ii!Z-icmiu^ -^i^ipi' -CM^C-- THE THEORV THE SCHOOL. Howard Sandison, Department of Psychology and Didactics, Indiana State Normal School. The demand of the age, in education, is the "practical." The most prac- ticSl education that a child can receive is that education which sends him forth with a skilled mind, trained to think accurately. It is a matter of comparative Indifference whether the Period of Preparation— that of the Family, Kindergarten and School— gives amount 0/ kncwledge, i.e., a/«// mind. ai:i)ir5 QEbition. KKVI8ED AND ENLARGED. C. W. MOWN, PMINTIN AND tlNOCn, TtRRE HAUTt, IMO. 1886. 1 BlOlb /-. - / Copyright, 1885, BY Howard Sandison. SOURCES AND REFERENCES. Prominent among the sources and references con- sidered, are pamphlets and school reports by W. T. Harris; the principal American and English kindergar- ten works; Notes on Theory, by Wm. A. Jones (first President of the Indiana State Normal School) ; Murison on Language; Geography, by Morell; The Cyclopedia of Education; tte educational works of Laurie, Bain, Currie, Quick, Thring and Fitch; Notes of Talks on Teaching, by L. E. Patridge; the Practical Teacher, a paper edited by F. W. Parker; Rousseau's Emile; Teaching Methods, by J. H. Hoose; The Training System, by D. Stow; Porter's Elements of Intellectual Science; Everett's Science of Thought, and Hegel's Philosophy of History. 5442G9 PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. Originality, except in certain features, is not claimed for the theory as set forth in the following pages. The work is in part written by the author, and to a degree, arranged and compiled ; the thought being in a certain sense the joint product of a study of some of the lead- ing works on education, experience in teaching, super- vising, and preparing students for work in the common schools. Selections from other works that are substantially unmodified, are indicated by quotation marks, or by smaller type; those that have been modified to a degree, by half quotations. In many cases, the thought and the language are largely those of another, but both have been recast, and to some extent newly applied. This is indi- cated by the name at the foot of the page. In many unindicated places the thought and the language were not originally the writer's, but from long consideration and usage have become a part of his thought and mode of expression. There is no claim to fullness of treatment. The book contains merely an outline that may form the basis for a discussion of the theory of the school. . A comprehension of the external stmcture of the work will be assisted by the following statements : — PHEFACK 1. In the co-ordination and subordination of topics the Roman symbol indicates the main heading ; subor- dinate to that is the Arabic symbol : next is the letter ; subordinate to that is the Arabic symbol in parenthesis; subordinate to that, the letter in parenthesis ; then the Arabic symbol prime ; the letter prime ; the Arabic symbol prime in parenthesis, etc; appearing thus : — I. 1. a. (1) (a) V. a'. (10 (aO 2. The work, being a text-hook, has three features : — a. Thoughts presented so as to require but slight elaboration. b. Thoughts presented in such a way as to require considerable elaboration. c. Thoughts suggested in a manner that necessi- tates an almost independent working out by the student or reader. 3. The various methods that are presented in Read- ing and in Writing are given in order to show the growth as to method in those subjects and also to furnish ground for comparison. The different methods are given in Reading for the additional purpose of submitting them to the test of the principles given. PREFACE. 7 In the case of each subject, the last method that is pre- sented, is the one recommended. It is needless to say that the thought to be held by the one who studies these methods should be not their adoption but their adapta- tion to the needs and peculiarities of his particular school. To obtain an adequate insight into the internal or thought structure^ the following thoughts must be grasp- ed:— 1. The individual mind with its inherited habits and tendencies is the true subject of education. 2. The condition of education is the self-activity of the mind, and the goal of education is self-direc- tion. 3. In the educational process of leading the mind from self-activity t^ self-direction, the various subjects, as geography, grammar, etc., are instruments, not ends, or, if ends, subordinate ones ; i.e., the main aim of a course of study is development ; a subject is taught, not for the knowledge that it contains (except incidentally) but mainly for the development it affords the mind; the true question in regard to each thought or idea dealt with is not How can the child be led to most clearly see this thought or idea? but how can this thought or IDEA BE presented SO AS TO CONFER THE HIGHEST DEGREE OF TRAINING THAT IT IS FITTED TO GIVE? 4. The main defect of the schools is the placing of stress upon mere expression, instead of upon thought and thinking. The different manuals and outlines of courses of study are unconscious witnesses of the truth of this proposition in all such directions as : — 8 PREFACE. First Year— Number. Take the addition of I's, 2's, 3's and 4's; Arabic figures — (above 4, mere verbalism); Roman numerals — (Above IV, mere verbalism). Or the following : First Year — Number. Take numbers to 5 by the Grube method; Roman numerals — (above F, mere expression); the Arabic figures ; count to one hundred. (Both the latter mere form above 5.) Such work tends to cultivate the habit "always pre- valent in civilized life, of talking fluently without hav- ing anything to say." Goethe saw the presence of this defect in the German Universities, and made Mephistopheles the strong advo- cate of it : — Mephistopheles.— ^^o sum up all— To words hold fast ! Then the safe gate securely passed, You'll reach the fane of certainty at last. Siitdeni.— But then some meaning must the words convey. Meph.— Right ! but o'er-anxious thought you'll find of no avail, For there precisely where ideas fail, A word comes opportunely into play. Most admirable weapons words are found, On words a system we securely ground. In words we can conveniently believe. Nor of a single jot can we a 7wrd? bereave. 5. The true reform that seems requisite in the edu- cational process, is the turning from this too exclusive consideration of expression — words, phrases, defini- tions, RULES, ETC., to that kind of work that will truly EDUCATE the child's mind, by leading it to penetrate the "the hardened crust of verbalism " and touch and be touched by the essence, the thought, the reality. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Page 17. SUBJECT OF EDUCATION. Subject stated; organism; the human element; the two stages of education; the things consequently manifest; the sensibilities the avenue to the intellect ; ways of viewing mind ; subi'ect re-stated ; the teacher and the study of mind ; infer- ences—as to number of pupils to a teacher — as to promotion of teacher with grade — as to number ,of regular studies ; the spon- taneous memory — when active — inferences ; the imagination — when active— la ws-»mode8 of cultivation; the undeveloped state of the logical faculty— the two requirements; power to continuously attend not natural — inattention, how fostered; educational truths furnished by a study of mind; observation- its relation to education— example ; reflections in regard to ex- ample ; re-8tatement of educational truths. CHAPTER 11. Page 52. AIM OF EDUCATION. Things to be understood in order to comprehend the aim — final cause — aim stated — rational freedom — aim stated — the substrate of all things— aim stated— the two kinds of power- aim stated; relation of intellect and character; statement of aim of education — by Comenius — by Rousseau — by Pestalozzi— by Froebel— by Stow— by Carrie— by Laurie— by Jevons— by Page —by Huntington. 10 • mMMARY OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Page 81. PEINCIPLE AND CONDITION OP EDUCATION. Power to attain a great amount of knowledge; power to attain growth; self -activity; intellectual self-activity; moral self-activ- ity; volitional self-activity; reflex influence of action upon its source; primary conditions of growth, kinds of doing — illustra- tions — with liquid measure — with curved lines — form, with clay — form, with paper — geography; re-statement of principle and condition of education. CHAPTER IV. Page 90. EXERCISE-GROUND IN EDUCATION. A frequent error; the scope of education; the two kinds of education; the institutions that confer education; the education of the Family; the efi'ect upon the other institutions if this edu- cation is not well given; the function of the School; the education of the Church; the education of Business; the education of the State; the comparative value of the education of each; each institution an organism; the Social System an organism; the pur- pose of the Social System. CHAPTER V. Page 96. THE KINDERGARTEN. The genesis of the kindergarten; the five stages of its growth, general nature and appliances— room, furniture, teacher, appa- ratus; gifts and occupations — their order of development; the first gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to family and to school; the second gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to first gift, to family and to school; the third gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to first and to second SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 11 gifts, to family and to school; the fourth gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to the other gifts, to the family and to the school; the Jifth gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to the other gifts, to the family and to the school; the sixth gift — its material, games and exercises — relation to the other gifts, to the family and to the school; table showing the relation between the kindergarten and higher education. CHAPTER VI. Page 124. THE SCHOOL. Oround of the school; Idea of the school; Form of the school —the common, university and special schools — the general offi- cers—the special oflBcers; State Superintendent — general duties; State Board of Education — general duties; County Superinten- dent — general duties*; Township Trustee — general duties; Pur- pose of school — ethical conduct — mechanical conduct — scholar- ship. CHAPTER VII. Page 132. CONDUCT. Conduct in relation to the Infinite — opening exercises — view- ed as intellectual and as moral — design — basis — parts — method — examples of method; Narration — steps, illustration — introduc- tion, separation, conclusion; Emblems — nature, steps, intro- duction, natural image, spiritual truth, conclusion; Parables — nature, steps, illustration — introduction, the story, interpreta- tion, conclusion; opening exercises as presented in the Training Schools — first and second grades, third and fourth grades, fifth and sixth grades; conduct in relation to self; conduct in rela- tion to others — in the family, in the business world, in the state, in the school; the school as a field for the cultivation of behavior — order — punctuality, regularity, perseverance, earn- estness, justice, truthfulness, industry, kindness. 12 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. Page 178. SCHOLARSHIP.— ME THOD. SECTION ONE. METHOD IN READING. PREPARATORY STAGE. The known ; the advance ; the various methods. Alphabetic Method. — Subject-matter, its work, principles, favorable points, objections, how to test it. Phonic Method.— Subject-matter, its work, principles, favor- able points, objections, how to test it. Phonetic Method. — Subject-matter, its work, principles, favorable points, objections, how to test it. The Word Method. — Subject-matter, its work, principles, favorable points, objections, how to test it. The Idea- Word Method. — Subject-matter, its work, princi- ples, favorable points, how to test it; power to master new words — how given ; suggestions— work of first two months ; analysis into sounds and letters; diacritical marks — purpose, time ; print and script— reasons for and against the use of each at first; n-anner of teaching "a" and "the"; the words for first work — how to select them. The Sentence Method. — General nature — the reading of those taught out of school; of those taught in school; infer- ences ; definition of reading ; the object in teaching reading ; principles of the sentence method ; first step of the sentence method ; second step of the sentence method ; third step of the sentence method. Why any one of these alone is not a method; the central thought of each; the great point in learning to read ; associa- tion the essential act ; the principles of association ; the de- velopment of the mind ; the devices to be employed in read- ing ; the prevalent defect in teaching children to read. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 13 PRIMARY STAGE. General nature ; usual mode of procedure ; a preferable mode — thought, form, oral reading ; supplementary work ; list of books to read. ADVANCED STAGE. Definition ; kinds ; thought analysis— the idpa in it, illustra- tions of what is meant by thought analysis in reading ; deriva- tion — general suggestions, incidental derivation — illustration, systematic derivation— roots of words, prefixes, suffixes, deriva- tives ; figurative language— definition, examples, suggestions as to how to deal with figurative language. SECTION TWO. Page 270. METHOD IN WRITING. Design; mechanical conditions, furniture, position of body, materials: basis;— nature, order of procedure, stages. SECTION THREE. Pftg© 278. MBTHOD IN SPELLING. Design; principles; stages— copy, dictation, application, analy- sis; syllabication; grouping; rules. SECTION POUR. • Page 285. METHOD IN NUMBER. Definition of number; what can be done with a number; what can be known of a number — illustration; purpose; the five main defects in teaching number; stages in number work; prin- ciples; numerical ideation; notation — relation of numeration and notation; outline of work of first four years; details of the work of the first year — work of first three months illustrated; work of last seven months of the first year illustrated; details of the work of the second, third and fourth years; the nature of the fundamental processes. 14 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. SECTION FIVE. Page 331. METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY. Definition; system; principles; mental faculties involved; purposes ; the knowledge that the children possess when enter- ing school ; its classification ; through what sources obtained ; the attitude of their minds toward these ideas ; the consequent first work in geography; into what do these ideas unfold; the more common defects in presenting the subject; First Year's Work, nature of; Second Year's Work, nature of; suitable books for collateral reading ; Third Year's Work — aim, nature of work, the idea upon which the work is based, illustration of the nature of the work, means to be employed, the geographical elements; order of presenting the geographical elements, collateral general lessons, pictorial illustration, how select pictures, how classify them, books for collateral reading and for pictures ; Fourth Year's Work — aim; steps — form of earth, latitude and longitude, globe and map, the air, the hemispheres, relation of earth to sun, winds, oceanic movements, vapor in the air, the crumbling of the earth's surface, glaciers, volcanoes and hot springs ; the aim of the work upon these points; suggestive questions; the structure of the continents; order of the study of the continents; list of books for collateral reading; Fifth Year's Work — aim; outline of work; means of original investigation; means of review; diagram of location of general vegetable productions; diagram of location of food plants; diagram of location of animals; diagram for con- sideration of religions; diagram for consideration of govern- ments; books for teachers; books for pupils; Sixth Year's Work — the two phases of geography— poZi^teaZ and industrial; the subor- dinate place of political geography; order of the study of the continents in political geography; the scope of the study; as- pect; character of the people; characteristics of instruction; map construction; use of text; historical geography; incidental geography; industrial geography of the U. S.; the specific lines of investigation; the preliminary steps; the order and outline of work; characteristics of instruction; books for collateral read- ing. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 15 SECTION SIX. Page 375. METHOD IN U. 8. HISTOBY. What history is ; its aim ; the system of history ; the mental powers involved ; biography ; the study of homes — in the fourth year, the Aborigines in their homes; in the fifth year, the Spanish and French in their homes ; in the sixth year, the Dutch and English in their homes ; in the first half of the seventh year, the Colonists in their new homes ; list of books for reference ; the life of the nation — enumeration of principles ; method ; epochs ; list of books for reference; form of government ; outline of course of study on form of government ; list of books on form of govern- ment. SECTION SEVEN. Page 397. V METHOD IN LANGUAGE. Outline of first three years' work; explanation of the nature of the work; illustration of work taken in connection with read- ing; outline of the work for the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh years; explanation of the work for these years; series of exer- cises; illustration of each point in the work of the fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh years ; outline of the eighth year's work ; purpose; central thought; scope; general method; order of in- struction. CHAPTER IX. Page 426. THE RECITATION. The school; the common school; instruments of the common school— physical surroundings; thejlaws of theIschool;4branches of study, (a), their organic relation, (b),^ kinds of exercise- grounds, (c), methods appropriate; the teacher — his unconscious influence, what it is, the aim of education it assumes; its prin- ciples, the avenues by which it reaches the child, its relation to the teacher's previous discipline, why it is the most potent factor; the conscious influence of the teacher — how it manifests 16 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. itself, (a) in the general work, (b) in the recitation; preparation of the teacher preparatory to school work and to the recitation — a knowledge of the principles of education, of the history of the growth of educational ideas, and of the principles of select- ing materials and of planning lessons; illustration of written plan — subject, design, condition of training, exercise-ground, the basis, steps, method; agencies of the recitation — stimuli, interest and attention, their nature, attention in the recitation, interest in the subjects, interest in general mental growth; questioning — nature, purpose, kinds, illustrations from Socra- tes, structure of questions, sequence in questioning; explanation — explanation proper, illustration — objective illustration, verbal illustration, pictorial illustration; repetition; the main princi- ples of the recitation. <^ The Theory of the School. CHAPTER L THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION. INFERENCES. Ariadne furnished him with a sword, with which to encounter the Minotaur, and with a clew of thread by which he might find his way out of the labyrinth.— BULFINCH'8 Ag^e of FabU. j^HE root thought of a correct theory of the school '^^i is that mind, endowed with self-activity and the capacity for self-direction is the real subject of educa- tion. The mind is a spiritual organism, possessing three distinct capacities — the capacities of knowing, of feeling, and of willing. This organism, with fts several functions, is the subject of the educational process. 1. Consideration and definition of organism. 2. Illustration of self-activity, self-direction and organism. That which is distinctively human in man is the emo- tional and volitional nature. This is the true life of a 3 18 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. human being. This truer or higher Hfe, as distinguished from the bodily and the intellectual, is provided with two instruments or servants — the intellect and the body. More specifically, then, mind as emotion and will, is the subject of education in the higher sense, and body and intellect in the lower or instrumental sense. 1. Distinguish and give examples of acts of intellect, sensi- bility and will. 2. Show the organic relation of such acts. Education confers upon the mind no absolutely new capacities. All the powers that are found in the mind at maturity existed, then, in embryo in the mind at birth. Before the mind can apply itself successfully to the varied problems of active life it requires, like the body, a period of preparation. But a period of prepara- tion is, impliedly, a time of development. It may be stated, then, that the subject of education is a spiritual being, the essential principle of which is growth. Growth thus becomes the fundamental principle of education, and the two marked stages of mind are : 1. Development or training. (Through use). 2, Use. (Resulting in additional development). That mind, with these two distinct stages is the sub- ject of education, is the most significant truth that the teacher will encounter. If he absorbs this thought so as to make it a part of his very being, he is possessed at once of the sword of Ariadne. Several things are manifest, obviously, (from all the foregoing) : 1. That knowledge, i.e., the different branches of study, is not the subject of education. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 19 2. That a course of study by pages is inconsistent with the true theor}^ of education. 3. That real education is self-education ; the child being his own educator under the guidance of the teacher, who is merely a formal educator having both a negative and a positive function. The negative function consists ih removing impedi- ments, so as to allow free scope to the child's self-devel- opment. The positive function is to stimulate the child to the exercise of his powers, to furnish materials and occasions for their exercise, and to maintain and train the action of the mental powers. 4. That the shbject-matter or instrument of educa- tion is thought, since to think is the function of the mind. 5. That the essence of education lies in determin- ing the best method of furnishing the faculties of the mind with material for exercise, of awakening and exer- cising the dormant faculties, of giving them strength and of training them into higher life. 6. That education is a life-long process, the exercise- ground of mind being the institutions known as the family, school, church, business society, and state. 7. That the family and the school form the exer- cise-ground of mind during its period of development and the other institutions during the period of use. While all teachers who have studied mind understand it to be an organism, and know and base their work upon the thought that the intellect is the avenue to the sensibilities, that other truth, that the heart is also the avenue to the intellect is either not known, or but little 20 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. acted upon if known. To make this essential thought, that the heart is the real avenue to the intellect^ a vital part of one's teaching character, is the only guarantee of success in dealing with mind, as otherwise the intellect may remain closed to all efforts to address it. If mind as an organism is the subject of education , this inter-relation of sensibilities and intellect must be understood and acted upon. Every gate is closed to hate, But open wide to love. — Whittiee. A loving heart is the beginning of all knowledge. This it is that opens the whole mind, and quickens every faculty of the intellect to do its fit work. — Carlyle. But to present mind as the subject of education is not sufficiently definite, since mind may be viewed in sev- eral ways : 1. Mind may be understood as the "universal sub- strate of all things." 2. Mind in general, as presented in works on men- tal science. 3. Mind as embodied in the teacher. 4. The minds of the pupils. The question becomes pertinent, In which of these views is mind the subject of education ? No doubt the general answer would be, mind in neither of the first three senses is the subject, although that answer would by no means satisfy all, that systems of schools, studies, methods, and means, have not frequent- ly been adapted to mind in general, or to the teacher's own, instead of to the pupils' minds. Is it to be accept- ed, however, that the minds of the pupils form the sub- THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. 21 ject of the educational process ? If so, in what sense ? "The minds of the pupils" is a very comprehensive term. In a school of thirty pupils what does it mean ? It means in one case a young John Stu:art Mill, in mind. It means in another case a mind from the depths, the very opposite of the perfection of child-nature found in the first. It means in a third case the average child-mind from the average home. Again, it means a boy who has had generations of vice and ignorance behind him. In another instance it means some child from a home of idleness and frivolity. It means, perhaps, some child from the environment of stupidity and stunted life. It may mean a child with years of wrong methods behind him. In that room, beside the quick, intelligent child may sit a dull, contented nature, satisfied with dullness, neither wanting to know nor ashamed of not knowing. Each mind is different from the others. Each has its idiocracy, its special traits. The degrees of capacity are different. The degrees of apathy are different. The causes of apathy are different. All of these are includ- ed in " the minds of the pupils." What, then, is the subject in teaching? « The best minds of the pupils ? Then the average and the poorest are wronged. The average minds of the school? Then the best and the worst are deprived of their due. 22 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The poorest minds that are found in the room? This would be manifest injustice to the others. Is not the fundamental truth this — that each particu- lar mind with its special traits and idiosyncracies is the true subject of the educating process — the subject to which teacher, methods, and means, are to be adapted ? The individual mind, then, with its two stages of development and use, is the subject of education in its full sense. The teacher who is thoroughly imbued with this thought is possessed of both the sword and the thread of Ariadne. If the individual minds are the subject, several infer- ences present themselves : 1. That the teacher must study mind. 2. That the sources of the study of mind are three : a. From books, Porter, Hopkins, Hickok, Car- penter, etc., giving a knowledge of mind in general — the true basis for a study of the individual minds. b. The acts and phenomena of the teacher's own mind, to which he always has immediate access. c. The activity of the pupils' minds, to which he always has mediate access through their outward acts and words. The two cardinal truths which need, more than any others, to be impressed upon the mind of each teacher are, first, that each individual mind under his charge is the true subject of his educational efforts ; second, that he cannot obtain the best results in teaching, indeed, that he cannot be a real teacher, unless he understands THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 23 the mind with which he must deal. What kind of a blacksmith is he who does not understand iron? What kind of a foreman in a wool factory is a person who cannot judge of wool? What kind of a teacher is that one who cannot judge of mind and mind action ? ' It is true that there are teachers endowed with the power of sympathizing so earnestly with children that in their case this sympathy does the work of knowledge, or rather it is knowledge unconsciously exercising the power proverbially attributed to it. The intense interest they feel in their work almost instinctively leads them to adopt the right way of doing it. They are artists with- out knowing that they are artists. They are acting upon the principle that the feelings are the avenue to the intel- lect, that interest is the basis of attention, and attention thebasis of intellectual power, without being conscious of it. But considering the large number of teachers, such examples are rare, and as a general proposition it will be found to be true that the only truly efficient director of moral and intellectual action is the one who under- stands the true nature of the mind he is guiding. It is this knowledge that makes teaching a psychological art. One who does not possess it is attempting to guide an organism of exquisite capabilities which he does not comprehend. The fact that there is so large a number of persons in positions as school trustees and as teachers without understanding even the most fundamental facts concerning the minds with which their work has to do, explains the courses of study by pages, the telling, cramming, the endless explaining, the unnecessary as- sisting, the rote-learning, the frequent examinations that 24 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. are mere tests of memory, and not of power, the fierce struggle for per cents by teachers for their rooms and by pupils for themselves, and all that kind of work which regards mere knowledge to be the subject of education, and which enfeebles and deadens the native powers of the child. True teaching has but little in common with that system of telling and cramming which so generally usurps its name, and which results not merely in com- paratively empty minds, but in closed minds, minds indifferent and stolid as to education and its value. Unteachable minds is the usual result of the work of those who do not understand the subject of their work.'* 3. If each individual mind is the teacher's subject, the third inference is obvious — that the number of pu- pils under the charge of one teacher should be small enough for the teacher to become thoroughly acquainted with the capacities and defects of each mind, while it should not be so small as to deprive the pupils of the advantage which comes from the contact of mind with various different minds. It may, perhaps, be safely held that the suitable num- ber of pupils for a teacher vibrates between twenty and thirty, owing to the teacher's penetration in com- prehending character and its needs. It is a serious, not to say irreparable injury to a community, when a school board, iinder the idea that it is a stroke of economy and a gain to the people, place one hundred children in charge of two teachers at an annual expense to the tax- payers of one thousand dollars, instead of employing to * JOSEPH PAYNE, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 25 educate them, four teachers, with twenty-five to a room, at an annual expense of two thousand dollars. If it is true, as is held, that numbers higher than about thirty shut off attention to individual minds, then a little reflection makes it obvious that the second pro- cedure would be far more economical to the community. In the first place, the attempt of the teacher to deal with fifty children makes it impossible to give that attention to the peculiar nature and needs of each child that the parent has a right to demand when he hands him over to the care of the schools and pays for that care. The problem is to reach and teach the mind of each child. Anything other than this would be mani- fest injustice to some families of those represented by the fifty children. With fifty children one tea:cher can- not understand the individual minds and needs well enough to teach to each mind each branch of study well and neglect no one of them ; and this is not taking into account the subject of discipline and moral culture, which is very much complicated by numbers. The teacher has neither the knowledge of the minds nor the time to adapt herself and her work to each mind, and she is, therefore, compelled to address the minds as a mass, to pour out knowledge before them and let those who can, adapt themselves to it, and the others remain without even this kind of help. The result is an attempt to inform to a given extent, each month, and not to educate, because to educate requires that each mind shall be understood. In this way but little inter- est is aroused in the pupils, and the process of cram- ming is received at first with protest, then with indiffer- 26 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. ence, and at last the hundred pupils of the two teachers pass out of school, none of them educated in the sense that education is development ; some few, those who needed it least, well instructed perhaps ; others but fairly instructed ; and still others, perhaps fifty out of the hundred, and they the ones who needed training most, with little or nothing in the way of intellectual and moral power, and worse than this, indifferent to education and its value, the effect of the schools having been to make them contented in their ignorance and lack of power. The question naturally arises, In which case has th© school board done most good to the community? Which course would be true economy? Would the commu- nity have been richer in having expended only one thousand dollars, and in having received the children back into the active walks of life as above described^ which is no untrue picture, or in having spent two- thousand dollars, thus insuring a sufficient number of teachers to give attention to the individual needs of the children, and receiving them at last from the schools with their moral and intellectual powers well trained^ with minds active, skilful and capable ; with new long- ings, and new capacities for satisfying those longings; with minds as receptive and skilled as each individual case is capable of being made? Which is worth more to a neighborhood, one thousand dollars or one hundred children morally and intellectually strong ? If individual minds are the subject of education, is it not a proper inference that school boards should see to it that the number in charge of each teacher is small THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 27 enough to enable the teacher to read each mind and then adapt herself and her work to each mind ? 4. If it be admitted that the individual mind is the subject of the teacher's work, then a fourth inference is that the teacher should remain long enough with the pupils to be able to see into their peculiarities of dispo- sition and environment. This can not be well accom- plished in six months, nor in one year, and the thought that arises is that the teachers of the country schools should not be changed so often, and that the teachers in the city schools should be promoted with their classes. Viewing this principle alone — that time gives the teacher the opportunity to know the minds of the pupils — the thought would be that the pupil should have but one teacher during school life. But another principle — that the pupil's mind gains greater breadth and power by coming into contact with different minds — seems to require variety in teachers. With the two principles in consideration it may be held that there should be two or three changes of teachers during the school course. It is obvious, of course, that if the teacher is inefficient, thesponer a change is made the better; on the supposi- tion, however, that the school boards and superintend- ents do not complicate the selection of teachers by geographical, family, and other arbitrary considerations, but make moral and intellectual fitness the sole test — a supposition which in a work on theory may be per- mitted — a greater length of time with a given class than is now allowed would be a gain, inasmuch as it would necessarily result in the teacher's gaining a more inti- 28 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. mate acquaintance with the individual minds of the pupils. 5. It is also held by some, and by many not, that if individual mind with its peculiarities is the subject, the regular studies of the course should not be so many as to engross all the time and strength of the. pupils ; enough extra studies being provided to satisfy their various natures and peculiarities. This requirement is met, to a certain degree by the general lessons, readings, and conversations of the lower grades, and by the elective studies in the higher schools. (Reasons for and against elective studies.) Mind being the real subject in education, the impor- tance of its study, as before suggested, at once becomes manifest. The study of mind in general, as presented in Porter, Hickok, Carpenter, and others, will give the teacher a comprehensive knowledge of the various facul- ties, their order of development and inter-dependence, the laws of their action, their processes and products — . knowledge of great advantage to the educator. But many object, and truly, that they have neither time nor opportunity for such study. " It is essential, neverthe- less, to the fully equipped teacher. Mind and its action are, however, accessible to these. As was before observed, each teacher has direct access to the phenomena of his own mind and indirect access to the minds of his pupils through their actions and words. Systematic, patient study in these two lines will make plain many things concerning the mental faculties and their growth. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 29 The intelligent observer will see among other things that the imagination and the spontaneous memory are active in the early years, and that the power to learn in an abstract way through the logical faculty is but feeble. It will appear that the power of continuous attention i« not possessed, should not be expected, needs to be developed ; that the power to observe^ usually supposed to be acute in the child when he enters school, is by the third or fourth year of school, practically dormant. A brief notice of what these mental facts imply is due. Neglect in observing mind action has led to neglect in the cultivation of the imagination. It is, however, a faculty worthy of cultivation, and necessary alike to the intellectual, and to the moral education. This, while fully recognized in the kindergarten, has not been, in general, in the schools. Its central principle— the imagination creates no new material — is a confirmation, in one sense, of Jacotot's paradox "Tout est dans tout" (All is in all.) This faculty gives to the child the un- known in or from the known. 'It furnishes knowledge otherwise unattainable ; it gives life, interest, and au- thority to the action of the understanding by the rich illustration which it suggests ; and by its power of set- ting before the child scenes of other lands and distant times, past or future, it provides nourishment for the^ moral nature. It is, moreover, a constant source of hap- piness through the pleasant images with which it fills the mind. Observation is limited to very narrow boun- daries of space and time ; to whatever extent the child passes th'ese it must be on the wings of the imagination. Accordingly, as already implied, descriptions of natural so THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. scenery, and scenes from life, real or ideal, are the field in which this mode of intelligence is to be exercised, and both are very rich in materials. It is clear at once that the instruments available for the cultivation of this faculty are two — language and pictorial illustration.^'^ All these facts are obvious to the teacher who watches his own mind and the minds of children, and they sug- gest a problem, and indicate a line of work for the teach- er's own improvement. The problem is. What is the method of using language, and pictorial illustration in the cultivation of the imagination? The line of work is — the mastery of description and narration as language forms for expressing and conveying thought. The spontaneous memory^ the form to be observed in childhood, like a sponge, absorbs everything that comes in contact with it. Unlike the power afterwards acquired of fixing in mind by conscious efibrt, whatever is judged worthy of being retained, it is a natural power by which the child receives and stores up, with little or no efiort, whatever comes before the mind, whether it is worthy to be held or not. The fact that the child possesses this power in a high degree is of great signifi- cance in early education. It shows that the early years are pre-eminently years for gathering materials for thought and reflecting in the presence of them, because •such reflection reacts upon the memory and tends to make it rational ; and it furnishes also the ground for judicious selection and an organized series of impres- sions. It has been said, however, by Lord Lytton, that io attempt to systematize the child's impressions, at least *CURRIB THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 31 in his most tender years, is to proceed as the man who thought that his bees would produce more honey, if instead of wandering from flower to flower, they were shut up in the hive and furnished with flowers. The bees, however, are not endowed with an unguid- ed power of selection which causes them to take honey from every flower, be it poisonous or otherwise, as the spontaneous memory of the children drinks in alike the good and bad, to have a marked influence on character not yet formed. Moreover, while the bees are possessed of a natural and fully developed power of selection, and the man who was to furnish them with flowers had no power of selection in that respect, in the case of chil- dren their power of selection and arrangement is un- developed, but that of their educator is supposed to be developed and matured. That the child possesses the power of spontaneous memory, drinking in and retaining all kinds of impre's- sions seems to establish three thoughts in regard to early education : First, that there should be a systematic selection and organization of the impressions that he is to receive. This is admirably accomplished in the kindergarten. Second, that the first work in the primary schools should be to supplement the work already done in the kindergarten, or to partially fill its place if the child has not been under its influence, 'by opening to him a& materials for thought, in connection with all necessary work, all that which will inspirit and interest ; all that which is wonderful, weird, picturesque, beautiful, and noble, in connection with humanity, nature, and art, 32 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. and at the same time within his mental range ; as, when he studies direction, connect with it some beautiful poem or song on sunset, or some pathetic narration of noble deeds in Arctic regions ; some attractive descrip- tion of that icy wonderland, and its inhabitants with their queer homes and customs.' Thus in every phase of work during these early years, so that this attractive, and also useful fund, may be stored by their active memories and render lighter in both senses, and more interesting all the work of future years. In education, a great deal depends upon the first impressions of the work. The third thought is that in all phases of education, inaccuracies of pronunciation, of sentence construction, of facts, etc., should be rigidly excluded, as their ten- dency is to sink into the mind and remain there. The undeveloped state in the child, of the power to reason^ except in the presence of things^ determines that in his early stages, and in the beginning of many kinds of work in more advanced stages, he is not to learn by any abstract logical process. The teacher, it is true, is to have clearly in mind a logical line of work and adhere to it, but his actual teaching will be fragmentary, changing apparently, and full of illustrations as requir- ed by the needs of individual minds. The real subject is the individual mind, and the prob- lem is how to call forth interest and active thought without making too great a demand upon the logical fac- ulty. To accomplish this, two things are required, one negative and the other positive. The first is, that as a general rule, no attempt should be made to present to THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 33 the mind, at any given time, that which is not needed and can not he nsed at that time, under the thought that it may be^useful hereafter. Usually, that which is present- ed under such conditions does not arouse interest and thought, but becomes useless encumbrance. Nothing should be taught which is not needed and capable of being used at the time, and which is not the best and most easy way of meeting the want. " Wouldst thou possess thy heritage, essay By use to render it thine own! What we employ not but impedes our way, That which the hour creates that can it use alone." —Goethe's Faust. The second requirement is that all early work and in general the beginning stages of advanced work, should be as before intimated, presented to the senses, or 'pic- tured out ' to the mind. The child under such circum- stances is able to reason, to think; but his thinking will be in the presence of things, and his power of abstract thinking, when it does come, will be a natural develop- ment from his sensuous thinking. The usual mistake is to thrust an abstract process of learning upon the child by requiring him to think in the presence of nothing, or of mere words. ' Picture out' to the body's eye or to the mind's eye, is the first principle of early teaching if individual minds are to be made the real subject The general directions under this point are : 1. 'See ; examine what you see; lastly, answer. 2. Make no attempt to remember anything you can not put before the eye, or picture to the mind's eye. Memory is not visible or mental sight ; think in shape. 34 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Examples may tend to set forth these thoughts more clearly. The pupil is asked to describe an apple. Tlie usual tendency is to close the eyes and evolve the answer from the inner consciousness; but the mind's development as it is, and as it is to be, requires that the pupil should picture to himself the thing to be described in as many aspects as possible, one by one, compare it with things most like it; and then present the peculiar points that make it different from other things. The process is : 1. Picture an apple. Put one before the senses if possible; if not, picture it in the mind. 2. Analyze, i.e., note its shape, color, texture, parts — pips, core, skin, juice, etc. 3. Compare with other things. All these things are seen, as soon as the apple is seen, and intelligent sight gives the description required. The untrained mind begins to try to remember what it knows about an apple. The requirement may be to describe a field. This should bring forth the condition at a particular time. The untrained child would evolve from his inner con- sciousness. If the work is done according to the princi- ple under discussion the process would be somewhat as follows : — 1. See or picture to the mind the field: as, time of year — autumn; time of day — afternoon; kind, of day — clouds and sun ; stubble ; ground broken and uneven ; bounded by hills on one side ; trees, small lake, cattle ; direction of view — west. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 35 2. Reflect upon these elements. 3. Describe. Again, the pupil may be asked to state the meaning of 'when.' According to the thought being considered, the first thing to be done is to see it in its relations. This may be done by constructing sentences that picture out the two meanings of 'when,' thus : "When Ft. Sumter was fired upon, compromise was at an end.'* "When he was in the army, he wrote for the press." The word in the first sentence means the exact mo- ment, but in the second it means at various indeter- minate times. It thus appears that the sight of two well-selected sentences in which 'when' occurs, reveals that either a particular moment is meant, or any time in a given period — two very different thoughts.'* 9 is f of what number ? may be asked. The absence in the child of the power to reason abstractly determines what in regard to such work? John Stuart Mill says: ''''The fundaTjiental truths of the science of number all rest upon the evidence of the senses ; they are proved by showing to our eyes, that any given number of objects — ten balls, for example — may by separation and re-arrangement, exhibit all the different sets of numbers, the sum of which is equal to ten. All improved methods of teaching arithmetic to children proceed upon a knowledge of this fact. All who wish to carry the child* s mind along with them in learning arithmetic — all who wish to teach numbers and ^'X.TIUUMa. 36 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. not mere cyphers — now teach it through the evidence of the senses." One who does not hold to this view may attempt to have the child see the relations in the above problem by some such analysis as the following : ■^ is "I- of f . If 9 is f of the number, \ of the number is ^ of 9, which is 3. f of the number equal the num- ber. If \ of the number is 3, | of the number, or the number is 4 times 3, which is 12. Therefore, 9 is | of 12. One, however, who sees clearly that a principle of early teaching is — the relations must be presented to the senses, or pictured to the mind's eye — will put the rela- tions before the pupil in some concrete way : as, oooooo ooo ooo 9 and then ask him what he sees. Among the many rela- tions he will perceive in a way that will enable him to hold it, and also to more readily see other relations, that 9 is i of 12. The teacher who has no opportunity to study psy- chology as given in books, will clearly see this mental fact that is now under view — the rational faculty, the power to learn in an abstract way through the logical faculty is undeveloped in the child — if he studies with care and intelligence the phenomena of his own mind, and the individual minds of the children through the medium of their words, actions, and the play of their countenances. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 37 Such study will also show, as previously indicated, that the power of continuous attention is not possessed by the child. That knowledge will prevent many mis- takes on the part ot the teacher by his consequent per- ception of the truth that attention is but little more to be assumed than a knowledge of the multiplication table, and that it must be taught as a habit, just as the other must as an element of knowledge. The teacher has an important educational principle when he understands that the germ of attention, the capacity to attend," is the condition of education, but that the power to attend closely for any considerable time is the result of education. It will then be manifest that inattention is natural in the child, and that the prob- lem is to determine the kind of teaching that will build up the habit of attention ; the kind that will not foster inattention. Observation having shown the teacher that inatten- tion is natural in the child, reflection will make it clear that among the things by which inattention is fostered are the following: — 1. Apathetic, uninterested demeanor on the part of the teacher. 2. Too little attention to trifles and to beginnings in laxness in recitations, and in disorder. 3. Too much attention to them, and the setting over against each point of inattention and disorder its fixed arbitrary penalty. 4. The concentration of the teacher's attention on the point being discussed in the class, and on the pupil reciting, to the exclusion of the other members. 38 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 5. Failure to train the pupils into careful habits of attentive study. Pupils frequently sit at their desks during their study hours attentive as to the eye, but in- attentive as to the mind. In spirit they are absent, although the eye travels along each line and the words come as images before the mind. Often after a page or more has been conned in this mechanical way the mind awakens to the fact that the thought contained in the words has been in no sense obtained. In all such cases,^ which are not infrequent, the pupil could appropriately say with the poet : My soul to-day, Is far away, Sailing the Vesuvian Bay ; My winged boat, A bird afloat, Swims round the purple peaks remote. This habit will necessarily reappear in the recitation room. 6. Poor arrangement of the class as to its position in relation to the teacher. Some hold that if the class ie standing, the arrangement should be the horse-shoe shape, in order that all may be equally within spiritual touch of the teacher. 7. Inattention to the bodily attitude of the pupil when studying and when reciting. It is said that Lord Byron in preparing to write was as scrupulous in regard to his appearance as he would have been, had he been preparing for a royal reception. In a less degree such was the fact in regard to Washington Irving. And it is generally observed by any one who gives attention to it^ that he writes more logically and more pointedly when THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 39 using pen and ink than when writing with a pencil. These things indicate the law. 8. Too long lessons, and too great a length of school hours. Elaborate the eight points given, and make it clear, why the habit of inattention becomes more firmly fixed by means of them. Omitting all study of psychology as presented in books, if need be, (such study, however, being neces- sary to the ideal teacher,) the close study of the pheno- mena of his own mind on the part of the teacher, and the patient, intelligent, and persistent study of child nature will necessarily equip the teacher with several additional truths in regard to education; with the truths : — 1. That there can be no thinking without materi- als for thought. 2. That there can be no materials for thought with- out observation. 3. That in the beginning of its career the child ob- serves and gathers materials for thought naturally and spontaneously. 4. That very early in his school course, through familiarity with the surface of things, through ignor- ance and repression on the part of his instructors, through memory and rote-work, both the desire and the power to observe are to a large degree non-existent in the average school child. ^^Having by our method in- dticed helplessness, we nuike the helplessness a reason for our method,^'' and continue the cramming and telling pro- 40 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. cess, on the ground that the child can not observe and decide for himself. 5. That the fundamental, and hence the absolutely- necessary first step in conscious education is to implant in the child, first the desire, and second the habit of conscious observation — the habit of consciously gather- ing the material for its thinking. One without the power of accurate observation is not only without the power of gathering the materials for his thinking, but he is also deprived in a large degree of legitimate enjoyment. A person who is not firmly grounded in the habit of observing is in the same con- dition as is one who is ignorant of Latin. Schopen- hauer says, ''One who is without Latin is as a man walking through a beautiful region in a fog. The hori- zon is close about him." A study of the mind of the average pupil will make clear both the practical absence of the power of obser- vation and the absolute necessity for it. Pestalozzi's fundamental principle was, ^'Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge." The power and the benefit of observation, i. e., of the habit of seeing things in nature, art, and books, and reflecting in the presence of them can scarcely be over- estimated. "Turner, the eminent land-scape painter," says an English writer, "was often observed to spend a whole day in throwing pebbles into the water while others were working around him. His power of obser- vation was so great, and his patience and love so un- wearied, that with his trained eye he could find intense interest, and gather lessons above all price from the rip- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. ' 41 pie, and the wave, and the play of light, and harmon- ious discord of varying movements, from the common curves, made by a common stone, falling into common water ; over which the untrained eye and mind could not spend a profitable moment. Before his eyes was spread the ever stationary, ever moving mirror, the changeful eternity of light that flows, the gliding earth- born light of water, with its strange memories of higher worlds, and strange affinities to cloud and sky, free beyond all earthly things to come and go, still loving to borrow, as it moves, brightness from sky, and gleams from cloud, or shore, and welcoming in its bosom, like a living thing, all images that reach it in its course ; he stood and looked upon it, and tried to unlock its secrets, and conscious or unconscious of the full interpretation, caught some glimpses of the great illuminated text of the book of the thoughts of God, appreciated the exqui- site subtlety of the handwriting of speech divine, became a kind of living microscope in his power of seeing un- known beauty, and then handed on to us non-seers the gain of new discovery to be henceforth a part of the possession of the world. A common stone thrown into common water could thus become a prophet, reveal- ing beauty and truth. But to whom does the prophet- voice of stones and water speak ? A careful analysis will show that the great painter, the genius, could see and understand because he had learnt by years of patient work to observe more than others^ The difference in persons as to their power to observe, in the sense in which Pestalozzi uses the tenn, and the value of the habit may be made more vivid by consider- 42 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. ing the following, in which an English school-master converses with two of his pupils concerning their em- ployment of a holiday : Master. "Well, Robert, where have you been walking this afternoon ? Bobert. I have been, sir, to Broom-heath, and so around by the windmill upon Camp-mount, and home through the meadows by the river side, M. Well, that's a pleasant round. a. I thought it very dull, sir ; I scarcely met with a single person. I had rather by half have gone along the turnpike road. M. Why, if seeing men and horses is your object, you would, indeed, be better entertained on the high-road. But did you see William? B. We set out together, but he lagged behind in the lane, so I walked on and left him. M. That was a pity. He would have been company for you. i2. Oh, he is so tedious, always stopping to look at this thing and that ! I dare say he is not home yet. M. Here he comes. Well, William, where have you been ? W. O, sir, the pleasantest walk ! I went all over Broom- heath, and so up to the mill at the top of the hill, and then down among the green meadows by the side of the river. M. Why, that is just the round Robert has been taking, and he complains of its dullness, and prefers the high-road. W. I wonder at that. I am sure I hardly took a step that did not delight me, and I have brought my handkerchief full of curiosities home. M. Suppose, then, you give us some account of what amus- ed you so much. I fancy it will be as new to Robert as to me. W. I will, sir. The lane leading to the heath, you know, is close and sandy, so I did not mind it much, but made the best of my way. However, I spied a curious thing enough in the hedge. It was an old crab tree, out of which grew a great THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 43 bunch of something green, quite different from the tree itself. Here is a bunch of it. M. Ah! this is misseltoe, a plant of great fame for the use made of it by the Druids of old in their religious rites and in- cantations. It bears a very slimy white berry, of which bird- lime may be made, whence its Latin name of viscus. It is one of those plants which do not grow in the ground by a root of their own, but fix themselves upon other plants ; whence they have been humorously styled parasitical, as being hangers-on or dependents. It was the misseltoe of the oak that the Druids particularly honoured. W. A little further on I saw a green woodpecker fly to a tree, and run up the trunk like a cat. M. That was to seek for insects in the bark, on which they live. They bore holes with their strong bills for that purpose, and do much damage to the trees by it. Tr. What beautiful birds they are ! M. Yes ; they have been called, from their colour and size, the English parrot. W. When I got upon the open heath, how charming it was ! The air seemed so fresh, and the prospect on every side so free and unbounded ! Then it was all covered with gay flowers, many of which I had never observed before. There were at least three kinds of heath (I have them in my handkerchief here) and gorse, and broom, and bellflower, and many others of all colours, that I shall beg you presently to tell me the names of. M. That I will, readily. W. I saw, too, several birds that were new to me. There was a pretty grayish one, of the size of a lark, that was hopping about some great stones ; and when he flew he showed a great deal of white above his tail. M. That was a wheat-ear. They are reckoned very delicious birds to eat, and frequent the open downs in Sussex, and some other countries, in great numbers. W. There was a flock of lapwings upon a marshy part of the 44 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. heath, that amused me very much. As I came near them, some of them kept flying round just over my head, and cry- ing pewet so distinctly one might fancy they almost spoke. I thought I should have caught one of them, for he flew as if one of hijB wings was broken and often tumbled close to the ground; but as I came near, he always made a shift to get away. M. Ha, ha ! you were finely taken in then ! This was all an artifice of the bird to entice you away from its nest ; for they build upon the bare ground, and their nests would easily be observed, did they not draw ofi" the attention of intruders by their loud cries and counterfeit lameness. W. I wish I had known that, for he led me a long chase, often over shoes in water. However, it was the cause of my falling in with an old man and a boy who were cutting and piling up turf for fuel, and I had a good deal of talk with them about the manner of preparing the turf, and the price it sells at. They gave me, too, a creature I never saw before — a young yiper, which they had just killed, together with its dam. I have seen several common snakes, but this is thicker in pro- portion, and of a darker colour than they are. M. True. Vipers frequent those turfy boggy grounds pretty much, and I have known several turf-cutters bitten by them. W. They are very venomous, are they not ? M. Enough so to make their wounds painful and dangerous, though they seldom prove fatal. W. Well — I then took my course up to the windmill on the mount. I climbed up the steps of the mill in order to get a better view of the country round. What an extensive pros- pect ! I counted fifteen church-steeples ; and I saw several gentlemen's houses peeping out from the midst of green woods and plantations ; and I could trace the windings of the river all along the low grounds, till it was lost behind a ridge of hills. But I'll tell you what I mean to do, sir, if you will give me leave. M. What is that ? THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 45 W. I will go again, and take with me Carey's county map, by which I shall probably be able to make out most of the places. M. You shall have it, and I will go with you, and take my pocket telescope. W. I shall be very glad of that. Well — a thought struck me, that as the hill is called Camp-mount, there might probably be some remains of ditches and mounds with which I have read that camps are surrounded. And I really believe that I discovered something of that sort running round one side of the mount. if. Very likely you might. I know antiquaries have de- scribed such remains as existing there, which some suppose to be Roman, others Danish. We will examine them further, when we go. W. From the hill I went straight down to the meadows below, and walked on the side of a brook that runs into the river. It was all bordered with reeds and flags and tall flower- ing plants, quite different from those I had seen on the heath. As I was getting down the bank to reach one of them, I heard something plunge into the water near me. It was a large water-rat, and I saw it swim over to the other side, and go into its hole. There were a great many large dragon-flies all about the stream. I caught one of the finest, and have him here in a leaf. But how I longed to catch a bird that I saw hovering over the water, and every now and then darting down into it ! It was all over a mixture of the most beautiful green and blue, with some orange colour. It was somewhat less than a thrush, and had a large head and bill, and a short tail. Af. I can tell you what that bird was — a kingfisher, the cele- brated halcyon of the ancients, about which so many tales are told. It lives on fish, which it catches in the manner you saw. It builds in holes in the banks, and is a shy retiring bird, never seen far from the stream where it inhabits. W. I must try to get another sight at him, for I never saw 46 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. a bird that pleased me so much. Well — I followed this little brook till it entered the river, and then took the path that leads along the bank. On the opposite side I observed several little birds running along the shore, and making a piping noise. They were brown and white, and about as large as a snipe. M. I suppose they were sand-pipers, one of the numerous family of birds that get their living by wading among the shal- lows, and picking up worms and insects. W. There were a great many swallows, too, sporting on the surface of the water, that entertained me with their motions. Sometimes they dashed into the stream ; sometimes they pur- sued one another so quickly that the eye could scarcely follow them. In one place, where a high steep sand-bank rose directly over the river, I observed many of them go in and out of holes with which the bank was bored full. M. Those were sand-martins, the smallest of our species of swallows. They are of a mouse-color above and white beneath. They make their nests and bring up their young in these holes, which run a great depth, and by their situation are secure from all plunderers. W. A little further I saw a man in a boat, who was catch- ing eels in an odd way. He had a long pole with broad iron prongs at the end, just like Neptune's trident, only there were five instead of three. This he pushed straight down among the mud in the deepest parts of the river, and brought up the -eels sticking between the prongs. M. I have seen this method. It is called spearing eels. W. While I was looking at him, a heron came flying over my head, with his large flagging wings. He lit at the next turn of the river, and I crept softly behind the bank to watch his motions. He had waded into the water as far as his long legs would carry him, and was standing with his neck drawn in, looking intently on the stream. Presently he darted his long bill as quick as lightning into the water, and drew out a fish, which he swallowed. I saw him catch another in the same THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 47 manner. He then took alarm at some noise I made, and flew away slowly to a wood at some distance, where he settled. M. Probably his nest was there, for herons build upon the loftiest trees they can find, and sometimes in society together, like rooks. Formerly, when these birds were valued for the amusement of hawking, many gentlemen had their Iieronries, and a few are still remaining. W. I think they are the largest wild birds we have.' M. They are of great length and spread of wing, but their bodies are comparatively small. W. I then turned homeward across" the meadows, where I stopped awhile to look at a large flock of starlings which kept flying about at no great distance. I could not tell at first what to make of them ; for they rose altogether from the ground as thick as a swarm of bees, and formed themselves into a kind of black cloud, hovering over the field. After taking a short round, they settled again, and presently rose again in the same manner. I dare say there were hundreds of them. M. Perhaps so ; for in the fenny countries their flocks are so numerous as to break down whole acres of reeds by settling on them. This disposition of starlings to fly in close'swarms was remarked even by Homer, who compares the foe flying from one of his heroes, to a cloud of stares retiring dismayed at the approach of the hawk. W. After I had left the meadows I crossed the corn-fields in the way to our house, and passed close by a deep marl pit. Looking into it, I saw in one of the sides a cluster of what I took to be shells ; and upon going down, I picked up a clod of marl, which was quite full of them ; but how sea shells could get there, I cannot imagine. M. I do not wonder at your surprise, since many philoso- phers have been much perplexed to account for the same appearance. It is not uncommon to find great quantities of shells and relics of marine animals even in the depths of high mountains, very remote from the sea. They are certainly 48 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. proofs that the earth was once in a very different state from what it is at present ; but in what manner and how long ago the changes took place, can only be guessed at. W. I got to the high field next our house just as the sun was setting, and I stood looking at it till it was quite lost. What a glorious sight ! The clouds were tinged with purple and crimson and yellow of all shades and hues, and the clear sky varied from blue to a fine green at the horizon. But how large the sun appears just as it sets ! I think it seems twice as large as when it is overhead. M. It does appear so, and you probably have observed the same apparent enlargement of the moon at its rising. W. I have ; but pray what is the reason of this ? M. It is an optical deception depending upon principles which I cannot well explain to you till you know more of that branch of science. But what a number of new ideas the after- noon's walk has afforded you ! I do not wonder that you found it amusing ; it has been very instructive, too. Did you see nothing of all these sights, Robert ? R. I saw some of them, but I did not take particular notice of them. M. Why not ? R. 1 don't know. I did not care about them, and made the best of my way home. M. That would have been right if you had been sent on a message; but as you only walked for amusement, it would have been wiser to have sought out as many sources of it as possible. But so it is — one man walks through the world with his eyes open, and another with them shut ; and upon this DIFFERENCE DEPENDS ALL THE SUPERIORITY OF KNOWLEDGE THE ONE ACQUIRES ABOVE THE OTHER. I havc kuowu sailors who had been in all quarters of the world, and could tell you nothing but the signs of the tippliug-houses they frequented in the different ports, and the price and the quality of the liquor. On the other hand, a Franklin could not cross the Channel with- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 49 out making some observations useful to mankind. "While many a vacant, thoughtless youth is whirled throughout Europe without gaining a single idea worth crossing a street for, the observing eye and inquiring mind find matter for improvement and deHght in every ramble in town or country. Do you then, William, continue to make use of your eyes ; and you, Robert, learn that eyes were given you to use." 1. Determine the scope of the term observation, used in the Pestalozzian sense. 2. Consider critically the foregoing conversation as express- ing an instance of the habit and the power of observation. 3. How can arithmetic be taught so that the tendency shall be to produce the habit exemplified in William ? In Robert ? The same inquiry in regard to geography, reading, etc. It may be claimed, however, that the difference be- tween 1,he pupils cited is not one of education but of in- heritance. But what would that mean other than this : that for generations back of William, his ancestors had been so trained in accurate habits of observation, that the habit was transmitted to him, just as his physical characteristics were. The mind of a pupil is, to a degree, an art product, representing in its peculiar nature, the education and training not only of z^s period of existence, but of many generations in the past. A child's mind, with its peculiar habits and powers is the joint product of the culture of its own brief time, and of congenital endowments resulting from the culture of its ancestry for ages back ; so the difference between two persons in respect of their power to observe and to enjoy because of that power, is, after all, the result, at least to a large degree, of education, conferred some- where along the line of life. 6 50 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. In Smiles' Self Help, it is truthfully said, ^^It is the close observation of little things which is the secret of success in business, in art, in science, and in every pursuit of life. Human knowledge is but an accumulation of small facts, made by successive generations of men, the little bits of knowledge and experience carefully treasured up by them growing at length into a mighty pyramid. Though many of these facts and observations seemed in the first instance to have but slight significance, they are all found to have their eventual uses, and to fit into their proper places." Arising from the inter-relations of all of the foregoing thoughts, several conclusions present themselves : Mind is the real subject of education ; the individual mind of each child ; this individual mind in its two clearly marked stages of preparation and of use. The teacher, in order to become an artist, or even a fair mechanic, must study this plastic, living material. It may be studied in its general characteristics, as presented in books ; or in a more individual sense, as embodied and manifesting itself in the teacher himself, and in each of his pupils. Even if the teacher is unable, on account of means or time, to study mental phenomena and laws in the first way, in the second sense they are ever present to the mental gaze. Even the unaided study of mental phenomena, as exhibited by his own mind and by those of the pupils, leads the teacher to many educational truths ; among which are: THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 51 The imagination and the spontaneous memory are active in early years. The child does not learn by the abstract logical fac- ulty. The child is naturally inattentive ; the power of at- tention is the result of education, not the condition; though embryo attention is the basis of all growth in mental power. The child has been trained away from his natural ten- dency to observe. The heart is the avenue to the intellect no less than is the intellect to the heart. The individual mind of the child is the true subject of the educational process ; the necessity for its study is absolute ; the opportunity for its study is ever present. — Such is the clue of Ariadne, and without it the teacher hopelessly gropes. ^^'S^'^^^fetsJK A^^S^"^^ mi CHAPTER II. THE AIM OF EDUCATION. "What are a nation's possessions ? The great words that have been said' in it; the great deeds that have been done in it." A distinguished Chinese scholar who was travelling in the United States was asked what he considered to be the most prominent American trait. He quietly and promptly replied, "A lack of honor." '•Conduct is three-fourths of life."— Matthew Aenold. "But you were always a good man of business, Jacob," faltered Scroogei who now began to apply this to himself. "Business !" cried the ghost wring. ing its hands again. "Mankind was my business. The common welfare was my business. Charity, mercy, forbearance and benevolence, were, allV my business. The dealings of my trade were but a drop of .water in the comprehensive ocean of my business !"— Dickens' Christmas Carols. "And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." —John, 8: 32. ARGUMENT. The greatest idea in a thing is its final purpose. Purposes are of two general kinds — a purpose in the thing itself, and its re~ lated purpose. A plant has a purpose in itself and a related! purpose (to animals and to men.) An animal has a purpose in- itself and a related purpose (to man.) Man has a purpose in himself and a related purpose (to other human beings and tO' the Infinite.) Such things as the church, the state, the family^ business society, the school, a school board, a superintendent,, (as such,) a teacher, (as such,) a course of study, a recitation^ etc., have no final purpose in themselves — they have only a THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. 53 related purpose. Their final purpose is found only in the final purpose of man's being. The final purpose of a thing is that alone which can determine the conditions of its existence and •growth, and the co-ordination of its parts. For example, the final purpose of the plant — the purpose in itself — is to perpetu- ate its species. This determines the conditions of its process of growth — light, heat, moisture, etc. — allowing no more or others, permitting no less or other thaH those demanded by its nature. In like manner the co-ordination of its parts — root, stem and leaves — is determined. Such is the case in respect to the animal ; and so it is with man. The final purpose of the child determines the conditions of his growth in school, i.e., the functions of the school board, fiuperintendent, teacher, nature of a course of study, whether he is to do his own thinking, or the teacher think for him, the relative training to be given to intellect, sensibility and will, the purpose of any branch of study, the purpose of a recita- tion, etc. The conditions of a school and the co-ordination of its parts are determined by nothing in itself. They are determined by its final purpose (final cause.) The final purpose or cause of the school is found in the final purpose or cause of the child's being. The purpose of the child's being is to free himself from the bonds of his selfishness, prejudice, ignorance ; to remove the antithesis that exists between his subjective nature and objec- tive thought ; to elevate him to his species, (rational freedom.) The attainment of rational freedom, or the process of true education, involves the passage of mind through mind (ob- jective thought) into mind. (Mind is a universal substrate.) For example, Whittier is an embodiment of life; Snow Bound is an embodiment of Whittier's life to a degree ; the child is an embodiment of life. The education of the child, by means ■of Snow Bound, consists of the passage of the life of Whittier through Snow Bound into the life of the child, transforming it to a degree, implanting in it some of the elements of Whit- tier's nature, and to that extent elevating the child to his species. The same process of life passing through life into life is to be «een in the study of the cotton-gin, the magnolia tree, in the studv of any idea whatever. That is, education deals with life, not lessons, and any process of education is a failure that bat- tens mainly on books — viewing their mastery as an end. Edu- cation, dealing with life must distinguish between the child's 54 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. higher or life power and his automatic or mechanical power, in order to determine what studies minister most to this life power because of the presence of the elements of the higher fife in them, and what ones do so to a less degree, as well as to decide in what attitude of mind to approach a subject. The four things herein adverted to must be studied for a two- fold purpose — to make clear the aim of school and education^ to aid in seeing the thought in things. JN order to adequately comprehend the purpose in education, one must understand, at least to a degree : 1. The ideas : a. Final Cause. b. Rational Freedom. 2. The judgments : a. Mind is a universal substrate, i.e., everything is, in essence, mind or thought. b. Man has in his single nature a dual power — instrumental-power and character-power^ the latter consti- tuting man as man, or feeling, in distinction from man as a machine, or intellect. c. Character-power is the higher element in man — the life. Whittier gives expression to this thought by saying in reference to Webster, "When faith is lost, when honor dies, The wa« is dead !" d. Character-power is sensitive, retiring, in the presence of force, or alien feeling. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 56 The relative value of instruction and education ; of information and training ; of a preparation for business in a technical sense, and a preparation for business as defined by Marley's ghost ; of intellectual-power and character-power, i.e., of brain-education and heart-educa- tion is, as indicated, to be comprehended through an insight into the foregoing ideas and judgments, to which the mind is now to address itself. FINAL CAUSE. As shown by Porter, causes have been divided into four classes : material, formal, efficient, and final. ^Material causes are the material elements or princi- ples which compose any existence, whether the matter is bodily or spiritual. The cause termed formal is the property or properties which constitute the essence, logical content j form. Thus used the cause is an element or constitutive principle. Efficient causes are the working causes, or those agents which palpably bring about an efiect. The fined cause, is the design which is conceived as impelling and directing the action of working causes, until the result appears, e. g., if one forms a purpose, the result, when made actual is the end of a series of actions or events. In this way the word end or final comes to mean a purposed result. Thus the final cause of a series of actions is the result of the series. The pur- pose is called a catise for the reason that it is conceived when formed as originating or setting in motion the 56 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. series of acts or events necessary to its realization. Thus the final cause of a series of actions is the purpose or thought which gave rise to the series. On account of this double view the idea is termed a final cause, i. e., a cause which beginning as a thought works itself into a fact which is the end or result of the series of agencies set in motion because of the thought.' By Aristotle the material cause was termed the raw material, the underlying thing; the formal cause, the true nature of the thing; the efficient cause, that whence the beginning of motion is; the final cause, that on account of which a thing is. In Everett's Science of Thought it is said "Where a process is carried on by means of parts co-operating for their own mutual support, or for the promotion of a common end, this composition of parts is called an or- ganism and the end for which they co-operate is called a final cause. The cause, although it no longer exists as cause, is fulfilled in the effect. The end is more really the cause than the beginning, for, in the end, the cause finds first its real and complete existence. The end for which all the parts of an organism work together — termed the final cause — is really the cause of the organ- ism. If one goes to a city his object in going is the cause of his movement rather than the locomotive that took him there. A seed is buried in the earth. The warmth and moisture make it sprout into life ; yet if it had not this tendency to life, this final cause embodied in itself? the sun and moisture would have been in vain. The final cause of the seed is to produce the plant. Its ex- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 57 istence is fulfilled in that. The final cause is the real cause. The great difl&culty in regard to final causes is that they are always mingled with working or efficient causes. A final cause has no objective existence except in its result, and this result has been produced directly by efficient causes, while it — the final cause — has only been working invisibly behind and through these. In all actions that are the result of mind or intelligence, there must be final cause ; for intelligence is the acting for a final cause, and hence every intelligent act must have a final cause." In nature, in life, in history, in all organisms, in the school, in the recitation, in the study and behavior of the pupils, final cause is hidden and at work. It is the essence of the school, of the prepara- tion for school work, of the recitation, and of the whole subject of the children's actions, and of discipline. The real teacher always seeks for, and is able to recognize its presence. The aim of education in its limitation to the period of preparation — the period of family and school influence — is to assist the child toward the final cause of his exist- ence, not by giving him knowledge merely or mainly, but mainly by sending him forth equipped with the desire and the power to attain knowledge. The aim of education in its full sense, i. e., through the instrumen- talities of the family, school, church, business society and state — including both the period of preparation and that of use or action is to confer upon each individual truth-freedom, reason-freedom, rational-freedom. The stages in the process are : 58 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 1. Presentation of material for the mind's action. 2. Action of the mind upon the material, and consequent acquisition of knowledge. 3. Mental strength and skill, intellectual, emotion- al and volitional, arising from such action, and the assimilation of knowledge. 4. A partial insight, arising from the strength and skill, into that knowledge which is of most value. 6. A desire to enter into possession of the knowl- edge thus opened to the mind. 6. In the high school, mental discipline and knowledge become substantially co-ordinate aims. 7. In the college, the mastery of the sciences and the liberal arts, i. e., knowledge, becomes the main aim, with mental discipline as the necessary at- tendant. 8. In the professional schools of universities, and in technical schools, the mastery of knowledge and the acquiring of skill necessary to special vocations. 9. The unconscious or unsystematic acquiring of knowledge in the various spheres of life. 10. The assimilation and employment of this knowledge. 11. The perception of the truth, growing out of all the foregoing. 12. The truth-freedom resulting — "Ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." § RATIONAL OR TRUTH-FREEDOM. Freedom is, in essence, obedience. True freedom is obedience to natural law, whether physical or spiritual ; THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 59 but all freedom, whether true or not, is obedience — obe- dience to something. Freedom is of two kinds, as is bondage — physical and spiritual. True physical freedom is that in which the body is, through a training into a condition of uncon- scious habit, of second nature, instantly, as occasion re- quires, obedient to all its physical laws. Real physical freedom requires that the obedience shall be uncon- scious, automatic. Spiritual freedom is likewise of two kinds : 1. Caprice-freedoUy or obedience to caprice, prejudice, ignorance, i.e., bondage. 2. Rational freedom^ or obedience to truth, i.e., to knowledge, to reason, to the feeling "I ought." The first is the freedom of a Henry VIII., of an Eliza- beth, of a Trinculo and of a Caliban. In such freedom, which in truth is the veriest slavery, the baseness of the master makes the servant baser still, and Trinculo gives Caliban wine, and Caliban thinks him a god, and that he has entered into freedom. There is no hope of real advancement in such a state of things; rebellion against the true master is a necessary consequence ; he must be got rid of, or Trinculo and Caliban can not rule. It is a spectacle of caprice-freedom to see, in any phase of life, the Trinculos and Calibans conspiring against the true lord of the island — reason, truth, the "I ought." Rational freedom is the habitual joint right action of the intellect, sensibility and will. The will in one sense is not free ; in another sense it is absolutely free. It is 60 THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. not free in the sense that it can not avoid choosing. It is its very nature and essence, however, to choose ; and it fulfills the function of its being in choosing. The proper conditions being supplied, the will must, of necessity, choose. Yet it is free in that it has absolute power in its choosing. If its choice is in accordance with reason, it is rationally free. ^ If the choosing of any given individual is habitually in accordance with the principles of justice — each shall render an equivalent for that which he receives — uni- versal brotherhood — mutual love — he is a rationally free member of the social system. But each of these princi- ples is, in essence, love or kindness, and if one, in all circumstances, acts in obedience to this, the highest ele- ment of his emotional nature — the one that links him most closely to the Divine — for God is in form or essence love — he is rationally free. The thought that all other principles have their root in this one — love or kindness — and that therefore, the nobler elements of man's emotional nature are really the man is clearly seen in this : "The night has a thousand eyes, The day but one ; So the light of the whole day dies At set of sun. The mind has a thousand eyes, The heart but one ; So the light of the whole life dies When love is done." The transcendent thought for the teacher is that when force, fear, or any alien power has driven the child's higher nature into its inacessible retreats, the eyes of THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 61 the intellect are made less acute, just as the stars — the eyes of the night — would lose their silvery luster if the sun were no more. The aim of education, then, is heart-education. It is habitual obedience to the higher elements of man's emotional nature ; obedience to the 'ought' The first recorded instance of caprice-freedom, was the choosing of knowledge by the first man, in the Gar- den of Eden. This following of the 'I want' instead of the 'I ought' — the exaltation of knowledge and intel- lectual power over obedience to the principle of love — constituted the Fall of Man. In like manner the exalt- ation of dogmatism and verbalism over the essence and reality of things constituted the fall of education, and demanded and required in the fourteenth century 'The Revival of Letters.' And just as Henry V. thought the defection of Lord Scroop to be like unto a second fall of man, so by many it is held that there has been a second fall of education, since in its period of preparation — the period of the family and the school, especially the latter — it seems to exalt mere form, words, definitions — a hardened crust of verbalism over the reality, the thought; since it seems to make, as the end of the school, preparation for business in the sense in which Scrooge used the term, rather than that in which the Ghost used it; since the goal appears to be facts, knowledge, per- cents, or at best intellectual power, rather than habitual obedience to the higher emotional nature — character- power. If intellectual power were the true aim of edu- cation, there could be but slight objection to Mephisto- 62 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. pheles, or to Faust in his early career. (It is evident from the illustrations that the terms intellect and intel- lectual power, are employed in a limited sense — the rational phase falling, substantially, outside the terms.) The real aim of education is to restore man by dethroning intel- lectual power and knowledge, and by enthroning man's real being — his emotional and volitional powers. The true end is to relegate facts to their proper sphere — that of materials mainly, and intellect to its proper station, that of a servant or instrument — the highest instrument it is true — and to make character-power, the power of "having withstood all, to stand," the goal. The final cause of education, then, is rational freedom. Rational freedom unites the powers of habit, rational intelligence and sensibility. Taken singly, the cultiva- tion of neither of these powers gives rational freedom. The exclusive development of either one leads from it. Thus intellectual power in the limited sense, is not rational h-eedom though it is involved in it. The keenest intellectual power, as above indicated, may exist side by side with caprice. The cultivation of the mere in- tellect may lead one to think that that is the one thing needful, and that his actions are not concerned, and that therefore, their character is a thing indifferent; this forms the habit of not obeying what he knows to be the truth, hence he is not truth-free. The training of the will alone is not rational freedom, though that is in it. Habit, without knowledge and conscious motive, is the characteristic, not of a rational being, but of a machine ; acts performed under its in- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 63 fluence have no moral character, whether their results are in accordance with morality or not. This seeming habit of morality cannot be permanent and sufficient. The routine conduct to which it leads may endure for a while, as long as circumstances do not interfere with obedience to the habit ; but it will never stand against the rush of personal prejudices and interests, when these clamor, as they inevitably will, for a hearing. There is wanted intelligence to give such acts a moral character, and motive to secure their performance against all op- posing tendencies. The sensibilities alone will not give rational freedom. Apart from habit, the performance of actions must always be difficult, and uncertain ; while there is also needed the intelligence to prevent good motives from being blind guides. The process in rational freedom is : 1. The perception of that which is fit or right in human action. (Intellect.) 2. The arising of the feeling 'I ought.* (Feeling.) 3. The determination to obey the feeling 'I ought.' (Will.) 4. The resulting action, mental or physical. (Prac- tical.) This is obedience to the true self, hence it is freedom. True obedience to another person or to an institution of which one is a member, is choosing the same end as that other person, or as the institution. Such obedience is freedom. No one can be forced to act in a certain way, or to choose a given purpose; each one chooses his own 64 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. purpose ; hence, the third point indicated above is the element of freedom. Every one has freedom, in the sense that he is free to make either the choice that he does or some other one. The free spirit cannot be en- chained. Man acts in freedom. If he obeys the 'ought' he acts rationally, and hence has rational freedom. "Rational freedom is that state in which one is when he does right, or acts in obedience to the 'ought'; for this alone is the dictate of the reason. In this state the intellect discerns the true, the sensibility feels the beau- tiful, and the will chooses the good ; hence, there is a blending of the true, the beautiful, and the good in the character." Character-power of this kind is the true aim of education. That is, the aim and scope of that civil- izing process through which the child passes in his con- tact with the family, school, church, business society, and state, is the attainment of rational freedom. But the very term freedom, in this connection, presupposes a previous bondage. Bondage to what ? In the conversa- tion of the descendants of Abraham with Christ, they referred it to the physical power of the ruling body. In that conversation, they, however, catch a gleam of a new doctrine — that imperfect humanity is in bondage to itself, to its own belief, ignorance, and prejudice. The true aim and effect of the social system— family, school, church, business society, and state — is the deliv- erance from that bondage. This is the removal of the antithesis that exists between the objective and the sub- jective, by merging the external to any one into his sub- jective. In the lower stages of civilization the moral THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 65 and political restrictions of the family, school, church, business, and state, are looked upon as objectively de- termined ; the social system being viewed as something into which one is born, but which is subjectively differ- ent from that one. In such a state "the individual feels himself bound to comply with requirements of whose justice or propriety he is not allowed to judge, though they often severely test his endurance, and even demand the sacrifice of his life.*' In a state of higher civiliza- tion, though an equal sacrifice be demanded, the indi- vidual feels that the institutions are just and desirable, and that the laws and restrictions are at one with his own subjective nature, and such as his own rational choosinsj would have produced. This is the harmoniza- tion of the objective and the subjective. The true aim of education in the stage of preparation is to harmonize the subjective of each individual in the family and the school with the objective, in order to fit him for a like harmony in the church, business, and state. This would remove, among other things, the ground for the Chinese traveller's statement. MIND A UNIVERSAL SUBSTRA TE The first part of the word nature — not — is the same as the first part of the words natal and native, and means bom. The last part, ure, is from the I^atin ura, meaning to be or necessary to be. In its original sense, therefore, the word nature signifies that which is to be born. That is, nature is in essence energy, and that which outwardly appears is merely a manifestation, the sub- 66 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. stratum of which is life, spirit, mind. But mind is an energy of three-fold variety — intellect, sensibility, and will. Nature, then, is at heart intellect, sensibility and will, and for a human being to comprehend nature in whole or in part, is for him to transmute it into thought. The true standpoint is that whatever God has put forth in audible or visible form is in truth God himself to a degree, and for an individual to comprehend, to really know any such form means that the intellect, sensibility, and will of God, which to a degree lies concealed in it, is to come forth and touch the mind of the learner, and coalesce with it, and in a manner lift the mind of the learner up to itself. This passing of the divine life into the human life is the education that nature affords. God thought a thought, and made that thought manifest in visible form. That visible form is called North America. What, then, in reality is North America but thought — a thought of God? What is the lily of the valley but the life of the Divine Being made manifest to a degree? Such, indeed, they are, and such also, is each bird of of the air, and beast of the field. Christ, while on earth, was God manifest in the flesh : in like manner God has manifested Himself in the visible forms of nature. Nature is in essence a thought of God. Hence the meaning — about to be bom ; for the mind of God, which, to a degree, is ensconced in every form of nature, is about to come forth and touch the mind of the true learner, and transform it. But to whom does it come forth ? Only to the one who has the power to break the spell. Only THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 67 to the true prince — the one whose spirit is in harmony with the life, the thought concealed. The child himself is a thought of God. Each human being is the intellect, sensibility, and will of God shadowed forth imperfectly and faintly. In order then that the teacher may assist in the education of the child, he must be able to think the child, i. e., to comprehend the life, the embodied mind to that degree which will enable him to call forth the mind of the child and cause it to touch the thought that lies hidden in his own (the teacher's) expressions, and in the object of study ; for example, the llama, or the heliotrope. But to whom does the child-mind thus come forth ? Only to the true prince, the one whose spirit is in harmony with it, and who has therefore, the power to reach it in its otherwise inaccessible retreats. Again, art is the intellect, sensibility, and will of man, manifest in merely another form ; poetry, prose, paint- ing, architecture, music, sculpture, and all done by man, are embodiments of certain portions of man's life set in action. Whenever a man does anything, he puts forth a part of himself, of his mind, and if it is under- stood it must be re-transmuted into that. And these mind-creations are naturally subject to the same conditions as the life of which they are the out- come, and, as far as they go, represent it as faithfully as if they were separate living beings. Spiritually there is one Bartholdi; externally there are two (really many) — one, full-orbed, in which the life or mind is most free, most self-determining, lives, moves and has its being in 68 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Paris; the other, partial, in majestic iron and copper stands on Bedloe's Island and is called Liberty Enlight- ening the World. The one who is to really know the Bartholdi statue must transmute it into thought. If the learner is of kindred spirit, the three-fold mind of the artist that is embodied in the statue will touch his mind and it will be as it was no more, for at the touch of kindred spirit the inventive genius that lies hidden in the statue will awake and live again in the life of the learner, and to some extent, depending upon his native endowments,* he is evermore a Bartholdi. So everything that divine or human artist has produced, a chair, a pencil, a table, a house, the wren, the rose. Mount Blanc, Evangeline or Hamlet — is in its reality, mind or thought, and if thus contemplated and reached, becomes a living crucible, an educating force. But otherwise it is a mere dead form. Everett says, "When it is said that all being is ob- jective thought, it is meant that all being exists to the infinite mind as thought, and that all being may exist to any mind as thought, so far as that mind is develop- ed enough to grasp it ; the limit in every case being not the nature of the outward object, but the capacity of the mind itself." All being is animate with enchanted life for all who have the power to break the spell. The true aim of education is to assist the child to the power of viewing all being as thought ; of reading the high and varied emotions of noble minds, and thereby THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 69 kindling high and varied power in himself. For then only is he educated. INSTRUMENTAL AND CHARACTER POWER. In the Louvre, at Paris, is a renowned statue of a slave. The attitude and proportions proclaim the artist, and the resignation and intelligence depicted in the face are striking. Yet all who have beheld it and studied it agree that the finest touch (it being the statue of a slave) is the absence from the face and bearing of that finer, subtler something which always indicates the real man. It stands there the embodiment of a perfect ani- mated machine. Mechanical power of a high order is evident in it, but it is clear that the lash, or the will of the master, has driven into exile those higher feelings which constitute the real being, and which always enter into man's true work. It is an illustration of a hard mechanic power of mind and body when the real being has retired at the presence of alien feeling, or compulsive force. There lies within every child and in every work of man, in addition to its mechanical side, a finer nature which is the true being, and which, viewed as power, may be called character-power. The mechanical side exists for this^ and may therefore be termed instrumen- tal power. In education, the character elemdnt in the child, or in man's work, must be reached. But the slave owner might as well try to call forth the finer nature with his lash as for the mere intellect to expect to win its way by force into the heart of visible thought. 70 THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. ^Both deal, and deal successfully, if strong enough, with the husk, the mere mechanical side of that which they approach; both fail, if not strong, even in that; and both stand forever outside the walls of the home in which true power and beauty dwell. Education is not concerned with the external except as an instrument; as an end it is concerned with the life, the character- power. Should this be granted, it becomes clear that all work which deals with the externals, as, words and their pronunciation in reading as an end; rules, defini- tions, and technical terms in language as an end ; fig- ures, and rules for manipulating them, in number, as an end, fails to fulfill the demands of higher training; and, also, that all hard, unfeeling, irreverent temper, unfits both the teacher and the pupil, however strong in intellect they may be, for the higher ranges of power, which can only be attained by giving and taking the thrill of true feeling, and by an endeavor to enter into communion with each other, and with the life embodied in the thing studied. This conception of power as two- fold — mechanical power and living power — manifesta- tions of the child's being, both contained always in greater or less degree, balanced or unbalanced within him, establishes the first principle of true education. It forms the basis of educational science. One consequence appears at once — that child-life can only be trained to its highest perfection hy contact with life and thought^ or by processes of life; and hence, however useful or neces- sary certain forms of skill, and certain branches of knowledge are, they do not belong to the teaching and THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 71 training of the higher life, except in a subordinate de- gree, because of the absence of the very elements of the higher life in them.' * Test the common school branches by this thought. *' The aim of education is not to prepare for life in any technical sense, but to raise the standard of life itself." Locally it is to remove the ground for the Chinese traveller's answer. The necessity for the removal is evi- denced in that the press of the country recently set forth as remarkable the fact that a business man having failed some years since, and having paid at the time fifty cents on the dollar, had just completed the payment in full, though not compelled by law to do so. In the record, moreover, the press unconsciously gave testimony to the popular sentiment that such payment was optional, and therefore notably honorable. But it was not optional — man's higher nature compelling it, the man simply per- forming his bounden duty in compliance with the plain business principle — " Every one shall render an equiva- lent for that which he receives." Bodily strength is a very great power, but to live for the body only is to be a mere animal. Intellectual strength, also, is a very great power, but to live for the intellect only is to be a Mephistopheles. Both these powers are necessary and must be culti- vated, but as instruments, not as supreme. However much the intellect may have usurped the throne, it may nevertheless be united with the most destructive, or the meanest qualities. Intellectual power has no necessary ♦ E, Thring. 72 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. connection with good (except as indicated in "a" and "6" under the second "2" following). There is an adage that "Whatever you would put into the life of a nation, you must first put into the schools." The experiment is yet to be faithfully tried in the schools, whether they can so train to true life as to keep the nation from falling, and maintain it in its true rank; whether by their work they can insure that the nation shall seek after true life, rather than mere knowledge and material prosperity; that it shall rightly use the two servants of the real being — bodily and intel- lectual strength. The danger to the nation is correctly fore-shadowed in "The Message of the Nineteenth Cen- tury to the Twentieth," by Ex-President White, of Cornell. It is self-evident that any truth belonging to man as man, must belong to every individual, and that no truth belongs to man as man that is limited to a small num- ber. This must hold good whether by truth is meant means or end. The universal is synonomous with truth pertaining to man and man's nature. All men must be able to attain the end of existence, if there is an end of existence for man ; that is, the end must be universal. All pupils must be able to reach the aim of school edu- cation if, as is held, there is a universal aim. Extensive hi(ywledge can never he the possession of every individual; excellent power of doing skilled work, and true feeling as a motive power, can. The nature of things makes the ex- tremes of perfect training, and of producible knowledge, to a certain degree antagonistic ; i. e., the time spent in THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. 73 questioning with a view to train, can not be employed in pouring in knowledge with a view to turn it out again on demand. The importance of this distinction is not seen, however, in the best pupils. They succeed to a creditable degree under either system. What results to the average, or to the poor pupil, is the real question. With them, the vain attempt to get a certain amount of knowledge results in emptiness, and a stolid unbelief in education. The attempt to get training results in the native strength being improved, as far as it is capable of improvement, and in as much skill being acquired as the case admits of. The first ends in a diseased state of mind ; the second in a healthy condition however weak it may be. The true aim of education, especially during the period of preparation, is therefore three-fold : 1. To train the character-power; that is, '^to set the loving and the hating on the right track." 2. To train the intellect (subordinate) and the body (more subordinate); i.e., the instrumental powers. 3. To obtain knowledge ; primarily as the material for thought, and secondarily for future application. The relation of the intellect and the character-power is: 1. Oppositional, in that the highest intellectual activity at any given moment, excludes the highest emotional activity at that given moment, and vice versa^ in accordance with the principle that the mind has but a given quantum of energy. 2. Supplementary : 74 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. a. Whatever increases one's knowledge of things as they are, leads to an appreciation of truth. 6. Increase of mental power increases the power, to judge on moral questions. c. When the will, affections and conscience are cultivated with a view to independent action, the intel- >^lect must be cultivated so as to impose proper limits upon that independence. d. In proportion as the intellect is cultiyated, the sensibilities and will — the real being — must be trained to carry its judgments into effect. The truth of "c" and "d," as given at the beginning of the chapter, is made evident in the consideration of instrumental and character-power. Consider the aim of education as above presented, in the light of the following, and weigh these by that : "Man is the last, the most complete, and the most excellent of living creatures. The final end of man lies beyond this Mfe. This life is three- fold, viz : Vegetative, Animal, and Intellectual or Spiritual. The first nowhere manifests itself outside the body ; the second stretches forth to objects through the operations of the senses ; the third is able to exist separately as well as in the body, as in the case of angels. This life is only a preparation for an eternal life. The visible world is only a seed-plot, a boarding-house and training-school for man. There are three steps of preparation for Eternity. 'Se, et secum omnia, nosse ; regere ; et ad Deum dirigere.' It is accordingly required of man that — He should know all things. He should have power over all things, and over himself. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 75 He should refer himself and all things to God the Source of All. These requirements are summed up in the words Eruditio, Virtus, seu Mores Honesti, Eeligio, seu Pietas, — Knowledge, Virtue and Piety. All else is merely accidental and extrinsic. The seeds of these three are in us by Nature, i.e., our first original and fundamental nature, to which we are to be recalled by God in Christ. It is as certain that man has been born fit for the understand- ing of things, the harmony of morals, and the love of God, as that there are roots to a tree."— Comknius. "In the natural order of things, all men being equal the vocation common to all is the state of manhood, and whoever is well trained for that, cannot fulfill badly any vocation which depends upon it. Whether my pupil be destined for the army, the church, or the bar, matters little to me. Before he can think of adopting the vocation of his parents, nature calls upon him to be a man. How to live is the business I wish to teach him. On leaving my hands he will not, I admit, be a magis- trate, a soldier, or a priest ; first of all he will be a man. All that a man ought to be, he can be, at need, as well as anyone else can. Fortune will in vain alter his position, for he will always occupy his own."— Rousseau. "Elementary education, in his view, means, not definite in- struction in special subjects, but the eliciting of the powers OP the child as preparative to definite instruction — it means that course of cultivation which the mind of every child ought to go through, in order to secure the all-sided develop- ment of its powers." — Payne's Festalozzi. "Education has for its chief object moral culture, the forma- tion of character ; and for this end it is above all necessary that there should be freedom of individual movement, room for the development of personality."— Froebel. 76 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. "What the education is that will best enable a man to edu- cate himself, ought surely to be the paramount inquiry. Is it Instruction, or is it Training, or is it both ? Is it the amount of elementary knowledge communicated, or is it that exercise of mind by which the pupil acquires the power of educating himself? Till within the last few years, the term used to define Education was Instruction. Give elemen- tary and religious instruction, it was and is still said, and this will be sufficient. Teach the poor to read the Bible, and forth- with you will make them good, holy, and happy citizens — kind parents, obedient children, compassionate and honorable in their dealings ; and crime will diminish. Hundreds of thou- sands of our population have received such an education. Are such the results ? Have our political advocates for educating the poor — has the public hit upon the right kind of education, or upon the proper mode of communication f Can teaching or in- struction alone produce the results which are so fondly antici- pated? Can all the telling, or teaching, or instruction in the world enable a man to make a shoe, construct an engine, ride, write, or paint, without training, that is, without doing f Can the mere head-knowledge of religious truths make a man good without the practice of it, without the training of the aff'ections and moral habits ? Will teaching to read, write and cast accounts, with a little knowledge of geography and grammar, cultivate the child — the whole man f Is this process of mere head-knowledge likely to up-root self- ishness, pride and vanity, and to substitute in their stead, kind- ness, generosity, humility, forbearance and courteousness, without the practice being enforced in suitable circumstances, as well as the theory communicated? The boy may repeat most correctly, and even understand in a general way, the pre- cepts, 'Avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath,' 'Render not evil for evil,' 'Be courteous' ; but see him at play among his companions, neither better, nor perhaps THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 77 worse, than himself, un-siiperintended, and his conduct un- reviewed by parent or school-master, and what do these scrip- tural injunctions avail him when engaged in a quarrel ? Reason is dormant, passion reigns for the time and the repeated exer- cise of such propensities strengthens the disposition, and event- ually forms evil habits.'^ — Stow. "Education comprises all the influences which go to form the character. In early infancy, before the child has acquired the power over thought and language which fits him for direct in- tercourse with those around him, he is educated by the expe- rience which he acquires through the natural activity of his instincts. In childhood and youth his education proceeds under the superintendence of the family circle and the school. In mature years he is again thrown upon the resources of self-education, but now with the power of controlling these for definite ends ; and he finds in the intercourse of society, in his own reading and reflection, and in the ministrations of the Christian church, the means by which his nature is to reach its destined measure of perfection. The education of childhood is often spoken of as if it were pre-eminently the education of the whole man. It is not so, however ; the education which the man carries on of himself in maturity, when he has come into the possession of all his powers, is that which determines his character and position. The peculiar importance of the education of child- hood lies in the consideration that it prepares the way for the subsequent self-education of manhood. It brings the man into command of his faculties, and enables him to use his oppor- tunities of progress ; it equips him with intellectual, moral and practical principles, but for which he would pass through life without any purpose of self-improvement, and without the power of profiting by its experience." — Currik. "The aim of the educationalist is not the giving of informa- tion, nay, not even instruction, though this is essential, but 78 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. mainly discipline ; and the aim of discipline is the production of a sound mind in a sound body, the directing and cherishing of the growth of the whole nature, spiritual and physical, so as to make it possible for each man within the limits of the capacity which God has given him, to realize in and for himself, with more or less success, the type of humanity, and in his relation to others to exhibit a capability for wise and vigorous action. This result would not be attained by pressure. By anticipating the slow but sure growth of nature, we destroy the organism. Many and subtle are the ways in which nature avenges itself on the delicate, complicated machinery of man, but avenge itself somehow it will and must." — Laurie. " The true view of education is to regard it as a course of training. The youth in a gymnasium practices upon the horizontal bar in order to develop his muscular powers generally ; he does not intend to go on posturing upon horizontal bars all through life. School is a place where the mental fibres are to be exercised, train- ed, expanded, developed and strengthened. * * It is the very purpose of a liberal education, as it is correctly called, to develop and train the plastic fibres of the youthful brain so as to prevent them from taking too early a definite 'set,' which will afterward narrow and restrict the range of acquisition and judgment. I will even go so far as to say that it is hardly desirable for the actual things taught at school to stay in the mind for life. The source of error is the failure to distinguish between form and the matter of knowledge ; between the facts themselves and the manner in which the mental powers deal with facts. * * * It is the purpose of education so to exercise the facul- ties of mind that the infinitely various experiences of after-life may be observed and reasoned upon to the best efiect." — Jevons. "The conclusions of the honest and intelligent enquirer after the truth in this matter, will be something like the following : — That education (from e and duco, to lead forth) is development ; THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 79 that it is not instruction merely — knowledge, facts, rules — com- municated by the teacher, but it is a discipline, it is a waking up of the mind — growth by a healthy assimilation of whole- some aliment. It is an inspiring of the mind with a thirst for knowledge, growth, enlargement — and then a disciplining of its powers so far that it can go on to educate itself. It is the arousing of the child's mind to think, without thinking for it; it is the awakening of its powers to observe, to remember, to reflect, to combine. It is not a cultivation of the memory to the neglect of everything else ; but it is a calling forth of all the faculties into harmonious action. If to possess facts simply is education, then an encyclopaedia is better educated than a man." — Page. "The central thought of my doctrine assumes that the ulti- mate or total object of the teacher's profession is not the com- munication of knowledge ; or even, according to the favorite modern formula, the stimulating of the knowing faculty, if by the knowing faculty we understand a faculty quite distinguished and separate from the believing faculty, the sensibility, and the will. It has been generally admitted, for a long time, that ed- ucation does not consist in inserting facts into the pupil's mem- ory, like specimens into a cabinet, or freight stowed in the hold of a ship. But not only must we dismiss those mechanical re- semblances that liken the mind to a store-room, a museum or a library; we must also carry our conception of learning -above the notion of an agile and adroit brain. Education does not consist in provoking bare intellectual dexterity, any more than in presenting ascertained truth to the intellectual perceptions ; or in both together. Education involves appeals to faith, to feeling, to volition. The realm of positive science shades off on eveiy side — not by abrupt transitions, but by imperceptible gradations — into the realm of trust ; nor does science consult her dignity more than her modesty, when she undertakes to sharpen the partition-line of hostility between knowledge and belief. 80 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. So does the true training of the mind involve an engagement of the affections, including taste, or the sense of beauty, and love, or the sense of good, both the mind's freedom and its harmony being dependent on a healthy heart. And so, again, the understanding and the feelings wait on that brave executor, the will ; and nobody can be wise who leaves its scholarship neglected." — Huntington. :y'^^sr'»^'^^?iv!K /iT.,f^(^t2S^ --^^-^1 CHAPTER IIL THE PRINCIPLE AND THE CONDITION OF EDUCATION "I LKAHNED early in life that my business was to grow." Margaret Fuller. "Our chief want in life is somebody who shall make us do what we can; rach a one is a friend. " Emerson. rr every one is able to attain a great amount of knowledge ; but every one is capable of growth. Growth is the fundamental principle of education, and its condition is exercise. Activity, or exercise, is the law of development, either mental or physical; and each of these two kinds has its reflex influence upon the other. "Learn to do by doing," is the practical expres- sion of this thought. Comenius says, ^^Let things that have to he done, be learned by doing them. Mechanics and artists do not teach 82 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. their apprentices by disquisitions, but by giving them something to do. They are taught to make anything by making it, to paint by painting, to dance by dancing, etc. So we should teach to write by writing, to read by reading, to sing by singing, to reason by reasoning, etc." The several elements of the child's nature grow by exercise suitable in kind and amount. By physical ex- ercise the body is invigorated and developed, and by no other conceivable means. By the exercise of its several faculties, likewise, does the mind attain its power to use them. No faculty can interchange with any other. The faculty of language is developed by speaking ; of observation, by observing ; of imagination, by imagining; and of reason by reason- ing. If but one is exercised, but one is educated ; if one is over-exercised, the excess does not flow over to the benefit of another. The moral powers, also, require their own appropriate exercise. Morality being a quality of actions, it is by regulation of the conduct according to its laws that morality is inculcated. Intelligence does not secure it. If the pupil is to be educated to the truth, he must be led to act and to speak the truth ; to honesty, he must be led to act honestly in cases where his honesty is tried ; to diligence, he must be caused to apply himself to strenuous work. Observation has made it plain that the mind's faculties grow by exercise, but this has been thought to be .pe- culiarly true of thought and attention^ which are energies eminently dependent upon the will. Education is a growth, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 83 a habit. Hence no one can be said to know how to com- mand his faculties who has not the habit of it. This state is attained only by those who exert their faculties to the maximum degrees, so that this state becomes habitual. Mere theory will never produce these habits. All teach- ing of pupils how to study, which does not demand of them their maximum efforts in practice^ is ineffective. "The arm of the smith does not grow strong by his look- ing at the hammer, but by his wielding it." Intellectual growth comes not by thinking how* to study, but by men- tal application in studying up to the measure of the highest degrees. Difficulty in school tvork is objected to only by those educators who hold to the theory that the aim of school education is the accumulation of knowledge; to those who hold to the theory that school education has for its end the conferring of power and skill, the highest stretch of difficulty appropriate to the mind of the pupil, is seen to be a requis- ite. Nay more. Even, if an idea is too difficult to be mas- tered by the pupil, it may nevertheless be selected as an exer- cise-ground^ and the consideration of it confers upon him a high degree of power to think. *In the application of these thoughts to education it is necessary to advert to the reflex influence which in any given psychological process runs back from action to its source. Action, in satisfying a desire, in gratify- ing an interest, in expressing an emotion, by a reflex influence strengthens, purifies, idealizes these forms of feeling, and through them their corresponding forms in thought. Hence, action is a most powerful instrument in education for quickening all forms of thought-growth. 84 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Through action, the subjective becomes objective; the inner assumes an outer existence, in terms of the outer. Thus an opportunity is afforded for testing the correct- ness of the inner conceptions, with reference to their outer counterparts, by comparison. The contrast be- tween the original outer counterpart, and the outer re- production of the conception, appears as inaccuracies, deficiencies, exaggerations, etc., that require correction. Thus outer action pushes conception (subjective action) steadily and surely nearer to objective truth. In the case of the will, action appears as conduct, which as practice, exerts a powerful reflex influence in fixing the will into habit, and establishing the character. The primary conditions, then, under which psycho- logical growth occurs, are : first, an active external, capa- ble of making impression; second, an active internal, capable of receiving these impressions, and of controlling the external for subjective needs. Hence, the work of education is to adjust surroundings with reference to the subjective needs, so as to call forth appropriate activity on the part of the pupil.'* It is evident, therefore, that the doing, in the educa- tional process, is of two kinds : 1. Mental. (Thinking, feeling, willing). 2. Manual. (Preceded, accompanied, and followed by mental doing). , Under the first, it has been said that "the great mis- take of education is the attempt to learn to do one thing by doing something else.*' *W. N. HAILMANN. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 85 If reading is the association of thought with expres- sion, the pupil can not learn to associate thought and expression by dealing with the pronunciation of words. If arithmetic is "the limitation of things by ones,'* the child can not learn to do this by studying figures ; and likewise in regard to the other subjects. The manner in which outward action may press sub- jective action, i.e., conceptions, nearer to objective truth, appears to a degree from the following : * Liquid Measure, — The teacher should be furnished with gill, pint, quart and gallon measures, also a box of sand, or some water. The children may be asked to name some measure they know, and to point it out ; with that for a starting-point, proceed to other measures. If a quart is first selected, let another child find another measure, and tell, if he knows, what it is. Then let him find out for himself, by measuring the sand or water, how many of one are the other. If a gallon is next selected, let some one see how many times he can fill the quart and pour into the gallon, the children watching and counting. Proceed in a similar manner with the other measures. Ask what articles are measured with these measures. Who use them. Have the children buy and sell quantities of that which is measured by liquid measure. Curved Lines. — Provide the children with short pieces of stiff, yet pliable wire. Ask them to bend the wire into different positions. Have them make similar lines * XDX70ATI0N BY DOIMO, BY ▲. JOHNSON, B. L. KKLLOOO A 00. SQ THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. on the board. Try to have them make all the positions themselves — curved, crooked, broken, waved, spiral, circle, and semi-circle. If they do not do so readily, direct their attention to objects that contain them. Show a ring, arch, spring, draw a spider's web, waves, etc. Refer to straight parallel lines, and then have them make with the wire, and then draw parallel curved lines. Forvij (With Clay.) — Have each pupil furnished with a small piece of board, and a piece of moistened clay. Have the ball or sphere made first. What kind of sur- face has it? How many hemispheres can be made of it? What part of a sphere is a hemisphere? How many halves in a sphere? In an apple ? In anything ? How many faces has it? What kind? What edges? Let them place the two halves together, then press it, and make an oblate-spheroid; then make it round again, and taper one end for an ovate-spheroid. Return again to the sphere, and cut off each side for a cube. Review the shape as to faces, edges and corners. Roll it out for a cylinder, cut off the sides for a square prism ; cut in two for a triangular prism. Then form pyramids, cones, etc. Let them make the shapes of different kinds of fruit, using little sticks for stems ; for strawberries they could make little indentures with pins for the seeds. Have a talk about each kind of fruit, and when practicable pre- sent the real fruit. Have a lesson on the bird's nest, and let them mold it in clay, make the eggs, and place them in the nest. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 87 Let them give the names of and talk about little birds that they know. A great variety of objects can be made and a little les- son on each given. The children may also exercise their own ingenuity and devise many new forms. Form, (With Paper.) — Let each child be given some short, narrow pieces of colored paper and cards, or small pieces of paste-board or box-covers, the size of cards. Dissolve five cents' worth of gum tragacanth in a bowl of water, and pour into small butter-plates, placing one plate for the use of two or three children. The children may paste the papers on their cards, using all the positions of straight lines, angles, and figures enclosed with straight lines which they have learned. The teacher may have these previously drawn upon the board for children to copy. As it will take many days for them to finish their sets, they may have small rubber bands to slip over their cards; the top card may have the name of the pupil written upon it, so that each child may get his own package each time. When a set is completed it may be laid aside for review, and at the close of the term given to the child. When the children become expert in this work, they may be furnished with muslin scrap-books, which may be when filled, laid aside for exhibition. Geography y (Third Year.) — Have a board 4x5 feet made, with a rim around the edge an inch high. Upon this board, which should be adjusted to a table or desk. 88 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. put half a bushel of moulding sand, such as may be had from a foundry ; or if this is impracticable, a half bushel of moist loam, sifted, will answer the purpose well. With the use of blocks, toy houses, trees, animals, large and small pieces of looking glass, green tissue paper, narrow blue ribbon or tape, small twigs for evergreen trees, shells, and stones, the principal definitions in geo- graphy may be practically and impressively taught. When the class is small, it is best to have all of them gather around the moulding board ; but when the class is large, a part may gather round the board, while the others observe and suggest. The teacher should be care- ful to give every pupil his proportion of time at the moulding board. In giving an idea of the sea-shore, place a large piece of looking-glass on one side of the moulding board, and fill the rest with sand. Tell the children you will have a talk with them about the earth or world in which they live. On what do ships sail? On what are houses built? What two things are found on the earth ? What have we to represent water on this board? What the land? Who will find the place where the land and water come together? Does anyone know what we call the place where the land and water come together? Give the term coast or shore. When sailors go far off on the water, where do we say they have gone? What may we call this water? What may we call this shore or coast? How many have ever been to the sea-shore ? How does the water of the sea taste ? If they do not know, place some salt in water and have them taste it. Of what use THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. 89 is the sea? Speak of the water rising, forming into clouds, and returning in rain, etc. In a similar manner may be considered valleys, mountains, plains, deserts, etc. THUS, GROWTH, BASED UPON THE ALL-COMPREHENSIVE LAW OF ACTIVITY, OR GROWTH BASED ON EXERCISE UPON APPROPRIATE MATERIAL — THE EXERCISE BEING GIVEN FOR THE PURPOSE OF THE GRO^VTH, AND ONLY SECONDARILY FOR THE SAKE OF THE MATERIAL- IS THE CENTRAL THOUGHT OF EDUCATION. •*-»^^^<<-*' -^mmMmMm^^ CHAPTER IK TIIK K\ > r]'GiiOUND IN EDUCATION. •■\'\ Mi.l iluMi. ■•! ,l(.ti(.l knew." Tho Hurpii ; ilKM-o In anything; dial hlM i)iircntH (loiuii IjiKt .\ Ih'H \\o luiH ())Ku> SZi<»N^TK /i?^*!Sr^rzS^ CHAPTER V. THE KINDERGARTEN. Those that do teach young babes, Do it with gentle means and easy tasks. — Shakespbabe. That which issues from the heart alone Can bind the hearts of others to our own. — GOBTHK. "Die Kindheit von heute 1st die menschheit von morgen." THE GENESIS OF THE KINDERGARTEN, inquiry, however brief or imperfect, into the genesis of an educational system, for which so much is claimed as for Froebelism, can be altogether without use. Nothing can be rightly understood but by considering its connection with other things, since "to understand'* is to perceive the relations of ideas. Indeed, to limit one's attention to Froebel's method itself, with- out ever attempting a more comprehensive view, is like- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 97 ly to contort rather than intensify the mental vision. In the intellectual firmament, reflected light plays as im- portant a part as in the physical. All systems may be said to have descended from pre- vious ones. Of thought, which is a product of life as of life, there is no spontaneous generation. The ideas of one generation are the mysterious progenitors of those of the next. Each age is the dawn of its successor, and in the eternal advance of truth. There always is a rising sun, And day is ever but begun. It is thus true that there is nothing new under the sun, since the new grows from the old, as boughs grow from the tree ; and though errors and exaggerations are, from time to time, shaken off, yet "the things which cannot be shaken" will certainly abide. Carlyle says, "Literature is but a branch of religion, and always participates in its character." It is still more true that education is a branch of psychology, and takes its mould and fashion from it. For it is evident that as philosophy, in successive ages, gives varying answers as to man's chief end and summum bonum^ so education, which is simply an attempt to prepare him thereto, must vary accordingly. Humboldt hints that the vegetation of whole regions bespeaks, and depends on, the strata beneath ; and it is certainly true that we cannot delve long in the teacher's plot without coming upon those moral questions which "go down to the centre." 1. The dawn of the New Education arose after the 98 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. night of the middle ages. During those long centuries, in education, obedience without intelligence was the pupil's dreary task, and self-denial without love his ideal of Christian duty. The ''dim religious light" of the Church gave hardly a glimpse of the beautiful world of Nature without. 2. On this "opaque of nature and of soul" the light of the New Learning broke in. Men's eyes were sub- denly opened to see "a beauty that was Greece, and a grandeur that was Rome," and to reverence once more the wisdom and piety of the classic past. A more eclec- tic intellect, a more genial sympathy, a more Hellenistic conception of life came upon Western Europe, and, Thus deeply drinking in the soul of things^ They became wise perforce. Education changed accordingly. It began to recog- nize that man has to be trained for this world as well as for the future one ; that though the way to heaven is strait, ''not every strait way leads there ;" and that in Physical Nature's vast museum was offered a field more worthy of man's faculties than the wandering mazes of scholasticism. 3. Strange to say, however, the Spirit of the Reform- ation suj0fered an early divorce from that of the Renais- sance, and in the hands of the Protestant, on the one hand, as of Jesuits on the other, education crystallized, or rather congealed, into methods, which for two hun- dred YEARS have been USED BY ALL TEACHERS, AND CON- DEMNED BY ALL REFORMERS. The publication of Rous- seau's Emile was a protest, and its date marks the next THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 99 great epoch. Rousseau demanded that man should be treated as an organism, and that education should be a development of all the faculties of that organism. He discarded the prejudices of society and the dogmas of authority, and took as his watchwords, Nature, Reason, and Individuality. 4. But the crude audacities of the French philoso- pher had, after the Revolution, to be disentangled and woven into order by German labor and insight. How the philosophy of Kant or Hegel contributed to the re- sult, we would not attempt to trace out. But notably from the fertile and sympathetic mind of Richter came forth in full luxuriance the ideas which Froebel plucked and arranged with such discernment. Richter delighted to preach the doctrine of an ideal-Man, and that educa- tion is the harmonious development of the faculties and dispositions of each individual. He would give ample scope especially to the fancy and imagination of a child, in whose hand "the simplest wand is like Aaron's rod which budded." No one, moreover, knew better than he, that (in Carlyle's words) "A loving heart is the begin- ning of all knowledge. This it is that opens the whole mind, and quickens every faculty of the intellect to do its fit work." 5. Inspired by the same principles, Pestalozzi and Froebel devised their methods. Pestalozzi may be styled the father of popular education. He would develop the human being from within outward; would give primary importance to the receptive and perceptive faculties; and held self-activity to be the great condition of pro- 102 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The tables are three feet by eighteen inches, ruled in inch squares; or six feet by two feet, with a line one inch from each edge. The reason for these measurements ? In the kindergarten are the head teacher, a mature woman, and young girls, one for each class of ten or twenty. These young girls are as older sisters to the pupils, and take a loving and intelligent interest in all that concerns them. They carry into execution the plans of the head teacher, and consult with, and are advised by her upon all points. What two reasons are there for the employment of young girls in the kindergarten ? The apparatus devised for the kindergarten consists of balls, wooden cubes, paper, and various other mate- rials that allow the children to exercise their physical powers and their imagination. The occupations with these gifts are strictly graded, and by means of them the children become somewhat familiar with the elements of music, form, number, size; the properties and uses of objects ; language; and the beginnings of moral training. Show in what way each of the above points is gained. The occupations having been pursued for a time, the children repair to the large room for games. These games have a three-fold object : THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 103 To give physical exercise. To call into exercise the imagination. To cultivate the moral nature. How in the games may these objects be accomplished ? The games of the kindergarten are founded on the observed habits of children. They have specifically, in relation to the body, a two-fold purpose : To give exercise to the voice and body in general. To train some particular sense or muscle.'* GIFTS AND OCCUPATIONS, t Kommt, lasst uns unsem kindem leben. — Froebel. Froebel, adopting the principle of Comenius, that nature does nothing per saltum, held that education should be so conducted that it shall have no abrupt transitions. It is to be expected, therefore that each step in the occupations shall be a logical sequence from the preced- ing. Such is the case. The various occupations are developed one from another in a perfectly natural order, beginning with the most simple and concluding with the most difficult. Taken together, therefore, they sat- isfy all the demands of the child's nature in respect both of physical and mental culture, and lay a sure foundation for all subsequent education of school and of life. ♦kindergarten manual, by J. 8. LAURIE. f KINDEROAETEN HANDBOOK BT P. A. STEELE. 104 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Systematic work, though apparently slow, is always econom- ical in the end, as it avoids the waste of time and power which is incurred in finding and connecting the lost threads of unsystematic work. Thus, a sure basis in lessons and exercises on Form will prepare for a study of those branches in which a knowledge of form is re- quired, as geometry, drawing, geography, etc. In the kindergarten the children's work begins with materials that are whole, substantial, and undivided, and proceeds to parts, to the less substantial, and to the divided. The first are more easily seen, are more tangible, and therefore plainer to the capacity of the young child. Hence the solids form the first group of the occupations. These are followed by planes, which form the basis for several series of occupations and designs. The lines, which are the edges of the surfaces, become the next material. From the line, the passage is to the point, represented by the end of the line, and appearing in the occupation termed pricking. In this the points are holes, which are ranged in rows or lines, and thus lead again to the outline of a surface. In the reverse order the surface ascends to the solid, and the circle of consecutive occupations is thus completed. The kindergarten occupations would therefore develop in the following order : 1. Solids — ball, cube and cylinder— gifts one to six. 2. Surfaces — Wooden and paper planes. 3. Lines— sticks, lines drawn on slates and paper, rings, thread. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 105 4. Points — produced by pricking, or represented by- peas in peawork. Ascending from points to lines and surfaces, solids are reached, which may be given to the children in an un- finished condition, or as shapeless material, so that they may make their own solids, with clay and other plastic materials. FIRST GIFT. The first gift consists of six worsted balls of the rain- bow colors, with strings attached. It is said that Froebel selected the balls as the first gift because he wished to found all the toys used for his games upon a mathemat- ical basis, and because the spherical shape of the ball is the simplest and most perfect form of all solid objects, and is that in which all other forms are contained. They became the first gift also because he noticed that a ball is the first object a mother gives to her child as soon as it is able to play, and because it seems to be a favorite even with large children. In compliance with the principle that in education there should be no abrupt transitions, it is to be expect ed that tliis first gift forms the connection between the family and the kindergarten. By its use in the family the child learns the primary and the secondary colors and to express himself in cor- rect language concerning the various powers and move- ments of the ball. In the kindergarten he finds his old gift exhibiting new powers in the hands of numbers in- stead of one. If the child is timid, he is allowed to 106 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. observe the game or occupation until he shows a disposi- tion to join it. This is on the principle that no forcing it to be attempted, but that the teacher is to watch for the first sign of inclination, and then call it into exercise. The balls are taken out for use somewhat as follows : All stand in a ring, and the balls are brought out by some of the children, chosen from those who volunteer, and they are handed gently from one to another until all are supplied. The advantage of this ? The following may be given as specimen exercises with this gift : The children by direction hold the balls above the head, in the right hand and then in the left. Again the ball is held in both hands in front of the body, and then gently raised above the head, and lower- ed to the floor, etc. "What is gained by the first exercise ? What by the second ? When some skill has been gained in these exercises but before the children are wearied, the teacher tells some little story which the movements illustrate, as, the balls represent birds picking up crumbs from the ground and carrying them to their young; or they are the cargo of a boat and the children are handing them up to men in a ship, etc. Then a song is sung in which the balls are spoken of as birds, cargoes, etc. The balls having been given out as usual the teacher finds that here is, for example, a red one. She asks how THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 107 many have balls of the same color, who can point out anything of the same color in the room, name things of the same color in the room, name things of the same color out of doors, at home, etc. A timid child is asked to show his ball and the same kind of work is taken with it. After a consideration of color, number is con- sidered by having the balls of different colors counted as held; then all of one color, e.g., green, placed in a circle and counted ; a circle of another color placed out- side of that and counted ; then both counted, etc. The balls are placed and retaken in perfect order, and songs and stories accompany the exercise as before. The children stand side by side in the circle and at the word of command or song, as, 'The soft ball loves to wander From one hand to another,' pass the ball from the right hand to the left and from the left to the next child's right, thus each receiving the ball of each and passing it on. The ball may be imagin- ed to be other things, as a child, a bird, etc. In which case the song changes to The little child loves to wan- der,' etc. In regard to exercises it is to be understood that both the teacher and the pupils are to frequently invent them, governed by the following thoughts : — 1. The various parte of the body, both singly and in combination are to be exercised in a gentle, graceful manner without undue fatigue. 108 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 2. The appropriate moral and intellectual faculties are to be dalled into use and trained by arousing the dor- mant ones and directing any that are taking the wrong direction into right channels. 3. The exercises are to be linked to previous work in order to bring in the element of association. What advantages arise from having the pupils invent exer- cises ? This gift may form the ground work of exercises in language upon various topics. For example, the children may be led to express freely the qualities, actions, and changes of position of the ball ; to imagine the ball with its string to be a pendu- lum and enter into a conversation concerning clocks; to suppose it to be a potato or apple, and themselves to peel, cook and place it in a plate upon the table, after which they converse concerning manner of holdinsj the spoon, knife and fork, and other points in table eti- quette. Again, the ball may be imagined to be a grape, cur- rant, cherry, etc., and may thus open the way to a con- versation about the vine, bush, or tree ; or it may be imagined to be a seed in the ground, and the sprouting of seeds may be talked about. These topics would naturally lead to conversation and songs concerning the gardener and his work, Spring, Autumn, etc. The ball may also be imagined to be a bird and held in the hand as in a nest. This may lead to a conversa- tion about birds, their homes, habits, etc. Or the ball THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 109 may be thought to be an egg in the nest, hatched, and the young bird cared for and taught to fly, etc. Thus the children acquire a real interest in animals and their habits — the true foundation of a reverence for life and living things. How may this last theme tend to develop reverence for the Creator and His highest creation — man ? It is to be understood that the range of subjects suit- able for language exercises is by no means limited to these suggested, nor to this gift. The aim is to show that this — the most simple gift — is, in the hands of a thoughtful, sympathetic teacher, fitted to cultivate the hand, senses, and voice; and to call forth the idea of number, language, the power of imitation, sympathy, politeness and reverence. Among rhymes suitable may be given the following : 1. For the directions — "Look ! the balls swing to and fro ; Ne'er too fast, ne'er too slow, Swing to left, swing to right, Swing together in our sight." 2. For plants— "Winter's storms and frosts are over, Trills the lark at early dawn ; Guelder-roses, springtime's snowballs, Scatter snow-flakes on the lawn." 3. In connection with themes to awaken reverence — •'We sow the seed in early spring, When the rain comes mild and sweet; It lies safe hid from the chilly rime, From the stormy wind and sleet. 110 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. "It grows, and it spreads its tiny roots, In the earth so cool and light ; But ever its buds and leaves look up To the sunshine, warm and bright. "So does our Maker plant us here In the world, to live and grow ; Let us, like the flower, look up to heaven. Though set in the earth below." How does this gift supplement and react upon the family and its training ? How does it prepare for the school ? In what work of the primary school may this gift be used to advantage? SECOND GIFT. The central thought in the first gift is color ; in the second, form. Is this in accord with natural development ? The principle that there is to be no abrupt transition, but a gradual procedure from simple to complex, pre- pares the mind for the second gift — the wooden ball, cylinder, and cube — in which is exemplified clearly an object, its opposite and their mediative. What training may be gained in taking out the gift ? Deter- mine a set of directions. The first work in the second gift is the comparison of the hard with the soft ball. In this comparison the children learn the meaning of such words as light, heavy, hard, soft, rough, smooth, etc. As to sound, the hard ball will be found to produce a sharp sound, when it strikes upon the table ; this will suggest to the imagina- tion a hammer, or some other solid tool, and may lead to imitation of, and conversation concerning the work of blacksmiths, tinsmiths, carpenters, etc. The children THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Ill should be led to see what the soft ball is best fitted to do and what the hard, together with the reason. After a comparison of the two balls, the study of the cube is commenced. It is found that while the ball moves readily, the cube does not, and this fact is fixed by some such expression as the following :— " This is the ball that runs away, This is the cube sitting still all day." The children are then led to point to the difierent faces, edges and corners and to give them their names; they are then counted, after which the ball and cube are compared in respect to these characteristics. The edges and faces are then measured and the result fixed in the mind. In this work the children become familiar with the terms height, breadth, and depth. At all stages the idea being considered is viewed in connection with familiar objects, as when speaking of points (corners) and lines, they are to be pointed out in the room, in nature, etc. The cylinder is then to be compared with the cube and the ball. What points of likeness and difference will be found ? What work may be done with the axes and diameters of the ball, cube and cylinder? How? In this gift the child gains some elementary concep- tions in regard to motion and resulting appearance. In what way may the gift lead to this ? As in gift one the imagination is called into exercise at every stage. Thus, the cube may be imagined to rep- 112 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. resent a house, table, sheep, etc.; the cylinder, a roller, a man, etc.; the ball, a wagon, train, mouse, etc. The cube with a stick placed upright in it, may repre- sent a fort with a flagstaff, and supplying a paper flag the children are led to converse concerning a fort, its use, and those who live in it; a cube with a stick in it may also form a carpenter's mallet, and thus lead to a familiar talk about the carpenter, his tools and his work. A song of the carpenter and his useful labors may be sung, and his motions imitated. The imaginative exercises of this gift may be much extended. The progress of the child is as follows : 1. He observes places and persons present. 2. He becomes able to think and speak of them when they are absent. 3. By means of what experience has shown him of distance and persons, he is able to think of places and persons that he has never seen. The construction work of gift two should give this natural growth such exercise as shall systematically de- velop the powers of mind, and at the same time give the child valuable physical and moral truths. Exercises such as the following will tend to do this: — A short stick with a paper sail converts the cube into a boat, and a sail may be taken along a river, thus furnishing the occasion for a conversation upon the river, its waters, its banks, fish, etc.; or the boat may be made larger, called a ship, an^ launched for an ocean voyage. The imaginary voyage will form the ground for talks on storms, waves, sea-birds, icebergs, etc. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 113 Voyages maybe made to Holland, Spain, Brazil, Cuba, etc., obtaining from each its principal productions. The relative distances to these regions is to be indicated by the time occupied; and the cargoes form subjects for object and language lessons. After the children have become familiar with the idea of journeys and voyages to distant places, by connection with objects in common use, they may be led to picture these places in imagination, and thus lay the foundation of geography. The ship's voyage along a coast may be imagined, the character of the coast pictured, and the towns described and named. Pictures from geographies and periodicals will aid much in this work. The imag- inary track of the ship along a coast may be traced upon the board, or in moulding sand; by such work the out- line of a region may be made familiar, and the use of a map learned. This work should be accompanied by lessons on place, distance, measurement, etc. Several children may combine to build with their gifts. A square may be formed of four cubes ; on these two or more cylinders may be placed to represent a fac- tory chimney, monument, telegraph-post, light-house, etc. A conversation is thus prompted concerning those who are employed at such places, what they do for us, what we should do for them, etc. How does this gift supplement and react upon the family and its training. How does it prepare for school ? In what work of the primary school may this gift be used to advantage ? . 114 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. THIRD GIFT. The purpose of the third gift is to train the mind and the hand by means of exercises in form, number, con- struction and design. The gift is a two-inch cube, divided once each way so as to form eight one-inch cubes. This gift forms a contrast to the second gift, in- asmuch as in this one the whole is divided, while in the other the cube, sphere and cylinder are, each, undivided wholes. The connecting link, or mediative, is the cube- shape of the third gift. At about three years of age a child shows a wish to ascertain the cause of things. It attempts to take ob- jects to pieces, and to alter their form in order to dis- cover new peculiarities in, and fresh applications for them. After examining their exterior forms, it wants to see their interior, and by putting the parts together, either to restore them to their original form, or to form something new. This is the reason why a child of that age is in the habit of breaking to pieces its toys, and of preferring to play with the pieces rather than with the whole toy ; and for that reason the divided cube is pro- vided at this stage, since, while it satisfies this desire, it is not easily destroyed. With this, and with the succeeding gifts, forms of knowledge, forms of utility or life, and forms of art or beauty, are produced. Forms of knowledge are the mathematical forms. Forms of utility are those used in real life, as the chair, table, sofa, bedstead, etc. Forms of art are creations of the imagination, including espe^ THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 115 cially symmetrical forms, such as architectural designs, designs for carpets, wall paper, etc. As in the second gift the taking out and the replacing of the gift form exercises of great value. Prepare directions for taking out, and for replacing. What is to be gained by such exercises ? The work with the third gift consists mainly of exer- cises in : Comparison in form. Number. Construction or building. Designing. The first exercise is to examine, measure, describe and name the gift. All points of likeness and difference as compared with the second gift are then discovered and stated. The work in number is mainly counting. It is taken somewhat as follows : 1. There being ten gifts upon the table the pupils first touch and count all the faces, corners, and edges of each cube; and secondly, count the cubes thus : one, two, three, etc., to ten ; and ten, nine, eight, etc., to one, each X^upil touching and counting his own. 2. The left half is drawn away from the right half by each pupil, and the parts are compared as to size and each part compared with the whole as to size and num- ber. The term half is then applied. 3. The halves are counted to twenty and then back to one, by ones and by twos, as one half, two halves, three halves, etc.; twenty halves, nineteen halves, etc. 114 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. THIRD GIFT. The purpose of the third gift is to train the mind and the hand by means of exercises in form, number, con- struction and design. The gift is a two-inch cube, divided once each way so as to form eight one-inch cubes. This gift forms a contrast to the second gift, in- asmuch as in this one the whole is divided, while in the other the cube, sphere and cylinder are, each, undivided wholes. The connecting link, or mediative, is the cube- shape of the third gift. At about three years of age a child shows a wish to ascertain the cause of things. It attempts to take ob- jects to pieces, and to alter their form in order to dis- cover new peculiarities in, and fresh applications for them. After examining their exterior forms, it wants to see their interior, and by putting the parts together, either to restore them to their original form, or to form something new. This is the reason why a child of that age is in the habit of breaking to pieces its toys, and of preferring to play with the pieces rather than with the whole toy ; and for that reason the divided cube is pro- vided at this stage, since, while it satisfies this desire, it is not easily destroyed. With this, and with the succeeding gifts, forms of knowledge, forms of utility or life, and forms of art or beauty, are produced. Forms of knowledge are the mathematical forms. Forms of utility are those used in real life, as the chair, table, sofa, bedstead, etc. Forms of art are creations of the imagination, including espe- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 115 cially symmetrical forms, such as architectural designs, designs for carpets, wall paper, etc. As in the second gift the taking out and the replacing of the gift form exercises of great value. Prepare directions for taking out, and for replacing. What is to be gained by such exercises ? The work with the third gift consists mainly of exer- cises in : Comparison in form. Number. Construction or building. Designing. The first exercise is to examine, measure, describe and name the gift. All points of likeness and difference as compared with the second gift are then discovered and stated. The work in number is mainly counting. It is taken somewhat as follows : 1. There being ten gifts upon the table the pupils first touch and count all the faces, corners, and edges of each cube; and secondly, count the cubes thus : one, two, three, etc., to ten ; and ten, nine, eight, etc., to one, each pupil touching and counting his own. 2. The left half is drawn away from the right half by each pupil, and the parts are compared as to size and each part compared with the whole as to size and num- ber. The term half is then applied. 3. The halves are counted to twenty and then back to one, by ones and by twos, as one half, two halves, three halves, etc.; twenty halves, nineteen halves, etc. 116 THE THEORY OF THE SCIIOOl^. 4. Work as in ^'3," modified by the removal of the first half. Thus, one, three, five, etc : nineteen, seven- teen, fifteen, etc. 5. The midway point is made the starting point, and the number of ones and of twos, from that point to either end is found by counting. The cube is then divided into fourths, and the five kinds of work taken with fourths ; after which the division is made into eighths, and the division followed be similar exercises. Indicate the points of knowledge that the children will gain from these exercises. The kind of discipline. How may this gift be used in connection with square and cubic measure ? The work in construction, or building, is to be in con- formity to certain rules : 1. Each construction must be gradually developed from the cube. 2. In each building all of the cubes must be used. 3. Every structure that can be produced by the re- moval of one cube, is to be constructed before one is built requiring two cubes, etc. 4. Each structure must be gradually re-formed into the cube. These rules are based on what principle of education ? There are three kinds of work. One in which train- ing is given to the powers of observation, imitation, imagination and language. Another in which training is given to the powers of memory, imagination and language. A third, in which the main thought is the development of the social nature. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 117 In the first case, the teacher or a pupil builds a struc- ture, the pupils imitate, and a conversation is had con- cerning it. In the second case, the teacher names the structure, the pupils make it and the conversation follows. In the third kind of work a child is allowed to build as he chooses, and often requires more than his eight cubes. When this occurs, the other children are led to assist by lending the cubes required, while the one building is taught to accept the help gracefully, to return the cubes as soon as he is done with them, and to be ready to assist others in like cases. In another form of this exercise, one child is the archi- tect, while the rest act as laborers. What things are gained by these last exercises? In designing, the same rules apply as in building. Designing differs from building in that in the first the cubes form only one layer on the table, making pat- terns, or forms of symmetry. Everything is developed from the square, and all designs that can be made by the moving of the upper square are completed before the lower square is moved. Each move is as slight as pos- sible, and always by exact measurement. The principle of teaching involved in these rules of designing? How may music be taught by means of the third gift? How does this gift supplement and react upon the family and its training? How does it prepare for the school? In what work of the primary school may this gift be used to advantage? 118 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. FOURTH GIFT. This gift, like the third, is a box containing a cube divided into eight equal parts. The parts are not cubes, however, but are oblongs, each measuring two inches in length, one in width, and one- half of an inch in thick- ness. The difference between this gift and the previous one lies in the jorm of the parts, and the likeness in the number of the parts. Indicate the diflference. The mediative of gifts three and four is seen when two cubes of the third gift are placed together so as to form a rectangle ; the rectangle is equal in length and width to the tablet of the fourth gift, and in width and height to a cube of the third. The mediative also exists in either gift — both forming when wholes, cubes of equal size. The work with this gift is similar to that of gift three : comparison, number, building, and design. The same exercises are taken in number as in the previous gift, and the fractional names, half, quarter, eighth, are applied to the new divisions of the cube. What is the effect of continuing similar exercises with dif- ferent forms ? The forms in building are, as before, those of knowl- edge, utility, and beauty. The forms differ consider- ably from those produced with the cubes, and give rise to conversations concerning a greater range of subjects. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 119 For instance, two or more slabs leaning against each other form a tent. This introduces a conversation about those who live in tents, why they do so, where the tent is usually pitched, etc. The children may, then, in imagination, travel with some Arab family ; or have told to them the story of Gemila, the child of the Desert — one of The Seven Little Sisters ; or consider some early Bible story. Three or four slabs will form a cavern, and thus lead to a talk concerning caves. If the contents of several boxes are combined, buildings of increased size and complexity may be produced. Thus, a farm with its yards, stables, cow sheds, barn, carriage house, etc., may be represented. The name and use of each part, the habits of the animals, etc., are considered. A shop or manufactory may be treated in the same manner. If each tablet is made to represent a store or shop, a street may be represented, and the children may be led to converse as to the contents of the stores, their prices and uses, where and how obtained, etc. In designing the oblongs are laid flat and symmetri- cally. The rules for designing, as well as those for build- ing, are the same as for gift three. The peculiar powers of the oblong, as distinct from those of the cube, arise from the fact that it has narrow sides and ends, and that it may be made to stand on either of these. If upon the narrow edge of one tablet, another is put upon its broad side, the law of equilibium is illustrated ; if all of the tablets are arranged in a row, with a small space between each two, so that should the first 120 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. one fall, all the others will also, the law of transmitted motion is shown. This gift affords an admirable opportunity for the legitimate exercise of the child's natural propensity to knock over or down its play things and buildings. This propensity is, of course, to be kept within bounds, and regulated ; but within its bounds it is to have due exercise. The act of upsetting buildings and playthings may involve what different feelings ? How should the propensity be treated ? How does this gift supplement and react upon the family and its work ? How does it prepare for the school ? In what work of the primary school may this gift be used to advantage ? FIFTH GIFT. All the gifts, as previously indicated, develop from one another. The fifth gift, like the third and fourth, is a cube ; but for convenience it is larger than the pre- vious ones. The cube Of the third gift is divided'once in all directions. The natural progress is from 1 to 2 ; hence, the cube of the fifth gift is divided twice in each direction. The result is twenty-seven cubes of equal size. But as this division would only have multiplied, not diversified the occupation material, it was deemed best to introduce a new element, by subdividing some of the cubes in a slanting direction. Heretofore, only perpendicular and horizontal lines have been used. These opposites, however, require their meditative; and this meditative has already appeared in the forms of life THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 121 and of beauty in the two previous gifts, when side and edge were made to touch. The slanting direction appearing in that manner inci- dentally, becomes here permanent by introducing the oblique line by a division of the cube. Three of the small cubes of the fifth gift are divided into half cubes, and three into quarter cubes, so that there are twenty- one whole cubes, six half cubes, and twelve quarter cubes — constituting a gift of thirty-nine pieces. The first practice with this gift is like that with the others introduced thus far. The gift is measured. It is then compared and contrasted with the other gifts in all points. The children then deal with number in con- nection with it — the gift obviously affording a wide field. By these exercises the child becomes familiar enough with the gift to employ it for the production of various forms of use, beauty and knowledge, in building and design. The main condition in these last exercises, as before indicated, is that for each representation the whole of the material is to be employed; not that only one object should be built, but that having built one structure, the remaining pieces, if any, are to be used so as to represent accessory parts. The child should be constantly re- minded that nothing belonging to a whole can be super- fluous. Nor should it be forgotten that nothing should be destroyed, but everthing produced by rebuilding. It is advisable to always start from the figure of the cube. 122 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. How does the gift supplement and react upon the family and its work ? How does it prepare for the school ? In what work of the primary school may this gift he used to advantage ? SIXTH GIFT. As the third and fifth gifts form an especial sequence of development, so the fourth and sixth are intimately connected with each other. The sixth gift contains twenty-seven oblong blocks of the same dimensions as those of the fourth gift. Of these twenty-seven blocks, eighteen are whole, six are (iivided breadthwise, each into two squares, and three by a lengthwise cut, each in two columns, altogether making thirty-six pieces. This gift differs from the fifth in the shape and in the number of the parts, and in being capable of being made into a greater variety ^^of forms of perception, of utility, and of beauty or art. The sixth gift completes the groups of bodies^ the succeeding mediums of occupation representing surface, line and point. The succeeding exercises are: Pattern -laying with wooden planes; paper -folding; paper-cutting; lath-plat- ting; stick-laying; ring-laying; thread-laying; construc- tion with sticks and softened peas; paper-plaiting; paper-pricking (not much used); stitching; drawing; coloring ; modelling in clay. The relation existing between the kindergarten and other education is shown by the following diagram, adapted from the table by A. De Portugall : THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 123 Third funda- mental form— The Cylinder. S^ II s? i£ II ll -S oc ESs ^3 Q,?: 0,»5 ^ - oq JQ o ! *< -• § I 5 C •« •< MAthematics Science Philosophy Second fundamental form- The Cube. o u. a ft> -! £3* I' ? = 3 5-pc5:o^ >@fife-^ CHAPTER VII. CONDUCT. WILL. SENSIBILITY. INTELLECT. LiFB is three-fourths conduct : one-fourth knowledge. Matthew Arnold. The reward of one duty performed, is the power to fulfill another. The idea of duty, that recognition of something to be lived for beyond the mere satisfaction of self, is to the moral life what the addition of a great central ganglion is to animal life. No one can begin to mold himself on a faith or an idea without rising to a higher order of experience: a principle of sub- ordination, of self-mastery, has been introduced into his nature : he is no longer a mere bundle of impressions, desires, and impulses. George Eliot. CONDUCT IN RELATION TO THE INFINITE. <^N SO far as the school takes a part in grounding ^ the child in his duty in this relation, it is usually through the medium of the devotional exercises of the school. The work of the opening exercises may be viewed in two ways : 1. As intellectual. 2. As moral. As intellectual it is subject to the same laws as other branches of instruction. The child will not attend to the instruction with the reverence due, merely from its THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 133 own pre-eminent importance. Therefore, as before stated, the same conditions under which he yields his attention when being educated by means of reading, geography, etc., must be observed when this, the highest of all subjects, is being considered. a. The conditions for securing attention explained. b. The ones that apply to opening exercises indicated. But, as stated, the opening exercises have a moral as- pect also — the implanting of the germs of love and rev- erence. This is the higher aspect. No one who deals with this phase of school work, will contemplate an aim lower than this. TNE DESIGN. The design of parental training is, first of all, to lead the child to see that he is the object of parental love, and to foster in him sentiments of love, trust, and obedi- ence in return. The design of opening exercises should be to impress the child with a sense of God's parental love and pres- ence, so as to arouse in him sentiments of filial love and reverence for God. THE BASIS. Basis in general explained. The true basis for this important work must be that love and reverence which dwell amid the sentiments, examples, and associations of home. The idea of God as The Father must be made the cen- tral one. To this all the others must be subordinated, and it must give life and light to them all. 134 ' THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. The child's knowledge of home relations and this cen- tral idea of God as a Heavenly parent, form an amply- sufficient basis for that series of lessons extending through the early years of school, in which the pupils may be led to understand the love, reverence, and obedi- ence due to the Divine Being in His benign aspects ; as, 1. The creator and preserver of all. 2. All-knowing and ever-present. 3. Endowed with wisdom, holiness, truth and good- ness. 4. The infinitely kind and generous Ruler and Father in His future and eternal home. Obedience and happiness are the ideas of the child's early existence, and therefore this is the aspect of the divine character which he can comprehend, for it is the same in its kind as that relation in which he is con- scious of standing to his earthly parents. In the words, "Our Father who art in heaven," is found the whole groundwork of that love and reverence which it is the aim of the opening exercises to instill. These words are worthy from their inexhaustible depth of meaning and fullness of obligation to preface that model prayer which was uttered for us by the Divine Teacher. Let prominence be given to the idea of '^ Father j^^ and the pupils may be led to see : — That He provides lovingly and carefully for His chil- dren. That when He sees His children in danger He rescues them from it. That they may cherish the elevating hope of an eter- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 136 nal life, for they will naturally look upon a father as unwilling to bestow life upon his children in order after- wards to destroy them. That they should render unto Him all the love, rever- ence, and obedience which are due to a father. Let the thought be centered upon ^^our^] and it will be evident that His love and care are over not merely one, but all the members of his countless family, and there- fore that they ought to dwell together in unity and love. Dwell upon the phase "m heaven,^^ and they will un- derstand that He is all-wise, holy, and good. That they should seek to be like him, and to know and do His will. That if they render unto Him a fitting love, rever- ence, and obedience, they will dwell with Him in that abode of peace and joy. The opening exercises in the early years of school life as in later years, may consist of singing, lessons on the Sacred Word, or on topics closely connected therewith, and prayer. THE METHOD. The child will best apprehend the work of the open- ing exercises when presented by the method of illustra- tion, and not explanation proper. (See chapter ix.) It will therefore be readily seen that the main chan- nels of instruction in this work as based upon the Holy Writ, are three : 1. Narration including biography. 2. Emblems. 3. Parables. 136 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Having indicated the three channels along which the instruction should flow, it remains — 1. To speak briefly of the nature of each. 2. To designate the steps peculiar to each. B. To furnish an illustration. NARRATION. ' NATURE. Biography always interests and instructs the child, whenever he is susceptible of instuction at all, because it appeals directly to his experience. And of biogra- phies, there are few if any, more highly interesting and instructive than those of the Bible, both on account of the admirable simplicity with which they are deline- ated, and of the unerpng standard of conduct by which all the actions which they record, are tried. STEPS. When the truth to be conveyed by the opening exer- cises is expressed in the form of narration, the steps should be : — 1. To read the account to the children, or to tell the story in one's own words, as in familiar conversation, depending on the power of description to impress the pictures vividly on the mind. 2. To lead the pupils to note the most important features. 3. To lead them to exercise their judgment concern- ing these features. 4. To lead them to apply the conclusion to them- selves. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 137 5. To lead them to express the main thought in a Bible precept or maxim. ILLUSTRATION. THE SEPARATION OF ABRAM AND LOT. Gen. XIII. 5-13: "And Lot also, which went with Abram had flocks and herds and tents. And the land was not able to bear them that they might dwell together ; for their substance was great, so that they could not dwell together. And there was strife between the herdmen of Abram 's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle; and the Canaan- ite and Perizzite dwelled then in the land. And Abram said unto Lot, 'Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and thee, and between my herd- men and thy herdmen, for we be brethren. Is not the whole land before thee ? Separate thyself, I pray thee, from me. If thou wilt take the left hand then I will go to the right ; or, if thou depart to the right hand, then I will go to the left.' And Lot lifted up his eyes and beheld all the plain of Jordan, that it was well watered everywhere, before the Lord destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, even as the gar- den of the Lord, like the land of Egypt as thou comest unto Zoar. , Then Lot chose him all the plain of Jordan ; and Lot journeyed east ; and they separated themselves, the one from the other. Abram dwelled in the land of Canaan, and Lot dwell- ed in the cities of the plain, and pitched his tent toward Sodom." 138 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. INTRODUCTION. Before treating of the main subject — the separation — lead the pupils to note carefully the persons mentioned in the lesson ; show how they came to be traveling to- gether ; dwell briefly upon their previous journeyings showing that they had last been in Egypt on account of a grievous famine and that they had now returned out of Egypt into Canaan and had pitched their tents at a mountain between Bethel and Hai, where Abram had previously erected an altar and offered Sacrifices unto the Lord ; call special attention to that which they had with them, showing their occupation and wealth. THE SEPARATION. THE DIFFICULTY. In treating of the difficulty, show that their prosperity was in accord with God's promise as previously given to Abram. Gen. XII. 2; "And I will make of thee a great nation ; and I will bless thee and make thy name great, and thou shalt be a blessing.*' Show in what their wealth consisted, and illustrate by familiar observation that a grassy and well-watered re- gion is required ; lead the pupils to see also that many herdsmen would be required to care for the flocks; how many, show by referring to Gen. XIV-14. ''And when Abram heard that his brother was taken captive, he armed his trained servants born in his own house, three hundred and eighteen, and pursued them unto Dan." Describe carefully the region in which they were, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 139 with its pasturage and wells, explaining the dangers of the situation, the place and the cause of the quarrel. THE aCNEROSITY OF ABRAM. Call attention to Abram's temptation, considering what he did in connection with what ordinary men would have done under the circumstances ; determine reasons for his action by showing how they were related — uncle and nephew — and that strife is always to be deprecated; is So especially among kinsmen ; and also that Abram, being a man of God, felt that he should set a worthy example before the idolatrous Canaanites. Lead them to see how he avoided the quarrel, the prudence of sep- arating, and in addition, by referring to Gen. XII. 1-5, show who had the better right to choose, and why. "Now the Lord had said unto Abram, 'Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kinsmen, and from thy father's house, unto a land that I will shew thee; and I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee and make thy name great, and thou shalt be a blessing; and I will bless them that bless thee, and curse him that curseth thee ; and in thee shall all the families of the earth be blessed.' And Abram departed, as the Lord had spoken unto him, and Lot went with him ; and Abram was seventy and five years old when he departed out of Haran." Dwell upon the generosity and faith in God, shown by Abram. TMi •itritN CHOICE or lot. I^t what Lot should have thought and done, be made to stand out clearly against what he really thought and 140 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. did ; describe particularly the expressions, "lifted up his eyes"— "all the way to Zoar." Show that it was a meadow land all along Jordan, well watered everywhere and very fertile, i. e. a garden of the Lord ; speak of the position of Zoar. Carefully note Lot's solicitude to choose the best for himself, and lead them to fitly characterize his choice. ■X THE CONSEQUENCES. Show who would be the happier and why, by consid- ering the thoughts ^of both, and in addition consider the one important thing that Lot overlooked by referring to Gen. XIII. 13. "But the men of Sodom were wicked and sinners before the Lord exceedingly." Then illustrate the misery of living with bad neigh- bors even amidst plenty ; show the future troubles of Lot from war and from the destruction of Sodom, from both of which he was saved by Abram. Dwell upon the disposition this shows, by considering. Gen. XIV. 1-16. Show that Abram remained where he was, con- tented, blessed still more and more, and call especial attention to the promise given him just after Lot's de- parture. Gen. XIII. 15-18: "And the Lord said unto Abram after that Lot was separated from him, 'Lift up now thine eyes, and look from the place where thou art, northward and southward and eastward and westward, for all the lands which thou seest, to thee will I give it and to thy seed forever. And I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth, so that if a man can number the dust of the earth, then shall thy seed be numbered. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 141 \rise, walk through the land in the length of it and in ;he breadth of it, for I will give it unto thee.'* CONCLUSION. In conclusion fix clearly three thoughts : 1. That one should live peaceably with all, especial- y with brethren. Illustrate by their school-life and lave them learn the following : Psalms CXXXIII: "Behold how good and how pleas- int it is for brethren to dwell together in unity! It is ike the precious ointment upon the head that ran down apon the beard, even Aaron's beard that went down to he skirts of his garments ; as the dew of Hermon and he dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion ; or there the Lord commanded the blessing, even life brever more." Romans XIL 18; "If it be possible, as much as lieth n you, live peaceably with all men." 2. That those who know what is right ought to set I good example to others as Abram did. Illustrate by their school life and have them learn : Matt. V. 16: "Let your light so shine before men, ihat they may see your good works and glorify your P'ather which is in heaven." 3. That one should be generous and not selfish ; ,he one leading to happiness and the other to misery. Illustrate by their school life and have them learn : Malt. VII. 12.- "Therefore, all things whatsoever ye «rould that men should do unto you, do ye even so unto ;hem ; for this is the law and the prophets." 142 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Romans XII. 10; "Be kindly affectioned one to another with brotherly love; in honor preferring one another." EMBLEMS. * NATURE. Emblems are not only very numerous, but they con- vey all the encouragements, hopes, duties, and experi- ences of the Christian life ; while they are quickly and pleasantly learned and easily retained, from the concise- ness of their statement, the aptness of illustration, and the interesting associations suggested by them. There are no parts of Scripture, moreover, that more readily occur to one, or are more welcome guests to the imagi- nation amidst the busy scenes of life. EXAMPLES. 1. Old Testament. "The Lord is my Shepherd." "The name of the Lord is a strong tower." "We all do fade as a leaf." "As a hart panteth for the water-brooks, so panteth my soul for Thee, God." "Keep me as the apple of Thine eye." "The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree." "I will be as the dew unto Israel." 2. New Testament. "Ye are the salt of the earth." "All flesh is grass." "Put on the whole armor of God.'' * STOW'S BIBLE EMBLEMS. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 143 The method with a lesson on a Scripture emblem is comprised of two steps : — 1. The natural image or object of reference in the figure must first be fully illustrated in itself; as fully as is required for the use which is to be made of it. The length of the illustration will depend upon the nature of the object. Sometimes the image is exclusively oriental or trop- ical, as in "The righteous shall flourish as the palm tree,'' in which case, since it would be remote from the experience of the pupil, detailed illustration would be required to bring it before him with anything of its original force. Sometimes again the image is, in itself, as significant to him as it was to those to whom it was originally addressed, as in "Ye are the salt of the earth." The more clearly and forcibly the image is impressed on the pupil's mind, the broader will be the foundation for the second step. 2. The image should be given the spiritual inter- pretion. In this second step lies the greatest diflficulty, which is the avoidance on the one hand of the presentation of the spiritual emblem in terms too vague to be of any practical value ; on the other hand, an avoidance of an overstraining of the analogy, by pursuing it in direc- tions in which it does not hold ; the effect of which is to weaken the force of the truth which the emblem inculcates. 144 THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. ILLUSTRATION. "I WILL BE AS THE DEW UNTO ISRAEL." INTRODUCTION. Under the introduction, the teacher might speak of a walk in the fields on a summer morning ; the surprise on finding the shoes all wet, on a clear, dry, warm morning; call attention to the cause of this— the dew ; discuss the manner of its formation. NATURAL IMAGE. THE REFRESHING POWER OF THE DEW. Show that among other things, moisture, obtained principally from rain, is required for the growth of plants ; that sometimes, however, there are long and hot dry seasons in which the plants would be scorched ; lead the pupils to see that moisture is required frequent- ly and regularly, and that while the gardener might water the delicate flower, this would be impossible with the grass and grain of the wide fields ; but that this office is filled by the gentle dew by keeping all vegeta- tion fresh, green and full of sap, when otherwise it would wither and die. Speak then, of the rainy and dry seasons of the East and the greater strength of the sun's heat there, and the longer drought; show that therefore, a greater amount of dew is there required, and that it is deposited in greater quantities; so much greater that often little water-courses are filled with it, as they are in our regions after a rain, and tell how much in such countries the dew is valued. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 145 THE SILENT ACTION OF THE DEW. Call the attention of the pupils to the fact that even when they are busy at home or at school, they can know of the coming and presence of rain, from seeing it, or from the sound of the drops, but even were they watching, they could not notice the coming of the dew ; but that in the morning they may know of its presence; picture to them the dew as collecting gradually, silently and invisibly on the plants. SPIRITUAL TRUTH. THE BLESSING OF GOD IS LIKE THE DEW. Call attention again to the languishing flowers, and show that animals and people also languish, and require rest to refresh them. Present the idea that human beings have things to weary them other than toil, i.e., pain, anxiety, and grief, from various causes, and that time and the comfort of friends tend to relieve them from these. Then consider another cause of weariness and anxie- ty — the sense of sin or wrong-doing in their relations to God. Illustrate how this oppresses them when they afterwards reflect upon it. Lead them to see that God, as their Heavenly Father, will refresh them and make them glad and hopeful again, just as the plants are re- vived and refreshed by the dew. OOO** BCIMINM COMC IM SlkCNCC, LIKE THE OfW. Call attention to some of the chief blessings of life, and show that some people do not look upon them as 146 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. blessings at all, but as things that belong to them. Con- sider God's promises to those in distress, and show that he fulfills them and sends his gifts upon all, as the dew comes, invisibly and in silence. CONCLUSION. Under the conclusion, lead the pupils to see that all should be animated by the feelings of love, reverence, and obedience toward the Heavenly Father, and that they should look to Him in all difficulties and look with confidence. Consider the advantages of being His people. Hosea XIV. 1-7: "0 Israel, return unto the Lord thy God ; for thou hast fallen by thine iniquity. Take with you words and turn to the Lord, say unto Him, 'Take away all iniquity and receive us graciously, so will we render the calves of our lips. Asshur shall not save us ; we will not ride upon horses, neither will we say any more to (he work of our hands, Ye are our gods ; for in Thee the fatherless findeth mercy. I will heal their backsliding, I will love them freely, for mine anger is turned away from him. I will be as the dew unto Lsrael; he shall grow as the lily and cast forth his roots as Lebanon. His branches shall spread and his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon. They that dwell under the shadow shall return ; they shall revive as the corn and grow as the vine ; the scent thereof shall be as the wines of Lebanon." Read and explain the above seven verses and cause the pupils to learn the last three. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 147 PARABLES. * NATURE. It would be somewhat difficult to give any definition of a parable to which reasonable exception might not be taken, on account of the great variety of construc- tion existing among the compositions which pass under that name. But if such a definition could be framed it would not greatly serve the present purpose, which is not so much to find the correct theory of their structure £is it is to determine the best method of presenting them so as to bring out their full force and beauty. The method of teaching the parables ought to be made both interesting and instructive. ^ The parables themselves are interesting, because the mind, even of the unenlightened, readily apprehends and retains such representations as they embody, from their dealing with things similar to those of actual experience. The Son of God addressed them to audi- ences which were often ignorant, and when not ignorant, unfriendly — if not openly hostile; yet it is evident, from various indications, that interest and attention were always aroused when He spoke in parables. Much more are they suited to enlist the interest and attention of children, who always turn from the abstract to the concrete, from the general principle to the par- ticular action embodying it. The parables, besides being interesting, are always in- structive. They are devoted to unfolding the great moral duties of religion, the performance of which is at *TBBMCH ON THE PABABLKS. 148 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. once the test and end of true religion. They all have an extremely practical purpose, and they are wonder- fully fertile in suggestions. It is not only their one leading lesson that is enforced on us; numerous inci- dental lessons spring up as we advance from part to part of the narration. Moreover, they are all as appli- cable to present circumstances as to the circumstances of those to whom they were first addressed. None of them are obsolete ; all are as fresh as when they fell from the lips of the Great Teacher. They rouse our sympathies as much as they did those of the men of olden times. And they will arouse the sympathies of men under any of the conditions of human life as much as they do ours, because the incidents they build upon occur in the life of every society, and because the ele- ments of character and the affections to which they appeal are the same at all times and in all places. STEPS. In indicating the lines which the method should fol- low, it will be sufficient to notice the one leading feature of the parable, i.e., that it has two distinct aspects — the one literal, and the other figurative and spiritual ; and that the spiritual is conveyed by the analogy of the lit- eral representation. Viewed in the one light, a parable is a story setting forth some incident in nature or in human life, real or imaginary, and having an interpretation complete in itself Viewed in the other light, it is the language of sym- bol, teaching duty to God and man. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 149 In the presentation of the parable, the steps are there- fore two : — 1. To make clear the literal idea. 2. To present the spiritual truth of which the literal idea is the symbol. All explanations necessary to the comprehension of the incidents should be given in connection with the first step, e.g., explanations in regard to the geography of the scene, or the manners and customs to which refer- ence is made — that they may not afterwards interrupt the interpretation. This first step ought to possess the merit of being clear and graphic, so as to impress the pupil's imagina- tion. In the second step — the presentation of the spiritual truth — the story should be taken part by part, and each portion have clearly attached to it the spiritual meaning of which it is the symbol. In dealing with the parable, as well as in dealing with the emblem, there are two dangers peculiar to the sec- ond step. The first, as before, is vagueness, arising generally from the teacher's not apprehending with sufficient clearness and force the precise aim of the parable. This will lead to the attempt to make it teach a great many things; but it will result in causing it to teach nothing in par- ticular. The second danger, as before also, is an overstraining of the analogy, which results from pressing the story too far into detail, which will end in a distortion [of the 150 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. spiritual truth, when the attempt is made to carry out the parallel between it and the literal side. If the parable has been well illustrated in the first step, as it should be, the reflections which it suggests will be such that no minute or indirect inference will be justified. The over- ruling point in connection with the second step is to see that the spiritual truth is distinctly and impressively brought forth. The test of success in teaching the para- ble is the force and clearness with which the practical conclusions, which are deduced from it, are brought to hear on the home and school suroundings of the pupils. It is to but little purpose that the story is graphically presented in the first step, or that the inferences drawn from it in the second step are just, if the duty which it is designed to impress is not brought to bear with clear- ness and force upon the consciences of the pupils. Let the teacher habitually lead them to look upon the truth which the parable conveys as a truth to be receiv- ed into their hearts, and to be held there as a life-long influence. To aid in this, as a concluding step, the parable should be committed to memory. ILLUSTRATION. Matt. XIII. 33. "Another parable spake He unto them : 'The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven, which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened.' " Luke XIII. 20-21. "And again He said : 'Whereunto shall I liken the kingdom of God ? It is like leaven THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 151 which a woman took and hid in three measures of meal, till the whole was leavened.' " INTRODUCTION. Under the introduction, first question the pupils on materials used in bread-making and the process of mak- ing the dough ; call especial attention to an additional element and its office — the yeast or leaven ; note its effect — a change next morning in the dough in appear- ance and taste, in every part and particle. Under the introduction, in the second place, read the parable. THE STORY. Under the story or literal part, call attention to the meaning of "^?'d," the amount of flour or meal, and show how much three measures were and that this was the quantity commonly used. See Gen. XVIII. 6: "And Abraham hastened into the tent unto Sarah, and said, 'Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth.'" Speak then of the use of water, and then of the leaven, noting specially that the change requires time, and by referring to the introduction illustrate the nature of the change, dwelling upon the ideas that it is both gradual and complete. INTERPRETATION. THE OHANOI. * Show that by a change in the dough is meant a spirit- ual change in ourselves; try to lead the pupils to see in a general sense, what that change must be ; by appeal- 152 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. ing to their experience, show that all at times do wrong, illustrating by referring to particular acts or thoughts, and that therefore all are sinful ; show how a Father of infinite love and kindness must regard this, and that before we can come into harmony with Him, and ac- complish the purpose of our lives, we must be changed, just as the dough must be changed before it becomes bread. THE CAUSE OF THE CHANGE. Show, first, that it is likened to the leaven, and that, therefore, the ^''kingdom of heaven''' must mean something felt on earth among men, for Jesus was speaking of men; convey the idea that it is the love of God in our hearts, or the love and kindness toward all, which animates us; refer to the love the pupils bear to their parents and brothers and sisters, showing how it influ- ences their whole home conduct, giving, if possible, some illustrations; so, if we feel love and reverence toward God, we shall do what will meet with His ap- proval, and shall be kindly disposed toward all. THE CHANGE IS GRADUAL. Lead the pupil to think of the appearance of the dough, if it were examined at short intervals after the leaven was put in ; show that the woman had to wait for the change, not in doubt, but certain that it would occur in time. From this go to the thought that no one can change himself all at once, referring to some habit to illustrate the difficulty of changing and the time needed; advancing the idea that if we are animated by love and reverence toward God, and growing out of that, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 153 by kindness for all, we shall be changed by degrees, first one bad habit and then another; first one bad thought and then another, as life passes along, until the change is entire, impressing the idea that however slow and im- perceptible, it is, under those circumstances, sure. THE CHANGE COMPLETE. Lead the pupils to think of the condition of the dough when the woman came back to it, showing that so entire was the change that even tliose portions furthest from the center, where the leaven was put in, had been changed ; enforce the idea that this must be the nature of the change ip us ; that every bad act, bad word, bad thought, even the secret ones, must be given up. CONCLUSION. Under the conclusion, or practical part, show first that all need to be changed ; that all can obtain the thing needed to change us; that it is love and reverence for the Heavenly Father, alone, which can make the change, and that therefore all ought to seek to know Him, and to love and reverence, and to obey Him. Under the conclusion, or practical part, show, in the second place, what our conduct will be if we are ani- mated by love and reverence for Him; that we shall avoid sinful acts, and shall grow better day by day.'* SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES. The following, prepared by the teachers of the respective gratles in the Training School, indicates the work in opening exercises as given by them: It will be seen that the work bears upon conduct in all three relations. *KKV. JAMBB CUBEIE. 154 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. The opening exercises in a primary school should be short, suited to the child's comprehension, varied from day to day and sufficiently interesting to hold the complete attention. The great object in view will be defeated if the child is made to feel that he is receiving moral instruction; it is not necessary that each selection read or story told should be "pointed with a moral." Let the story be told in simple, forcible language ; let the selection be from an honest, consistent author, who understands the child's nature and needs, and the moral will impress itself without aid. Those exercises should be employed which have in view both instruction and moral training. Collect a series of facts and anecdotes from the lives of good people, each of which shall teach some important lesson, such as: — patience truthfulness, bravery, kindness to people and animals, self-denial, heroism, patriotism, generosity, etc. If pos- sible, obtain a rehable picture of the person who lorms the sub- ject of the lesson. Let the children handle it, if it be small ; if large, hang it upon the wall where it can be easily seen. (Har- per's Weekly will occasionally furnish a portrait. Holiday cat- alogues of books will do the same). While the portrait and name are becoming familiar, relate the anecdotes or facts selected. If an author forms the subject of the sketch, read from his writings. Thus the children will associate the face, the character and the product of his pen. Such characters may be selected as: George Washington, Putnam, Benjamin Franklin, J. G. Whittier, H.W. Longfellow, Abraham Lincoln, Hans Andersen, Louise Alcott, Mary Mapes Dodge, Lucy Larcom, etc. At the proper time there may be associated with their author, the "Scrap Bag" stories, chapters from "Little Men" and "Little Women;" ''Merry Rhymes and Jingles" with Mary Mapes Dodge; "Fairy Tales" with Hans Andersen; etc. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 155 Whittier and Lucy Larcom have each a collection of poems for children. A series of articles entitled "Stories About Favorite Authors" in *'Our Little Men and Women," will be found useful. "Baby- land," "St. Nicholas," "Wide-Awake" and the "Independent" will furnish good material, as will "Our Children's Songs," a book of carefully selected poems. From the study of the char- acters suggested, the attention may be turned to the life of Christ, as presented in the New Testament. The study may begin with his childhood, and the interest be heightened by a description of the manners and customs of the time as diflfer- ing from our own. Having studied Him, His words and teach- ings will gain additional interest. The Lord's Prayer should be explained and committed by the pupils. Many of the parables can be understood and their truth impressed. A series of texts (arranged in alphabetical order to assist the memory) may be taught the pupils, each text being the subject of a lesson, or a series of lessons. The meaning of the text should be thoroughly understood by the pupils before it is formulated, otherwise, as is often true, the words alone remain in the memory, and are like an empty shell, the rich kernel being overlooked. Through these texts may be taught : — Love to God, to parents, to all things created. That we must obey Him if we wish Him to love us. That He wishes us to love Him. That we must be honest in thought, word and deed, etc. THIRD AND FOURTH GRADES. The opening exercises consist of singing devotional songs, repetition of the Lord's Prayer, Bible verses, alphabetically ar- ranged, alternating with the Twenty-third Psalm or Ten Com- mandments and the morning lesson. The Lord's Prayer and the psalm may be sung as a chant for variety. 156 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. BIBLE VERSES. These verses are selected by the pupils in the following man- ner : — Each child is prepared, on a certain day, with a Bible verse beginning with "a." The children select the child's verse which they can most easily understand. Examples : — "A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches, and loving favor rather than silver and gold." "Do unto others as you would have others do unto you." "Even a child is known by his doings, whether his works be pure, or whether they be right." "Lying lips are abomination to the Lord, but they that speak truly are his delight." After the selection has been made the pupils are allowed to give their own thought of its meaning. The teacher, by illustration, makes the meaning more plain. Illustration : — "Go to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways, and be wise ; which, having no guide, overseer or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest." Lead pupils to observe the ant-hill ; tell them about its won- derful structure, its builders, their queen, workers and warriors. Give a vivid picture of the sluggard. Lead the pupils to apply the meaning to themselves. The work on the ant can be done for rest work on the pre- vious day. MORNING LESSON. This lesson consists in a portion of a Bible story, read or told by the teacher, in simple attractive language. Last year the teacher selected one story for each month, occasionally changing the story for a parable or emblem, or had the children select and commit verses containing certain thoughts ; as love, truth, obedience, etc. Birthday verses, the longest and shortest verse, also give pleasing variety. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 157 MANNER OF PROCEDURE. 1. Read or narrate a portion of the story. 2. Question pupils on the leading points. 3. Lead the pupils to give their own thoughts of its mean- ing and application. 4. Write upon the board the Bible precept found in or sug- gested by the lesson. 5. After the entire story has been given, let the children give or write the story, and its lesson to them. Each day allow one or more of the pupils to give the story of the previous day, in order that they may more plainly see the connection between the old and the new. Show pictures rep- resenting the scene, when possible. Make all descriptions vivid and real. The following stories were taken last year in the order given: — 1. The Garden and Its Inhabitants. 2. Joseph and His Brethren. 3. The Wandering Children of Israel. Balaam's Parables. 4 Gideon. 5. Samson, Samuel and Saul. 6 The Shepherd Boy that Became a King. 7. Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Emblem — Consider the lilies, etc. 8. Queen Esther. 9. Daniel. 10. The Great Teacher. The following gives the division of the first story for each day of the month : The Garden and its Inhabitants. a. Description, as given beautifully by Rothingham, in Ills "Stories of the Patriarchs." 6. Outside the Gate. c. Quarrel of the First Brothers. d. Death of Abel. Cain's Flight. e. The Ark and the Flood. 158 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. /. Tower of Babel. g. Abraham's Childhood. h. Abraham's Journey. i. Visit of the Angels. j. Destruction of Sodom. k. Lot's Escape. l. Sacrifice of Isaac. m. Isaac's Two Sons. n. Jacob Cheats Esau of His Birthright. 0. Jacob Receives his Father's Blessing. p. Jacob's Flight. q. His Dream. r. History of the Twenty Years He Remained with His Uncle. s. His Return. t Meeting of the Brothers. u. Review and Application to us. The stories were given in this order that pupils might study them in connection with the country in which they were located. "The Children of Israel" were studied at this time because the Third Grade were studying and moulding the peninsula of Arabia. The Fourth Grade were studying and moulding Africa— the desert, where the "Israelites wandered forty years," *'the place where they were supposed to have crossed the Red Sea," "the mount where Moses received the Ten Commandments," and "Egypt" could be located; thus ad- ding interest to both story and country. In the study of Daniel, a description of Babylon, its walls, gates, towers and hanging gardens make it more real. Repre- senting the position of the armies, in sand, when David killed Goliath, will add interest also. Some books, valuable for their simple, attractive language and illustrations: — "Stories of the Patriarchs," "Joseph and His Brethren," "Line Upon Line," "Precept Upon Precept,'' **Stories of David," "Ben Hur," extracts from ''Near Home and THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 159 Far Off," "Description of Jerusalem," "John the Baptist," "Christ's Teachings and Death." FIFTH AND SIXTH GRADES. In opening exercises the subject of behavior affords many fruit- ful topics for conversation. As to place, the work should include the behavior of the child: 1. In the school-room. 2. On the play-ground. 3. On the street. 4. At home. 5. In railway cars and other public places. By questions and illustrations, the children are led to see that behavior in the school-room includes obedience, honesty, silence, industry, kindness, neatness, politeness, punctuality, etc. In considering each of these topics, the meaning of the term should be understood. The children may refer to dictionaries for meaning, and the teacher, by illustrations and otherwise, may assist in making the meaning clear. To whom and by whom must obedience be rendered in the school-room, and why, may be discussed by the children, the teacher leading in the discussion. Illustrations may be called for, and the children will cite many instances where the law of obedience is violated. After discussing this law in a general way, the teacher may ask for individual experiences ; as, How many of you ever vio- lated the law of obedience in the school-room ? Probably all will raise hands, but if not, call upon those who are ready and willing to speak of their own faults, and the others will reach that point sooner or later. In like manner, each of the above topics may be discussed from day to day, as time permits. 160 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The interest will be greatly enhanced by calling upon pupils to decide whether an illustration given is right or wrong, and by calling special attention to those that are particularly good. Of course the accuracy of the statement, and of the language used must be noticed in every case. After the discussion of all or many of these laws, the chil- dren will readily see that a single act may be a violation of several laws. If a pupil whispers to his neighbor he has violated the fol- lowing laws : Obedience, silence, politeness, kindness, and honesty. The children will probably see, and give all these. But if one does not see just how obedience or some other law mentioned has been violated, some one else may explain to him. Following this, illustrations may be given by pupils, and the school decide how many and what laws are violated. When all of these topics are carefully discussed with refer- ence to the school-room, the children may be called upon to decide which of these will apply to the play-ground, which, if any, shall be discarded, and whether any new topics may be added. The same plan may be followed with regard to the other places mentioned. The benefits of such discussions are manifold. 1. The children themselves are led to decide upon a course of action to be followed out. 2. They become conscious that every action they put forth is iu obedience to or in violation of law, and they will thus be led to reflect upon what they do before the deed is done. 3. The results of the violations of these laws will be care- fully traced in many cases, and the children are led to see that the deed returns to the doer. 4. They learn to discriminate and judge for themselves; and to rely upon themselves ; thus making the school, in a great measure, control itself. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Itl Other exercises are : 1. The studying and committing of beautiful poems. 2. Investigation of Scripture texts. 3. Consideration of Bible stories, etc. CONDUCT IN RELATION TO SELF. *HuMAN RESPONSIBILITY Is the fundamental principle of morals, or conduct. As a special being of nature, it is the duty of the individual to realize in himself the ideal of humanity. This demands the use of his natural being as a means, and not as an end. 1. He must foster and preserve his physical organ- ism. 2. He must learn to absorb his whole endeavor fu the pursuit of a rational end — some particular avoca- tion in life. 3. He must confine his gratification of the natural wants within proper limits, and learn to sacrifice them for higher duties. 4. Through this self-control he must strive for self- culture, sacrificing his natural being for his spiritual being. These duties to self, apparently immediate, are how- ever, only contingent upon broader duties which he owes to others.' CONDUCT IN RELATION TO OTHERS. The individual is not able to achieve his highest end and aim directly through himself, but only through combination with his fellow-men. This combination lias four stages: 12 162 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 1. The family. 2. The church. 3. Social and business society. 4. The state; including the school as an instru- ment of the state. Conduct in the sphere of the church is considered here, as previously given, only in so far as the school prepares the child to enter upon the relations involved -in the church, as a higher institution. IN THE FAMILY^. Within the family the interest of each is that of all in a special natural sense. The reciprocal duties of parents and children, of brothers and sisters, of husband and wife form a special code distinguished from other spheres of morality by its close connection with natural impulse; affection and reverence form its foundation. In this sphere isolated interest is vicious and immoral ; the community is the unit. A transition from the family to civil society is found in polite society wherein there prevails the tone of the family elevated to a general demeanor. The essence of politeness consists in persis- tently treating the special individual with whom one has re- lations, as an ideal being. Every human being has in himself the possibility of ideal humanity. Polite con- duct consists in regulating one's behavior toward him by this ideal. Consequently politeness requires us to ignore all personal defects, not alluding to our own or to those of others : even rudeness toward us passes un- noticed and receives only courteous treatment in return. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 163 Within the family and within polite society these un- selfish and refined manners must prevail. It is not however sufl&cient for the human spirit that it remain within such limits. They serve only as polish to human actions which penetrate deeper the essence of personality. IN THE BUSINESS WORLD. In civil society proper we have combination by means of division of labor and commerce. Each works for himself and has in so far a selfish end; but he achieves it through devoting himself to the gratification of some want of his fellow-men. Thus his selfishness •is mediated, and its quality changed. In the field of productive industry the individual does not any longer act from the impulse of affection, or pity ; he helps oth- ers as the organized means of self-aggrandizement; he does not treat others as abstract ideals merely (the po- lite world); but he treats them as free personal units concretely realized in the ownership of property. The fact of realization of personality through property gives an externality to the whole code of duties belonging to civil society. One man deals with another as an abstract legal person in business transactions which form the real practical interest. Honesty and integrity, prudence and policy, punctuality and regularity are the cardinal virtues here. IN THE STA IE. In the state mere natural affection and courtesy to the ideal — the principles of the family and polite society — as well as the pursuit of individual gain, which finds 164 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. its sphere in civil society, are subordinated to an actual ideal, that of justice. Man is here complemented so that whatsoever he does returns through the state to himself and he becomes actually free and self-deter- mined What polite society assumes and makes into an appearance, is in the state realized as an actual, but in such a way that complete responsibility attaches to the individual. IN THE SCHOOL. To cultivate behavior the school as an instrument of the state, presents a wide field for the pupil's activity. The school is a little world in which the pupils devise and carry out schemes as in the world without, in which individual interests are often concurrent, and not sel- dom in opposition ; but where both the concurrence and the opposition give rise to indefinite activity. There are constant opportunities for embodying in ac- tion the virtues of truthfulness, justice, and benevo- lence, or for being swayed by their opposites. The virtues to be manifested toward superiors are drawn out in the respect and obedience exacted by the teacher, or give place to the opposite vices of insolence and insubordination. In the performance of duty, the moral qualities of diligence and resolution may be steadily fostered ; or the opposite vices of idleness and sluggishness; while the routine of the school may be gone through either with punctuality or the reverse. The teacher's duty with respect to this activity of the school in all of its phases is to regulate it and increase it. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 165 He sees it to a great extent manifested in the course of engagements conducted by himself or under his superintendence ; he can control its defects, and can point the way to such improvement as is practicable. Much of it comes to his knowledge through report, or through casual inquiry. But in great measure it goes on beyond the teacher's observation, and in a sphere over which he has no direct control. In the play- ground this activity of the school exercises its greatest influence for good or for evil. If the spirit that presides there is in conformity with his, then its intercourse is for good; if any there retain in their hands a command- ing influence over their companions, but of a difi'erent tendency, the activity of the school will develop into bad habits. The teacher can only control it in this sphere by establishing in the school a sound public opin- ion^ the reflex of his oivn, which shall make itself felt every where — a difficult task, and only to be accom- plished by him who has the interest of his pupils at hearty and who to that benevolence adds the force of character and tact of managevient necessary to secure personal ascendency over others. But difficult as it may be, it must be accomplished, if the teacher would have his influence constantly at work on his pupils. When there is a bad state of feeling in school between teacher and pupils, their activity will be restrained and insincere in his presence ; they will be afraid to act, and thus reveal their sentiments to him whom they mistrust. This bad relation will usually carry with it an unsatisfactory re- lation among the pupils themselves; restrained by no 166 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. central influence they will be apt to separate, according to their several interests, into parties having no good will toward one another, and thus the malevolent dis- positions will be stimulated into preponderating activity. The teacher' is responsible for establishing confidence between the pupils and himself, and among the pupils toward one another, under the genial influences of which the right activity may spring up and gain strength, and the wrong wither away for the want of room for its display. The main difference between the family and the school as places of moral instruction is this : That in the former the parent sees precisely what is wanting to the child's knowledge from having him so constantly in his presence and observing his conduct. The family instruction is therefore more spontaneous and better regulated to the necessities of the case than that of the school can ever be ; for the teacher must, in the nature of things, proceed less by special requirements at the moment than by consideration of the general training which the pupil will require to fit him for life. But this comparative disadvantage under which the teacher labors only supplies an additional reason why he should strive, with all the resources of his art, to make the in- struction he gives the more impressive ; and he is not altogether without compensation.' 'The more formal teaching of a school may, to a con- siderable extent, be supplemented by such instruction as is naturally elicited from the incidents of the family- circle. There are school cases equally with family cases THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 167 which the teacher has the means of observing; and, if he observe at all, he will find a greater variety of them than any one family is likely to supply, illustrative of both virtues and vices. His object should be to turn them to the benefit of the school, which has, more or less, been witness of them. If he cannot do this with- out exposure of individual pupils, he cannot profitably do it all. If he does it with direct and recognized per- sonal reference he will be suspected both by the pupil and by the school of doing it with personal motives, either with the view of establishing his authority or of gratifying his dislikes. But the judicious teacher will find it by no means impossible to handle cases in an indirect way so that all his statements shall seem to be naturally suggested by the train of his story, so that the' allusions shall never be suspected of personal intention. The penetration into their experience which the sKilful management of such cases shows, will affect them with a power which no other channel of instruction can at- tain. Virtues should be illustrated this way as well as vices ; it is in every way desirable that he should show the same insight in dealing with the one as in dealing with the other, and that he should appear zealous and ratified to recognize the good that may be done in -chool, as well as ready to reprimand the evil. The observant teacher will see from this how much he will lin in influence as an educator by any intimate ac- juaintance he may set himself to acquire of the school life.'* * ABBOIT^ 168 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. SELF SACRIFICE. ^In these spheres of action there lies at the basis the fundamental idea of the distinction of man as a natural being (mere animal) from man as human (elevated into his ideal through culture.) Thus the fundamental basis is SELF-SACRIFICE, employing as its conviction responsi- bility y i. e. the insight into the necessity of its own agency in attaining its true self by the suppression of its natural appetites. Self-control, self-denial, temperance, neatness, cleanliness, self-respect, — these are the various species that fall immediately under this general cate- gory. OBEDIENCE. Obedience is the general mode of the conformity of the individual to general rules, laws, and prescribed forms of activity. This is one side of self-sacrifice. In the practice of duty, obedience is the first condi- tion : obey the higher, repress the lower. In obedience, reference is had to what is external. But it is the ex- ternal to mere natural being only. Obedience is the mediation by which the true self is realized and the illusive self of mere natural impulse renounced. Obedience has several phases : a. Order and regularity — conformity to the rhythm that governs external things. h. Punctuality or conformity to the external re- quirements of time and place. c. Perseverance — conformity to purpose. d. Earnestness —confonmty of outward endeavor to inward resolution. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 169 e. Justice — conformity to the universal (self-meas- ured) standard of action. /. Truthfulness — conformity of utterance (speech and behavior) to reality. g. Industry — conformity of activity to the chan- nels prescribed by society so that what one does is directly for others, indirectly for one's self. The first requisite of the school is order: each pupil must be taught first and foremost to conform his beha- vior to a general standard. Only thus can the school as a community exist and fulfill its functions. In the out- set therefore the group of virtues above referred to are taught the pupil, and these are taught so thoroughly, and so constantly enforced, that they become fixed in his cliaracter. The method of this moral training is, like that which rules everywhere in the practical world, one of division and repetition. The duty of being a well-behaved pupil is not a vague generality. It divides into specific, well-defined duties : a. Punctuality: The pupil must be at school in time. Sleep, meals, play, business, indisposition — all must give way to the duty of obedience to the external requirement of time. Punctuality does not end with getting to school. While in school it is of equal impor- tance. Combination cannot be achieved without it. The pupil must have his lessons ready at the appointed time, must rise at the tap of the bell, move to the line, return; in short, go through all the evolutions with equal precision. 6. Regularity is punctuality reduced to a system. Conformity to the requirement of time in a particular 170 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. instance is punctuality ; made general it becomes regu- larity. Combination in school rests on these two vir- tues. They are the most elementary ones of the moral code — its alphabet. Schools achieved a high rank in this respect only through the most persistent effort on the part of the teachers. The community submits to regulations patiently, but it may be doubted whether their importance is fully appreciated. This age is called the age of productive industry. It is the era of emancipa- tion of each and every member of society from the drudgery of slavery to his natural wants. The emanci- pation is effected through machinery. Machinery during the past fifty years has quadrupled the efficiency of human industry. With the same amount of labor each man may obtain four times the amount of food, cloth- ing, and shelter, or for one-fourth of the labor necessary fifty years ago he may obtain as much, as the laborer of that period did. Achievement in this direction has but begun. In the future hovers the picture of a humanity so free on the side of its natural wants that its time is its own for spiritual culture. But there is one general training especially requisite for the generations of men who are to act as directors of machinery, and of busi-. ness that depends upon it — this training is in the habits of punctuality and regularity. A human being may wait for the arrival of another, a machine will not make any allowance for subjective whims, or caprices, or fail- ures in obedience to the laws of time and space. The fact that so much of labor depends upon machinery makes itself felt throughout all occupations of life. The THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 171 necessity of conformity to the time of the train, to the starting of work in the manufactory, fixes the time for the minor affairs of life with absolute precision. Only by obedience to these abstract external laws of time and place may we achieve that social combination necessary to free us from degrading slavery to our physical wants and necessities. But the school makes these duties the ground and means of higher duties. They are indispensable, hut no ultimatum. They render possible higher spiritual cul- ture. The quick and prompt obedience of the pupil in simple mechanical training, renders the child penetra- ble, and accessible to lessons of higher import. To this end the discipline extends to calisthenics ; the pupil is taught to sacrifice his arbitrary control over his body and to combine regularly and punctually with others in imitating prescribed bodily gestures or exercises. Thus his sense of rhythm — or regular combination with others — is further developed. Through this becomes possible the training to general habits of proper position for sitting and standing, proper modes of speaking — addressing others ; in general, the formalities of polite intercourse. The highest discipline under the head of ill \ 111 111 is reached in vocal music. This presupposes in the highest degree the training in punctual and regular habits, and a conscious participation in the result is reached by the pupil through his enjoyment of the har- mony he assists in producing. Here — in vocal music — the external, mechanical aspect of discipline softens, and a response to it is felt in the deepest inner being of 172 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. the soul — the domain of feeling. This brings us to the next step in school discipline. c. Silence is the basis for the culture of internality or reflection — the soil in which thought grows. The pupil is therefore taught habits of silence : to restrain his natural animal impulse to prate and chatter, or to excite attention by his occupation on the material world around him. All ascent above natural being arises through this ability to hold back the mind from utter- ance of the immediate impulse, and to correct its one- sidedness by combination and generalization. The largest combination and widest generalization is the deepest and truest. Thus silence in the school-room has a twofold significance. It is necessary to the attain- ment of combination with others, and besides this, it is a direct discipline in the art of combining the diff'used and feeble efforts of the pupil himself. He begins his career with mental distraction, everything isolated in his mind, and learns to connect the scattered phases, classify and arrange them, and thus to generalize and reduce them. The first glance does not suffice; it is the repetition of mental effort, the absorption of the mind that digests the multiplicity before it. This depends directly upon silence. The distraction of the mind consequent upon garrulity, or the occupation of any of the senses exclusively, prevents reflection. Silence al- lows the repose of the senses and the awakening of insight and reflection. In our schools this is carried further than merely negative silence and the pupil is taught the difficult but essential habit of absorption in THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 173 his proper task even when a lively recitation is going on with another class. He must acquire the strength of mind (of internality) which will enable him to pursue without distraction his train of thought and study, un- der any external conditions. Out of this discipline grow attention, memory, thought — the three factors of theoretic culture. The culture described thus far, is very formal although it is essential to all that follows. It is a great point to gain so much, and to gain it by proper means. A school discipline that secured this through harsh, rough means, through appeals to cor- poral punishment, would break down the deeper sense of honor in the pupil. The school thereforeas its fourth virtue in the ascend- ing scale inculcates truthfulness. d. Truth is the basis of the duties of a man toward others. Truth makes free, says the old proverb. No positive relation with our fellowmen is possible except through truth. Untruth is the essence of discord. Earn- estness and sincerity, honesty and reliability are the vir- tues that rest directly on truthfulness. The vices found- ed on neglect of this duty are lying, deceit, hypocrisy, cheating, and all manner of fraud; its effects on society are to produce suspicion and distrust among men and to stifle all spiritual relationship. It is a subtle poison that destroys the positive benefits that may be derived from the institutions of society. The virtue of truth- fulness is developed in a twofold way in the school- room. First, by the continual discipline of the recita- tion ; the pupil is required to be accurate and compre- 174 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. hensive in his statements ; he is taught that suppression of essential particulars makes his statement false ;* he is held strictly accountable to know what he says, i. e., to have a clear conception of what is involved in the words he uses. Very much of the untruth and consequent distrust among men arises in the first instance from lack of a clear insight into what was implied by the words used. It is only one step from a lie committed by mis- take to a lie on a purpose ; for to suffer the penalty for a supposed vice is a temptation to enjoy its supposed selfish advantages. Careful attention to the implica- tions of one's statements is the first step in the inculca- tion of truth ; and this can scarcely find a better disci- pline than in the properly conducted recitation. The second mode of securing truthfulness is the direct appli- cation of discipline to the behavior of the pupil. Any lack of truthfulness in the pupil reveals itself at once in his struggles to conceal his misdemeanors. It is an ob- ject of constant care on the part of the teacher to sup- press lying and dishonesty in whatever forms they may manifest themselves. The admonition of the teacher, the disgrace felt at exposure in presence of the class, are most powerful caustics to remove this moral disorder. e. The duty of justice next follows that of truth- fulness and finds partly its presupposition in the latter. Justice can be taught only in a community. In a well- ordered community it grows spontaneously. A system of measure established, by which conformity to rule and right is rewarded by recognition, and all breach of dis- cipline met by prompt exposure, appeals constantly to THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 175 the sense of justice and develops its normal exercise. A danger lies, however, in certain baneful practices some- times adopted by educators. On the supposition that the child cannot see the legitimate and healthy results of doing his duty he is offered a special reward for it. This goes far to sap the foundation of all morality. The feeling of responsibility is the essence of virtue, and an extraneous reward held up as the end sought tends to destroy what little internal self-determination the pupil may possess. The distinction between the inclination (the "I want") of the child, and his true ideal nature (expressed in ''I ought") should be continually kept before the child and not confused by concealing the duty under some shape of immediate self-interest. Doubt- less self-interest lies at the bottom of all virtue, for man is a self-related being ; but its circle is so large that no one can perceive its full return in an individual instance, and the only guide, at all safe, is duty pure and simple. The little community of the school-room, filled with fifty or sixty children presents a miniature world. There are children of the wealthy and of the indigent, children of talent, and children of slow, imprisoned intellects ; some with quick theoretical, some with strong practical tendencies; some with deep spiritual instincts, others with base brutal ones. External dress and carriage, and use of speech vary accordingly. Before the school-room ideal all prerogatives vanish and each is equal in that respect ; the standard of comparison shall be the work done, its quality and its quantity. From tlie very outset the child learns to distinguish essential humanity from 176 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. its accidental surroundings. Keenness of perception, moral integrit}^ practical sagacity, these are the triumph- ant powers of the good school. Can there be a better soil for the growth of moral responsibility or a sense of justice ? KINDNESS. The other side of self-sacrifice is kindness in its varied species included under the terms of sympathy, forbear- ance, considerateness, mercy, benevolence, charity, phi- lanthropy. Kindness is akin to politeness and cour- tesy, in that it looks upon the human being as embody- ing the ideal of humanity, no matter what forms he wears ; but it differs from courtesy and is superior to it, in that it sees also the real, its imperfections and limita- tions. It does not merely, like justice in the state, hold up in the face of each, the mirror of his deed, but re- gards this as no ultimatum and affirms the ideal to be the true final aim and destiny of the individual, to whom it offers aid and comfort. It seeks to remove the imperfections and limitations of humanity without in- jury to the individual. Justice does not respect particu- larity — kindness does respect it. In kindness or love the universal is carried into the particular (descends into it) without destroying it, but with the design of drawing up to it the latter. Kindness therefore is the moral duty that approaches nearest to religion and forms the connecting link with it. Like the sense of justice, it requires a community for its culture — a community which, like the school, brings together all classes and conditions, and subjects them to the THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 177 — • same trials and the same standard of success. The feeling of justice fostered by a constant opportunity to see through the adventitious wrappings of social rank and condition and observe the real substance of the character, prepares the basis for kindness. The discre- pancy between good intent and deserts, which arouses childish sympathy most readily, is the first incitement. Justice proclaims that seeming and good intent are not sufficient— there must be adequate performance. If this principle did not prevail in society and the moral world at large, there would be no more strenuous exer- tion to growth ; the wish would be sufficient. But the good intention baffled of its actual fruition through inadequate performance is ever an object that excites deepest sympathy and commiseration in the kind heart. Not only the good intention is the object of kindness, but even the depraved and corrupt excites pity. The trials, that all are alike subjected to, reveal to each child- ish heart the temptations and struggles with passion and impulse, as well as the weakness of intellect and will that belong to his fellows. Broad human sympa- thy grows up under these conditions and a Christian civilization finds in it its necessary presuppositions. The education of youth by means of private tutoi-s essentially lacks the whole side of moral education, such as is found in the good school.'* ♦W. T. Habbis. 13 >~^*^i CHAPTER VIII. SCHOLARSHIP. INTELLECT, sensibility, will. METHOD. There is a best way of doing everything, if it be but to boil an egg. —Emerson. "In all things a man must beware of so conforming himself, as to crush his nature, and forego the purpose of his being. We must look to other standards than what men may say or think. We must not abjectly bow down before rules and usages; but must refer to principles and purposes. We must think, not whom we are are following, but what we are doing. If not, why are we gifted with individual life at all? Uniformity does not consist with the higher forms of vitality. Even the leaves of the same tree are said to differ, each one from all the rest. And can it be good for the soul of a man with a biography of its own like to no one else's, to subject itself with- out thought to the opinions and ways of others ; not to grow into symmetry but to be moulded down into conformity?" WHAT IS METHOD IN TEACHING? j®iHE student-teacher, as a preparation for his work, '^ considers a field that involves four, to a degree, distinct phases. 1. That in which he deals with knowledge in order to distinguish its parts as elements; in order to dis- cover the relations existing among the elements; in order to re-arrange, classify, and systematize the ele- ments, or the isolated points of knowledge in the light THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 179 of relations. This is the region of scholarship. In it the student approaches the subjects or exercise-grounds, i. e. arithmetic, geography, etc., with a somewhat vague, confused comprehension of each ; he distinguishes the different facts or elements ; compares them, discovering the relations — essential, non-essential, the similar, and the dissimilar, and then synthesizes the remaining ele- ments into a new intellectual whole. In this phase the essential facts of a subject are arranged into an organic relation. This is the sphere of logical system. 2. That in which, by introspection of his own men- tal phenomena, and by aid of the testimony of others, 1. e. works on psychology, he becomes conscious of the various methods by which the mind learns. This is the region of study in which he perceives : a. That one method by which the mind learns, is to comprehend vaguely a whole, discriminate the parts or elements ; compare the elements in order to discover the relations of similar and dissimilar. — Analysis. b. That one of its methods is to apprehend the elements that are similar rejecting the unassimilative ones, (abstraction) ; to create from the similar essential ele- ments a new intellectual product or whole. — Synthesis. c. That another method that belongs to mind is to observe in a number of objects, elements that are similar, conceive these similars as the same, (generaliza- tion), and apply to this element a term common to it and to all objects that have it as their characteristic mark. — Naming. 180 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. d. That a fourth method of the mind is to hold before itself a general element or elements and compare objects with this general idea, rejecting those that are devoid of it and grouping those marked by its pres- ence. — Classification. e. That another method is to take the classifica- tion at any given stage and extend by inference the generalization to objects that have never been within the mind's experience, thus creating a general or univer- sal. — Induction. f. That a method of the mind is to employ the generals or universals furnished by induction or intui- tion as a means of obtaining individual truths in regard to individual objects. — Deduction. This is the phase of general method. 3. The region in which he becomes conscious, through introspection, and through testimony, i. e. psychological works, of the mental methods above in- dicated, and that they are organically related ; of the relation to these methods, of consciousness, attention, memory, imagination, sensibility and will ; of the con- ditions of these methods of mental activity, their under- lying laws, and their results or products. This is the sphere of psychological system. 4. The fourth phase of the teacher's investigation is that in which he considers the principles employed in adapting the subject-matter of the various branches of learning to the capacities of the learner's mind. This is the phase in which he studies the science and the art of adjusting objects or ideas to the actual mental condition THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 181 of the pupils in order that they may give exercise to and be comprehended through this or that faculty, at one or another of the stages of development. This constitutes the province of method in school education. It is evident from the above distinctions that the ma- terial presented under method in relation to the various subjects is not strictly either system or method ; but it is, in any given case, the system of the subject modified in general by the idea of method. The work given is to be viewed as a basis for the discussion of : a. The psychological laws especially applicable. b. The principles that determine the adjustment of subject-matter to its appropriate faculty. c. The determination of suitable devices. COMENIUS IDEA OF METHOD. " Reformation is possible. I undertake an organiza- tion of schools whereby — 1. All the youth may be instructed save those to whom God has denied intelligence. 2. And instructed in all those things which make a man wise, good, and Holy. 3. And thai^ as a preparation for life, in such a time as will set him free before he is adult. 4. And thai^ without blows, severity, or compulsion, but most lightly, gently, and, so to speak, spontaneously. 5. And that., in such a way that they shall be trained, not to specious and superficial, but to true and tiolid learning, and to the use of their own faculties, — not to dependence on others or on mere memory. 182 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. With like solidity will they be instructed in morality and religion. 6. And thaU so that the course of instruction shall not be laborious but very easy ; four hours a day being sufficient. Order it is that is the soul of the world; order sustains nature in all its parts. Order too is the eye of the school, and we must take from nature the order of the school. Our business is to discover from the indications of nature the principles which underlie the answers to the following queries : — 1. How life may be so prolonged as to enable us to learn all things. 2. How arts may be shortened with ^ view to rapid learning. 3. How we may seize the right occasions for learn- ing so as to learn Surely. 4. How we may unlock the mind so as to learn Easily. 5. How we may sharpen the understanding so as to learn Solidly. CERTO OR SURELY. How are we to teach and learn surely ^ i.e., so as to be sure of our result f This is to be done by finding the modus operandi of Nature, and accommodating ourselves to that, as follows : — THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 183 FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature Attends to a Fit Time. Birds do not begin the work of multiplying their species in winter. So with other natural operations, such as the growth in a garden ; the season determines all. Right in the teeth of this, schools do not choose a fit time for exercising the minds of pupils ; and they do not so accurately arrange the exercises as to insure that all things advance infallibly through their own suc- cessive steps. Just as Nature chooses spring as the time of prepara- tion for future products, so the right time is boyhood — the spring of life. The right time of the day is the morning hours, which is the spring of the day ; and as to arrangement of studies, it may be said, generally, that nothing should be taught except when it can be comprehended. SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature Prepares Material for Itself Before it Gives it Form. In the school-books, matter does not precede form. In schools also they teach words before things — the mere clothing or husk of words before the reality itself. Then in the study of a language they teach form before things, because they teach rules before words and sen- tences. They give rules and then examples, whereas the light ought to precede that which it is intended to light up. In all instruction it is necessary that, having got ready the necessary books and materials: 1. The un- derstanding be instructed before speech is demanded ; 184 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 2. That no language should be learned from a Gram- mar, but from suitable authors, that real studies should precede organic (formal), and that examples should come before rules. THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature Takes a Fit Subject for its Operation, or at least Takes Care that it be Made Fit. Wherefore — 1. Let him who goes to school remain steadily there. 2. Whatever study is taken up for treatment, let the minds of the pupils be predisposed towards it (and prepared for it). 3. Let all obstacles be removed out of the path of the pupils. FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Does Not Confuse Itself in its Works, but Advances Distinctly to One Thing After Another. Wherefore let pupils be occupied with only one study at a time ; that is to say, teach only one thing at a time. FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Begins all its Operations from Within Outwards, e.g., A tree grows from within, etc. Teachers err herein, that instead of diligently explain- ing and articulating everything, they would acquit themselves of their task of instructing youth, by speak- ing, dictating, and exercising memory. Wherefore — 1. Let the understanding of things be first formed, then the memory exercised on what is understood, and * THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 185 only in the third place, speech and hand (i. e. writing). 2. The teacher should attignd to every way of open- ing the intelligence, and must apply it fitly. SIXTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Begins all its Formation from Generals, and thence Proceeds to Specialize — e.g., It warms and nourishes the whole mass of the egg, and does not form first the head, then the wings, then the feet, but, having warmed the whole, it sends its creative force into the special parts, and there specializes. So, a painter in painting a portrait does not draw first the nose, then the ears, etc., but outlines the whole man on the canvas roughly with chalk, and then proceeds to fill in. So with instruction, the outline should first be given. Wherefore — 1. From the very beginning of their instruction, the (principles or) essential groundwork of all learning should be given. 2. Every language, science, or art should first be learned in its simplest rudiments. Thus the idea of the whole, as a whole, will be grasped ; then, more fully, rules and examples should be given ; thereafter, pecu- liarities and anomalies ; and finally, if necessary, com- mentaries, etc. SEVENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature does not Proceed per Saltum, but Step by Step. The hatching goes on by insensible degrees. So, a man building a house does not begin from the top but from the foundation, and step by step he rears his struc- ture. 186 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Wherefore — 1. The whole sphere of studies should be dis- tributed carefully among the successive classes of the school in such a manner that the earlier study always prepares the way for what is to follow, and, as it were, lights the path to it. 2. The time at the teacher's disposal should be carefully distributed, so that its own peculiar task may await every year^ month, day, hour. 3. This distribution of the time should be most closely attended to, so that nothing may be passed over, and nothing put in its wrong order. EIGHTH PRINCIPLE, Nature, When it Once Begins, Does Not Stop Till it Has Completed its Task. Wherefore — 1. He who is handed over to the school should be retained there until he is ready to come forth an in- structed, moral, and religious man. 2. The school should be in an undisturbed locality. 3. Wha,t has been laid down to be done should be strictly carried on on the lines laid down, and no gap permitted. 4. No one should be allowed to absent himself on any pretext. NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Carefully Avoids Whatever is Contrary to its Operations, or Hurtful. Wherefore — 1. Permit a scholar the use of no books save those which have to do with his own class. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 187 2. The books should be so constructed that they may with truth be called channels of Wisdom, Morality, and Piety. 3. Dissolute associates in or out of school are not to be tolerated. FACILE, OR EASILY. We have exhibited the principles in accordance with which the work can be done with certainty. Now we proceed to show that it can also be done easily and pleasantly. This will be the case if we attend to the following ten principles (many of which repeat what has been already laid down). 1. Let the education begin early, before the mind is corrupted. 2. Let it be done with due preparation of the mind. 3. Let it proceed from the more general to the special. 4. And from the easy to the more difficult. • 5. Let no one be weighted with too much to learn. 6. Let progress be slow everywhere. 7. Let the intellect be forced to nothing save what it spontaneously desires in accordance with its age and with right method. 8. Let everything be communicated through the senses. 9. And turned to present use. 10. Let all things be taught according to one and the same method. Let us follow the steps of Nature as illustrative of the above principles. 188 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature Begins from Pure Elements. The egg which is to be hatched is pure. The tender minds we seek to train should be free from distractions and uncorrupted. Wherefore — 1. Let the education of youth begin early. 2. Let there be only one preceptor in each subject for each pupil (i. e. do not send the child from one mas- ter to another in the same subject). 3. Before all, let the morals be reduced to harmony under the influence of the preceptor. SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature Predisposes Matter so That it Shall Seek Form. The bird hatched desires to walk and to peck, and finally desires to fly. Wherefore — 1. The desire of knowing and learning is to be stirred up in boys in every way. 2. Let the method of teaching lessen the labour of learning, so that nothing be a stumbling-block to the pupil and deter from perseverance in study. This ardour to acquire is to be excited by parents, who should evince their respect for schoolmasters and learning ; by teachers, who should be kind, paternal, and ready to commend ; by schools, which should be pleasant rooms, well lighted, clean, and adorned with pictures, etc.; by the things which the pupils study, which should be so presented as to attract; by the method, which should be the natural method ; and by THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 189 magistrates, who should be present at examinations and distribute rewards. THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature Draws Out All Things from Beginnings, which in Their Bulk are Small, in Their Virtue Strong. Note in connection with this — 1. That every art be summed up in rules, very short, but very exact. 2. That every rule be conceived in words as brief as they are lucid. 3. That numerous examples be given with each rule, so that the applications of the rule, however vari- ous, may be clear. FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Proceeds from the More Easy to the More Difficult. We find Latin rules taught in Latin — the unknown by the equally unknown, and many other faults which will be amended if 1. The teacher speak the same vernacular as the boy. 2. If all explanations of things be given in a knovm tongue. 3. If every grammar and lexicon be adapted to that tongue (i. e. the vernacular) by means of which the new is to be learned. 4. If the study of the new tongue advance by de- grees — the pupil being taught first to understand, then to write, and finally to speak it (which, being extempo- raneous, is the most difficult). 5. If, when Latin words are given with vernacular, 190 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. the vernacular words, as being best known, always come -first. 6. If the material of study be so arranged that the scholar learns first that which is nearest, then that which is near, then that which is more remote, and finally that which is most remote {e.g. do not seek illus- trations from theology or politics, but from things at hand and familiar). 7. If the senses of boys be first exercised, then the memory, then the intelligence, and finally the judg- ment. For science takes its beginning from the senses, and thence passes into the memory through imagina- tion, then by induction of singulars an understanding of universals is formed, and finally a judgment as to things understood takes effect, giving the certitude of science. FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Does Not Overweight Itself, but is Content with Few Things at a Time. It does not demand two birds out of one egg. SIXTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Does Not Hurry Itself, but Proceeds Slowly— e.g., Slow is the hatching of the bird. Wherefore — 1. Spend as few hours as possible in public lessons; four being the right number, as many more being left for private study. 2. Fatigue the memory as little as possible, only fundamental things being exacted, all else being allowed to flow freely. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 191 3. Proportion all things to the capacity, which, according to the progress of years and studies, will grow of itself. SEVENTH PMNCIPLE. Nature I*U8he8 Nothing Forcibly Forward, Except What, Being Already Inwardly Matured, Desires to Burst Forth. The bird does not urge its young to fly till their wings are ready. Let nothing, then, be done against the grain. The want of desire frequently arises from want of previous preparation and explanation. Wherefore — 1. Let nothing be attempted with youth except those things which their age and ability not only admit of but desire. 2. Let nothing be prescribed as a memory-task which has not previously been thoroughly understood. 3. Let nothing be prescribed to be done till the form of it and the rule of imitation have been suffi- ciently pointed out and impressed. EIGHTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Assists Itself in Every Possible Way— e.g., There is vital warmth in the egg itself, as well as in the maternal incubator. Boys must be so far assisted as to understand what is given them to do. The teacher who demands a task without sufficient explanation and preparation is as cruel as a nurse who would put an infant on the ground and tell it to walk. We must bear patiently with weak- ness. 192 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. Wherefore — 1. Let no stripes be inflicted on account of studies: (for if the boy does not learn, whose fault is it save the teacher's, who either does not know how to make the pupil docile, or does not care to do it?). 2. Let what the pupils have to learn be so placed before them and explained that they see it as clearly as their own five fingers. 3. And in order that everything may be imprinted the more easily, let the senses be applied to the subject as often as possible — e.g.^ let hearing be joined with vision, and the hand with speech. It is not enough to tell to the ears, but the teacher must present to the eyes, that through them the instruction may reach the imagination. Leave nothing until it has been im- pressed by means of the ear, the eye, the tongue, the hand. Write up on the walls (or draw) the substance of your teaching. Thus the pupils will also acquire the habit of writing down in their note-books NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Produces Nothing the Use of Which is Not Ultimately Apparent— e. g, Wings and feet are found to be formed for flying and running. Wherefore — Let nothing be taught except for manifest use. TENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Does All Things Uniformly— e.g. One bird is produced in the same way as all other birds. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 193 Wherefore — 1. Let there be one and the same method for in- structing in ail sciences ; one and the same in all arts ; one and the same in all tongues. 2. Let there be for all school-exercises the same order and manner of procedure. 3. Use the same editions of books throughout. SOLIDE, OR SOLIDLY. Few give a solid amount of instruction to scholars. This is a general complaint. To cure these evils — 1. Let only things likely to be of solid advantage be treated of. 2. All these should be taught without separating any of them from the curriculum. 3. A solid basis should be laid for each. 4. That basis should be laid deep. 5. Let everything subsequently aimed at rest on these same foundations. 6. Wherever distinctions are to be made, let these be distinctly and most articulately made. 7. Let all studies which follow be founded on those that go before. 8. Let all things which as a matter of fact cohere be always connected in teaching. 9. Let everything be arranged according to its true relation to the understanding, the memory, and the speech. 10. Let everything be firmly implanted by continual exercises. 14 194 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. FIRST PRINCIPLE. Nature Begins Nothing that Will be Useless. Wherefore in schools — 1. Let nothing be taught which is not of the most soUd utility for this life and the next. 2. If some things have to be instilled into youth only for the sake of this life, let them be of such a kind as will not hinder the interests of the eternal life, and as will produce solid fruit for this life. SECOND PRINCIPLE. Nature Omits Nothing Likely to be of Benefit to the Body it is Forming. Therefore it is that in schools there must be not merely knowledge, but also morals and piety. THIRD PRINCIPLE. Nature Does Nothing Without a Foundation or Root. Wherefore — 1. The love of any studies that are begun should be excited in the pupil. 2. The idea (i. e. outline or sketch) of the subject to be taught — language or art — should first be given before going to particulars. In this way a foundation is laid in the mind of the pupil. FOURTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Sends its Roots Deep. The general idea of the subject to be taught must therefore be deeply impressed. FIFTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Produces Everything from a Root; Nothing from Any Other Source. Wherefore — 1. Let all things be deduced from the unchangeable elements of things. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 195 2. Let nothing be learned by authority, but by demonstration, sensible or rational. 3. Let nothing be taught by the analytic method only, but rather by the synethic. SIXTH PRINCIPLE. The More the Uses for Which Nature Prepares Anything, the More Articulately Does it Differentiate it into Parts. Wherefore — Let there be no confusion in instruction. SEVENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature, in Each of its Works, is in Perpetual Progress, Never Halts, and Never Attempts New Things, the Former Things being Cast Aside, but Only Continues What Has Been Pre- viously Begun, Increases it, and Perfects it. Wherefore — 1. Let all studies be so arranged that the subse- quent things shall be founded in what has preceded, and be strengthened by them. 2. Let everything which is presented to the pupil, and rightly understood, be fixed in the memory. ' EIGHTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Binds Together Everything by Continuous Bonds. Wherefore — 1. Let the studies of the whole life be so arranged that they shall be one encyclopaedia, in which there shall be nothing which does not arise out of a common root, nothing not in its proper place. 2. Let everything that is taught be so strengthened l»y reasons that no room shall be left for doubt or for- getfulness. And further, let all things be taught through their causes. 196 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. NINTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Preserves, Between Root and Branches, a True Proportion in Respect of Quantity and Quality. Wherefore — 1. Let everything taught be at once a subject of reflection as to its use, lest anything should be learned to no purpose (i. e. the root of knowledge must spread out into the branches of its various applications.) 2. Let everything that is learned be communicated to others, that nothing may be known to no purpose. TENTH PRINCIPLE. Nature Develops and Strengthens Itself by Frequent Movement. There must therefore in everything be very frequent repetitions and exercises. " * METHOD IN READING. THE PREPARATORY STAGE. (Several Months.) THE KNOWN. On entering school at the beginning of his sixth year, the child is possessed of a considerable store of ideas, in many cases vague and partial; the oral terms for most of his ideas ; a large array of thoughts ; the oral sentences for these, often incorrect ; power to recognize and name, in many cases, all or a part of the letters, and a few words ; power to produce all the sounds in their combinations, and most of them singly ; and the power of proper emphasis, inflection and modulation, as re- quired by his own thought. * John Amos Comenius.— By S. S. Laurie. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 197 The mind being an organism, it is of course true that in acquiring the above mentioned ideas, thoughts, ex- pressions and powers, all the mental faculties were called into action, some prominently, some slightly. Those prominently employed appear to be observation and association. THE ADVANCE. The work of reading in this stage is to preserve the power of proper emphasis, inflection and modulation ; to complete the knowledge of the alphabet; to make the child conscious of the separate elementary sounds, and to give adequate power to produce them ; to associate with the ideas, thoughts and oral expressions, their printed expression ; and to associate with new ideas and thoughts their oral and printed expressions. The work has several starting points, each connecting with the known, and the proper point of beginning cannot, there- fore, be determined by that relation alone. THE VABI008 (PARTIAL) METHODS. (RATHER SYSTEMS.) The different points of beginning have given rise to different system'^ which have been termed methods. Thus : beginning with what was known of the alphabet, completing that knowledge, passing by means of this into the study of syllables, words, and then of sentences, was known as the alphabetic method ; passing from the oral word as a whole to the separate sounds, to the > letters, to the printed word as a whole, and then to sen- tences, was called the phonic, or with certain modifica- tions the phonetic method; associating the oral word as a whole with the printed word as a whole, and then 198 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. entering upon a study of sounds, letters and sentences, took the name of the word method; making the thought the unit, and moving from thought to oral sentence, and thence in order to printed sentence, words, sounds, and letters, assumed the name sentence method. ALPHABETIC METHOD. 1. Its subject matter. — The alphabet (letters,) word, and sentence. 2. What it presents in dealing with the alphabet, a. Form of letters. h. Name of letters. c. Order of letters. 3. What it presents concerning the word. a. Form as a whole. h. Pronunciation. c. Visible parts. 4. Principles. a. Any whole may be more clearly comprehended if its elements are known. h. But twenty-six characters enter into the com- position of the various words, and these words differ mainly in the arrangement of these characters, hence it is more logical to teach the alphabet first. c. The alphabet should be taught by grouping and juxtaposition, involving likeness and difference : thus, placing and teaching together c, o, and e; w and v; m and n ; p and q ; p and d, etc. d. The word should be taught by associating its visible form and its pronunciation with the letters and the aggregate of the letter-names. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 199 5. Favorable points. a. Its recognition of principles a, c and the first part of b. as above stated. 6. Objections. a. It adheres to the last part of principle b there- by reversing the order of reading and spelling, spelling being a habit of the eye; and disregarding the principle that in acquisition the more natural method of proce- dure is from the whole to the part. b. The association which it makes between the pronunciation and the aggregate of the letter-names is arbitrary. c. It does not associate the printed form with the idea, though it might, indirectly. PHONIC METHOD. 1. Its subject-matter. — The alphabet^ (sounds,) word, and sentence. 2. What it presents concerning the alphabet. a. Forms of letters. b. Names of letters. . c. Order of letters. d. Sounds of letters. e. Diacritical marks. 3. What it presents concerning the word. n. Form of word as a whole. 6. Pronunciation. c. Visible parts. d. Audible parts. e. Relation between c and d. 4. Principles. 200 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. a, b and c same as in alphabetic method. d. The word should be taught by associating its visible form and pronunciation with the letters and the aggregate of the letter-sounds. 5. Favorable points. a. Same as under alphabetic method. 6. Objections. a and b same as under alphabetic. c. The aggregate of the letter-sounds does not naturally suggest the pronunciation, although the association is much closer than that between the aggre- gate of the letter-names and the pronunciation. d. Its classification of the elementary sounds, in connection with their signs, is complex yet inadequate. PHONETIC METHOD. (Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography.) 1. Its subject-matter. — 77i^ alphabet, (sounds,) word, and sentence. 2. What it presents concerning the alphabet. a. Forms of letters. b. Names of letters. c. Order of letters. d. Sounds of letters. e. New characters. 3. What it presents concerning the word, a, 6, c, d, e, same as in phonic method. 4. Principles. a, b, c and d, same as in phonic method. e. There should be a separate character for each sound, and that character should have a uniform power. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 201 5. Favorable points. Same as in phonic. 6. Objections. In this method the transition to the common alpha- betic characters is made by giving to the pupil the same primers to read in these characters that he has already been reading in the phonetic characters. Such a method is liable to the same objections that have been urged against the phonic method excepting d, while its peculiarity in using new characters has two difficulties special to itself. (1.) The irregularities of sound in the language as it is written are not surmounted by such a contri- vance but only delayed. (2.) Such a method, to be introduced at all, would require to be introduced universally ; for it is incompatible with the ordinary methods, and a pupil changing from one to another with change of school, would find his previous acquisition not only useless to liim, but an actual obstacle to further progress. WORD METHOD. 1. Its subject-matter. — The word, alphabet, and sentence. 2. What it presents concerning the word. a. Association of idea with the oral word. 6. Association of the printed form with the oral word as a whole. c. The analysis of the word into its sounds. d. Analysis into letters. e. Association of the sounds with the letters, in- cluding diacritical marking. 202 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 3. What it presents concerning the alphabet. a. Names of letters. b. Forms of letters. c. Sounds of letters. d. Diacritical marks. 4. Principles. a. Same as a in the alphabetic. b. It is the more natural to proceed from the whole to the elements. c. The printed word should be taught by asso- ciating it directly with the already familiar oral word. d. A part is contemplated with more interest after its whole is known. e. In teaching the forms of the letters, the eye should observe and the hand reproduce. 5. Favorable points. The recognition of the five principles above stated. 6. Objections. a. It does not make a direct association between the idea and the printed word. 6. It does not directly give the pupil the power to master new words^ in which the power of reading really consists. c. It presents the diacritical marks before necessi- ty requires, thereby complicating the work of the pre- paratory stage. IDEA-WORD METHOD. 1. Subject-matter. — The word in direct association with its idea, alpha- bet, and sentence. 2. What it presents concerning the word. idea. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 203 a. Printed form as a whole. b. Direct association of the printed form with the c. Pronunciation. d. Analysis into sounds. e. Analysis into letters. /. Association of the letters with the sounds. 3. What it presents concerning the alphabet. a. Names of letters. b. Forms of letters. c. Sounds of letters. 4. Principles. a. The method of learning the printed word should be analogous to that by which the child learns the oral word ; i. e., the association between the printed word and the idea should be direct, and the expression should be kept in the background. When has a word been learned f The true answer to this question is involved in the answers to two other questions — What is a word ? and, What is the use of a word ? A word is an arbitrary sign of an idea ; that is, it is only by arbitrary agreement that a certain familiar object is called table; it might with as good reason have been called door. The only valuable use of a word is to suggest to the mind an idea. If a word is an arbitrary sign of an idea, it can be made to suggest its idea only by acts of association. If the actfl of association are weak, the word will suggest its idea vaguely;' if they are strong, the idea will be re- called vividly. 204 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The root idea in primary reading^ then, is strong associa- tion of idea and word. It is held by some that the main thought of primary reading is the mastery of the written or printed word. It is said, the child is familiar with the idea, and with the oral word, and the thing remain- ing to be done is to teach him the printed word. This thought is at the basis of the formal and mechanical reading work of the schools. It inevitably tends to concentrate the attention of both teacher and child upon words to the comparative exclusion of ideas. If those holding to the thought that the mastery of the printed word is the design, employ ideas or objects, it is simply to make vivid the picture of the word. It is true that the printed word must be taught, but as a means not as an end. It is to be taught only that it may be associa- ted with its idea, and not for itself. The child in the beginning does, as is said, know two things — the idea and the oral word; but it is hardly cor- rect that there remains but one thing to do — the mas- tery of the printed word. There are two things to be done : 1. The mastery of the printed word. 2. The strong association of the idea with the printed word. The last is the central idea of primary reading — the one that determines method, means, etc. If it is said that those who say that the mastery of the printed word is the work of a primary school mean to include the second point, the answer is that the results show a very weak association, but considerable power to call words THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 205 at sight — thus indicating that the stress of the work has been upon expression and not upon the association of thought with expression. There are, however, as has been shown, two ways of associating the printed word with the idea — one indi- rect, the other direct. In the first, the thought is — the child already knows the idea and the oral word and has associated them ; he is now to be led to associate the printed word with the idea through the oral word. This assumes that the thing that above all others the child needs is the oral word; that he is already able by means of association with the idea to call it up, and that his power to call it up must be increased by associating it with the printed word. It is thus seen that the ter- mination is again, power to call words at sight, instead of power to instantly drink in the meaning of words at sight of them. In *'The True Order of Studies," by Thomas Hill, the statement is made that " the children must early be taught that the printed word is the sign or picture of the oral word." This idea has been the blight to thought work in primary reading. In the second way of associating the printed word with the idea, the thought is that nature has already provided the child with one means of suggesting the idea, viz., the oral word, by associating the two directly and frequently, and that the aim of primary reading work is to furnish another means, by the same method — the printed word. This consideration makes the direct association of printed word and idea the ruling thought 206 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. It furnishes the true ground for .deciding as to the means and devices that are to be employed — if they strengthen the direct acts of association they are legiti- mate; if not, they hinder in the process of reading, which consists essentially in bringing about acts of asso- ciation between printed words and ideas. A printed word has been learned, when the associ- ation between it and its idea is so strong that the idea (not the sound — the oral word) is instantly suggested at sight of it. h. The power to master new words as to printed form and pronunciation should be given through the law of analogy. For example, at some stage in the work the pupil has encountered the word hem, and in connection with it studied gem, stem, them, etc. At another time he may have been required to deal with the word ark, and along with it to consider dark, hark, mark, park, stark, etc. At still another time he has had presented some word involving b — e.g., ball, or web ; or some word involving is, as this. In the study of these the work involved not the use of diacritical marks, but a dependence — (1.) Upon phonic and visible resemblance. (2.) Upon the spontaneous induction which the mind of the pupil tends to make. (3.) Upon direct and systematic guidance to the proper induction by the teacher. In this way the pupil gradually comes into a com- prehension of the genius of the English language as to its letter-combinations and the associated sounds. By THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 207 natural mental growth he begins to understand that as a rule there is, according to the inherent nature of the English language for the analogous combinations ark, dark, hark, park, etc., an analogous sound regardless of any markings; and likewise, in regard to such words as gem, stem, them, hem, etc. Therefore, it is held that work based upon this thought, taken day by day, establishing the general laws as to the relation of combinations of letters and sounds first, and dealing with the exceptions afterwards, confers a natural power for the mastery of the printed form and the pronunciation of new words, and one that is as applicable to the newspaper and general literature as to the prepared text book in which markings are to be found. It thus occurs that if the pupil meets for the first time, upon the page of a newspaper or elsewhere, the word disembark^ he is already substantially master of it, because in the combinations already referred to he has studied the forms em, ark, b, d, and is, and compre- hends their power ; and the idea that he has gained of phonic and visible resemblance enables him to see with but little difficulty the relation between form and sound of this new word. c. The sense or meaning of a word is its strongest bond of association, and also the one of greatest worth. d. Other things being equal, those things that are brought most often before the mind are best retained. e. Other things being equal, those things which are most free from entangling relations are best retained. /. The word as a whole, and the letters are visi- 208 ' THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. ble forms, and therefore in learning them the eye should observe and the hand reproduce. SUaOESTIONS. 1. For perhaps two months present isolated words as wholes, making the association between the printed word and the idea direct, using the oral word only incidentally. a. Nature of the work under " 1 " explained. 2. At about the beginning of the third month com- mence to teach words in sentences. a. Nature of the work under " 2 " explained. 3. At the beginning of the third month begin to analyze words into their sounds. a. Manner of beginning the analysis explained. 4. Sometime during the third month commence to analyze the words into their letters, and to associate the letters with their sounds. a. Nature of the work under " 4 " explained. The time as given under 1, 2, 3 and 4, as well as that given elsewhere, is only approximate. It may be varied according to the condition of the school community, or the mental development of the pupils. 5. Diacritical marks. a. Purpose. To aid the child in the intelligent use of the dic- tionary. h. Time of teaching these marks : — Beginning of the third year. (1). Reason : — Principle e of this method. 6. Print and script. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 209 a. Reasons for presenting words in script from the beginning. (1). Printed letters have a vertical position. Pupils who practice printing for any considerable length of time acquire a stiff, awkward manner of forming the letters. (2). Script preserves closely the unity of the word. (3). The script form is more easily made. (4). It gives the child at the very beginning of his school-life the second important medium of commu- nication. b. Reason for presenting words in print form from the beginning. The purpose of the preparatory stage is the associ- ation of ideas with words as printed forms. A care- ful consideration of the reasons for presenting script and for presenting print from the beginning will show a preponderance in favor of presenting print. 7. Manner of teaching the words "a'* and "the." There are three methods of presenting these words, which will be stated in the order of their value, begin- ning with the one of least worth. a. To teach the sounds of these words as given by the dictionary, and to hold the pupils rigidly to this pronunciation. 6. To teach the words, giving " a " and " e" their name sounds, on the assumption that the pupils will naturally acquire the proper pronunciation. 15 210 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. c. To omit all direct teaching in regard to the pronunciation of these words. First, on the ground that the directions given for their pronunciation by the dictionary are based upon the observed habit of both children and adults ; and, second, on the assumption that the pupils will naturally and readily continue their already acquired habit of pronouncing these words when they are presented as printed forms without any direct instruction. 8. The words to be taught in the preparatory stage : a. The number: — About one hundred. The number may vary. By some teachers it is deemed best to begin almost at once with the words in the book ; by others, after presenting orally from ten to twenty words ; while still others advocate the teaching of from fifty to one hundred words in the preparatory stage. Each teacher should decide this for herself in view of her surroundings, and the condition of the school and class, but enough should be taught to fix clearly in the mind of the pupil the thought that the use of a word is to suggest an idea, before letters and sounds are dealt with. h. Ideas to be considered in selecting them : (1). They must be familiar orally and as to their meaning. (2). They must be interesting. (3.) They must be in a large measure those contained in the first reading book. (4). They should be composed of groups that contain words analogous in form and sound. c. How they are to be selected : THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 211 (1). The words that occur in the first reading lesson should be taken. (2). To these should be added all familiar words that are analogous in form and sound. (3). The words of the succeeding lesson should be selected in the same way until the number of words required for the preparatory stage is secured. (a). The preparation of a list of words suita- ble for presentation in the preparatory stage, in accord- ance with the thought expressed under "c." SENTENCE METHOD. GENERAL NATURE. Observations as to the reading of those who learned to read before they entered school, show that most of them are rapid readers of the thought. In a glance their eye would pass over the sentence or sen- tences with but little consciousness of the words and they would grasp the thought of the selection much more rapidly than if the words were pronounced. The discov- ery is, on the other hand, that those who have been taught to read in school are slow readers, i. e. of the thought, their habit being to pronounce the words mentally, if not aloud. They are almost invariably rapid readers of words, i. e. they call words at sight rapidly, but are slow to drink in the meaning. The inferences are that in the public school too much attention is given to word call- ing, to pronunciation, to sounds and diacritical marks in the early work, thereby establishing a bent in the direction of mere form ; that not enough stress is laid upon the direct association of thought and expression; 212 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. and that there is not enough training in drinking in the thoughts of whole sentences at a glance. Reading consists of silent reading and oral reading. The first is the comprehending of the thought expressed and suggested by printed or written language and the second is the adequate oral expression of that thought in the same language. The first is the fundamental process. In fact the oral reading is to be considered largely as a means by which the teacher determines whether the pupil has "read" in the first sense. The correctness of the oral reading depends largely upon the silent reading. The object in teaching reading is to give the pupil the power to look upon the printed or written page and to grasp the thought with the least possible consciousness of the words. If the pupil is so taught that he either thinks the pronunciation of eacfh word, or actually pronounces it, the thought is not obtained directly through the printed or written lan- guage, but indirectly, in that the printed or written words have first to be translated into oral words. The pupil should be able to look directly through the printed or written words to the meaning, or to at once determine the unknown elements. The ordinary use of the eye is to convey to the mind the visible attributes of objects. But the ear while recognizing sound as sound, has from the beginning learned to recognize thought through oral words in such a way that the thought becomes primary in conscious- ness, and the sound of the words secondary. So purely does language become the representative of thought, that, as sound, it is almost entirely in the back-ground. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 213 To cause the eye to obtain thought from language with as little consciousness of the expression as does the ear in comprehending the thought from spoken lan- guage is the problem. And this problem is settled, largely, one way, or the other, by the end of the third year of school. The prime aim is to so change the function of the eye that, in reading, words will suggest directly to the consciousness their contained thought. PRINCIPLES. The principles of the sentence method are : 1. The mind naturally begins with wholes in its investigations. 2. As the unit of thinking is the thought, so the unit of expression is the sentence. 3. As parts are naturally learned while considering their wholes, words, as parts of a sentence are learned while studying the sentence, and letters while studying their whole — the word. 4. Language should be learned indirectly, the stress of the attention being upon the thought. STEPS. The first step in the sentence method is to awaken thought in the mind of the pupil by means of objects present to the senses and to the imagination, and to lead him to give the thought proper oral expression. The second step is to lead the child to grasp the exact thought of any given oral expression, and to make the appropriate concrete representation. The third step is to lead the child to grasp the exact thought contained in a printed or written sentence, and , 214 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. to enable him to express the thought in the language used. For example, the teacher prints or writes upon the board, " I have a ball." The pupils never having studied printed or written words, do not know the meaning; but from the habits and tendencies gained from the pre- vious steps, when the teacher places the ball in the hands of the pupil he says ''I have a ball." The teacher continues the work in the same way until several children are supplied with objects, and cor- responding number of sentences being upon the board. The pupils will then be called upon one by one to point out their sentences upon the board, and to read them orally. Since each retains his object, this will be readily done. If the child forgets the sentence the teacher is to point it out for him. The pupils are then led to exchange objects and continue the same kind of work. In the lessons from day to day the position of the sentences is to be changed, in order that the pupils may not recall them from their position. The objects to be used should be kept upon a table or desk within reach of the pupils. When the teacher prints or Writes a new sentence she may hand the object to the pupil or point it out for him to take. At a later stage the teacher may, after printing or writing a sentence, wait, and thus give the pupils an opportunity to select the object without its being shown. Whenever a pupil expresses a desire to do this it indi- cates that he has read the thought, and is acting in obedience to the impulse occasioned by the thought. The pupils are, from this point on, able to read the THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 215 sentences, silently, orally, and to represent the thought objectively with but little aid from the teacher. In due season they pass to the consideration of single words, letters, sounds, etc. Indicate, in detail, the exercises under each step. What are the favorable points of the method? The objections to it? How lest it? No one of these, however, constitutes a method of teaching reading. Each is a system^ one condition of the method. The central thought in each is association; each in its place is best. The things to be associated in reading are ideas and thoughts on the one hand with their printed symbols on the other. It is not the aim of readr iiig to teach the printed word or the printed sentence, but to so associate them with the idea and the thought that they express, that the one shall instantly suggest the other. Each of these systems, in its proper relation, is an aid to the asso- ciation of thought and expression ; but each may be era- ployed at such a time, and make such association as to be a hindrance to thought, the great point im read- ing WORK IS TO ASSOCIATE IDEAS AND PRINTED WORDS, AND THOUGHTS AND PRINTED SENTENCES, 80 AS TO MAKE THE PUPIL AS LITTLE CONSCIOUS OF THE PRINTED WORD AS HE IS OF ORAL WORDS WHEN HE IS GIVING OR RECEIV- ING THOUGHT BY MEANS OF THEM. The SOle USC of a word or sentence is to' suggest an idea or thought. Un- less they do this they are worse than useless. But words and sentences have in themselves as forms no inherent power of suggesting ideas and thoughts, since they are arbitrary expressions. In order that they may ^1^ lUK X«iiX>KY a*' THK SOHOOL. At vvi>o0 8Ug|t«^t thdr ideas imd thoughts, the assoeiAtion mu$t fh«ii the am be diwct, the weight of attevit mtiii^tt upon the thou«fht side. ''An irr^hignb iUaHctice,** eay^ Cwuw^ius, "is that tht> uiuio tuui th^tong\u^?^uHild Hd\WHH> in jvanUlol I- Th^ oi«;>A\n\^v ia<\H in r^ditt^it i§ that tl\o pr 5^\ous ari* to be Aseuttated with their iil iij'^iMustantly sufpstthwd. md y Aj^viatiou Wi^x^sj th«^ e^^si^ntial aet in U>arningto mul, a vHH^dd^ration v\f the Lhw$ of asstooiatioi\ is r^uisLit^, Th«? t\uHiam^nt«l prinoiple of nwodation is ti^at tA^ mmd ttHih H^ oH oyci^ •$ «l iW» «c«mI. Subordinate to thi$i$<~^hf(MArH$f$ ^ ly « tendency ; there is no aWt\lut<* tvrt^uty that the one wiU pieeent itself to the nund when the othwdoes. This owimnty is to be secur- eii bv the application of another law of assocbtion— a«* tkom r^iili^ ^i^^ ^ «aia(«Mi m^ taest 4lvei^ ^^ (If the emotion become© absorUng^ howeyt^, the tend«ioy tv> str\n\)jt asj^viation is weakened.) OtiWr tiUi^ h$m9 ^f^mf. ^m$ ^m^ ^^ mw IM ««9«a«r w €aiiwtMi^M«8»» TllJC TliKOHY OF THE aCilOOL. 217 most free from entangling relationSj are W/ost utrongly asso* dated. The ideaa tu be mtuitered in reading, or the exercise- ground, Hhould Ix;, and nhould appeiir to the child to be a development from the baHJH, i.e., that wliich he already IIOW8 upon the Bubject. The thought that iH to determine what meann or d«;- viceH are to be employed in teaching the child to n;;i(l -whether the given device or means will aid the aHHo- ' i.ition of the thought and expresBion. The development of the mind \h thus presented by I'OKTKR : "TlKf (ievelopment of the mind begiiiH with the beginnings of ■"rniwn. Before thiM, itH octivitieH are, oh it were, rudimental ly. From tliJH condition th« mind awakeH when wmia object attraerations and the pHycfiical self. At a very riy period the lH>dy is dlHtinj^uished from the material world which it forniH a [)art. The soul alwj begins to be appre- 218 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. hended as diverse from the body, as soon as the purely psychi- cal emotions, as the love of power and sympathy, or the irasci- ble passions, are vividly experienced. As fast as the attention masters distinct objects, it must separ- ate them into separable ideas or images, which are henceforth at the service of the imagination and the memory. These reap- pear in the occasional dream-life that begins to disturb what was hitherto the animal sleep of the infant. Memory begins to recall past experiences of knowledge and feeling. Recognition finds old and familiar acquaintances in the objects seen a sec- ond time. At a later period, imagination begins to imitate the actions and occupations of older persons, and furnishes endless and varied play work for childhood in the busy constructions of the never-wearied fancy ; while it irradiates the emotional life with perpetual and inextinguishable sunshine. Slowly the rudiments of thinking, or the rational processes, begin to be learned and practiced. The attention not only discrimi- nates, but compares. As it compares, it discerns likenesses and differences in qualities and relations. These, it thinks apart from the individual objects to which they pertain. It groups and arranges, under the general conceptions thus formed, the individuals and species to which ihey belong. To these activi- ties language furnishes its stimulus and lends its aid. Inasmuch as there can be but a limited language without generalization, the infant or child is forced to think, by the multitude of words which catch its ear and force themselves upon its attention ; each representing the previous thinking of other men, and even of other generations. With classifying, are intimately allied the higher acts of tracing effects to causes and illustrating causes by effects. Then, inductions are made by interpreting similar qualities and causes, as exhibited in experience and elicited by experiments. The mind becomes possessed of principles and rules, which it ap- plies in deductions both to prove and explain. From the development of the child's mind it is evi- THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 219 dent that devices or means that will not be appropriate, and will not aid the association at one time, will at an- other, and vice versa. What are the principal means or devices that may be employed in reading? (a). To call the idea into con- sciousness, (b). To call the word into consciousness. Among the principal means of suggesting the idea to the mind may be mentioned : 1. Illustration. a. Objective. b. Graphic, {^-j^f 2. Language. a. Oral word, j ^^^"^- , ( In a sentence. b. Conversation. c. Stories. The printed word is brought into consciousness, in the first place mainly by observation and copy. It is afterwards suggested by any one of the means given above as suggesting the idea. The great and most prevalent defect in teaching children to read is in having them try to learn one thing by doing another, i. e., in having them associate expression mth expression, when the aim is to associate expression with thought. Dealing too much with form or expres- sion, has been, and is, the source of all the mechanical reading that so abounds. In reading, the form or ex- pression is the incident, and is to be kept in the back- ground. 220 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The tendency to make the expression prominent is seen in the association of the printed word with the oral word in unnecessary cases ; the association of the printed word with the same word in other places on the board or in the book; in the practice of calling the pupil's attention to his mistakes in emphasis, inflection, modu- lation, etc. ; in the practice of asking one pupil to try to give a better oral reading than the one given. All these tend to make the pupil self-conscious, and hence divide his mental energy, which should be concentrated upon the thought. THE PRIMARY STAGE. (To about the close of the Third Year). GENERAL NATUBE. In the first part of this stage the subject matter and the methods partake of the nature of those in the ad- vanced stage but more largely of those in the preparatory stage; while in the latter part of the work the reverse is the case. Since all literature is the embodiment of thought, and all thought involves the relations indicated under the head of the categories — (considered at another place) — it follows that the teacher of silent reading will find that all the questions employed by her in leading the child- ren to obtain the thought will find their classification under these categories referred to, so that the question can not be — Shall the categories be employed in obtain- ing the thought of the reading lessons in the primary stage? but — Shall they be applied informally, (to the children) or formally and in such a way that the child- ren are conscious participants in their application ? THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 221 The true answer, probably, is that in the beginning of the primary stage their application should be in- formal, (the teacher, however, having in mind their sys- tematic use) gradually passing into a conscious and sys- tematic use of them, so as to, by this means, early im- plant among other habits a habit of studying the read- ing lessons in the light of them. This alone would be a gain of great value, as it would go far toward solving that problem so often met by the primary teacher — How can the primary pupil be led to study the reading les- son ? Many difficulties in discipline would thus be re- moved. USUAL MODE OF PROCEDURE. The most prevalent method of dealing with a reading lesson is based on two principles : 1. The chief aim in a reading lesson has to do with the thought. 2. The mind can best master a thing, when the thing to be mastered is most free from entangling relations. It is therefore said by many, ' unless the mind is freed from the consideration of such things as the spelling, pro- nunciation, and meaning of ne^ or vaguely understood words when it enters upon the attempt to obtain the thought of a paragraph or of a whole selection, it will be hampered and engrossed by these elements of form so as to seriously interfere with the mastery of the thought ' The inference of those who reason thus is that the treatment of a given selection as a reading lesson would involve three general kinds of work : 222 THE THEORY OP THE SCHOOL. 1. The mastery of new words. 2. The consideration of the general thought. 3. The oral reading. The mode of procedure would therefore be (a selection having been decided upon): a. The selection of the most difficult words (diffi- cult as to pronunciation, spelling, meaning, or in any respect) and the placing of them upon the board. . b. The study of these words by the pupils, as to their spelling, sounds, diacritical marking, pronunciation and general meaning. c. A recitation upon the given words in respect to these points. d. The consideration and discussion of the thought. (The supposition being that the mind by this considerable and minute treatment of the form, has been so freed from it as to be able to turn the whole attention upon the thought.) e. (In primary classes). Thecallingof the words from the beginning to the end of the sentence and vice versa. f. The oral reading. This method although apparently rational, is seen upon close reflection, to be fallacious. If those same words with their peculiar characteristics of form and meaning were the ones that were to appear in every possible reading lesson, in and out of school, the theory would then hold true; and it would, therefore, be the rational order of work to first devote a period to the mastery of this universal form and then ever after be able to turn the undivided attention upon the thought. THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 223 But such is not the case. Each selection has its pecul- iar words with their peculiar characteristics. And to consider them first, and with all the detail indicated, tends not to free the mind from them but to engross it with them, to give them an undue prominence in the mind. According to the method being considered, only about one third of the time is devoted to the thought element; as for example, upon any three days' work with a selection it usually requires one day upon the unfa- miliar words, one concerning the general thought and one devoted to the oral expression; or if but one day is employed, one third of the time upon the first, one third upon the second and the remainder of the time upon the oral expression. The practical results, therefore, of reading work of this character are : 1. To give great prominence to the formal side, and to engross the mind with it. 2. To disregard, to a degree, the principle of proceed- ing from the known to the related unknown. 3. To disregard the idea that the mind gains most power, when in each exercise, it exerts its present power to the highest degree. The general mode of procedure that is suitable in the reading work of this or of the succeeding stage is based upon the following principles : 1. The aim in teaching reading is to confer upon the pupil the power to obtain thought from language toithout considering the spellingy soundSy pronunciation and general meaning of the wordsj except in a very subordinate degree. 224 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 2. The mind, in the attempt to master the thought of a selection must exhaust its already acquired power and knowledge in the attempt at interpretation before dealing with extraneous aids. That is, the pupil's ex- perience, knowledge, and power, and the relations of the words in the paragraphs should all be utilized to the ut- most before outside agencies, such as dictionaries, etc., should be employed. 3. Spelling, separate sounds, pronunciation, etc., be- longing to oral reading, should, until the thought is thoroughly mastered, be kept as subordinate as possible. A PREFERABLE MODE OF PROCEDURE. The plan of work that would be in accord with these principles, whether the lesson is upon a wbole selection, a paragraph or a sentence is — THOUGHT. 1. To have the class come to the recitation without having considered at all the spelling, sound and pronun- ciation, except incidentally or unconsciously, as they would necessarily do when attempting to interpret the thought. The pupils are not in their preparation to have used the dictionary. The aim is to have the selection, paragraph, or sentence utter to them its entire thought as fully as possible without any aid outside of it. The only instruments that are to be brought to bear upon the lesson in its study are the pupil's previously acquired knowledge and habits, and these are to be pressed to the full test. 2. {In the recitation.) The teacher, by questions, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 225 applying the categories informally or formally, is to de- termine: a. To what extent the pupil has come into posses- sion of the thought. b. What the impediments to his full comprehen- sion of the thought are, i.e., where his difficulties lie. There will thus be disclosed, definitely to the teacher, the expressions or words that, for want of comprehen- sion, stand between the pupil and his full insight into the thought. 3. The third kind of work is to concentrate the at- ii<»n upon these difficulties. No extraneous aids, iiowever, such as the dictionary, are to be used at this time. The teacher is by question and suggestion to irshal and bring to bear upon these seemingly un- uiiuiliar words, all the pupil's related knowledge; all that analogy of form and sound have previously given him; all that may be gathered from every possible re- lation as indicated or suggested in the paragraph or sen- tence, in order to dissolve the difficulties or reduce them t" the minimum. 4. If there still remain a word or words that have not yielded to the previous work, such word or words are then (in the recitation) to be examined in the dic- tionary, (if the class is advanced enough to use it) or ex- plained by the teacher at the board, and so intertwined with the pupil's previous ideas and vocabulary that they become his permanent property. If it is not de- sired to investigate these words during the recitation, the pupils may be asked to study them before the next recitation. 16 226 THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. The objection may be urged, however, that in the an- swers required in the work suggested, the pupils will necessarily have to use some of the words of the lesson, and not having studiejj the spelling, pronunciation, etc., will doubtless make mistakes in pronunciation, and thereby tend to fix an incorrect habit. The answer is : 1. That the words in a new lesson that have not been made familiar to sight and sound by the child's experience before entering school, and by the work in reading and in other studies are much fewer than would be at first supposed. 2. That if the pupils do frequently mispronounce words in their answers it is much better that these mechanical mistakes should occur (the teacher quietly correcting them at the time) than that by the previous study of them the mind should be prevented from giving the thought due prominence, and from gaining the highest degree of exercise. FORM. The thought of the selection, paragraph, or sentence having been substantially mastered, the attention is then to be turned to a mastery of the unfamiliar ele- ments of the form, i. e. pronunciation, etc. In this work essentially the same kind of steps would be taken as have been suggested for the thought work. That is, the thought having been obtained, the teacher would : 1. Test the pupils thoroughly without reference to dictionaries or other aids, as to mastery over the lan- guage in regard to the separate sounds, pronunciation, THE THEORY OF THE SCHOOL. 227 etc., in order to determine the exact location of their difficulties. 2. The nature and extent of the unknown having thus been brought clearly before both the pupil and the teacher, the efifort is then to be made to translate this unknown into the known, i. e. to master the difficulties by means of questions, suggested analogies of form, lines of relation to known words in meaning, inference, etc., before resorting to the dictionary, or to explana- tions by the teacher. 3. If any difficulties remain unremoved as might be' the case for example with the word bade on account of its anomaly, they are to be explained by blackboard work, or by use of dictionary, or assigned for investiga- tion. ORAL READING. In the oral reading, the mistakes in emphasis, inflec- tion, modulation, etc., are signals of defects in the thought. They are effect. The want of comprehension of the thought is caiuse. Remedies should, if possible, be