare [ten], fairy ['feiri], Mary ['me in], chary ['t$ein], wary ['we in]. The vowel is really slightly lower than [e] and is formed slightly farther back, that is, it is a half-front vowel, but it is represented here by the same symbol, with the mark of length added, to avoid increasing the number of symbols. As [e] is never long, and [ei] occurs only in the position before r in stressed syllables, no confusion between the two sounds is likely to occur. Instead of pSen], [pen], etc., those speakers who do not pronounce their final r's have [<5eia], [peia], etc. 56. [se]. Low front slack wide, as in hat [haet], has [hsez], fashion ['fae$n], laggard ['lsegsid], and very common 30 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA in American pronunciation in words like path [pae#], fast [faest], dance [dsens], etc., see §§ 124-130. In words of this latter type, the vowel sometimes becomes long, but ordinarily in standard pronunciation it is short. The tongue is in slightly lower position than it is for [ei], but is not as low as it can be made to be. To be more exact, one might describe its position as low-mid. The point of the tongue rests against the lower gums, but the front is raised and is felt lightly touching the lower edges of the upper teeth. The muscles of the tongue are relaxed, but the sides of the mouth are slightly drawn back, producing a very slightly wide lip formation. The mouth is open wide enough to enable one to insert the tips of the little and ring fingers. 57. [a]. Low half-back slack neutral, as in father ['faifiai], palm [pa:m], and, in the pronunciation of some Americans, fast [faist], dance [damts], [dams], calf [kaif], etc. In these words the vowel is long, but the short vowel, with a difference only in quantity from the long, is commonly heard in America in words of the type of hot [hat], not [nat], pod [pad], stop [stap], etc. The tongue is low in the mouth, though not quite so low as in [oi], and the tip touches the lower gums. The part of the tongue which is raised is back, but not so far back as in sounds like [o], [o], [oi], with which [a] should be compared. It lies between the back and front surfaces of the tongue, but a little closer to back than to front and is therefore described as half-back. The tongue muscles are relaxed, and the lips are at rest or neutral. The space between the teeth is sufficiently wide to enable one to insert the index and middle fingers. The teeth are farther apart and the mouth more open in pronouncing DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 31 this vowel than they are in uttering any other English vowel. 58. [a]. Low half-front slack slightly wide. This sound is widely current, especially in artificial speech in America, as a compromise vowel between [a:] and [ae] in words of the type of fast, calf, dance, grass, etc., which are pronounced as [faist], [kaif], [damts], [dams], [grais], or [fsest], [ksef], [dsents], [dsens], [graes], or [faist], [kaif], [damts], [dams], [grais], etc. In these and similar words the vowel is commonly long. As a short vowel the sound occurs only as the first element in the diphthong [ai], see §§ 72, 209. The tongue position is the same as for [a], except that the part which is elevated is slightly more forward than for [a] ; it is not a front sound, but is nearer to front than back position and is therefore described as half-front. The lips are slightly retracted or widened, and with some speakers, especially those who use the sound consciously, the muscles of the tongue and cheek are likely to be somewhat tense. The sound has acquired unusual importance in the discussion of American usage because it is so often cultivated as an artificial refinement in certain words which in natural, unconscious use have [a:] or [se]. 59. [u]. High back tense rounded, as in mood [muid], tube [tjuib], juice [d3u:s], where it is long, or musician [mju'zi$n], ludicrous ['ludikras], where it is short or half- long. There is no difference in quality between the long and the short vowel, though the long vowel sometimes tends to become diphthongal, see § 76. The tongue is raised high, with the back part of it touching the soft- palate. From the back forward the tongue slopes down until the point touches the lower gums. The muscles of 32 STANDAKD ENGLISH IN AMERICA the tongue are moderately tense. The lips are protruded and distinctly pouted or rounded. The teeth are about as far apart as they are for [i], perhaps a little farther. 60. [u]. High back slack rounded, as in bush [bu§], full [ful], book [buk], good [gud]. The positions of the vocal organs are the same as for [u] except that the muscles are relaxed and the vowel is therefore slightly lower. It is normally only a short vowel, though some speakers might pronounce it long before [j], in words like poor, moor, lure, etc. 61. [o]. Mid back tense rounded, as in notable ['no-tobl], notation [no'te*$on], devotional [di'vo-$onl], where it is short or half -long, or note [no:t], spoke [spoik], rode, road [roid], where it is long. There is commonly little difference in quality between' [o] and [o:] in American speech, though [oi] tends to become diphthongal under certain conditions, see § 74. The tongue is in mid po- sition in producing this vowel, the back elevated towards the soft-palate, the forward surface sloping down until the point touches the lower gums. The muscles of the tongue are moderately tense, and the lips are rounded slightly less than for [u]. This sound should be compared with [a], [ai]. 62. [oj. Mid back slack rounded, as in authority [o'0orrti], long [Ion], song [son], and in many words in which usage varies between [o] and [a], as in positive ['pozrtiv] or ['pazitiv], hot [hot] or [hat], dog [dog] or [dag], etc. It is normally a short vowel in standard pro- nunciation, and its method of formation is the same as that of [o] except that the sound is slack, therefore slightly lower than [o]. The lips are also slightly less rounded. DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 33 63. [01]. Low back tense rounded, as in law [hi], awe [oi], thought [0o it], caught [ksit]. The tongue is in the lowest possible position, the extreme back of it is elevated towards the soft-palate, the point touches the floor of the mouth beneath the lower gums, and the muscles of the tongue are somewhat tense. The lips are rounded, and the teeth far enough apart to enable one to insert the thickness of the thumb between them. This vowel is normally only a long vowel and occurs only in stressed syllables. In dialect pronunciation it appears in some words which in standard speech have [3] or [a], as in dog [dsig], God [gosd], long [bin], frost [froist], see § 111. Though the same symbol is used for [3] and [oi], the organic difference between the two vowels should not be overlooked. The vowel [3] is not merely a shortened [01], but acoustically and organically it is a recognizably different vowel. As the difference in quantity implies also this difference in quality, it has not seemed necessary to provide [31] with a separate symbol. 64. [a]. Mid half-back slack slightly wide, as in cut [kAt], up [Ap], butter ['bAtai], hurry fhAri], son, sun [sAn], some [sAm]. This sound should be compared with [3] the tongue positions for which are the same, except that in [a] the part of the tongue elevated lies a little in front of back position, best described as half-back. The lips also instead of being rounded are slightly wide. Compare this sound likewise with [ei]. The vowel [a] is normally only a short vowel. 65. [ai]. Mid half-back tense slightly wide. This vowel occurs only as a long vowel, and only before r followed by a consonant, or before r final, according to the ordinary spelling, in the speech of those persons who pronounce 34 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA no r in these combinations. Examples would be: curse [kAis], hurt [hAit], fur, fir [fAi], church [t$Ait$], dirt [dAit], person ['pAison], The sound should be clearly distin- guished from [a]. It is much more tense than [a], therefore appreciably higher and more front, and the lips are slightly more retracted. The point of the tongue touches the lower teeth. The mouth is open, as in [a], sufficiently wide to enable one to insert the ring finger between the teeth. The sound should also be distinguished from [a] and [a], both of which, besides being different in quality, are always short. 66. [a]. Mid flat slack neutral. This is the so-called obscure vowel, which appears only as a short sound in unstressed syllables, as in about [a'baut], nation ['nei$an], national [ r nae$anal]. The method of formation of this sound is very similar to that of [a], the main difference being that in [a] the tongue is in low position, in [a] it is in mid or perhaps low-mid position. The tongue lies almost level in the mouth in pronouncing [a], the point touches the lower teeth, the muscles are very slack, as they naturally would be in an unstressed syllable, and the lips are at rest in neutral position. The positions of the organs of speech are very much as they are in normal breathing. Vowels which ordinarily have distinct values when they stand in stressed position may all of them become this vowel in the unstressed position (see § 94), especially in popular speech, as in the popular pronun- ciations fellow f'fela], yellow ['jela], piano [pi'aena] for standard ['felo], ['jelo], [pi'aeno]. 67. [«]. Mid inverted tense neutral. This vowel oc- curs normally only as a short sound, before r [i] followed by a consonant or before r [j] final, in the speech of those DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 35 Americans who sound this [j]. It is considerably tenser than [a], therefore slightly higher and the middle parts of the tongue are somewhat more elevated. But the most characteristic quality of this vowel is due to the fact that the point of the tongue is lifted up and slightly inverted so that it is directed towards the roof of the mouth. In other words, the tongue position for [j] is practically taken even while the vowel is being pronounced. This is the only vowel in English in the formation of which the point of the tongue rises above the level of the lower teeth, and the only one in which the tongue is hollowed or curved up. For this reason it is called an inverted vowel. The lips are neutral, and the teeth, as in [a], are open wide enough to enable one to insert the ring finger. Examples of the occurrence of this sound are found in words like clerk [klajk], mercy ['maasi], pert [pa.it], dirt [dait], shirt [Sait], hurt [hait], spurt [spait], dearth [daj0], worth [waj0], fur, fir [faj], her [haj], sir [sai], murmur ['maimai], infer [in'fai], purr [pai], slur [slai], stir [staj]. 68. In unstressed final syllables, the r [j] may be syllabic or may be preceded by [a] as in winter ['winti] or ['wmtai], supper ['sApj] or ['sApai], stronger ['stronga] or ['strorjgai]. The second of these would be rather marked formal pronunciations. 69. In segregating this sound from surrounding sounds in words, the student is advised to begin with the simplest possible combination, as in err [aj]. The double spelling rr in this word signifies nothing, as the word has phoneti- cally only one consonant. The vowel preceding the con- sonant should be distinguished first from the vowel of a word like ere [e:i], which has the same vowel as there, pair, bear, etc. Those speakers who do not sound [j] in 36 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA err have only a simple vowel in this word, commonly the vowel [a:]. Those speakers who do pronounce the final consonant have a short [9] followed by the slight frictional r which is designated by [j]. It may be helpful to prac- tice pronouncing err with an alveolar r [r], or a trilled or back r, proceeding then to the slighter consonantal sound in [9j]. In passing from [9] to [j] the only change in the organs of speech is the increased raising or tilting of the point of the tongue which brings it into a position close to the roots of the upper teeth and which causes the slight frictional element in [1]. Next one may proceed to the analysis of complexer groups of sounds, like fir, fur [f9j], person ['psisan], heard [h9jd], dirt [d9it], hurt [h9.1t], which should be clearly distinguished both from [fgr], [ r p9rs9n], [h9rd], [d9rt], [h9rt], and from [fAi], ['pAisan], [hAid], [dAit], [hAit]. The organic differences between [a], [ai], [9], [9] are at first not easy to analyze, but the acoustic distinctions intended by the several symbols are apparent to a sensitive ear and often constitute quite noticeable differences in pronunciation. 70. Diphthongs. A diphthong is a vowel combination which starts with one tongue position and glides to another before the sound closes. There is no articulatory break between the two elements of a diphthong, as there is, for example, when the first two vowels of a word like pre-eminent [pri'em9n9nt] are pronounced. A typical diphthong would be the vowel of ride [raid]. Diphthongs are sometimes written in the conventional spelling with two letters, as in house [haus], boil [boil], but sometimes also they are written with a single vowel. In general long vowels tend to become diphthongal. Some of the long vowels, however, as [aij, fe:], are very DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 37 rarely diphthongal. The vowel [oi] sometimes becomes [oia], the glide [o] being caused by the instinctive raising of the tongue from the very low position of [o:] to the more normal mid position of [a]. With inversion of the point of the tongue, this [a] becomes [j], see § 305. The commonest diphthongs in American English are [ei], [ai], [au], [ou], [oij. 71. [ei]. This diphthong may be described as a diphthongal variant of [ex]. In a word like fate [feit], there is generally no diphthongal quality present in the American pronunciation of the vowel. It is a simple long vowel. When fully stressed before voiced consonants and at the end of stressed syllables, however, it tends to become more or less markedly diphthongal, as in fade [feid], pay [pel], strayed [streid] as compared with straight [streit]. 72. [ai]. This is the common sound of words like ride [raid], tie [tai], sigh [sai], sight, site, cite [salt], buy, by [bai]. 73. [au]. An obvious diphthong, which appears in words like house [haus], cow [kau], trowel ['traual], frown [fraun]. 74. [ou]. Like [ei], this sound may be described as the diphthongal quality of a long vowel, in this case [oi]. In words like note [no it], boat [bo it], where the vowel stands before a voiceless consonant, it commonly has no diphthongal value. Before voiced consonants and finally, it tends to become more or less markedly diphthongal, as in rose [rouz], bowl [boul], road, rode [roud], tow, toe [tou], no, know [nou], though [Sou]. But see §§ 218-220. 38 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 75. [01]. This is the clear diphthong of words like boil [boil], boy [boi], void [void], annoy [o'noi], coign, coin [koin]. With this last example compare coincidence [ko'msidons], where oi is of course not diphthongal. 76. The vowels [i] and [u] are rarely diphthongal, even when fully stressed and long. When [i] becomes diph- thongal, it starts on [i] and closes with [i], as in sea [sii]. Ordinarily, however, American speakers would pronounce the vowel in this and similar words merely as [iij, making no qualitative but only a quantitative difference between the vowel of see, sea and the first vowel of seasonable ['sizonobl]. In the same way the vowel of two, too may be pronounced as a diphthong, composed first of a slack followed by a tense element, that is [tuu], but it is more likely to be heard merely as [uij. The difference between the vowel of tooth [tu:0] and the first vowel of tooth- someness ['tu0som r nis] is only one of quantity. 77. The diphthongal character of a prolonged [i] and a prolonged [u] may best be observed when these words are under an exceptionally heavy stress. For example, in I didn't say key, I said tea, the antithesis calls for a phonetic representation as follows: [ai didnt se* 'kii:, ai sed 'trii]. So also the vowel of true is likely to be notice- ably diphthongal in the following phrase, It may be inter- esting, but is it true? [it me- bi 'intonstirj, bat iz it 'truui?]. The words say and may in the above sentences are only slightly stressed and the vowel is short or half- long, not diphthongal. 78. [ju]. The so-called 'long u* of words like mute [mjuit] is not, strictly speaking, diphthongal, since the sound which precedes [u] is consonantal and not vocalic. DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 39 It should be observed, however, that [j] in English is never a strongly consonantal sound; the close relation between [i] and [j] has been pointed out above, see § 25. One may occasionally hear this sound pronounced as [iu], but in standard speech its form is [ju]. It is grouped here with the diphthongs merely for practical convenience. 79. The two elements of a diphthong are commonly not equal in stress or length, but one is more prominent than the other. In [ei], [ou], [au], [oi] the first element is the more prominent, in [ii], [uu], [ju] it is the second, and in [ai] it is mainly the second, though with many speakers the two elements of this diphthong are about equal in stress and length. 80. Quantity. As the term is used in phonetics, the word quantity refers primarily to duration, not to the difference of quality in sounds. Sounds may be long or short, the long sound being indicated by the sign [:] placed after it. When it is necessary to indicate a degree between long and short, that is a half-long, which implies of course that one is uncertain whether the sound is long or short and that it may be either, the sign [•] is used. When not marked as long or half-long, sounds are to be considered short. It should be understood that the terms long and short are used not to designate absolute quantity, that a long sound is not always so many seconds or fractions of a second long. The vowel of awe [oi] is long, but so also is the vowel of awful ['oifal], though not absolutely so long as the vowel of awe. The length of a vowel depends very much upon the number of syllables in the word containing it, the position of the word in con- text, and also upon the amount of stress the syllable con- 40 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA taining the vowel receives. Unstressed vowels are very seldom long. Moreover, all vowels are appreciably longer before voiced than before voiceless consonants; cf. bead [biid] and beet, beat [biit], feed [fi:d] and feet, feat [fiit], league [liig] and leek, leak [liik], peas [piiz] and peace [piis]; or compare loaf with loaves, life with lives, half with the verb halve, etc. In the following words the vowels are all short, but not equally short: let [let], led [led]; debt [det], dead [ded]; hit [hit], hid [hid]; rot [rat], rod [rad]; hook [huk], hood [hud], etc. 81. In a prolonged diphthong it is the first element of [ei], [ou], [au], [01] which is lengthened, the second element in [ii], [uu], [ju], and both in about equal pro- portions in [ai]. Examples of some of these prolonged diphthongs may be observed in a declamatory pronun- ciation of the first line of the Star Spangled Banner, O say, can you see by the dawn's early light ['oiu 'sen, kaen ju 'srii bai So 'doinz 9j1i 'lait]. Ordinarily, however, it is not necessary to indicate the length of the elements of a diphthong, except [ju]. 82. Many speakers in America have a slow and unen- ergetic manner of enunciation, which results in a dragging or 'drawling' of the vowel sounds, so that normally short vowels become long and long vowels become over-long. Thus hat [hset] becomes [hseit], pitch [pit$] becomes [pnt$], well [wel] becomes [we:l], etc., this last illustration being one of the conventional marks of Brother Jonathan's English on the stage and in fiction. This statement applies to diphthongs as well as simple vowels. The manner of speech is characteristic of provincial and rustic, not cultivated American English. DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 41 83. The distinction between long and short applies to consonants as well as vowels. Long consonants occur in English only when two consonants of the same kind come together in compound words or in close syntactical phrases with a main and secondary stress. Compare pen-knife ['peni^arf] with penny ['peni], mad dog ['maedi^og] with mattock ['maetok], lessee ['lesi v i] with dressy [Mresi]. In rapid pronunciation a word like pen-knife may have only a short consonant, just as the phrase a good deal may be [Vgudi'iil] or [a guMiil], though never [a'gud 'dill], except in artificial pronunciation. Note that long consonants are not double consonants, pronounced with two separate articulations. Spellings such as occur, add, egg, etc., are of course no indication that the consonants written cc, dd, gg are long. The consonant of egg [eg] is short, but in egg-glass ['eg ibises] it is long. Stop con- sonants are made long by assuming the stop position and holding it for a moment before the explosion is allowed to occur. A long stop consonant cannot be called a double consonant because a double consonant would call for two distinct explosions. A long continuant is merely the ordinary continuant prolonged. 84. Stress. Syllables are stressed, unstressed, or sec- ondarily stressed (half stressed). Unstressed syllables are not marked, but stress is indicated by the acute accent before the syllable affected, secondary or half stress, by the grave accent, as in inkwell ['irjkVel]. Stress like length is to be understood as a term of relative, not absolute significance. In a group of words like A black bird is not necessarily a blackbird [a 'blaek 'baid iz nat nesa'serili o 'blaek^baid], the third syllable of necessarily is marked as a stressed syllable, and it is stressed relative 42 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA to its surroundings, that is, it is the stressed syllable of its word, though not so strongly stressed as the second syllable or third of the phrase or either of the syllables of the last. And though the second and third words of thephrase are both stressed, they are not equally stressed, one or the other being made the more emphatic according as the logic of the phrase appeals to the speaker. 85. The stressing of syllables in words of two or more syllables is fixed with considerable exactness by conven- tion, but the stressing of words in the word group varies with circumstances, logically emphatic words usually receiving relatively heavy stress. Sometimes the conven- tional stress of words is altered for the sake of emphasis, as when an antithesis is made prominent, e.g., Thousands for defense, not a man for offense ['flauzondz foi 'diifens, nat o msen for 'of ens]; or in a very emphatic or exclama- tory word, e.g., delighted ['chYlaitid], absolutely [sebso- 'ljutli], exactly ['eg^zaektli], exquisite [eks'kwizit], etc. Sometimes in the word group, even a word logically very unimportant is stressed for emphasis, especially in col- loquial style, e.g., "What did he say?" "He didn't have anything to say" [Wt did hi 'sei? hi 'didnt hsev 'eniflin 'tu x sei]. 86. The second element of compound words, so long as it bears a fairly clear logical content, carries a secondary stress, as in book-shelf ['buk-^elf], butter-knife ['bAtoj- *naif], etc., but when the second element no longer has a separate logical value, it loses its stress, as in husband ['hAzbond], cupboard ['kAbaid], etc. Sometimes the two elements of a compound are pronounced with prac- tically equal or level stress, as in beef-steak ['biif-'steik], ax-handle ['aeks-'hsendl], Broadway ['broid-'wei], etc., DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 43 but usually such words, when they appear in context, carry only a secondary stress on the second element, as in beefsteak and potatoes ['biiPsteik n pa'teitoz], unless a special need for emphasizing both logical elements in the compound is present. 87. Syllabic accent in words is fixed more or less ex- actly by convention, and especially in words of native origin, little variation in usage occurs. In some words of Latin origin, however, several ways of stressing the same word are current. In dissyllables compounded of a prefix plus a root, it is a fairly general rule that verbs stress the root, as in perfume [paj'fjuim], refuse [n'fjuiz], pro- ceed [pro'siid], combine [kam'bain], protest [pro'test], transfer [traens'faj], absent [aeb'sent], premise [pri'maiz], annex [ae'neks], abstract [seb'strsekt], address [ae'dres], etc.; whereas substantives stress the prefix, ['paifjum], ['refjuz], ['pro-sidz], ['kambain], ['pro-test], ['trsensfaj], fsebsant], ['premis], spelled premise or premiss, ['aeneks], faebstrsekt], ['aedres], etc. But the rule is not infallible, and some noun compounds of this type are stressed sometimes on the first and sometimes on the second syllable, e.g., address, annex, ally, allies, ralloy, access, excess, recess (but only success [sak'ses]). Academic authority sometimes prescribes a single pronunciation, e.g., [ae'lai], [ae'laiz] for ally, allies, or [n'ses] for recess, in spite of the fact of divided practice in usage. 88. In cement a distinction was formerly made between the noun ['semant] and the verb [si'ment], but now both noun and verb are stressed on the second syllable. The word is not etymologically a compound but seems to have been assimilated in feeling to verb compounds, 44 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 89. Sometimes stress determines meaning, as in accent ['aeksent], 'to stress or emphasize in speech/ but [aek'sent], Ho emphasize particularly a thought or distinction.' The stressing of certain words also may change with their syntactical position. Thus abject, adult, adverse, excess, occult, and a great many other compounds of like kind used as adjectives, for which the dictionaries usually record only one form, with stress on the second syllable, may be stressed according to rule when the adjective stands in absolute position, e.g., He was most abject [aeb'dsekt] in his behavior, but when the adjective stands in regular adjective position before the modified word, the stress is likely to shift to the first syllable, e.g., The most abject ['aebd3ekt] creature I ever saw. Compare the phrase a complex argument [a 'kampleks 'aigjumont] with his argument was very complex [hiz 'aigjumont woz 'veri kam'pleks], or occult sciences ['akAlt 'saionsiz] with in the regions of the occult [in So 'riid3onz ov Si a'kAlt]. In instances of this sort, accent seems to be determined by the rhythm of the phrase, and rhythm undoubtedly plays a large part in all variabilities of stressing in English. The statement of these rhythmical rules would be very complex, and the dictionaries, being under the necessity of speaking briefly and dogmatically, do not give a faithful or detailed picture of usage in these respects. Those speakers who follow the dictionary rules as to stressing are frequently compelled to substitute a mechanical rule in place of a natural practice. It is impossible to formu- late any simple practical rules of certain guidance in the stressing of these variable dissyllables and polysyllables in English, since the words do not fall into clearly maintained categories. Under the circumstances, the most economical and practical method is to learn the DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 45 stressing of such words by observing and following usage. 90. The word program, programme, is pronounced ['pro^graem], though a popular pronunciation ['program] is also heard and seems to be growing in use. In acorn standard American pronunciation is ['ei^koin], but in some regions of the South and West an earlier pronun- ciation ['eiksm] survives in local use. For frontier the usual American pronunciation is [frAn'tiaj], but in Eng- land ffrAntio]. For quinine a number of pronunciations occur (see § 213), the most common being ['kwai x nain]. 91. In words of three syllables an uncertainty in usage with respect to the stressing of the first or second syllable affects a number of words, of which a few typical examples may be cited. Words ending in -ate are commonly stressed on the first syllable, as in acclimate, compensate, concentrate, confiscate, contemplate, demonstrate, illus- trate, though some speakers cultivate a pronunciation with stress on the second syllable. 1 For remonstrate, however, the stress is more commonly on the second syllable. The word consummate as a verb is stressed on the first syllable, as an adjective on the second. 92. Other instances of trisyllabic words in which usage is unsettled are albumen, armistice, aspirant, combatant, combative, opponent, vagary, the prevailing usage having stress on the first syllable of all these words except the last two. For deficit only a pronunciation with stress on the first syllable is current in America, but [di'fisit] is general in England. For envelope (noun) the pro- nunciation is often [en'vetap], but more commonly 1 See New English Dictionary, under contemplate. 46 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA ['env^lo-p] or ['anva'lo-p], ['onv^lo-p]. For eczema the professional and formal pronunciation is ['ekzima] or ['eksima], but popularly the word is often pronounced [ek'ziima]. The word plebiscite is a somewhat learned word with no definitely fixed popular pronunciation. It is most commonly pronounced ['plebi v sait], ['plebisit], and less frequently [ple'bisit]. For gondola, a somewhat learned word, the conventional pronunciation is ['gandala], but in popular speech often [gan'doita]. For vehement the standard pronunciation is [Viamont], but [vi'hiimant] is heard in popular speech. For inquiry a pronunciation with stress on the first syllable is sometimes heard, but the common standard pronunciation is [m'kwairi]. For idea the standard pronunciation is [ai'dia], but one fre- quently hears, especially in the South, ['gjdia]. A pro- nunciation ['ai'di:], with both syllables about equally stressed, is popular and illiterate. 93. Under the head of words of three syllables may be considered words ending in -able, since the 1 in this ending is very lightly syllabic. The general tendency is to stress these words on the first syllable, unless the in- fluence of another form, like deny, rely, comply, preserves the stress on the second syllable, as in deniable [di'naiabl], reliable [n'laiabl], compilable [kam'plaiabl]. But refer- able, preferable are always ['refarabl], ['prefarabl], in spite of refer, prefer, [n'fsj], [pn'fai]. In applicable, despicable, disreputable, formidable, hospitable, the stress is commonly on the first syllable, but not infre- quently the second syllable is stressed by cultivated speakers. In admirable, dissoluble, lamentable, refutable, revocable, the stress is very rarely on the second, though this pronunciation for admirable is frequent in popu- DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 47 lar English, and may sometimes be heard in the other words, perhaps through the influence of head forms like dissolve [di'zoilv], lament [ta'ment], refute [n'fjuit], revoke [ri'voik]. 94. An instance of unexpected stress in a trisyllabic word is Willamette [wi'lsemot], town and river in Oregon. 95. In words of four syllables the question is again one of stressing either the first or the second syllable, though when the first syllable is stressed, there is usually more or less secondary stress on the third. Thus for contem- plative the most general pronunciation is [kan'templotiv], but also ['kantam^ple-trv]; for aristocrat both [a'nstokrset] and ['aerista^krset] ; for fragmentary the general pronun- ciation ['fraegmanHeri], but sometimes [frseg'mentan]. For difficulty the only current pronunciation in America is fdrfikolti]. For diocesan the analogy of diocese ['daiasis] sometimes produces a pronunciation [Maio'siisan] for standard [dai'osisan]. But the word is learned and has no general currency. 96. For advertisement both Paedva/taizmont] and [sedVsjtizmQnt] are in current use; for obligatory both [a'blig^ton] and ['ablig^ton] ; for peremptory both ['peromHon] and [par'emptan]. The standard pronun- ciation of municipal is [mju'msopl], but a popular form Pmjuno'sipl] is sometimes heard. For capillary both ['kaep^len] and [ka'pilan] are current, the former being the more general. For celibacy the current pronunciation in America is ['selobisi], but in England both ['selabisi] and [sa'hbosi] are in standard use. 97. In general, American speech makes a much greater use of secondary stress in polysyllables than British 48 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA speech. Words like declamatory, dignitary, derogatory, dysentery, extraordinary, sedentary, temporary, many place names, such as Birmingham, Bradbury, etc., com- monly receive in England only one stress, [di'klsemitn], ['dignitri], [di'rogatn], ['disontri], [ik'stro:dnn], ['sedontri], ['tempren], ['bAimirpm], ['braedbri]; but in America such words almost universally bear a strong secondary stress besides the main stress, as in [di'klsem^ton], ['digna^teri], [di'rogoHon], ['disanHen], [ik'stroudi^nen], ['sedan^ten], ['tempaVen], ['baamir/haem], ['breed^ben]. 98. In some words, however, secondary stress, though heard in popular speech, has been discarded in culti- vated pronunciation, e.g., interest, interesting, ['intanst], ['mtonstirj], popularly] pronounced ['interest], ['intar- ^estirj] or Pmtor'estirj]; cemetery ['semitri], popularly ['semo^ten] ; favorite ['feivrit], genuine [^enjum], popu- larly ['feivoVait], ['dsenju^am]. 99. Vowels in Unstressed Syllables. The general tendency of vowels in unstressed syllables, especially in informal colloquial speech, is to weaken and to become the vowel [a], or in certain endings, [i], see §§ 146, 173. Sometimes, however, in more formal speech, a vowel is used in unstressed syllables which has not the full and clear value which one ordinarily gives to the vowel in stressed position, nor yet the weakened sound of [d] or [i], but a sound intermediate between the two. Thus the word oblige in informal speech would be [o'blaids], and in very formal speech, a kind of spelling-pronunciation, it might be [o'blaid3]. But the initial vowel is more likely to be a compromise between [o] and [o], and if it is desirable to indicate this orthographically, it is suggested that this be done by placing two dots over the [o], giving DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 49 [o'blaids]. The same device can be applied to the other vowels. Thus the word violet may be transcribed as normally ['vaialit], but formally as ['vaiolet]; attack as normally [a'taek], but formally [ae'taek]; fashion as nor- mally [ r fa3$n] or ['faeSan], but formally ['fse$on]. It has not been deemed necessary to indicate these distinctions in the transcriptions of the present volume. 100. Sound groups. The division of speech into de- tached words, as in conventional printing and writing, does not usually correspond to the actual sound groupings of the language as spoken. In the phrase Life like a dome of many colored glass ['laif laika'doim ov'meni- 'kAlsjd'glaes], there are only three sound groups, the last being as much a single sound group as the word in- comprehensibility [m'kampri'hensi'biliti]. In phonetic transcriptions, however, it seems more convenient to follow the traditional division into words, except when for special reasons it is advisable to indicate the real phonetic groupings. 101. In some few words like don't, hasn't, isn't, won't, this fusing of words into sound groups is represented in the conventional spelling, and writers of dialect stories often indicate them by spelling, as in "I gotta go" for "I've got to go." But what is thus made a humorous dialect characteristic is humorous only because of the unconventional spelling. All current colloquial speech in some degree makes such combinations and 'telescop- ings' of words which are syntactically closely related, e.g., I used to think [ai 'justo 0rrjk]; Don't you want to come? ['domt$u 'wanta kAm?]; It wasn't your turn ['twAzon'tJuj Hajn]; Did you get it? [did38 'get it?] or [d^ 'get it?]. 50 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 102. Pitch. It is impossible to indicate by any simple mechanical means which are adequate the rising and falling intonations of the voice in speech. Three degrees of pitch are readily observable, which may be designated as high, level and low, and one may construct intonation curves which will correspond to these more obvious changes of pitch in connected speech. It is doubtful, however, if these curves will convey to any one not already familiar with the speech a satisfactory realization of its cadences. The intonations of a speech are very important for its idiomatic use, but they are too subtle and varied for simple description, and must therefore be learned by direct observation and experience. Perhaps the most apparent general characteristic of American speech, so far as cadence is concerned, is its levelness of tone. The voice rises and falls within a relatively narrow range, and with few abrupt transitions from high to low or low to high. To British ears American speech often sounds hesitating, monotonous and indecisive, and British speech, on the other hand, is likely to seem to Americans abrupt, explosive and manneristic. Both habits of speech, it need scarcely be said, are established by convention, and one is not more conscious or affected than the other. One reason for the relative levelness in pitch of Ameri- can speech may be that the American voice in general starts on a higher plane, is normally pitched higher than the British voice. If it is true, as is often said, that American life is more intense, more highly keyed nerv- ously, than life in England, the high pitch of the American voice may reasonably be regarded as a natural consequence of this state of affairs. There is likely to be less range of cadence in a tense than in a relaxed manner of speech. If one ventured to give any general advice to American DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 51 speakers, it would be therefore to cultivate repose and ease of utterance. From this will result naturally the variety in cadence and the flexibility which give to speech its characteristic melodic qualities. The relatively dry climate of America may have something to do also with the high pitch of the American voice. It is a fact easy of verification that the pitch of one's voice is considerably lower in soft foggy weather than it is on a dry clear day. 103. Speed. The rate of speed in utterance varies widely with the emotional quality of the content of speech, and also with the temperament of individuals. Some people talk like greased lightning, others are as slow as molasses. American speech as compared with British is commonly said to be slow and ' drawling.' The effect of 'drawling' is partly produced by the levelness of intonation in American speech, partly by the retention of secondary stresses in polysyllables (see § 97), though partly also by a distinctly slow tempo in the utterance of many speakers. The habit of slow tempo in speech is usually regarded in America, however, as a mark of rustic speech, or of somewhat humorous Brother Jonathan speech, and it is doubtful if on the whole American culti- vated speech is any slower than British speech. Even if it were, however, this could not be said to constitute a very serious charge against the language. 104. Timbre. The timbre, or characteristic quality of the speaking voice, is something over which the indi- vidual has very little control. It is determined by nature through the special character and shape of each person's vocal apparatus, including of course the vocal chords, just as the characteristic sound of a fife or flute or other instrument is determined by its physical structure. Since 52 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA probably no two persons have exactly the same physical equipment of speech, the timbre of no two voices can be exactly alike. Timbre is therefore the most individual and personal of all the elements of speech. A keen ear can readily distinguish several different voices and assign them definitely to their owners, even when the voices pronounce what we commonly call the same sound. From its nature timbre does not enter into the discussion of practice in pronunciation. Training may, of course, accomplish much in enabling one to realize the possibilities of one's 'organ/ as for example by correcting defects and developing the various muscles controlling the production of speech, but training cannot alter its essential character. 105. Proper Names. The pronunciation of proper names, both place names and personal names, is in general subject to the same rules as the pronunciation of the other words of the language. A traditional spelling is more likely to be retained in proper names, however, long after the pronunciation has changed. This is especially true in family names, in which conservative family tradition often preserves a spelling which corresponds very in- adequately to the current pronunciation of the names. In England this peculiarity is more marked than in America, and spellings and pronunciations like Colquhoun [ka'huin], Claverhouse ['klaevaz], Cockburn ['kouban], Marjoribanks ['mai$-, 'ma:t$b8enks], Meagher ['maia], Rivaulx ['rivaz], to mention but a few among many, are likely to seem grotesque to the American eye and ear. In America the general tendency is to bring about a closer agreement between spelling and pronunciation, and for Colquhoun we commonly have Calhoun, for Cockburn either Coburn or a pronunciation which corresponds to DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 53 the spelling Cockburn, for Meagher a spelling Maher, or a spelling Meeker with corresponding pronunciation, or Meagher is pronounced ['miigaij. 106. Some American place names are direct borrowings from England, such as Leominster ['leminstai], Glouces- ter ['glostaj], Worcester ['wuistai], in Massachusetts, and have retained an archaic spelling. But the name of the town in Ohio named after the town in Massachusetts is Wooster, and many other proper names in America have undergone a similar rationalizing modification. Since proper names are always the personal possessions, so to speak, either of families, or of localities in which they are current, their pronunciations and spellings must be accepted in the form which their possessors wish them to have. 107. Many names of foreign origin have been American- ized, French Du Bois being pronounced [du'boiz], Ger- man Koch pronounced [kat$], Dutch Schurman, in which sch was [sk], as it still is in Schuylkill ['skuilkil], Schuy- ler ['skaitai], etc., being pronounced as though it were the same as Sherman. One cannot make a general rule as to the pronunciation of such names of foreign origin, though it may be said that in the main any efforts which individuals may make to preserve the pronunciation of their names in accordance with their original phonetic forms are likely to prove unavailing in view of the strong general tendency to follow native analogies in pronuncia- tion. Change in pronunciation may of course be held in check by changing spelling, as was done in the name Knickerbocker, originally spelled with a in the next to last syllable, pronounced [a], but changed to o to avoid the common tendency to pronounce a as [se] or [e]. In- 54 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA cidentally this change throws light on the American pro- nunciation of o, see §§ 110-111. It may be added that in thus Americanizing names of foreign origin, American speakers have done no more than English-speaking peoples have always done, as, for example, in what, from the Gallic point of view, must seem outrageous Anglicizations of Bourchier into ['baut$o], of Belvoir into fbiiva], of Beaulieu into fbjuili]. The French even the account, however, by Gallicizing English names, and any foreign words which pass current among a people are almost sure to suffer a sea-change in the course of time. 108. A somewhat noticeable feature in the American as well as British pronunciation of proper names is the tendency to stress dissyllabic family names on the second syllable, especially when in spelling the second syllable is written with a double consonant, as in the pro- nunciations Birrell [bi'rel], Bithell [bi'0el], Cornell [koj'nel], Burnett [baj'net], Bennett, Bennet [be'net], Gillett [d3i'let], Furness [faj'nes], Purcell [paj'sel], Purnell [paj'nel], etc., but also even Farrar [fa'rau], Millard [mi- laud], etc. In older usage these names were commonly all stressed on the first syllable, and in some instances the pronunciation with stress on the second syllable is quite recent and consciously assumed. 109. Levels of Speech. It is extremely important in the study of speech to be able to observe with detachment speech habits which in the main are quite unconscious. Though conscious speech habits are by no means unim- portant, they constitute but a small part of the whole complex of a language and rarely indicate the direction of development which the language is taking. The student must cultivate the ability to observe the activities of DESCRIPTION OF SOUNDS 55 natural speech, which is normal speech, utilized for the purposes of communication with very little thought as to its formal character. Natural or normal speech thus differs from precise speech, which is largely self-conscious and theoretical, and it differs also from slovenly speech with which the precise speaker is inclined to confuse it. A speech may be fairly characterized as slovenly only when its articulations are habitually muddy and indis- tinct, when its general effect is such as to indicate a laxness of speech activities parallel to what untidiness and uncleanliness would be in other personal habits. Ungrammatical or dialect speech is not necessarily slov- enly, and in fact it is often the reverse, being frequently very crisp and energetic. On the other hand, one may find slovenly speakers even among those who pass as highly cultivated. The natural level, between precise and slovenly speech, may best be observed in the familiar conversation of educated persons whose habits of speech are not finical or affected. The appeal in testing natural speech must always be to the ear. No one 'speaks as he writes' in English, and the attempt to regulate speech by the visible word lands one in countless absurdities. The precise speaker, how- ever, will often do violence to the natural form of a word in order to make it over according to the pattern of the visible word. No one in natural speech pronounces two g's in suggest [safest], and it is a purist affectation to attempt to do so. In asked no one pronounces a final [d], the sound being always [t], and in current speech, no one pronounces both a clear [k] and a clear [t]. One may pronounce a very slight [k]-sound, though most speakers have no [k] at all, but simply a long [s], e.g., [aisit], and some omit the [t] altogether, pronouncing the preterite 56 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA like the present. This last pronunciation is not prevalent among cultivated speakers, though it represents no greater departure from the written form of the word than the prevalent pronunciation. In any case the natural pro- nunciation departs from the conventional spelling. In natural speech, unstressed vowels tend to become [a], as, for example, about [o'baut], upon [a'pon], amend, emend [a'mend], national ['nseSanal], description [di- 'skrip$an], [da'skripjan], and only a conscious desire to reform the natural speech could lead to the attempt to introduce a clear vowel in the unstressed syllable of these words. But it seems safer to follow the normal processes of the language, and in doing so, one cannot do better than direct attention to the unconstrained speech of educated and well-bred persons. The decision who such persons are must naturally be left to individual judgment. All natural and unconstrained speech is not, however, on the same level. The speech of formal discourse and of the public address, and in general of all expression where exceptional clearness and carrying power are important, differs in many details from the speech of colloquial and familiar conversation. Each is of course appropriate in its own surroundings, and it would be as much an error to speak formally when the situation called for familiar speech as to speak colloquially in a formal situa- tion. If either level of speech be regarded as exceptional, it is obviously the formal speech, as the speech of a special occasion, that must be so regarded. In this volume the unconstrained colloquial speech of educated and well-bred persons has been taken as the norm, and deviations from it have been characterized as formal or precise or dialectal (provincial, local, or popular), or slovenly. Ill SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE [a] 110. A short vowel [a] is general in America, with local exceptions in New England, in fop [fap], got [gat], hot [hat], lot [lat], not [nat], stock [stak], chocolate ['t$aklitj, and many other words written with o before a voiceless stop. In sections of New England, as in British pronun- ciation, such words have a sound which closely approxi- mates [o], that is, [fop], [hot], [lot], [not], [stok], ['t$okht], etc., and this pronunciation may also be heard, especially in certain words, for example chocolate, elsewhere, though exceptionally, in America. 111. In many other words commonly written o, usage varies widely throughout America between [o] and [a], the length of these vowels also varying from short to half-long or long, and even at times to over-long. The quantities are so unstable that it is difficult to indicate them with certainty: (a) Before a voiced stop, both pronunciations occur in dog [dog] or [dag], log [log] or [lag], hog [hog] or [hag], etc.; in God [god] or [gad], sod [sod] or [sad], etc. Before [b], however, the preponderance of usage seems to be markedly in favor of [a], as in rob [rab], sob [sab], nobby ['nabi], etc. The pronunciation of daub [do:b] as [dab] is popular and dialectal. 57 58 STANDARD ENGLISH IN i HI JCA (b) Before the continuant consonants the same ora- tion occurs: (1) be/ore [1] or [r]: doll [dol] or [dal], follow ['folo] r t'falo], hollow ['holo] or ['halo], pollen ['pi bn] or ['paten], etc. coo/oner ['koranw] or ['karan&i], forest ['ionst] or [mrist], foreign ['form] or ['farm], forehead ['fond] or ['farid], horrid ['bond] or ['hand], orange ['orind3J or ['annd^j, torrid [\ jrid] or ['tarid]. (2) before nasal continuants: John [d3on] or [d3cm], on [on] or [an], strong [strorj] or [strarj], pomp [pomp] or [pamp], romp [romp] or [ramp], etc. The pronunciations [stomp] for stamp (verb) [staemp] and [tromp] for tramp (verb) [traemp] are dialectal. For bomb the current pronunciations in America c/e [bam] and [bom], and [bAm] is also heard, though probably less commonly in America than in England. The in- fluerce of the spelling favors [bom], and for this reason many speakers incline to regard [bAm] as a popular pJkd dialectal pronunciation. See § 204. The pronunciation [bum] is not general. (3) before other continuants: coffee ['kofi] or ['kafi], off [of] or [of], often ['tfn] or ['am], soft [soft] or [saft], cough [kof] or [kaf]. cost [kost] or [kast], docile ['dosil] or ['dasil], hospital ['hospitl] or ['haspitl], ostrich ['ostnt$] or ['astntj], BosweU f'bozwel] or ['bazwel], rosin ['rozin] or ['razm]. broth [bro0] or [bra0], Gothic ['goflik] or fgaflik], moth [mo0] or [ma0], bother ['bot5oj] or ['batSoj]. grovel ['grovol] or ['gravol], also ['grAval], novel {no vol] C J aval]; hovel is ['havol] or ['hAvol], never ['hovol]; so SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 59 also hover ['havaj] or ['hAvoj]. For shovel the only pro- nunciation is ['$avo1], ['$av1]. (c) After [w], the sounds in question occur in words usually written a, but with a similar variation in usage, though the preference here seems to be clearly in favor of [o], as in quarrel ['kworal], swamp [swomp], swan [swon], want [wont], wash [wo$], wasp [wasp], water ['wotai]. But the preference is by no means consistent, and ['swalo], ['wabl] seem to be more common for swallow, noun and verb, and wabble, than ['swolo], ['wobi]; and in individual usage, many speakers who say wash [wo$], Washington ['wo$ir)ton] will also pronounce watch as [wat$] and squab as [skwab]. This inconsistency extends through the whole group of words, and the same speaker who says God [gad] will say dog [dog], and so with many other words. In such a state of affairs, all that can be said with respect to these usages is that they vary according to habit or preference. One caution may be entered, however, against making the vowel [o] too long, as in the pronunciations commonly indicated in dialect stories by the spellings dawg and Gawd, that is, [doig], [go id]. On the dialectal pronunciation of [01] as [a] or [ai], see § 187. 112. The colloquial contraction aren't ['arant], or with omission of the r [aint], often becomes [eint], [eint], but only in very familiar colloquial or dialect pronuncia- tion. The pronunciation [eint], [eint] is also extended to the singular in dialect speech. In the first person singular, interrogative, one occasionally hears farant ai], or some- times [sent ai] from cultivated speakers, who use this form to avoid the somewhat awkward " am not I," but the usage is not general. 60 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 113. The pronunciation of was is [waz] or [woz], or in rapid speech and when the word is lightly stressed, [waz]. The pronunciation [waz] when the word is stressed is scarcely cultivated usage. For [a] in the diphthong [au], see § 222. [a:] 114. This sound occurs in father ['faioai], where it is practically universal in American speech, the pronuncia- tions ['fseicSaj] and ['foiSaj] being only occasional and dia- lectal. But in no other word of the same type does this uniformity in usage obtain. In rather standard usage varies between ['raitfei], ['ra:<58i] and ['raeSai], with the preponderance in favor of ['raetSar]. ['rAtfei] is illiterate and dialectal. In other words, like gather, lather, slather, blather (skite), Mather, the vowel is prevailingly [se], or [ae-], with local exceptions in New England in favor of [a:], see § 125. [a-] or [a] occurs also in bother, which forms a fairly satisfactory ear-rime with father, though it offends the eye. Beside ['bo-Sai], or ['battel], much less commonly ['botfej] also occurs, see § 111, (3). 115. [ai] occurs regularly in words where a is written before lm, the 1 being silent, in psalm [sa:m], palm [paim], balm [bairn], calm [kaim], alms [a:mz], see §§ 274-276. In salmon, almond both ['sseman], faemond] andfsaiman], ['aimand] occur. A spelling-pronunciation, with the 1 sounded, is sometimes heard in these two words, but is not general. Before f, s, th, nee, nch, nt, If, lv, [a:] occurs locally in some regions of the East, but generally the sound varies between [a:], [se], [33*], and in some words [01], see §§ 124, 128. For au pronounced [ax], see § 186. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 61 116. Before [j] final or preceding a consonant, a, often also ea, of the conventional spelling, is [a:], as hart, heart [haut], star [stau], marred [maud], Clark (e) [klauk], etc., hearth [hau0], large [lauds]. 117. In British English certain words spelled e before r and a consonant are pronounced [a:], with the r silent, as in clerk [klaik], Hertford ['haitfad], Derby ['daibi], but in America words which are so written are pronounced with [9], and when they are pronounced with [ai], as in the proper name Clark(e), they are written with a. An exception in American speech is sergeant, which is com- monly pronounced ['saud38nt], like the proper name Sargent. 118. The standard pronunciation of hearth is [hau0], but [hsjfl] is also heard as an old-fashioned or dialectal pronunciation. 119. Those speakers who have no [j] before consonants and finally, have [ai] in words like hard [hard], part [pa it], harp [haip], hearth [hai0], marred [maid], tar [tai], car [kai]. But some speakers in New England have a vowel in these words which closely approximates [ai], and even at times [sei], e.g., Harvard ['haivad], part [pa it], etc., see § 45, note, where this sound is indicated by the spelling Ha wad. For the pronunciations tar [taia], car [kaia], etc., see §301. 120. [ai], sometimes shortened to [a], occurs in some words of foreign origin, as in lava ['laivo], data ['daita], errata [e'raita], bas-relief pbain'liif], spa [spai], mirage [mi'rai3], garage [ga'ra^], popularly often ['gserids], 62 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA though some of these also have Anglicized pronunciations with [ae], e.g., ['lsevo], ['dseto], etc. The word vase is either [vaiz] or [veis], [veiz], the last being much the most general pronunciation. The pronunciation of tomato is commonly [to'me-to], but [to'maito] is also in fairly general use, especially as a consciously cultivated pronunciation. The form [ta'mseto] is relatively rare. In piano, the form [pi'aeno] is general, [pi'aino] exceptional. For drama three pronunciations are current, ['draimo], ['drsemo] and ['dreimo], though the first is the only one widely used. For suave the usual American pronunciation is [swaiv], but in England [sweiv]. 121. In American place names, like Alabama, Colorado, Nevada, Nebraska, Montana, a pronunciation with [a:] in the stressed syllable is sometimes heard, especially in the East, but in the states themselves and in America generally, the words are pronounced [aelo'bsemo], [kalo- 'rgedo], [na'vaeda], [no'brsesko], [mon'taeno]. 122. Where cultivated speech regularly has [oi], as in caught [koit], bought [bo it], haughty ['hoiti], naughty fnoiti], etc., a dialect pronunciation [kait], [bait], ['haiti], ['naiti], etc., prevails in some regions. 123. In several regions oi the Atlantic seaboard a glide vowel is introduced between a preceding [k], [g] and [ai], as in the Virginia pronunciation of carter [ki'aito], garden [gi'aidon], but this pronunciation is distinctly local or dialectal. See § 217. [ai] 124. This sound occurs as a simple vowel normally only as a long or half-long vowel, though the short of it SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 63 appears as the first element in the diphthong [ai], see § 209. It is heard in certain positions, chiefly in somewhat conscious and academic speech, as a compromise sound between [a:], which is rejected as being too l broad/ and [ae] or [ae-], a popular sound widely distributed over the whole country, which is rejected as being too ' narrow' or 'flat.' It is cultivated in words written a, sometimes au, before a voiceless continuant, or before a nasal followed by a voiceless stop or continuant, as in grass, half, laugh, path (also before a voiced continuant, as in paths, calves, halves, baths, when the voiced form is a variant, usually the plural, of a head form with a voiceless sound), aunt, branch, can't, dance, fancy, France, shan't, etc. 125. Before a voiced continuant and before a nasal followed by a voiced stop or continuant, a is usually pronounced [ae], as in flange [flaend3], grand [grsend], has [hsez], have [haev], lather [IseSai], rather ['raetSaj], pansy ['paenzi], though speakers who acquire the pronunciation [a] consciously and attempt to carry it through consistently sometimes indulge in pronunciations like ['panzi], [haz], etc. 126. Some exceptions to the above groupings may be noted: cant (noun) is always [kaent], and pant, pantry, panther are scarcely ever heard except as [paent], ['psentri], ['paenflai]. Some speakers who pronounce aunt as [aint], say [sent] for ant. The word gas is almost universally [gaes], and hath (perhaps because of have and has, with voiced consonants) is always [haetf]. Before [$] a is never [a:], but [ae], as in dash [dae$], fashion ['fae$an], rational ['rae$8nol], etc. 127. When it comes to a question of choice among the several possible pronunciations of dance, laugh, branch, 64 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA etc., the decision usually rests between [ai] and [ae], [ai] being ruled out as too 'broad' and as somewhat ' la-di-da.' And when it comes to a question of choice between these two the purist tendency has been to condemn the pro- nunciation [ae], although this is by far the more common sound in all the words in point in American speech. The result has been to give to [a:] extraordinary dictionary and academic prestige in the face of a strongly opposing popular usage. The reasons for this are several : first, that standard British speech and some forms of New England speech have [ai] in the words in question; second, that New England has exerted, and to some extent continues to exert, a strong influence upon formal instruction and upon notions of cultivation and refinement throughout the country; and third, that the pronunciation [ae] is often prolonged, or drawled, and nasalized in a way that makes it seem not merely American, but provincially American. To steer between the Scylla of provincialism, [ae i], and the Chary bdis of affectation and snobbishness, [a:], many conscientious speakers in America cultivate [ai]. The writer has tested this sound on many different groups of speakers from various sections of the country, and has never found one who used the sound who did not do so with a certain degree of self-consciousness. If the cult of this sound continues long enough, it may in time come to be a natural and established sound in the language. In the meantime, it seems a pity that so much effort and so much time in instruction should be given to changing a natural habit of speech which is inherently just as good as the one by which the purist would sup- plant it. Especially in public school instruction it would seem to be wiser to spend time on more important matters in speech than the difference between [haef] and [ha if J. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 65 [«], [se:] 128. This is the sound, usually a short vowel, univer- sally current in hat [haet], cab [kseb], bad [baed], patter ['paetai], grand [grsend], fashion ['fae$on], and a large number of other words. It is also the natural pronuncia- tion of the majority of American speakers in words written a before a voiced or voiceless continuant and before n followed by a voiced or voiceless continuant or stop, as in glass [glaes], bath [bae0], dance [daents] or [daens], can't [kaent], branch [braent$], etc. The vowel tends to become long in words of this type, and locally and dia- lectally to become over-long, see §§ 82, 127. It is espe- cially likely to be long before a voiced sound, for example, path [pae0], but paths [paeiSz]. 129. Before r, rr followed by a vowel, orthographic a is usually [as], as in carry ['keen], carriage ['kaend3], Clara ['klaera], caret ['kaent], claret ['klaerit], parent ['paerant], Paris ['paeris], parish ['paen$], marry ['maeri], tarry (verb) ['taeri]. As an adjective tarry ['tain] retains the vowel of the simple word tar [tau]. Some speakers, however, pronounce [e] for a before r and a vowel, not distinguish- ing parish and perish, marry and merry. The pronuncia- tion with [ae] is to be preferred. A special grouping must be made for words like chary, fairy, Mary, vary, wary, for which see §§133, 141. 130. For radish ['raedi$], the popular dialects often have [['redij]. The pronunciation of plait, Ho braid/ is [plaet], but the common form of the word in the sense * to fold/ Ho make folds/ is pleat [pliit]. Etymologically the words have the same origin and are sometimes con- fused. For apricot both ['aeprfkat] and ['eipri^kat] are 66 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA in general use. The final syllable may be light, [-kat]. For bade, past tense of bid, the standard pronunciation is [baed], as in I bade him goodbye [ai 'baed him 'gud v baij, though a spelling-pronunciation [be:d] or [beid] is occa- sionally heard, especially when the word occurs in phrases which have passed out of colloquial use. For banal the common pronunciation is [bse'nsel] or ['baenal], less fre- quently ['beinal]. Two pronunciations are current for halibut, ['haetabot] or ['hcdabat]. For raillery both ['reilan] and ['raelan] are heard, with academic authority in favor of the former; but so far as the word is popular at all, common usage favors the second. Two forms, ['reijanz] and ['raejonz], for rations are in use, the second being the more general. For asphalt the common British pronun- ciation is [aes'faelt] or ['aes x faelt], but in America nearly always the word is ['aes x folt]. The proper name Spokane is locally [spo'kaen], and [spo'kein] is heard from speakers who know the word only as an eye-word. [e], [e-L [e.] 131. The sound represented by [e] can best be observed in words like chaotic [ke'atik], archa-ic [aj'ke-ik], or in polysyllables like vacation [ve'ke-$an] where the first vowel is short, the second half -long, Baconian [be'ko-njan], fatally ['fe*teli], bakery ['be-kon], bay-berry ['be^beri], pay-roll ['pe- x ro-l], etc. In some of these words the quan- tity varies from short to half-long according to the degree of stress. High vowels like [e] and [i] are less likely to be obviously prolonged than mid or low vowels, and one is consequently often in doubt whether to take them as long or short. 132. In monosyllables with a full stress, the vowel lengthens and frequently becomes diphthongal. This is SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 67 especially apparent when the vowel is final, as in day [del], they [tSei], whey [Mei], etc., and before voiced con- sonants, as in fade [feid], grave [greiv], haze [heiz], etc., see § 207. Before voiceless consonants, however, even in stressed monosyllables, the diphthongal quality is very slight, and often not audibly present at all. Compare, for example, rate with raid (the spelling of raid is not significant), or face with phase, or waif with wave, waive. If the vowel is diphthongized at all, it is more likely to be diphthongal in raid, phase, wave, waive, than in rate, face, waif. But with many speakers the diphthongal quality, if present at all, is so slight as not to be appreciated by the ear. For such speakers the sound is to be recorded simply as [e:]. No questions of propriety in usage are raised by the variation between [e:] and [ei], the difference being so slight that it does not attract attention to itself. 133. A clear [e]-vowel rarely occurs before [r], but is sometimes heard in formal speech in vary (to distinguish the word from very), Mary (as distinguished from merry), chary (as distinguished from cherry), parent, vagary [va'ge-n], wary, etc., where the spelling exerts an influ- ence on the pronunciation, see § 129. 134. For patent both ['peitant] and ['paetant] occur, the former when the word has the sense 'obvious/ 'ap- parent.' But latent is always ['leitont]. For quoit the common popular pronunciation is [kweit], but the culti-* vated and dictionary pronunciation is [kwoit] or [koit]. The common standard pronunciation for patriot, patriot- ism, patriotic, in America is ['pe-tnat], ['pe-tnoHizm], [pe-tn'atik], but [psetr-] is also heard, more frequently in patriotism, patriotic, than in patriot. For Danish the standard pronunciation is ['deini$], the long vowel being 68 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA maintained by the analogy of Dane. In popular speech, however, the vowel is often shortened, as in ['dseniSJ, and as it is in both popular and cultivated speech in Spanish ['spaeni$] as compared with Spain [spem]. Cf. Polish and polish, § 179. For glacier American speech has ['gleijiaj], ['gle:$9i], but ['glaesjo] only as a Briticism. A pronuncia- tion ['gleisiai] may be heard occasionally in formal speech. The pronunciation of aye, 'ever', is [ei], [ei], as distin- guished from ay, 'yes', which is [ai]. The plural of ay is spelled ayes but pronounced [aiz]. For again, against, the usual pronunciations are [o'gen], [a'genst], though [a'gein], [a'geinst] are occasionally heard, probably be- cause of the spelling. For always the standard pronun- ciation is ['oPweiz] or ['ol\ve-z], but in popular speech the word often becomes ['olwaz], ['olwiz], and sometimes ['olaz]. For Isaiah both [ai'zeia] and [I'zaia] are in current use, the former being the more general. [c] 135. This is the common sound of English e in get [get], ten [ten], bend [bend], lense [lenz], tread [tred], breath [bre0], meadow ['medo], educate ['ed3u v ke-t], and hosts of other words. The current pronunciation of again, against, [o'gen], [o'genst], is occasionally changed under the influence of spelling to [o'ge-n], [o'ge-nst] or [o'gem], [o'geinst]. Before [r] followed by a vowel, e is commonly [e], as in very ['veri], perish ['pen$], terrible ['tenbl], ferry ['fen], merit ['merit]. For [e] in words of this type pronounced [a], see § 201. For hero, zero, Nero, etc., see § 168. 136. In a few learned words, like serum, Ceres, series, e before r is [i] or [i], likewise cereal, serial ['sirial], serious ['sinas], period ['pinad]. The spelling of bury ['ben] is SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 69 exceptional. As the name of a town in England, Bury is pronounced ['bjuari]. A variant form yelk [jelk] exists by the side of yolk [jo:k]. 137. The preterite of the verb eat is always spelled ate and almost universally pronounced [eit] in America, but occasionally [etj, this being a generally current British pronunciation, see New English Dictionary, and Michaelis- Jones, Phonetic Dictionary, under this word. Most Americans regard [et] as dialectal. The proper name, as well as the common noun, Jenny, jenny, is always ['dseni] in cultivated American speech, but ['d^ini] for Jenny is good British usage. So also ['kimist] for chemist and derivatives is good British usage, but in America the word is always ['kemist]. 138. In epoch the stressed vowel is usually short, giving ['epak], but sometimes in very formal pronuncia- tion the word becomes ['iipak]. For tenet, tenable the usual pronunciation is ['tenit], ['tenabl], occasionally ['tirnit], ['tiinabl]. For deaf the standard pronunciation is [def], but [di:f], which is an older historical survival, is often heard in the popular dialects. In Webster's day, [diif] was the general pronunciation, see Dissertations, p. 128. As an adjective cleanly is pronounced fklenli], as an adverb, ['kliinli]. In pretty, England, English, the standard pronunciation is ['priti], ['irjgland], ['irjglry], the occasional pronunciation with [e] being artificial and due to the spelling. 139. For get [get] and derivatives popular English frequently has [git]; so also [t$ist] for chest [t$est], [jit] for yet [jet], [in'stid] for instead [in'sted], and similarly with other words. 70 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA Before [g], in the popular dialects, [ei] is often heard for standard [e], as in the pronunciations [eig], [beig], [leig], ['nAt'meig] for standard egg [eg], beg [beg], leg [leg], nutmeg ['nAt x meg], etc. For keg [keg] a frequent dialect form is [kseg]. So also yes [jes] is very often [jses] in popular pronunciation. [«i 140. This symbol represents the long vowel commonly heard before r in such words as there [Sen], where [avcij], dare [den], fair [feu], hare, hair [hen], pare, pair, pear [pen], lair [leu]. These words may also be heard with a glide vowel before [i], [fteiaj], [mcisj], [deiai], etc., or with loss of the final consonant, [fteie], [Aieia], [deia], etc. On the organic difference between [e] and [ei], see above, §§ 54, 55. 141. The pronunciation of chary, fairy, hairy, Mary, vary, wary is ['t$ein], ['fein], [hem], ['me in], ['vein], ['we in], which distinguishes chary from cherry, fairy from ferry, hairy from Harry [hsen], Mary from merry, marry, vary from very, wary from wherry. On words of this type pronounced with [e], see § 133. 142. There is considerable variation among cultivated speakers in the quality of the vowel in words of the type of there, where, etc., degrees being present all the way from [ei] to [aei], or when the vowel is short as in berry, very, etc., from [e] to [ae]. But pronunciations like there [tSaeu], hair [haeu], stair [staeii], or very ['vaen], terrible ['taeribl] are scarcely to be recommended for imitation. 143. The slight glide vowel inserted before the [j] in fair [feiai], hair [heiai], there [tSeiaj], etc., when the [i] SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 71 is not pronounced is often prolonged and even becomes [a], e.g., fair ['feia] or ['fern], hair ['heia] or [h'eia], there f(5e:9] or [ r 'Se:a]. The vowel [a] in such pronunciations often receives a fairly heavy stress. These latter usages are nowhere general in America, though sometimes cultivated in imitation of what is taken to be Eastern American or British usage. 144. In words compounded with aero-, as in aeroplane, aeronaut, aerostat, etc., the standard formal pronuncia- tion of the first syllable is ['eiara-] or ['eioro-]. But ['eira-J is quite generally used. The final vowel of the syllable may also be heard as [o] in careful speech. The pronun- ciation [ r eri8-] is popular and dialectal. 145. In were the common pronunciation is [w9j] or [wai], though the pronunciation [wen], also [wseu], is sometimes cultivated in precise speech. M 146. The vowel [o] is a sound of wide occurrence in unstressed position, and is the sound which vowels in general tend to become when, as in rapid speech, they are somewhat obscured. It occurs in all positions in the word, initially, medially and finally, e.g., about [a'baut], finally ['fainali], zebra ['zibra], Cuba [kjubo], sofa ['sofa], a man [a'.nsen], Iceland ['aistend], etc. Certain words in which standard speech retains a relatively clear vowel in final unstressed syllables, occur with this obscure vowel in dialect speech, e.g., dialect yellow fjela], potato [pe'teita], tomato [ta'meita], piano [pi'aeno], window ['windo], fellow ['fela], thorough ['0Aro], always ['olwaz]. 147. In careless and rapid speech some speakers have a tendency to omit [a] where cultivated speech retains it. 72 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA This is especially noticeable when [a] is preceded by a vowel or [r], as in poem, in popular pronunciation [po:m], in standard speech ['poiem], or ['poiam] or ['ponm], see § 173; moral, popularly ['mojl], in standard speech ['moral]; towel, popularly [taul], in standard speech ['taual]; quar- rel, popularly ['kwoil], in standard speech ['kworal]; diary, popularly [Main], in standard speech ['daian]; diamond, popularly ['daimand], in standard speech ['daiamandj; real, really, popularly [rid], ['riili], in standard speech friial], ['riialij, sometimes also ['rial], ['riali]; cruel, popu- larly [kruil], in standard speech ['kruial]; violet, popu- larly [Vailat], ['vailat], in standard speech ['vaialit], very formally ['vaiolet]. The pronunciation of deal, seal, peal, etc., as [did], [sill], [pi:l] is standard, the spelling ea in these words being a representation of what is historically a simple vowel, whereas in real the spelling ea, which looks the same, is of entirely different origin. It is derived from an origi- nally dissyllabic word, with the syllabic break between the two vowels, and standard speech continues to maintain the word as a dissyllable. 148. The final unstressed syllable of words ending in a is pronounced [a] in standard speech, but frequently [i] in popular speech, as in opera ['apara], era ['iira] or ['ira], ex- tra ['ekstra], America [a'menka], Noah ['noia], Martha ['mau0a], etc., pronounced ['apn], ['iri],['ekstri],[a'menki], ['non], ['maufli], etc. For Iowa the common pronuncia- tion is ['aiawa], dialectally sometimes ['aiawi]. 149. For cupola ['kjupala], popular pronunciation fre- quently has a transposition of the unstressed vowels, giving ['kjupa v lo]. In cocoa ['koiko] the final vowel is silent; the word is a metathesized form of cacao, but this SOUNDS AND THEIK OCCURRENCE 73 original form of the word is now used only in scientific writing. When compounded with -nut, the word is fre- quently spelled coco-, as in coco-nut ['ko:ko- y nAt]. The word Curasao Pkjura'saio], derived from the name of a Dutch island in the Carribean, is commonly metathesized into curacoa [ v kjura'so:a] or [ v kjura'sou]. 150. As an inflectional ending, e in the ending -es is always silent when the s is voiceless, as in rites, writes (third singular of the verb) [raits], likes [laiks], rates [rests], etc., and it is silent also when the s is voiced, ex- cept when the syllable -es is preceded by [s], [z], [$] or [3], in which case e [9] is pronounced, as in pieces [piisaz], prizes [praizaz], wishes ['wijaz], stages [steid3az]. 151. Between [1] and a succeeding [m] a vowel [a] is sometimes present in popular speech which does not appear in standard speech, as in elm [elm], film [film], realm [relm], etc., pronounced ['dam], ['Mam], ['relam], etc. So also ['starlit], [aefla'letik] for athlete ['aefl'litj, athletic [sefl'letik]. 152. Before [1] or [1], and after a vowel, a slight glide [a], [9] is sometimes present, as in such pronunciations as stole ['stoial], four [fo:9j], milk [mialk], dart [da:9jt], etc., but this sound is so slight in standard pronunciation that it does not seem necessary to represent it phonetically, see §§ 160, 167. It is often exaggerated in the speech of young children, who prolong also the preceding vowel. 153. Before [r], intervocalic, a very distinct [9] is present in British speech, especially noticeable to American ears when the vowel preceding [r] is [1], [e] or [ai], as in period ['piariad], peeress ['piaris], parent ['pearant], miry ['maiari], Byron ['baiaran]; but this [a] is scarcely ever 74 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA heard in America, the words cited being pronounced ['piriad], ['pins] or ['pires], ['pserant] or ['perant], ['main], ['bairan]. In the adjective form of fire [faiai], which is spelled fiery, a pronunciation ['faiari] may be heard, but also ['fain]. But wiry from wire ['waiai] is always ['wain]. M 154. This symbol stands for the short inverted vowel sound, which is to be clearly distinguished from [a]. The sound appears in stressed and unstressed syllables, and is represented in conventional spelling by various vowel letters before r final or followed by a consonant, as in bird [bajd], burr [bsi], sir [sai], fir, fur [far], heard [haid], person ['paisan], serpent ['saipant], worthy ['waitSi], myrtle ['maitl], etc. The vowel is normally short, but may be prolonged in exceptional instances, as in the somewhat exotic word myrrh [mai] or [man]. For iron, tired, hired, etc., see § 304. 155. When [i] is not pronounced before the consonant in bird, heard, person, etc., the vowel is usually [ai]. When final [j] is not pronounced, it often leaves a weak [9] as its survival, burr [daio], fir, fur [fAia], etc. Final r in unstressed syllables when not pronounced is preceded by [a], as in never ['neva], feather ['fetSa], etc. In affected speech this vowel sometimes becomes [a], see § 143. 156. For girl the current pronunciation is [gajl] or [gAil], but [geul], [gse.il], [gul] are sometimes heard and are often cultivated as refined pronunciations. 157. For courteous, courtezan the usual pronuncia- tion is ['kaitias], ['kaitazan], but for courtier, ['kojtiai], ['koitjaj] are more general. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 75 158. For [a] of the standard speech in words containing [a] followed by a consonant, in New York and its vicinity a diphthong is heard, commonly represented in dialect stories by the spelling oi, e.g., thoid, ' third,' foist, 'first/ boid, 'bird.' The phonetic elements of this diphthong are usually [a] followed by [1]. This pronunciation has not made its way into cultivated usage. 1 159. For very, terrible, syrup, etc., pronounced [Van], ['tajibl], ['sarap], etc., see § 201. The pronunciation of [a] for [a] before [r] followed by a vowel in unstressed syllables is to be avoided, e.g., history ['histari] pronounced ['histari]. 160. Between [ai], [au] and a succeeding final [1], a vowel [a] is regularly present in accented words, hire and higher ['haiaj] being homonyms; so also flour, flower ['flauaj] are homonymous. Not infrequently a slovenly kind of pronunciation is heard in which this [a] is omitted and the preceding diphthong is reduced to [ai], flower, flour being pronounced [flan], fire pronounced [fan], as though it were the same as far, our, hour pronounced [au]. The word our in unstressed position in colloquial speech is very commonly [au], so commonly that perhaps one cannot characterize it as slovenly. But its phonetic form is due entirely to the fact that it is slightly stressed. In stressed position the diphthong [au] is never [as] in standard speech. [iUHfii] 161. The vowel [i] is heard only in polysyllables, like expediency [eks'pidiansi], where the stress on the accented syllable is comparatively light, or in unstressed syllables, 1 See Babbitt, Dialect Notes, I, 463. 76 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA as in eternal [i'tamal], economy [i'kanami], oesophagus [i'scifogos]. The half -long vowel may be recognized in compounds, like tea-table ['ti- v te*bl], and the long vowel in words containing full stress, as in tea [tii], he [hi:], key, quay [ki:], deed [diid], bean [bi:n], priest [priist], convene [kon'viin], eagle ['iigl], Egypt ['iidsipt]. 162. For sleek, creek, clique the standard pronuncia- tions are [sliik], [kriik], [kliik], though [slik], [krik], [klik] are widely current in familiar colloquial use, and [slik], in the sense 'cunning/ 'sly,' may be said to have passed into general use. The pronunciation [fa'tig] for fatigue [fa'tiig] is not cultivated usage. For amenable the standard pronunciation is [a'mimabl], but for amenity almost always [a'meniti], though sometimes [a'miiniti]. 163. In words of Greek origin commonly spelled ae, as in ^schylus, ^sculapius, aesthetic, anapaest, the usual pronunciation in America is ['eskilos], [eskju'leipias], [es'fletik], ['senapest], but [iis-] in England and not in- frequently also in America. ^Esop is always ['ii^sap], and the spelling ce is usually [i] or [i:], as in oesophagus [i'sa- fogos], (Enone [i'noini], oecumenical [ikju'menikl], (Edipus ['i:dip9s], though pronunciations with [e], as in fedipas], [ekju'menikl], are also heard. 164. For Elizabethan both [aliza'biiflan] and [aliza- ^betfan] occur. For scenic the common pronunciation is ['senik], though ['simik], which is the more usual British pronunciation, and is of course supported by the analogy of scene [si:n], is sometimes heard. For fetid, fetish both ['firtid], ['fiiti$] and ['fetid], ['feti$] are current, and for leisure both ['li 139.1] and [lc3aij. For either, neither the general pronunciation is ['iiftaj], ['niitSai], but oc- SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 77 casionally ['ai<5aj], ['naiSaj] are heard, often as a conscious refined pronunciation. It is popular and general no- where in America. For inveigle the usual pronunciation is [rn'viigl], but sometimes also [m'veigl]. For penal the pronunciation is ['pirnol], for penalize either ['pimolaiz] or ['penalaiz], for penalty always ['penal ti]. 165. Words containing the prefix pre- as a stressed syllable usually have the pronunciation [pri-] when the syllable is logically important, as in clear compounds like prehistoric ['prihis'tonk], predigested ['pridai'd3estid], prefix ['prifiks], prepay ppri'pei], also in a few somewhat learned words, the etymological origins of which are still felt, as in precinct [ r pri x sirjkt], prefect ['prTfekt], prelude ['prriuid], also sometimes ['prePuid]. Otherwise the syl- lable is usually pronounced [pre-], though custom is not completely uniform, some words like predecessor, pre- dilection, premature, presentation being pronounced either [pre-] or [pri-]. The pronunciation with [pre-] is the more common, and in some words, e.g., predicate, preference, prejudice, preparation, preposition, preterite, it is the only one in good use. 166. In the ending -itis, as in appendicitis, neuritis, phlebitis, meningitis, etc., both [-iitas] and [-aitas] occur; also angina [aen'dsiina], [aen'dsama], better ['sendsma], Argentine ['aid3an v tim] or ['aid38n x tain], adamantine [seda'maenHim] or [aeda'maen^tarn]. For oblique the more usual pronunciation is [o'bliik], but also, less frequently, [o'blaik]. 167. Before [r], [j], [i] is commonly lowered to [i] and a glide vowel sometimes inserted between [i] and [r], [j], as in cereal, serial ['sioriol], hear [hiaj], hearing ['hiarirj]. 78 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA pier, peer [pi9j], tier, tear [tiaj]; but some speakers tend to preserve a clear [i] -sound in a few words, usually of learned character, as in eery ['ion], era ['iara], query ['kwiari], series ['siariz] or ['siariz]. So also dreary, weary are sometimes pronounced ['driari], ['wiari]. This glide vowel before [r], [a] is often not present at all in American speech, and is in general much less marked as a characteristic of American than of British speech. 168. In hero, Nero, zero a clear [i]-vowel is generally maintained, giving ['mYro], ['mYro], ['ziiVo], but many speakers lower the vowel to [i], as in ['hiVo], fni x ro], [Vro]. W 169. This is the short sound commonly current in sit [sit], mission ['mi$an], timid ['timid], ink [ink], rich [nt$], etc. In stressed syllables it is generally written i, though also y in lyric ['link], syllable ['silabl], synagogue ['sinagog], and some others. 170. For i, y followed by r and a vowel, the standard pronunciation is [i], as in dirigible ['dind3ibl], miracle ['mirakl], mirror ['mrrai], sirup, syrup ['srrap], syringe [ / sinnd3], also [si'rmd3], tyranny ['trrani], virile [Vinl], also [Vairil], exceptions to this rule being cases in which i, y is pronounced [ai], as in gyrate, pirate, siren, tirade, tyrant, virile, virus. On i, y followed by r and a vowel pronounced [a], [9] in popular speech, see § 201. 171. For been the normal pronunciation is [bin], though [bim] is sometimes heard as a precise or consciously cultivated pronunciation. For breeches, breeching the usual pronunciation is ['brit^az], ['bntSirj], but a spelling- SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 79 pronunciation ['briitjaz], ['briit$in] is sometimes cultivated. In busy fbizi], business ['biznis], the spelling u is ex- ceptional for [i]. 172. There is a distinctly audible difference between stressed and unstressed [i], as, for example, in the two syllables of pity, city, which for lack of a separate symbol for each sound, we represent by ['piti], ['siti]. The same applies to initial unstressed syllables, as in desist [di'zist], begin [bi'gin], initial [i'ni$al], etc. The unstressed [i] is more relaxed, as one would expect it to be, than stressed [i], and in a phonetic transcription of greater precision than the one here employed, each sound would have its own symbol. 173. In unstressed syllables, this sound occurs for a, e, i and u of the conventional spelling, though usage in many words varies widely, some speakers pronouncing [i], some [e] and some the obscure vowel [a] : (1) before the stressed syllable, as in begin [bi'gin] or [ba'gm], debate [di'beit] or [da'beit], decide [di'said] or [da'said], engage [rn'geid3] or [en'ge^], except [ik'sept] or [ek'sept], elect [I'lekt], [e'lekt] or [a'lekt]. (2) after the stressed syllable, as in the preterites of verbs, added ['sedid], [Wed] or ['aedad]; disgusted [dis- 'gAstid], [dis'gAsted] or [dis'gAstad] ; in a variety of nouns and adjectives of different endings, as in naked ['neikid], ['neiked] or fneikad]; sonnet ['sanit], ['sanet] or ['sanat]; rabbit ['raebit], ['raebet] or ['raebat]; prelate ['prelit] (very formally ['prelet]), ['prelet] or ['prelat]; minute (noun) ['mmit], ['minet] or ['minat]; honest ['anist], ['anest] or ['anast]; lettuce ['letis], [letes] or ['letas]; palace ['paelis], ['paeles] or [paelas]; goodness ['gudnis], ['gudnes] or 80 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA ['gudnas]; riches ['rrt$iz], ['nt$ez] or ['nt$az] ; poem ['ponm], ['poiem] or ['poiam]; vowel ['vauil], ['vauel] or ['vaual]; college ['kalids], ['kaled3] (very formally ['kaled3]); courage ['kArids], ['kAredsJ; usage ['ju:sid3], [ / juised3]; damage ['dsemicls], ['daemed^]; manage ['msenid3], ['msenedsJ; orange [Grinds], ['orend3] or [brands] . "Philadelphia, New York City, and some parts of the West and South," says Grandgent, 1 often substitute [a] for [i] in final syllables, as in ['gudnas] for ['gudnis], ['anast] for ['anist], I've got it [aiv 'gat at] for [aiv 'gat it], j'pselas] for ['pselis], but "in the rest of the country this pronunciation is regarded as extremely vulgar." Tests which the writer has applied to speakers from regions here excepted show that the statement as to the vulgarity of [a] in final syllables is exaggerated and does not now apply. Such pronunciations as ['pselas], ['anast] are cur- rent throughout the country, and cannot now be de- scribed as extremely vulgar by any standards generally accepted. 174. For adobe, prairie the standard pronunciation is [a'doibi], ['pre in]. For Cincinnati both [sinsa'naeti] and [sinsa'naeta] occur, the former being locally and generally the more common pronunciation. For final a [a] pro- nounced [i] in popular speech, see above, § 148. The desire to avoid this popular pronunciation of final a [a] as [i] at all hazards sometimes leads speakers to pronounce final [a] when cultivated standard speech has [i], and this probably explains a pronunciation like [sinsa'naeta]. So also occasionally [mi'zura] for standard Missouri [mi'zuri]^ and even ['preira] for ['pre in] has been observed (Sturte* 1 Die Neueren Sprachen, II, 449 (1895) ; see also Dialect Notes, I, 319-323 (1894). SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 81 vant, Linguistic Change, p. 83). l For Ypsilanti [ipsi- 'laenti] occasionally [ipsi'lsenta] is heard. It may be that the pronunciation of words like Cincinnati, Missouri, Ypsilanti has been affected by the analogy of many other place names like Nebraska, Montana, Nevada, etc., which regularly have [a] for the final vowel. Final un- stressed y, both in common and proper nouns, is always [i], as in heavy, busy, Albany, Schenectady, etc. 175. For jaundice [ ; d3ondis] the popular dialects often have ['dsondajz], ['d38endajz]. For Italian popular speech commonly has [ % ai'taeljan], but standard speech only [I'taeljan]. [o], [<>•], [oi] 176. This vowel is heard as a short sound, sometimes as the stressed vowel of polysyllables, as in locomo- tive pioka'motiv], connotative [ka'notatrv], in unstressed syllables, as in obedient [o'biidiant], approbation [aepro- 'bei$an], yellow ['jelo], window ['windo], piano [pi'aeno], and in secondarily stressed syllables when the vowel may be short or half-long, as in the compounds dough-nut ['do-'nAt], tow-path ['to- x pae0], go-cart ['go-'kcut], etc. On the weakening of unstressed [o] to [a], see above, § 146. 177. When the sound is fully stressed and long, and especially when it is final, it tends to become diphthongal, starting with [o] and closing with [u], as in dough, doe [dou], toe, tow [tou], flow, floe [flou], chateau [$£e'tou], etc. Before consonants, as in rote, rode, roll, etc., the diphthongal quality of the vowel is always less marked 1 Though I am informed by Mr. F. L. Mott that ['preira] is a pioneer pronunciation for prairie, in Iowa, in the speech of persons who cannot be supposed to have been influenced by refined analogies. 82 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA and often not present at all. This sound is much less diphthongal in American than in British speech. In the latter a great variety of diphthongal shadings occur, some of them familiar in the exaggerated representations of Englishmen and their speech on the American stage. In the speech of many, perhaps of most, Americans there is scarcely any trace of diphthongal quality in the sound, which may in most instances be represented simply as [o:]or[o-]. See §218. 178. In substantive compounds with pro-, the prefix, when stressed, in some words is regularly pronounced ['pro-], as in probate, proceeds, profile, programme, prolix ['proliks] or [pra'liks], prologue, pronoun, protest; in others, regularly [a], or sometimes [o], as in problem, project, prophet, prospect, proverb; and in still others, the pro- nunciation varies between [o] and [a], the latter being the more general, as in process, produce, product, prog- ress, provost. 179. For sloth, slothful the standard pronunciation is [sloi0], ['slo:0fal], but a variant pronunciation [sloi0], ['shiflfal] is not infrequent. The pronunciation of loam in standard speech is [loim], but frequently [lu:m] in dialect speech. An archaic spelling shew, shew-bread is sometimes met with for [$oi], ['$oi- v bred]. The proper name Polish is ['po:lr$], following the analogy of Pole [poil], but the verb polish is ['pah$]. For bowie- in the compound bowie-knife both ['bou-] and ['bun-] occur. The usual standard pronunciation for shone is Rom] or Roun], but [$on], [Join], even [$An] are occasionally heard. The pronunciation of whole as [IiaI] is dialectal. 180. In Eastern New England, a number of words which elsewhere have a long vowel are pronounced with SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 83 a short [o]-vowel which is slightly more fronted than the ordinary vowel, giving a mid half-front tense rounded vowel. "This vowel is used by educated New England speakers in about fifty common words and their deriva- tives, and it certainly prevails in the cultivated usage of this region in Polk, polka, whole, and probably in both, folks, Holmes, most, only, and some others." 1 [0] 181. This sound is a short vowel, and may be best observed in polysyllables, where it may be stressed, as in auditory fodiHon], Audubon ['odubon], or in unstressed syllables, as in audacious [o'deijos], authentic [o'flentik], automatic [oto'msetik], etc. 182. It occurs also with some speakers in many syllables written o, as in hot, not, nod, log, soft, moss, on, etc., or a after w, as in water, watch, etc., but usage varies in the value which it gives to the vowel in these words, see above, §§ 110, 111, and the vowel also varies in length from short to half-long or long, in some words, as in soft [soft], moss [mos], dog [dog], etc., pronounced also [soift], [mo:s], [doig], or even dragged out in popular speech until they are over-long. 183. In words written o before [rj], the customary pronunciation is [o], as in long [Ion], song [son], throng [0rorj], wrong [rorj], but occasional speakers have [a] in- stead of [o]. The pronunciation [loirj], [so in], [0ro:rj], [roirj], etc., is heard only in dialect speech. 1 Grandgent, Publications of the Modern Language Association, Vol. VII (New Series), p. 217 (1899). This vowel is dialectally common in Eastern New England in many words like road, coat, boat, colt, post, etc. 84 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 184. For squalor the usual pronunciation is ['skwotoi], though ['skweiloj] is sometimes heard. For swollen the common form is ['swoton], but very frequently also ['swoilan]. [a:] 185. This sound occurs in many syllables under full stress, as in law [loi], draw [droi], taut, taught [to it], thought [0o it], talk [toik], naught [no it], all [oil], salt [so :lt], fault [foilt], Paul [poil], etc.; also in dissyllables like augur ['oigoi], aural ['oirel], author ['oi09i], audit ['oidit]; and in compounds, Hke strawberry ['stro^ben], chalk-line ['t$o-k x lain], in which the vowel may be long or half-long. On the organic difference between [o] and [oi], see above, §§ 62, 63. For sauce (noun), saucy the standard pronunciation is [so is], ['soisi], but in the sense 'impertinent speech/ 'impertinent,' popular pronunciation commonly has [saes], ['ssesi]. 186. In words of the type of daunt, flaunt, gaunt, gauntlet, haunt, launch, taunt, the common pronuncia- tion is [doint], [floint], [goint], etc., but some speakers say [daint], [flaint], [gaint], and for some words, as in [haent], [laent$], a pronunciation with [33] or [331] is current in dialect speech. For laundry the current pronunciation is ['loindri], with an occasional variant pronunciation ['laindri]. For Laura the usual pronunciation is ['to ire], but also sometimes ['la ire]. 187. The pronunciation of caught, bought, talk, taught, etc., with [a-] or [ai], is current in some regions locally, but is not heard in standard cultivated English. So also the pronunciations ['daitoj], ['slaitoj] for daughter ['doitaj], slaughter ['sloitoj] are provincialisms. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 85 188. A number of Indian proper names, in secondarily stressed syllables written aw, ah, a, have [oi], as in Choctaw ['t$ak v to:], Kenesaw ['keno^soi], Utah ['ju v toi], Altamaha ['seltomo^hoi], Omaha ['oma x hoi], Ottawa ['atoVo:], etc. 189. Before [j] followed by a consonant, when the [i] is not pronounced, o is pronounced [ox], as in corn [ko:n], force [fois], port [po:t], etc. But the pronunciation [hois] for horse, spelled hoss in dialect stories, is commonly regarded as illiterate and dialectal, though here, as in many instances, it is really the visual and not the audible form of the word that is objected to. When the [j] is pronounced the preceding vowel is only half-long or short. 190. Before [r] followed by a vowel, the usual pronun- ciation of o is [o-] or [oi], as in glory ['glo-ri], story ['sto-n], tory fto-ri], oral [Vral], not distinguished in pronuncia- tion from aural, moral ['mo-rol]. But some speakers, retaining an older pronunciation probably under the influence of spelling, in at least some of these words have [o'l or [o:], as in glory ['glo-ri], story ['sto-n], tory ['toTil, oral ['o-ralj, etc. 191. Before [j] final, o (ou, oo, oa) is pronounced [o-] or [ox], as in store [stou], more [mou], pore, pour [po-j], fore, four, for [fou], door [dou], floor [flou], roar [rou]> sore, soar [sou]. See § 197. These words might be written also ['sto-9j], etc., though with most speakers the glide vowel is very slight. The preposition for is often [foj] in rapid speech, written fur in dialect stories. [u], [ui] 192. This sound is of wide occurrence, both as long and short. As a long, it tends to become diphthongal. 86 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA [uu], but this pronunciation for what is commonly [ui] is not general enough in American speech to call for fre- quent representation. The quantity of the sound varies according to its surrounding from short to half-long and long. Instances of [u] occur in polysyllables like re- crudescence [rikru'desans], altruistic [aeltru'istik], abso- lutely ['sebs^lutli], also ['sebs^ljutli], Lusitania [lusi'te-nja], etc. When the sound is long it is commonly represented in conventional spelling by oo, as in boot [buit], cool [kuil], soon [sum], spool [spud], but also ou, as in group [gruip], soup [suip], troupe [truip]; u, as in dune [dum], lunar ['luinaj], rule [mil], rune [rum]; o, as in do [dui], to [tui]; ui as in bruit [bruit], fruit [fruit], suit [suit], also [sjuit], etc. 193. In some words usage varies widely between [u] and [u], the resulting groups being very unsystematic. All speakers say goose [guis], mood [muid], moon [mum], for example, and all say book [buk], foot [fut], good [gud], shook Ruk], stood [stud]. But in the following words, which is not an exhaustive list, usage varies between [u], long or short, and [u], and in popular use, one or two words have [a] : aloof, butcher, boot, broom, coop, Cooper, food, groom, hoof, hoop, Hooper, nook, proof, rood, roof, rook, room, rooster, root, soon, soot, spook, spoon, woof. 1 Of these words, according to the writer's observation, the following prevailingly have [ui]: aloof, boot, broom, food, groom, proof, roof, rood, room, rooster, root, soon, spook, spoon, woof; the following prevailingly have [u]: 1 The first two words in this list are included on the authority of Grandgent, Die Neueren Sprachen, II, 457, but for aloof the writer has heard only [a'luif], and for butcher only [t>ut$9i], or ['bu:t$a.i] so rarely that this form of the word seems scarcely to be regarded as a cm-rent American pronunciation. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 87 butcher, coop, Cooper, hoof, hoop, Hooper, nook, rook, soot (also in popular pronunciation [sAt]). The pronunciations boot [but], broom [brum], food [fud], soon [sun], spoon [spun], etc., for words in the first group must be characterized as local or provincial, but coop [ku:p], Cooper ['kuipaj], hoof [huif], hoop [huip], etc., for words in the second group, are supported by the usage of many cultivated speakers, whose pronunciation is probably influenced to some extent by the spelling. On the differences of usage between [u:] and [ju], see §§ 229-231. 194. For acoustic both [a'kurstik] and [o'kaustik] are in common use, the former being perhaps the more gen- eral. For bouquet the standard pronunciation is [bu'kei], the pronunciation [bo'kei] or ['bo- N kei] being old-fashioned or rustic. For brooch both [bru:t$] and [broit$] occur. For route [ru:t], tour [tun], [tuiai], wound [wurnd], the popular dialects often have [rout], [tauaj], [waund]. The spelling of zoology, aided by the abbreviation Zoo, results sometimes in a pronunciation [zu'atedsi], the standard pronunciation being [zo'alad3i]. w 195. This is normally only a short vowel and is com- monly written u in the conventional alphabet, as in bull [bul], bush [bu$], cushion [Trojan], full [ful], put [put], as a term in golf pronounced [pAt], tulle [tul], etc. For supple the usual pronunciation is fsApl], but ['supl] occurs com- monly in dialect speech and occasionally in cultivated speech. For brusque both [brusk] and [brAsk] are cur- rent, with the preference in favor of [brusk]. For fulsome the usual pronunciation is ['fulsam], but ['fAlsom] is also countenanced by usage. 88 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 196. This sound appears also in words written u before r, as in lure [Iuj] or [luai], sure [$uj] or [$U9j], pure [pjuj] or [pjuoj], cure [kjuj] or [kju9j], endure [m'djuj] or [in'djuaj], rural ['rural], fury ['fjuri], jury ['d5uri]; written ou in your [juj] or [ju9i], when unstressed [J9j]; written oo in poor [puj] or [puaj], moor [muj] or [mu9j], boor [bua] or [bu9j]. The glide vowel in these words is always very slight in standard speech, though more apparent before [i] final than before [r] followed by a vowel. Pronunciations like ['ruaral], ['fjuari], [ / d3uan] are general in British pronun- ciation but rare in America. 197. For your, poor, moor, boor, a pronunciation [jo:9j], [poi9j], [moi9j], [boi9j], riming with yore, pore, more, bore, with [j] omitted of course in some dialects, is current in localities but not in standard American pronunciation. As a proper name Moore is pronounced [mu9j], and when pronounced [moi9j] it is written More. For door, floor, however, the only current pronunciations are [dou], [do-9j], [flou], [flo-ai]. See § 191. M 198. This sound is commonly written u in the con- ventional spelling, as in but [bAt], buzz [daz], cunning fkAnirj], cup [kAp], husband ['hAzband], etc., but fre- quently also o, as in come [kAm], done [dAn], money ['mAni], some [sAm], and ou, as in couple ['kApl], cousin ['kAzin], ['kAzn], double ['dAbl], enough [I'nAf], trouble ['trAbl], slough [sL\f], tough [tAf], etc. 199. For u before r followed by a vowel, the standard pronunciation is [a], as in burrow ['bAro], hurry ['hAri], SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 89 turret ['tArit], scurry ['skAri]; also o with the value of [a], as in borough ['dato], thorough ['0ato]; and ou with the value of [a], as in courage ['kAric^], nourish ['nAriJ], flourish ['flAnJ], etc. With some speakers there is a tendency to pronounce the vowel [9] in these combina- tions, that is, to pronounce burrow, borough, hurry, turret, etc., as ['baro], fhari], [ r t9rit], etc., but this pronunciation is not often heard in cultivated speech. To make the difference clear, pronounce first the monosyllable her, then add a second syllable [i] without changing the phonetic form of the first syllable, and finally substitute for [9] in the stressed syllable the vowel [a] as in cut, etc. 200. The standard pronunciation of bury is ['ben], see § 136. For foreign ['form], a form ['fArm] is some- times heard in dialect pronunciation. 201. For e [e], i, y [1] before [r] followed by a vowel, standard English has [e], [1], see §§ 135, 170, but for these vowels dialect pronunciation often has [a], merry, very, terrible, American, bury being pronounced ['mAri], ['vah], ['tAribl], [a'mArikan], ['bAri], and miracle, squirrel, stirrup, syrup, Syracuse being pronounced ['mArakI], ['skwAral], ['stArop], ['sArop], ['sAr^kjus]. But usage in this latter group is not altogether uniform, and though perhaps no cultivated speaker ever says ['mArakI], many cultivated speakers do say ['sArap], ['stArap], ['skwAral]. In words of this type, [9] may also be heard in the popular dialects. 202. In constable, conjure, monger, mongrel, and some other words written o before n, both f'kAnstabl], ['kAnd39j], ['mArjg9j], ['mArjgral] and ['kanstabl], ['kan- d39j], ['marjg9j], ['mangral] are in good use, the latter being the more general. 90 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 203. For com- in combat and derivatives, American usage almost universally has [kom-] or [kam-], but occa- sionally [kAm-], as in British pronunciation. But com- pany, compass are always ['kAmpani], ['kAmpas]. 204. For bombard, bombast, PbAm'baid], ['bAm^bast] are current British pronunciations, but in America the words are commonly pbom'baud], ['bom^bsest]. The gen- eral pronunciation of bomb in America is [bom], see § 111. 205. For just, such, [d3Ast], [sAt$], the popular speech often has feist], feest], [sit$], [set$]. [a:] 206. This sound is heard only in the pronunciation of speakers who do not sound [j] in the final position and before consonants. It is heard only in stressed syllables, words like never ['neva], better ['beta], butter ['bAta] end- ing simply in [a] when the final consonant is not pro- nounced. It is a normal vowel, formed with the point of the tongue touching the roots of the lower teeth, and it should be clearly distinguished from [9]. It occurs finally in words like fur, fir [fAi], infer [m'fAi], cur [kAi], spur [spAi], purr [pAi], myrrh [mAi], and medially in turn [tAin], fern [fAin], furl [fAil], whirl [avaiI], dirt [dAit], shirt [$Ait], worth [wa:0], certain ['sAitn], and similar words. When r final is not pronounced, it sometimes leaves a trace of its existence as a weak [a], as in [fAia], [kAia], etc. This weak [a] may be regarded as the sur- vival of a glide vowel before [j], therefore similar in char- acter to the unstressed end vowel of never ['neva], etc. Since the vowel [ai] occurs only in the speech of persons who do not sound r in the final position and before con- sonants, it does not appear generally in American speech, SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 91 but only in certain forms of what is called loosely "Eastern pronunciation." To most other speakers, pro- nunciations like fur, fir [fAi], cur [kAi], etc., seem either local or affected. [ei] 207. The vowel [e] when prolonged tends to diph- thongize into [ei], especially when the vowel is final, as in hay [hei], grey, gray [grei], weigh [wei], etc. In standard American speech the first element of this diphthong is a clear [e]-vowel, but some speakers tend to lower the first element to [e], and this latter seems to be the accepted standard pronunciation in England (see Jones, Pronun- ciation of English, § 117). It follows that the diphthongal quality of the sound is more marked in British than in American pronunciation, since the glide from [e] to [i] is greater than from [e] to [i]. In fact, with many American speakers the sound is not diphthongal at all, being merely [e-] or [ei], except when it is unusually emphatic and long at the end of a word, in which case it becomes [ei] with practically all speakers. M 208. This diphthong is not general in American speech, but it occurs occasionally in full stressed monosyllables which end with the vowel or in monosyllables in which the vowel stands before a voiced consonant. Thus for sea, see [si:] one sometimes hears a diphthongal pro- nunciation [sii], especially when the word is emphatic. Compare also seat [si:t] with seed [si id] or [slid], freak [friik] with league [liig] or [hig], fleece [fliis] with freeze [friiz] or [friiz]. But the diphthongal quality of this sound is always so slight that it is scarcely worth while to re- cord it. 92 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA M 209. This sound is represented in the conventional spelling in a variety of ways, as in rite, right, write [rait], lie, lye [lai], sky [skai], deny [di'nai], guy [gai]. When exceptionally emphatic it may become [ai]. 210. The pronunciation of lichen is ['laikon] or ['ht$an], most commonly the former. For sacrifice the usual pronunciation is ['ssekrffais], sometimes ['ssekri- x faiz], but only very rarely ['ssekrffis]. For bison the common pronunciation is ['baizn], though ['bisn], ['baisn] are current forms in England. For dynasty both ['dai- nasti] and ['dinesti] occur, the former being the more general. The pronunciation [fa'rama] for farina [fa'riina] is British but not American usage. 211. The word roil, 'to make turbid/ is obsolete in England, but generally current in America. It has two pronunciations, the more familiar being [rail], especially in the metaphorical sense of the word, Ho vex/ Ho anger.' In this sense the word may also be spelled rile. Popu- larly roil is always pronounced [rail], as the diphthong oi regularly was in the eighteenth century, and still is by some old-fashioned folk, as in spoil [spail], boil [bail], join [d3ain], etc. In conventional cultivated use, how- ever, a spelling pronunciation, [roil], has largely sup- planted the older [rail]. 212. In words ending in -ile, as in servile, febrile, tac- tile, reptile, hostile, the general tendency in America is to pronounce the last syllable as [-il], and so always in agile, fragile. In England the reverse is true, a pronun^ ciation like ['aed3il] being characterized by Michaelis- SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 93 Jones, Phonetic Dictionary, p. 11, as dialectal. Usage is not uniform, however, in America, and some speakers say ['saiVail], ['has x tail], ['hosHail], ['rep x tail], etc. The pronunciation of gentile is always ['d3en x tail], to keep the word etymologically distinct from gentle. 213. For quinine several pronunciations are current, perhaps the most common being ['kwafnam], but also [kwi'nain], [kwi'nim], [ki'niin], 214. For cowardice, favorite, genuine the standard pronunciation is ['kauaidis], ['feivant], ['dsenjum], pop- ularly often ['kauajMais], ['fe:va v rait], [ r d3enju v ain]; but [ r kau9jMais] the writer has observed occasionally also in cultivated speech. 215. Some speakers, especially family groups, have [a] for the first element of this diphthong, giving [ai], as in pile [pail], mine [main], kind [kaind], and producing what most persons regard as a rather ' mushy' pronun- ciation. The second element of the diphthong is likely to become [a], also, in this pronunciation. 216. For [ai] sometimes [ai] is heard, as in fine [fain], time [taim], but only in dialect and provincial speech. It is probably this sound which writers of dialect stories have in mind when they spell fine, time as Join, toim, etc. 217. Occasionally one hears from the older generation, pronunciation like kind [ki'aind], sky [ski'ai], with a slight [i] glide vowel between the consonant and the diphthong. This was formerly a fashionable pronuncia- tion (see Webster, Dissertations, p. 109), but has now almost completely disappeared. See § 123. 94 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA [on] 218. lor this diphthong, see §§ 74, 177. Normally in American speech the first element of this diphthong when it occurs is a clear [o]-vowel, but some speakers pronounce a sound very similar to [a], as in know [nAu], go [gAu], and also prolong the second ele- ment of the diphthong. In American speech the diph- thongal quality of the sound is likely to be less marked than in British speech. The diphthong also assumes a greater variety of forms in British than in American speech, and Jones records all of the following variants as current in London, [ou], [ou], [au], [au], [au], [au] (Pro- nunciation of English, § 152). He remarks that "In the best speaking care should be taken to round the lips properly in pronouncing [ou], and not to exaggerate the diphthongization," § 154. Neither caution is urgently applicable to American speech. 219. Both [o] and [u] are rounded vowels, the former a mid back tense vowel, the latter a high back slack vowel, and the change in organic position in the glide from [o] to [u] is not very great. Examples of words which are likely to be pronounced as diphthongs are so, sow, sew [sou], though p5ou], know [nou], roll [roul], oath [ou0], rose [rouz], etc. But all such words are often pronounced simply with [oij. 220. In unstressed or secondarily stressed syllables, as in thorough [ r 0Aro], borough, burrow ['dato], fellow ['felo], window fwmdo], sorrow ['saro], piano [pi'aeno], etc., the vowel is scarcely ever diphthongal, and in pop- ular speech often weakens to [a]. The pronunciation ['dato] or ['bArou] for borough is marked as dialectal by SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 95 Michaelis-Jones, Phonetic Dictionary, p. 47, for the British standard form ['bAro]; so also with thorough, see p. 423. But fbAro], ['0Aro] are current cultivated pro- nunciations in America, as well as ['bAro], ['bAro], the former perhaps even to be preferred. [m] 221. For this diphthong, see § 76. [an] 222. This is the common diphthong ou, ow of house [haus], cow [kau]; ough of slough [slau], 'a swamp' (slough, Ho cast off/ 'the cast skin of a snake/ is pro- nounced [slAf]), bough [bau]; au in some words of foreign origin, as in aurochs ['auai^oks], Augean [au'dsian], Faust [faust]. For slough a spelling slew, slue, sloo, and a corresponding pronunciation [slui], are current in the Western States. 223. In several regions of the Atlantic seaboard, a triphthong appears in this sound when preceded by [k], [g], as in cow [ki'au], count [ki'aunt], gout [gi'aut], but this pronunciation is distinctly local and dialectal. 224. The recognized pronunciation of jowl is [d3aul], but [dsoil] is sometimes heard, perhaps on the analogy of the more familiar word bowl, though the analogy of howl would seem to be just as strong in the other direc- tion. The word jowl, however, is not in general popular use, and for that reason has not acquired an established pronunciation. 225. The same is true of archaic forms like enow, a variant of enough, and trow, for which both [I'nau], 96 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA [trau] and [i'iiou], [trou] are found as rimes in verse, where the words chiefly occur. When enow appears in the proper name, spelled Goodnow, Goodenow, Goode- nough, it is pronounced ['gud v nou], fgud^nou]. 226. For blouse the usual pronunciation is [blauz], but a more or less fashionable pronunciation (milliner's French), [bluiz], is sometimes affected. The final con- sonant may also be voiceless, as in [blaus]. 227. In British pronunciation the first element of this diphthong is very commonly [a], as in round [raund], gown [gaun], renown [n'naun], etc., and this pronuncia- tion is sometimes heard in America, though far less fre- quently than [au]. In New England and in the Southern States the first element of the diphthong is often pro- nounced [ad], as in hound [hseund], out [aeut], but this pronunciation is heard in cultivated speech only as a Southernism. M 228. This diphthong is conventionally written oi, oy, as in boil [boil], toy [toi], also uoy in buoy [boi], buoyant ['boijant]. A spelling-pronunciation [bui], ['burjant] is sometimes heard for buoy, buoyant, but is not general. The eighteenth century pronunciation of this diphthong was [ai], and this pronunciation still fingers among some old-fashioned and rustic speakers in words like boil [bail], join [d3am], and persists generally in the somewhat collo- quial word roil, rile [rail], see § 211. [ju], [jui] 229. This is a rising diphthong, the first element being slightly stressed, the second element stressed and usually SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 97 prolonged. On the consonantal quality of the first ele- ment, see §§ 25, 78. The diphthong is the sound com- monly known as 'long u,' and is written in the ordinary spelling u, as in music ['mjuizik], musician [mju'zi$on], use [juis], [juiz]; ew, as in few [fjiii], new [nju:]; eau, as in beauty ['bjuiti]. In the initial position and after lip con- sonants, usage uniformly has the sound []u] for ortho- graphic long u and its equivalents, as in use [juis], [juiz], rebuke [n'bjuik], butte [bjuit], fusion ['fju^an], mule [mju:l], view [vjui], etc. The combination sp is followed by [ju] the same as p, as in spurious ['spjuinas], spume ['spjuim]. 230. Before r, the second element of the diphthong is likely to be lowered to [u], e.g., pure, pronounced [pjui] or [pjuj], cure [kjui] or [kjui], etc. When the r is not pronounced, a slight [o]- vowel may take its place; when it is pronounced, a glide vowel [a] may be heard before the consonant. 231. After [1] and [r] the diphthong is rarely heard except in precise speech, the current pronunciation being [in], as in lute [hi it], Lucy [luisi], Luke [luik], rule [ruil], rude [ruid], rune [rum], ruse [ruiz]. After [d], [t], [0], [n], [s], usage varies widely, some speakers pronouncing duty ['djuiti], tube [tjuib], enthu- siasm [en'fljuizisezm], nude [njuid], new [njui], suit [sjuit], and others [duiti], [tuib], etc. The dictionaries generally authorize only the first of these pronunciations after [d], [t], [0], [n], [s], and academic authority is very likely to condemn the pronunciation [ur] as uncultivated, in spite of the fact that it occurs widely in the speech of educated and informed people. It has long been current 98 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA in America, as is evident from Noah Webster's defense of [ui] in duty, etc., as the best pronunciation. 1 232. After [k], orthographic u, representing the long vowel, is regularly [ju:], as in cube [kjuib], cucumber ['kjui N kAmb9j], cuneiform ['kju:ni8 v fojm], acute [o'kjuit], culinary ['kju:lo N nen], also pronounced ['kAte^nen]. The analogy of these words has affected coupon ['ku^pon], which in popular speech is often pronounced ['kju: N pon]. 233. After [g], the spelling u usually indicates merely the quality of the consonant, as in guard [gaud], guess [ges], and has no phonetic value, or it stands for a short vowel, as in gun [gAn], gush [gA$], etc. In legume, le- guminous, lugubrious, gubernatorial, the vowel after g is usually [ui], rarely [ju:]. 234. In unstressed syllables, [ju] of standard pronun- ciation is sometimes weakened in popular pronunciation, as in accurate ['aekjunt], pronounced ['sekarit], sinew ['sinju], pronounced ['sinu], argue ['augju], pronounced ['augi], ague ['eigju], written in dialect stories as ager, value ['vselju], written in dialect as vally, etc. The pro- nunciation ['figaj] for figure is occasionally heard on the lips of cultivated speakers in America for standard ['figjuj], but much less commonly than in England. Michaelis- Jones, Phonetic Dictionary, s. v., describes ['figjui] as dialectal in England. In rapid speech ['figjui] may become ['figjaj]. 1 Webster, Dissertations (1789), pp. 153 ff. It seems to be less general in the South, than it is in New England, whence it has spread to all sections of the country. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 99 CONSONANTS [b] 235. This consonant is pronounced in essentially the same way in all positions. A b appears, however, in the conventional spelling of some words which has no phonetic value, (1) before t, as in debt [det], doubt [daut], subtle [ r sAtl], subtly ['sAtli]; (2) after m, as in bomb [bom] or [bAm], dumb [cLvm], climb [klaim], comb [ko:m], crumb [krAm], jamb [d38em], lamb [lsem], lambkin ['lsemkin], numb [nAm], comparative degree number ['nAmaj], super- lative numbest ['nAmast], aplomb [a'plom], plumb [plAm], plumber ['plAmaj], tomb [tuim]. 236. When m is followed by b and a vowel, the b normally goes with the second syllable and is then pro- nounced, as in limber ['limbaj], lumber ['lAmbaj], number ['nAmbai], timber ['timbaj], etc., except when the in- fluence of a main form, in which the m is not pronounced, affects the pronunciation of derivatives, as in climb [klaim], climbing ['klaimirj], climber ['klaimaj], plumb [pUm], plumbing ['pL\.min], plumber fplAmaj], etc. 237. In the combination mbl, [b] s always pronounced, as in crumble ['krAmbl], humble ['hAmbl], nimble ['nimbi], thimble ['0imbl], tremble ['trembl], etc. 238. In rhomb [romb] a learned pronunciation with [b] is sometimes heard, due to the influence of spelling, and in iamb ['ai^aemb], also a learned word, the pronun- ciation with [b] is general. In cupboard, p has been assimilated to b which remains as a short consonant, ['kAbajd]. In the proper name Jacob, the final consonant 100 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA very generally becomes voiceless, the word being pro* nounced ['dseikap]; so also in Jacobs, Jacobson. [d] 239. The pronunciation of d of the conventional spell- ing remains uniform, except as the sound is affected by assimilation to neighboring sounds. Immediately after a voiceless consonant, [d] is regularly assimilated, becoming also voiceless, as in backed [baekt], baked [beikt], sniffed [snift], hissed [hist], flapped [flsept], wished [wi$t], frothed [fro0t], etc. 240. The reverse process may sometimes be observed in relaxed and slovenly speech, that is, a voiceless [t] in voiced surrounding becomes voiced, as in belated [bi- 'leitad], pronounced [bi'leidod]; rated ['reitod], scarcely distinguished in pronunciation from raided ['reidod]; fitted ['fited], pronounced ['fidad]. In popular speech putty is frequently pronounced ['pAdi], and in some dia- lects water becomes ['woda], letter becomes fleda], bitter becomes ['bida], etc., see § 14. 241. After [1] and [n], where according to rule one ex- pects to find a voiced [d], in some words forms with both [d] and [t] exist, and the latter pronunciation is some- times represented by t in the conventional spelling, as in learned, learnt, [laind], [feint], as participial adjective ['lajnad]; burned, burnt, [bajnd], [bsant]; spoiled, spoilt, [spoild], [spoilt]; spelled, spelt, [speld], [spelt]; spilled, spilt, [spild], [spilt]. Usage is arbitrary in pronunciations of this type. One may say [spilt] for spilled, but not [kilt] for killed, except in dialect Irish-English, where pronunciations with [t] are found in many preterites and past participles which have only [d] in standard English. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 101 242. For used, in the sense of 'employ,' 'make use of/ the common pronunciation is [juizd], but for used, Ho be accustomed to/ a widely current pronunciation is [juist], when the final consonant [d] is assimilated to the [t] of the sign of the infinitive which in most instances follows the word. In a phrase like I used? to go [ai -'juistS' 'gou], there is of course only one [t], to which t«he preceel-' ing consonant has also been assimilated, [z] becoming [s]. A like assimilation is common in I had to go [ai 'haeta 'gou] or [ai 'hsetia 'gou]. 243. After [n], in standard familiar speech [d] before a consonant is frequently omitted, as in grandmother ['grsen^mAtfej] ; handkerchief ['h8enk9.i x t$if], or following the general tendency in the pronunciation of [n] be- fore [k], see § 289, ['haerjkaiHSif]; handsome ['haensam]; Windsor ['wmzaj]; brand-new, also spelled bran-new ['braen^ju:]. Unemphatic and frequently becomes merely [n], as in time and tide [taim n taid], good and hot [gud n hat], etc. These pronunciations may be heard from cul- tivated speakers, but usage does not countenance this omission in all instances, pronunciations like band-box ['baen^baks], landlady ['laen N le:di], landlord ['laen x bjd], be- ing heard only in careless or very rapid speech. 244. A similar omission of [d] takes place before [n] in Wednesday [ r wenz v dei], ['wenzdi]. 245. After [n] in stressed syllables, [d] is sometimes added in popular speech, as in [draund] for drown, [gaund] for gown. 246. In the combination nge, a [d] is commonly pro- nounced after [n], as in angel ['eind38l] 3 danger ['deindsaa], 102 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA hinge [hind3], impinge [im'pind3], strange [stre:nd3], etc., though some speakers pronounce such words without a [d], i.e., ['ei^ol], ['deu^ai], etc. The pronunciation with [d] is to be preferred. The same is true of the combina- tion ige; is iii barge [bauds], large [laud3], forge [folds], urge {'9^3 J; and -lge, as in bilge [bikts], bulge [bAld3], indulge [ir/UX'ld^], and other words. See § 341. [g] 247. This sound varies considerably according to its vocalic surrounding, as may be observed by comparing gig [g!g] with gone [gon], see § 21. No questions of pro- priety are raised by this variation, however, because all speakers instinctively make the adaptation necessary to fit the consonant to its surroundings. 248. A g of the conventional spelling is silent in a number of words before [m] and [n], as in paradigm ['paeradim], sometimes ['pseroMaim]; phlegm [flem], but phlegmatic always [fleg'maetik] ; condign [kan'dain]; for- eign ['form]; impugn [im'pjuin]; reign [rem]; sovereign ['sovran]. For poignant; poignancy the usual pronuncia- tions are ['pomant], ['poinonsi], but through the influence of spelling, ['poignant], ['poignansi] are also sometimes heard. An initial g is silent in gnarled ['nauld], gnash [nseSL gnat [nset], gnaw [noi], gnome [noim], gnu [nui], gnostic ['nostik]. For physiognomy the usual pronuncia- tion is [fizi'ognami], but also sometimes [fizi'onomi]. 249. The combination ng of the conventional spelling represents simply [rj] in pronunciation when final, as in sing [sin], singing [sirjirj], wrong [ron], tongue [tArj], young [JAn], etc. But in the combination ngl [rjgl], ngr [rjgr] be- fore vowels or when [1], [r] are syllabic, a [g] is retained, SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 103 as in angle ['aerjgal]; England ['ingland], English ['ingli$], though some speakers say ['inland], ['inli$]; Inglis ['irjglis], Ingalls ['ingalz]; single fsingl]; anger ['aengai], angry ['aengri]; finger ['fingaj]; linger ['lingaj]; longer ['lorjgai]; stronger ['strorjgai]; younger ['JAqgai], etc. In the super- latives longest ['longest], strongest ['strongest], youngest ['JArjgast], the [g] is retained through the influence of the comparative with [i]. On the other hand, words like bringer ['brinaj], hanger ['haenaj], ringer ['rirjaj], singer ['sirjej], stringer ['strirjaj], etc., in which the same com- bination of letters occurs as in linger, etc., have no [g] because the derivative forms are influenced by head forms like bring [bnrj], hang [hsen], etc. 250. The combination ngu, when the u has phonetic value and is not silent as in tongue, harangue, is pro- nounced [rjgw], as in languid ['laerjgwid]; language [ 7 laengwid3]; languish [1aerjgwi$]; lingual ['lingwal], lin- guist [lingwist], and probably by attraction to lingual, etc., [rjg] in lingo ['lingo]. For languor all three pronun- ciations occur, ['laenaj], ['laerjgsi] and ['lserjgwej], the first two being more general than the third. 251. For recognizance, 'a bond or pledge to keep the peace/ etc., the usual pronunciation is [n'kagnizans], less often [n'kanizans]. As a military term, meaning a pre- liminary examination of a region, the spelling is recon- naissance, pronounced [n'kanisans]. For recognize the only standard pronunciation is one with [g], as in ['rek- ag x naiz], though one not infrequently hears ['rekanaiz] in rapid speech and, perhaps even more frequently, recognition pronounced [rcka'ni$an]. 252. For suffragan the accepted pronunciation is ['sAf- ragan], but the pronunciation of suffrage ['sAfnd3] some- 104 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA times produces ['sAfnd3on] in the speech of persons to whom the word is mainly an eye-word. 253. The combination gh of the conventional spelling is always silent, as in right [rait], freight [freit], sought [so it], etc., except when it stands for [f], see § 357, or in a few words for [g], as in ghostly, ghost, ghetto. W 254. The main question that arises in connection with h is whether it is pronounced or whether it is silent. In America there is no group of speakers who add and omit [h] before vowels in the manner of the Cockney English, but in general whenever h appears in writing in stressed position, American speakers pronounce it. To this rule there are some exceptions, heir, heiress, honor, honest, hour never having an initial [h]. In herb and the proper names Humphrey, Humphries, the initial h is sometimes pronounced, sometimes not, the pronunciation without [h] being the more general. In human, humble, humor a pronunciation without [h] is almost never heard in Amer- ica in the speech of cultivated persons, the phonetic forms of these words being ['hjuiman], ['hAmbI], ['hjummi]. But perhaps ['juimaj] should be recognized as an occasional cultivated pronunciation. In derivatives from herb, such as herbage, herbalist, herbarium, the initial consonant is always pronounced. 255. In unstressed syllables, initial [h] is sometimes lost. For shepherd and forehead the usual pronunciations are ['$epaid] and ['fored] or ['fond], though a spelling- pronunciation ['forced] is occasionally heard. For vehe- ment, vehicle the standard pronunciations are [Vioment] SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 105 and ['viikl], though popular forms with [h] are not infre- quent. When the [h] is pronounced in vehement, the stress is likely to be on the second syllable, [vi'hiimant]. 256. In weak syllables [h] is sometimes dropped in standard speech in words which retain it when the sylla- ble is stressed, as in history ['histari], an historical novel [sen is'tonkl 'navl]; him [him], but I saw him [ai sor im]; herald ['herald], but an heraldic device [aen er'aeldik di'vais]. 257. In proper names compounded with -ham, [h] is sometimes lost, as in Chatham ['t§8etam], Graham ['greiam], Pelham ['pelom], Wyndham ['windam], Ford- ham ['fojdam], and in a great many other dissyllables like these. But in trisyllables the general tendency of Amer- ican speech is to put a secondary stress on the third syllable, which thus maintains the full form of -ham in words like Birmingham ['baamiifhaem], Buckingham fbAk- irphsem], Frothingham ['frotur/haem], Wilbraham ['wil- bra^haem], locally pronounced ['wilbai v haem], etc. In Waltham, Wrentham, names of towns in Massachusetts, the t and h combine, giving ['renflam], and for Waltham ['woPfleem], with a heavy secondary stress. These are the local pronunciations, but persons to whom the words are merely eye-words would probably pronounce them ['rentam] and ['woltam]. 258. After x [ks], [gz], h is normally not pronounced, as in exhibit [eg'zibit], exhibition [eksi'bi$an]; exhaust [ig'zoist]; exhort [ig'zoit], etc. Occasionally one hears exhale [eks'heil], exhume [eks'hjuim], where the [h] is pronounced in an effort to make the second elements of the words etymologically prominent. 106 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 259. This sound is commonly written y in the ordinary alphabet, as in yawl [jo:l], yes [jes], yearn [jajn], youth [ju:0], etc. Words written with initial u, as in use [juis], union ['juinjon], etc., have this sound as the first element of the so-called 'long u.' In internal position [j] appears in companion [kam'psenjan], onion [ r Anjon], carrier ['ka> rijaj], collier ['kalijai] or ['kaljsj], etc. It is also occa- sionally heard in the speech of precise persons who try to avoid the sound [t$] generally current in words like feature, nature, etc., which are artificially pronounced ['futjuj], ['neitjuj], etc. 260. The word yeast [jiist] in popular speech often loses the initial consonant, becoming [iist], 261. In illiterate speech, a pronunciation ['kaljam] for standard column ['kalam] is frequent. 262. For [j] in French and Italian words written gn, see § 285. The word reveille is commonly pronounced ['revali], though occasionally [ro'veijo]; surveillance is either [sa/veitans] or [sai'veiljons]; cotillon is either [ko- 'titan] or [ko'tiljan], but when the latter pronunciation is intended, the spelling is usually cotillion. M 263. The ordinary spellings for this sound are k, c, ch, ck, qu (with the value of [k] or [kw]), and x (with the value of [ks]), as in king [kirj], call [koil], chemist ['kemist], black [blaek], exchequer [eks't$ek8j], tax [tseks]. In words written cc only one [k] is pronounced, as in account [o'kaunt], accuse [a'kjuiz], etc. In schism [sizm] and de- rivatives, ch is silent. For schedule the current pronun- SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 107 ciation in America is ['skedjul], but ['$edjul] is the more general pronunciation in England. The pronunciation of cham is [ksem], the word being an older variant form of khan [kain]. In flaccid ['flaeksid], the first c represents [k], the second [s]. The spelling ch is silent in drachm [drsem] and yacht Qat]. 264. In the combination kn, k is silent, except when preceded by a vowel with which it makes a syllable, as in knowledge ['nalids], but acknowledge [aek'nalids] ; knee [nil], knight [nait], etc. 265. Before [t], [k] is lost in victuals ['vitlz], indict [m'dait] and derivatives, likewise in arctic ['autik] in popular speech and not infrequently also in cultivated speech. The form ['autiks] is commonly used as the name of a kind of over-shoes. In most words, however, [k] is regularly pronounced before [t], as in convict ['kanvikt], deduct [di'dAkt], depict [di'pikt], picked [pikt]. For Connecticut the standard pronunciation is [ka'netikat]. 266. No [k] appears in the combination scl, as in muscle fmAsl], corpuscle ['koj v pAsl]. For corpuscle a second spelling and pronunciation occur, corpuscule [koj- 'pAskjul], hence also corpuscular [ko/pAskjulaj]. 267. In the combination [qk] followed by another con- sonant, many somewhat careless speakers tend to omit [k], pronouncing anxious ['senkjas] as ['aenjas]; injunction [m^AnktSan] as [in'd3Ar)$8n]; linked [linkt] as [lint], etc. In the unstressed position this pronunciation is general, as in anxiety [serj'zanti]; punctilious [pAr/tilias], but punctual fpArjktSual]; sanctimonious [saenti'moinias], but sanctify ['sserjktffai], etc. 108 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 268. In blackguard ['bla^gcud], k is silent, being as- similated to the following g. 269. The combination [ks], in unstressed position when followed by a voiced consonant or a vowel, gen- erally becomes [gz], as in exact [eg'zaekt], exhibit [eg'zib- it], exile (verb) [eg'zail], auxiliary [og'zilien], luxurious [lAg^urias]. 270. Analogy operates in words of this type, however, a form like axiom ['aeksiam], with [ks] under the stress, retaining this pronunciation in axiomatic [seksio'maetik], and vex [veks] preserving a voiceless consonant in vexa- tion [veks'eiSan]. But [veg'ze:$on] is also heard, and under the influence of luxurious, a pronunciation ['lAg38ri] for luxury ['lAkSari]. In the same way exile (noun and adjective) ['egzail] is to be accounted for, by the side of ['eksail], the former being now the more common pronun- ciation of the word. 271. Under the stress and before voiceless consonants, [ks] generally remains, as in exhibition [ x eksi'bi$9n], exigency ['eksid3ensi], exit ['eksit], excellent ['eksebnt], expire [ek'spaiai], extreme [ek'striim], ecstatic [ek'staetik], etc. 272. A [k] is often added in popular speech between [rj] and [0], length [lerj0], strength [strerj0], and derivatives, being pronounced [lerjk0], [strerjk0], etc. w 273. An 1 of the ordinary spelling is silent before [k], as in talk [tork], walk [wo:k], chalk [t$oik], caulk [koik], Falkland f'foklond], folk [foik], yolk [yo:k], when the SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 109 vowel preceding [k] is [o] or [oj. After other vowels [1] is retained, as in calculate ['kaelkju^e-t], in dialect speech also pronounced ['kaek-]; elk [elk], milk [milk], hulk [hAlk]. In Balkan ['bo: Ikon] the spelling has probably in- fluenced the pronunciation (cf. balk [bo:k], balky ['bo ski], where the [1] is not pronounced), or the syllable division, which carries the [1] with the first syllable, causes it to be pronounced. In falcon, falconry, the 1 is always pro- nounced in American speech, probably because this is mainly a literary word and the spelling has thus been unusually influential. 274. Before m and after a [a:], [se], o [oi], an 1 of the ordinary spelling is silent, as in balm [ba:m], calm [ka:m], alms [a:mz], palm [pa:m], psalm [sa:m], qualm [kwaim], salmon ['saemon] or ['saimon], almond ['aimond] or ['aemond], holm [hoim], Holmes [hoimz]. But 1 is pro- nounced after [e], [i], [a], as in helm [helm], film [film], culm [kAlm], Hulme [hAlm], and of course in words in which m goes with a succeeding vowel, as in almanac, Palmyra, calmative, a medical term derived from calm, etc. In a word like almond, which might be written ['aimnd], the second syllable is apparently so slightly syllabic as not to cause a separation between the preced- ing 1 and m. Yet a pronunciation ['aelmond] does occur not infrequently in popular speech, and the local pronun- ciation of Salmon, a frequent proper name in Connec- ticut, is ['saelmon]. 275. In psalter, psaltery, ['soltoj], ['soltori], 1 is always pronounced. In psalmist it is usually not pronounced, through force of the analogy of psalm. But in psalmody, psalmodic, pronunciations on the analogy of psalm with- out 1, and pronunciations with 1, ['sselmodi], [ssel'madik] 110 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA are both current, in the latter case the two consonants going with separate syllables. 276. After a [a:], [a:], [ae], o [oi], 1 is silent before [f], [v], in calf, half, salve, golf [gosf], but also pronounced [golf], the latter being perhaps the more common pronun- ciation in America. When the [f] or [v] goes with a suc- ceeding syllable, a preceding [1] is pronounced, as in palfrey ['pselfri], salvage [Wvid&l, salvation [ssel'vei$an], etc. In the proper names Ralph, Rolfe, an [1] is always pronounced, probably through the influence of the spell- ing, though formerly a pronunciation without [1] was also current, The verb salve, in the special sense of saving a ship or a ship's cargo, is pronounced [saelv]. 277. Before [n], [1] is silent in Lincoln ['lirjkan]. 278. The spelling colonel for ['kainl], ['kAinl], is due to the French and Italian form of this word, but the pro- nunciation is due to the Spanish form, in which r appears instead of 1 in the spelling. 279. In solder ['sadai], 1 is silent, though otherwise generally pronounced before d. Dialectally this word is sometimes pronounced ['soidai], written sawder in dialect stories. In could, would, should, no [1] is present in pro- nunciation, and historically no 1 should appear in the spelling of could. The Middle English form of this word is coude, but later the spelling changed to could under the influence of the analogy of would and should, both of which had 1 through etymological origin. But could seems to have retained its pronunciation without [1], and even to have attracted would and should to it. As auxiliaries, these words were all slightly stressed in the SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 111 word group, and this fact may have contributed to the loss of the [1] in them. 280. Words written 11, normally have only a single [l]-sound, as in holly ['hall], fully ['full], etc., except when for the sake of unusual clearness a word like wholly is pronounced ['hoilli] to distinguish it from holy ['ho ill], or solely is pronounced ['soilli] to keep it etymologically dis- tinct from the word soul, or foully is pronounced ['faulli] to keep it etymologically distinct from fowl. Ordinarily, however, wholly and holy are pronounced exactly alike, f'hoili]. [m] 281. The pronunciation of [m] in standard English causes no difficulty. When m is written, it is always pro- nounced, except in mnemonic [ni'manik] and derivative forms of this word, where it is silent, and in comptroller [kan'troilai], where it is pronounced [n]. 282. In popular English [m] is sometimes made syllabic after [1], elm [elm], helm [helm], film [film], etc., being pronounced ['elam], ['helam], ['fibm], etc. 283. For pumpkin standard pronunciation has ['pAmp- kin], ['pAmkin], but dialect speech commonly has ['pArj- km], ['pAnkn]. W 284. The usual orthographic spelling for [n] is n, but also gn, kn, with g and k silent, as in no [nou], ant [aent], penny ['peni], ton [tAn]; condign [kan'dam], gnaw [noi], feign [fein], foreign ['form], poignant ['pomant]; knee [nil], knell [nel], knock [nak], knoll [noil], know [nou]. 112 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 285. In words of French and Italian origin written gn, as in cognac, mignonette, vignette, Bologna, Campagna, and in Spanish words written n, as in canon, senor, pinon, the sound is [nj], as in ['koin v jaek], PminjVnet], [vin'jet], [ba'loinja], popularly often pronounced [[ba'lomi], [kaem- 'paenjo], ['kaenjon], ['siin^joi], ['pin x jon]. For caiion a spelling canyon is now commonly used. Exceptions to this rule are poignant, noted above, and champagne PSaem'pem]. The place name Boulogne is commonly pro- nounced [bu'loin], and for Bourgogne only the Anglicized forms Burgoyne, Burgundy are in general use. In the customary pronunciation ['siin^joi] for senor the accented vowel has lost its Spanish value. 286. After 1, [n] is silent in kiln [kil], though a pronun- ciation with [n], due to the influence of the spelling, is also heard. 287. For chimney ['t$rmni], popular English often has ['tjimh], ['tSimbh]. 288. After [m], an orthographic n is regularly silent, except when it belongs to a succeeding syllable, as in solemn ['salam], but solemnize ['satam^naiz] ; autumn ['oitom], but autumnal [o'tAmnol]; hymn [him], but hymnal ['himnal]. The influence of a head form without [n] often preserves this pronunciation even when mn is followed by a vowel, as in condemn [kon'dem], condemn- ing [kan'demrrj]; damn [daem], damning ['daemirj]; in joy and hymning (Milton) [in d30i send 'himirj]. In popular pronunciation [n] is often omitted in gov- ernment ['gAvajn^ment], pronounced ['gAva/ment]. For n fa] before [k], see § 289. SOUNDS AND THEIB OCCURRENCE 113 [Q] 289. This sound is commonly represented in spelling by ng, or by n in the combination [rjg], [rjk], as in sing, singing, [sin], [sinin], long [Ion], lung [Lvn], rang [ran]; think [0irjk], minx [minks], Bronx [brorjks], bank [baerjk], sunk [sAnk], monk [mAnk], monkey ['mArjki], distinct [dis'tirjkt], tincture ['tinkt$9j], function ['fAnk$on], [fAnk- t$an], conch [korjk], etc. On the omission of [k] or [t] in the combination [nkt$], see §§ 267, 339. 290. The prefix in- when stressed and followed by [k] is pronounced [in-] or [in-], as in income ['in v kAm] or [ / in x kAm], incubus ['inkjubos] or ['inkjubas], incubate ['mkju N be-t] or ['inkju x be-t]; so also with in- followed by qu, as in inquest ['inkwest] or ['inkwest]. The pronun- ciation of inquiry [in'kwain] with stress on the first syl- lable, giving ['mkwiri] or ['inkwiri], is not current in standard English. 291. The prefix con- followed by [gr] is pronounced [kan-] when it bears a stress, as in congress ['kangres], congregate ['karjgrfge-t], congruous ['kangruas]; but when not stressed it usually becomes [kan-], as in con- gressional [kan'grejanol], congruity [kon'gruiti]. In con- gregational a pronunciation [kan-] may persist because in polysyllables of this type the first syllable bears a sec- ondary stress. For Congreve, Conger, Congo, the usual pronunciations are ['kar/griv], ['kangai], ['karpgou]. 292. Followed by [k], the pronunciation of con- varies indifferently between [kan-] and [kan-], as in concave ['kan x ke-v] or ['karpke-v], concubine ['kankjubain] or ['kankjubain], conclave ['kan N kle-v] or ['kan x kle-v], con- 114 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA cord fkan^kojd] or ['karpkoid], concourse ['kan^kojs] or ['karfkojs], concrete ['kan N krit] or fkar/krit]. 293. Before qu [kw], gu [gw], n is pronounced [rj] by- some speakers, [n] by others, as in banquet ['bsen^kwet] or ['baer/kwet], Banquo ['bsen^kwo] or ['baerpkwol, lingual ['lmgwol] or ['lirjgwol], linguistic [lin'gwistik] or [lir/gwis- tik], etc., with the preference perhaps in favor of the pro- nunciations with [n]. In conquer ['karjkaj], conqueror ['karjkoraj], where qu is [k], the value of n is always [n], but in conquest forms with [n] and [rj] both appear. 294. Before [0], [rj] often becomes [n] in popular speech in length [lerj0], lengthen ['lerj0an], strength [strerj0], strengthen ['strerj0an], which are pronounced [len0], ['len0an], [stren0], ['stren0an]. 295. A final unstressed [n] is sometimes pronounced [rj] in dialect speech, as in kitchen ['kitjirj], chicken ['t$ikirj], garden ['gardirj], etc., so also facetiously in heavens ['hevirjz]. 296. In dialect speech and sometimes also in collo- quial cultivated speech, final unstressed [rj] becomes [n], especially in present participles, as in singing ['sin in], doing ['duin], saying ['seim], etc. This pronunciation is more generally heard in cultivated speech in England than in America. In both countries, however, the authority of academic opinion is strongly against it. 297. A final [rj] sometimes becomes [rjk] in dialect speech, as nothing [ / nA0irjk], singing ['sirjirjk], anything ['eni x 0ink]. This pronunciation appears in America chiefly in the larger cities and in speakers of foreign birth BOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 115 or tradition. It is more common in unstressed than in stressed syllables, but pronunciations like [kink] for king may even be heard. [pi 298. An orthographic p is silent in comptroller [kon- 'troilai], psalm [saim], pseudo- ['suido-], psychology [sai'kated3i], pneumatic [nju'msetik], pterodactyl [tero- 'daektil], ptomaine ['toi x me-n], ptarmigan ['taumigan], raspberry ['rsez^ben], ['ra:z v ben]. The pronunciation of corp is [koi], plural corps [kojz], but in corpse [kojps] the p is sounded. In cupboard ['kAbajd] the p is not sounded and may be said to have been assimilated to the following b. The word clapboard shows the same change. 299. On the other hand, some speakers insert a [p] between m and a continuant consonant where no [p] is present in orthography or in standard speech, as in warmth [wojmpfl], lymph [limpf], camphor ['kaempfai], symphony ['simpfoni], samphire ['ssemp^faiai], Humphrey, Humphries, ['hAmpfri], ['hAmpfriz]. The spelling ph in these words may partly account for the pronunciation of a [p] in them, though this spelling is of course only one of the English ways of recording [f]. A more probable expla- nation, however, is that a [p] is necessarily produced when the breath is allowed to issue after the formation of [m] and the tongue and lip formation for a different consonant are not immediately assumed. In the same way a [p] is sometimes present in dreamt [dremt], giving [drempt]. See § 359 for ph pronounced [p] in the combination phth. 300. In the orthographic combination mp followed by a consonant, a [p] is generally pronounced, as in unkempt [ v An'kempt], limped [limpt], stamped [stsempt], glimpse 116 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA [glimps], lamps [laemps], assumption [a'sAmp$an], etc., but some speakers tend to omit the [p] in these combina- tions, pronouncing [\\n'kemt], [limt], [stsemt], [glims], [a'sAmJan], etc. To most persons these seem rather care- less pronunciations. In the place names Hampshire, Hampden, Hampton, the p is usually silent. M, M 301. On the different varieties of r, see §§ 39-44. Especially in the East and South, [j] is regularly omitted by many speakers before other consonants and finally, as in party ['paiti], large [laid3], far [fa:], cur [kAi], war [wai]. But when stressed [j] is omitted finally it often leaves a trace of its existence in a weak [a], as in for, four ['foia], there ['t5e:a], fear ['fi:a], fire ['faia], fur ['fAia], war ['woia], cur ['kAia], far [ r fa:a]. 302. When [j] is omitted before a consonant, the pre- ceding vowel, if not already long, is lengthened, and the difference in length may then be the only distinguishing feature between two such words as cart [ka:t] and cot [kat], hard [ha id] and hod [had], part [pa:t] and pot [pat]. But between father and farther no phonetic distinction would exist, both being ['fa :5a]; so also fought and fort might both be [foit], caught and court might be [koit], sought and sort might be [so it], laud and lord might be [laid], etc. In Southern speech the sound of o before r and a consonant frequently becomes a vowel between [oi] and [o:], which may be described as a front [ox]. In this pronunciation lord lies between laud and load and distinct from both. So also in words with r final, as in tore, the pronunciation of which suggests taw or toe, but is appreciably different to the ear. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 117 303. For burst a popular form without [j] is generally current, but is pronounced [bAst], whereas the cultivated pronunciation is either [baist] or [bAist]. Similar pro- nunciations like nurse [nAs], first [fAst], curse [kAs], pursy fpAsi], purslane ['pAsli], are to be heard only in dialect and popular speech. 304. For iron and derivatives the only current pronun- ciations are ['aiam], ['aian]. A parallel pronunciation for apron ['eipajn], however, is dialectal, the standard form being ['eipran]. For irony the pronunciation is ['aironi]. For tired the standard pronunciation is ['taiaid] or ftaiad], and so with similar words, such as fired, hired, wired, etc. 305. At the end of words after vowels, in unstressed and after [o:] in stressed syllables, an [j] is often added which is not present in spelling or in standard use, as in idea [ai'diaj], window [\vindsi], Hannah ['hsenai], Noah fnoiai], etc. This is most likely to take place when the word is followed by another word beginning with a vowel, but the pronunciation is not limited to such com- binations. Pronunciations like [drou], [sou] for draw [dro:], saw [so:], occur only in illiterate or dialect speech, but one often hears [ai'diai], ['windai], ['haenaj], etc., especially in New England, in the speech of cultivated persons. They are localisms, however, not to be recom- mended for imitation. In dialect speech an r is often inserted before a consonant after [oi], as in chalk, pro- nounced [t$ouk], dog, pronounced [doug], soft, pronounced [souft], etc. For standard wash [wo$], Washington ['wojintan], popular speech often has [wouj], ['woujintan]. In such words [j] probably arises from the diphthongal pronunciation of [oi], see § 70. 118 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 306. Between vowels, [r] is omitted dialectally and also by some educated speakers in a kind of feeble re- fined pronunciation which is not general in any locality, but is characteristic rather of individuals or small family groups, as in ['veil] for very, ['ken] for carry, ['oial] for oral, ['fAii] for furry, etc. This pronunciation is caused by failure to bring the tongue after the pronunciation of the preceding vowel to the position required by [r], and in most instances is probably a survival of infantile pro- nunciations in which the movements of the organs of speech were under imperfect command. Somewhat similar is the omission of [r] in hundred, pronounced ['hAndad], and the first [r] in February, pronounced ['febaVen], for standard ['hAndrad], ['febru^en]. For February there is also a pronunciation ['febju^en] which is probably in part due to the analogy of January ['d38enju x en], and is not infrequently heard in culti- vated speech. The pronunciation of library ['laibren] as ['laiberi] is juvenile and dialectal. 307. In popular speech, [i] is also omitted before con- sonants, especially in unstressed syllables, as in com- fortable, surprised, particular, pronounced ['kAmfotabl], [sa'praizd], [po'tikjutei], Saturday, pronounced ['saetadi]. Also in some stressed syllables, as in cartridge, pronounced ['ksetnd3], partridge, pronounced ['psetrid3]. [s] 308. The sound of [s] is represented in the ordinary spelling by s, ss, c, sc, x [ks], as in yes [jes], best [best], miss [mis], mistress f'mistris], wasp [wosp], rice [rais], except [ek'sept], accept [aek'sept], ceiling ['siilirj], cinc- ture ['sirjktjaj], cinch [smt$], circle fsaikl], service f'sajvis], SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 119 tax [tseks], buxom ['bAksam], scythe [saitS], scene [si in], scissors [ r siz9jz]. The spelling of scissors is exceptional in two respects, in the spelling sc in a native English word for [s], and ss for [z]. In schism and derivatives, sch is pronounced [s], [sizm]. For si, ssi, su, ssu, pronounced [$], see § 327. 309. The value of c is [s] regularly before e, i, y, as in cell [sel], conceit [kan'siit], citron ['sitran], decide [di- 'said], cinch [smt$], cycle ['saikl], but [k] before a, o, u, as in can [kaen], call [koil], coke [koik], cook [kuk], cup [kAp]. For sacerdotal the standard pronunciation is Pssesai'doi- tal], but sometimes a Latinized pronunciation [saekai-] is heard. The Old English proper names Caedmon, Cynewulf are pronounced ['kaedman], ['kiniVulf]. For Celt, Celtic, Cymric both [kelt], ['keltik], ['kimrik] and [selt], ['seltik], ['simrik] occur. 310. In the combination stl, the s is usually voiceless, as in gristle fgrisl], thistle ['0isl], whistle ['misI], etc., but some speakers say ['mizPtou] for mistletoe ['misPtou]. For grisly the standard pronunciation is ['grisli]. 311. For greasy the common pronunciation is ['griizi], but some speakers carry over the consonant of the noun grease [griis] to the adjective, pronouncing the adjective ['griisi]. A distinction is sometimes made in the meaning of ['griisi] and ['grirzi], the latter being regarded as a word of unpleasant connotation. Popular usage and, in general, standard speech have only the form with [z], 312. For rise (noun) a pronunciation [rais] is some- times heard to distinguish the noun from the verb [raiz], but the common pronunciation is [raiz] for both noun and verb. In some words, however, [s] is distinctive for 120 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA noun, [z] for verb function, as in advice [aed'vais], advise [aed'vaiz]; device [di'vais], devise [di'vaiz]; abuse [o'bjuis], abuse (verb) [a'bjuiz]; use [ju:s], use (verb) Quiz]; grease [griis], grease (verb) [griiz]. For sacrifice the common pronunciation is ['saekri^fais] for both noun and verb, but ['saekn N faiz] is occasionally heard for the verb. For close as verb the pronunciation is [kloiz], as adjective, adverb and noun (as in ' cathedral close') the pronunciation is [klois]. In recluse [n'kluis] the s is voiceless. 313. The pronunciation of Missouri is commonly [miz'uin], though [mi'suiri] is sometimes heard. The accented vowel may be [u]. 314. In Louisville, St. Louis, Illinois and other proper names in which a French tradition survives, pronuncia- tions both with and without s are generally current. In New Orleans the final s is always pronounced, the stress being on the first syllable, as in Pnju 'oxbnz]. The pro- nunciation [ N nju oj'liinz] is dialectal. In Des Moines [di'mom] neither s is sounded. In Illinois when the final consonant is pronounced it is voiced. In New Orleans the two vowel letters of the final syllable may be given separate quality, as in Pnju 'oilionz]. 315. In ambergris, though the word is of French origin, the final s is always sounded, and the word is treated as though it were a compound of amber and grease, being pronounced accordingly, ['aembaj'griis]. So also with verdigris ['vaidi'griis], avoirdupois [ x aev9idu'poiz]. For bourgeois, meaning 'middle class/ the pronunciation is ['buj3Vai], but as the name of a kind of type it is [b9j'd30is]. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 121 316. Some speakers show a marked tendency to sub- stitute [$] for [s], especially when it comes before [t], as in worst [waast], pronounced [waj$t], distressed [dis- 'trest], pronounced [dis'tre$t], suggest [safest], pro- nounced [sa'd3e$t], etc. The pronunciation produces a spluttery untidy effect, which most persons find very disagreeable. 317. For rinse [nns], [rmz], popular dialect speech often has [rent$]. The proper name Rensselaer ['rensa^leu], ['renslaj], has a popular form ['rent$lai]. The pronuncia- tion of pincers ['pmsaiz] as ['pint$aiz] is probably the result of the influence of pinch. It is possible that the pronunciation [rent$] for rinse has been affected by the analogy of wrench [rent$]. A half-way form, [rens], is also heard. [s] 318. The two common spellings for [z] are s and z, as in his [hiz], phase [ferz], despise [di'spaiz], misery ['mizari], accuse [ae'kjuiz], visor ['vaizai], Townsend ['taunzand], zone [zoin], baize [beiz], lazy ['leizi], dizzy ['dizi], hazard ['haezajd], lizard ['lizajd], etc. Hard and fast rules for s pronounced [z] cannot be given, because general rules are very much broken into by analogical groupings. Initial s, however, is never voiced, and the spellings c, ss never stand for [z], with the exception of scissors, see § 308, and Missouri, see § 313. Between vowels and in the neighborhood of voiced consonants, s tends to become [z] by assimilation, as in house [haus], houses ['hauziz], but the operation of this tendency may be held in check by the influence of a head form, as in case [keis], cases ['keisiz]; gas [gses], gases ['gaesiz]; lease [His], leases ['liisiz]; or the third singular of verbs, 122 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA like loose [lu:s], looses ['luisiz]. Likewise in the posses- sives of words ending in [s] the voiceless sound is pre- served when the ending is added, as in moose [mu:s], moose's ['muisiz]. 319. Inflectional s in the plurals and possessives of nouns and in the third singular present of verbs is [z], unless it is preceded by a voiceless consonant, as in cows [kauz], goes [goiz], paths [paeftz], wives [waivz], tubs [tAbz], rides [raidz]; but cats [ksets], skiffs [skifs], myths [mi0s], walks [woiks], steps [steps], etc. 320. For Mrs. the common pronunciation is the same as for misses, that is, fmisaz] or ['misiz], but occasionally the final consonant is voiceless, ['misis]. The pronuncia- tion with the medial consonant voiced, as in ['miziz], is said to be a sure test of Southern speech. 1 But the test does not work both ways. It may be true that ['miziz] is always Southern, but it is not true that all Southerners say ['miziz]. In Southern pronunciation Mrs. is often monosyllabic, being merely [miz], with perhaps the final consonant prolonged. 321. Words in which a stressed s after a vowel is fol- lowed by the ending -ive usually have [s], but sometimes [z], as in abusive, conclusive, corrosive, diffusive, evasive, persuasive, incisive. The pronunciation with s is to be preferred. After n, 1, r, when s is under the stress it re- mains as [s], as in pensive, defensive, expansive, impulsive, discursive. 322. Intervocalic s in unstressed syllables when it is not [$] or [3] (see §§ 327 (e), 328 ff.), usually is pronounced 1 Read, Dialect Notes, III, 524 (1911). SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 123 [z], as in comparison, jettison, unison, venison, though sometimes [s] in all these words. The usual pronunciation of usage is ['juisids], the voice- less [s] being maintained by the stress. But ['juizid3] also is heard. 323. In newspaper the less usual pronunciation is ['njuiz^pe-paa], in agreement with the uncompounded form news [nju:z]. Generally, the voiced [z] is assimi- lated to the voiceless [p], giving ['njus^pe-poj]. 324. In Chinese, Japanese, Maltese, Siamese, Sou- danese, etc., the final syllable is usually [-i-z], especially when the words stand in adjective position and are con- sequently lightly stressed, as in Siamese twins ['saromi-z 'twrnz]. As the name of a people, for example, the Chinese, the Japanese, the words are more heavily stressed and are often pronounced with a voiceless con- sonant, [So t$ai'niis], [So d3a3po'niis]. 325. For Kansas, Arkansas, the pronunciation is ['kaen- zos], [ai'ksenzos], rarely with [s] for the first consonant of the last syllable; but the pronunciation of Arkansas as ['ajkon^soi] is the one accepted in the state and in the West generally. For Texas the usual pronunciation is ['teksos], less often ['teksoz]. 326. The pronunciation of czar (sometimes spelled tzar) and derivatives is [zau]. In a few words, especially Greek proper names, x is pronounced [z], as in Xenophon ['zenofon], Xanthippe [zsen'trpi], Xerxes ['zojksiz], Xavier ['zeivioj], Xebec ['ziibek]. In avoirdupois the final con- sonant is always pronounced [z], see § 315. 124 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA IS] 327. This sound is of very wide occurrence in the lan- guage and can best be treated under the heads of its various orthographic representations. (a) s = [$] in sugar ['$ug9j], sure [$uj], [$U9j], and de- rivatives of sure. The sound is not standard in any other words of this type, though occasionally heard in pronunciations like assume [V$u:m] for [a'suim], [o'sjuim], ['Suimaek] for sumach ['suimaek], especially in dialect speech. (6) sh = [$], as in ship [$ip], fish [fi$], ashen ['&$an], shackle ['$aekl], fashion ['fae$on], and a large number of other words. (c) sch=[$], but only in a few words of foreign origin, as in schottish, schottische ['$crti$L schist [$ist], a term in geology, schnapps [Jnaeps]. For schedule, see § 263; for schism, see § 308. Ordinarily sch = sk [sk]. (d) ch = [$], especially in words of French origin or words influenced by French pronunciation, as in chef [$ef], chalet [$2e'lei], chevalier [$ev9'li9j], cheval [$e'vael], chauvinism [^ojvinizm], chandelier [ v $a3nda / li9j], charade [$a'reid], chic [$ik], chassis [Sae'sii], champagne [$aem'pein], chiffonier [Jifa'niaj] (very commonly also [$ef-]), chauffeur ['So if 9 j] or [$o'f9j], chivalry ['Sivalri], chagrin [$a'gnn], cheroot [$9'ru:t], chaise [$e:z], chamois ['Saemwa] (as the name of the animal), ['$semi] (as the name of the skin of commerce), chiffon ['$ifon], chemise [$e'miiz], chicanery [$i'ke:niri], mustache [mas'tseS]; also in proper names, as in Charlotte [Vulat], Champlain [$aem'plein], Charlevoix ['Saubvoi], Cheyenne [ r $ai'en], Chenango Ra'naerjgo], Chicago Ri'kaigo] or [$i'ko:go], Michigan ['mrjigan], Che- boygan Bi'boigan], Chatauqua [Ja'toikwa]. But [$] for ch is not universal in native American place names, some SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 125 having [t$], as in Chippewa ['tJipiVoi], Chillicothe [t$ih- 'koidi], Chicopee ['t$iko N pi:], Cherokee ['t$ero r ki:], Chatta- nooga [t$a3ta'nuiga]. For chivalry ['$ivaln] and derivatives a pronunciation [ r t$iv8ln] also obtains in England, but is never heard in America except as a Briticism. An occasional pronunciation [pa'ro:$al] is heard for the standard parochial [pa'roikial]. (e) Under this and the following heads are grouped in- stances in which an original [s] or [t], followed by an unstressed mid or high front sound, [e], [i] or [ju] com- bined with the vowel to form [$]. ce== [$L as m ocean ['oijan], and in the ending -aceous, as in herbaceous [ha/be ijos], crustaceous [krAs'tez$as], etc. For oceanic both [oji'senik] and [osi'aenik] occur. (/) ci=[$], as in musician [mju'zi$an], social ['so:$al], gracious ['grei$as], sufficient [sa'fijant], ancient ['emjant], also ['emtjont], pacient ['pedant], racial ['reijal], precious ['prejas], preciosity [pre$i'ositi]. In the endings -ciate, -ciation, considerable difference of usage occurs, the general tendency of popular speech being to pronounce ci as [$], but in cultivated speech this tendency is sometimes interrupted, especially in formal discourse, in which the pronunciation [si] is often pre- ferred as being nearer to the spelling, as in enunciate [i'nAn$iVt] or [I'nAnsiVt], associate and derivatives [a'so:$iVt] or [a'soisiVt], pronunciation [pro^nAn^i'e.'San] (but perhaps more commonly [pro r nAnsi'e:$an], either from a desire to distinguish ci and ti in the word, or it may be because one is likely to be self-conscious in pronouncing this word), officiate [o'fr$iVt] or [o'fisiVt], emaciated [i'me:$i x etad] or [i'me:siVtad], appreciate [ae'prii$ie-t], ap- preciation [aepri$i'ei$an] or [a3prisi'ei$an]. In words like 126 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA appreciation, enunciation, association, etc., the ci is likely to be pronounced [si] to avoid bringing two [$]- sounds close together. (g) sci = [$], as in conscious ['kan$9s], conscience ['kan- $ans], omniscient [om'ni$9nt], luscious ['1a$9s]. In formal speech instead of [$], sometimes [si] is heard for sci, especially in learned words, like omniscient [om- 'msi9nt], prescience ['presians]. {h) si = [$], as in mansion ['maenjan], dimension [di- 'men$9n], transient ['traenjont], in formal speech often ['transient], Asia fei$a], but also ['eisa], fuchsia ['fjuijo]. In transient the consonant is sometimes voiced, giving ['traen39nt]. In Persia ['P9139] it is always voiced. See § 333 (a). The variant spelling x for [ks] appears in noxious ['nakjas], anxious ['aerjkjas]. For axiom the standard pronunciation is ['aeksiam], the general tendency, which would produce ['aek$am], being held in check by the learned character of the word. (i) se = [$], as in nausea ['noi$a] and derivatives, but also pronounced ['noijia], ['noisia], ['no 130], ['no 1310], ['noizia]. (j) su = [$], the vowel also persisting, as in insular ['m- Sutei], peninsula [pen'm$ula], sensual ['senjuel], sexual ['sekjual], consular ['kanjulaj], luxury ['lAkJari], less fre- quently ['lAg59n]. In all these words, which differ from those under (a) in that s is followed by u in an unstressed syllable, pro- nunciations with [sj] also occur, as in ['msjulai], ['sensjual], etc., especially in formal and conscious speech. It is the [j] element in [ju] that causes the [s]-sound to become [$]. (k) ssi = [$], as in mission ['mijan], passion ['pae$an], discussion [dis'kAjan], confession [kan'fe$an], Ossian SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 127 ['o$an] or in careful pronunciation ['o$ian], Russia frA$a], Prussia ['prA$a], (I) ssu = [$], the vowel also persisting, as in issue ['r$u], tissue ['ti$u], fissure ['fi$uj] or ['fijaj], pressure ['pre$ui] or ['pre$9i], commissure ['kami^ui], a term in biology. A careful pronunciation, as in ['isju] or ['r$ju], is some- times cultivated in these words, see also under (j). On the other hand, a slighter colloquial form is also to be observed, as in ['ti$a] for tissue, especially as adjective in the phrase tissue paper. (m) te = [t$], as in righteous ['rait$as], sometimes also courteous ['k9jt$8s], though more commonly ['kajtias]. Other words in -eous, as duteous, piteous, plenteous, bounteous, beauteous, have only the pronunciation ['dju- tias], etc., in agreement with their head forms duty, pity, plenty, bounty, beauty. In amateur the stress falls in cultivated speech on the last syllable, [aema'taj], but quite generally in familiar speech, especially in such phrases as " amateur theatri- cals," "amateur standing," etc., the stress is on the first syllable, giving ['sematjaj]. (n) ti = [$], as in position [pa'zrjanj, nation ['neijan], essential [I'senjal], Titian ['ti$an], rational ['rsejanal], ratio fre:$o], sentient ['senjant], though also ['sentient] as a learned word. For otiose, otium, the recognized dictionary pronun- ciations are [o$i'o:s], ['oijiam], but the words are not cur- rent in colloquial use, and for that reason most speakers when compelled to pronounce them would follow the spelling. For ratiocination both [Vsetiosi'neijan] and [ x rae$iosi- 'nei$an] are in good use. In words like differentiation, negotiation, substantia- 128 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA tion, the first ti is often pronounced [si] and the second [$], perhaps from a disinclination to have two [$]-sounds close together, see above, under (/). In differentiation the influence of difference may also be of some weight. In differentiate, negotiate, substantiate, the value of ti is commonly [§i], and it remains so with probably the majority of speakers in differentiation, etc. When ti is preceded by [s], the [t] assibilates to [$], but at the same time remains as [t] to avoid the juxtaposi- tion of [s] and [$], as in question ['kwest$an], suggestion [s8'd3est$on], Christian ['knst$on], etc. The pronunciation ['kristian] is very formal. See § 339. When ti is preceded by [n], ordinarily the ti is pro- nounced [$], as in mention ['menjon], attention [a'ten$on], convention [kon'venjon], etc.; but when a word is strongly stressed, the sound may become [t$], as in Don't even mention it [doint iivn 'mentjan it], or in attention as a military command, which is reduced merely to the final syllable [t$An], with of course heavy stress. In such words the organic position for [t] is already assumed for the pronunciation of [n], and the special emphasis merely carries over the continuant [n] to a stop [t]. The history of these words in ti runs parallel in every- thing except orthography to words in si. Words of this type were first introduced into the language from French in the early Middle English period, and at the time of their appearance in the language they had already ac- quired in French a pronunciation [si]. This pronuncia- tion Modern French still retains in words like nation, intention, etc. Sometimes in the earlier periods one finds t replaced by c in spelling, as in nacion for nation ['naesion]. The influence of Latin orthography, however, was strong enough to prevent the carrying through of this rationaliz- SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 129 ing process in spelling, which would have resulted in a consistent spelling with c or s for t in words of this type. Instead a certain amount of inconsistency now appears in English spelling, as in (in)tention and (ex) tension, vicious and vitiate, both of these being pairs of etymologically the same word, or mention and (di)mension, etymologically different, but phonetically the same. Occasionally words with cti are written with x, as in connection, connexion [ka'nek$on], inflection, inflexion [rn'flek$9n], etc. (o) tu = [t$], as in nature ['neit$9i], feature ['fiit$9j], creature ['kriitjai], moisture ['moist$9i], fortune ['fojtjan], actual ['aektjual], virtuous ['v9jt$u8s], furniture ['fajnitjaj], etc. Formal pronunciations, e.g., ['neit$uj], ['fiit$ui], etc., may occur. For literature and other words of three or four syllables which may have a secondary stress on the final syllable, two pronunciations occur, [ / litorat$9i] or ['litoroHjuj], the latter being the more formal and careful style. The influence of manufacture [maenju'faekt$9i] often produces a popular pronunciation [maenju'faekt^n] for manufactory, which in standard pronunciation is always [maenju'f sektan] . The change of tu to [t$] implies a pronunciation of u as [iu] or [ju], that is, ['neitjui], ['fiitjui], etc. This pronun- ciation is historically recorded, and it was not until towards the close of the eighteenth century that the com- bination [tju] became [t$u] in generally accepted English. In fact, [tju] may still be heard occasionally in formal pronunciation. It was perhaps natural for the [t] to be retained, since it was pronounced, even when with the following sound it produced a [$], giving for older nature ['neitjui] the pronunciation ['neitjuj]. In a word like nation, however, it was pointed out above that the t was 130 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA never sounded as [t] in English, but only as [s], and the combination therefore developed as si into [$]. If nation and similar words had come into the language with t sounded, for example ['neition], no doubt a pronunciation ['ne:t$9n] would have resulted instead of ['nei$an]; and so also with [t$] for other words of this type. In short, the development of tu into [t$] is a relatively late and exclu- sively English process, whereas the development of ti into [$] is not what it seems to be, but merely the develop- ment of a French [si] into [$]. The pronunciation of u in the combination tu as [u], not [ju], resulted merely in a weakening of the vowel without any change in the character of the preceding consonant. Thus arose dialect pronunciations like critter for creature, nater, nateral for nature, natural, etc. When the combination tu is under the stress, it remains [tju], as in mature [mo'tjui] or [ma'tjuj], institute (noun) ['mstftjut], institution [insti'tjujan], astute [ses'tjuit], and in initial stressed syllables, as in tuber, Tudor, tunic, tutor, and the monosyllables tube and tune. Even in these stressed syllables the combination tu was formerly pronounced [t$u], but this is heard now only as a humor- ous pronunciation. [3] 328. This is the voiced equivalent of [$] and is ortho- graphically represented by j, g = [d3], or by s or z before unstressed i or u, often also by d before unstressed i or u. 329. As the second element of the compound sound [ds], this consonant appears in join [d30in], judge [d3Ad3], gem [d3em], gage [ge:d3], suggest [safest], allege [9'led3], ledge [led3], bridge [bnd3], magic ['maed3ik]. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 131 330. For malinger the standard pronunciation is [ma'lindsQj], though occasionally speakers are led to pronounce the word as though it were a variant form of linger ['lingai]. 331. For margarine, or the compound oleomargarine, the common pronunciation is ['ma ud39nn] or ['ma:.id39- Viin], the historically correct pronunciation ['maugarm] being now rarely heard. 332. For longevity, longitude, the pronunciation is always [hn'd3eviti], ['lond3i x tjuid]. For gibber, gibber- ing, it may be ['d3ib9j], ['d3iD9rirj] or ['gibaj], ['gibgrirj], but for gibberish it is always ['gib9ri$]. In gibbet, gibe, giblets, gill (quarter pint), gin (shortened form of engine and also shortened form of Geneva), ginseng, gist, the initial consonant is always [d3]. A dictionary should be consulted for a list of the words containing g before front vowels. 333. Other occurrences of [3] are: (a) si = [3], as in derision [di'ri39n], vision ['vi39n], fusion [ r fjui39n], abrasion [9'brei39n], occasion [g'ke^gn], erosion [I'ro^n], osier ['0:39.1], Frasier ['frei39j] or ['frei- 3J9j], hosier ['ho 1391] or [ / ho:3J9j], gymnasium [d3im'nei- 39m], symposium [sim'po^m], though for these last two words a learned pronunciation [-zi9m] is also heard. (b) zi = [3],as in glazier ['gle 139.1] or [ ; gle:3J9j], also written glasier, Frazier ['fre 139.1] or ['fre:3J9i]. (c) su = [3], with the vowel also persisting, as in treasure [ r tre39j], pleasure ['ple39j], leisure ['le39i] or ['li 139.1], closure ['kloi39j], erasure [i're:39j]; usual [ r ju:3U9l] or ['ju:5Ju9l], visual [Vi5U9l] or [V13JU9I], casual ['kae3JU9l] or ['ksezju9lj. 132 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA The standard pronunciation of Jesuit is ['d3ezjuit], less commonly ['d3e3Juit]. In luxurious the standard pronunciation is [lAg'3uri9s]. (d) zu = [3], in azure ['ei39j] or ['8B391]. (e) di = [d3], in cordial ['kojd39l], soldier ['soild39i], and sometimes in other words in -ial, -ient, -ious, -ium, as in medial, obedient, expedient, tedious, medium, radium, tedium, but usually in these words the endings have the value [-ial], [-i9nt], [-19s], [-19m]. In grandeur, de = [3], ['graendsai]. " (/) du = [d3u], in modulate ['mad3u x le-t], nodule ['na- d3ul], schedule ['sked3ul], pendulum ['pend3ufem], indi- vidual [indi'vid3U9l], etc. Instead of [d3u] in these words, careful and formal speech often has [dju], but the normal tendency is to pronounce [d3u]. (] oc- curred only between vowels or between a voiced con- sonant and a vowel. In relatively unstressed position, however, voiceless continuants tend to become voiced, [0] becoming [$], and many words like this [t5is], that [Sat], they [t5ei], thou [Sou], then [Sen], than [tSaen], though [Sou], with [wiS], which are only slightly stressed in the word groups in which they occur, have now [tS] in- stead of earlier [$]. Analogy and the loss of vowels in unstressed syllables also obscure the old rule, so that now [S] appears not only between vowels, but also finally in words like bathe [be: (5], breathe [briiS], lathe [leiS], clothe [kloio*], sheathe [$i:t>], wreathe [riitS], and many others. 352. Singular nouns with final [0] may change to [$] in the plural, as in path [pae0], paths [pseftz], bath [bsefl], baths [baetSz], moth [mo0], moths [motSz]; but the analogy of the singular may maintain [0] in the plural, as in Goth [go0], Goths [go0s], breath [bre0], breaths [brefls], death [de0], deaths [de0s]. A plural moths [mo0s] is recorded in the dictionaries, but the only form the writer has ever heard is [mot5z]. 353. For rhythm both [riSm] and [n0m] occur, the former being much the more common. The same diver- sity of use appears in derivatives, as in rhythmic, rhyth- mical, but some speakers who pronounce [ntSm] in the simple word, say ['n0mik], [ , n0mikl] in the derivatives, the reason being that in the derivatives the consonant stands at the end of a syllable, not between two voiced sounds, as in [rrtSm]. 138 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 354. For asthma the current formal pronunciation is ['aeztSmo], though often also ['aezmo]. The British pro- nunciation is ['aesflma], ['aesma] or ['aestma]. 355. Before [z], in popular speech [<5] is often omitted, as in clothes [kloiSz] pronounced [kloiz], oaths [oit5z] pronounced [o:z], etc. 356. In the popular dialects [0], [8] sometimes com- pletely disappear, being replaced by [t] and [d], as in think pronounced [tink], that pronounced [daet], with pronounced [wit] or [wid]. [f] 357. The representation of [f] in the ordinary spelling is f, ff, gh or ph, as in find [faind], stiff [stif], sniffed [snift], rough [rAf], cough [ko:f], Brough [brAf], laugh [la if], [laef], nephew ['nefju], philosophy [fil'osafi], sylph [silf]. For lieutenant [lu'tenant] the pronunciation [lef- 'tenant], [lif-], is sometimes heard, but it is not general with any group of American speakers. It is common in England. For nephew both ['nefju] and ['nevju] occur, though the former is the more general pronunciation. For hiccough the only pronunciation is ['hikap]. For the history of this word, see the New English Dictionary. 358. In the connected discourse of colloquial usage, a final [v] is sometimes assimilated to a succeeding voiceless consonant, becoming [f], as in I have to go [a 'haef to 'gou]. But what might be permissible in this phrase, is not per- missible generally, e.g., one cannot say I'd love to go [aid 'L\f ta 'gou]. 359. In the combination phth the pronunciation [f] for ph is sometimes replaced by [p], as in diphthong ['difflon] SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 139 or fdipflorj], diphtheria [dif'fliria] or [dip'tfina], naphtha ['nseffla] or ['naeptfa]. The pronunciation with [f] is perhaps to be preferred, though usage is far from being uniform. See § 299. For phthisic the accepted pronunciation is ['tizik], but phthisis is said to be pronounced ['flaisisj. Neither word is in common use. W 360. This sound is the voiced equivalent of [f], and is commonly represented by v, as in live [liv] (verb), [laiv] (adj.), vivid [Vivid], shoved [$Avd], dived [daivd]. In nephew fnevju] and Stephen ['stiivan] it is spelled ph. 361. When [f] of a main form becomes voiced in an inflectional form, the spelling always changes to v, as in wife [waif], wives [waivz], loaf [loif], loaves [loivz], etc., but wife's [waifs], griefs [griifs], laughs [laifs], [laefs], third singular present of the verb, or plural of the noun, where the consonant remains unchanged. Some plurals have both a form with [f] and one with [v], as in hoof [huif], hoofs [huifs] or hooves [huivz]; scarf [skauf], scarfs [skaufs] or scarves [skauvz]. The plural of staff is staffs, except as a technical term in music, where it is staves [steivz]. 362. In archaic and poetic style an intervocalic [v] is sometimes omitted, the omission being indicated by the apostrophe, as in e'er [eiaj] for ever, o'er [oiaj] for over, etc. 363. The preposition of usually stands in unstressed position and is pronounced [av], or in rapid speech [a], as in five o'clock [faiv a klak], time of day [taim a dei], man of war [maen a won]. 140 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA 364. Final [v] in give is sometimes omitted before [m] in colloquial speech, give me ['giv mi] becoming ['gi mi]. This is spelled in dialect orthography as gimme, and though by no means limited to illiterate or dialect use, under the influence of the printed and written language it is coming to be more and more discredited. Cf. let me pronounced flemi], and see above, § 100. [w] 365. The spelling of this sound is commonly w, as in win [win], swing [swirj], twig [twig], between [bi'twim], or u, as in languid ['laeqgwid], language [laerj'gw^], per- suade [poi'sweid], and u after q, as in quire ['kwaioi], question ['kwestjon], quack [kwaek], conquest ['kankwest] or ['kankwest]. 366. The spelling gu represents usually [g], as in guard [gaud], guest [gest], guide [gaid], guess [ges], guile [gail], etc., but in a few words of foreign origin, as in guano ['gwamo], guava ['gwaivo], and in Guelph [gwelf], the u is pronounced. 367. The sound [w] appears in one [wAn], once [wAns], in pronunciaton but not in spelling. The verb won and one are exact homonyms. A w appears in the spelling of two [tui], sword [soud], but not in pronunciation. Before r a silent w is frequently written, as in wring [nrj], write [wrait], wrap [rsep], wrist [rist], etc. For choir the pro- nunciation is the same as for quire, that is ['kwaioi]. 368. In a few words of French origin the ending -oir is pronounced [-wai] or [-woi], as in memoir ['memwai], ['memwoi], reservoir ['rezoiVwai], ['rezoiVwoi] ; but reser- voir is also often pronounced without [w], as ['rezaiVoiai]. SOUNDS AND THEIR OCCURRENCE 141 369. An initial w of an unstressed syllable following a stressed one sometimes weakens and disappears, as regu- larly in answer ['aensai], and in the combination qu in chequer ftSekai], conquer ['karjkaj], liquor ['likai]. In compositional syllables, like -ward, -worth, -wich, -wick, which have a secondary stress in American speech, w is generally pronounced when written; but in toward, towards [toud], [toudz] the words are monosyllables with- out [w]. Thus in proper names, as in Woodward, Wool- worth, Woolwich (Maine), Norwich, Greenwich, etc., [w] is pronounced, except that one may occasionally hear ['grimitS], ['gnnitj], as a literary or acquired pronuncia- tion. In the town in Connecticut of that name, the local pronunciation is ['griinVit$]. 370. A w frequently appears in spelling, at the ends of words, which has no consonantal value but is merely an orthographic survival from an earlier [w] which became vocalic and which would thus be more accurately repre- sented by u. Conventional spelling, however, rarely per- mits u to stand at the end of a word, exceptions being thou [oau], and a few foreign words like gnu [nu:], zebu ['zi: x bu*]. A vocalized w stands in the spelling of draw [dro:], know [nou], sow [sou], [sau], few [fjui], grew [grui], now [nau], etc. The spelling with w persists in derivative forms, but is silent there also, as in drawing ['dronrj], sower ['soiai], fewer ['fjuiaj]. 371. A w with no consonantal value appears occasion- ally in spelling before consonants, as in bawl [boil], yawl [joil], hawk [hoik], bowl [boil], howl [haul], brown [braun], drowse [drauz], newt [njuit], mewl [mjuil], or before a weak syllable with [j], [1], [n], as in power ['pauaj], towel ['tauol], Owen ['oian], Cowan ['kauan], etc. 142 STANDARD ENGLISH IN AMERICA [*] 372. This sound is the voiceless equivalent of [w], and in America it is generally pronounced wherever written wh, as in what [Mat], which [Mit$], wheat [Mi it], whit [Aut], white [Mait], whisper ['Mispej], etc. Some speakers, however, pronounce all these voiceless sounds voiced, as in whit [wit] not distinguished from wit, white [wait] not distinguished from wight. Though not vulgarisms, such pronunciations are usually discountenanced by careful speakers and in formal instruction. In standard British speech of the Southern type w and wh are generally both pronounced as [w]. 373. In who and derived forms of who, whole, the initial consonant is neither [w] nor [m], but [h], as in [hui], [hoil]. So also whoop, whooping-cough, which may be spelled hoop, hooping-cough, are pronounced [huip], ['huiprrj-] or fhupirfkoif]. EXERCISES (1) Make a collection of sounds not used in articulate speech (e.g., the sigh, cough, cluck, click, sniff, 'humph,' 'huh/ 'eh/ 'hm,' the sound for calling a cat, for starting horses, etc.), and analyze them phonetically. Record them in phonetic script, inventing symbols when neces- sary. See §§ 3, 4. (2) Take a page of any ordinary English prose and make a list in phonetic script of all the words containing (a) voiced stops, (6) voiceless stops, (c) voiced continu- ants, (d) voiceless continuants. (3) In these words, note what sounds have been af- fected, and in what way, by their proximity to other sounds. See § 6. (4) Make a list from the same passage of all words containing fricative continuants, lateral continuants and nasal continuants. (5) Make lists in phonetic script of all the words on this same page which contain the same vowel sound. (6) Go through this page and note the instances in which the ordinary spelling is the same or approximately the same as the phonetic transcriptions. (7) In the same passage, observe where the breaks or pauses come in natural easy reading. Transcribe the passage into these 'breath groups' instead of the usual division into words. See § 100. A minute study of a single passage, such as is suggested in Exercises 2-7, is better preliminary discipline than the study of scattering texts. 143 144 EXERCISES (8) Practice the vowel sounds in sequence, starting with the lowest unround vowel and proceeding to the highest, then the lowest rounded vowel, proceeding to the highest; reverse the process, starting with the high vowels. (9) Practice such pairs of sounds as [e] and [e], [i] and [i], [u] and [u], [o] and [o], [a] and [a:], [o] and [oi], until the distinction between tense and slack sounds is quite clear. (10) Pronounce the sentences It was covered with furs, It was covered with firs, It was covered with furze, It was covered with fuzz, to a hearer, and see if he can tell when you mean furs, firs, furze, fuzz. If you do not pronounce these words alike, analyze the organic differ- ences. As a similar exercise pronounce the sentence The con- tainer was well caulked and The container was well corked, and see if a hearer can tell which word you have in mind. If so, extend the experiment to other persons to see if the words are always audibly distinct. (11) Make a collection of difficult phrases, like Peter Piper pickt a peck of pickled peppers, She sells sea- shells, etc., and analyze their phonetic character. Make a collection of phrases which are memorable not for their difficulty but for their phonetic ' haunting ' quality, agree- able or disagreeable, e.g., a pink trip slip for a five cent fare; the exhaustless grace of Niagara's emerald curve; the multitudinous seas incarnadine, etc. Each person's list will naturally be different from any other. Make a list of alliterative phrases, like bag and baggage, stock and stone, head and heels, time and tide. Make a list of striking alliterative phrases, such as are often met with in newspaper headlines. An interesting study of consonant sounds can be made on the basis of Lyly's EXERCISES 145 Euphues, or still better, George Pettie's Petite Pallace of Pleasure (1576), in which the resources of the language in sounds are utilized with the utmost ingenuity for the purpose of stylistic ornamentation. (12) Take a word containing an initial voiceless stop, e.g., pay, and practice this stop with and without audible aspiration until the difference becomes clear. See § 13. Then pronounce words containing a voiceless stop be- tween voiced sounds, as in witty, putty, potato, dainty, bottle, pippin, winter, better, water, stopper, etc., with weak and with audible aspiration, and note which is the better pronunciation. See § 14. (13) Analyze fully the phonetic elements of a number of words like stripped, booked, robbed, drugged. See § 15. (14) Repeat pairs of words like sit and sin, pit and pin, bid and bin, did and din, and then segregate the final consonants in order to study the difference between stop consonants and nasal continuants. (15) Repeat pairs of words like sin and sing, win and wing, to make clear the difference between [n] and [rj]. (16) Repeat groups of words like sin, sing, sink; win, wing, wink; thin, thing, think, and then analyze their phonetic elements. (17) Note the sound of [n] in fount, found; shunt, shunned; sun, sunset, Sunday, sunbeam. Is it equally long in all these words? Study in general the length of the continuant consonants in different combinations. (18) Note the length of the vowel in led, let; bed, bet; said, set; sad, sat; hod, hot, etc. Though these are all short vowels, are they all equally short? Cf. § 80. (19) Examine all the occurrences of [z] on a page of ordinary prose, and note in what instances the sound ends in a voiceless vanish. See § 36. 146 EXEKCISES (20) Study the difference in the sound of [q] in sing and song, and collect other words illustrating the same difference. (21) Study the sound of [k] in keel and call, of [g] in geese and gall, of [h] in heel and haul, and add other illustrations of the same variation in the quality of the consonant. (22) Imitate the speech of one who has a cold in the head, and indicate its phonetic character in transcription. (23) Take a passage of ordinary colloquial prose and pronounce the vowels as nasally as you can, that is, cari- cature it. Then pronounce the vowels with as little nasalization as possible. Does your own speech fall between these two extremes? (24) Observe in the speech of those with whom you come in contact, any manner of speech which might be characterized as 'drawling/ and describe its phonetic character. (25) Some of the vague descriptive adjectives which are occasionally applied to speech or to special sounds are 'broad/ 'rough/ 'flat/ 'liquid/ 'thin/ 'mushy/ 'muddy/ 'crisp/ 'sharp.' Add others to this list, and endeavor to determine what is meant by them in terms of the organic analysis of speech. (26) Make a collection of those speech characteristics which in your estimation are evidences (a) of special re- finement or distinction in speech, (b) of 'common' or unrefined speech. Try to determine how generally your judgments would be acceptable to others. (27) Examine the pronunciation of r in the speech of as many different persons as possible, and note how many types of r-sound are distinguishable within the range of your observation. EXERCISES 147 (28) Start a list of words which may be stressed in two or more different ways. (29) Transcribe in phonetic notation (a) first your own speech in detached phrases as you can hear yourself pronounce them, (b) your own speech in connected con- versation, (c) your own speech as you hear it in reading aloud. (30) Transcribe in phonetic notation the speech of some other person or persons than yourself. For this purpose, choose one or two individuals whose speech you have the best opportunity of studying, and preferably whose speech impresses you as being ordinarily somewhat different from your own. Proceed very slowly at first, transcribing only phrases which you are sure you have heard correctly. (31) Take a passage of English prose and transcribe it first into very formal literary style, then into ordinary reading style, and then into very familiar colloquial style. (32) If your own speech is of the Eastern American type, transcribe a passage illustrating it into Western American speech, etc. (33) Transcribe the passages of dialect speech given in this volume into informal standard speech. (34) Make a transcription of some dialect speech with which you are orally familiar. Indicate the elements in this pronunciation which are really dialectal and those which are merely standard colloquial. (35) Transcribe the passages of British pronunciation given in this volume into standard American pronuncia- tion. These exercises are not systematically arranged, and are not intended to be exhaustive either of the topics 148 EXERCISES discussed in this book or of the points of interest which may engage the attention of the student of phonetics. They are merely suggestive, and the number of them will readily be increased in the practical work of the class- room. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Of the numerous works on general phonetics, perhaps the most useful brief books in English are Elements of Phonetics by Walter Rippmann (on the basis of Vietor's Kleine Phonetik), published by J. M. Dent and Sons; Introduction to Phonetics by Laura Soames (The Mac- millan Co.); General Phonetics by G. Noel-Armfield (W. Heffer and Sons, Cambridge, Eng., 1915). For special studies of English pronunciation, reference may be made to The Pronunciation of English by Daniel Jones (Cam- bridge University Press), and to various other publica- tions by Jones, including A Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language by Hermann Michaelis and Daniel Jones (Carl Meyer, Hannover and Berlin); The Pronun- ciation of English in Scotland by William Grant (Cam- bridge University Press); Northern English by R. J. Lloyd (Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, 1908), particularly valuable for the comparison of British and American English; The Sounds of Spoken English by Walter Ripp- mann (J. M. Dent and Sons). Little has been done in the way of special study of American speech, but refer- ence should be made to Professor Grandgent's article, English in America, in Die Neueren Sprachen, II, 443-467 (1894), where a further bibliography of publications by Professor Grandgent will be found; also in the same journal, II, 520-528, a group of phonetic transcriptions. From Franklin to Lowell, A Century of New England Pro- nunciation, by Professor Grandgent, in the Publications 149 150 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE of the Modern Language Association, XIV, 207-239, gives a valuable historical survey of New England speech. The various numbers of Dialect Notes, the publication of the American Dialect Society, should also be consulted. On the general question of standard, the student may consult the two books by Professor Lounsbury, The Standard of Usage in English and The Standard of Pro- nunciation in English (Harpers, New York). For the general history of English sounds, see Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, Part I, Sounds and Spellings (Winter, Heidelberg, 1909). As a number of the books mentioned in this note are appearing from time to time in new editions, it is advisable in ordering always to ask for the latest edition. TRANSCRIPTIONS 'dei-Mrismz aez ai waz stepin a'$o:i, ai waz 'griitid bai 'mistaj bain, hu 'paesiz Sa 'sAmaj on Si 'ailand, nd hu 'has- pitabli seskt if ai waj 'go:irj hiz wei. hiz wei waz toud tSa 'sASain end av Si 'ailand, nd ai sed jes. hiz 5 'pakits wai ful av 'pejpaiz nd hiz brau av 'rirjklz; so Men wi ri:t$t Sa point avbj hii $ud tojn o:f, ai seskt im ta let mi a'lait, ol'So: hi waz 'veri 'aenkjas ta 'kaeri mi Mer'evai ai waz 'goiin. "aim 'ornli 'stroilirj a'baut," ai Unsaid, aez ai 10 'klaembaid 'keufali aut av Sa 'waegn. "'strorlin a'baut?" seskt hii, in a bi'wildajd 'ma> nai; "du 'piipl stroil a'baut, 'nau-a-Meiz?" "sam'taimz," ai Unsaid, 'smailin, aez ai puld mai 'trauzajz daun 'ovai mai buits, foj Se- haed draegd 15 Ap, aez ai stept aut av Sa 'waegn, "nd bi'said, Mat kn n oild 'bu x k:i:paj du 'betaj in Sa dAl 'siizn San stroil a'baut Sis 'pleznt 'ailand, n wot$ Sa $ips set si:?" bajn lukt aet mi wiS hiz 'wian aiz. "aid giv faiv 20 'Sauzand 'dalaiz a 'jiaj foj a dAl 'siizan," sed hi:, "bat aez faj 'stroilin, aiv faj'gatn hau." aez hi spoik, hiz aiz 'wondajd 'driimili a'kros Sa fiildz nd wudz, nd waj 'faesnd a'pon Sa 'distant seilz. 151 152 TRANSCRIPTIONS "it iz 'pleznt," hi sed 'mjuzinli, send fel 'mtu 'sai- 25 lans. bat ai had no taim ta speii, so ai wi$t im x gud- 'seftai^nuin. "ai hoip jaj waif s wel," sed bajn ta mi, sez ai taind a'wei. 'puai baan! hi droiv on a'loin in hiz 'wsegn. 30 bat ai me-d heist ta Sa moist 'sali N ten point apon Sa 'sASaan $011, send Seu sset, gla3d ta bi so 'niai Sa si 1. Sei waz Sset wo um, x simpa'0etik 'sailans in Si eu, Sat givz ta 'indm-'sAmai deiz 'oPmo-st a 'hju- man 'tendainas av 'fiilin. a 'delikit heiz, Sat siimd 35 'oinli Sa 'kaindli eu me-d 'vizibl, hAn ovaj Sa six. Sa 'wotai lsept 'lsengwidli a'mAn Sa raks, send Sa 'voisaz av 't$ildran in a bo it bi'jond, rsen 'mjuzikah, send 'grsed3uali n'siidid, an'til Se- wai lost in Sa 'distans. 40 it waz sAm taim bi'fou ai waz a'weu av Si 'aut- *lam av a laud3 Sip, droin 'veigli a'pon Sa mist, Mit$ ai sa'poizd, set foist, ta bi 'oinli a kaind av mi'rai3. bat Sa mo 1 j 'sted v fsestli ai geizd, Sa moir dis'tirjkt it bi'keim, send ai kud no 'loqgai daut Sset ai soi a 45 'steitli $ip 'lann set 'senkai, nat mou San hsef a mail fram Sa lsend. "its n ik'stroadi^neri pleis ta 'senkai," ai sed ta *mai'self, "oj ksen $i bi a'$ou?" Sei wai no sainz av dis'tres; Sa seilz wai 'keufali 50 kluid Ap, send Sej wai no 'seilajz in Sa taps, noj a'pon Sa $raudz. a flseg, av Mit$ ai kud nat sirSa di'vais oj 'nei$an, hAn 'hevili set Sa stajn, send lukt sez if it hsed 'foiln a'sliip. mai 'kjun'asiti bi'gsen ta bi 'singjulajli ik'saitid. Sa foum av Sa 'vesl siimd 55 nat ta bi 'paimanant; bat wiS'm a 'kwoitai av an 'auai, ai waz '$uai Sset ai hsed si in hsef a 'dAzn 'dif- TRANSCRIPTIONS 153 rant $ips. aez ai geizd, ai so: no mou seilz noi maests, bat a Ion reind3 av 'oiajz, 'flavin laik a 'goildn fnnd3, oj streit nd stif, laik (5a legz av a 'si i- x monstaj. 6o "its SAm 'bloitid kraeb, ai 'labstaj, 'maegni^faid bai tSo mist," ai sed ta mai'self, kam'ple-santli. bAt, aet Sa seim 'moimant, Sej waz a 'kansen x tre-tid 'flae$in nd 'ble:zin in wAn spat a'mAn Sa 'ngin, aend it waz aez if ai so: a bi'aetifaid raem, oj, mou 'truili, a 65 '$i:p- r skin, 'splendid aez (5a he:j av x bera'naisi. "izSsetSa 'goildn fliis?"ai fc>it. "bat '$uaih,'d3e:- san nd Si 'auga x noits haev go:n hosm Ion sins, du 'piipl go: on 'goild- x fliisin ekspi'di§anz nau?" ai aeskt mai'self, in pai'pleksiti. "kaen Sis bi a kaeli'foanja 70 'stiimaj?" hau kud ai haev 0oit it a 'stiimaj? did ai nat si: Soiz seilz, "fan and 'siai"? did ai nat fill (5a 'melan- x kah av Saet 'salften ba:ik? it haed a 'mistik 'osra; a 'borial 'briljansi '$imajd in its we:k, foi it waz 75 'driftin 'siiwaid. a streindz 'fiaj 'kajdld a'lon mai veinz. Saet 'sAmai sAn Join ku:l. Sa 'wiari 'baetaid $ip waz gae$t, aez if no id bai ais. Sei waz 'teraj in (5a eu, aez a "'skim haend so braun" weivd tu mi fram Sa dek. ai lei aez WAn bi'wit$t. Sa haend av Si 80 'eint$ant 'maerinaj siimd ta bi 'riit$in foi mi, laik Sa haend av de0. de0? Mai, aez ai waz 'mil 'preun pru:z faj'givnas foi mai 'saliHen 'raembl nd 'kansi v kwent di'maiz, a glaens laik (5a 'fulnas av 'sAmaj 'splendai gA$t ovaj 85 mi; Si 'oidaj av 'flauaiz and av 'iistajn gAmz me-d oil Si 'aetmas^fiaj. ai briiSd Si 'orient, and lei drAnk wiS bairn, Mail Saet streind3 $ip, a 'goildn 'gaeli nau, wiS 'glitann 'dreipeViz fes'tmnd wiS 'flauaiz, peist tu Sa 'me3aid biit av 'oiaiz a'lon Sa 154 TRANSCRIPTIONS 90 kaim, and N kli9'peitr9 smaild a'luinrjli fram tSa gre*t 'paed39nts haut. waz Sis 9 baud3 foi 'sAmaa 'wotajz, Sis pi'kjuljaj Sip ai soi? it haed 9 'ruind 'digniti, 8 'kAmbros 'gra3nd39j, ol'Soi its maests W9i 'Saetajd, nd its seilz 95 rent, it hAn r prit9i'naet$erih stil 9'pon So sir, aez if toa'mentid nd ig'zoistid bai Ion 'draivin nd 'driftin. ai soi no 'seiloiz, b9t 9 gre-t 'spaeniS 'ensain 'floitid 'ov9j, aend wervd, 9 fju'niri9l pluim. ai njui it Sen. Si ai'maida W9Z log sins 'skaet9jd; b9t 'floitirj fan 100 on 'd£so v le*t 're:ni si:z, lost for 'sent$u x riz, ond 9'gen n'stoid tu salt, 'hiai lei WAn 9v S9 'feitid $ips 9v spein. S9 hjud3 'gaelijon siimd t9 fil oil Si en, bilt Ap o'genst S9 skai, laik S9 'gildid $ips 9V kloid lo'rem o'genst S9 'sAn x set. 105 b9t it fled, foj nctu 9 blsek flaeg 'flAtaid set S9 'maest^hed — 9 Ion lou 'vesl 'dautid 'swiftli Men S9 vaest Jip lei; Sea ke-m 9 $nl 'paipirj 'misI, S9 klae$ 9V r kAtlis9z, fiajs 'nrjin ouSz, $aip 'pist9l kraeks, S9 '0Andaj 9V kg'maend, 9nd 'ovai oil S9 'gAsti jel 9V a no di'mo-niaek 'koros, mai neim waz rabait kid, Men ai seild. — Sej wgj no klaudz 'longai, bot 'Andaj 9 si'riin skai ai soi 9 bank 'mAvin wiS 'fest9l pomp, 0roqd wiS greiv 'senoHoaz in 'flonn roibz, ond waii wiS 'djukol 115 'banrt in S9 midst, 'hoildiq 9 rin. S9 smuiS bauk swaem o'pon o sii laik Saet 9v 'sASain 'laetiHjudz. ai soi So ; but$en r toro 9nd S9 'nAptSalz 9V 'venis 9nd Si Vdri'aetik. hui W9J Soiz 'kAmirj 'ovaj S9 said? hui 'kraudid 120 S9 bo its, ond spraerj 'mtu S9 'wotai, men in oild 'spaeniS 'aumai, wiS pluimz nd soudz, 9nd 'beirir) 9 TRANSCRIPTIONS 155 glitonrj kros? hu: waz his 'stsendin o'pon So dek witS 'foildid aumz send 'geizin toudz So Sou, sez 'Iavojz on <5ej 'mistrisoz send 'mautuz o'pon 'hevn? 'ovoi 1 25 Mat 'distsent 33nd tu'mAlt$uos siiz head Sis smoil krseft I'ske-pt fram 'aSoj 'sent$uriz send 'distsent $ouz? Mat saundz ov 'form himz, foj'gatn nau, woi Si:z, send Mat so'lemniti ov 'di-baj'keiSon? waz Sis greiv foum ko'lAmbos? Day-dreams As I was stepping ashore, I was greeted by Mr. Bourne, who passes the summer on the island, and who hospitably asked if I were going his way. His way was toward the southern end of the island, and I said yes. His pockets were full of papers and his brow of wrinkles; so when we reached the point where he should turn off, I asked him to let me alight, al- though he was very anxious to carry me wherever I was going. "I am only strolling about," I answered, as I clambered carefully out of the wagon. " Strolling about?" asked he, in a bewildered man- ner; "do people stroll about, now-a-days?" "Sometimes," I answered, smiling, as I pulled my trousers down over my boots, for they had dragged up, as I stepped out of the wagon, "and beside, what can an old bookkeeper do better in the dull season than stroll about this pleasant island, and watch the ships at sea?" Bourne looked at me with his weary eyes. "Fd give five thousand dollars a year for a dull season," said he, "but as for strolling, I've forgotten how." 156 TRANSCRIPTIONS As he spoke, his eyes wandered dreamily across the fields and woods, and were fastened upon the distant sails. "It is pleasant," he said musingly, and fell into silence. But I had no time to spare, so I wished him good-afternoon. "I hope your wife is well," said Bourne to me, as I turned away. Poor Bourne! He drove on alone in his wagon. But I made haste to the most solitary point upon the southern shore, and there sat, glad to be so near the sea. There was that warm, sympathetic silence in the air, that gives to Indian-summer days almost a human tenderness of feeling. A delicate haze, that seemed only the kindly air made visible, hung over the sea. The water lapped languidly among the rocks, and the voices of children in a boat beyond, rang musically, and gradually receded, until they were lost in the distance. It was some time before I was aware of the outline of a large ship, drawn vaguely upon the mist, which I supposed, at first, to be only a kind of mirage. But the more steadfastly I gazed, the more distinct it became, and I could no longer doubt that I saw a stately ship lying at anchor, not more than half a mile from the land. "It is an extraordinary place to anchor," I said to myself, "or can she be ashore?" There were no signs of distress; the sails were care- fully clewed up, and there were no sailors in the tops, nor upon the shrouds. A flag, of which I could not see the device or the nation, hung heavily at the stern, and looked as if it had fallen asleep. My curi- TBANSCRIPTIQNS 157 osity began to be singularly excited. The form of the vessel seemed not to be permanent; but within a quarter of an hour, I was sure that I had seen half a dozen different ships. As I gazed, I saw no more sails nor masts, but a long range of oars, flashing like a golden fringe, or straight and stiff, like the legs of a sea-monster. "It is some bloated crab, or lobster, magnified by the mist," I said to myself, complacently. But, at the same moment, there was a concen- trated flashing and blazing in one spot among the rigging, and it was as if I saw a beatified ram, or, more truly, a sheep-skin, splendid as the hair of Berenice. "Is that the golden fleece? " I thought. "But, surely, Jason and the Argonauts have gone home long since. Do people go on gold-fleecing expeditions now?" I asked myself, in perplexity. "Can this be a California steamer?" How could I have thought it a steamer? Did I not see those sails, "thin and sere"? Did I not feel the melancholy of that solitary bark? It had a mystic aura; a boreal brilliancy shimmered in its wake, for it was drifting seaward. A strange fear curdled along my veins. That summer sun shone cool. The weary, battered ship was gashed, as if gnawed by ice. There was terror in the air, as a "skinny hand so brown" waved to me from the deck. I lay as one bewitched. The hand of the ancient mariner seemed to be reaching for me, like the hand of death. Death? Why, as I was inly praying Prue's for- giveness for my solitary ramble and consequent de- 158 TBANSCRIPTIONS mise, a glance like the fulness of summer splendor gushed over me; the odor of flowers and of eastern gums made all the atmosphere. I breathed the orient, and lay drunk with balm, while that strange ship, a golden galley now, with glittering draperies festooned with flowers, paced to the measured beat of oars along the calm, and Cleopatra smiled alluringly from the great pageant's heart. Was this a barge for summer waters, this peculiar ship I saw? It had a ruined dignity, a cumbrous grandeur, although its masts were shattered, and its sails rent. It hung preternaturally still upon the sea, as if tormented and exhausted by long driving and drifting. I saw no sailors, but a great Spanish ensign floated over, and waved, a funereal plume. I knew it then. The armada was long since scattered; but, floating far on desolate rainy seas, lost for centuries, and again restored to sight, here lay one of the fated ships of Spain. The huge galleon seemed to fill all the air, built up against the sky, like the gilded ships of Claude Lorraine against the sunset. But it fled, for now a black flag fluttered at the mast-head — a long low vessel darted swiftly where the vast ship lay; there came a shrill piping whistle, the clash of cutlasses, fierce ringing oaths, sharp pistol cracks, the thunder of command, and over all the gusty yell of a demoniac chorus, My name was Robert Kidd, when I sailed. — There were no clouds longer, but under a serene sky I saw a bark moving with festal pomp, thronged with grave senators in flowing robes, and one with TRANSCRIPTIONS 159 ducal bonnet in the midst, holding a ring. The smooth bark swam upon a sea like that of southern latitudes. I saw the Bucentoro and the nuptials of Venice and the Adriatic. Who were those coming over the side? Who crowded the boats, and sprang into the water, men in old Spanish armor, with plumes and swords, and bearing a glittering cross? Who was he standing upon the deck with folded arms and gazing towards the shore, as lovers on their mistresses and martyrs upon heaven? Over what distant and tumultuous seas had this small craft escaped from other centuries and distant shores? What sounds of foreign hymns, forgotten now, were these, and what solemnity of debarkation? Was this grave form Columbus? REMARKS This passage from Prue and I, by George William Curtis, was chosen for transcription because it calls for a considerable range of styles, from familiar colloquial to a formal poetic and rhetorical style. It is transcribed into what seem to the author the least questionable forms of standard speech, that is, the forms least limited by geographical or other considerations. It is not to be taken therefore as a record of the author's individual pronunciation, but of what in his judgment is as satisfactory a representation as can be made of an accepted general standard in American speech. The author's native speech is that of Southern Ohio, though for the past twenty years he has been a resident of New York City, and it is of course quite likely that his observations have been, in some degree, colored by his early habits of speech. [dei-dri:mz]. The diphthongal quality in [del-] is not strongly marked, but sufficiently so to justify recording it, and so generally in final position and also before voiced consonants, e.g., [deiz], 1. 12, [seilz], 1. 23, etc. 160 TRANSCRIPTIONS 1. 2. [bain]. The name might also be pronounced ['bu:m], ['bmain]. ['paesiz]. Some speakers might say ['paesaz], and so generally with final unstressed syllables in -es, -ed. ['haspitabh]. Or ['hospitabh], but not with the stress on the second syllable. This variation between [a] and [a] occurs in a number of other words. 1. 3. [aeskt]. Or [a:skt], [a:skt]. 1. 5. ['pakits]. Or ['pokits]. Is ['pakats] permissible? 1. 6. [mjei]. The vowel in where, there, when these are slightly stressed words, should be transcribed as short, [mbi], [Sei]. 1. 7. [im]. More formally, [him]. ['a3rjk$as]. Better than ['aerj$as], 1. 13. [sam'taimz]. The word might also be pronounced ['sAm- Haimz]. 1. 15. [nd bi'said], etc. Informal conversational style. 1. 19. ['wiari]. Or ['wi:ri], though less commonly. 1. 22. ['wandaid]. Or ['wandajd]. 1. 23. [fi:ldz]. Less correctly, [fi:lz]. 1. 24. [send fel], etc. This clause is transcribed in slow and for- mal style. The sentence immediately following is again brisker and more informal. 1. 30. [me*d]. The vowel is half-long or short here, because so slightly stressed. 1. 54. ['vesl]. Sometimes pronounced [Vesal] or [Vesel], but not in standard speech. 1. 62. [bAt]. Usually unemphatic, [bat], but stressed here. 1. 64. [waz]. Somewhat emphatic here. 1. 72. ['siajj. Perhaps also ['siaj]. ['melan'kah]. Or ['melan x koli]; so also solitary, 1. 73, ['scuVten] or ['sali'ten]. 1. 86. ['orient]. Or ['orient]. Less formally, ['onant]. 1. 92. [waz]. Unstressed, but formal because of its important position in the sentence. 1. 98. [nju:]. Often pronounced [nuj]. 1. 113. [pomp]. Or [pamp], but in this word [o] is more general than [a]. 1. 114. ['senaHoiz]. Formal pronunciation. 1. 124. ['mautuz]. Less formally, ['mautaiz]; so also ['distant], 1. 125, ['sent$ariz], 1. 126, [sa'kmniti], 1. 128, [ka'lAmbas], 1. 129. TRANSCRIPTIONS 161 II tte 'bnin av a maen av 'saians mai foist step, av kois, waz ta faind 'sjutabl a'pa^ tmants - 6iiz aI 8D ' temd > ,seft8J 8 ' kA P* av deiz swtS, m f oi.i0 'sevanju; 8 'veri 'pnti 'sekand-'flou un- 'fajni$t, kan'temin 'sitin- r ru:m, 'bed- v ru:m, send a 5 'smo:lai a'pautmant Mit$ ai ra'tendid ta fit Ap a3Z a 'lsebara'tori. ai 'faini$t mai 'lad3inz 'simpli, bat 'rsetSaj 'elagantli, send Sen di'vo:tid oil mai 'enoid3iz tu Si a'dommant av tSa tempi av mai 'woj$ip. ai 'vizitid paik, tSa 'sela v bre-tid ap'ti$an, send psest in io ri'vju: hiz 'splendid ka'lek$an av 'maikro N sko-ps, — fiildz 'kam'paund, 'hinamz, 'spensoiz, nae'$eiz v bai- 'nakjuloi (Sset 'faundid on tSa 'prinsiplz av tSa 'sterias- N ko:p), send set lerjkfl fikst a'pon Sset foum no:n aez 'spensaiz 'trAnjan 'maikro v sko-p, aez kam'bainin Sa i S 'greitist 'nAmbaj av im'pruivmants witS n 'oPmo-st 'pajfikt 'frisdam frAm 'tremai. a'lon wiS tSis ai 'pai- tSist 'evn 'pasibl sek'sesan,— 'dro:- v tju:bz, 'mai'kram- ataiz, a 'kamara-'lusida, 'Ii:vai- N steid3, 'sekro'mae- tik kan'densaaz, Mait klaud I'luzmi'ne-teiz, pnzmz, 20 'psera'balik kan'densaaz, 'poila'raizin sepa'raitas, 'fou- seps, a'kwatik 'baksaz, 'fi$in- N tju:bz, wiS a hoist av 'aSoi 'aitiklz, oil av Mit$ wud av bin 'jusfal in Sa hsendz av n iks'pinanst mai'kraskopist, bAt, sez ai 'seftaiwaidz dis'kAvaid, wai nat av tSa 'slaitist 'preznt 25 'vselju ta mi:, it teiks 'jiaaz av 'prsektis ta no: hau ta ju:z a 'kampli'ke-tid 'maikro v sko-p. Si ap'ti$an lukt sas'pi$asli set mi aez ai me:d Si:z 'hoiPseil 'pait$isaz. hi 'evidantli waz An'soitn 'MeSai ta set mi daun sez SAm 'saian'tifik se'lebnti oj a 'maed'msen. ai 0ink hi 3 o in'klaind ta Sa 'lsetai bi'liif. ai sa'po* z aI waz msed - 162 TRANSCRIPTIONS 'evn greit 'd3iinJ9s iz maed 9 r pon 6o r sAbd3ekt in Mit$ hi iz 'greitist. tSi 'Ans9k v sesf9l 'maed x maen iz dis'greist aend koild 9 'lunatik. maed oj nat, ai set mai'self ta waik wi6 9 ziil Aiit$ 35 fju ^saion'tifik 'stjudants haev 'ev9j 'iikw9ld. ai haed 'evri^in t9 tem 'retetiv ta (5a 'delikit 'stAdi a'pon Mit$ ai haed im'baukt, — a 'stAdi in'valvir) 69 moist 'ajnast r pei$ans, 69 moist 'ridsid aena'litik 'pauaiz, 6a 'stediast haend, 69 moist ^An'tairirj ai, 6a moist n- 40 'faind aend 'sAbHail mae^nipju'leiSan. foi a lorj taim haef mai aepa'raitas lei in'aektivli on 69 $elvz av mai 'laebara^ton, Mit$ waz nau moist 'aempli 'fajnijt wi6 'evn 'pasibl kan'traivans for fa- 'snVte-tiq mai mVesti'gei$9nz. 6a faekt waz 6aet ai 45 did nat noi hau ta juiz sAm av mai ^saian'tifik 'im- plamants, — 'nevaj 'haevirj bin to it x maikro'skapiks, — aend 6oiz huz juis ai ^mdai'stud x 0io'retik9li waa av 'htl a' veil, an'til bai 'praektis ai kud a'tein 6a 'nesa^sen 'delikasi av 'haendlin. stil, sAt$ waz 6a 50 'fjuri av mai aem'bijan, sAt$ 61 ^An'tairirj pajsi'virans av mai iks'penmants, 6aet, 'difikalt av 'kredit aez it me- bii, in 6a kojs av waii 'jiai ai bi'keim x 0io'retikali aend 'praektikali aen a r kampli$t mai'kraskopist. 'djurirj 61s 'pinad av mai 'leibajz, in Mit$ ai sab- 55 'mitid 'spesimanz av 'evn 'sAbstans 6aet ke-m 'Andai mai x abs9i'vei$an ta 61 'aekjan av mai 'lenziz, ai bi- 'keim a dis'kAvaraj, — in 9 smoil wei, it iz trui, foj ai W9z 'veri jaq, b9t stil 9 dis'kAV9r9j. it W9z ai hu dis'troid 'eronbajgz '0ion 6aet 69 'volvoks glo'baitor 60 waz aen 'aenimol, aend pruivd 6aet hiz "'momaedz" wi6 'stAmgks nd aiz waj 'mull 'feizgz 9V 69 foi'mei- $9n 9v 9 , ved39t9bl sel, aend wai, Men 6e- riitjt 6ej m9 r tjuj steit, m'keipgbl 9V 61 aekt 9v x kand3u'gei$9n, TRANSCRIPTIONS 163 oj 'eni tru: 'd3en8 x re-tiv aekt, wiS'aut Mit$ noi 'oj- 65 ganizm 'raizirj tu 'em steid3 av laif 'haiaj (5an 'ved59- tabl kaen bi sed ta bi kam'pliit. it waz ai hu n'zalvd t5a 'sirjgjutei 'prabtom ev ro'te:$an in t5a selz send heuz av plsents 'intu 'sili v en o'trsekjan, in spait av Si a'sajjanz 9v 'mistai Venom send 'ao^iz, <5aet mai 70 ekspta'neijan waz <5a n'zAlt ov an 'aptikl i'lu:38n. The Longing of a Man of Science My first step of course was to find suitable apart- ments. These I obtained, after a couple of days' search, in Fourth Avenue; a very pretty second-floor unfurnished, containing sitting-room, bed-room, and a smaller apartment which I intended to fit up as a laboratory. I furnished my lodgings simply, but rather elegantly, and then devoted all my energies to the adornment of the temple of my worship. I visited Pike, the celebrated optician, and passed in review his splendid collection of microscopes, — Field's Compound, Hingham's, Spencer's, Nachet's Binocular (that founded on the principles of the stereoscope), and at length fixed upon that form known as Spencer's Trunnion Microscope, as com- bining the greatest number of improvements with an almost perfect freedom from tremor. Along with this I purchased every possible accessory, — draw- tubes, micrometers, a cam.era-lucida, lever-stage, achromatic condensers, white cloud illuminators, prisms, parabolic condensers, polarizing apparatus, forceps, aquatic boxes, fishing-tubes, with a host of other articles, all of which would have been useful in the hands of an experienced microscopist, but, as I 164 TRANSCRIPTIONS afterwards discovered, were not of the slightest pres- ent value to me. It takes years of practice to know how to use a complicated microscope. The optician looked suspiciously at me as I made these whole-sale purchases. He evidently was uncertain whether to set me down as some scientific celebrity or a madman. I think he inclined to the latter belief. I suppose I was mad. Every great genius is mad upon the sub- ject in which he is greatest. The unsuccessful mad- man is disgraced and called a lunatic. Mad or not, I set myself to work with a zeal which few scientific students have ever equaled. I had everything to learn relative to the delicate study upon which I had embarked, — a study involving the most earnest patience, the most rigid analytic powers, the steadiest hand, the most untiring eye, the most refined and subtile manipulation. For a long time half my apparatus lay inactively on the shelves of my laboratory, which was now most amply furnished with every possible contrivance for facilitating my investigations. The fact was that I did not know how to use some of my scientific imple- ments, — never having been taught microscopies, — and those whose use I understood theoretically were of little avail, until by practice I could attain the necessary delicacy of handling. Still, such was the fury of my ambition, such the untiring perseverance of my experiments, that, difficult of credit as it may be, in the course of one year I became theoretically and practically an accomplished microscopist. During this period of my labors, in which I sub- mitted specimens of every substance that came under my observation to the action of my lenses, I became TRANSCRIPTIONS 165 a discoverer, — in a small way, it is true, for I was very young, but still a discoverer. It was I who destroyed Ehrenberg's theory that the Volvox globator was an animal, and proved that his " monads" with stomachs and eyes were merely phases of the forma- tion of a vegetable cell, and were, when they reached their mature state, incapable of the act of conjuga- tion, or any true generative act, without which no organism rising to any stage of life higher than vege- table can be said to be complete. It was I who re- solved the singular problem of rotation in the cells and hairs of plants into ciliary attraction, in spite of the assertions of Mr. Wenham and others, that my explanation was the result of an optical illusion. REMARKS These paragraphs are from The Diamond Lens by Fitz-James O'Brien. The transcription represents the author's conception of a standard reading pronunciation, more formal than a colloquial but less formal than an oratorical style. 1. 1. ['sjutabl]. But ['sutabl] is also possible. 1. 5. [m'tendid]. The final syllable, in this and similar words, is quite as likely to be [-ad] as [-id]. 1. 9. [psest]. Or [passt]. The pronunciation [pa:st] is likely to be noticeable. Neither [pa:st] nor [pa:st] are natural to the author, whose native speech was formed in Southern Ohio. 1. 13. [lento]. Or [len0]. 1. 16. ['tremaj]. Rarely ['trismaj]. 1. 18. Psekro'maetik]. For emphasis on the etymological elements of the word, one might say ['eikro'msetik]. 1. 20. [aepa'raitas]. Or [aepa're:tas], scarcely [aepa'raetas], though this pronunciation is common popularly and is sometimes heard among physicists and other scientists. 1. 21. [a'kwatik]. Or [a'kwatik]. 1. 26. [ap'ti$an]. Of course [ap'ti$an] is also possible, but in this 166 TRANSCRIPTIONS and other words where a choice between the two is open, the form with [a] is much the more general, and represents the author's habit. 1. 28. ['evidantli]. Or ['eviMentliJ. I. 30. [waz]. An emphatic form of unemphatic [waz]. 1. 31. ['sAbdjekt]. Or ['sAbd3ikt]. 1. 32. [<5i]. Before a vowel, [ - 5a] before consonants. ['Ansak v sesfal]. Or [ v Ansak'sesfal]. 1. 34. [oj]. In rapid reading more likely to be [ai] than [ojj. So also [send] may frequently be merely [nd]. 1. 36. ['delikit]. The pronunciation ['delakat] seems scarcely permissible. 1. 37. [rm'baukt]. Or [em'baukt]. 1. 39. [ v An'tarrin]. Or [an'tainn]. 1. 41. [haef]. Or [ha:f]. 1. 52. [bi'keim]. The vowel is distinctly long here before a slight pause. 1. 54. ['djunn]. In British English a glide vowel before [r] is prominent, giving ['djuarirj], ['piariad], 1. 61 ['miajli], etc., but in American speech this glide vowel is very slight when heard and usually is not heard at all. 1. 62. [waj]. Stressed here, but usually unstressed. 1. 66. [bi], [bi]. The second be is more emphatic, hence the vowel is higher and tenser. The second syllable of complete is still more emphatic. Ill tfo 'haimit WAn nait, a 'bjutifal 'kliai 'frosti nait, hi keim bsek tu hiz sel, 'aeftai 9 $oit rest. <59 stauz waj 'wAndaafal. 'hevn siimd 9 '0auz9nd taimz 'laiid^Bi 9z wel 9z 'broi- t9J San Qid, nd ta luk wiS a 'flauzand aiz m'sted av S WAn. "ou, 'wAnd9if9l," hi kraid, "Sat <5ei $ud bi men hu dui kraimz bai nait; send 'aS9jz skeus les maed, hu liv foj Sis 'htl W9jld, nd nat foi Sset greit n 'gloirras WAn, MitS 'nartli, tu oil aiz nat 'blamdid bai 'kAstom, TRANSCRIPTIONS 167 10 n'viilz its 'glourj 'gloiriz. 0aenk gad ai aem a 'haj- mIt. ,, send in Sis muid hi keim tu hiz sel do u. hi poizd set it; it waz kloizd. "Mai, mi'0oit ai left it 'oipn," sed hi. "tSa wind, is Sai iz nat a bre0 av wind. Mat miinz Sis?" hi stud wiS iz hsend a'pon Sa 'rAgid dou. hi lukt 0ru wAn av Sa greit thinks, foj it waz mAt$ 'smoilai in 'pleisiz Ssen Si 'aepa.it$a.i it pri'tendid ta kloiz, send so i hiz 'litl oil wik 'bajnin dsAst mcm hi haed left it. 20 "hau iz it wrS mi," hi said, "Men ai staut n 'trembl set 'nA0in? 'iiSaj ai did $At it, oj Sa fimd hse0 $At it 'seftaj mi ta dis'taib mai 'hsepi soul, 'retro sa'0ainas!" send hi 'entaid hiz keiv 'rsepidli, nd bi'gaen wiS 'sAuiMat 'najvas ekspi'di$an ta lait waii av hiz 'laud3- 25 1st 'teipajz. Mail hi waz 'laitin it, Sei waz a soft sai in Sa keiv. hi 'stautid nd drapt Sa 'kaendl d3Ast az it waz 'lai- tin, send it went aut. hi stuipt foj it 'hAriadli nd 'laitid it, 'lisnin m- 30 'tenth. Men it waz 'laitid hi '$eidid it wiS iz haend fram bi'haind, send 0rui Sa feint lait oil raund Sa sel. in Sa 'fauSist 'kojnaa Si 'autlain av Sa woil siimd 'broikn. hi tuk a step toudz Sa pie is wiS iz haut 'biitin. 35 Sa 'ksendl set Sa seim taim 'getin 'braitaj, hi so: it waz Sa 'figjui av a 'wuman. a'nASaj step wiS iz niiz 'nakin ta'geSaj. it waz 'maugnt brsent. The Hermit One night, a beautiful clear frosty night, he came back to his cell, after a short rest. The stars were 168 TRANSCRIPTIONS wonderful. Heaven seemed a thousand times larger as well as brighter than earth, and to look with a thousand eyes instead of one. "Oh, wonderful," he cried, "that there should be men who do crimes by night; and others scarce less mad, who live for this little world, and not for that great and glorious one, which nightly, to all eyes not blinded by custom, reveals its glowing glories. Thank God I am a hermit." And in this mood he came to his cell door. He paused at it; it was closed. "Why, methought I left it open," said he. "The wind. There is not a breath of wind. What means this?" He stood with his hand upon the rugged door. He looked through one of the great chinks, for it was much smaller in places than the aperture it pretended to close, and saw his little oil wick burning just where he had left it. "How is it with me," he sighed, "when I start and tremble at nothing? Either I did shut it, or the fiend hath shut it after me to disturb my happy soul. Retro Sathanas!" And he entered his cave rapidly, and began with somewhat nervous expedition to light one of his largest tapers. While he was lighting it, there was a soft sigh in the cave. He started and dropped the candle just as it was lighting, and it went out. He stooped for it hurriedly and lighted it, listening intently. When it was lighted he shaded it with his hand from behind, and threw the faint light all round the cell. TRANSCRIPTIONS 169 In the farthest corner the outline of the wall seemed broken. He took a step towards the place with his heart beating. The candle at the same time getting brighter, he saw it was the figure of a woman. Another step with his knees knocking together. It was Margaret Brandt. REMARKS From Cap. XCV of Charles Reade's The Cloister and the Hearth. 1. 1. [waii nait]. Two distinct [n] consonants are not pronounced here, see above, § 83. 1. 10. [ai sem]. Less formally, [aim]. 1. 17. [0ru]. The word is very slightly stressed, hence the vowel is short. [gre:t]. As an intensive, great is not usually a very emphatic word. Here it is lightly stressed and the vowel is perhaps only half-long. 1. 18. ['pleisizj. Or ['pleisaz]? 1. 38. ['maugntj. This word would be trisyllabic only in a formal spelling-pronunciation. IV tte 'luk- r aut "(Sen $i blouz," waz sArj aut from oo 'msest-^hed. "Men o'wei?" di'msendid t5a 'kseptn. "0ri: points o:f (So li: bau, S9j." "reiz Ap J9J Mill. 'steiMu!" S "'stedi, sal." "'maest- v hed o'hoi! djo si: tSset A\eil nau?" "ai, ai, s9j! a Soul a sp9jm Meilz! tSeu Si blouz! SeuSi'briitSaz!" "sirj aut! sirj aut evn taim!" 170 TRANSCRIPTIONS 10 "ai, ai, s9j! <5e:i $i blouz! t5e:i — (Seu — t5au $i blouz — bouz — boiuz!" "haufauoif?" "tu mailz nd o hsef." "'0Andr n 'laitnin! so 'niai! koil oil hsendz!" The Look-out "There she blows," was sung out from the mast-head. "Where away?" demanded the captain. "Three points off the lee bow, sir." " Raise up your wheel. Steady!" "Steady, sir." "Mast-head ahoy! Do you see that whale now?" "Ay, ay, sir! A shoal of Sperm Whales! There she blows! There she breaches!" "Sing out! sing out every time!" "Ay, ay, sir! There she blows! there — there — thar she blows — bowes — bo — o — o — s! " "How far off?" "Two miles and a half." "Thunder and lightning! So near! Call all hands! " REMARKS From Extracts at the end of Melville's Moby Dick. Note the prolonged quality of some of the vowels, resulting of course from the manner of speech exemplified by the passage. In line 6, [dJ9] might be transcribed [d33]. V tte fiist send stil $i slept in 'ae39.i-'lidid ship, in 'blaentSid 'linin, smuio*, send 'laevon'dajd, TRANSCRIPTIONS 171 Mail hi: fram hud Sa 'klozit broit a hiip av 'ksen v did 'sepal, kwins, send pLvm, send 'guaad; S wi# 'dseliz 'suiSai Ssen Sa 'kriimi kaid, send 'ljuisent 'sirops, tinkt wi0 'sina'mon; 'msena send deits, in 'augo'si trsens'faid fram fez; send 'spaisid 'demtiz, 'evn wAn, fram 'silkan 'ssemai'ksend tu 'sidaid 'leba'non. io t5iiz 'deli'keits hi hiipt wi0 'glo:m hsend on 'goildin 'di$iz send in 'baiskits brait av 'wriiSid 'silvan 'sAmpt$u'As Se- stsend in <5a n'taiaad 'kwant av <5a nait, 'filin <5a 't$ili ru:m wi0 'pajfjum lait. — 15 "send nau, mai Iav, mai 'sersef 'feiai, a'weik! Sau aat mai 'hevn, send ai Sam 'en'mait: 'oipn Sam aiz, foj mi:k se-nt 'segnis seik, oj ai $sel drauz bi'said Si:, sou mai soul dA0 eik." The Feast And still she slept in azure-lidded sleep, In blanched linen, smooth, and lavender'd, While he from forth the closet brought a heap Of candied apple, quince, and plum, and gourd; With jellies soother than the creamy curd, And lucent syrops, tinct with cinnamon; Manna and dates, in argosy transferr'd From Fez; and spiced dainties, every one, From silken Samarcand to cedar'd Lebanon. These delicates he heap'd with glowing hand On golden dishes and in baskets bright Of wreathed silver: sumptuous they stand 172 TRANSCRIPTIONS In the retired quiet of the night, Filling the chilly room with perfume light. — "And now, my love, my seraph fair, awake! Thou art my heaven, and I thine eremite: Open thine eyes, for meek St. Agnes' sake, Or I shall drowse beside thee, so my soul doth ache/ 5 REMARKS These two stanzas from The Eve of St. Agnes, by Keats, are transcribed into a text for very formal and somewhat artificial pro- nunciation, such as one would employ in a slow recitation of the lines. 1. 1. ['se38J-]. Or ['ei39i-j. 1. 4. ['guaxd]. The word is a poor rime to lavender'd, curd, transferr'd, unless one adopts an artificial pronunciation, [gsjd], for the sake of the rime. Normally the word is pronounced ['guajd] or [goad]. 1. 6. ['ljursent 'sirops]. In colloquial style, ['lursant 'srrapsj. 1. 8. [wAn]. Should one pronounce [won] for the rime, or ['sma- 'mAn], ['lebo'nAn], or be satisfied merely with the approximate eye- rime in the spellings cinnamon, one, Lebanon? 1. 11. ['baiskits]. Or ['ba:skits], ['bseskits}, though one would not likely hear ['baeskits] from a professional elocutionist. 1. 12. ['sAmptSu'As]. In colloquial style, ['sAmpt$uas]. VI imoj'taeliti sou wi d3Ad3 ov So hoip ov imoj'taeliti. it bi'lonz witS and fits 'mtu o 'strAkt$ai; it iz tSset wiS'aut A\it$ ju kon 'nevoi meik So 'bjuti oi 'juniti larst, wiSaut A\it$ 'olso So 'strAkt$8J tendz to foil o'pait. Si ait$ iz S nat jet trui til 'evn stoin fits 'mtu pie is. put So hoip ov imoj'taeliti 'mtu So kraun ov So 'vseljuz ov laif, ond Se- ko'hioi, and oil ov Sem teik on njui sig'nif ikons TEANSCEIPTIONS 173 i:t$ stoin bilt 'into 8a 'strAkt$aj iz wai0 'moaj 8an it iz wa:8 bai it 'self in 8a fiild. iit$ stoin iz wa:8 stil 10 'moai Men 8a 'strAkt$ai iz 'fmi$t. ri'fjuz 'juai 'ki:- v sto:n 8a pleis foj Mit$ it siimz ta bi 'fitid eg'zaektli, aend ju haev put 'evn 'pre$as 'vselju set risk, ju ai nat so '$uai av a gud gad 'eni 'longai. 'hjuman laif iz no 'longai so sig'nifikant az it waz bi'foai. ju hav lost is wai0 aut av Lvv and 'frendjip, and 'leveld 8em toud 6a dAst. ju hav n'dust 'pe-triatizm and fil'aenflrapi tu 'fafnait 'vaeljuz, i:t$ wi8 its prais. ju hav te-kn 'buijant d30i and en'0uziaezm aut av oil ma'tui menz laif, and '0retnd 8em wi8 an 'ajliai odd eid3. ju hav 20 '$e:kn 8a 'be:saz av mo'raeliti and put 'rait$asnas 'intu tajmz av 'kAmfat and 'palisi. ju hav 'bidn 8i 'artist, 8a 'poet, and 8a 'prafet laif at 8ej 'vi3anz and daut 8ei va'liditi. ju hav dis'tinktli '$e:kn maenz fe:0 in 'lad3ik and 'riizan, and bro:t oil inta'lekt$ual 'prasasaz 25 'intu dis'kredit. foi oil 8at 'lad3ik iz 'foia iz ta baind 0inz 'intu ko'hirans and 'juniti. oil 'vaeljuz, in faekt, bi'lon in 8i ai'dial 'relm; 8e* go: ta'ge8ai and meik a 'juniti, oi els 8e- foil ta'ge8aj. foil ta'ge8ai? nou! no maen kaen meik 8a greit 30 'vaeljuz foil, a te:k 8em a'pait, ha.it wAn av 8em. a maen kaen hait and ma: hiz oun laif bai hiz dis'trAst, bat hi kan ma: nou n'aeliti. no maenz daut kan meik 'd3Astis, 'bjuti, tru:0, Iav, les 8an 'rial. 8iiz 0inz a m'greind in a 'neit$a. wi ni:d 'omli ta trAst 8em. 35 8e- 'kanstftut aen 'infinit 'ojdaj. 8e- 'vaeliMe-t 8em- 'selvz 8a 'moai wi 0rou aua we:t a'pon 8em. 8a ho:p av imoi'taeliti iz 'simpli 8a 'kii N stosn, Mit$ 'olwez staendz fa:st, bi'jond 'em maenz daut, aet 8a kraun av 8a 'strAkt$ai. it fits its kam'paenjan 'vaeljuz, and 8e- 40 klaisp it wi8 8ea a:mz 'intu a si'rim m'tegnti. 8e* 174 TRANSCRIPTIONS bid as trAst auo laivz a'pon c5i 'aitJVei, Mit$ 'evn 'vaelju in oa 'jumVais haez dsoind ta kon'strAkt. wii did nat bild So 'bjutifal 'strAkt$9.i: wi 'oinli faund it. Mat iz 'eksalant, 45 sez gad livz, iz 'pAimanant. Immortality So we judge of the hope of immortality. It belongs with and fits into a structure; it is that without which you can never make the beauty or unity last, without which also the structure tends to fall apart. The arch is not yet true till every stone fits into place. Put the hope of immortality into the crown of the values of life, and they cohere, and all of them take on new significance. Each stone built into the structure is worth more than it is worth by itself in the field. Each stone is worth still more when the structure is finished. Refuse your keystone the place for which it seems to be fitted exactly, and you have put every precious value at risk. You are not so sure of a good God any longer. Human life is no longer so significant as it was before. You have lost worth out of love and friend- ship, and leveled them toward the dust. You have reduced patriotism and philanthropy to finite values, each with its price. You have taken buoyant joy and enthusiasm out of all mature men's life, and threatened them with an earlier old age. You have shaken the bases of morality and put righteousness into terms of comfort and policy. You have bidden the artist, the poet, and the prophet laugh at their visions and doubt their validity. You have distinctly shaken man's faith in logic and reason, and brought all intellectual TRANSCRIPTIONS 175 processes into discredit. For all that logic is for is to bind things into coherence and unity. All values, in fact, belong in the ideal realm; they go together and make a unity, or else they fall together. Fall together? No! No man can make the great values fall, or take them apart, or hurt one of them. A man can hurt and mar his own life by his distrust, but he can mar no reality. No man's doubt can make justice, beauty, truth, love, less than real. These things are ingrained in our nature. We need only to trust them. They constitute an infinite order. They validate themselves the more we throw our weight upon them. The hope of immortality is simply the keystone, which always stands fast, beyond any man's doubt, at the crown of the structure. It fits its com- panion values, and they clasp it with their arms into a serene integrity. They bid us trust our lives upon the archway, which every value in the universe has joined to construct. We did not build the beautiful structure: we only found it. What is excellent, As God lives, is permanent. REMARKS This passage, from Truth and Immortality, an essay by Charles Fletcher Dole, represents the pronunciation of Mr. W. W. Lawrence who was born in Portland, Maine, and spent his early life there. After the usual college training at Bowdoin, and graduate discipline, especially in English and German at Harvard, he spent several years in Kansas, but for the past dozen or fifteen years he has lived in New York, regularly returning, however, for three or four months of each year to his native New England. His pronunciation represents not an extreme local New England speech, but what may be taken as a fair example of cultivated standard New England 176 TRANSCRIPTIONS speech. Perhaps its most interesting feature is its mixed character. This is evident, for example, in the treatment of [i]. Final un- stressed or lightly stressed [j] is regularly present, but disappears in a heavily stressed syllable like [fo:o], 1. 25, or [ma:], 1. 31. Before consonants no [j] is present in [o'pait], 1. 30, [a:mz], 1. 40, [a:t$-], 1. 41, but is present in [h3.it], 1. 30, the acoustic test being positively confirmed by the organic analysis. Yet no [j] is present in [wa:0], 1. 15, or in ['jumVa:s], 1. 42, ['pAimanant], 1. 45. In 11. 33, 34, the pronunciation [a] for are, our, evidently represents an occasional and unsettled, not a fixed and permanent habit, see 11. 36, 41. The loss of [j] in ['kAmfat], 1. 21, is a very wide spread phenomenon, noticeable even in the speech of those who commonly retain [i] before consonants; cf. the pronunciation fkAmftabl] for comfortable. The pronunciation [la:f], 1. 22, [fa:st], 1. 38, [kla:sp], 1. 40, is con- sistent for this passage, but Mr. Lawrence declares that in an in- formal pronunciation, say if he went into a stationery store and asked for paper-clasps, he would say [klsesps]. Further examination showed that in words of this type he sometimes pronounced [a:], sometimes [se]. The pronunciations ['kansti'tut], 1. 35, [nte'tuj], I. 18, [en'0u- zisezm], 1. 18, cannot be taken as indicating a constant preference of [u], [u] for [ju] after [t], [d], etc., for sometimes, especially under full stress, the pronunciation is [ju], as in [nju:], 1. 7. The diphthongal vowel in [sou], 1. 1, is due to an exceptionally strong stress in this word, and so also in other cases of [ou]. For the vowel of not, God, what, etc., the pronunciation [a] is constant. Observe that for the accented vowel in make, take, patriotism, they, etc., a diphthong was not present, even under strong stress. As to final unstressed syllables, note [^beisaz], 1. 20, ['raitSasnas], 1. 20, etc., beside ['fitid], 1. 11, ['leveld], 1. 15. The mixed character of this pronunciation is not an individual pecu- liarity but is quite generally characteristic of cultivated American speech. VII 'woiknj ?Sa 'p^ai av 'eksasaiz iz dui fAist tu a 'pjuali 'fizikl im'pre$an, send 'sekandh tu a sens av 'pauai in 'sek$an. TRANSCRIPTIONS 177 Sa fAist so :s av r ple38j, 'veiriz av kois wiS aua kan'di- $an send Sa steit av Sa sa'raundin 'sAikam^stsensaz; Sa 5 'sekand wi Si a'maunt send kaind av 'paua, send Si ek'stent send kaind av 'aek$an. in oil foimz av 'aektiv 'eksasaiz, Sai a 0rii 'pauaz x saimal'te-niasli in 'aek$an, — Sa wil, Sa 'ulasIz nd Si 'mtelekt. iit$ av Si:z pri- 'dam^ne-ts in 'difrant kaindz av 'eksasaiz. in 'woi- io kin, 6a wil n 'eqasIz a so a'kAstamd ta wAik ta'geSaj, n pa'foim Sea taesk wiS so 'litl ek'spendit$u.i av fa is Sa?t Si 'mtelekt iz left kam'psentivli frii. Sa 'mentl 'ple39j in 'woikin, az sAt$, iz in Sa sens av 'pauai 'ovai oil aua 'muivirj ma'$inan . . . is 'hiai and Saeu, Sa fi:ld w z 'datid wiS smoil 'flauaz. Mer'eva ju lukt, ju sai Sea 'goildn hedz 'nadir) in Sa briiz. Se- fild Si aei wiS Sea 'nt$ 'o:da. it waz a 'maival Sat sAt$ 'taini 'blasamz $ud hsev so 'veri 'hevi a pa'fjum. in 'kAla Se* 'veirid fram nt$ 'arind3 ta 20 'peilist 'jelo. wAn woikt 'weir li fo 'fiaj av 'krA$irj Sem 'Anda fut. Walking The pleasure of exercise is due first to a purely physical impression, and secondly to a sense of power in action. The first source of pleasure varies of course with our condition and the state of the surrounding circumstances; the second with the amount and kind of power; and the extent and kind of action. In all forms of active exercise there are three powers simul- taneously in action, — the will, the muscles and the intellect. Each of these predominates in different kinds of exercise. In walking, the will and muscles are so accustomed to work together, and perform their task with so little expenditure of force, that the intel- 178 TRANSCRIPTIONS lect is left comparatively free. The mental pleasure in walking, as such, is in the sense of power over all our moving machinery . . . Here and there, the field was dotted with small flowers. Wherever you looked, you saw their golden heads nodding in the breeze. They filled the air with their rich odor. It was a marvel that such tiny blossoms should have so very heavy a perfume. In color they varied from rich orange to palest yellow. One walked warily for fear of crushing them under foot. REMARKS Down to the break, this passage is from Holmes' Autocrat. The concluding sentences were made up for the purpose of transcrip- tion. The pronunciation is that of Mr. H. W. Wells, who has always lived in New York City, with occasional short periods of residence in New England. Final [i] appears in Mr. Wells's pro- nunciation in unstressed syllables before vowels, and usually, though not always, before pauses. In 1. 5, the two words with the are run together, with only one consonant between them. In 1. 10, are is made very unemphatic, the sound being recorded as [a], though it is better described as a weakened form of [a]. Nasaliza- tion of vowels is marked in Mr. Wells's pronunciation. In strongly stressed syllables or words like there, 1. 15, air, 1. 17, the vowel is [»:], but not in weak syllables, as in there, 1. 7, their, 11. 16, 17, or in varies, 1. 3, varied, 1. 19, warily, 1. 20. The stress in perfume, 1. 19, as a noun, is usually on the first syllable. VIII daut An'foitjanatli d3Ast az ai waz trai'Amfntli 'aensanrj, "'sAitnli nat," a'nA^a 'kwest$an mait$t 'mta mai mamd, is'koitad bai a 'veri di'faiant "o:t." "oit ai ta gou, Men ai haev sAt$ a di'beit a'baut at?" TRANSCRIPTIONS 179 5 bat Mail ai woz po'plekst, nd 'skafin set mai oun 'skruplz, So 'fen- x bel 'sAdnli raerj, nd 'aensod oil mai 'kwest$onz. inValon'terili ai 'hArod on bood. So bo it slipt from So dak. ai went Ap on dek tu m'd30i So vjui ov So 'siti from So bei, bot d3Ast oz ai saet daun, io n ment tu hev sed, "hau 'bjutofol," o faund mo'self 'seskin, "oit ai tu hev kAm?" lost in po'pleksin di'beit, ai soi 'litl ov So 'smori ov So bei; bot So n'membrons ov pruu nd So ^entl 'm- fluons ov So 'dei 'pLmd3d mi 'into o muid ov 'pensiv is 'revon Mit$ 'nA0irj 'tendod to dis'troi, an'til wi 'sAdnli a'raivd ot So 'hendin. Doubt Unfortunately, just as I was triumphantly answer- ing " Certainly not!" another question marched into my mind, escorted by a very defiant ought. " Ought I to go when I have such a debate about it?" But while I was perplexed, and scoffing at my own scruples, the ferry-bell suddenly rang, and answered all my questions. Involuntarily I hurried on board. The boat slipped from the dock. I went up on deck to enjoy the view of the city from the bay, but just as I sat down, and meant to have said "how beautiful! " I found myself asking: "Ought I to have come?" Lost in perplexing debate, I saw little of the scenery of the bay ; but the remembrance of Prue and the gentle influence of the day plunged me into a mood of pensive reverie which nothing tended to destroy, until we sud- denly arrived at the landing. 180 TRANSCRIPTIONS REMARKS The passage is from George William Curtis, Prue and I, and the transcription is the reading pronunciation of Mr. George Summey, Jr., a native of Kentucky, of North Carolina parentage, who has lived in South Carolina, Tennessee, and since the age of twenty- three in North Carolina. His manner of speech would strike any attentive observer as Southern, but not markedly so. His speech is slow, and more attention is given to unstressed syllables than is customary, though the vowels are not necessarily made clearer. 1. 1. [An'fo:t$anatli]. There is no trace of a consonant for r before consonants and finally. 1. 4. [at]. Very lightly stressed. 1. 5. ['skafirj]. The more usual pronunciation is ['skafrrj]. 1. 7. ['hArad]. A more common standard pronunciation would be ['hArid], or [TiArid], the latter to be preferred. [boad]. The vowel is distinctly short. [bo:t]. No trace of diphthongal quality, but when final, as in [gou], 1. 4, the diphthong is present. 1. 10. ['bjutafal]. In a word like this, if one had a mark for accent indicating a degree between half-stress and unstressed, one would employ it on the second and third syllables to suggest Mr. Summey's pronunciation. More commonly pronounced ['bjutrfal]. 1. 12. ['smaii]. The vowel of the first syllable is not usually lowered. 1. 13. [pruu]. The diphthong very distinct, perhaps because of the slow tempo. ['influans]. More commonly, ['influans]. 1. 14. [mu:d]. For common standard [mu:d]. IX *0aena'tapsas tu him hu in Sa Iav av 'ne:t$9j hoildz ka'mjunjan wi0 hsj 'vizibl foumz, $i spiiks a 'veirias 1aer)gwid3; foj iz 'geiai 'auaiz $i hsez a vois av 'glsednas, nd a small TKANSCRIPTIONS 181 5 nd 'elakwans av 'bjuti, nd $i glaidz intu hiz 'daukaj 'mjuziqz, wi0 a maild nd 'hiilirj 'simpafli Sat stiilz a'wei <5ej 'Jaupnas, eu hi iz a'weu. Men 0o:ts av t5a laest 'bitaj 'auai kAm laik a blait 10 'ovaj oai 'spirat, nd seed 'imid3az av Sa stajn 'aegani, nd $raud, nd poil, nd 'bre0las 'dauknas, nd oa 'nsero haus, meik <5i ta '$Adaj, nd gro: sik set haut; — go i fou0 'Andai <5i 'oipn skai, nd list is ta 'neitjajz 'tiitjirjz, Mail fram oil a'raund — Bid nd haa 'wataaz nd t5a dep0s av eu — kAmz a stil vois. Thanatopsis To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings, with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart; — Go forth, under the open sky, and list To Nature's teachings, while from all around — Earth and her waters, and the depths of air — Comes a still voice. 182 TRANSCRIPTIONS REMARKS This passage represents the informal reading pronunciation of Mr. F. L. Mott, a native and resident of Iowa. The only pronun- ciations which call for comment are [0o:ts], 1. 8, which has been recorded with [o:], but which has a sound between [a:] and [o:]; in 1. 16 ['wataaz] has distinctly [a]; in 11. 2, 6, with has a voiceless final consonant. For r final and before consonants the transcription [j] has been used, though perhaps the sound is nearer [rj. X sen 'elaVe-tad x kanv9r'sei$an ai waz 'gourj daun taun on Si 'elaVe-tad Sis 'seftar- r nuin nd psest Sa taim bai 'lisnin ta Sa x kanvar'sei$an av a 'nAmbar 9v 'sku:l- v garlz. Sa- war fram waii av Sa 'siti 'hai-^skuilz, n war drest laik Sa 'doitarz av 5 'wel-ta-'du: 'peirants. Se- war oil 'veri mAt$ ik'saitad 'ovar n igz8emi'ne:$an in 'inglij 'litara'tSur Mit$ ad bin held in Sa skuil Saet 'moirnin. waii av Sa garlz siimd 'veri mAtS dis'tarbd 'ovar Si 'aensar ta waii av Sa 'kwes- t$anz. "o garlz," $i sed, "ai want a nou a'baut So:z io oudz. ai no i waii waz bai kiits n waii waz bai 'Jell, n ai no i waii waz a'baut a 'skai- x la:rk n waii waz a'baut a 'nartan x ge:l, bat ai domt noi 'MeSar ai gat Sam streit." "Mai," 'aensard WAn av har kam'psenjanz, "'$eli roit Sa waii a'baut Sa 'naitan v ge:l n kiits Sa waii 15 a'baut Sa 'skai- x lairk." "Seir nau," moind Sa garl hui hsed aeskt Sa 'kwest$an, "iznt Saet tui baed! ai d3Ast nu: aid get Soiz baidz mikst, n ai did." An Elevated Conversation I was going down town on the Elevated this after- noon and passed the time by listening to the conver- TRANSCRIPTIONS 183 sation of a number of school-girls. They were from one of the city high-schools, and were dressed like the daughters of well-to-do parents. They were all very much excited over an examination in English literature which had been held in the school that morning. One of the girls seemed very much disturbed over the answer to one of the questions. "O girls," she said, "I want to know about these odes. I know one was by Shelley and one was by Keats, and I know one was about a sky-lark and one was about a nightingale, but I don't know whether I get them straight." "Why," answered one of her companions, " Shelley wrote r the one about the nightingale and Keats the one about the sky-lark." "There now," moaned the girl who had asked the question, "isn't that too bad! I just knew I'd get those boids mixed, and I did." REMARKS This represents the conversational pronunciation of Mr. G. W. Mead, practically all of whose life has been passed in the Middle West. There is no [j] in Mr. Mead's pronunciation, except occa- sionally in unstressed final syllables. In 1. 6 ['litare't$ur] is a some- what formal pronunciation for informal ['litarot^aj]. For want, the transcription is [want], 1. 9, and so it would be generally in this pronunciation for words like watch, water, swan, etc. A rather slow tempo accounts for the diphthongs in [nou], 1. 9. [oudz], 1. 10, both stressed. But [no:], 1. 10, is only relatively lightly stressed. For ['naitan v ge:l], 1. 12, ['naitn'ge:l] might have been written. In 1 17 [baidz] is New York dialect for birds. XI np vaen 'wmkl aez hi waz a'bseut ta di'send, hi hAid a vois fram a 'distans 'haeluin, "rip van 'winkl! rip vaen 'wirjkl!" 184 TRANSCRIPTIONS hi lukt raeund, bat kud sii 'nA0irj bat a krou, 'wirjirj its 'sali v ten flait a'kros (5a 'maeuntn. hi 0oit iz 'faensi 5 mAst av di'siivd im, nd tAind a'gen tu di'send, Men hi hAid (5a seim krai nrj 0rui (5a stil 'iivnirj eia; "rip vaen 'wirjkl! rip vaen 'wirjkl!" — aet (5a seim taim wulf 'brisld Ap hiz baek, nd 'givin a lou 'graeual, skAlkt tu hiz 'maestaz said, 'lukirj 'fiafli daeun 'intu t5a glen. 10 rip naeu felt a veig aepri'henjan 'stiilirj 'ova him; hi lukt 'aenjasli in (5a seim di'rekjan, nd pa'siivd a stre:nd3 'figja 'slouli 'toilin Ap oa raks, nd 'bendrrj 'Anda <5a we it av 'sAm0irj hi 'kaerid on hiz ba3k. hi waz sa'praizd ta sii 'em 'hjuman 'biun in t5is 'lounli nd 15 An'frikwentid pie is; bat sa'poizirj it ta bi 'sAmVAn av <5a 'neiba y hud in niid av hiz a'sistans, hi 'heisnd daeun ta jiild it. on 'nira a'proitj hi waz stil moi sa'praizd aet ba singju'lenti av <5a 'streind3az a'pirans. hi waz a $oit 20 'skwea- v bilt old 'felo, wi(5 0ik 'bu$i 'heia nd a 'grizld 'biad. hiz dres waz av t5i aen'tiik dAt$ 'fae$n: a klo0 'd3Sjkn straept raeund oa weist, 'sevral 'peia av 'bnt$iz, t5a 'aeuta WAn av 'aempl 'valjam, 'dekaVe-tid wrS rouz av 'bAtnz daeun $a saidz, nd 'bAnt$az aet (5a niiz. hi 25 boir on hiz 'Joilda a staeut keg, t5aet siimd fAl av 'lika, nd me-d sainz fa rip ta a'proitj nd a'sist im wi0 (5a loud. "So 'raet5a $ai nd dis'trAstfal av t5is nju a'kwe-ntns, rip kam'plaid witS iz 'ju3Jal a'laeknti; nd 'mjut$uali n'liivirj WAn a'nA$a, oV 'klaembad Ap a 'naero 'gAli, 30 a'peirantli t5a drai bed av a 'maeuntn 'torant. jes, Saet 'eldali 'le-di iz 'mizaz wai0. $i livz in 't$ailstn. (5a tu gAilz ai ha 'doitaz, 6a 'misis wai0. 'mizaz wai0 iz a gre-t '1a va av 'mjuzik, nd 'raeili 'eva TRANSCRIPTIONS 185 'misaz a 'simfani 'kan'sAit. in (5a 'sAma $i spendz 9 35 gre-t dill av ha taim in (5a 'gaidn, 'wotanrj nd 'trimirj ha plaents. $i iz pa'tikjali fond av pa'tuinjaz. Rip Van Winkle As he was about to descend, he heard a voice from a distance, hallooing, "Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle!" He looked round, but could see nothing but a crow winging its solitary flight across the moun- tain. He thought his fancy must have deceived him, and turned again to descend, when he heard the same cry ring through the still evening air; "Rip Van Winkle! Rip Van Winkle!" — at the same time Wolf bristled up his back, and giving a low growl, skulked to his master's side, looking fearfully down into the glen. Rip now felt a vague apprehension stealing over him; he looked anxiously in the same direction, and per- ceived a strange figure slowly toiling up the rocks, and bending under the weight of something he carried on his back. He was surprised to see any human being in this lonely and unfrequented place; but supposing it to be someone of the neighborhood in need of his assistance, he hastened down to yield it. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair, and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch fashion: a cloth jerkin strapped round the waist, several pair of breeches, the outer one of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons down the sides, and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout keg, that seemed full of liquor, and 186 TRANSCRIPTIONS made signs for Rip to approach and assist him with the load. Though rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, Rip complied with his usual alac- rity; and mutually relieving one another, they clam- bered up a narrow gully, apparently the dry bed of a mountain torrent. Yes, that elderly lady is Mrs. Worth. She lives in Charleston. The two girls are her daughters, the Misses Worth. Mrs. Worth is a great lover of music, and rarely ever misses a symphony concert. In the summer she spends a great deal of time in her garden, watering and trimming her plants. She is particularly fond of petunias. REMARKS This passage down to the break represents the slightly formal reading pronunciation of a paragraph or two from Irving's Rip Van Winkle as read by Miss Susan Lewis, a native and always a resident of Texas. After the break come several made-up sentences of somewhat less formal character. The tempo was rather slow, the diphthongal quality of some sounds being thus more marked than ordinarily. For jerkin, 1. 22, a somewhat literary and unfami- liar word, we have ['d39ikn], probably as a spelling-pronunciation, since r is regularly omitted by Miss Lewis before consonants. In final position, r is also silent, even before words beginning with a vowel, except [ba:r], 1. 25, where the [r] is perhaps due to the [o:], see above, § 305. In the concluding passage, compare the pronun- ciation of Mrs., Misses and misses, and for Mrs., see above, § 320. As Miss Lewis pronounces Mrs., the word is almost a monosyllable with a long final consonant. For rarely, 1. 33, perhaps the tran- scription should be ['rseialij. The stressing of concert fkan'sAit], I. 34, is noteworthy. In general the vowel [a:] is only slightly tense in Miss Lewis's pronunciation. In I. 26 [wi0 ?fo] is a good example of phonetic differentiation, the voiceless consonant in [wi0] being evidently assumed to keep the word separate from [Sal. TRANSCRIPTIONS 187 XII 'haemlits spi:t$ spiik Sa spi:t$,] ai prei ju, jsez ai pra'naunst it tu juJ 'tnpirjli on Sa tAn;i bat if ju mauS it, j sez 'mem av j jo 'pleiaz du:,!ai hsed aez liif Sa taun kraia spoik mai lainz.l no du not so: Si e:a t\i\ mAtJ^wiS jua hsend, 5 Sas, bat juz oil ^entli; farm Sa 'veri 'toTent, ; 'tem- pist,; send aez ai mei sei,:Sa 'M^ilVind av 'psejan, ju niAst a'kwaiaa" and bi'get a 'temparans (Sset mej giv it 'smu^Snas. o it a'fendz mi ta Sa soul tu hiXp ro'bAS- t$as j 'periVig-'peJtad 'feloVteij^a 'psejan tu 'tsetazJ io tu 'vefi rsegz, tu split Si 'iaz av (5a 'graundlinz,' hui fo Sa most paitja: 'kejpabl av 'nA0in jbAt m'eksplikabl 'dAm-'Jouz send noiz. ai kud hsev sAt$ a 'felo A\rpt fol \):'duurj 'termagant;! it x aut'heradz r herad; prei ju a' void it* 15 bi: not tu teim 'ni iSax bat let juaj oun dis'kre$an bi jua 'tjutax; sjut Si 'aekjan tu Sa we:d^ Sa we:d ta 61 'sekjan; wiS Sis 'spe$al ,ab'z£ivans, Saet$u bi'step not Sa 'modasti av 'neitjaij fol 'eni r 0irj so x ova'dAn iz from Sa 'peipas av 'plenn,* huz end, 'bod set (5a f^istj 20 send nau, woz send iz, tu hould, aez tweu, Sa 'mrfa^ ^Ap tu 'neitSa^jtu $ou 've:t$u haX_oun 'fiit^, skoin ha£ oun 'imid^, send Sa 'yen eid3 and 'bodi av Sa taim, ;hiz foim and 'pretax I nau Sis x ova'dAn, kAm 'taidi o:f, So it m0tk Si An'skilfal la if, 'kse^not bat me/k 25 Sa d3u'di$as griiv; Sa 'sen$aTav Sa Mit$ WAn mAst in juaj a'lauansjbi'wei a houl 'fliataj av 'ASaz,» Hamlet's Speech Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue; but if you mouth it, as 188 TRANSCRIPTIONS many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirl- wind of passion, you must acquire and beget a tem- perance that may give it smoothness. 0, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fel- low tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb-shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for o'er- doing Termagant; it outherods Herod; pray you, avoid it. Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor; suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance, that you o'erstep not the modesty of nature; for anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at first and now, was and is, to hold, as 't were, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own fea- ture, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this over- done, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the cen- sure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theater of others. REMARKS The transcription of this passage from Hamlet, Act III, ? Scene II, represents the pronunciation of Miss Theodora Ursula Irvine, a professional teacher of public speaking, who has given particular attention to training students for the stage. The passage is not rendered in a highly formal, dramatic style, but as the sense of it would seem to demand, in what might be called a formal natural TRANSCRIPTIONS 189 style. The tempo is somewhat slower than conversation, and some sounds are given clearer and different values than they would have in familiar style. Long [e] and [ol are more diphthongal than they customarily are in American speech. 1. 2. [jua]. A final [j] is distinctly present when the succeeding word begins with a vowel, or in logically prominent words followed by a pause. When final before immediately following words with a consonant, no r is audible in Miss Irvine's pronunciation, though internally r before a consonant is sometimes given audible value, sometimes not. This is so slight, however, that it seemed better not to record it in the transcription. Intervocalic r is commonly trilled by Miss Irvine, though not strongly, but r after a consonant, as in ['tnpirjli], 1. 2, is not trilled. The most notable feature of Miss Irvine's pronunciation is the value given to vowels e, i in stressed syllables before r followed by a consonant. This has been transcribed as [e:j, as in 11. 6, 13, 16, 19, 21. The symbol is not adequate, how- ever, since the sound is not the same as the vowel of there, where, etc., but may be described as a mid front tense neutral vowel, which is kept distinct from both [a:] and [a]. Miss Irvine pronounces your as [jua] or [joa] indifferently. Words with 'long o' are not always strongly diphthongal, sometimes not at all, as in [spo:k], 1. 3. In 1. 8 the exclamation [o] is short and not strongly stressed. For o in not, 1. 4, modesty, 1. 18, body, 1. 22, etc., Miss Irvine's sound is closer to [o] than to [a]. XIII f gTO\U) oild f9j 'fojti 'jiajz nekst 'i-st9i del, him n mil in wind n 'wetmi hav bin o-'gitn bent n grei 'mogn o'lon to'geSai. wu nat so 'veri oild, ov kojs! bat stil, wi emt so 'oifal sprai oz Men wi went to siqan- N sku:l 190 TRANSCRIPTIONS a'fut n kros lats, him nai — n woikt bsek ho:m S9 'lorjggst wei — 10 n ^9 mum a-Jainan on 89 snou, 'meikn (5a roid 9z brait 9z del n hiz vois 'toikn lou. lsend seiks! d3est 'hiai mi to:k — hi oil <5a wajld, d38st laik 9 gajl, 15 mi: — null 'siksti! — 'wel — 9 — 'wel! ai waz so toil n strorj, tfo k9jl in mai 'he^j, sim sed, W9z laik t5o 'krinklz in 9 'med9J bruk, so braun n brait! bat 'Seiaj! 20 ai ges hi gat 9t frAm 9 buk. hiz to:k in <5em <5ej deiz W9Z ful ov d36st set§ 'nan^sens — 'do-nt$u 0irjk ai 'didnt laik 9t, faj ai did! ai woikt 9'lorj Seu glsed t9 drink 25 hiz W9jdz in laik <5o bre0 9 laif — 'hev9nz n 9J0, Mat fuilz wi 'wim9n bii! n Men hi aest mi f9j iz waif, ai 'sensaad 'jes/ 9v kois, ja si:. n Sen kAm wajk, n 'trAbl bit — 30 nat mAt$ taim f9j 'Lw^toik Sen! wi bo:t 9 fa urn n 'mojgidsd it, n wajkt n sleivd laik oil po'sest ta lift ftaet 'tarebl 'graindn we it. ai wo:$t n t$9jnd n soud — 35 n 'tjildaan kAm. til wi haed eit TRANSCRIPTIONS 191 az lisensam beibz az 'evai groud ta woik ba'said a 'mA(5ajz nil. tSe* helpt mi ben it oil, ja sii. it emt bin 'nA0an els bat skrAb 40 n rAb n beik n stui tSa hAl, hAl taim, ovaj stoiv ai tAb — no taim ta rest az men foiks dui. — ai tel ja, sam'taimz ai sit n 0rrjk hau nais <5a greiv 1 bii, d3est 45 wAn nais, swiit, 'evaa'lsestn rest! o doint luk 'skeait! ai mi in d3est JAset ai sei. eint 'kreizi jet, bat its a'nAf ta meik mi sou — av kojs it eint no jus ta fret — 50 hu sed it waz? its 'n8et$ajl, Sou, bat ou, if ai waz 'oinli '(Seiaj — in (5a psest, n JAn WAns 'moiai — n hsed <5a 'knrjklz in mai 'heiai — n aumz az raund n strorj, n said 55 az it waz Sen! — aid — aid — aid dui at oil 'ovai a'gen, laik a fuil, ai spoiz! aid teik (5a pein n waak n 'wAri, beibz n oil. ai spoiz 0irjz gou bai SAm big ruil 60 av gadz oun buk, bat mai oul brein kaent fiks am Ap, so ail d3est we it n dui mai duti Men its 'kliaj, n trAst ta him ta meik at streit. 'gudnas! nuin iz 'olmo-st 'hiai 6s n Sei (5a men kAm 0rui 5a geit! 192 TRANSCRIPTIONS Growing Old F'r forty years next Easter day, - Him and me in wind and weather Have been a-gittin' bent 'n' gray Moggin' along together. We're not so very old, of course! But still, we ain't so awful spry As when we went to singin'-school " Afoot and 'cross lots, him and I — And walked back home the longest way — An' the moon a-shinin' on the snow, Makin' the road as bright as day An' his voice talkin' low. Land sakes! Jest hear me talk — F'r all the world, jest like a girl, Me — nearly sixty! — Well — a — well! I was so tall and strong, the curl In my hair, Sim said, was like The crinkles in a medder brook, So brown and bright! but there! ' I guess he got it from a book. His talk in them there days was full Of jest sech nonsense — Don't you think I didn't like it, for I did! I walked along there, glad to drink His words in like the breath o' life — Heavens and earth, what fools we women be! And when he asked me for his wife, I answered 'yes,' of course, y' see. TRANSCRIPTIONS 193 And then come work, and trouble bit — Not much time for love talk then! We bought a farm and mortgaged it, And worked and slaved like all possessed To lift that tumble grindin' weight. I washed and churned and sewed — An' childurn come, till we had eight As han'some babes as ever growed To walk beside a mother's knee. They helped me bear it all, y' see. It ain't been nothin' else but scrub An' rub and bake and stew The hull, hull time, over stove or tub — No time to rest as men folks do. — I tell yeh, sometimes I sit and think How nice the grave '11 be, jest One nice, sweet, everlastin' rest. don't look scart! I mean Jest what I say. Ain't crazy yet, But its enough to make me so — Of course it ain't no use to fret — Who said it was? It's nacherl, though, But O, if I was only there — In the past, and young once more — An' had the crinkles in my hair — An' arms as round and strong, and side As it was then! — I'd — I'd — I'd do it all over again, like a fool, 1 s'pose! I'd take the pain 194 TRANSCRIPTIONS An' work an' worry, babes and all. I s'pose things go by some big rule Of God's own book, but my oP brain Can't fix 'um up, so I'll just wait An' do my duty when it's clear, An' trust to Him to make it straight. Goodness! noon is almost here, And there the men come through the gate! REMARKS From Prairie Songs, by Hamlin Garland, pp. 142-144. The volume was published in 1893, and the poem represents a rustic dialect of the Middle West, specifically Iowa, as spoken by the pioneer settlers. It has now passed out of existence, except for sporadic survivals in country districts which have been only slightly affected by the leveling influences of public school instruction. In this and the following dialect passages, the author's method has been to transcribe as dialectal only what it seems to have been the intention of the original writers of the passages to indicate by means of spelling as dialectal. Otherwise the passages have been transcribed in familiar colloquial style, appropriate to the general tone of the writings, but not necessarily peculiar to any particular dialect. It should be remembered that writers of dialect literature seldom endeavor to indicate dialect features either exhaustively or systematically. Mr. Garland has made no attempt to indicate different kinds of r in this poem, but r before consonants and finally is usually [rj in Iowa speech, both dialect and cultivated, or even at times back r, see § 44. XIV 'jaenki spiit$ naeu iz So 'winta av 'aeua 'diskan'tent med 'glonos 'sAma bai Sis sAn a joik, n oil So 'klaeudz Sot laeuod o'pAn aeua haeus in So di:p 'bAzam a Si 'oi$in 'berid; TRANSCRIPTIONS 195 5 nseu 89 seua brseuz bseund iS vik'tonas rit(5z; aeua 'brjuizid aimz hAij Ap fa 'moni'mens; seua stain a'laramz 't$8end3d ta'meri 'miitrrjz, seua 'drefl 'mait$iz ta da'laifl 'mersaz. r grim-Vizid3d wo: he0 'smjuiSd hiz 'rirjkld frAnt, io n nseu, in'stid a 'mseuntin 'beabid stiidz ta frait <5a soulz a 'fAifl 'edva'seriz, hi 'keipaz 'nimli in a 'leidiz 'tjsemba, ta t5a la'sivias 'pliizirj av a lu:t. Yankee Speech Neow is the winta uv eour discontent Med glorious summa by this sun o' Yock, An' all the cleouds thet leowered upun eour heouse In the deep buzzum o' the oshin buried; Neow air eour breows beound 'ith victorious wreaths; Eour breused arms hung up fer monimunce; Eour starn alarums changed to merry meetins, Eour dreffle marches to delighfle masures. Grim-visaged war heth smeuthed his wrinkled front, An' neow, instid o' mountin' barebid steeds To fright the souls o' ferfle edverseries, He capers nimly in a lady's chamber, To the lascivious pleasin' uv a loot. Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by this sun of York, And all the clouds that lour'd upon our house In the deep bosom of the ocean buried; Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths; Our bruised arms hung up for monuments; Our stern alarums changed to merry meetings, 196 TRANSCRIPTIONS Our dreadful marches to delightful measures. Grim-visaged war hath smooth' d his wrinkled front, And now, instead of mounting barbed steeds To fright the souls of fearful adversaries, He capers nimbly in a lady's chamber, To the lascivious pleasing of a lute. REMARKS In the introduction to the First Series of the Biglow Papers, Lowell gave a version of the opening lines of Richard III, using the ordinary spelling to indicate as exactly as he could the pronun- ciation of the rustic Yankee of his day. Lowell's spelling is given here for the sake of comparison with the phonetic transcription of it which precedes it. The passage represents dialect New England speech of the middle of the last century, but many of the charac- teristics indicated by Lowell still survive. The author has profited by a phonetic transcription of the passage made by Professor Grandgent, in From Franklin to Lowell, A Century of New England Pronunciation, Publications of the Modern Language Association, Vol. VII (New Series), p. 239 (1899). After having given a description of New England dialect speech, Lowell adds, "To the dish thus seasoned, add a drawl ad libitum, 71 but he does not try to represent the drawl. 1. 1. [nseu]. As the first element in the diphthong, [se] for [a] is still heard in New England and in certain regions of the South. 1. 3. [a'pAn]. Still current dialectally. 1. 6. [nbrjuizid]. See also ['sm]u:tSd], 1. 9. Grandgent, in the article cited above, pp. 224-226, notes a confusion in the use of [u] and [ju] in New England speech which was at its height about 1820 and which affected both polite and dialect speech. As a result a pronunciation [ju] was often transferred to words where it was organically difficult to pronounce, as in ['brjuizid] or where it did not historically belong, as in ['smjuiftd]. 1. 7. [sta:n]. The pronunciation of e followed by r and a con- sonant as [a:], which still persists in England, e.g., in clerk [kla:k], Derby ['daibij, etc., is nowhere current in cultivated American speech and has almost if not completely disappeared from the dia- TRANSCRIPTIONS 197 Iects. New England words which are pronounced with [a:] are written with a, as in Marcy from older Mercy, darn, the expletive, from older dern (which of course also persists as [dam, dAin]), tarnal probably from eternal. XV 'auti and 'khidi "'mcisii aet? ,, ri'pitad Sa 'mesmd3aj boi . . . Men hi 2eskt "'mcjsii set?" hi pra'naunst it "'iieisn," and in oil hiz 'sAbsikwant toik, hi geiv Sa "s" a soft and 'hisirj saund wel pra'lorjd, tu Sa 'evadant in^oimant 5 av 'auti and (5a maild 'wAndajmant av 'milai. "mcjz hu: set?" di'msendad 'auti, a'daptir) a fraun and a hau$ 'msenaj. "wai, ta 'fou-^aid nabz dset sent mi aut on ta saut said." io "ai ju Sa seim 'litl boi? 'wudnt Sset frost ja, Sou, 'milai? Sis az 'litl 'brait- x aiz Sat tuk Sa noit faj hoil." "oi, Mats 'istn ja?" aeskt Sa boi, 'giviq a 'wou^laik kail ta Sa 'ko.ina.iz av hiz mau0. "oiu, aiu! 'lisn ta Sset. ail 'bet$aj Sa 'tAfast boi is Sat 'evaj 'hsepnd. 'Mat$u bin 'duan oil del, 'pleian 'maublz faj kiips aj 'stsendn in frAnt a waii a Sem daim mju'ziamz?" "o:, sen; ja tink jaj flai. dset JAn 'felai sent mi oil ta wei ta 'foiti-Hrii 'namti-Hrii 'kselamet 'aevnui. ai 20 'kudnt git beek no- 'sunai." "hu waz it Sa noit waz tui?" "hiz rseg, a ges." "o:u! hiz raeg! Va^a 0irjk a Saet, 'milai? emt Sis boi a bajd! kn ja biit im? kn ja tai nn? boi, 25 jui oil rait." "so- aj ju — dset iz, frAm jai hed Ap." 198 TRANSCRIPTIONS "n tSa fiit daun, hA? juj waii a t5em "hAli t$ii, 't$ani' boiz, 'eint$a? jaj so tAf 6a- 'kudnt 'dentja wi6 n seks." 30 "iz dset sioiu?" aeskt <5a bai, wi6 a 'fraitfal is'keip av "s," and a 'gleaj sAt$ az hi mAst av juizd ta 'ten v fai oil 6a 'smoilaj boiz set 6a 'kail x ste-$an. "if ai waz az tAf az ju cu, aid bi a'freid a mai'self, on 6a 'leval." 35 "ja tirjk jaj 'haevn spojt wit mi, 'do-nt$a? ai si in a lat a dem 'fAni mAgz ba'fou dis." "wai, 'kbidi, ai 'wudnt trai ta dsoij ja. ai 0irjk jaj a nais, kliin boi. 'e:nt$a 'gana teik o:f jaj gLvvz?" 'milaj limd baek in hiz t$eu and hauld wi6 'lseftaj. 40 "ai beg jaj 'paudn/ kloidi," kan'tinjud 'aiiti. "ai 0oit 6em waz glAvz ja haed on. d3ii, iz 6em jaj mits? jaj a bru'net, 'eint$a?" 6a 'mesmd3aj boi hsed bin 'sAm\viat 'teikn a'bsek bai 61 a'lu3an tu hiz "gLvvz," bat hi n'kAvajd and sed, 45 stil 'geizirj set auti: "siexi, jaj 'haevn oil kaindz a fAn wit mi, 'e:nt$a? wel, 'wat$u — 'eni N tin ju sei kAts no ais wit mil." Artie and Claudie "Where's he at?" repeated the messenger boy . . . When he asked "Where's he at?" he pronounced it "where 'ce," and in all his subsequent talk he gave the "s" a soft and hissing sound well prolonged, to the evident enjoyment of Artie and the mild wonder- ment of Miller. "Where's who at?" demanded Artie, adopting a frown and a harsh manner. "W'y, t'e four-eyed nobs dat sent me out on t'e Sout' Side." TRANSCRIPTIONS 199 "Are you the same little boy? Wouldn't that frost you, though, Miller? This is little Bright-eyes that took the note for Hall." "Aw, what's eatin' you?" asked the boy, giving a warlike curl to the corner of his mouth. "Oh, ow! listen to that. Ill bet you're the toughest boy that ever happened. What you been doin' all day — playin' marbles for keeps or standin' in front o' one o' them dime museeums?" "Aw, say; you t'ink you're fly. Dat young feller sent me all t'e way to forty-t'ree ninety-t'ree Calla- met av'noo. I couldn't get back no sooner." "Who was it the note was to?" "His rag, I guess." "Oh— h— h— h! His rag! What do you think o' that, Miller? Ain't this boy a bird! Can you beat him? Can you tie him? Boy, you're all right." "So are you — dat is, from y'r head up." "An' the feet down, huh? You're one o' them 'Hully chee, Chonny,' boys, ain't you? You're so tough they couldn't dent you with an axe." "Is dat so — o — o — o?" asked the boy, with a fright- ful escape of "s" and a glare such as he must have used to terrify all the smaller boys at the call station. "If I was as tough as you are I'd be afraid o' my- self, on the level." "You t'ink you're havin' sport wit' me, don't you? I seen a lot o' dem funny mugs before dis." "W'y, Claudie, I wouldn't try to josh you. I think you're a nice, clean boy. Ain't you goin' to take off your gloves?" Miller leaned back in his chair and howled with laughter. 200 TRANSCRIPTIONS "I beg y'r pardon, Claudie," continued Artie. "I thought them was gloves you had on. Gee, is them your mits? You're a brunette, ain't you?" The messenger boy had been somewhat taken aback by the allusion to his " gloves," but he recovered and said, still gazing at Artie: "S — s — ay, you're havin' all kinds o' fun wit' me, ain't you? Well, w'at you — anyt'ing you say cuts no ice wit' me." REMARKS From Artie, A Story of the Streets and Town, by George Ade, Chicago, 1897. Artie exemplifies a dialect of Chicago as spoken by a free and easy office clerk, the messenger boy a somewhat lower dialect of the streets. The dialect is of course only partially indi- cated by the author's spellings. In 1. 1, the author records a voice- less [m] in where, and this has been allowed to stand, and so also in what, 1. 12, though these are probably inadvertencies, the boy's dialect apparently having only [w]. For [aeskt], 1. 2, see above, § 346. XVI 't$mn 'faedn brj taim sins jo sim mi? sajt. 'do*nt$a noi da 'ri:zn? Mai, ai waz 'mserid. 'Suaj. ai no:d jad dai Men ai toil ja. jes, it waz do r dAt$as; ai ges jo no:d dset. wel, 'lemi tel jo. it woz do 'kojkanast 'wedn dai S 'evaj woz, wid sAt$ mAgz az mil n da 'dAt$as 'duan da 'prinsipl iVent a da 'iivnan. sei, ai 'nevaj to:t daj waz so mAt$ 'flim-^flsem baut 'getn 'redi ta bi 'maerid. ai 'niaj gat da 'rsetlz wAnst, n waz 'gonn ta meik da grsen sniik; bat ai tuk a breis, it ko:z ai waz 'tinkn dset if ai snuik, dset it wud 'kwiai mis 'fseniz geim, n ai 'wudnt 'kwiai mis 'faeniz geim if ai hsed ta set Ap a 'fjunaral stid a a 'wedn. wel, da fajst feik wot 'pseralaizd mil waz da 'dAt$as TKANSCRIPTIONS 201 'se-on doi mAst bi: wot $i: koild o r maend3 'kantrsekt. 15 sei, it woz wojs dan 'getn aut o d-3e:l on bed. ai ges wi:z 'wudnt bi 'mserid jet, if it woznt foi 'mistoj 'baitn, wots mis 'fseniz 'fell, i: n mis 'fseni, de- woz bo:t 'nioi 'kreizi baut 'auoi 'wedn, n woz 'fAsin baut it mo: a don de- iz baut doj oun. 20 wel, 'mistoj 'boatn, i: sent foj mi, n telz mi to kAm to iz r t$e:mb9jz. i: sez to mi:, sez ii, 'tjeimz/ 1 sez, 'kAm dis 'iivnon to mi 'tSeimbojz. ai koilz mi 'pai.it- monts mi 't$e:mbojz foj dis 'ke^on 'oinli,' sez i:, 'givn mi do wink, 'koiz dis iz o 'liigol 'maetai, n in 25 do ten 'jioiz aiv bin 'mitod to do bail,' sez ii, 'dis iz do foist taim ai 'evoj hsed o ke:s.' Chimmie Fadden Long time since ye seen me? Cert. Don't ye know de reason? Why, I was married. Sure. I knowed ye'd die when I tole ye. Yes, it was de Duchess; I guess ye knowed dat. Well, lemme tell ye. It was de corkin'est weddin' dere ever was, wid such mugs as me an' de Duchess doin' de principal event er de evenin'. Say, I never taut dere was so much flim-flam 'bout gettin' ready to be married. I near got de rattles onct, an' was goin' t' make de gran' sneak; but I took er brace, 'cause I was tinkin' dat if I snook, dat it would queer Miss Fannie's game, an' I wouldn't queer Miss Fannie's game if I had t' set up er funeral 'stid er a weddin'. Well, de first fake wot paralyzed me was de Duchess sayin' dere must be wot she called er marriage con- tract. Say, it was worse dan gettin' outter jail on bail. I guess wese wouldn't be married yet if it wasn't 202 TRANSCRIPTIONS fer Mr. Burton, wot's Miss Fannie's felly. 'E an' Miss Fannie, dey was bote near crazy 'bout our weddin', an' was fussin' 'bout it more dan dey is 'bout dere own. Well, Mr. Burton, 'e sent fer me an' tells me t' come t' 'is chambers. 'E says t' me, says 'e, 'Chames/ 'e says, 'come dis evenin' t' me chambers. I calls me 'partments me chambers fer dis 'casion only,' says 'e, givin' me de wink, ' 'cause dis is er legal matter, an' in de ten years I've been 'mitted t' de bar,' says 'e, 'dis is de first time I ever had er case.' REMARKS This passage, from the Chimmie Fadden stories of Mr. E. W. Townsend, represents a Bowery dialect of New York City. The author of the stories made greater effort than is usual with writers of dialect stories to record a considerable body of detail derived from direct observation. The student will see, however, that even here the dialect is sometimes only suggested, e.g., 1. 9 ['go:in ta me:k] in popular speech like this would be ['gona me:k] or ['gAna me:k], and [hsed to], 1. 12, would more likely be ['haeta], etc. It is suggested that students make a new transcription of the passage not merely on the basis of Mr. Townsend's text but taking account of features of illiterate dialect speech which Mr. Townsend has not recorded. Some of the respects in which this dialect differs from ordinary colloquial English are (a) the replacing of [0] and [t5] by [t] and [d] respectively; (6) [d3] becoming [t$]; (c) loss of final dentals, as in [tod], 1. 3, [green], 1. 9; final [n] for [rj] in the ending -ing, though this is very general in all colloquial speech; [w] for [/&]. Writings like t' come for to come, t' me for to me, etc., are tran- scribed as [ta kAm], [ta mi], etc., though in this dialect there is practically no vowel after [tj in these phrases, and it might be omitted. The occasional spelling er, for example, dis is er legal matter, is probably intended to indicate only [a]. The spelling why, 1. 2, is probably an inadvertence for dialect [wai]. A feature of this dialect which is not recorded either in the conventional spelling of the passage or the phonetic transcription is the very strongly aspirated character of stop consonants, see above, § 13. TRANSCRIPTIONS 203 XVII Sa vois 'oil tSa 'haus woz 'stil ; far ai biliiv oil, iksept 'smd3on ond mai'self, wo 'nau n'taiod to 'rest. 60 'wAn 'kaendl woz 'dann 'aut; So 'rum woz 'ful ov 'mumlait. mai 'hait biit 'faist ond '0ik; ai 'ho id its '0rob. 'sAdnli it 5 'stud 'stil tu on iniks'presibl 'fiilin Sot 0'rild it '0rui ond 'paist ot 'wAns to mai 'hed ond iks'tremitiz. So fiilirj woz 'not laik on I'lektnk '$ok, bot it woz 'kwait oz '$aip, oz 'stremd5, oz 'staitlirj; it 'sektid on mai 'sensiz oz if Seor Atmoust sek'tivrti hrSo'tui hod biin 10 bot 'toipo, from wit§ (or Mit$) Sei wo 'nau 'sAmond ond 'foist tu 'weik. Sei 'rouz iks'pektont; 'ai ond '10 'weitid wail (or A\ail) So 'fle$ 'kwivod on mai 'bounz. "'wot (or Mot) ov (or hov) jui 'hoid? wot (or Mot) d (or do) jui 'sii?" aiskt 'sind3on. ai 'soi 'nA<5irj, bot 15 ai 'hoid 'vois 'sAmweo (or 'sAnmeo) krai — "'d3em, 'd38in, 'dsein!" — 'nASin 'moi. "'ou 'god! 'wot (or 'Mot) iz it?" ai 'gaispt. ai 'mait ov (or hov) sed, "'weor (or 'Meor) iz it?" for it 'did not siim in So 'rum, noir in So 'haus, noir 20 in So 'gaidn; it 'did not kAm aut ov Si 'eo, noi from Ando Si 'o;0, noi from ouvo'hed. ai od (or hod) 'hoid it — 'weo (or r M8o), 01 'wens (or 'Mens), for 'evo (or 'evor) im'posibl to 'nou! ond it woz So vois ov o 'hjui- mon 'binn — 'noun, '1a vd, 'wel n'membod 'vois — 25 'Saet ov 'edwod 'feofaeks 'rotjisto; ond it spouk in 'pern ond 'wou, 'waildli, 'ionli, 'oid3ontli. "'ai om 'kAmin!" ai kraid, "'weit fo mil! 'ou, ai wil 'kAm!" ai 'flui to So 'doi, ond 'lukt into So 'pae- sid5; it woz 'daik. ai 'raen 'aut into So 'gaidn; it woz 30 'void. 204 TRANSCRIPTIONS "'wear (or War) 'ai ju:?" ai iks'kleimd. *5a 'hilz bi'jond 'mcn$ 'glen 'sent Si 'ainsa 'feintli bsek, "'wear (or 'Aiear) 'ai ju:?" ai 'lisnd. (5a 'wind 'said 'lou in "5a 'faiz; 'oil waz 'mualand, 'lounlinis and 35 'midnait hA$. The Voice All the house was still; for I believe all, except St. John and myself, were now retired to rest. The one candle was dying out; the room was full of moonlight. My heart beat fast and thick; I heard its throb. Sud- denly it stood still to an inexpressible feeling that thrilled it through, and passed at once to my head and extremities. The feeling was not like an electric shock, but it was quite as sharp, as strange, as start- ling; it acted on my senses as if their utmost activity hitherto had been but torper, from which they were now summoned and forced to wake. They rose ex- pectant; eye and ear waited while the flesh quivered on my bones. "What have you heard? What do you see?" asked St. John. I saw nothing, but I heard a voice some- where cry — "Jane! Jane! Jane!" — nothing more. "O God! what is it?" I gasped. I might have said, "Where is it?" for it did not seem in the room, nor in the house, nor in the garden; it did not come out of the air, nor from under the earth, nor from overhead. I had heard it — where, or whence, for ever impossible to know! And it was the voice of a human being — a known, loved, well- remembered voice — that of Edward Fairfax Roches* TRANSCRIPTIONS 205 ter; and it spoke in pain and woe, wildly, eerily, urgently. "I am coming!" I cried. "Wait for me! Oh, I will come! " I flew to the door and looked into the passage; it was dark. I ran out into the garden; it was void. " Where are you?" I exclaimed. The hills beyond Marsh Glen sent the answer faintly back, " Where are you?" I listened. The wind sighed low in the firs; all was moorland loneliness and midnight hush. REMARKS This passage is adapted from Jones, Pronunciation of English, pp. 73-74. It is supposed to be standard British pronunciation in a careful conversational style. The passage is from Jane Eyre, Chapter XXXV. The only changes that have been made in Mr. Jones's notation have been the use of [i] for his [i], [u] for his [u], and [c] for his [el to indicate respectively the slack qualities of the several sounds as short vowels. Mr. Jones regularly uses the sym- bol [e] for the vowel of rest, flesh, etc., and [el, he says, occurs in standard pronunciation only in the diphthong [eaj, as in there, their [Seal, etc. This latter sound is slightly lower (or in Mr. Jones's terminology, more open) than his [e], as in rest, set, etc. Since in this volume the same symbol, [c], has been used for the vowel of set and the vowel of their, the distinction made by Mr. Jones is not recorded in the above transcription. With this excep- tion, the author thinks he has given a faithful reproduction of Mr. Jones's pronunciation. The accents are those given by Mr. Jones. 1. 1. [haus]. Mr. Jones records the diphthong regularly in this transcription as [aul and this accords with American pronuncia- tion; but in Michaelis- Jones, A Phonetic Dictionary, the diphthong is given as [auj. [far]. The [t] here is intervocalic in context. 1. 4. [ha:d]. The sound [a:] is represented in our alphabet by [a:], but it seemed best to retain Mr. Jones's symbol for the sound, which he describes as half -open (that is, half-low), mixed (meaning the middle portions of the tongue), tense, unrounded. 206 TKANSCRIPTIONS 1. 8. [stremd3]. In American pronunciation the vowel would be [ei] or [e:]. 1. 9. [Atmoust]. The first element of the diphthong is de- scribed by Mr. Jones as half-close (i.e., half-high), back, slack, rounded, and it therefore corresponds pretty exactly to [o] as this symbol is used in the present book. But it did not seem advisable to change it to [o], for Mr. Jones uses this symbol also, for a sound which he describes as open (i.e., low), back, slack, with slight lip rounding. The difference between his [o] and his [o] cannot be great, but in any case the first element of his [ou] must not be taken as meaning the sound represented in our alphabet by [o], but a sound nearer to [o]. XVIII 'sanit (a) mAt$ hsev ai trsevald in t5a relmz av gould, and mem gudli steits and kirjdamz si in; round mem westan ctilandz hsev ai biin, A\it$ baidz in fiialti tu apolo hould. S oift av wAn waid ekspsens hsed ai bim tould Sat diip-braud hoAma mild az hiz dimiin; jet did ai neva briicS its pjua siriin til ai hAid t$sepman spiik aut laud and bould: San felt ai laik sAm wot$ar av Sa skaiz io A\en a njui plsenit swimz intu hiz ken; o leak staut koitez Men witS iigal aiz hi i stseid at 8a pasifik — and oil hiz men lukt at i:t$ Afta wiS a waild samaiz, sealant apan a piik in dairien. (b) 1. 1. goild. 1. 4. hoild. 1. 2. steits. 1. 5. ikspsens, bin, toild. TRANSCRIPTIONS 207 1. 6. hoimo. 1. 7. pjuia. 1. 3. west9in. 1. 4. baudz. 1. 6. hoimaj. 1. 7. pjuu. (c) 1. 8. boild. 1. 14. deinen. 1. 8. hajd. 1. 11. oj, koutez. 1. 12. staeud. 1. 13. ao9j, S9jmaiz. Sonnet Much have I traveled in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen; Round many western islands have I been, Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-browed Homer ruled as his demesne; Yet did I never breathe its pure serene Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold: Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims into his ken; Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes He stared at the Pacific — and all his men Looked at each other in a wild surmise, Silent upon a peak in Darien. REMARKS This sonnet, by Keats, is transcribed here as given in a Report of a Joint Committee representing the National Educational Associa- tion, the American Philological Association, and the Modern Lan- guage Association of America, on the Subject of a Phonetic English Alphabet, New York, 1904. The first version gives the sonnet "as read by an Englishman — a graduate of Oxford — whose utterance may be taken as fairly representing that of educated Londoners" 208 TRANSCRIPTIONS (p. 38). The set of variant readings under (6) are those differences from the pronunciations of (a) which occurred in the reading of the same sonnet by "a New Englander — a member of the Harvard faculty." The readings under (c) are those differences from (6) which occurred in the reading of the sonnet by a a Michigan man some time resident in New York." 1. 1 [ai]. In the phonetic alphabet used in the above report, the diphthong known as 'long i/ is regularly transcribed with [a] as its first element. This transcription is retained in the present passage, though the author's observation is that the vowel is ordi- narily [a]. [gould]. Note the diphthongal character of long vowels in the Englishman's pronunciation as compared with that of (b) and (c). 1. 6. [hoAma]. The second element of the diphthong as recorded here is the vowel of much, one, etc. 1. 12. [staeid]. The Report, p. 21, recognizes the similarity of the vowel in this word to [e:]. Might not this word have been tran- scribed ['steiad]? 1. 14. [apan]. So recorded in all three pronunciations, which means that it was pronounced by all three readers without stress. But it might be pronounced [a'pon]. XIX wmd send saii (a) Southern British t5a noi0 wind and t5a sAn wai dis pjuitrrj wit$ waz (5a 'strongs, wen a 'trsevla keim a'lorj rsept in a woim klouk. Sei a'griid (Sat (5a waii hui fAist meid 6a 'trsevla teik o:f (h)iz klouk §ud bi kan'sidad 'strorjga San (5i 'AtSa. "Sen t5a no:0 wind blu: wi(5 oil hiz mait, bat t5a mo i hi j blu i, (5a moi 'klousli did (5a 'trsevla fould (h)iz klouk a'raund him; and at laist fta noi0 wind geiv Ap Si a'tem(p)t. "Sen t5a SAn $on aut 'woimli, and 1'mii- TRANSCRIPTIONS 209 djatli Sa 'trsevla tuk oif (h)iz klouk; and sou Sa noi0 10 wind waz a'blaid3d ta kan'fes Sat Sa SAn waz Sa 'strorjgarav Sa tui. (&) Northern British Sa noj0 wind and Sa SAn wei dis'pjuitin Mit$ waz Sa strorjgai, Men a 'travlai keim a'lorj rapt in a woim kloik. Sei a'griid Sat SawAn hu: faist me id Sa 'trav- lai teik of hiz kloik $ud bi kon'sidaid 'strongaj San S Si 'ASaj. Sen Sa noi0 wind blui wi0 oil hiz mait, bAt Sa mo: j hi: blui, Sa mou 'kloisli did Sa 'travlai foild hiz kloik a'raund him; and at last Sa noi0 wind geiv Ap Si atem(p)t. Sen Sa SAn $on aut 'woirmli, and I'miidjatli Sa 'travlai tuk of hiz kloik; and soi Sa noi0 10 wind waz o'blaid3d tu kon'fes Sat Sa SAn waz Sa 'strorjgai av Sa tui. (c) American English Sa noi0 wind an Sa SAn waj dis'pjutm az ta Mit$ waz Sa 'strain gist, Men a 'tisevalai keim a'lom, jsept in a wojm klouk. Se a'gjiid Sat Sa wAn hu me id Sa 'tiaevlai teik of iz kout fajst $ad bi kan'sidoid 'stroingai 5 San Sa 'aSsj. Sen Sa noi0 wind bljui wiS ol iz mait; bat Sa mou i bljui, Sa mou 'klousli Sa 'tiaevlai 'fouldid iz klouk a'laund im ; and at lsest Sa no 10 wind geiv Ap Si a'tempt. Sen Sa SAn Join aut 'woimli (or ba'gsen ta Jam aut hat), and in a fju 'moimants Sa 'tisevloi io tuk of iz klouk. so Sa noi0 wind waz a'blaid3d ta kan'fes Sat Sa SAn waz Sa 'stroingai av Sa tui. 210 TRANSCRIPTIONS Wind and Sun The North Wind and the Sun were disputing which was the stronger, when a traveller came along wrapped in a warm cloak. They agreed that the one who first made the traveller take off his cloak should be considered stronger than the other. Then the North Wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more closely did the traveller fold his cloak around him; and at last the North Wind gave up the attempt. Then the Sun shone out warmly, and im- mediately the traveller took off his cloak; and so the North Wind was obliged to confess that the Sun was the stronger of the two. REMARKS These three versions of the fable of the Sun and Wind are taken from a pamphlet, The Principles of the International Phonetic As- sociation, pp. 20-22, published as a supplement to the Maitre Pho- nitique, Sept.-Oct., 1912. They are supposed to represent "the average pronunciation of educated persons in each case," the first Southern English in England, the second Northern English in England, the third American English "for New York State and the central portion of the United States." They are presented here for comparative study, the most interesting conclusion from such study probably being the close similarity to be observed between American English and British Northern English. The version in American English is in some respects a travesty. It is throughout on a more colloquial level than the other two versions, but besides is needlessly changed in other details. In the first sentence, "as to which was the strongest" is dialectal American usage, not that of "educated persons." Similar uncalled-for changes are "began to shine out hot" for "shone out warmly," and "in a few moments" for "im- mediately." The phonetic details of the version of American Eng- lish are also open to criticism in some respects. The sound of r is not the same in all positions; the vowel of the before other would TKANSCRIPTIONS 211 not be [9]; blew would be [blu:], not [bljui]; the diphthong in might is [mait], not [mait]; the vowel of strongest, stronger is short, not long; and the diphthongal character of [e:] and [o:] is less marked and general than the transcription would lead one to suppose. The transcriptions also make a distinction between British and American use in the vowel of wind, which, etc., which is supposed to be slightly lower in American than in British use, being high slack in British pronunciation and between high slack and high-mid slack in American usage. The reality of this distinc- tion seems very doubtful, and the author has disregarded it in his versions of the transcriptions. For the vowel of words like bird, hurt, when the r is not pronounced, the symbol [a:] has been sub- stituted for [a:]. Note the Northern British use of [a] where Southern British and American have [ae]. INDEX OF WORDS The numbers refer to sections a 146 abject 89 about 20, 66, 109, 146 abrasion 333 absent 87 absolutely 85, 192 abstract 87 abuse 312 abusive 321 accept 308 access 87 acclimate 91 account 263 accurate 234 accuse 263, 318 acknowledge 264 acorn 90 acoustic 194 across 343 action 338 actual 327, 338 acute 232 adamantine 166 add 83 added 52, 173 address 87 admirable 93 adobe 174 adult 89 adverse 89 advertisement 96 advice 312 advise 312 aeroplane 144 aerostat 144 iEschylus 163 iEsculapius 163 ^Esop 163 aesthetic 163 again 134, 135 against 134, 135 agile 212 ague 234 Alabama 121 Albany 174 albumen 92 all 45, 185 allege 329 allies 87 alloy 87 ally 87 almond 115, 274 alms 115, 274 aloof 193 Altamaha 188 altruistic 192 always 134, 146 amateur 327 ambergris 315 amenable 162 amend 109 amenity 162 America 148 American 201 anapaest 163 ancient 327 angel 246 anger 249 angina 166 angle 249 angry 249 annex 87 annoy 75 answer 369 ant 126, 284 Anthony 348 anxiety 267 anxious 267, 327 anything 297 aplomb 235 213 214 INDEX appendicitis 166 applicable 93 appreciate 327 appreciation 327 approbation 176 apricot 130 apron 304 aqueduct 344 archaic 131 arctic 265 aren't 112 Argentine 166 argot 337 argue 234 aristocrat 95 Arkansas 325 armistice 92 ashen 327 Asia 327 asked 109, 346 asphalt 130 aspirant 92 associate 327 association 327 assume 327 assumption 300 asthma 354 astute 327 ate 137 athlete 151 athletic 151 attack 99, 343 attention 327 audacious 181 audit 185 auditory 181 Audubon 181 Augean 222 augur 185 aunt 124, 126 aural 185, 190 aurochs 222 authentic 181 author 185 authority 62 automatic 181 autumn 288 autumnal 288 auxiliary 269 avoirdupois 315, 326 awe 63, 80 awful 80 ax-handle 86 axiom 270, 327 axiomatic 270 ay 134 aye 134 azure 333 baby 21 backed 239 Baconian 131 bad 128 bade 130 baize 318 baked 239 bakery 131 balk 273 Balkan 273 balky 273 ballet 337 balm 115, 274 banal 130 band-box 243 bank 289 banquet 293 Banquo 293 barge 246 basket 52 bas-relief 120 bath 128, 352 bathe 351 baths 31, 124, 352 battle 47 bawl 371 bay-berry 131 be 5 bead 80 bean 161 bear 69 beat 80 beatific 51 Beaulieu 107 beauteous 327 beauty 229 beds 35 beef-steak 86 been 171 INDEX 215 beet 21, 80 befogged 15 beg 139 begin 52, 172, 173 belated 240 belch 341 Belvoir 107 bench 341 bend 135 Bennett 108 best 308 better 14, 206 between 365 bib 12, 21 bilge 246 bird 154, 155 Birmingham 97, 257 Birrell 108 bison 210 Bithell 108 bitter 240 black 263 blackguard 268 blather- 114 blouse 226 blue 20 boat 74 boil 70, 75, 211, 228 Bologna 285 bomb 111, 235 bombard 204 bombast 204 book 60, 193 booklet 66 book-shelf 86 boor 196, 197 boot 192, 193 borough 199, 220 Boswell 111 both 180, 349 bother 111, 114 bough 222 bought 122, 187 Boulogne 285 bounteous 327 bouquet 194 Bourchier 107 bourgeois 315 Bourgogne 285 bowie-knife 179 bowl 74, 224, 371 boy 75 Bradbury 97 branch 124, 127, 128 brand-new 243 bran-new 243 breath 30, 135, 352 breathe 351 breaths 352 breeches 171 breeching 171 bridge 329 bringer 249 Broadway 86 Bronx 289 brooch 194 broom 193 broth 111 Brough 357 brown 371 bruit 192 brusque 195 Buckingham 257 buffet 337 bulge 246 bull 195 buoy 228 buoyant 228 Burgoyne 285 Burgundy 285 burned 241 Burnett 108 burnt 241 burr 154 burrow 199, 220 burst 303 Bury 136 bury 136, 200, 201 bush 37, 60, 195 business 171 busy 171, 174 but 198 butcher 193 butte 229 butter 64, 206 butter-knife 86 buxom 308 buy 72 216 INDEX buzz 198 by 72 Byron 153 cab 128 cacao 149 Caedman 309 calculate 273 calf 57, 58, 124, 276 Calhoun 105 call 9, 22, 263, 309 calm 115, 274 calmative 274 calves 124 camouflage 334 Campagna 285 camphor 299 can 309 canon 285 cant 126 can't 124, 128 capillary 96 car 42, 119 caret 129 carriage 129 carrier 259 carry 129, 306 cart 302 carter 123 cartridge 307 case 318 cases 318 casual 333 cats 319 caught 63, 122, 187, 302 caulk 273 ceiling 308 celibacy 96 cell 33, 309 Celt 309 Celtic 309 cement 88 cemetery 98 cereal 136, 167 Ceres 136 certain 206 chagrin 327 chaise 327 chalet 327, 337 chalk 273, 305 chalk-line 185 cham 263 chamois 327 champagne 285, 327 Champlain 327 chandelier 327 chaotic 131 charade 327 Charlevoix 327 Charlotte 327 chary 55, 133, 141 chassis 327 chasten 340 Chatauqua 327 chateau 177 Chatham 257 Chattanooga 327 chauffeur 327 chauvinism 327 Cheboygan 327 chef 327 chemise 327 chemist 137, 263 Chenango 327 chequer 369 Cherokee 327 cheroot 327 chest 139 chestnut 340 cheval 327 chevalier 327 Cheyenne 327 chic 327 Chicago 327 chicanery 327 chicken 295 Chicopee 327 chiffon 327 chiffonier 327 Chillicothe 327 chimney 287 chin 8 Chinese 324 chip 37 Chippewa 327 chivalry 327 chocolate 110 Choctaw 188 INDEX 217 choir 27, 367 Christian 327 church 49, 65 cinch 308, 309 Cincinnati 174 cincture 308 circle 308 cite 72 citron 309 city 52, 175 clapboard 298 Clara 129 claret 129 Clark(e) 116, 117 Claverhouse 105 cleanly 138 clerk 67, 117 climb 235, 236 climber 236 climbing 236 clique 162 close 312, 343 closure 333 clothe 351 clothes 355 Coburn 105 Cockburn 105 cocoa 13, 149 coco-nut 149 coffee 111 cognac 285 coign 75 coin 75 coincidence 75 coke 309 college 173 collier 259 colonel 278 color 42 Colorado 121 Colquhoun 105 column 261 comb 235 combat 203 combatant 92 combative 92 combine 87 come 198 comfortable 307 commissure 327 companion 259 company 203 comparison 322 compass 203 compensate 91 complacent 53 completely 51 compilable 93 comptroller 281 concave 292 conceit 309 concentrate 91 conch 289 conclave 292 conclusive 321 concord 292 concourse 292 concrete 292 concubine 292 condemn 288 condemning 288 condign 248, 284 confession 327 confiscate 91 Conger 291 Congo 291 congregate 291 congregational 291 congress 291 congressional 291 Congreve 291 congruous 291 congruity 291 conjure 202 Connecticut 265 connotative 176 conquer 293, 369 conqueror 293 conquest 293, 365 conscience 327 conscious 327 constable 202 consular 327 consummate 91 contact 344 i contemplate 91 contemplative 95 convene 161 218 INDEX convention 327 convict 265 cook 309 cool 192 coop 193 Cooper 193 cord 42 cordial 333 corn 44, 189 CorneU 108 coroner 111 corp 298 corps 298 corpse 298 corpuscle zrt)6 corpuscule 266 corpuscular 266 corrosive 321 cortege 334 cost 111 cot 302 cotillion 262 cotillon 262 cough 111, 357 coughed 336 could 279 count 223 couple 198 coupon 232 courage 173, 199 court 302 courteous 157, 327 courtezan 157 courtier 157 cousin 198 cow 73, 222, 223 Cowan 371 cowardice 214 cows 319 creature 327 creek 162 crept 342 cruel 147 crumb 235 crumble 237 crustaceous 327 Cuba 146 cube 232 cucumber 232 culinary 232 culm 274 cuneiform 232 cunning 198 cup 198, 309 cupboard 86, 238, 298 cupola 149 cur 206, 301 curacao 149 cure 196, 230 curse 65, 303 cushion 195 cut 64 cycle 309 cylinder 52 Cymric 309 Cynewulf 309 czar 326 damage 173 damn 288 damning 288 dance 56, 57, 58, 124, 127, 128 Dane 134 danger 246 Danish 134 dare 140 dart 152 dash 126 data 120 daub 111 daughter 187 daunt 186 day 132 dead 80 deaf 138 deal 147 death 352 deaths 352 debate 173 debt 54, 80, 235 debtor 22 deceive 51 decide 52, 173, 309 decision 38 declamatory 97 deduct 265 deed 161 defensive 321 INDEX 219 deficit 92 deify 51 delighted 85 demonstrate 91 demur 42 deniable 93 dense 54, 312, 341 deny 209 depict 265 depot 337 Derby 117 derision 333 derogatory 97 description 109 desist 172 Des Moines 314 despicable 93 despise 318 device 312 devotional 61 diamond 147 diary 147 diction 338 did 12, 21 differentiation 327 difficulty 95 diffusive 321 dig 13 dignitary 97 dimension 327 dinner 42 diocesan 95 diphtheria 359 diphthong 359 dirigible 170 dirt 65, 67, 69, 206 discursive 321 discussion 327 disgusted 173 disreputable 93 dissoluble 93 dissuade 27 distinct 289 distressed 316 dived 360 dizzy 35, 318 do 5, 20, 21, 192 docile 111 doe 177 dog 62, 63, 111, 182, 305 doing 296 doU 111 done 198 door 191, 197 double 198 doubt 235 dough 13, 177 dough-nut 176 drachm 263 drama 120 draw 185, 370 dreamt 299 dreary 167 dress 40 dressy 83 drown 245 drowse 371 Du Bois 107 dumb 235 dune 192 duteous 327 duty 231 dynasty 210 dysentery 97 eagle 161 economy 161 ecstatic 271 eczema 92 educate 135 e'er 362 eery 167 egg 83, 139 egg-glass 83 eggs 6 Egypt 161 eighth 346 either 164 elect 173 Elizabethan 164 elk 273 elm 151, 282 emaciated 327 emend 109 endure 196 engage 173 engine 332 England 138, 249 220 INDEX English 138, 249 enough 198, 225 enow 225 enthusiasm 231 enunciate 327 enunciation 327 envelope 92 epistle 340 epoch 138 equation 333 era 148, 167 erasure 333 ere 69 erosion 333 err 69 errata 120 essential 327 Esther 348 eternal 161 evasive 321 exact 269 exactly 85 excellent 271 except 173, 308 excess 87, 89 exchequer 263 exhale 258 exhaust 258 exhaustion 339 exhibit 7, 258, 269 exhibition 7, 258, 271 exhort 258 exhume 258 exigency 271 exile 269, 270 exit 271 expansive 321 expediency 161 expedient 333 expire 271 exquisite 85 extra 148 extraordinary 97 extreme 271 face 132 fade 53, 71, 132 fair 55, 140, 143 fairy 55, 141 faith 347 falcon 273 falconry 273 Falkland 273 famish 28 fancy 33, 124 far 301 fare 55 farina 210 farm 44 Farrar 108 farther 302 fashion 56, 99, 126, 128, 327 fast 50, 56, 57, 58 fasten 340 fatally 53, 131 fate 71 father 5, 20, 31, 57, 114, 302 fatigue 21, 162 fault 185 Faust 222 favorite 98, 214 fear 301 feat 80 feather 31, 155 feature 259, 327 febrile 212 February 306 feeble 45 feed 80 feet 80 feign 284 fellow 66, 146, 220 fern 206 ferry 54, 135 fetid 164 fetish 164 fetter 10 few 229, 370 fiery 153 fifth 349 figure 234 filch 341 film 151, 274, 282 finally 146 find 357 fine 216 finger 249 finish 52 INDEX 221 fir 42, 65, 67, 69, 154, 155, 206 fire 153, 160, 301 fired 304 first 303 fish 327 fissure 327 fit 28 fitted 240 fixture 339 flaccid 263 flange 125 flapped 239 flaunt 186 fleece 208 floe 177 floor 191, 197 flour 160 flourish 199 flow 177 flower 160 fog 15 folk 273 folks 180 follow 111 food 193 foot 193 fop 110 for 191, 301 force 189 Fordham 257 fore 191 forehead 111, 253 foreign 111, 200, 248, 284 forest 111 forge 246 formidable 93 fort 302 fortune 327 fought 302 foully 280 four 152, 191, 301 fowl 280 fragile 212 fragmentary 95 France 124 Frasier 333 Frazier 333 freak 208 freeze 208 freight 253 frontier 90 frost 63 froth 347 frothed 239 Frothingham 257 frothy 347 frown 73 fruit 192 fuchsia 327 full 60, 195 fuUy 280 fulsome 195 function 289, 338 fur 42, 65, 67, 69, 154, 155, 206, 301 furl 206 Furness 108 furniture 327 furry 306 fury 196 fusion 229, 333 gage 329 garage 120 garden 123, 295 gas 126, 318 gases 318 gather 114 gaunt 186 gauntlet 186 geese 21 gem 8, 329 Geneva 332 gentile 212 gentle 212 genuine 98, 214 get 135, 139 ghetto 253 ghost 253 ghostly 253 gibber 332 gibbering 332 gibberish 332 gibbet 332 gibe 332 giblets 332 gig 247 gill 332 222 INDEX Gillett 108 gin 332 ginseng 332 girl 156 gist 332 give 364 glacier 134 glass 128 glazier 333 glimpse 300 glory 190 Gloucester 106 gnarled 248 gnash 248 gnat 248 gnaw 248, 284 gnome 248 gnostic 248 gun 248, 370 go 5, 218 go-cart 176 God 63, 111 goes 319 golf 276 gondola 92 gone 247 gong 21 good 60, 193 Goodenough 225 Goodenow 225 goodness 173 Goodnow 225 goose 193 gooseberry 6 got 110 Goth 352 Gothic 111 Goths 352 gout 223 government 288 gown 227, 245 gracious 327 Graham 257 grand 125, 128 grandeur 333 grandmother 243 grass 124 grave 132 gray 207 grease 312 greasy 311 Greenwich 369 grew 370 grey 207 griefs 361 grisly 310 gristle 310 groom 193 group 192 grovel 111 guano 366 guard 233, 366 guava 366 gubernatorial 233 Guelph 366 guess 54, 233, 366 guest 366 guide 366 guile 366 gulch 341 gun 233 gush 233 guy 209 gymnasium 333 gyrate 170 ha 24 hair 140, 142, 143 hairy 141 half 80, 124, 276 halibut 130 halve 80 halves 124 Hampden 300 Hampshire 300 handkerchief 243 handsome 243 hanger 249 Hannah 305 harangue 250 hard 42, 119, 302 hare 140 harp 119 Harry 141 hart 116 Harvard 119 has 56, 125, 126 INDEX 223 hat 24, 50, 56, 82, 128 hath 30, 126 haughty 122 haul 10 haunt 186 have 125, 126 hawk 371 hay 207 hazard 318 haze 132 he 10, 11, 20, 161 hear 167 heard 42, 69, 154, 155 hearing 167 heart 116 hearth 116, 117, 119 heaven 12 heavens 295 heavy 29, 174 heed 24 height 350 heir 254 heiress 254 helm 274, 282 her 67 herald 256 heraldic 256 herb 254 herbaceous 327 herbage 254 herbalist 254 herbarium 254 hero 168 Hertford 117 hew 24 hiccough 357 hid 80 higher 160 hilly 45 him 16 hinge 246 hire 160 hired 304 his 35, 318 hissed 239 history 159, 256 hit 22, 80 hod 302 hog 111 hollow 111 holly 280 holm 274 Holmes 180, 274 holy 280 honest 173, 254 honor 254 hood 80 hoof 193, 361 hoofs 361 hook 80 hoop 193, 373 Hooper 193 hooping-cough 373 hooves 361 horrid 111 horse 189 hosier 333 hospitable 93 hospital 46, 111 host 343 hostile 212 hot 50, 57, 110, 182 hound 227 hour 254 house 70, 73, 222, 318 houses 318 hovel 111 hover 111 howl 224, 371 hue 24 huge 24 Hugh 24 hulk 273 Hulme 274 human 254 humble 237, 254 humor 24, 254 Humphrey 254, 299 Humphries 254, 299 hundred 306 hurry 41, 64, 199 hurt 50, 65, 67 husband 86, 198 hustle 340 hut 50 hymn 288 hymnal 288 hymning 288 224 INDEX iamb 238 Iceland 146 idea 92, 305 ill 46 Illinois 314 illustrate 91 impinge 246 impugn 248 impulsive 321 incisive 321 income 290 incubate 290 incubus 290 indict 265 individual 333 indulge 246 infer 67, 206 Ingalls 249 Inglis 249 initial 172 injunction 267 ink 169 inkwell 84 inquest 290 inquiry 92, 290 insect 344 instead 139 institute 327 institution 327 insular 327 interest 98 interesting 98 invasion 333 inveigle 164 Iowa 148 iron 304 irony 304 Isaiah 134 issue 327 isthmus 348 Italian 175 Jacob 238 Jacobs 238 Jacobson 238 jamb 235 January 306 Japanese 324 jaundice 175 Jenny 137 jenny 137 Jesuit 333 jettison 322 John 111 join 211, 228, 329 jostle 340 jowl 224 judge 38, 49, 329 jug 8 juice 59 juncture 338 jury 196 just 205, 343 Kansas 325 keel 22 keg 139 Kenesaw 188 kept 342 key 5, 161 khan 263 kill 9 killed 241 kiln 286 kind 215, 217 king 263 kitchen 295 knee 264, 284 knell 284 Knickerbocker 107 knight 264 knock 284 knoll 284 know 74, 218, 219, 284, 370 knowledge 261 Koch 107 laggard 56 lair 55, 140 lamb 235 lambkin 235 lamentable 93 lamps 300 land 45 landlady 243 landlord 243 language 27, 250, 365 languid 250, 365 INDEX 225 languish 250 languor 250 large 116, 246, 301 latent 134 lathe 351 lather 114, 125 laud 302 laugh 124, 127, 357 laughs 361 launch 186, 341 laundry 186 Laura 186 lava 120 law 46, 63, 185 lazy 318 lead 54 league 80, 208 leak 80 learned 241 learnt 241 lease 318 leases 318 lecture 338 led 54, 80 ledge 329 leek 80 leg 139 legume 233 leguminous 233 leisure 164, 333 length 272, 294 lengthen 294 lense 135 Leominster 106 lessee 83 let 80 letter 14, 240 lettuce 173, 336 library 306 lichen 210 lie 209 lieutenant 357 life 80 limber 236 limped 300 Lincoln 277 linger 249, 330 lingo 250 lingual 250, 293 linguist 250 linguistic 293 linked 267 liquor 369 listen 340 lit 46 literature 327 live 29, 360 lives 80 lizard 318 load 302 loaf 80, 361 loam 179 loaves 361 locomotive 176 locust 343 log 111, 182 long 62, 63, 183, 289 longer 249 longest 249 longevity 332 longitude 332 looked 15 loose 318 looses 318 lord 302 Louisville 314 Lucy 231 ludicrous 59 lugubrious 233 Luke 231 lumber 236 lunar 192 lung 289 lure 60, 196 luscious 327 Lusitania 192 lute 231 luxury 270, 327 luxurious 269, 270, 333 lye 209 lymph 299 lyric 169 mad dog 83 magic 329 Maher 105 malinger 330 Maltese 324 226 INDEX manage 173 mansion 327 manufactory 327 manufacture 327, 338 margarine 331 Marjoribanks 105 marred 116, 119 marrv 129 Martha 148 Mary 55, 133, 141 Mather 114 mattock 83 mature 327 may 48 meadow 135 Meagher 105 medial 333 medicine 54 medium 333 Meeker 105 memoir 368 menage 334 meningitis 166 mention 327 mercy 67 merit 135 merry 129, 201 mewl 371 Michigan 327 middle 47 mignonette 285 Millard 108 million 45 milk 152, 273 mince 341 mine 215 minute 173 minx 289 miracle 170, 201 mirage 120, 334 mirror 170 miry 153 misery 318 miss 308 missed 336 misses 320 mission 37, 169, 327 Missouri 174, 313, 318 mistletoe 310 mistress 308 mixture 339 mnemonic 281 modulate 333 moisten 340 moisture 327 money 198 monger 202 mongrel 202 monk 289 monkey 289 Montana 121, 174 month 347 months 349 mood 59, 193 moon 193 moor 60, 196, 197 Moore 197 moose 318 moose's 318 moral 45, 147, 190 more 191 More 197 Mosher 335 Mosier 335 moss 182 most 180 moth 111, 352 moths 352 Mozier 335 Mrs. 320 mule 229 municipal 96 murmur 67 muscle 266 music 25, 35, 229 musician 59, 229, 327 mustache 327 mute 78 myrrh 154, 206 myrtle 154 myth 30, 347 mythology 347 myths 319 naked 173 naphtha 359 nation 66, 327 national 66, 109 INDEX 227 nature 259, 327 naught 185 naughty 122 nausea 327 Nebraska 121, 174 negotiation 327 neither 164 nephew 357, 360 Nero 168 nestle 340 neuritis 166 Nevada 121, 174 never 42, 155, 206 new 229, 231 New Orleans 314 news 323 newspaper 323 newt 371 next 343 nimble 237 no 48, 74, 284 Noah 148, 305 nobby 111 nod 182 nodule 333 nook 193 Norwich 369 not 57, 110, 182 notable 61 notation 61 note 61, 74 nothing 297 nourish 199 novel 111 now 370 noxious 327 nude 231 nurse 303 nutmeg 139 oath 219 oaths 355 obedient 176, 333 obligatory 96 oblige 99 oblique 166 occasion 333 occult 89 occur 83 ocean 327 oceanic 327 oecumenical 163 (Edipus 163 (Enone 163 o'er 362 oesophagus 161, 163 of 7, 363 off 7, 111 officiate 327 often 111, 340 Omaha 188 omniscient 327 on 111, 182 once 343, 367 one 27, 367 onion 259 only 180 opera 148 opponent 92 oral 190, 306 orange 111, 173 Ossian 327 ostrich 111 otiose 327 otium 327 Ottawa 188 our 160 Owen 371 pacient 327 pair 55, 69, 140 palace 173 palfrey 276 palm 57, 115, 274 Palmyra 274 pansy 125 pant 126 pantry 126 paper 13 paradigm 248 pare 55, 140 parent 129, 133, 153 Paris 129 parish 129 parochial 327 parquet 337 part 42, 119, 302 particular 307 228 INDEX partner 345 partridge 307 party 301 passion 327 patent 134 path 56, 124, 347, 352 paths 6, 124, 319, 352 patriot 53, 134 patriotic 134 patriotism 134 patter 128 Paul 185 pay 5, 22, 71 pay-roll 131 peace 80 peach 13 peal 147 pear 55, 140 peas 80 peer 167 peeress 153 Pelham 257 penal 164 penalize 164 penalty 164 pendulum 333 peninsula 327 pen-knife 83 penny 83, 284 pensive 321 people 45 peremptory 96 perfect 344 perfection 338 perfume 87 period 136, 153 perish 54, 129, 135 Persia 327 persiflage 334 person 65, 69, 154, 155 persuade 27, 365 persuasive 321 pert 67 phase 132, 318 philosophy 28, 357 phlebitis 166 phlegm 248 phlegmatic 248 phthisic 359 phthisis 359 physiognomy 248 piano 66, 120, 146, 176, 220 picked 265 pier 167 pile 215 pincers 317 pinch 317, 341 pinon 285 pip 12 pirate 170 pitch 82 piteous 327 pity 172 place 53 plait 130 pleasure 5, 38, 333 pleat 130 plebiscite 92 plenteous 327 plumb 235, 236 plumber 235, 236 plumbing 236 pneumatic 298 pod 57 poem 147, 173 poignancy 248 poignant 248, 284 Polish 134, 179 polish 179 Polk 180 polka 180 pollen 111 pomp 111 pool 13 poor 60, 196, 197 pop 13 pope 22 pore 191 port 189 position 327 positive 62 pot 42, 302 potato 13, 146 pour 191 power 371 prairie 174 precinct 165 preciosity 327 INDEX 229 precious 327 predecessor 165 predicate 165 predigested 165 predilection 165 pre-eminent 70 prefect 165 preferable 93 preference 165 prefix 165 prehistoric 165 prejudice 165 prelate 173 prelude 165 premature 165 premise 87 premiss 87 preparation 165 prepay 165 preposition 165 prescience 327 presentation 165 pressure 327 preterite 165 pretty 138 priest 161 prize 5 probate 178 problem 178 proceed 87 proceeds 178 process 178 produce 178 product 178 profile 178 program 90, 178 programme 90, 178 progress 178 project 178 prolix 178 prologue 178 pronoun 178 pronunciation 327 proof 193 prophet 178 prospect 178 protest 87, 178 proverb 178 provost 178 Prussia 327 psalm 33, 115, 274, 275, 298 psalmist 275 psalmody 275 psalter 275 psaltery 275 pseudo- 298 psychology 298 ptarmigan 298 pterodactyl 298 ptomaine 298 pumpkin 283 punctilious 267 punctual 267 puncture 338 PurceU 108 pure 25, 196, 230 Purnell 108 purr 67, 206 purslane 303 pursy 303 put 195 putty 14, 240 quack 365 qualm 274 quarrel 111, 147 quay 161 query 167 question 327, 339, 365 quick 8 quinine 90, 213 quire 365 quit 27 quoit 134 rabbit 173 racial 327 radish 130 radium 333 raid 53, 132 raided 240 raillery 130 Ralph 276 rang 289 raspberry 298 rate 132 rated 240 rather 114, 125 230 INDEX ratio 327 ratiocination 327 rational 126, 327 rations 130 read 40 real 147 really 147 realm 151 rebuke 229 receive 33 recess 87 recluse 312 recognition 251 recognizance 251 recognize 251 reconnaissance 251 recrudescence 192 red 40 referable 93 refuse 87 refutable 93 reign 248 reliable 93 remonstrate 91 renown 227 Rensselaer 317 reptile 212 reservoir 368 reveille 262 revocable 93 rhomb 238 rhythm 353 rhythmic 353 rhythmical 353 rice 5, 308 rich 169 riches 173 ride 70, 72 rides 319 right 209, 253 righteous 327 rile 211, 228 ringer 249 rinse 317 rise 5, 312 rite 209 Rivaulx 105 road 61, 74 roar 191 rob 111 rod 80 rode 61, 74, 177 roil 211, 228 Rolfe 276 roll 177, 219 romp 111 rood 193 roof 193 rook 193 room 193 rooster 193 root 193 rose 74, 219 rosin 111 rot 80 rote 177 rouge 334 rough 28, 357 round 227 route 194 rude 231 rule 192, 231 rune 192, 231 rural 196 ruse 231 Russia 327 sacerdotal 309 sacrifice 210, 312 said 54 salmon 115, 274 salt 185 salvage 276 salvation 276 salve 276 samphire 299 sanctify 267 sanctimonious 267 Sargent 117 Saturday 307 sauce 185 saucy 185 saw 50 saying 296 scarf 361 scarfs 361 scarves 361 scene 308 INDEX 231 scenic 164 schedule 263, 333 Schenectady 174 schism 263, 308 schist 327 schnapps 327 schottische 327 Schurman 107 Schuyler 107 Schuylkill 107 scissors 308, 318 scurry 199 scythe 308 sea 51, 76, 208 seal 147 seasonable 51 seat 9, 208 sedentery 97 see 20, 50, 51, 76, 208 seed 51, 208 seethe 51 sell 45 sefior 285 sensual 327 sentient 327 sergeant 117 serial 136, 167 series 136, 167 serious 136 serpent 154 serum 136 service 308 servile 212 set 50, 54 sew 219 sexual 327 shackle 327 shady 21 shan y t 124 shawl 37 sheathe 351 shepherd 255 shew 179 shew-bread 179 ship 37, 327 shirt 67, 206 shone 179 shook 193 should 279 shoved 360 shovel 111 Siamese 324 sieve 33 sigh 72 sight 72 sin 16, 33 sinew 234 sing 5, 16, 48, 249, 289 singer 249 singing 249, 289, 297 single 249 sir 67, 154 siren 170 sirup 170 sit 11, 52, 169 site 72 sixth 349 skiffs 319 sky 209, 217 slather 114 slaughter 187 sleek 162 slept 342 slew 222 slipped 336 sloo 222 sloth 179 slothful 179 slough 198, 222 slue 222 slur 67 sniffed 239, 357 so 219 soar 191 sob 111 social 327 sod 111 sofa 146 soft 111, 182, 305 soften 340 solder 279 soldier 333 solely 280 solemn 288 solemnize 288 some 64, 198 son 64 song 16, 48, 62, 183 232 INDEX sonnet 173 soon 192, 193 soot 193 sore 191 sorrow 220 sort 302 Soudanese 324 sought 253, 302 soul 280 soup 192 sovereign 248 sow 219, 370 spa 120 Spain 134 Spanish 134 special 47 speech 13 spelled 241 spelt 241 spilled 241 spilt 241 spoil 211 spoiled 241 spoilt 241 Spokane 130 spoke 61 spook 193 spool 13, 192 spoon 193 spume 229 spur 206 spurious 229 spurt 67 squab 111 squalor 184 squirrel 201 staff 361 staffs 361 stair 142 stamp 111 stamped 300 star 116 staves 361 Stephen 360 steps 319 stiff 28, 357 sting 13 stir 67 stirrup 201 St. Louis 314 stock 110 stole 152 stood 193 stop 57 store 191 story 190 straight 71 strange 246 strawberry 185 strayed 71 strength 272, 294 strengthen 294 stringer 249 stripped 6 strong 111 stronger 68, 249 strongest 249 suave 120 substantiation 327 subtle 235 subtly 235 success 87 such 205 suction 338 sufficient 327 suffragan 252 suffrage 252 sugar 327 suggest 109, 316, 329 suggestion 327 suit 192, 231 sumach 327 sun 64 sunk 289 supper 68 supple 195 sure 196, 327 surprised 307 surveillance 262 swallow 111 swamp 111 swan 111 swing 365 swollen 184 sword 367 syllable 169 sylph 357 symphony 299 INDEX 233 symposium 333 synagogue 169 Syracuse 201 syringe 170 syrup 170, 201 table 12, 45, 47 tacks 6 tactile 212 tags 6 talk 185, 187, 273, 336 tar 119 tare 55 tarry 129 taught 185, 187 taunt 186 taut 185 taw 42, 302 tax 8, 263, 308 tea 5, 20, 161 tear 55, 167 tea-table 161 tedious 333 tedium 333 temporary 97 ten 135 tenable 138 tenet 138 terrible 135, 142, 201 Texas 325 Thames 348 than 351 that 31, 351, 356 their 55 then 5, 8, 351 there 50, 55, 69, 140, 142, 143, 301 they 132, 351 thimble 237 thin 5, 8, 347 thing 30 think 289, 356 this 351 thistle 310, 340 Thomas 348 Thompson 348 thorough 146, 199, 220 thou 351, 370 though 74, 219, 351 thought 63, 185 three 41 throng 183 thus 31 thyme 348 tie 72 tier 167 timber 236 time 216 timid 169 tin 13 tincture 289 tirade 170 tired 304 tissue 327 Titian 327 to 192 toe 13, 74, 177, 302 tomato 146 tomb 235 ton 284 tongue 249, 25C too 20, 76 tooth 76 toothsomeness 76 tore 42, 302 torrid 111 tory 190 tough 198 tour 194 tow 74, 177 tow-path 176 towel 147, 371 Townsend 318 toy 13 trait 337 tramp 111 transfer 87 transient 327 tread 40, 135 treasure 333 tremble 237 trench 54 trouble 198 troupe 192 trow 225 trowel 73 tube 59, 231 tuber 327 234 INDEX tubs 319 Tudor 327 tulle 195 tunic 327 turn 206 turret 199 tutor 327 twice 343 twig 365 two 76, 367 tyranny 170 tyrant 170 union 259 unison 322 unkempt 300 up 64 upon 109 urge 246 usage 173, 322 use 229, 259, 312 used 242 usual 333 Utah 188 vacation 53, 131 vagary 92, 133 valet 337 value 234 vary 133, 141 vat 29 vehement 92, 255 venison 322 verdigris 315 very 40, 41, 135, 142, 201, 306 vest 343 vex 270 vexation 270 vicious 327 victuals 265 view 229 vignette 285 violet 147 virile 170 virtuous 327 virus 170 vision 29, 333 visor 318 visual 333 vitiate 327 vivid 360 void 75 vowel 173 wabble 111 waif 132 waistcoat 343 waive 132 walk 273 walked 6 walks 319 Waltham 257 want 111 war 301 warmth 299 wary 55, 133, 141 was 113 wash 111, 305 Washington 111, 305 wasp 111, 308 watch 111, 182 water 14, 111, 182, 240 wave 132 weary 167 Wednesday 244 weigh 207 welch 341 well 82 Welsh 341 wen 27 were 145 Westcott 343 wet 27 what 372 wheat 372 when 27 where 140, 142 wherry 141 whet 27 whey 132 which 26, 27, 255, 372 while 26 whirl 206 whisper 372 whistle 310 whit 26, 27, 372 white 372 who 373 INDEX 235 whole 179, 180, 373 wholly 280 whoop 373 whooping-cough 373 wife 361 wife's 361 Wilbraham 257 Willamette 94 win 365 window 146, 176, 220, 305 Windsor 243 winter 12, 14, 68 wire 153 wired 304 wiry 153 wish 5, 37, 343 wished 239, 336 wit 27 witch 27 with 31, 351, 356 wives 319, 361 Woodward 369 woof 193 Woolwich 369 Woolworth 369 Wooster 106 Worcester 106 worst 316 worth 67, 206 worthy 154 would 279 wound 194 wrap 367 wrath 30 wreathe 351 wrench 317 Wrentham 257 wring 367 wrist 343, 367 write 209, 367 wrong 183, 249 Wyndham 257 Xanthippe 326 Xavier 326 Xebec 326 Xenophon 326 Xerxes 326 yacht 263 yawl 25, 259, 371 yearn 259 yeast 260 yelk 136 yellow 66, 146, 176 yes 139, 259, 308 yet 139 yield 25 yolk 136, 273 young 249 younger 249 youngest 249 your 196, 197 youth 259 Ypsilanti 174 zealous 35 zebra 146 zebu 370 zero 168 zinc 35 zone 318 zoology 194 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. l2Dec'62DTJ JAN 1 1 1962i fiUGl9lH7»4 per— JUL 25 •, 1 1 1S6S 3 3 E£J^ SEP2T67-8AM TfCoT 0CT23 1366 87 LOAN pert OCT *5 '66- 8 AM LOAN DEPT. Vt ffl 6 1 9 76 JUW 5 1967 8 8gc» cia. m 2 76 received JUN6 '67-11 IFFrn t r> — mi « •77rwL.RM.5jr U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES COS3Si4MOab Mt#»> 868058 I THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY