, / REESE LIBRARY OP THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. t* Received C^ Accessions No. _^^/_ Y&44L Shelf No. THE MODERN GREEK: ITS PRONUNCIATION AND RELATIONS TO ANCIENT GREEK, WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE RULES OF ACCENTUATION, ETC. BY T. T. TIMAYENIS, OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE. L I B II A K Y UN I V KISS IT V OF (;ALIFOKNIA. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 549 & 551 BROADWAY. SPRINGFIELD, MASS. : J. D. GILL, 260 MAIN STREET. 1877. COPYRIGHT, 1877, BY T. T. TIMAYENIS. UNIVERSITY PRESS : WELCH, BIGELOW, & Co. CAMBRIDGE. TO THE REV. M. C. STEBBINS, A.M., PRINCIPAL OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, Uolume IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, AS A TOKEN OF ADMIRATION FOB DISTINGUISHED ABILITIES SUCCESSFULLY DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF CLASSICAL LEARNING IN THIS COUNTRY, AND A MEMORIAL OF FRIENDSHIP WHICH HAS EXISTED UNBROKEN DURING MANY YEARS OF ALMOST DAILY INTERCOURSE. THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. IN preparing this volume, I have made frequent use of the " 'IffTopta TI}? 'EXXrjviKfc rXdW^," by the late Professor D. Mavrophredes (Smyrna, 1871). Important aid has also been received from Professor Geldart's work on " The Modern Greek Language in its Relation to Ancient Greek." Other works which I have advan- tageously consulted are, Anastasius Georgiades' " Trac- tatus de Elementorum Graecorum Pronunciatione," Gr. et Lat., Paris, 1812 ; " Eclaircissements tires des Lan- gues semitiques sur quelques points de la Pronunciation Grecque " ; Professor Clyde's " Romaic Greek " ; Sopho- cles' " Romaic Greek Grammar " and " Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek." Frequent references have been made also to the works of ancient and modern Greek authors, especially to those that have touched upon the subject of Greek pronunciation. But my obligations are much greater to Konstantinus Oekonomos, whose work, "IJepJ irpofopas TI}? 'J^XXipwd}? .TXwcrcrT??," St. Petersburg, 1829, has been constantly by me. The subject of Greek pronunciation has been often discussed by scholars since the time of Erasmus, who was the first to propagate that new system of pronun- ciation known as the Erasmian system. Scholars to-day, vi PREFACE. generally speaking, although more or less convinced of the fact that the Erasmian system of Greek pronuncia- tion is quite at variance with the nature of Grecian phraseology, with the testimony of ancient authors, and established principles of history and logic, yet tolerate this pronunciation because " they do not see that any good will result to students by adopting the pronun- ciation now prevalent in Greece." They say, " We study Greek for the culture it imparts ; we do not care which is the true pronunciation " ! Now, we study the " queen of languages," the language of infinite flexibility and of unequalled vigor, the language which speaks to the ear like French, to the mind like English, the language which possesses a literature enshrining works " not only of imperishable interest, but also of imperish- able importance for the development of human thought " ; we study the language without which human knowledge would appear like the year without spring, or like the day without its bright sun ; and yet we say, " We do not care how we pronounce such a language " ! Now, we believe with the Rev. F. W. Farrar, that the reasons why we spend so long a time in acquiring the mastery of the Greek are, because the Greek is one of the most delicate and perfect instruments for the expres- sion of thought which was ever elaborated by the mind of man, and because it is therefore admirably adapted, both by its points of resemblance to our own and other modern languages, and by its points of difference from them, to give us the idea or fundamental conception of all Grammar ; that is, of those laws which regulate the use of the forms by which we express our thoughts. Again, the Greek being a " synthetic language," many of its advantages lie in its compactness, precision, and PREFACE. vii beauty of form. Now, suppose we grant that the advan- tages we seek to obtain from the study of the Greek cannot be increased by a change of pronunciation ; yet, we claim, that by adopting the pronunciation prevalent in Greece, Grecian philology would receive a new impetus. Scholars in this country and elsewhere, would be better able to judge of the literary productions of the modern Greeks ; they would better observe how many idioms and peculiarities of language prevalent among the ancient authors, still remain unchanged in the language of the modern Greeks ; and, finally, the study of modern lan- guage would become easier to the young student, be- cause the euphony, grace, and variety of sound and harmony of the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, have in a greater or less degree been wrought into all the modern languages. Hence, their pronunciation is comparatively an easy matter to attain, if one is thor- oughly drilled in the sounds which the modern Greeks give to the vocal elements of their language. On the other hand, the Erasmian system, an author remarks, " causes its adherents to lo.se all delicacy, euphony, and accuracy of expression or sound." The appendix " on accentuation," although it may seem foreign to a work of this kind, has been added at the request of many instructors. It is to be hoped that by means of the rules which are there given, the study of this difficult branch of knowledge will become easier and more interesting to the young student. A few other grammatical rules have been added, which seem to me are not given fully, either in Professor Goodwin's or Hadley's Grammar. Professor Zelf's and Professor Gennadius' Grammars have been consulted in the prep- aration of these rules. Scholars are wont to confound viii PREFACE. Romaic with Modern Greek, and this sad mistake, it seems to me, is mainly to be attributed to that statement of Professor Sophocles, who in the preface of his Romaic Grammar says, " Romaic, or, as it is often called, Modern Greek." Now, Professor Clyde asserts that " this glar- ing mistake has influenced the opinions of many British scholars, and proves most conclusively that " Professor Sophocles has confounded things which differ." But not only Professor Clyde, but Professor Geldart also remarks, " Sophocles' works, especially his Grammar, require to be used with caution. For the headings ' An- cient ' and ' Modern ' which he places over his various paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, ' Lan- guage of Polite Society ' and ' Language of the Common People ' or ' Cultivated ' and * Vernacular ' ; for the so- called ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be found in the more cultivated modern Greek . . . Again, in other ways truth is sacrificed by Professor Sophocles to system, as when he gives rov rrarepa, rov avopa, as the modern Greek for rov irarpds, rov dvSpos. These forms occur no doubt, but the classical forms are more common even in the vernacular." . . . But the reason why Professor Sophocles, a Greek him- self, and a scholar of so distinguished a reputation, has committed so serious a mistake is to be attributed to the fact that he left Greece many years ago, when quite a young man, and when education in Greece was in a sad condition. Hence, Professor Sophocles is familiar with the vernacular Greek of his times, which in fact might be called "Romaic Greek," but since the emancipa- tion of Greece and the establishment of the University and other schools of learning " Romaic Greek " has en- tirely disappeared, and in its stead the modern Greek, PREFACE. IX which is the newest phase of the old Greek, has resumed its place. It is not my purpose now, nor is this the place, to state fully the distinction there exists between Romaic and Mod- ern Greek. Suffice it to say, that this difference cannot be better indicated in brief, than by that which exists between " broad Scotch " and " good English." Professor Clyde says " there are phrases in one unknown to the other, like the famous ' neffow o' glawr,' which all the English of George IV. and his boasted knowledge of Scotch to boot, were not able to explain." There remains for me the pleasant duty of tendering my warmest thanks, first of all, to the Rev. M. C. Steb- bins, principal of the Springfield Collegiate Institute, without whose valuable assistance I doubt much if this volume would have ever seen the light. Not only has his kind and valuable service aided much in the construction of the plan and the development of the work, but also all the proofs have passed under his critical eye. Should this work ever accomplish the mission for which the author sends it out into the world, its success will mainly be due to his broad and thoughtful scholarship. To Professor W. S. Tyler, D. D., of Amherst College, to Professor E. Anagnos of Boston, and to all others who have honored this work with their favorable notice, I beg to return my thanks. Last, but not least, I must tender my thanks to a personal and esteemed friend, S. Holman Esq., for the very kind encouragement I have received while this work was yet in embryo. With the valuable assistance of such a scholar as the Rev. M. C. Stebbiris, my task might well have been exe- cuted far better than it is. But such as it is, I commit it very humbly to the judgment of the public ; but with a X PREFACE. comfortable degree of confidence that its deficiencies will be charitably regarded by those who are best qualified to appreciate the difficulties necessarily attendant upon the discussion of the topics herein treated. T. T. TIMAYENIS. SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, SPRINGFIELD, MASS., September 1, 1877. CONTENTS. PART I. CHAP. PAGE I. PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE . 1 II. THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM .... 6 III. LOCAL PECULIARITIES ..... 9 IV. MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MOD- ERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION ... 15 V. NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUN- CIATION 23 VI. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE . . 25 VII. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE .... 39 VIII. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC AND THE MODERN GREEK . . . . 94 IX. ACCENT AND QUANTITY 99 X. THE ASPIRATE . . . . . 139 PART II. I. THE ALPHABET 143 II. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS .... 144 III. DIGRAPHS . 153 xii CONTENTS. IV. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS . . . 155 V. THE CONSONANTS 167 VI. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS . . . 192 VII. EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIA- TION .... 194 APPENDIX. RULES OF ACCENTUATION 201 PART I. CHAPTER I. ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 'EAXas /xV lore /a'a, iroA-ets 8e avroi) TIV', ot 8 ' ""EAAr/ve? 6 KtopiKos Trapa AtKatdp^w, anotnr. 26.) THE pronunciation of the Greek language that is prevalent in Greece, bids fair to find its way into the schools and universities of the Old World and the New. Scholars everywhere, after much discussion, are coming to the conclusion " that the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, even if it is not identical with the ancient, must have a closer resemblance to the old than that of the Western nations." It is high time, therefore, that scholars should adopt in this country, and in fact wherever the Greek language is studied, the pronunciation prevalent in Greece, which, as we will endeavor to prove, must have a closer re- semblance to the old than any other pronuncia- tion now in use. Why it is that so little attention 2 ON THE PRONUNCIATION , is paid in this country to the way the modern Greeks pronounce their language we will notice hereafter. But it is worth while to consider how eager we are to acquire a correct pronunciation when we study a foreign language, and how care- less in pronouncing "the language" in which tlie loftiest and deepest thoughts were expressed. Perhaps the idea prevails that after the fall of Greece, which dates from the war of the Pelo- ponnesus, " Greece not only saw her greatness fall, but her spoken language also pass into ob- livion." How mistaken, indeed, he must be, who supposes that the traditional language of the Greeks is a thing of the past, is evident from what follows. It may be true, that after Greece had become a Roman province she saw, with liberty, the arts, sciences, and literature fall into decadence. It may be true that there were no more such statesmen and great captains as Themistocles, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pausanias, Aristides, and Cimon ; no more great orators like Pericles, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and .ZEschines ; no more poets like Sophocles, Euripides, and Pindar; no more historians like Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Ctesias, and Polybius ; no more philosophers like Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle ; no more sculptors like Phidias and Praxiteles ; no more painters like Apelles, and Zeuxis, and Parrhasius, yet the OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 3 Greeks never lost their language. In spite of the invasions of the Goths, of the Bulgarians, of the Arabs, and of the Turks, the Greek language, I repeat, never ceased to be spoken by the descend- ants of the ancient Hellenes. Now, let not the reader do me the injustice to suppose that I am unduly influenced by patriotism in my state- ments. My object is to present facts, to deal with facts, and to present them in their true light. If there are any defects in the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, I will not hesitate to point them out. There is perhaps no nation in the history of the world which has suffered so many invasions, from so many different races ; yet, far from yielding to the direful influences bearing upon her, she has succeeded in preserving many of the virtues of her illustrious ancestors, together with the lan- guage, with so little change, a change less than \ that between the English of Chaucer and the English of to-day. It is wonderful that the Greeks were able to preserve their language under the many vicissi- tudes which the nation had to pass through, especially while under the Turkish yoke. It is perhaps this that causes many to disbelieve the fact that the Greek is as really a living language as it was in the days of Homer. To bear in mind the various means the Turks adopted to 4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION kill, so to speak, the Greek language, the cruelty and barbarity they exercised over the conquered people, might perhaps prepare one to believe that " it was buried in a quiet grave and had given place to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk into the dotage of a second childhood." And yet, nothing is more true than the state- ment, that the Greek is as truly a living lan- guage as it was in the days of Homer. To express my sentiments, I can do no better than to use the words of an English writer, who says on this subject, " That it is a strange and unparal- leled fact that one of the oldest known languages in the world, a language in which the loftiest and deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the wisest thinkers, the noblest, holiest, and best of teachers, have, directly or indirectly, found their utterance in ^the far-off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at this day be the living speech of millions through- out the East of Europe, and various parts of Asia Minor and Africa; that it should have survived the fall of empires, and risen again and again from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged, but never drowned, by floods of invading barbarians, Romans, Celts, Slaves, Goths and Vandals, Avars, Huns, Franks, and Turks ; often the lan- guage of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ; with features seared by years and service, yet still essentially the sain^, instinct with the fire OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 5 of life, and beautiful with the memory of the past." Professor A. N. Arnold says, " The language of Greece has undergone no revolution since the time of the Attic historians, philosophers, orators, and poets. Through all the successive invasions and conquests of the country, by the Romans, the Goths, the Huns, the Sclavonians, the Cru- saders, the Venetians, and the Turks, the basis of the population and the substance of the lan- guage have survived unchanged. There has never been a period when there were not some who wrote Greek with a fair approach to Attic parity Since the time of Homer, the Greek has never been a dead language. Western Europe by that libel only proclaimed her own ignorance and shame. If there has been a time when even Athenians spoke a wretched patois, there were even at that time educated men and women in Constantinople who spoke and wrote the language in a style which would have been quite intelligible, not only to Plutarch and Pau- sanias, but also to Pericles and Plato." LI r, H A UY OK CHAPTER II. THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. AT the first appearance of the Turkish suprem- acy in Greece, hundreds of families fled to the West of Europe, bearing with them that very system of pronunciation which not only the Greeks still use, but which learned Europe uni- versally allowed until the time of Erasmus. The Erasmian system of Greek pronunciation was proposed about the beginning of the sixteenth century. Hume informs us that the new system was vigorously opposed ; it also divided the Grecians themselves (at Oxford) into parties. The penalties inflicted for adopting the new pronun- ciation were no less than whipping, degradation, and expulsion ; and the Bishop declared that, rather than permit the new pronunciation of the Greek, it were better that the language itself were totally banished the universities. (Historv of England, Ch. XXXIIL, A. D. 1547.) At present many seem to be satisfied that it is best for every one to pronounce Greek after the analogy of his own vernacular tongue. This THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. 7 of course gives rise to as many modes of reading Greek as there are modern languages in Europe. And it is worthy of notice that " no system of Greek pronunciation conflicts oftener with the direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, as well as with the established principles of the Greek language, than that which takes the Eng- lish for its basis." Professor Sophocles attributes it to the fact that in no other European language is the same letter or combination of letters oftener employed to denote more than one sound or no sound at all. However, some maintain that an Englishman, for instance, learns Greek more easily by attempting to pronounce it as if it were English. This cannot be true, for " English orthoepy is confessedly complicated and discour-^ aging, even when it confines itself to its own language." Now, the general uniformity of modern Greek pronunciation, wherever the language is spoken, is very strong argument for its antiquity, and against its being a corruption resulting from con- tact with other languages. In the Spanish dia- lect we clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in Italian of Teutonic, in French of Celtic sounds ; in Greek, on the other hand, though the countries where it is spoken are as widely distant and the foreign influences to which it has been subject as diverse, we find generally the same traditional 8 THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM. pronunciation among learned and unlearned alike. In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of' the Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in the ^Egean, the pronunciation presents the great- est harmony in respect to those letters on which the whole controversy turns. CHAPTER III. LOCAL PECULIARITIES. THE same local peculiarities which existed in the different sections of ancient Greece are preva- lent in those sections to-day. The Spartan of to- day, like the Spartan of old, uses the same short, cutting, laconic expressions. He is inclined to an active life of warfare, differing in this respect from the modern Athenian, who possesses the same elegance in his bearing and expression as the Athenian of old. It may not be out of place to remark that many of the superstitious notions of the ancients are still prevalent, especially among the common people of Asia Minor. For instance, according to Herodotus, when Xerxes was marching to invade Greece. .... evpt tVe/ca ScopTycra/xe^o? a) aOavara) avopi eTTLTpeifjas Now, it is curious to notice that this custom of hanging trinkets to " Oriental planes" (plata- ni) is still prevalent in Asia Minor. The people hang trinkets to such of the plane-trees as happen to strike their fancy. It is a custom with the 10 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. people of that country, for which I doubt whether they themselves can account. It is simply a cus- tom handed down from generation to generation, and from whicn neither time nor any other in- fluence has been able to dissuade them. Again, the same strong hold religion had upon the great mass of the people is still prevalent, especially in some of the islands of the Archi- pelago, such as Icaria, Rhodes, and the interior of Asia Minor. Mr. Alexander S. Murray in his manual of mythology enumerates many of the superstitious notions of the ancient Greeks, and, in fact, it is astonishing to consider that neither time nor Christianity itself could dissuade the people from many of those religious notions. Now, it is a well-known fact, that it was in the firm belief of his interests being the special care of a deity, that the husbandman sowed his seed and watched the vicissitudes of its growth ; that the sailor and trader intrusted life and property to the capricious sea. To-day, the husbandman of Asia Minor sows his seed under the firm belief that St. George or St. James will watch over his interests and will bring to him an abundant har- vest. The sailor and the trader intrust life and property to St. Nicolas, who, by the way, is the patron of all seafaring people. In the city of Smyrna, in a parish called u *Ava) Ma^aXa?," " the upper parish," there is a sort of a cavern LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 11 called "17 Kpvrj Tlavayid" the secret virgin. This " secret virgin " is considered the patron of mechanics, and her place is daily thronged by all classes of workingmen, who, in offering a part of their scanty earnings to her, earnestly pray that she may not cease to exercise her influence over their respective callings. Now, it is a fact, that in ancient times the mechanic traced the skill and handicraft, which grew unconsciously upon him by the practice, to the direct influence of a God. 'I knew of a poet in Asia Minor, by the name of George Kanares (Feajpytos Kavdprjs) who, a few years ago, wrote an interesting poem and dedicated it to his patron saint, St. Eustha- thios ! In Mr. Murray's mythology, we notice that artists ascribed the mysterious evolution of their ideas, and poets the inspiration of their song, to " a supreme cause." - Everywhere in nature was felt the presence of august, invisible beings, in the sky, with its luminaries and clouds ; on the sea, with its fickle, changeful movements ; on the earth, with its lofty peaks, its plains and rivers. To-day, old women in the East pretend to cure all sorts of diseases during full moon, and by the influence of certain invisible beings who inhabit certain stars. Old women pretend to cure pimples on the face by rubbing mud on it during full moon. Again, the deities of the ancients were represented as immortal, and, being immortal, they were next, as a con- 12 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. sequence, supposed to be omnipotent and omnis- cient. Their physical strength was extraordinary, the earth shaking sometimes under their tread. St. George to-day is represented as riding on a fiery steed, with a spear in his hand with which he killed a fiery dragon lying at the feet of his horse. Mythology teaches us that there were tales of personal visits and adventures of the Gods among men, taking part in battles and appearing in dreams. Now, the greater part of those pecul- iar-looking barracks the so-called churches that are seen nestled on top of hills and scattered hither and thither, in the interior of Asia Minor, were erected because some devout Christian de- clared that such a saint appeared to him ordering the erection of a church to his memory ! In pray- ing it was a custom of the ancients to lift their hands and turn the face towards the east. This is still the practice of the ignorant classes in Asia Mi- nor. Here is a specimen of what seems to have been the usual form of praying among the ancient Greeks: "Zeus, our Lord, give unto us whatever is good, whether we ask it of thee or riot; what- ever is evil keep far from us, even if we ask it of thee." The peasant in the East to-day, in pray- ing, will lift his hands and turn his face towards the east, and will say in a low tone, as appears to have been the ancient custom, "My God, our Lord, I pray to thee, give us whatever is good, and keep far from us whatever is evil, even if we ask LOCAL PECULIARITIES. 13 it of thee." This is a very common form of prayer, which was handed down, as it seems, from generation to generation. Pythagoras, the phi- losopher, taught his followers to pray with a loud voice ; but loud prayers do not appear to have been customary. Sneezing was regarded as something divine ; and Xenophon informs us, that, on one occasion, a soldier happening to sneeze, all those present, with one accord, bowed to the God. "Touro Se Xe- yovros avrov TTTapvvTai rt? cx/coucraz^re? 8* ol crTpa- Tio)TOLi TTOLVTZS /ua opp,rj TrpocreKvvrjcrav rov Oeov." . . . To-day, if any one happens to sneeze after nine o'clock in the evening, the peasants of Asia Minor are wont to pour wine on the ground. Finally, we must not forget to mention, as a proof of the wide-spread religious feeling of the ancient Greeks, the national festivals or games, such as the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian, maintained in honor of certain Gods. To-day, likewise, the peasant of the East, in celebrating the feast of his patron saint, suspends all business and celebrates the day with festivals and dancing, cordial invitations being extended to both friends and foes, a custom which was in existence among the ancient Greeks, because it is well known that they used to suspend whatever war might be going on between separate states, and to permit visitors to pass unmolested, even through hostile territories. 14 LOCAL PECULIARITIES. This tendency to polytheism is certainly a rem- nant of the religion of the ancient Greeks. Al- though Christianity has shed its light in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Archipelago, the people are addicted to those superstitious notions, and they will never be abandoned so long as the barbarous Turk holds sway over those countries. In the Kingdom of Greece the people are enlight- ened, and free from most of the superstitious no- tions of their brethren in the East. Let us not, however, forget that the inhabitants of Asia Minor are praiseworthy in retaining the language of their illustrious ancestors. I have alluded to the " local peculiarities " which are still prevalent, in order to show that the Greeks are a remarkably conservative race. Although the Turks prohibited, under penalty of death, the Greek language to be spoken or taught anywhere in Greece Proper or in Asia Minor; although a war of extermination was carried on by them, not only against the people, but against the renowned monuments of antiquity ; although all teachers, when pointed out, were instantly murdered, and the silence which reigned in that country once the home of the hero and the statesman re- sembled the silence of an old cemetery, the Greeks succeeded in keeping up their schools, and thus kept their language, in spite of their oppressors. CHAPTER IV. MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. ONE cause that makes scholars so averse to the adoption of the modern Greek pronunciation is the belief that the Greeks must have lost their language, owing mainly to the invasions of so many barbarous tribes, to which Greece for cen- turies submitted, until the year 1821, when the War of Independence was proclaimed, which terminated in throwing off the Turkish yoke. But how erroneous this idea ! An English writer says " that it seems hardly too much to say that our conduct in this regard shows a kind of liter- ary ingratitude, which ought to shock our moral sense. Greece has, in various ages, preserved to us the succession of culture, when the rest of the earth was overrun with savages. For us it has held the citadel of civilization against the barba- rism of the world, and now the danger is over we have forgotten our benefactor, and trouble our- selves little how it fares with him!" The case reminds us of the words of the Preacher : " There was a little city, and few men within it; and there 16 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE came a great king against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it. Now there was found in it a poor wise man, and he by his wis- dom delivered the city ; yet no man remembered that same poor man." .... Why forget that during the time when Turkey held control over Greece, and when Greece seemed dead to the rest of the world ; when the Turks, I repeat, had prohibited, under penalty of death, the Greek language to be spoken any- where within their domain, often some remote church among the defiles of the mountains, and far from the Turks, used to serve as a school, where the Greek language was taught and spoken ? Why forget that the Greeks had sub- terranean schools in Constantinople, the very capital of Turkey, where, under learned Greek professors, the Greek language was by night taught to thousands of Greeks? Now, in those supernatural efforts, so to speak, on the part of the Greeks, lies the whole mystery of their success in preserving their language. No ! Not for a moment has the Greek forgot who were his ances- tors ; not for a moment has he thought of giving up his language. Time, and the invasions of bar- barians, had no effect whatever to change or demoralize either the people or the language. Idiomatic expressions, peculiarities of language, so common among the ancient Greek authors, are MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 17 to be heard, even to-day, in the different sections of Greece. Foreign words are rigorously ex- cluded; and even in the public press the names of foreign newspapers, sometimes also of foreign places, are subjected to translation. Thus, the Times is known as 6 XpoVo?, the New York Herald, as 6 Kyjpvg 7775 Ne'as 'TopKrjs, etc. ; and whereas it would sound ridiculous to call " Le palais des Tuileries" the palace of the Tileworks, it is actually translated by the u 'A^a/cropa ra^ Kepa^iaiv " in modern Greek. It may be well here to state that it is from the ancient grammarians we learn the pronunciation of the Greek language. Moreover, a scholar affirms that Dionysius of Halicarnassus, by re- ferring the Greek alphabetical sounds to their proper organs, has, as it were, embalmed them for our use. So that, knowing these facts, we can assert that the modern Greek pronunciation has a closer resemblance to the ancient Greek than any other existing pronunciation. Again, this is evident from the clearness and distinctness with which the educated classes es- pecially pronounce. It is evident from the strik- ing similarity which exists in pronouncing Greek in all the countries where the modern Greek pronunciation is prevalent. In Greece, in Asia Minor, in Egypt, on the islands, one and the same pronunciation exists. It is again evident 18 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE tk from the purity of style with which the papers are edited in Greece. It is evident from the fact that the Greek historians, such as Xenophon. and Herodotus, are the delight of every Greek who reads them as understandingly as the average American does the history of his own country. Take the last paragraph of the Olympian Oration, delivered by Professor Philippos loannou, on the second anniversary of the modern Olympiads, A. D., 1870. The subject of the oration is, " The Intellectual Progress of the Greek Nation from the War of Independence to the Present Time." In the closing paragraph Professor Arnold states : " Embracing about a page and a half of closely printed octavo, there are about fifty verbs, every one of which is found in Liddell and Scott's ancient Greek lexicon. .... Of seventy-five or eighty nouns, all but one are found in the above- named lexicon, and this one is simply a modifica- tion of a well known root, familiar to Greek scholars, and represented by several cognate words (Tray ia>T7? s) Of about fifty adjectives, all but one are found in the lexicon, and of this one the corresponding adverb is found. Indeed, the adjective itself is found in Pickering's lexicon. All the nouns and adjectives, without the slightest exception, are declined as in the ancient gram- mars. Among eight or ten different pronouns, personal, relative, demonstrative, and compound, MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 19 occurring in all about twenty-four times, there is only one instance of departure from ancient usage. Of ten adverbs, the only one not be- longing to the ancient language is the negative Se*> (contraction for ouSe*/) instead of ov or OVK. This modern form is used twice, and the ancient form, ov^i, also occurs twice. So slight is the difference between the Greek language of B. C. 400 and that of A. D. 1870." Now, is this not a proof that the language must be essentially the same ? And does not identity of language necessarily imply identity of sound? How is it that the people of Athens recently filled the ancient theatre of Bacchus to overflowing, to witness the representation of Antigone in ancient Greek ? How is it that the Athenian heart, ever finely susceptible to the sentiments of humanity, gave evidence by many a tear that the people who witnessed it were imbued with the spirit of the tragedy, and felt in their very hearts the pathos of the piece ? To what do you attribute all this I To what can it be attributed but to the fact that the " ancient Greek " is to-day essentially the living language of the modern Greeks? What more need be said in favor of adopting the modern Greek pronunciation, which alone is the true pro- nunciation of the Greek language ? The Rev. John Groves, a distinguished Greek scholar, asserts that " We have, after an examina- 20 MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING- THE tion made with no little labor, formed a decided opinion that the pronunciation of the Greeks lias undergone very little change for ' TWO THOUSAND YEARS/ The written language itself has been preserved in greater purity, during an equal ex- tent of years, than any of the European lan- guages of the same stock." He is inclined to believe, with an intelligent traveller in Greece, that the " contemporary of William of Malmes- bury or of Froissart would find more difficulty in conversing with his modern countrymen than any Athenian of the purer ages with his." Bishop Horsley remarks that it may reasonably be supposed that the pronunciation of the Greek language, even in the time of Eustathius, which flourished in the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury, much more resembled the pronunciation of the best ages than anything we can substitute for it now ; certainly much more than our BAR- BAROUS recitation of Greek, CORRUPTED by our bad way of sounding it. To the same effect is the opinion of a well-known English author, who has bestowed as much attention upon the subject of pronunciation generally as " any writer of our age." There seems, says Mr. Midford, no reason- able ground for doubting that the present polite pronunciation of Constantinople approaches nearer to the speech of the ancient Greeks than that of any other moderns, with any advantage the MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 21 study can give, and that in order to obtain the nearest possible approximation to the ancient Greek pronunciation we can do no other way so well as to adopt the Constantinopolitan. Furthermore, the University of Cambridge in England has candidly acknowledged that the English are almost singular in the erroneous and vitiated pronunciation of the Greek language. And, in a well-known literary journal, a writer has remarked, in strong language: "It is, I be- lieve, an undisputed fact, that our pronunciation of Greek bears not the slightest resemblance to that of the ancients A remedy should be found Great attention ought to be paid to the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, .... which must obviously approximate more to the standard of the ancients than the method preva- lent in England and elsewhere." Again, it is an undisputed fact, that by study- ing the Greek as a living language, and by adopting the modern Greek pronunciation, many idioms of modern Greek may be employed in a manner hitherto unlocked for, in the criticism of documents of doubtful age, as, for example, the Gospel of St. John, with a view of determining the period at which they were written. Professor Geldart asserts that the relation be- tween accent and quantity in poetry can never be fully nor fairly judged by any one who is not 22 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, a familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart from a practical acquaintance with Greek as a living, spoken language. Furthermore, "the pronunciation of Greek, and the interchange of certain letters within the limits of the Greek language, is a sealed mystery to those who are ignorant of the sounds which the Greeks of the present day give to the letters of their alphabet and their several combinations." Finally, as exactly the same letters appear to be interchangeable in ancient and modern Greek, we hold it to be in itself the strongest proof of the general identity of modern and ancient Greek pronunciation. But we will notice this point hereafter. We will no1^ proceed to discuss the subject concerning the neglect of the modern Greek pronunciation. CHAPTER V. NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. AFTER the foregoing considerations, the reader may be curious to know why scholars are so loath to adopt the pronunciation prevalent in Greece. For, in fact, how can the Western nations ever suppose that their pronunciation is correct, when they pronounce the Greek, which is the living language of millions of people, according to the sound of their respective languages ? Is this not a regrettable confusion ? Now, would it not be better to have for the Greek one uniform pronun- ciation, such as we have for every other spoken language ? The reasons for this neglect are many and various. With learned men of the old school it is due, very probably, " to a certain antiquarian bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice against everything modern." Professor Geldart is certainly right, when he says, that with such scholars the fact that a language is dead, is, of itself, the best reason for studying it, forgetting that " a living dog is better than a dead lion." 24 MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. To such, the discovery that the Greek is as really a living language as it was in the days of Homer, can hardly be expected to prove welcome. The manner of life which such persons lead is not inaptly expressed in the words of Southey : " My days among the dead are passed. Around me I behold, Where'er these casual eyes are cast, The mighty minds of old : My never-failing friends are they, With whom I converse night and day." The remaining reasons for this neglect, Professor Geldart attributes to " the politi cal insignificance of the nation ; the obscurity of its literature ; the small practical use of the language ; and last, but perhaps not the least, the prevalence of the Erasmian system of pronunciation." CHAPTER VI. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. " (EDIPUS. Where are we now, my dear Antigone ? Knowest thou the place ? ANTIGONE. Far as my eyes can reach I see a city With lofty turrets crowned ; and if I err not, This place is sacred ; by the laurel shade, Olive and vine thick planted, and the songs Of nightingale sweet warbling through the year." THE political insignificance of Greece cannot be of very long duration. A people which has made such rapid strides in education as the Greek nation, since its independence was established, must "be worth something, after all." Professor Felton said, in reference to the University of Athens, " That many of its professors would do honor to any university of Europe " ; and it is not saying too much when I say that the University of Athens is acknowledged to-day as one of the very best universities of Europe. General education is widely spread in Greece, and no nation sur- passes the modern Greeks "in general informa- tion." But in order that the reader may fully understand the astonishing progress the Greeks 26 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. have made in the sciences, arts, and literature, that is to say, in civilization, since 1832, the year when Greece was declared an independent king- dom, it is necessary that I preface my remarks by a brief description of the country before the occurrence of that memorable event. " Before I farther in the tale do pass, It seemeth me accordant unto reason To tell you all, the condition Of each of them, so as it seemeth me, And who they were, and of what degree, And eke in what array they all were in." In 1821 a general war against the Turks was declared, and, after a war of seven years a most cruel and atrocious war the Greeks succeeded in obtaining their liberty. Education during those years, and previous to 1821, was indeed in a sad condition. The Turks would permit the Greeks to have churches, but they would not permit them to have any " regular schools." The Greeks accordingly turned many of their churches into school-houses, and here is a faithful description of one of those "schools" by a Greek who attended one of them : " The rich were wont to attend the subterranean schools established in Constantinople, Smyrna, and other cities. These schools were generally taught by able and scholarly men, who had studied in Germany. The poor attended the schools held in the church. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 27 The school was kept at the entrance of the church, and our teacher was the priest, a man of not extensive acquirements. We went at about eight o'clock in the morning, and were ranged in two lines in the porch, one on each side of the door. The children sat on sheepskins spread on the floor with the wool up, the floor being swept very clean. Sometimes we were ranged round against the wall, without distinction of age or class, brothers being generally placed together, and the girls in another group. The exercises began at eight o'clock, by all standing, while a prayer was repeated by the teacher. Then we all said the Creed. The priest then repeated the psalm be- ginning ' Eleeson me o Theos,' which is much used by us in ancient Greek, of which I un- derstood the meaning when a little boy. It needed not a translation. When this was done, the boys began to read, one at a time going with his book to the master, who corrected any errors. There were two classes, one in an alphabet book, called 'phillada' (leaves); the other in the Psalter, or the ' Apostles.' The l Apostles ' contained the Acts and all the Epistles. Both the Psalter and the l Apostles ' were in ancient Greek. Each scholar had a few lines to read, which he studied as a lesson at his seat. We never studied mathematics, as we did afterwards, in the school of Oekonomos in Smyrna, This 28 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. school of Oekonomos was what I may term a ' private school.' A few such schools were to be found in Asia Minor at that time. But they were generally placed under the protection of some European power, and thus they were left un- molested. To this day, the Evangelical College in Smyrna, though a Greek institution, endowed by a Greek, is under the protection of England. After dinner we learned to write. Three or four small sheets of paper sewed together, without a cover, served for each of the older boys, who used to write with large crow-quills. These quills were very durable. The shepherds supplied us from the birds they killed. The pens were mended by the master. We sat on sheepskins, as I mentioned, spread on the floor, and placed the paper on our knees with our inkstands beside us. The master gave a copy of the alphabet alone to each learner, and afterwards a line or more, written always in a small hand. All the exercise of the afternoon, for two or three hours, was in writing. Before the close of school-hours, the writing was shown to the master, who pun- ished the negligent by feruling their hands. Great offences were punished by bastinado on the feet. * This was performed after the Turkish man- ner, by lifting the feet up. In ours and the neigh- boring villages of poor Greeks, the boys carried every week ten paras (two and a half cents), or Vi J V . V <.. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. ^$9 '-. ' bread, olives, eggs, cheese, wine, to feed the ma&fcer. ^ This was the regular price. There was no dange/ of being starved. Each was informed whether to\ carry a loaf of bread or a piece of cheese this week, which was generally different from the last and the next week. At the rates established then, I suppose the master received about the value of four dollars per month for teaching thirty boys. There was no suoh thing as boarding, so that the expense of living cannot be estimated as in the United States ; but everything was cheap. Beef was two and a half cents a pound ; veal or lamb, four cents ; goat's flesh, two cents. Flour was four cents a pound." Such was the state of education in those years of bitter slavery. The monasteries, especially those on Mount Olympus, afforded instruction to those who wished to learn, but generally speak- ing it was " religious instruction," and those at- tending, for the most part, were preparing for the ministry. Shortly after the release from the Turkish yoke, the courts of England, France, and Russia, being desirous to give to Greece a fresh proof of their friendly (?) disposition, took upon themselves the responsibility of directing the internal affairs of the kingdom, and of framing a constitution for the nation. The Greeks were opposed to the friendly wishes of the Powers; they were opposed to the form of government 30 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. the Powers wished to establish over them ; they were unwilling to have foreigners direct the destinies of their nation ; so that, after the lapse often years (since 1832), " The Minerva," a Greek paper then published in Athens, asserted in strong language, " After the lapse of more than ten years, and an expenditure of thirty millions of dollars, the interests of the country are so completely neglected, that to this moment (1842), Greece is left with the greatest part of her domain uncultivated ; with her forts filled with mud ; with many of her rich plains and valleys in a state of progressive desolation ; with some few schools and seminaries of learning, supported principally by private contribution, and denied the benefit of a vigilant superintendence ; with churches more fit for stables than for temples of religion ; with suppressed monasteries ; with a clergy in rags ; with a navy inferior to the one in the days of Capodistria ; with a population small enough, and yet diminishing by constant emi- gration to Turkey; with many and rich uniforms, but without a manufacturing establishment ; with plenty of commercial treaties, but with a com- merce poorer and more insignificant than ever; with a bank which promises wonders, but with no resources and public credit." The above picture of Greece is by no means an exaggeration of the actual state of things at PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 31 the time. The budget for 1843 showed a revenue of 15,669,795 drachmas, against an expenditure of 18,666,582 drachmas, which it was feared would be increased to more than 6,000,000 drach- . mas, inasmuch as it was thought that the govern- ment would hardly realize more than 12,000,000 drachmas from the revenue of the realm. The causes of these misfortunes must be attributed to the fact that the Powers were determined to establish in Greece an " absolute monarchy," and the Greeks, on the other hand, wished to have a constitutional government. Others laid the blame upon the Bavarians, upon those "who" to use the language of " The Minerva " " disbanded the veterans of Greece, and gave the bread of her liberators to worthless merce- naries, who led to the slaughter-house the heroes of her revolution, and exiled in foreign missions the best of her statesmen ; who shackled the press, burdened the people with taxes, wasted the loan and the revenue, gave the national lands to strangers, weakened the interests of her protect- ors, dampened the sympathies of her friends, disregarded the Protocols, despised the advice of kings, persecuted the constitution, and intro- duced into the country that system of govern- ment which must be stigmatized as * absolute and despotic.'" Others maintain, and perhaps with justice, that 32 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. the real causes are to be sought in the memorable treaty of the 7th of May, 1832, between the Minister of Bavaria on one side and the Pleni- potentiaries of England, France, and Russia on the other. By virtue of this memorable state paper, the sovereignty of Greece was conferred upon King Otho, and it was further agreed, be- tween the contracting . parties, that his Majesty, being then a minor, should proceed to his king- dom, under the tutelage of THREE Regents, not one of whom was to be a Greek, who, besides a a loan of sixty millions of francs, were to have a mercenary army of four thousand men ! The history of the last fifty years, a Greek asserts, has recorded many wrongs, many acts of oppression and injustice ; but neither the history of the present, nor the annals of ancient and modern times, can afford us a more terrible ex- ample of national vassalage than that which we see in the case of Greece, and which portrays in such vivid colors the beauties of an exotic policy, which Mr. Macaulay has justly characterized as the worst species of slavery. Mr. Perdicaris remarks that the sacrifices of Greece, the full hecatombs which she laid on the altar of liberty, the deep sympathy which her suffering and heroic courage created in. the minds of the civilized communities of the world, are still fresh in our memory, and we can hardly dissipate our blush, PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 33 or smother our indignation, when, with such glorious antecedents, we find such wretched con- sequences ; when in the place of that substantial good which animated the heroes of Greece, and which was anticipated by her people arid her friends, we have a government which requires from two to three millions of dollars for its sup- port, but which, at the same time, is swayed to and fro by some one of the three potent and irresponsible Plenipotentiaries of England, France, and Russia ! Is there anything more humiliating or more degrading than this ! But this state of things could not go on much longer. The Greeks resolutely took the matter into their own hands, and by one master-stroke they saved their country from its perilous and degraded condition. This they accomplished by that memorable revolution of September 3, 1843. It accomplished a great deal of good, without giving rise to evil consequences. That great popular movement of a single day ended, in the words of a Greek historian, in the acquisition of a social compact, which is destined to protect, for ages to come, the prerogatives of the throne and the rights of the nation. The Greeks, having established a form of government such as they wished, showed them- selves capable of governing themselves. They commenced to rebuild their fallen city and to 34 ' PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. preserve the renowned monuments of antiquity, which suffered not so much from the conqueror as they did from the ruthless hand of the anti- quarian. It was the antiquarian, and not the conqueror, who ruined the temples of antiquity and de- spoiled the city of Athens of its treasures. We can only feel, says the indignant Byron, or im- agine, the regret with which ruins of cities, once the capitals of empires, are beheld ; the reflections suggested by such objects are too trite to require recapitulation. But never did the littleness of man, and the vanity of his very best virtues, of patriotism to watch and valor to. defend his country, appear more conspicuous than in the record of what Athefis was and the certainty of what she now is. This theatre of contentions between mighty factions, of the struggles of orators, the exaltation and deposition of tyrants, and triumphs and punishment of generals, is now become a scene of petty intrigues and perpetual disturbance between the bickering agents of cer- tain British nobility and gentry ; the wild foxes, the owls, and serpents, in the ruins of Babylon were scarcely less degrading than such inhabi- tants. The Turks have the plea of conquest for their tyranny, and the Greeks have only suffered the fortunes of war incident to the bravest. But how are the mighty fallen, when two painters PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 35 contest the privilege of plundering the Parthenon, and triumph in turn according to the tenor of each succeeding firman ! Sylla could but punish, Philip subdue, and Xerxes burn Athens, but it remained for the petty antiquarian and his des- picable agents to render her as contemptible as himself and his pursuits. However, let us not forget that neither the conqueror, nor the antiquarian, nor time, the de- stroyer of all things, has succeeded in effacing the wonders of art; the principal monuments of the city, and the Acropolis with many of its monuments, were spared, and Athens, " even when under the government of a worthless slave, continued to be the favorite of all those who had an eye for art or for nature." " But lo ! from high Hymettus to the plain The Queen of Night nsserts her silent reign. "NTo murky vapor, herald of the storm, Hides her fair face or gilds her glowing form. With cornice glimmering in the moonbeam's play, When the white column greets her grateful ray, And bright around with quivering beams beset, Her emblem sparkles o'er the minaret ; The groves of olive scattered dark and wide, Where meek Cephisus sheds his scanty tide, The cypress saddening by the sacred mosque, The glimmering turret of the gay kiosk, And sad and sombre mid the holy calm, Near Theseus' fane, yon solitary palm, All tinged with varied hues, arrests the eye, And dull were his heart that passed them heedless by." 36 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. For the preservation of the " antiquities," a society was formed under the name of the tl Archaeological Society of Athens." The mem- bers went to work with willing hearts and hands, so that they succeeded in rendering the " National Museum " the most interesting and perhaps the richest museum of the world. Ever lovely, ever dear, How may I salute thine ear! O what size of words may tell Half the charms that in thee dwell ! In thy sight are joy and pleasure Without stint and without measure. In thy breath is all that flings Sense and thought of choicest things. Now, the progress Greece has made since her independence is evident from what follows : Greece in 1834 had a population of 650,000 inhabitants. In 1870 she had 1,238,000 inhabit- ants, that is to say, her population was doubled in thirty-six years, increasing more rapidly than in Great Britain, and much faster than in any other country of Europe. Greece, together with the Ionian islands, has to-day a population of one million and a half. In 1830 there were in Greece 110 schools, and the number of scholars amounted to 9,249. In 1860, there were in Greece 752 schools, with 52,860 scholars. In 1837 there were in the PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. 37 University of Athens 52 scholars; in 1866 there were 1182. In regard to the commercial and maritime interests of the country, suffice it to say, that in 1871 Greece had 35,000 sailors; three times as many as Great Britain in proportion to her population. Her commerce with England in 1861 amounted to 923,000 English pounds; in 1871 it reached the sum of 2,332,000 pounds. Education is free. From the village school to the " great University " of Athens, education is free. Edmond About, in his work, " Contem- porary Greece," speaks in the following terms concerning the Greek students : "I have seen in Greece all kinds of students, but I never saw the student who would not study." Rev. Joseph Cook thus eloquently portrays the intellectual progress of the Greek nation : " What has happened in Greece since she was liberated from Turkey ? " Forty years ago not a book could be bought at Athens. To-day one in eighteen of the whole population of Greece is in school. Fifty years of independence and the Hellenic spirit have doubled the population of Greece, increased her revenues five hundred per cent, extended telegraphic com- munication over the kingdom, enlarged the fleet from 440 to 5,000 vessels, opened eight ports, founded eleven new cities, restored forty ruined towns, changed Athens from a hamlet of hovels to a city of 60,000 inhabitants, and planted there a royal palace, a legislative chamber, six type-foundries, forty printing establishments, twenty newspapers, an astronomical observatory, and a university with fifty professors and twelve 38 PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE. hundred students. King Otho's German court, when he came from Nauplia to Athens in 1835, lived at first in a shed that kept out neither the rain nor the north wind. On Con- stitution Peace in Athens, in 1843, the Hellenic spirit, with- out violence, and by the display of force for but a few hours, substituted for personal power in Greece a constitutional government as free as that of England. George Finlay, the historian of the Greek Revolution, and who fought in it, affirms that, even before that event, degraded as the people were politically, a larger proportion could read and write than among any other Christian race in Europe. Undoubt- edly long bondage, acting on the native adroitness of the race, taught the Greeks disingenuousness. The old blood produced an Alcibiades as well as a Socrates, a Cleon as well as a Phocion ; there was in it, as in American veins to-day, a tendency to social, commercial, and political sharp- dealing. But after fifty years of independence the Hellenic spirit devotes a larger percentage of public revenue to pur- poses of instruction than France, Italy, England, Germany, or even the United States. Modern Greece, fifty years ago a slave and beggar, to-day, by the confession of the most merciless statisticians, its enemies, stands at the head of the list of self-educated nations." " ' The Deity has changed in nothing these cities ; but I am not surprised thereby; for I know the Destiny is ever striving to produce something new, and changes the weak ns well as the strong, by the power of Necessity.' " (PAUSANIAS.) CHAPTER VII. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. THE Sepluagint, Polybius, and the New Testa- | ment were written in what is called Hellenistic , Greek, or u rj Koivrj SiaXe/cros." I may in fact / remark that Hellenistic Greek, or " rj Koivrj SiaXe/c- Tos," first made its appearance in the Sepluagint. For example, " efeX#e IK rfjs 7779 crov, KOL IK rrjs crvyytvelas crov . . . Travres ^K\ivav t OL^JLOL rj-^peLot- crOrjcrav rct^o? dt'ewy/xeVos 6 \apvyt; avTav" sounds just like modern Greek. Of Polybius it may be said that the general run of his sentences is not so modern as the Sep- tuagint, yet many of his peculiarities, or novelties, are decidedly modern. The New Testament is \ written in the language in which the newspapers are to-day printed in Greece. Everything about it is decidedly modern. The language of the New Testament needs no translation with us ; it is as natural for a Greek, of fair education, to understand the New Testament " in the original Greek " as it is for an American to understand the language of an English paper. 40 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. To-day there are many books published in Athens, written by modern Greeks, in a style far above that of the New_ Testament; take, for in- stance : Kal r)p(i)TT)crav OLVTOVS Xeyoire? ovrog ICTTIV 6 wos VJJLCOV, ov v//,ets Xeyere on rvtykos lyevvrjOrj ; ovv apTi /3XeVei ; * KTreKpiO^crav avroT? ot yo- avTov, KOL &TTQV oiSa/xe^ on 01)705 icrnv o wo? , KOLL on rv^Xo? eyevvTJOrj. Now, in all this, w r ith the exception of the word oiSapev, for which the modern Greek will supply r^^evpo^^v, every- thing- else sounds decidedly modern. We now pass into the " Roman period." Lebeck's edition of Phrynichus, " Eclogse and Epitome," will perhaps give an idea as to the state of the spoken language about 180 years after Christ. We come next to the Diocletian age. The fol- lowing Nubian inscription by a King Silco, Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, may serve as a type of the Greek spoken at that time in ^Ethiopia : OTTOJV -r]\6ov et? Te\/Jii,v Kal a rcov BXe/jL/JLVcov, Kal 6 0eos fpouteP /J,OL TO vt,Kr)[j,a /mera e^Opwv arra^) eviKTjcra nraKiv KCLI t/cparrjcra ra? TroXe/.? avrwv, e>caOe(T0r)V /Ltera rwv OV\WV JJLOV TO JJLZV r/./ J * vJVjt.' r >/ aTrag eviKfjaa avrcov Kau avrot, i]fyw(jav /ue* fTroirjcra VY]V fiT awrwv Kai, w^oadv pot, TO, et^coXa avrwv, xai MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 41 TOV OpKOV CiVTWV O>9 Kd\OI, L(7LV avOpCOTTOl,' ete(0vTai in New Testament) avrovs et? avrwv ei> fj,r) KaTrj^Lcoaav yu-e KCLI TrapaicaXovaiv J T-, v\1 / /_> \\? ,. xLya) yap ft? KCLTO) pep?) hecov CLJJLI KCK, et? avu> fjieprj all- elfjLL" eiroXearjaa fjiera ra)v BXe/jL/jivcov Kal eoj? TeX^Jew? Iv a-yraf /cal ol aXXot NovjSaSwv fjieT e/Jiov- OVK acj)(0 avTovs Ka0ecr0f)vat, et9 TT\V aKiav et /XT; W7roK\ti>ovo-i, IJLOI KOLI OVK eircoKav vrjpov eca) et9 TTJV oiKiav avTwv. Ol yap (j)i\oveiKOvo'l /JLOI dpird^a) TWV yuvaiKwv /cat, T a Traioia avTwv. From the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine Period is but a step. Now, until the time of Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century after Christ, " artificial Attic " was still the language of literature ; but the popular dialect, often re- ferred to by authors, keeps coming to the surface. The following is a short specimen of the popular style adopted in this period, from the " Apophthegmata Patrum " : ' H\0ov TTore TraTepe? et? 'A\%dv$piav K\r)0evT6s VTTO eo(f)L\ov TOV ap%ie7Tia-K07rov iva r noir\ari ev%r)v TO. tepa. Kat, eaOiovrcov avrwv Trap avTOV Kal jfafav fvq&v SaKpivojAevoi, Kal \aj3cov 2 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. f J / rf / VP> * -v ' * / eTTHTKOTTOS V KOTTClbiV 0(i)K6 TO) TrXrjGLOV CtVTOV jepOVTl \eya)v, iBov TOVTO Ka\ov KOTra&iv eo"rw, (frdye a{3/3a. Ol Be a7roKpi6evT? apri \ayava, ^aQlo^v et Se /c/jea? ecrrt ou rpwyopev. Kal ov/ceri TrpoaeOero ovSe et? eavT(t)v yevcraaOai, avrov. The next period of " Greek literature" may be reckoned from_622, the date of the Hegira, to 1099. We have here before our eyes "the tran- sition in literature from the language of the gram- marians to the language of the people." Theophanes (758-816). Besides a host of new words, and ancient words with new mean- ings, he has the following grammatical innova- tions : The endings -aScs, -aSco*>, -aSas, in nouns in -a? ; 01 a/iTjpaSes, emirs, rous d/x^paSa?. The endings -15, -iv for -tos, -iov ; 6 Kvpis rov Kvpiv. *As \a\yj- for XaX^crtojiiei', and a? etcreX^cycrt for etcreX- The perfect participle without redupli- cation, as crtS^pw/xeVo?, KacrreXX&yieVos TrvpTroX-rj^e- j/05. ^H/xtcru, half, indeclinable. The ending -05 for tov ; acrxrffJLO) for acr^/xoi'i ; airb with the ac- cusative. 'ATTO 'AXefa^S/oetai/ ; ets for eV. 'ESiSa- crAcer iv Kwz/crraz'Tiz'ovTro'Xei, ct? TO evKTijpiOV Trjs ayias 'A^ao-raa-tas ; o-vr with the genitive as well as a'/xa with the genitive, etc., etc. The age of Malalas cannot be determined with certainty. Professor Sophocles supposes that, as, MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 43 however, most of the grammatical innovations contained in the work that bears his name belong to the language of the eighth and ninth centuries, it may be assumed that he jvas_con temporary with Theophanes. It would seem, further, that Greek was not his mother tongue. I. The endings -es for at, as Ilepo-eg for Hcpo-ai. Metaplastic dative plural rcus TrXdVats, from 17 TrXctAca, classical TrXdg 77X01*05. Participle active in ovra for -ov, and eWa for -e*>; TrecroVra, ot/coiWa, 6Vra, /xe'XXoz'Ta, Trape^ovra. The accusative for the dative. The article be- fore interrogative words. "A/m, with the genitive. 'ATTO, by, for VTTO after passive forms. Mera, with, followed by the accusative. The anonymous biographer of Leo Armenius uses the following grammatical innovations : The ending -ovv for -overt ; Kvpievovv for Kvpitv- ovcri IK with the accusative /cat euya>os for euye- 1^179. The auxiliary as for a<^e?. Leo the Philosopher (A. D. 886-911), in his " Tactica," employs a considerable number of new words and the endings : -o? for -779. II. tStKos = proprium, as in Romaic. The end- ing -orat for -et (second person sing, passive), ov for [vf\ in the protasis, etc.- Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote all his works purposely u in the common and spoken 44 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. language," with the exception of the Life of St. Basil, which was written in the artificial " Attic Greek " of that period, gives us : The ending -cus for at; dXXafi/AO*>, gen. dXXa^'/xaros ; crct9 for tyxwz>; eW for eV; povoyevrj for the vocative of /xoz'oye^g; for avTwv ; etcre for el; crou for crcu, as KOL\TJ- rjpepa, u Good morning to you"; va for IVa, and So? with the accus. 4> A/xa, with the subj. Mera, w^&, followed with the accus., etc. An anonymous writer, known as " Theophanes Continuatus," makes use of the expression, " the common and impure language," which evidently means the language of the illiterate. In his col- lection entitled " Theophanes Continuatus," we find : *AXv, gen. of *AXus, xpucros for ^pucrous. The ending a?, /cpacras, vitner, and periphrastic future subjunctive. Cedrenus (A. D. 1057) wrote in ancient Greek, but with " indifferent success." His work contains but few grammatical innovations : Gen. in 77 from 775 ; the numeral adverb eTrrcu for I Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the common dialect : eoi ere eVricra, ffrovpve' ea) Iva ere = in modern Greek, 'eyw ere e/crtcra fyovpvt, VOL ere xaXaera>, / built thee, oven, I will de- molish thee! Anna Commena, who wrote a history of the MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 45 Byzantine War about the year 1100, alludes to the common dialect. She has preserved the fol- lowing popular tetrastitch : To aafiparov TT}? TVpivrjs Xaprjs A\ti6, evorjcres TO, Kal T7]v Seurepav TO irpcot" Eljra^ /ca\co ov oe (f>0aa-r) TO TVplv teal TCL Kav Tecrcrepa TOV &iSovo~iv 6t? TO Tpavov Kal TrapevOvs vTroBrjaav eiracpet, teal Tre Qiav Se TraXiv, /9ao-t\eO, yevuaTos; copa 48 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. TO KaXairoSiv rov, ptTnei Kal TO Kal \eyei TTJV yvvaliccnov, Kvpa Kal #e? Kai rrptoTOv fjilcraov e/efeerToV, Sevrepov TO atyovyydrov, Kai rplrov TO aKptorracrTov o(>6ov airo /Jiepiov. Kai TGTapTov povoKvOpov, 7r\r)v /SXtTre va /JUT) Acf) ov Be irapaOeaovaw Kal vi-fye'rat, Kai /caTcr ^ AvaQe^a fjue Baai\ev KOI TpicravaOe/JLa fie, Ovrav arpa(j)(Ji) KOI iBa) TOI/ XotTroz/ TO TTCO? Ka6 To TTDJ? avaKOfjiTToverai va TTiacrr) TO KOvraXiv, Kat, ovbev rpe^ovv TO, aa\ia /uoy, w? Tpe^et, TO Kai, eyco vTrayco K epxp^ai TroSa? ne'rpwv TWV arfycov. EvOvs r)TO) lov lafJi/Bov^ jvpevco TOV r/ \ ) r / vv -v \\ vpeva) TOV Ttvppi^iov Kai, TO. \oi7ra ia A\\a Ta jjLerpa TTVV (jjeXovv d rrjv a^erpov /JLOV irelvav ; Ilore yap e/c TOV la^ftov va (jjayo) *H TTW? e/c TOV Ttvppi^Lov TTOTe fjiov va E&e T%vi,T7]<; 0o(j)i(rTr)<; e/tet^o? o Elrre TO Kvpie Xeyaov, rj We give here some of his grammatical innova- tions as collected by Professor Sophocles. They will be found of importance to any one who may read his writings, and, in fact, a key to the Eomaic dialect : I. N, annexed to words ending in a vowel : TOV iavrov crov. IX. Hoi; or OTTOV for 05, who. X. The verbal ending -oV&> or et>i>o> from the classical OOK Trercrd^w, cr^/cw^cu. XL "Ei/, &, S/t cTi/c for 'cort or cto-t. XII. Peri- phrastic future by means of 0e'Xo) and the infini- tive ; thus, tfe'Aeis a-vpew, the first example of the Jdrid. XIII. Future subjunctive by meansnof V~cT and the imperfect or aorist indicative : VOL 'ow, va pe StSai/, vd 'p,a0a. XIV. Imperfect passive proparoxytone : ^p^o^v and ripyovpow, vd ' pyd- ^ovfjiow, yivQV[LQvv. XV. The ending -vra&i for -VTO : thus, eVouXoiWacri for 'eTrajXov^ro. XVI. The accusative for the dative, passim. XVII. The ac- cusative for the genitive after numeral adverbs : aTraf TOV xpovov, once a year. XVIII. Na and Sia vd as in the Greek of the present day. XIX. Eu- 6vs TO, followed by the aorist infinitive, is equivalent to the modern. EvOvs TTOV, as soon as. XX. All the prepositions take the accusative : crvv rrjv 77- Trjcnv. XXI. OuSeiSLfo^^ov, not. Almost contemporary with Ptochoprodromus was Simon Sethos, who is the first prose writer in modern Greek. ~~ 50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. The " Book of the Conquest of Romania and the Morea," Bi/BXiov TT?S /couy/cecrra? rrjs e Pa>/*a- via<$ KOLI TOV Mcupato?, by the Franks (French, Italians), now ascertained to be a translation from the French, belongs to the fourteenth cen- tury and represents the Romaic of that period. It is published by Buchon in the second volume of his "Recherches Historiques," Paris, 1845. Professor Sophocles states, that from the abuse it heaps upon the Greeks, because they, on more than one occasion, deceived the truth-loving Franks, but chiefly because the Latins were unable to induce that stiff-necked, perfidious, lying people to recognize the apostolic claim of the Holy Father, it is not difficult to perceive that the translator, as well as the original au- thor, was a member of the Western church. The " Book of the Conquest " may be best de- scribed " as a rhyming chronicle, which might deserve the name of poor verse were it not so prosaic, or of bad prose were it not written in metre." To the same period belongs the epic poem en- titled " Belthandros and Chrysantza." This poem is without question a far more imaginative poem than the " Niebungelied." The writer possessed what is called "real genius." If our reason were disposed to deny this, our sensations on perusing his work will fully prove it. It is an infallible MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 51 proof of real genius when a writer possesses the power to stir the feelings, or to affect the mind, in the most lively manner, by a few words, and with the most perfect simplicity of language. Such a genius conspicuously marks both Shake- speare and the writer of " Belthandros and Chry- santza." The poem, as Geldart remarks, is a romance of knight-errantry, in which we can plainly trace the effects of the crusades in Greece. The plot of " Belthandros and Chrysantza" is simple but imaginative. The hero is Belthandros (a Grae- cism for Bertran), the son of Rhodophilus, King of Romania, who has two sons, Bertran and Philarmus, one of whom he loves, and the other of whom of course he hates. Belthandros, the unfortunate object of his ' father's displeasure, accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after heroic exploits performed at the expense of his father's men-at-arms, who are despatched to bring him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of Tarsus. Riding by the side of a small stream, he espies a gleam of light in the running waters, and follows up the course of the rivulet a ten days' journey. It leads him to a magic building called the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, and surrounded and filled with every imaginable form of wonder, in the way of automaton, birds and beasts of gold, reminding us of Vulcan's work- 52 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. manship. Then follows an introduction to the King of the Loves, the owner of the enchanted palace, who gives him the task of choosing the most beautiful out of forty women. He first selects three, and having thus equalized the prob- lem to that which Paris of old had solved, he proceeds to award the palm to Chrysantza, who turns out to be the daughter of the King of Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at the court of Rhodophilus reconciles the father, and terminates the story with the slaying of the fatted calf. " Did the modern Greek language possess but this single epic, to say that it is destitute of litera- ture were a calumny indeed." Emmanuel Gorgilas ('E^avov^X FewpyiXXas), a native of Rhodes, belongs to the latter part of the fifteenth century. He wrote several poems in Romaic verse. About the same time the story of Apollonius of Tyre (' ATroXXom'ov rov Iv Tvpo>) was translated into Romaic from the Latin romance Apollonius Tyrius, the supposed prototype of Shakespeare's Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The following works are attributed to Em- manuel Gorgilas. 1. Anfy^cris ets ra? Trpafeis TOV Trepi/BoTjrov crrpa- rrjyov TMV e Pa)/Aa<,W /icyaXou BeXicra/n'ov (e^eSoOrj iv Ba>erta rai 1554 VTTO QpajKicrKov 'Pa/x-TraTcrcrov ets 4 TOAOVS. The w r ork is metrical. , MODERN GREEK LITERATURE/' V/53 ' -- 1 **r ' -"'/ v/ ' 4* /' 2. To avaTiKov rrjs 'PdSou (avcKSorifo f lv TTJf JIa-' / picriavr) ty 3. Sprjvos r^5 K&j^o-ra^Tt^ovTroXeo)?. >]/,. Demetrius Zenos (A^/x^rpto? 6 ZT^O?), who translated the Batrachomyomachia into the " Ro raaic dialect," represents the spoken language of the sixteenth century. This translation Martin Crusius, A. D. 1526-1607, translated into Latin. But almost the only examples of Modern Greek in the sixteenth century consist of letters and fragments of speeches, chiefly the utterances of ecclesiastics. The " great work " of the seventeenth century, as Professor Geldart calls it, is one entitled " Erophile," written in the Cretan dialect, by one Chortakes, a Cretan. It is a tragedy, and opens with a monologue of Charon, the impersonation 6\v7rr)Tr) K rj O-KOTCIVT] (ywpia JJLOV, Kal TO Spetroat * OTTOV ftacrTw;* KOI ravra TCI yvyvd IJLOV KorcfcaXa, K rj TroXXat? BpovraLS, K rj aarpaTrais Oj 1 *H dypia = 7) dypia (6 &ypio$, -ta, -lov). 2 T) a.ve\^ir'r]T-rj for aveXirio-Tos, ov, with sense of desperate. 3 0w/Hd = Gewpta. 4 dpeirdv = Speiravov, ou, TO ** Ba<7rcD = 54 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. "OTTOV Ti}V jrjv avoi^aai, K eftyrjrc aTrov 6 roy JToto? eifj,ai /jiova^d 7 rcove 8/^co? /xtX Na (fravepwaovv T-! 9 10 * V . V 11 ' J f'x 12 ^ - ht^W^ai u KCIVOS TO \OL7TOV (ITT O\0i fJLG {JLLGOVGl, Kal cTKv\oKap$rj 13 /cat TV(f)\o K CLTTOVOV fie \a\ovai. Ey(t)/jL CL7TOV T^r) BaGlXeVS T^f] /JL7rOpOV/J,l>OV V >/*x |O o\ / v s / ^ et9 TOI^ aao T^T? viorrj? TOI/? T^T; %povovs TOVS T6\toi'co Avovct) T 8o'ou9 f ' aypiais /cap$Lat,s KaraTrovco, rfr/ \oyi(Tfjiovs a\\uaaw teal r' K efcel irov /j.e TTO\V OV^JLO ia /jiaria fiov 6 aTToD = d?r6. 7 /ioraxaT-awe = JT/ themselves ; so TTOT^ /AOU (never) in my life. 8 jutXta = 6/xiXta, -a?. 9 /iTropoOai = SiWircu. 10 *E7tSwat = ('70^) el/tat. 11 r6 Xoi7r6i' = m s, i. e. rods BaXoi)s = 17 Ftaju-a 7ia^id 6Wc, a5 soon as ; etymology 5ia/ta S^re \pbvov. 18 P i X vu> P'TTW. 19 = MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 55 w, d\dicaipais? KOCT/JLOI, TroXXo/ /3ov\ov(ri. Hov TWV 'EXXrji/o) r] Bacn\eiat,s ; TTOV TO> 'Pw/Aiwv rj l fj,7rope o/u.ei>a? %copais ; TTOV / 21 <7TO \dtCKO KaTOlKOVV, j3oV/3ol fJL 8/^0)? ^ (TTOJULa ^>vfJLval^ ^ &ev evpw TTOV crrj yr) \iya/ci 24 p^w/ia. TrA^crta 25 KaKOppi^iKOi^ fcal yidvra Be Qeaypovcn fc? TTW? \io TrpoawTro Be Xi>7roi)//,at, Tou? Tcnreivovs Be Xe^oz/cG, TOL>? aypiovs Se 31 (f)0/3ovjj,at, jTou? (frevyovv (f)Tav oy\rjyopa } T0f9 /ie fyjTovv fjiaicpaiva) Kai S/^ft)? i/a //,e Kpd^ovei, av^yd rf^ ya/zou? fj,7rat,vo). $TO)%ol T apiraTe fyevyovai, Ta cr^/yyere 7reroi)<7^, Ta Treppa^dveTe aicopTroiiv, TCL KTieT %a\ovai,. 20 a\au/>ats, Cretan, for o\6K\tjpai. 21 22 yu Si'xws = without. The /A is pleonastic. 23 25 ir\-fj r/ N v' ' " 36 v v x " rrpopa TT o/\at? T^ a^oerat? :at T^A; TtyLtat? Me r QVOfJM crov TOVTO JJLOV rov KQTTQV va a?ro rf^ ^apai^ c5? n/r v i / 39' v Vv ' JUtt T^it^a IJUQVO Kai, KCLTTVO TO. Tpiyvpa The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus Scuphos, who flourished about the year 1669. He was born in Crete and was educated in Italy, and was also professor at the Greek school in Venice. He wrote a work on Rhetoric, which may be regarded, in the words of an English scholar, a living example of the fact that the oratory of the ancients continues to live in the oratory of modern Greece. 32 2 a airiOa = (is ainvd^p. Lat. scintilla. 2S aa ffK6vrj = ws Kovtoprds (dust). 34 2 d vdrov wffav. 35 xa/icu, Cretan, for the modern xd/^ou, the ancient 36 T dperais rds dperds. 87 Ttari = tireiSrjTrep (yap). 88 39 , a curious corruption and metathesis for MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 57 In the eighteenth century we are, met by the names of Kosmas the Aetolian and Rhegas of Pherae, both scholarly men, and the great fore- runners of Greek independence. The following oath administered by Rhega to all his confeder- ates, is an example of his deadly intolerance to tyranny : */2 Baai\6i> TOV fcocraou opKi&uai a? piG-Tos va ty]oa) CITTO TOV o-TpaTrjyov. K>v rt ~ ^ r ' '' ' i ' * f av Trapapct) TOV opicov, v aeTpatyri o ovpavo? Kal va juLe KUTaKavarj va yev caaav Here is another war-song, which contributed in no small degree to fire the Greeks with that enthusiasm for liberty which soon resulted in the insurrection : a TOV 'HpaicXeovs opuaTe, fie eva %e/5fc, ue T a\\o TTJV yevvalws, Spaa/neTe o\oi Kai, ⁢aTe TUJV f E\\r)i>cov TO yeVo? OTL %rj. Kai TbpLWTai, KL a$e\tyto9 TE'KTWV ocrrt? ayopd^et, teat Trpioviov ra oirola efiTroBl^ovrai airo tip Kal TOU? aXXou? <7ToXfoy9 va TO, i8ta avTcov epya, tfyovv TO ev va 7T\Ka TO Be eTepov va TTpiovity ; ajrapaXXaKTa Trdo-^ei, vojj,l%a> bcnis 8ta va (TTO\t(rr) Trjv j\wao'av /me yevircas aTroXuTOU? real BOTCKCK; KOL %ft))0t5 dvaytcrjv Xefet? ao-ui/ei^tcrrof?, tcivSuvevei, va Trjv et? TOV9 aicovovTas ij avayiva)- 60 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. The following is a catalogue of Constantinus Cum as' published works: Vota. ava\DTLK7] 7Tpayjj.aTia TOV Appa Kat\\ov. 1803 1 a fjLa07j/j,cm,Ka)v KCLI fyvaucwv TTpay^aTeiwv. 1807 8 p7?;/,e/a9 eTriTOfir). 1808 2 Treipa/jLa'riKTJs (j)vcrtKrj^. 1812 1 Bet,\dvBov 'AydOwv. 1814 3 Swray/jia Xocroia. 1838 1840 ... 5 ~45 The great name that appears at the end of the eighteenth century is that of Adamantius Coraes, the great patriot and linguistic reformer, and one of the most celebrated literati of Europe, as Professor Geldart and others justly assert. Born at Smyrna, on April 27, 1748, the two sentiments which formed his main-springs of action through- MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 61 out life, were early developed, namely, patriot- ism, synonymous in his case with hatred of the Turk, and a passion for learning. His historian informs us that in his native town he was greatly assisted in his lingual and other studies by the Dutch consular chaplain, Bernhard Keum, of whom he makes frequent and affectionate men- tion in his " Autobiography and Correspond- ence." At the age of twenty -four he became his father's mercantile agent at Amsterdam, where he spent six years, but the ledger was the least interesting of his books, and in 1778 he was recalled. He returned with the greatest reluc- tance, because his darling project was to study medicine in France, in order that, should he be obliged to live among the Turks, he might exercise among them the only profession which procured respectful treatment for the Greeks. After four melancholy years at Smyrna, his wishes were at length complied with, and in 1782 he arrived at Montpellier. He distinguished him- self in this famous medical school, and, having obtained his diploma, removed to Paris in 1788, where, instead of practising his profession, he engaged in literary labors, most of them having a patriotic aim. Here he wrote letters, to his countrymen, encouraging them in the struggle for freedom to which Rhegas was already insti- gating them ; and here he pursued those studies 62 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. which have established his fame as a European scholar. Napoleon selected him to prepare a translation of Strabo's Geography, the first vol- ume of which was presented to the Emperor in 1805. In a letter dated Ley den, July 22d, of that same year, Wyttembach, writing to Larcher, calls Coraes " not only a Grecian but a veritable Greek." In 1807 his edition of Isocrates pro- cured for him the title of " Patriarch of Greek Philology," and in 1814 he received an official letter inquiring if he would accept a Greek chair in the College Royal About the first week of April, 1833, Coraes, having extended his hand to reach a cup of coffee, fell to the ground and received injuries from which he died the 10th of April, 1833. He was buried at "Mont Par- nasse," and the following inscription was engraved on his tombstone : . AAAMANTIOS KOPAHS XIOS 'TTTO ewr)V JJLCV iaa Be rrj '.EXXaSt 7re? TOV 250 (nl^ov. et? TOV 'AOrjvatov real 'HpoSoTOV. I(TOV TWV GTa\6eicrwv a-r)fjiiu)(Ta)v et? E. Barcker, V veav eicSocriv Ae^ifcov Hederius. irepl MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 65 Ta\rjvov et? TO irepi yvptov 'iTTTrotf/mToi;?, Trapayp. 56 TOV 7 Bt,/3\iov. TO? KOL aTeX?)?, z>, teal et? TO 7re/)t a/^a/a? 'larpiK'fjs TOV 'IirTTOKpaTovs, o-eX. 116 TO KeifievoV) al a-rj/ju. cr. 117 408. ^/Ltetcocret? /cara- Ta\r)vov etc TWV avrov ( ff\. 1-1067. "En Tti/e? o-77/ietajcret? ej? Ta TOV 'IinroKpaTOVs creX. 1-21. Tpa^iJiaTiKj] TT}? rpairciKrjs yXwo-o*^ Collationes des manouscris Grecs, pag. 1 - 84. 5*T/%oi 'Icodvvov Tferfof. 1-141. t fjierpcov, o*eX. 1 48. et? TO ' A r jro\\(i)Viov Trepl truz/Tafew?, creX. 1 24. AegircoXoyia airo TO f E\\r]viKOV et? TO TpaiKt,Kov. Aegifcov $(,aopct)v avyypcKJiecov et? TCI^ t I f ir r n'OKpar'r]V. Adnotationes in varies Auctores Graecos. A\\T] Ae%iKO\oyia cnro TO c E\\7jvticov et? TO TpaiKiicov. 66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. Few countries, Geldart says, none certainly save Germany, can show such a literary Hercules as Adamanties Coraes, the second Leo Allatius of Greece. The next writer we shall notice is Constantinus Oekonomos, who was contemporary with Coraes. He was a native of Thessaly, and had received a superior education. He soon became remarkable for his opposition to some of the doctrines and practices which had before prevailed amongst the Greeks, or, at least, had not been openly opposed. A Greek historian informs us that the bishop soon viewed him with dislike, being a man in- ferior in education, talents, and soundness of opinion, and at length interdicted his public preaching. Oekonomos had a sincere desire to establish better principles amongst his country- men, and intended to introduce all possible im- provements in the system of education, and was disposed to forward everything that might prove beneficial to them. He did not, therefore, allow himself to be discouraged by the bishop's oppo- sition, but made a journey to Constantinople to obtain permission of Gregorius, the patriarch, to preach where he pleased. In this he succeeded ; and, after his return to Smyrna, preached with more zeal and boldness than before. The char- acter of Oekonomos was of the most sincere, frank, and friendly description, with the most MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 67 kind and willing disposition. He combined an extraordinary decision and independence. His historian informs us that he "regarded the ob- servance of ceremonies, by many so much insisted on, as a matter of small importance compared with the feelings they were designed to cultivate or to express. Oekonomos devoted his attention and time much to the establishment of schools. He acted in this co-operation with various en- lightened Greeks, who were anxious for the greater extension of knowledge among the Greeks, and had taken pains to introduce the Prussian system of instruction in the schools he was endeavoring to establish. Jacob Rhizos Nerulos, known under the ap- pellation of "the modern Aristophanes of Greece," was contemporary with Oekonomos. He was the unsparing satirist of the " Logios Hermes," and his style was and is still known under the appellation of the " Nerulian style." To illustrate the above I give three short ex- tracts, taken respectively from the "Auro/Sioypa- v o-vty]Tr)aea)v wrroOeaw. Upwro? o 7Tpl TO> 1520 aVo\a/CT/<7a9 ryu e&J9 Tore arvvrjOrj teal vevo- , eTrevoijGev aXK.'rjv TTavTaTTaat, veav real avr\Kov- 7775 ' EXKvjvLKrjs y\wcro-i)S etc^covrjcriv, TTJV oTroiav Kal 7rape'$(i)K6v et? TOU? OTraSou? TOV to? /JLOVTJV d\r)0tvr)v /cal yvr)(Tiav, Kaff v\v tdya /cal ol 7ra\aiol ' E\\i]ve$ errpofapov ]V y\a) TO va ofjii\r) KopaKUTTiKa, KCLI aXXo 8ev Kafjivei rrapd vd trrbX/fn Xefta, va TrXaTTr) Xefet? dvr^- KOVGTais Kal Trapa^evais, va oiafiafy KCITI Sta^oXo^apra TV7rci)/jLva, orrov- TCI ovofjia^ovv \oyiov EpfJLTf Kat, va ypa\vaplai,s, Kai p o\ov OTTOV Bev yvpvd rj yXuxraa JJLOV, . ^J^vvv^ / KopaKicrTifca, fju o\ov TOVTO, eTreior) Kai Ta KaTpevei, K eya> vd TOV o//tXa> T?) ykwa-aa TOU, Kal t? \gl 'SlKTI TOV OTTOV T]06\a TTpofa'pei, fJil BlBeL TJ]V vr) TOV. NERULOS, MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 69 Modern Greece has not produced many author- esses. But among these, Angelica Pala, chiefly known by the following ode " On the Death of Lord Byron," is certainly the most distinguished. She belongs to the beginning of the nineteenth century. i. Tof/X,05 ^\^e 7r\7?z> /io\i? TOV -v' S/ l * . K\.aiOVT<; TOV Taev, 6 BdpSos eXTT/Ic ISov jievei et? alwviov 4. * '/2? Se'vSpov KeiT OTT* eKocrfiei Nuv Trpo TToSwv (frOelpovffa TOV TO Hvor] TO eppity ave/jiov X N ( * A -\ ' liiAAa? / eav TO O-W/JLO, rov rj Ayy\ia Na (f>epij els fjLvrj/bia ^rjra iraTpiKov. Ei?re, Movffuw w /jLrjrepa y\v/cela, T6KVOV fJiOV 6 ft09 TO>V MoU(7G)V. 6. p(OTQ)V TOU? firjv aKQvasv TTJIS Ta v *>" ^ N /I" 2; TO ej;r)<; va Ta yevurjs. Aev ae nnavovv ra \ov\ovSia, Aev ere irpeiTOW Ta TpayovBia, Ilrjy Keivo<; 6 Ta)pa Ta(f> Tcopa 6dvaTo<$ Twpa %a/oo OOev TT\GOV i Prj^e o\a TO. /ca\av(7is To M eva H (JLVpTia T779 Eis TO irpao'ivo K\aoi r^9, Mecr & TO, (f)v\\a ra %\(i)pa O\a KaTtfKTTrpa, adv %t,ovt, Ta \ov\ovSid 7779 (j)vrpovet T dv6r)pd, /col rpvfapd. Kai o Aias o /xeyaXo9 Tia 7^9 ArjSas rov 70 Ka\\os KVKVOS ywrjtce fjita /ue \vrra f//-\ ff / > > /< Cm 0<70 TT Toaro TT\eov " 5 o "Epci)$ //. ayaTra. THE NIGHTINGALE. t/ arjSovafct, pov Ka\o, Kiva KOI Traye Vro yia\o. Trjv avpi/Brj TTOV ^evpeis, Na Tra? z/a //< TT)I/ evpr)povTioe$ Tore vfSvvovv y e Tore favyovv ol K! r] /capSid JJLOV f,- V \ /j / Kdt, TO (7T7;C705 fJLOV N* avaaaivr) v Tia TOP Koa-fjLov oev As yvpify OTT&)? To KpaaaKi JJLOV va 'H KctvctTa va /JUT) ATT TO TrXajt, va N' a7ro6ava)fjL6 Dionysius Solomos was born in the island of Zacynthos in 1798 (April 8), and died the 21st of November, 1857. The following Ode to Lib- erty, written by him in the "month of May," 1823, is justly admired for its simplicity and MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 75 imagination, and it has with justice become "The National Song of Greece." It is played on all great national holidays : / i. , V X , // // C17TO TJ]V KO-yf.l, ^> ' y >U TJ]V 7pOfJLpTJ, **S V v '* v v v . X/ s 2, yVO)pl%(0 CL7TO TT]V Oyi, ^^ flov /ji fiia fjLGTpaet, TTJV yrj. 2. TO, KOKKaKa Twv *Ei\\Tiv(t3v TO, iepa, Kai aav Trpwra d Xalpe, co p^atyoe, 'EXeuOepid ! 3. E/cei ie K eva a-TofjLa atcapr epovaes E\a TTttXt va (7ov Try* 4. Apyeie v a\6rj eKeiwrj rj ' v v * r \ -\ v r(li TjTCl'lt O\.Q> (TL(D'7TTI\(l ) TuiTi ra a/cia^e rj (j>o/3epa Kai Ta 5. S - Ilaprjyopia Movrj cov e/jieve va Kai, 7 a va tc\ais. 76 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 6. Kal dfcaprepei, Kal atcaprepet, $i\e\v0epr)v XaXftt, ' Eva KTV7rae T aXXo 7. K* eXee? TTOT, a / Trore fiyavco To Kpt,KTa. 12. A\\oi, wfc/Lte / <7 TJ]V crvjjL(f>oa aov e v avprj^ ra ?rat8ta crov, 13. $evyei, OTT/CTO) TO Tro&api, Kal 6\oj\riyopo Trarel H 77]v Trerpa, 77 TO %opTapt, t Uov Tr 14. GOV yepvei 'H. TTTCO^OV TTOV y elvai pdpos rov 77 fajTj. 15. Nat / a\\a rcopa TT //I / ^ -f / J\(IU6 T6KVO (TOV fJL Op/jLTJ, Ilbv atcaraTravo-ra yvpevet, r-r ^ / v v /)/ i rriv ViKrj rj rrjv Uavrj. 78 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 16. TO. KOKKaKa Taiv EK\r)v<0v ra iepa, aav irpwra Xaipe, <& %atpe, 17. MoXt? ei&e TTJV opfjirjv crov O Ovpavos, TTOV avQia /cai 18. icai, Kcna%0ovia /JLM fforj, Kai TOV Prjrya &ov a IIo\efji6fcpa^7rj TJ 19. / /^^ t / > /. U\oi OL roTTOi aov o e/cpagav, Kai ra crrofjiara etywvajrav f Off a alff6ai>6TO TJ /capita! 20. Ecfccovdgave tw? T darepia Tov loviov KOL ra vrjaia, Kat, effrjfcwffave ra %e/ Tia va Be i^o we ^apa. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 79 21. M' o\ov To /caOeva Kal 6^9 TO yueVcoTTo 22. Kal 7ov BdaiyfCTov rj yrj (the land of Washington) Kal TCL Gioepa ev0v/jirj6r] Uou TTjv eSevav KCLI 23. ATT TOV TTupyov 70V 2a va Xerj ere %aip6 Kal 7r)V xiJ ri l v TOV To Aeov7o.pi, 70 *Io~7rav6. 24. E\a(f)tao~Qrj Try? A CUVCL7a. Kat, et? TOU Aiyaiov TO /cv^a Mia 80 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. These twenty-five stanzas will suffice to give to the reader an idea of this unequalled poem. The poem is composed of one hundred and fifty- eight stanzas. Besides his " Ode to Liberty," Solomos wrote a lyric poem on the death of Lord Byron, of one hundred and sixty-six stanzas, commencing as follows : i. 'AevOepia, yia \ljo Trcnjre Na XTVTras fie TO arradl. Ta)pa aijjicocre teal K\ayfre ELS TOV Mira'Cpov (Byron) TO 2. Kat, /caroTTi a? aicXovOovve Offoi 7Tpat;av \a/JL7Tpa ! ATTOTTCLVOV TOV a> ^>' /j x > Aat air ra \oyia OTTOV va TTOJ. , O7r\a yvpOovv Kara vi} JTJ, yvp^eva TOV Map/cov Tr) 6avr). MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 81 Uov eiv 6a, \eve craaricr/jLevoi, To Aeovrapt, TO ' Elvat, r) xyrrj rov Kal 70 fjuovKpLo-fjia ffovflo ..... Solomos wrote, besides these two poems we have noticed, many other songs and sonnets, all evincing the creative power and masterly genius of the poet. The following sonnet, entitled " C H Scu'flovXa" (The Golden-haired Girl), is sung by young and old in Greece : Trjv l$a rrv ??> i ^ J \ 1 rjv ida y^e? apya, '/Tou efJLTrrjKe a TTJ No. irarj 77 r ^ f Hi(pOV<7KOV T CtCpl Aevfcorara Travia, TO 7TplO~7pl, Uov dirXovei ra 3. 01 Me Fal avrr) fie TO pav-tiki (handkerchief) 82 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 4. Kal TO va '4^2? TTOV rj TTO\\T) Mov TO ^Kv-re Kal avro. 5. oX/^o, a o\iov Travi, a TO vepo, 01 (f)i\ot > T-,0 t > } / Eoa/cpvaa K ejco. Aev fcXaiya) TTJ @apKov\a K\aw\ia TOV . %av rj avoify yvplcrr) KOI r a^ovi aa yvplar] Trj (f)a)\i>a rov TTOV 6a "OTav /3yat,v6 rj ae\r}vrj, OTCLV e$i) e\eyav -Troi? T* ovpavov TO fJiovoTfaTi, T optyavo 6 a / do-Tepia ! w% ! do-Te'pia ! yprijopa TTOV Oa K aTToioi, TTOV Tj/covcrav T arjSovi O~TO /c\apt,rov va \a\rj. EiTrav &lv elvat, Tpayovo'i,, fjLvpo\oyt elv creel .... Ki oaoi eloav Ta? aKTivas TWV dare'payv TOV ovpavov Na ye\ovv va 7raiyvi$Lovv fj,e TO. (f>v\\a TOV ovpavov Eiirave TCL c0Ta eicelva a% ! &ev elvat, TT} Elirav OTI elvai TO, x < IVLrjv eTrepaaev etceiuev o tiopias o Kal aav elBe reroio pooo 6 GK\r)pos e ' A pTTClge T7) fJLVpCOO'ld TOV Kcu TTJV Trrjpe aia (j)Tepa TOV ; . . . . Aev TO %evpw ! KaTroios elire QTL e'-^re'? TO ffpd&v ElSe Kairoiove va favyp aav Kcnrvos fj,6 TOV dyepa. T' a\oyo TOV ?)TO pavpo cav TT}? vv%Tai TO K e\a(f)po crav TOV alOepa, El? TO %epi TOV ejSacTTovae, a%afjLVo ( Eva poBo fJLapa^^vo. OTO.V efavye aK\ov0a)VTa<; TOV ireXaov TTJV aicprj axprj V A ^ v / A% oev e%vv eva oaxpv, Movov \ey GTQ KV/JLCI, TTOV TOV /BXerrei KCU, fjiov etTreVe, elv wfjLOpfo TO po$o ; " Movov \eyet > / f SI 7T\rjpr)<>, VO/JLOI crK\7)pov */2 fjiapTVpes, Trota irr)\6 eT Ta T6tcva V^JLWV opcfrava, c /2? cmy/Aa TO bvo^a fyepovv TOV t? d(f)6ov %ao9 Ta peuf bovXcov /cal fjiavpcov TOV eQvovs 6 Kat T ovofi CLVTO TGOV jrpoyovcav (JLCLS crfivvcov. Ev TrpcoTOis TO Trvp e^eppdy et? TO Sov Efcel ol yevvalot, Trarepes rj/mw Eicpavyaaav iravres /jLe peyav oev et Krvrrare avbpeloi v ev ytta^at? Trupo? Krvrrare ! K rj Xd'iow pe f/0o? ogu Hpaiov Ta? Tafet? 86 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. Tf? T]v o Katcovpyos ef ov o\eOpia E<~ri\6ev r) TrpwTT) epi&cov cnropa ; if / - 1 V/j ->. > / ' ' "> ^ 1L, LU fJL\,\.QVT(i)V CliteVWV upci JEt? TT]V K6(j)a\ijv TOV vd Treey /Sapela ! j]vai Travrov /3$\vtcTov r bvo^d TOV TOV e rt9 va a\yov$ ev copa OCLVCLTOV ! lS TOV TVfJL^OV eKtlvOV TT\r](JLOV 'Hv(p%6'r) /ze Trdrayov %da/j.a K.al T^? y?}? etc TWV arr\dy^ywv TMV Kpvwv *A ! &ev rjTO TOV vov /xou drrdTTj, Mr}T KOVTCL IJLOV Nd ! T ap^a-ra (JLOV (popeae, va rjaai, KdTrnavos Kal cret?, TraiBia fAov, irapere TO eprj/jio airaOi /JLOV, Ilpdcnva Kotyere /cXaSid, o-rpware fjiov va Kai (f)epre TOV Trvev^a-riKo va Na TOV eiTra) Ta Kpi/jLara TTOV Tpiaisra \povi a/>tapTft)Xo?, K. eiicoat, rrrevre K\(j)Tr]<; Kal Twpa fjb rjpOe Odvaros, Kal 6e\co v a KdfjL6T6 TO Kl/Bovpl (JLOV TT\aTV, Na ov A ^ / v 1 ) / Ztia TL va or a7ravT7]cro) ; Al /JL6 d(f> 0V SeV T)(JO va ae iSco 88 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. K\ \ V ai fie Kal Ala ere p^, fed/me TI va r/crft) H va Bravery rj TTVOI] JJLOV II\eov Aev &TCO, ol vj;r]\iBa Troif vrayav KIKVS fiav ou/c eri, irpocrcrw rpo/neovri re yvia JEfipo%0

&)? X 66 / 96 fiapeia. Tocrawv fjiav Xeye, Qvp(Ti, 11 TOVTIOV ev Ov fJLav rot vitcijcnv aya\\o/jievoi, /cporeovri, NIKO.I, fjbv yap Tot? S' e^aSe? 1^1;^ OvBe T^5 oiaei rocraov dyafcporov 90 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. Ov&e n roiovrov. TdSe vvv, 7ro\v(f)\oi(T/3ov e\et<^ {jo-pava?, ^ap pa(7&6V oi's ycov /JLOI, Kcopv&wv ev rcoSe Mi/jt,vev, ei\Tpoi>, iravra yavos 778 ta yrjpvs. "ZwT? NAFLOAEftN ! Z^ /3avi^ yuoyt?, 67^ 877 rain appev eyeipei Na7To\eovri Teo?, 'Pco/za? ^SacrtXef ?, avaOrfkav - Havra 8' evpvrdrav rp(,rr\a (ta\ 7786 rerparr\a Toaaa TI %ap{iaro KCU rat? yvv atf t rats Spa/xart/cat? eVtSeifecrt Trapet^at," written by a well-known doctor of Athens, may serve as an example : Ta>v ap-^aiwv ovtiev irepl rovrov /3e/3aiov KaraXeXonro- rwv, 01, vewrepot, Strr^ TJ/ULLV l&eav TrapeSa/cav, etc Siaue- rpov $id(f)0pov ol uev yap avvwv fjiaXiara elo-rjyayov et? ra dearpa ra? yvvaiKas, ol Be a7re/cXetcraj> et? TO 92 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. .... Ev Se rf} ^TrapTr), OTTOV KOL TO TWV cf)v\ov /Jiepos rr}? TroXtreta? etc rov VOJJLQV crvvicrTa, ej rjS) Kai, viroKpuveavaL, Kai> 67rl TOVTW \a/ji/3dvi,v irapa TOV ^oprjjov. Tavra eicelvos. Oi Be a\\ot, OVK am Xoyoi; TaDra Kpivav- T9, KOL Qearplais aTrXw? avoiyovai TO Oearpov, KOI TOTTOV Before closing this chapter, a few words are due to our contemporaries. The writings of many modern Greek prose authors, as, for instance, the " 'icrTOyotcc TTJS 'E\\r)vuacrTacrea>9/' by Spy- ridon Tricupes, and " AO/CI/AIO^ tcrropta? rrj? 'EXX^- vucrjs yXwo-o-T;?," by D. Mavrophredes, are well known, and have been reviewed in some of the leading English journals. Professor Asopios is well known by his " Eicraywyrj a? TltVSapoz/," and Professor Damalas by his " Ilepl ap^o)v. r Pap- paregopulos 7 History of Greece is remarkable, as Professor Geldart states, for its clear and simple style and the unstudied purity of its language. I close this chapter with the following extract from Plutarch's "Life of Caesar," as translated by Mr. A. R. Rangabes, "Ek rr)v KaOo^ikov^v-qv^ (in the spoken language), late Greek Ambassador in Paris, and well known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but also as a poet: MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. \oirrov avrrj t . / , irape^e^ovro Tip e8t/crji/ TOU, eco? orov rfkOev r) (7ipd TOV Kdra)vo<; KOL rov Kdr\ov. OVTOL 8 rjvavTiwQrj- cav ^9 op/jirfi, /cat, a>? o Kaiwv jJL6Ta \ojov eppi-^re /cat, VTTOVOLCLV /car civTOv, /col e^avecTTf] tear avrov /3ta/a)?, ol fJLv az/S/365 Trape&oOrjaav oVw? OavaroBajai,' Kara 8e TOV Kcuaapos, ev a) ef*}/o^TO TT}? /8ouX^?, TroXXot TWI/ i/ecov TO>^ povpovvTO)v rov KiKtpwva rore opfJiriaavTes, earpe^av yv/jLi>a ra %i,(f>?i KO.T avrov. A\\a \ejerat, on, 6 Kov- picov, TcepiK.a\v-fyas Tore, avrov Bia TTJS n$VVpV TOU, rov e^jyaye. Kal 6 Kuctpwv, orav ol vtoi 7rpoo-/3\'^rav et? avrov, on evevvev avro^aTt/ca)?, (froffrjOeis rov STJ/JLOV, rj TOV (frovov oXo)? a&iKOV Kai rrapavo^ov Oewpwv. Tovro 6yuft)v ; ecrOa) for ecr#uu ; /Spe^a), to rain, etc. ; it uses old words in new senses, as crvvi- , I prove; O^MI/LOV, wages ; epevyecrOai, eloqui ; , fruit; XaXia, language; and it frames new words and new compounds, as ypjjyopw, 7T(uSio#ej>, at/xaro^vcrta. It ceases to employ the dual ; entirely abandons the use of the optative in oratio obliqua ; uses the infinitive instead of the future participle after verbs of going, sending, etc. ; admits ei with the subjunctive, ora^, /cat, tVa, with the present indicative ; and, finally, shows a OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 95 tendency to analysis, by using prepositions where the case-terminations would have been originally sufficient to express the meaning, and by employ- ing the active with lavrbv instead of the middle. (erdpa^v iavTov= Irapa^aro. See Farrar's " Greek Syntax.") The dual number, which does not exist in modern Greek, is not found in the 2Eolic dialect, and, in fact, being altogether unnecessary, early begins to vanish and to be treated as quite sub- ordinate to the plural. The dual number may be termed " a superfluous exuberance," adding but little force to the language. Such being the changes which have passed over the Greek language, we still hold that it has lost neither the elasticity nor the life of the ancient Greek. Her words are not, so to speak, " con- gealed," and " void of life," as are the words of the French and with the exception of the German the words of other languages, which retain the meaning once given them. It may be said that this produces indefiniteness and want of clearness; but for all that, this is one of the strongest proofs of the life of the lan- guage. This is the reason why the " New Hellenistic," though somewhat under a new gar- ment, is the traditional language of the old Greeks, which for the* last thirty centuries runs through the Grecian heaven, at times shining with 96 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GKEEK. all its usual light, at times scarcely visible and clouded by mist, but never extinguished. It is not and cannot be termed the daughter of the old Greek, just as the term is applied to modern languages derived from the Latin, because these languages are shoots from the root of the withered, dried, and grafted trunk of the Latin, whilst the modern Greek is the same old trunk, variously tried, withered as to some of its branches, but for the most part producing new branches in the place of the ones withered, never losing its vitality, and promising, under a careful cultivation, to be- come the same old shady and far-spreading tree which it was formerly. Modern languages, such as the French and the Italian, are founded, as a modern Greek scholar asserts, upon the " popular Latin"; but this Latin is, so to speak, in ruins, and it is from its ruins that these languages arose invested with new forms, new idioms, and a new life. Notice how the following Latin words, cabattus, annulus, lovis, pater, mater, fratris, soror, pellis, oculus, ovum, testa, niger, instrumentum, corpus (corporis), become, so to speak, mutilated in the Italian cavallo, annetto, bove or hue, padre, madre, fmtello (especially from fratellus), sorella, pette, occhio, nove, testa, nero, strumento, corpo, and in the still worse French, cheval, anneau, boeuf, pere, -mere, frere, sceur, peau, ceil, 03uf, tete, noire, instrument, corps. The three OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. 97 genders in Latin are compressed into two. From the demonstrative pronoun ille, ilia, the definite article fe, la results ; and from the numeral imus, una, itnum, the indefinite article uno, una, immune; similar changes have occurred in the Greek lan- guage, but when ? In the Homeric and Attic times only. The forms of the verbs were likewise so much changed that it was necessary to add separate personal pronouns, to distinguish the persons, which has never occurred in the Greek language. J'aime, tu dimes, il aime, nous aimons, vous aimez, instead of amo, amas, amat, amamus ; instead of the one perfection, three were formed, defini, in- definij anterieur. Besides this, another new tense was added, the " conditional," which does not really exist in the Latin. Thus, in the Italian we have the forms vender ei, vender esti, vender ebbe; and in the French, je vendrais, tu vendrais, il vendrait, etc. Words of either foreign, German, Greek, or Celtic origin have crept into the language and are so thoroughly woven with the whole fabric of the language that they can never be eradicated : on the other hand, the foreign idioms which have been introduced into the Greek lan- guage are, for the most part, superficial ; they are spots which can easily be rubbed out, and are by no means deep and indelible colors. These languages, accordingly, are justly termed 98 OLD ATTIC AND MODERN GREEK. "her daughters," but the "New Hellenistic" is one and the same old Greek ; or, as a modern Greek scholar calls it, " the newest phase of th'e old Greek," to which state it has come slowly through many centuries, not violently, or acci- dentally, but unassisted, and by means of those very laws lying in her own nature. It may not be out of place here to remark, if we look to the matter of pronunciation in a prac- tical point of view, what has already been stated by a recent scholar who travelled in Greece, viz. : A knowledge of Greek, with the modem Greek pronunciation, will obviate the necessity of en- gaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, Turkey, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the language of the most thriving mercantile race, is the medium of communication between many of the various nations of the East. Again, by discarding the pronunciation now prevalent, and adopting instead the modern Greek, and by study- ing the Greek " as a living language," I will men- tion what scholars like Ross and Tassow have already noticed, " that great light may be thrown upon the meaning of classical authors.'* Be- sides, it is a fact that the knowledge of Greek as a living language is of chief significance in the verbal criticism of the New Testament and the Septuagint. CHAPTER IX. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. THE word " prosody" retains among the modern Greeks the signification of the old grammarians, "the doctrine of accentuation." In this sense it differs entirely from " prosody" as the word is to-day understood by those who study the Greek as a foreign language. We do not believe in the statements of J. Vossius and many others, that prosody meant simply " metrical quantity" or " musical rhythm," and that the genuine prosody of the Greek words was always in " unison of sound with the poetical rhythm " or " the quantity of the syllables," etc. Now, that " prosody," as a modern Greek scholar asserts, meant among the ancient Greeks u Kal ras iv TOJ SiaXeyecr#ai racreis rrjs lyypafjLjjidTOv icrr. eXey^. a, /3X. Kal tfa&js). Again, treating of -"the parts of Rhetoric," Aristotle recommends " TTO)S rots robots Xpyo-Oai, olov ofeia /cat /3apia Kal ^arj, .... and on the manner in which we should employ its tones, viz., the acute, the grave, and the inter- mediate," .... from which he says " harmony results." Accordingly, if musical intonation really was characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this feature has been most faithfully preserved. Pro- fessor Geldart remarks that the Greeks, especially when excited in preaching or public speaking, intone so melodiously that something very like a tune is heard of which the higher tones are al- ways the more emphatic syllables Aristox- enus, a pupil of Aristotle (330 B. C.), teaches that U 7TpO)TOV OLTraVTtoV, T7]V 7^5 (f)Ct)Vrj<$ KlVrjCTlV <5iopicrTlov TO) p,e\\ovTi TTpa^fJiaTevetrOaL Trepl fjit- Xou?, avTrjv rrjv Kara TOTTOV ov yap eis GLvrri<$ a>v Tvyyavti KIVZLTOLL ptv yap Kal St vd)v rjjjitov, Kal /xeXwSou^raj^, rrjv tlprjfJLevrjv 6v yap Kal fiapv $rj\ov a>5 IP a^oTtpois rourot? ecrrt (Aptcrrof. ap^oviK. crrot^. Bt/3X. y, iv TOfJiaj a, creX. 3, rrjs eVSocr. Mei'^o/x). Again, " Avw 8e etcrt^ tSeat KivTJcrea)? (of the voice), 17 re Kal TI Siao-TrjfJiaTLKjj. Trjv ^cv ovv awe^r) eivai (j>ap.ev StaXeyou/^teVa;^ yap rjucov ourw? rj Kara Tpoirov, wcrre ^Sa/^oi; So/ci^ ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 101 Kara Se TT)V erepar, TJ tvavTitoS TTvK yivefJLv e\0eiv iv 8e ra> /xeXwSet^ TOVVOLVT'LOV TrotoD/xe^ TO /xe^ yap , TO S' icrravai rrjv (jxijvrjv cos Dionysius the Thracian (66 B. C.) defines the accent u (/Hovrjs 0,7717^070-1^ ivappoviov 77 AcaTa avoLTacriv iv rrj ofeta 7) AcaTa o/xaXtcr/xo^ e^ TT^ ^8a- peta, 77 KOTO, TrepiK\ai(TLv iv TTJ TreptcrTrw/xeV^." Cicero (60 B. C.), speaking of the acute (acntum), grave (gravum), and the circumflex (circumflexum), says, that from these, results ---- " quidam cantus "{Cicer. Orator. 17), so that, as Oekonomos asserts, gram- matical prosody in Latin was translated accentus (ac-cino = ad cano, viz. ad cantum}. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (30 B. C.) mentions as of like name or meaning "prosody" and " accent": TdVei? 9 instead of avcos (aws, r)0)s) OVJJLOS, etc., and the adverbs /caXw?, &>9 instead of ws. Thus, the Boeotians were wont to say vyt'ets instead of v (ei = 77). In like manner were formed aiyX^eis, reX-^ei?. In like manner, although Plato wrote ra^ur^ra, he also wrote ^eor^ra, avOpcoTro- rrjTa, TpaTYi^OTrjTa, KvaOoTTjTa, etc. The Attics used to say, TOVTL, ravrl, iKtivuvi in- stead of Tavra, TOVTO, IKZIVUV. They likewise said, Trovrjpe KOL d\r)0es Kal avriKpvs and l\0, etTre, evpe. They also said, 816x179, TpieY^s and Steres, ryotere?, etc., while others accent the same words on the last syllable. The lonians and the Attics said, a 106 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. avaiSeirj, eu/cXeir?, Karrj^eir), wliilst, on tlie other hand, the Attic tragedians in these very words accent the antepenult. Now, these variations of accent are simply dia- lectic. They by no means change the fact, that there is a definite law of accentuation in the Greek language. This definite law of accentuation existed even before the Greek language was divided into dia- lects. So long as the Greeks remained a tribe of small numbers, inhabiting one and the same country, they spoke one and the same language, and the greatest harmony prevailed as respects the accent and pronunciation of the words. But when the Greeks commenced to scatter and to migrate into different countries, then, in time, their language also began to differ by certain variations and distinctions, and hence the dialects arose. Similar dialectic variations exist to this day in the Greek language, but the people understand each other without any difficulty whatever. These dialectic variations do not alter the language, con- sequently the rules of accentuation are uniform, although the people adapt them to suit their idiomatic peculiarities. Poetic prosody likewise teaches the uniform accentuation of words. This is evident because many short syllables become long in both the arsis and the thesis, by means ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 107 of the accent, which, as Oekonoinos asserts, lengthens somewhat the quantity in pronuncia- tion. For instance, the Homeric viroSegfy (IX.), a/co/xicrT67? (OS. <), KOLKoepyir) (OS. ^), aepyirj (OS. a>), JcTTtTy (OS. f), iXiou (IX. o), aypiov (IX. ^), ofjiouov (IX. e), v7Tepo7T\iyo-L (IX. a) lengthen i by means of the accent, naturally short in these words. Oekonomos also says, that o and e become long in AtdXou (O. /c), 0,770 eOtv (IX. ), LTnroTrjv ('ETn/ypo/^/x,. Ilaucra^. ^, 10), eayeV^i^ (Aur. err. 11, 2), etc. Likewise in the aywa /cal opyvia (Herod, and Xenop.). Now, it is only by the placing of the accent on the antepenultimate that final a becomes short, as, for instance, dyviav (IX. v, 254), opyvi virep (OS. 1, 328). It is on this account that the Attic tragedians, by shortening the last syllable, used the -ZEolic forms r^iv, v^iv instead of rj^lv, v/m>, etc. Now, we believe that the accents always ex- isted in the Greek language. There is no lan- guage without its accents. Aristophanes of Byzantium (200 B. C.) might have introduced written accents, in order to preserve the true pro- nunciation of Greek at the time when it was becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races, but accents existed long before Aristophanes, and, in fact, long before the Homeric era. Accents, we say, always existed, but the ancient Greeks did not generally write them. The fact that 108 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. many of the inscriptions that have been dis- covered are without accents does by no means prove that accents did not exist among the an- cient Greeks. Now, the modern Greeks seldom, if ever, put any accents on capital letters, that is to say, on words composed of capitals, and it would not be strange if the ancient Greeks like- wise were accustomed to leave off the accents from inscriptions, which were generally written with capitals. It is, however, worthy of remark that a verse of Euripides, with accentual marks, has been discovered written on the walls of Her- culaneum. It was natural for the ancient Greeks to pronounce their language correctly, even with- out marking the syllables on which the stress ought to fall by means of the accent. To this day, many women of Greece, in writing to their husbands away from home, usually write without the accents. But do they not know how to pro- nounce their language just as well as those who make constant use of written accents ? To pro- nounce correctly, to lay the stress on the syllable on which the accent falls, is natural to every Greek, although he may do it unconsciously. He is taught to pronounce according to accent from early childhood ; he pronounces correctly, al- though he may not know the laws of prosocty. We said that accents have always existed in the Greek language. Homer (1000 B. C.) says ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 109 and Tpcoas (IX. ^, 57). 'AXX' elcrepx^o re/coc, ofipa craa)o-rjs Tpaia? /ecu Tyowas, /cGSos ope^s. Now, how could Homer other- wise than by means of the accent distinguish between the male and female inhabitants ? Oeko- nomos also brings the example of S/xwo^ /ecu (6 S/za>9 OS. , 59 and 399) from S/^ww^ KCU (07 8^a)^, 08. 121 and 25, 45, 154). How could he distinguish finally XdW and Xavv (IX. <, 314) unless by means of the accent 1 It is by means of the accent, Oekonomos says, that Homer length- ened in the arsis or thesis the short syllable of the penult and the antepenult, as t/xe^ai, apo/ze- i/at, 6t9, KaKoepyLrj, aypiov, 6/xotou, etc. ; he also shortened the long syllable, or the one before it, by means of the accent, as eyeipo^L.v y /3ouXercu, a.7ro0LOfjiv instead of eyetpw/>te^, /3ov\r)Tai, a Compare also the eVet^ /Ae/Ado)? 9, 'OSucreus, 'OSvcr^o?, because it is on ac- count of the force of the following accent that the one of the consonants was omitted. The ancient grammarians spoke in detail concerning these facts, as did also the great scholar Hernnanus in his " EJementa doctrinse metricae," page 56, etc. Again, Aristophanes (430 B. C.), by means of the accent, shows the difference in the meaning of the words : Bo'eio? 877/^09 (oxytone) from Srj/xos (Barp. 40, 'ITTTT. 95) and StaTre^w/xe^ from StaTriVo- (Boeotian, Sia7reu>aju,es KOLL SiaTru/o/xes). His con- 110 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. temporary, Isocrates, played upon the words /cat vov with KOLIVOV (ypafiioiov KGLIVOV, /cat /SiftXiov KCLL- vov, and so on). Plato (390 B. C.) distinctly says, " IIoXXa/ct9 e7re/xy8aXXo/xe^ ypd^ara, TOL 8' l^aipov- , Trap o /BovXofMeOa ovopdtpvres, /cat ra? 6 >, oiov Att ACCENT AND QUANTITY. HI eV jno> rot? avev ypac/^s SiaXeKTiKots ov paSiov Troirjcrai Xoyoz>, iv Se rots yeypa/x/xeVoi? KOL 7TOi7jfjiao~i \6yov paXkov olov /cat ro^ 'Q^pov cWot SiopOovvTai irpos TOUS eXey^oz/ra? a>5 droTraj? etp^- KOTOL ..... U To /^e^ OV KCLTCLTrvdeTai OfJL/BpCO," \.VOV(T L yap avrb rrj TTpocrcoSia Xeyoz/re? TO ou o^vrepov. Kat TO Trept TO IVVTTVLOV Tov Aya/>te/xi^o^o9, OTI ou/c ai/ros 6 Zeu? elTre ..... " StSo/xe^ Se ot eS^o? apecrOai" dXXa TO) IvvTTviq) StSo^at. " But from accent, in discussions which are not committed to writing, it is not easy to frame an argument, but rather in writings and poems ; as, for instance, some defend Homer against those who accuse him as having spoken absurdly, To /xev ov KaraTrvBcTai o//,/?pw, for they solve this by accent, saying that ov is to be marked with an acute accent. Also about the dream of Agamemnon, because Jupiter himself does not say, Se ot ev but says to the dream StScWi. Such things, therefore, are assumed (explained) from accent." Although the Greek language from its earlier times had " accents," their use became more prev- alent in both writing and speaking after the time of Aristophanes (200 B. C.), who is also considered as their inventor. 112 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. Ol %povoi Kai 01 TOVOI Kal Ta TTvevfACLTa, re -/{. VVV/ N *- / \ ^ Aeeo)?, Kdt, irpos TO yLte\o? 777? (pwvrf^ av/JLTraaT)?, KCLI TTJ dpjjLOviav, ft>9 av eTraSoi/jiev (f>0iyyo/jivoi. .^Vevjrcu 8' d e/cacnov avrwv (fivei/cox; afJLa KOL otve/o)?, KaQilTrep TCI bp- )_/ \/ J^NV^ yava, eo'^rjfjLaria'TaL KOI wvofjLatJTai eireiori teat, vavra e/jL6\\6 TW \oy

dvielarav. Try 8' eV^Te/^oucray, /cat TO ofu TO 8e ^Sapu o^o/Ltafoucra^, :. T. X. ( ApicaS. Ilapa Bi- . cre\. ta. Now, it results from what has been said, and from the direct testimony of the different authors mentioned, and of many whose testimony might have been cited, that grammatical accent or pros- ody is essentially different from " poetical pros- ody." The modern Greeks in pronouncing ac- cording to accent agree in every respect with the direct testimony of the ancient grammarians, the divine Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Aristoxe- nus, Sextus, Nicanor (120 B.C.), Aristophanes, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and of many others. The statement of Professor Sophocles that all vowel sounds in modern Greek are isochronous is incorrect, because in many insta,nces~r\ f e pro- nounce more or less the grave as well as the acute accent. We distinguish the acute accent, as Oekonomos justly remarks, by pronouncing ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 113 the word more emphatically, or by raising the voice, and especially so in questions, as TIS TOP Kafji KpLTtfv ; we pronounce likewise the circum- flex, though rarely, by prolonging the voice. This is especially to be noticed in Thessaly and Epirus, in which countries the people pronounce elSa = uSar and Soy^a as if it were Soo/xa, etc. Now, to attempt to pronounce the Greek ac- cording to the principles of Latin accentuation is simply absurd. It is a fact that Latin prosody in some instances agrees with Greek accentuation, but in many respects there is a wide difference between the two. To begin with, the Latin ac- centuation of many words renders doubly sure the accuracy and correctness of the accentuation of the modern Greeks. For instance, the pro- paroxytone words, 'ATro'XXwi'og, 'Hptco^o?, eibuXov, eprjfjios, IvepyyiJia, Trapa/cX^ro?, the ancient Latin poets used likewise to pronounce by marking the antepenultima with the acute accent, as Apol- linis, Orlonis (sse vumque | rionis | ensem, Hor), Idolum (Auson). Now, those who pronounce simply according to the quantity of syllables, pronounce as if the words were written, etSwXo*>, 'ATToXXoiz/o?, and so forth, and thus, as Oekonomos puts it, act in violation of the principles of both the Grecian and Latin Muse. The Latins never accent the last syllable of a word. On the other hand, the Greek language possesses many such 114 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. nouns, and hence this difference alone suffices to put an insurmountable barrier between the Latin and Greek prosody. The Latin tongue, being fashioned after the ^Eolic dialect, keeps, generally speaking, its accentuation, especially so in words of two syllables, which the .ZEolians pronounced by placing the accent on the penultima, as auw? e^t (aw?, et/xt). Many words of three syllables they pronounced by placing the acute accent on the penultima, as 'A^AXevs TI 'A^tXX^?, 'TSuo-crevs. Latin : Achilles, Ulysses. Oxytone or paroxytone trisyllabic words the .ZEolians used to pronounce by placing the acute accent 011 the antepenultima, for instance, Swaros instead of Swaro?, and so on. But even in the accentuation of words of two and three syllables, generally speaking, the ^Eolians differed materially from the Latins. Thus, the ^Eolians pronounced Kara, crtw, li)v, and, again, ieprjs, M^acrta?, etc. Again, Oekonomos justly re- marks, that Latin prosody materially differed from the Greek, inasmuch as the Latins accent the ante- penultimate even when the last syllable is, accord- ing to the Greeks, long. On the other hand, the Greek prosody always strictly observes the last syllable of every word and its change in respect to the cases, and places the accent according t6 the quantity of the last syllable. For instance, the Latins say Philosophia, Historia, Theologia, Ec- clesia, and the genitives Corporum, angeli, and so ' -v '*/. ACCENT AND QUANTlffy / . 0, >,<, '*~4, on, placing the accent on ^^ A^M*A*aa^-* ^^^. which fact is in direct violation ofc^ of Greek prosody, which is always directed i the accentuation of a word by the quantity o the last syllable. Again, the change of the ac- cent by contraction is a thing unknown among the Latins, as cdreo = -^apeco, xypect), ^rjpevaj, >, -o>, and Se/coj, Set/ecu, KVVOJ, SOKW, doceo = So- >, hence So/cw. There are, besides, numberless other peculiarities of the Greek language, both dia- lectic and perpetual, which divide and separate its prosody from the Latin. But however well Latin prosody has been fashioned and formed by her glorious poets and writers, yet it never could attain, imitate, or approach, either the euphony, the elasticity, or the manifold and very rich variety of the Grecian prosody. Finally, it is a fact that modern Philology, owing to the great changes which have passed over the Latin lan- guage, ever since the second century after Christ, has been unable to ascertain the original sound " of her letters. Thus we claim that it is incon- sistent with well-established principles and facts to attempt to pronounce Greek according to Latin accentuation. There is certainly much similarity between the Greek and Latin, but this similarity or ^resemblance is not, as a Greek says, that of one egg to another, neither that of one drop of \vater to another. The Latin language resem- 116 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. "bles the Greek language just as a daughter resembles her mother, or just as a sister might resemble her sister ; or, as Oekonomos says, how- ever strong a resemblance there may be between the two languages, the warbling of a Procne (swallow) differs from that of a nightingale. Now, that the accent plays a most important part in the meaning of a word, is manifest from the following collection of words, which are written alike, but distinguished from each other in meaning by the accents. The distinguished scholar, Gottlob Hoffman, said in reference to this point, " Why ! anybody can easily distinguish the word Sea from Sta and povrj from JHOI/T) (/Aei>a>) and some other similar words simply by the meaning ! " However, there are many words and many nouns in the Greek language distinguished from each other simply by means of the accent, but without which all the soothsayers of the world could never tell the meaning. A. 'AyeAaios, belonging to a herd. 'Aye'Aatog, of the herd or mul- titude ; ay. avOpfDTTOi, opp. to "Ayr;, in good sense, wonder, reverence, awe; in bad sense, envy, hatred. 'Ayij,-i}s, breakage,piece,splin- ter ; KUTTW ay. ^Esch.Pers. 425. , Agetus, a Spartan, os, admired, famous. Ancyra, a city of Ga- latia. "AyKvpa, an anchor. 'Ayopcuo?, to be bought in the market; as in most Edd. of the N. T. apros. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 117 'Ayopatos, belonging to the ayopd, Zevs dyopaios. "Aywv, ayovros, leading. 'AyoSv, -wvos, a contest. , chatterer; dSoXe- ^s, subtle. Job. Philopo- nus. 'Afyo'os, -a, -ov, very rarely -os, -ov, assembled in crowds. Eustath. p. 1387. "A#poos, -ov (a. priv. 0po'os), noiseless, only in gramm. 'Atfojos, -ov, unpunished, scot- free. *A0uos,-7), -oi/, of Mount Athos. ^Esch. Ag. 285. AT#os, -cos, a burning heat, fire. Ai0o's, -77, -ov, burnt, fire-col- ored, fiery. Find. p. 8, 65. Bachyl. 12. Atvos, -ov, 6, 1, a tale, story, hence, a fable; 2, praise. Aivos, -rj, -ov, Ep. word = 6Wos, dread, dire, fearful. Ato'Ao?, ->;, -ov, easily turning, quietly moving. AtoXos, -ovjhegodofthe winds. At7Tta, fern, of Atxus, high and steep; lofty. AiTreta, -as, -?;, 1, JEpea, a city of Messenia ; 2, a city in the island of Cyprus, later, Soli. At7ros, -eos, TO, a height, a steep, a hill. JEsch. Ag. 285, etc. ; Trpos atTros ieWi, AITTOS, -r), -ov, Ep. for CUTTVS, A, lofty, usu. of cities. 17, 1, a point, edge; 2, silence, etc. , -4ce, the earlier name of the city Ptoleinais in Phoenicia. , inexorable. S, spotless. Joh. Phi- lop. 'A/as, -tSos, 17, point-barb, a splinter. *A/as, -tSos, 6, Ads, a river of Sicily. Theoc. 1, 69. , -tos, 1, the extremity ; 2, Acris, a city of Libya. Diod. is, -tSos, a locust. 'AKpo/2dXds, owe ^Aa^ throve from afar, a skirmisher. 'AKpo/?oXos, -ov, struck from afar. 'AXt'a, -as, an assembly, gather- ing. 'AXta, -a?, a salt-cellar. "AXis, adv., in heaps, in crowds, in swarms. 'AXts, -t8os, saltness. 'AXcoa, a threshing-floor. 'AXwa, a festival of Demeter. "A/A?7Tos, -ov, 6, a reaping, har- vesting. 118 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. S, the harvest gathered in. ^, -?/?, oft in Theophr. the almond-tree. aA.??, -779, an almond. "Apa, Ep. pa, then, straight- way, etc. 'Apa, a?, curse. 'Apaio'?, ->?, -ov, ifAm, narrow, weal:. 'Apace?, -aia, prayed against, accursed. "Apy>7?, -ov, 6, Arges or Cyclops. Hes. Th. 140. a kind of serpent. 79, -^ros, white, bright. , 6, Argus, son of iter and Niobe, and King OS. -77, -6V, shining, wight. "Api/etos, -eta, -eiov, #/* $ lamb or Apyetos, -oi), 6, a young ram just full-grown. 'Api/os, a sheep, etc. "Apvos, Arnus, a river of Etru- ria, now the Arno. js, seizure, rapine. ayr;, -rjs, a hook, esp. for drawing up a bucket. "Apcrt?, -ew?, ^, raising up. -1805, arrow-point. Pharor. , new-born. , having just given birth / 'ApriTo//,os, having just cut. 'Ao- oak-coppice, thicket. , Drymus, a city of Pho- cs. E. said. , coming, arrival. 'EAevo-i5, -ti/o?, Eleusis, a city. 'Eaiperos, -ov, taken out, picked. 'E^cu/oeTos, ->;, -ov, that can be taken out. v E7ratvo5, approval, praise. 'ETraivo?, -77, -ov, exceedingly awful. , a province. , a woman's name. 'Eptveo?, the wild fig-tree. 'EptVeos, of wool, woollen. 120 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. "Eros, a year. 'ETOS, in vain. Evav0>js, flowery. , Euanthes, a name. TJ?, well-born (a civil, po- lite man), evyev^s aV$pw7ros. yeVT/s, Eugenes,^ -^oQi of the Anthology. ?}?, well-disposed. , Eumenes, a brave Athenian at Salamis. Ev/cAeta, renown, good fame. Ev/cAeta, Euclia, an appella- tion of Diana. rjs, stout, lively. s, Eusthenes, a name. Z. , Zorus, founder of Car- thage. JT^, TO e7rai/(o TOT) /AeXtTo?, /cat . Eust. p. 906, 52. H. /, slinger. /, gen. pi. -a, -ov, belonging to Hercules. 'Hpa/cXetos, herculean. "Hrron/, compart. , part, of rjTTow. fern, seeing. s, -7J, -oi/, warm, hot, boil- ing. , -ov, ^Ae lupine, esp. w- pinous, used in Athens to counteract the effects of drink. dome. 5, -ov, 1, ^Ae sow?/ 2, wrath, etc. 0v/>tos, -ov, tliyme, Lat. thymus. 'la, 17, voice. "la, old Ion. cwey plural, violet. , imp. aor. mid. 'I3ov, /o / behold. part. pres. eVo?, part. perf. 's, rws^, etc. 5, -to?, one of the Sporades, etc. Ipnus, a place in Locris. , keeping or groom- ing horses, etc. C, horse-haired, etc. -ov, equipping, arming horses. TroKopvo-r^c, Hippocorystes, masc. prop. noun. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 121 Katpor, -ov, 1, strictly the right measure; 2, the right meas- ure of time. Ka~po?, also Kaipws, threads, slips, or thrums on the beam of the loom. KaAAio-flei'?/?, adorned with strength. KaAAio-tfeV?;?, Callisthenes, an orator. KcLW, dry wood, fire-wood. KoAoV, neut. KaAws, adv. from KuAw?, a rope. j, a bending, winding, as of a river. fjiTrrj, a caterpillar. for e/ceu/os. Ketvo'?, empty". , a charmer. JT-rj from K>}/3os, Cerus, a river. 07, ->/, -6V, renowned, fa- mous. KAeiros, Clitus,^ proper nnme. KAeto), to tell of, make fa- mous. w, Clio, one of the Muses. the thistle. o?, yellow. os, woody. , Cnemus, a name. KO/XTTO?, pride. OS, proud. Kpto?, a ram. a proper name. ttt from Krao/x-ai. Kracr^at from KTetVw. Imix. W, aCCUS. Of KVKWV. Kvpro?, a creed. 05, crooked. Eust. p. 907. , a fishing-basket. os, curved, bent, arched. A. pretext. j, handle. Aao?, -ov, the people. Aao?, the name of a city. Aapo?, a ravenous sea-bird ; the gull. Aapo?, -a, -OK, pleasant, nice. , a 5are roc/;. a?, a limpet. winepress. ?, throwing stones. oe, struck with stones. Ai^avos, fore-finger. string of a harp. M. long. Ma//, -or, verb, adj. drunk, for drinking. IIptoToyoj/o9, first-born. IlpwroyoVo?, bringing forth first. IIpwTOTOAco9, first-born. IIpwroroKoc, bearing her first- born. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 123 me-colored. Pyrrhus, a man's name. wpos, -ov, tufa-stone. ?, -a, -6v, blind; misera- ble. P. 'PtVr;, shark. Job. Phil. 'PITT?/, town-wall. as of wind. East. p. 301. cor, a rosebud. 17, Rhodon, masc. prop. name. 'Po'Sio?, adj., Mhodian, of Rhodes. 'PoSto?, subst., Rhodius, a riv 7 er. WVO5, ^ lewd fellow. wv, from o-atpw, sweeping. 9, gen. fern, of o-os. ?, a moth. dr), a hole, trench. a^ry, a digging. lion's whelp. ?, young of every other beast. v, -77, -oV, sown, scat- tered. ^Ae shrub. , a 5w?icA of grapes. or ^e plummet in a carpenter's bench. ia, a community. /aa, a public feast in hon- or of Theseus. /o/xo?, 1, anything that draws, drags, or tfears along with violence ; 2, fashion, mode. , Syrmus, a proper name. T. TavpoKTovos, slaying bulls. Tai;poKToi/o5, killed by 'a bull. om afafa , a name (son of Ulysses). J?, appearing afar. , Telephanes, a prop. name. oc, cutting. volume. Topos, piercing, thrilling. Topoc, a 5orer used in trying for water. o?, wheel, etc. a running course. Y. c Y/?o?-, -77, -ov, hump-backed. r Y/?o?, Ae bunch or hump of a camel. "Y/3pts, insolence. t?, a night-bird of prey. 124 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. XaAao7?oAo9, stricken with 3>aiSpos, -a, -ov, beaming, bright. opo's, bearing, carrying. opo5, from (f>opos. 'Pio9, from /koei?, whence the " /HOUS #eopot /cat at racrets rrj), AaiTiOrjs (Xao-mOrjs), Aayer^?, Aayo? , and numberless other forms, both dialectic and common to all, as well as those words resulting from syncope and synizesis, and these Attic words which, although terminating in a long vowel, accent the antepenult, e. g. euyews, Me^eXews, etc., show "that the multi- tude pronounced rather hurriedly and not so clearly and distinctly the long vowel sounds." The circumflex, pronounced somewhat hurriedly, was confounded easily with the acute, as in the Homeric, TO pev ov instead of ov or ov, as well as ovns, transformed into ouns (Od. I. 366). But the comedians, imitating the common con- versation of the people, made many innovations or changes in the rhythm, at times shortening the long syllables, then introducing trochaic and iambic together with anapestic measures, thus endeavoring to imitate the voluble manner of con- versation extant among the common classes. A modern Greek asserts that after the language had passed its prime the distinction between the long and short syllables was much neglected. Finally, the absence of great poets, the absence of the theatres, the confusion of dialects, and other like changes, caused the general neglect of quan- tity. About the year 170 (B. C.) Pausanias, a pupil of Herodes the Athenian, somewhat distin- 134 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. guislied as a " stump-speaker," was often blamed because he confounded long and short syllables, just as his Cappadocean compatriots were wont to do. But this did not at all interfere with the genuine prosody of the spoken language. " Poetical prosody" is one thing and " prosody of accents" is another. The former deals with the quantity of syllables, the latter considers the location of special stress. The former changes with the rhythm of the poem, the latter has a fixed position in every word. After " poetical prosody " became less prominent, the prosody of accent remained an inseparable peculiarity. Our contemporary poets used this as the founda- tion of verse-making, dividing the metres of the verses no more according to quantity, which the ignorant and unpolished multitude could no longer appreciate, but only according to the accent and the number of the syllables, from which arises the so-called " popular rhythm," which has a very close connection with the musical rhythm of the ancients. Those who composed these verses bor- rowed, so to speak, the peculiarity of this versi- fication from the ancients, i. e. from the trochaic metre of ^Eschlus' Pers. : */2 j3aQv(i)vu>v avacrcra TlepaiSwv vireprarij, M?J7p 77 Bep^ov yr)pai,a, 'Xjalpe Aapeiov yvvat. Having simply kept the accents, they formed verses of fifteen syllables, e. g. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 135 Tto? Aiveiov 171 >> y s JLpco re orjTa K OVK epw ' / fJLaiVOfJLCLi K 0V Alexander Apollinarius (350 A. D.) is generally believed to have been the first who wrote in these so-called " popular verses." He rendered, at any rate, into hexameter verse the psalter, and, in fact, many of the writings of the Church. Professor Sophocles states that the "d/ca#icrros vpvos" is the office of the Virgin, partly read and partly sung, all standing, on the Saturday of the fifth week in Lent. And as Georgius Pisides (A. D. 617) was the readiest versifier of that period, it has been conjectured that he was the author of the prin- cipal part of it. The distinctive portions of this office are its twenty-four ol/cot, houses, stations. Their rhythm is accentual, i. e. OupavoOzv e7r/ Enrelv TTJ eoroKM TO Xalpe Kai aw Ty aa-cofiarM aos '.HeA/oto. 3>i\oio .... jooio .... 'HeX/oto. Again, in the " Iliad " (, 523 - 25) : alOofievoiOy 6ewv 8e e /jurjvis dvrjtcev Tlacri B edrjice TTOVOV, 7ro\\olai Se /crfSe* etrf /2? A^iKevs Tpwecrat, TTOVQV Kal /crJSe' e AvrJKev .... < # before syllables which had the rough breathing, which is still the practice of the modern Greeks, 140 THE ASPIRATE. whereas before the smooth breathing these conso- nants remained unaltered. But in the Ionic dia- lect this difference of usage did not prevail. In modern Greek, though the rough breathing is not heard, it affects the pronunciation of a pre- ceding tenuis ; and several compounds, as eeros from eV eros, ptOoLViov for PART II CHAPTER I. THE ALPHABET. THE modern Greek letters, breathings, accents, arid marks of punctuation are the same as in classical Greek. LETTERS. FIGURES. NAMES. A, a A, 3 B^ra Fa/x,/>ta AcAra E \lfi\ov Alpha. Veta. Thelta. Epsitin. Zeta. H, r) Hra Eta. , <9 (H^ra Theta. I, t 'Icora Eota. K, K KaTTTTtt Jfdpa. A, A Aa/xSa Ldmvtha. M, fJL MO Me. N,v NO Ne. H, St Kse. 0,o, "O JJLlKpOV Omecron. n, TT IK Pe. p, P Pw Rho. I; TaO tSegma. Taf. f Ipsilon. Phe. *; X? He (khe). Pse. 1), 00 *O /xeya Omega. CHAPTER II. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. A is pronounced like the French a, or like the English a in the words car, far, father, calm. Schleicher observes that a was frequently represented by e or o. This is more especially noticed in the dialectic forms: /2epe0pov epo-fjv for (3dpaOpov apo-rjv. We have / avcxuprja-e (stratds ah'no anehdrese). In modern Greek we have Ka.Taj366pa for KarajSdOpa (katavah'thra), ap^aOid for 6/0- Ha6id (ormahthedh). Schleicher observes that the three ter- minations of contracted verbs, -aw, -ew, and o'w were originally but one, viz. -aw. In modern Greek, at least in the language of the common people, -o> is always represented by -duo. We have fyrdei for ^ra (zetee}, Trepnra.Ta.Tf. for TreptTraretrc (peripa- teete), and so on. Geldart states that a in ancient Greek is seldom weakened into v, yet this appears to have been the case in vvj; (nix), ow (dnex), KVK\Oos (sJcephos) for O-KO-^O? (sJcdhphos) or O-KO.^ (shdphe). So, again, we have the diminutive appellation a^tov, as (hordhpheon), frequently represented by \xfriov, as (zoepheon). The ancient Greeks prefixed a to many words (a euphonicum), as d/SA^x/aos (ahvlechros), dcrrac^ts (astap/us), SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 145 TJ (ahsterope) for /3A,?7Xpo's (vlechrds), ora^i's (staphis), (sterope). In modern Greek we have aftporavov (ahvrdtanon), d/?pa/i,vAov (ahvrdmelon) for /3pa/x,i>Aoi/ (vrdh- melori), /3pa/?vAov (vrdhvelon). EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. 'ASa/uas-, ahihdmas. 'Ayopavopos, ahghorahnomos. 'Ada/xao-roi-, ahthdhmastos. 'AjSpojSaroy, ahvrovahtos. , dhthos. "A/3poftos, dhvromos. /, aghymton. 'A/So^^roy, ahvoethetos. , ahgrdmatos. E >^ _y is intermediate between a and i." Professor Sophocles states that it requires the mouth to be moderately opened and the breath to proceed horizontally. It is approximately expressed by the English e in spend, ferry, or by the French e. In ancient Greek we have the forms oxfyo's (ochthrds) for e'x#po? (ecthros). In modern Greek the same forms are still preva- lent. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. ekihekdhzo. *Ea$or, ethaphos. ekthekos. c E8a>Xioi/, etholeon. e'kthemos. 'EKTrtVa^at, ekpetahme. ekghenes. 'E/c7reo-(ra>, ekp&so. e'kthexis. 'E<7r^8ao>, ekpethdoh. ekgrdhpho. 'EKirivco, ekpenoh. . mch t, or lil is pronounced like the French i, or like the English e in the word be. The followers of Erasmus pronounce 7} as a long e, or like two e's, or as ay, for the following reasons. They say that in all the old inscriptions, before the letter rj was introduced in the Greek alphabet, we find invariably an e, i. e.: AOEN (KOyvuv), MNEMA (/xi/^/xa), EIII TE2 BOYAE2 KAEOFENES IIPOTO2, etc. 146 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. Again, Cratinus wrote /?r) to represent the sound of the bleating of sheep. Plato says : " OVK rjra. e^pw/xc^a dAAa e TO TraAcuoV." Sextus says : " o-voraAev TO 77 ytVerat e, ZKTaOtv Se TO -yivrjrai rj" Sextus seems to regard 77 and e as essentially one and the same letter. The other dialects generally ex- press the Ionic 77 by e, as, for instance, /Sao-tA^a, /?ao-iAea, etc. Finally, the Latin language also renders the Greek 77 by an e. These are, in short, the reasons which the followers of Eras- mus bring as their justification for pronouncing the rj as a long . Now, in order that we may ascertain how the letter rj was pronounced by the a/icient Greeks, it is of the highest importance to consider, first, from what letters or sounds rj has resulted. a') from d, especially in the Ionic dialect: vrjos = i/dd?, 1/770-09 = mo-os (Doric), Sevrcpr; = Sevrepd, etc. ft) from ae, especially in the Doric dialect: Ti/wjre = - /xaere, oprj = opae, tfiv from aetv, xprJTai from XP* Tal ; "tyA-tos, ac'Ato?, a-FeAto?. y} from ca : ^pvcn/, xaA/o;, evyev?;, from ^pvo-ea, ^aAKea, evyevea. 8') from ee : 877X69, ^ATTI^OJ/, 5A0ov, from SceXos (8eFeXos), ee ov, eeA^ov, etc. e') from at, especially among the Bosotians: 'nnroTT), fvcpycTr)^ etc., from /ecu SeSv'x^at tTTTrorat, The letter 77, a scholar says, having resulted from such let- ters, it is evident that it was formerly sounded both as an e (sounded as in be\ which pronunciation prevails among the greater part of the modern Greeks, and like the French e, as in fete, which pronunciation still is prevalent among not a few of the modern Greeks, as in >7/>o9, Krjp^ov), (a&V). The Boeotians, on the contrary, rendered by et the 77 of Other dialects, i. e. 4>i'Aet/u, yeAet/xt, tcrrei/u, ri'dct/u (Doric u, etc.), dyetoxa, dpi (777x1 and ^Eolic e/A/zt and r/u from cfu), TTociras instead of TTO^TOI?, and so on. Numerous examples might be brought to show the similarity of sound of 77, et, and i ; for instance, in Homer we find 7761877, ^TJSet, 77t'8et. Again, we find the same word written in three dif- ferent ways, i. e. (T/CCTT^VO?, o-KeTmi/os, OVCCTTIVOS ; (1X77x775, dAeu^s, dAtT775. We have, again, o/x,/?pii/os and o/nftpyvos, Ke^)aX^i/os and K(f>aXlvo<;, onra&rjvr]<; and (nraOivys, fce/xao-^ve? and Ka/xaatves, i/cw and 77/^0), CTACTTTTTO) and OTKCTTTO), Ta7T775 and TOLTTL^ and so on. Now Ross thinks that the substitution of 77 for e does not prove that it was sounded like an ay\ for the Latin e, Geldart states, very often represented an , and on the other hand tended to become and therefore probably closely resembled in sound the simple t. So we have tristes from tristeis, writ- ten tristis. We have also the following words written with et instead of e, i. e. omneis, treis, parteis, etc.; and not only SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 149 so, but in the Byzantine period designatus became in Greek Sio-iyi/a-ros (thesegnathos). Ross gives an inscription found at Carpathus in which ipoW stands for ^poW. Professor Mul- lach thinks that the very close resemblance between t and rj is evident in the parallel forms ^KKTiov, emeronecteon. , ethos. c H/xe'pa, eme'rdh. , ethephonos. 'Ho-v^ta, esecheah. 'H8oi/i7, ethone. 'H/LU'T^TO?, emetmetos. , eletheos. 'H/u/oi>os, emeonos. emeromenea. 'HfjutiaXrjs, emethales. is pronounced unquestionably like the French t, or like the English i in the words machine, marine. Liddell and Scott mention that L was easily interchanged with et, whence forms like etXw and tAAw. It was also inter- changed with or written for 17, and we have instances in the parallel forms of ^KO> and TKCU, eVrj/SoXos and c7ri/3oAos. In fact 150 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. Plato, Nigidius, Quintilian, Dionysitis of Halicarnassus, and others so plainly indicate the pronunciation of t, that there can be no dispute in regard to it. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. s, iothnephes. *lov6os, ionthos. ipos. C lir7rop,avr)s, ippomanes. OS, ipn6s. 'iTTTro/xa^os, ippomdhos. ipnios. 'iTrnonoXos ippopolos. /js-, ippaste's. 'lmro8p6pt.ov, ippothromion. lovXos, ioolos (pron. oo as in moon). 'iTrniicos, iTTTTGO't/OtOS', ipptisiwiOS. , ioplokamos. 'iTnroXotya, ippolopliia. O and O have nearly the same sound, and this sound is represented by o in constant. That we may accurately determine the original sound of w, we must determine from what letter or letters o> has resulted. Professor Mavrophedes remarks that w resulted*: a') from oo, i. e. wvd/xa^ov, (o/xoo-a, etc. from 6ovo/xaov, 6)fJioepw, Xeyw, etc. from (frepa-fju, A.e'ya-/u; W/AO-?, Sanscr. dma-s / SwSe^a, Sanscr. dvdda$CMl / TTTW^O-S (ver. Trra^-, TrraK-, TTTT^O-O-W) ; o>pa, Germ. Jahr " /cat ei/ TO) eTripp^/AariKO) eTTi^e/xart S, OTrep e/< roO pfTLKOV dt 7Tpofj\@V) i. 6. KaX(09, /CttKCOS, O~Otcoyu,V, rt/xao/jtev ; ^pwvrat, xpaovrou, etc. ) from oa and 077 : atSw, euSoa J S^Xcore, $rjX6r)T. f) from av : i. e. a>6i/ from at-tov (whence the modern Greek av-yoV, ^y), wT-05 from au-ro? (whence the modern Greek av- rtov, ear), 7rai\o9 (comp. TO, TraOpo? and paulus), ojAa, Doric rw a^Xa^," etc. Now we must infer from these examples, as well as from the dialectic changes of o, w, and ov, such as in /coupos, orSpos (Ionic), Ktopos, wpos (Doric), Kopo?, opos (Attic), and many SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. 151 others, that the letter w did not always have the sound of long o as in hope, but on the contrary a shorter sound like o in constant. The different dialectic changes of a- ywSw, rpayovSio-TT/s for TpuywSicrrrjs, etc. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. "Ob?, ozos. '{}0r/u,os, othismos. 'O^O'OTO/ZOS, ozostomos. 'fl^eco, otf/ieo. *Oap, oar. 'QS/s, o/m. "Oapor, oahros. 'Q/ZTJOTT^, omestes. ovelias. '%ioXti/oz/, omolinon. s-, oymos. 'QXti/ir^y, olenites. , othermah. ""O/iiXXa, 6millah. othermos. 'Q/xta?, omias. 'Qdvprrjs, othertes. 'QXfo-iVapTroy, olesikarpos. Y is pronounced like the French , or like the English t in machine, marine. The most ancient pronunciation of v was certainly like that of the German and Latin w, or like the diphthong 0w. Afterwards it deteriorated into that of the German u, or the French u, and at last it acquired the sound of i. The old pronunciation of the letter v as the German u is preserved in numberless modern Greek words, and it is especially prevalent among the modern Athenians who pro- nounce ra-vpa instead of Kvpa (Kvpia) ro-vXicrrpa = KtAiVrpa, etc". In many instances, as Professor Mavroph redes states, the original pronunciation of the letter v as ov still prevails, i. e. \pOV(TOL(f>L XpV(T(ilOV, KpOVO-TttXAoV = KpVVTaXoV, KOVpKOVTL = KOJTOV (from Kvp/caw, KVKaoo), etc. Again, the forms Spc'o?, Spvov (Hes. v Epy.), /xoXt/3o? and \v/38u.ivai (IA. W, 80), rpv^oXaa (Horn.) instead of 152 SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS. well as the words //.vorrtAAw and /ufrrv'AAw, /urvXo? and lA. v(7(7(o and ruAttro-w, /SvfiXos and /Ji'ySAo?, PVTTTOJ and ptVrw, 0tov and i/a/x,i#iov, Trvo-Tcs and TTIO-TIS show how easily v was ex- changed with t, and that the pronunciation of u as an t was not unknown to the ancients. In Asia Minor the pronuncia- tion of v as an i was still .more common, and about the sixth century B. C. we find in "Sappho" and " Alcaeus" the forms M/fos, i^Ao?, iTrep, iTrap, etc., instead offtyofy in/r^Aos, V7rcp, virap. Now, the pronunciation of v as a long t, which was so com- mon in Asia Minor, began at an early period to spread into Greece, so that it became prevalent about the birth of Christ, as is evident from the coins of Augustus (15 A. D.), of Tibe- rius (37 A. D.), and Nero (69 A. D.), in which we find HPO- KPITI A$POAY2IA2 instead of n/ao/cptrot 'A), AcarecrKeao-er/ (CK TOV (TKFacrev), ea/xept? (e/c TOV cFa^ept?, RoSS insc. ined. 746), ydvv- IJLO.L (from yaFi/v/xai, verb yav, yaF, Latin gaudeo), as well as the Latin crapula, Polycletus, Helotes. In like manner from //.e#ww, oTrvto), we have /xe$virjves ZTTOVTO /jLeveirToXe/Aoi re IIepcu/3oi," where 'En^ves stands for Aiviave?. Again, we have aLi>6\'r}<; and i/, Kara/are, instead of KOL Trat^oi/Ttt?, Trai^ovTOJj/, KaraKetrat. 6) Dionysius of Halicarnassus (30 B. C.) translates the Latin Prcenestini by IIpej/eo-T^i/ot, and Strabo renders the same by npatveorti/ot. 7) In the Syriac translation of the Gospels at is rendered by the long Syriac e in the words Kaicrapeta, npamopiov, 'Y//,e- vato?, etc. 8) On some coins of Nero, 69 A. D. (Occo. p. 13), we find IIoTrTrEa instead of IIoTrTrata. 9) at is rendered by ce in the Latin, i. e. cegilops = atytAco^, cegithus = alytOo^ cegophtalmus = atyo^^aX/xo?, celurus - a.1- Xovpos, cenigma = au/tyyua, balcena a/o-T'AA.a(s). 12) Finally, Sextus (190 A.D.) distinctly asserts that the sound at and ct "is simple and uniform": "'ETTCI ovv 6 TOV at Kat ci <$oyyo? airXovs etrrt /cat /xovoet8>Js." So also in Sanscrit we have veda = vaida, ve$as = vai$as, bharate = bharatai - ^epcrat. In French ai is pronounced as an e, e. g. mais, Franqais, Anglais, etc. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Am, etho. AiaKtSr;s, eakUhis. AWovo-a, ethoosa. At8c'o/iai, ethe'ome. AiQioTris, ethiopis. , ethe'mon. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 157 is pronounced like of or av according to the letter which follows it. If it is followed by 6, , s (^Eol. fas) instead of avo-co?, from the root aFs or Fas; /caieiv, Aa/xTreiv, avo? (dry) have in like manner resulted from the same root. A modern Greek scholar gives also /cAavVoo = KAaFtrto, vavos (^Eol.) = raFos, vaos; avros = aFros. The same word is also found in an inscription on the Island of Delos, O.FUTOS. Travpos (Lat. parvus) from TrapFo? = TraFpos. In the* "Iliad" (77, 86) we have ^evoxrtv (the aorist subj. of X eva X e ^ at = X e/F(Jt) ' ^X eFa ' X^ Fat ' evKi^Xos = F>oyXo9 (from the root vaK, Fa/c, whence Professor Mavrophredes says We get e/cwi/, aFeicwi/, e/c^ri, dFcM^rc, ?yKa, ^/cicrro?, etc. ; ev^o/jiaL = F^o/x,at = Fexo/xat ; i!/>o9 = tFpos, from the root Fa (Fa), whence we have also avpa and ovpos, as well as ovptog. Again, we have ftovXr) (^Eol. j36X.\a) from the ancient /3oXFa = /3oFA.a, Sovpo?, yowo? from SopFos = SoFpos ; yovFos = yoFi/os ; ovAos (= oAos) from oAFos = oFAo? (Sanscr. sarva-s]\ (^ocros) from vocrFo? = voFaros 5 Kovpos and Kovprj (Ionic) = Ko /cop>7 from KopFos, KOpFr; = KoFpo?, KoFprj, etc. 2) The Latin language renders the diphthongs av and by the monosyllables av and ew, i. e. cavneas = (Aava>) ; favo = os, Severus ; Aavo?, Davus (Plant., Yirg., Ovid). 3) The translators of the Old Testament about the third century B. C. render the Hebrew vav sometimes by (3, some- times by v, e. g. Aa/2tS and AaviS, ACVTJ = X/evi. And, vice versa, the v of av and cv the Syriac translator of the New Testament (about the first century A. D.) renders by vav. Furthermore, many biblical names, such as Eva, AaviS, Evay- yeAiov, EvoSt'a, etc. are rendered in Latin Eva, David, Evan- gelium, Evodia, etc. 4) Cicero writes (Divin. 11, 40) : " Cum M. Crassus exer- citum JSrundisii imponeret, quidam in portu caricas Cauno advectas vendens, CAUNEAS clamitabat. Dicamus, si placet, monitum db eo Crassum, caveret, ne iret : non fuisse peri- turum, si omini paruisset" Comp. Pliny (Hist. Nat. XV., 19). Professor Mavrophredes says: "A^Xov, on TO ovopa Cau- neas (e. g. Kaweias icr^aSas) ev ir) MeyaAr/ 'EXXaSt 6/xo^>^oyyws TTJ pdo-L CAV(E)NEEAS ^ow w? /ca/co? oluvos e^eA,^^." The followers of Erasmus to sustain their pronunciation of av bring forward that line of Aristophanes written to rep- resent the barking of dogs. Now, it is curious to consider that the followers of Erasmus always call the sounds of ani- mals to decide any points of Greek pronunciation. For in- stance, when they wish to settle the sound of (3, they bring the well-known lines of Cratinus written to represent the bleating of the sheep ; when they would fix the sound of ot, they bring that line of Aristophanes written to represent the grunting of hogs ; and now, between the hogs and the sheep, they let loose the dogs to decide by their barking the sound of av. To what a degradation the followers of Erasmus have brought the divine language of Plato ! EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Before 0. Av6evTT)s, afthe'ntis. Av^/zfpo?, afthe'meros. At'&S/^s-, afthepsis. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 159 Before . vgdvai, afxdno. Avgirpocpos, afxitrophos. Avgopeioxris, afxomiosis. Before or. O, afsteria. Ava-rrjpos, afsteros. Before r. , qftdrhis. Before y. Before 8. , avthdzome. Before X. Av\ovp6s, avlourds. Before p. , avrizo. Before Vowels. avereo. errjs, afteretis. Avyovaros, dvgoostos. AuSara, avfhdta. Ai/AwS/a, avlothia. Avpipdrrjs, avrivdtes. 6s, avilds. easy afstale'os. AvrdpeaKos, aftdreskos. Avyf], avge. Avdfj, avthe. AiiXos, avl6s. Avpiov, dvrion. Avevuav, avenion. EY is likewise pronounced like e/or ev. Before ^, K, f, TT, tr, T, <, ^, I/A this diphthong is sounded like ef. Before y, S, 4> ^i f- * p, and before vowels and diphthongs, it is pronounced like ev. Concerning the antiquity and genuineness of this pronuncia- tion we spoke in detail when treating of the diphthong av. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Before 0. Ev6d\a}jLos, efthdlamos. EvOdXavaos, efthdlassos. Ev0a\7rys, eftlialpis. Before K. efkdrthios. EvKardyvoxj-ros, efkatdgnostos. , efkatdstatos. Before Diphthongs. aveno. 160 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. Before . Evevoy, efxenos. Eveoroy, efxestos. Evgrjpavros, efxirandos. Before or. EwfTrXoy, efpeplos. EvnevOfpos, efpentheros. E>7r7rroy, efpeptos. Before & and 10 before y, 8, , A, /*, v, p and before vowels and diphthongs. That yv and v closely resembled that of av, and ev. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. s. NT/Cff, nefs. is pronounced like of before 0, K, , w, o-, r, <^>, x ? ^ and like ow before y, 8, & A, /x, v, p, also before vowels and diphthongs. YI and YH are pronounced exactly like the modern Greek t or like the English i in machine. Homer almost always makes the vt in the word vtos a short syllable, e. g. II. & 130 ; 8, 473 ; 77, 47 ; p, 575. Again, the correctness of the modern Greek pronun- ciation of these vowel-combinations is supported by the two forms of the words //.0vo> and OTTVW, which are also written /xeflvajo, oTTutw. Professor Mavrophredes asserts that this can- not be otherwise explained than by the assumption that the words pcOviia, oTn/tw, mo? originally were pronounced yae^'w, oTTijw, t>jos; afterwards the j (i) was cut out, especially be- tween two vowels. We have many instances of this, and to this day the modern Greeks pronounce //.vya = /w;"a, mea. Finally, in old inscriptions, as well as on coins, the noun vto? is very often written vos, from which it becomes evident that VL - V = I. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Yios, e6s. 'Y^rroy, etos. 162 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. OY is pronounced exactly like the French ou or like the English oo in the word moon. The diphthong ov was originally a monophthong, as it is to this day with the modern Greeks, and was pronounced in some dialects like an o or like the Latin u. This is evident from the fact that in the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries B. C. the ^Eolians used to render ov simply by an o. Again, we have many instances in which ov is rendered in different dialects by an v, e. g. Kovpt'8tos (Homeric) = Kvpt'Stos = Kvptos ; KOvpwOfiCL = KvpwOf) ) ov8(Dp = vSoop ; avovXto. = dcrvA.ta. Again, the Latin and Semitic u is invariably rendered in Greek by ov, e. g. 'lovSas, 'IovSSe TW /cat/ow ota etKo's, avpvr r o-&r]d(TKOVT<; ot 7rpvo/x,ao-$at ev rw tTret VTTO TWV TraXatwv, aAAa Xijidv ei/c/cryo-e 8e eTTt roO Trapwros XOL/JLOV ftpqtrOau" So that it becomes evident that there existed be- tween Act/no? and At/^os a SAMENESS of sound, and not an " identity of meaning." Now, of all sounds the one which has a closer resemblance to t, or rather an identity of sound with it, is v, judging also from the fact that Demosthenes (fourth century B. C.) writes 'AvejaiVas instead of 'Avt/xo/ras, and from many other examples which we noticed when treat- ing of the letter v we must infer that the letter v in several dialects was written instead of ot, and hence it is evident that it was equal to ot or t (ot = v = t). Again, that ot at an early period had exactly the sound of a simple t is evident from the fact that about the first century B. C. we find writ- ten on a coin of Julius Caesar, IQNI2TH2 for OIQNI2TH2. Again, on another coin of Augustus we find ZIPOKPITI for HPOKPITOI. AtW 6 Kao-o-tos relates that Nero (60 A. D.) killed two ^OvX.7TLKLOV}? o/Maw/Ma? ^o-e^ow." Now, we plainly see ot = v, 7j = t; also that oirj = m - v = t, because confessedly v in that period was pronounced as t. About the second century A. D. 164 SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. on some coins of " 'AvrawVov rov Tliov " the word et/coo-Tov is four times written ot, and the noun 'Avroovtvos four times is found written by et (ANTONEINO2), hence it results that ot = et = t, etc. Now, that L subscriptum of the a, #, a> was always silent is evident from the statement of Strabo (about the birth of Christ) : u IIoAAot ^oopis rov t ypcu^oixrt ras SoTt/cas /cat e/c/^aA- XOVO-L ye TO e$os s Tavrrjs Oeov wvo/>iao-e Iloo-eiSwva, ws iroo-C-8-o-|i.ov oi/ra, TO 8e e eyKetTat to-tos cvTrpeTreias ei/e/ca." However, the et at a very early period passed into the pro- nunciation of a simple e, judging from the fact that et was rendered by * in the Latin language, e. g. Nilns = NetXo?, crocodilns = K/oo/coSetAos, Epaminondas - 'E7ro,/xetvoSv8a5, Chi- rotonia = XetpoTovta, spira - o-7retpa, ironia = etpw^eta, elegia - eXeyeta, litania = AtTavei'a. In a Latin author we find : " I quoqne apnd antiques post E pronebatnr, et El diphthongum fo.ciebat, quani pro omni I longa scribebant, more antiquo Grcecornm" Again, that et had the same sound as t, even among the ancient Romans, is rendered highly probable from the fact that in the very best period of the Latin language SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 165 i was substituted for ei. Thus we have idus, primus, etc., the older forms being eidus, preimus, etc. The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, often rendered the i of the Latins by ct, e. g. Plutarch translates the words idus, idibus by eiSovs, ei8ots (older form eidus). The very ancient identity of the sound of et as a simple i is established from the fact that we find in Homer eiScbs, ei8ma (II. p, 5 ; t, 128 ; fa 263 ; Od. a, 428, etc.), as well as 28vZd (II. and Siw, Trei&o and TU^W, <#etp and ^>^lp, and so on. Plamoudes relates that ^Esop (572 B. C.) pronounced crei just as o-v (v = t). Aristophanes (450 B. C.) has a pun in Sicwi-ai/a/Aes (Boeotian, instead of SiaTreivw/xei/) and 810,73- u/o/z/. In Diogenes Laertius we find another pun on dAA.' t/xartov and aAet/A/xartoi/ : " 'I8wv fjieipaKvXXiov t/xaTtOKAeTrrryv ev TW y^aAavcto) l^ry, 'cV aX^i^aTiov fj err a\\o t/xartov;" J The translators of the Old Testament rendered the Hebrew dim by the Greek atAeiJu,, and in several other old Greek pas- sages we find TrpwTOTOKta and Trpcororo/feta, TrapayetWrai and TrapaytVercu, ap" and at others the same word written "eVei," thus demonstrating the similarity of sound between ei and t. Cicero (Epist. ad Familiares, IX. 22) says : " Cum loquimur TERNI nihil flagi- tii dicimus ? ' ad cum BINI obscenum est, greeds quidem inquies. Nihil est ergo in verbo / quando et ego grcece scio, et tamen tibi dico, RINI, idque tufacis, quasi ego grcece non latine dixerim" Hence it is evident that /3iW had the same sound as bini. Nigidius says : " Grcecos non tantce in- scitice arcesso qui OY ex O et Y scripserunt, quantce qui EI ex E et I ; illud enim inopia facerunt, hoc nulla re coacti." Finally, on coins and inscriptions words have been found written with , which are also written with t, i. e. TPIHOAEI- TON, ETEIMH2EN, NEIKH, ArPinHEINA^, TEIMHTH2, 2ABEIN02, AOrrEINA, NEIKO2TPATOS, XEAEIAONI^, NEIKOIIOAEITON, etc. Notice also the Boeotian forms dveyeipt, XaXt?, etc^ instead of di/cyetpa, AaXets, etc. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION, ty, eameni. Elpaweia, eronia. EipKTrj, erkte. L I B R A K Y UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. CHAPTER V. THE CONSONANTS. B is pronounced like v in vase. The followers of Erasmus maintain that the letter ft was, origin ally pronounced like the Latin b. They claim that the ancient Romans rendered the ft of the Greek words not by v, but by b. Again, they quote that verse of the Comedian Cratinus, in which (they say) it is evident that Cratinus and his fellow- citizens, the Athenians, pronounced the ft as a #, and rj as an e, because the sheep in bleating say not /ft} (according to the pronunciation now prevalent in Greece), but bee, be. They claim also that Cicero wrote in one of his letters that the Greek fiivei has the same sound as the Latin bini. These seem to me to be the only reasons which the followers of Erasmus bring to sustain their pronunciation of the letter ft. Now, the ancient Romans represented the ft of many Greek words like their own v. Oekonomos brings the following examples: /2e'Aco, ft6\w, volo ; /?6o>, /?to>, /JtFco, vivo; y?tora, vita; ftopw, ftopos, voro; ft6pa, vorax; /iWvw, venio (per- haps this is derived from /?e'o>, whence we have /3eto/>tat = /Saw, /?aiW>, /5evco) ; /?aSo>, Vddo / ftia (/?is, Fie, ??), VIS / i/ii/r vi/?o?, nix nivis ; etc. The ancient Greeks used also to ren- der the v of the Latins by /?, for instance : Valentianus, Ba- Severus, 2e/3r}po5; Octavius, *OKray8tos; Veturius, ; Aventini, 'A/Sej/r^ot (Plutarch). In a few instances 168 THE CONSONANTS. the v was rendered in Greek by ov; for instance, Varro = Bappwv or OvdppiDv (this latter peculiarity is for the sake of euphony, Ovappwv being more euphonic than Bappon/). From what has been said it appears probable that in the old Latin tongue (which may be termed either the daughter or the sister of the .^Eolic dialect), so long as the pronuncia- tion of the emigrant ^Eolians remained unaltered, so long the letter b was pronounced exactly as the modern Greeks pro- nounce their /?. But afterwards, the Latin language being adopted by the other tribes of Italy, tribes which were barbarous and hence unacquainted with Grecian phraseology, the pronunciation became rather harsh and rough, as their manner of speaking, and hence among them the Greek J3 gradually degenerated into the sound of b. To this reason, as a modern Greek states, must be attributed the fact of the use of b instead of v, as is often seen in ancient inscriptions, i. e. bixit instead of vixit, serbus instead of servus, amabile and benemeritus instead of amavile and venemeritus. In one of the laws of Numa which has been preserved by, Fes- tus we read Jobis instead of Joms. Traces of the pronun- ciation of ft are to be found in the Spanish language, i. e. vene, vestia, for bene, bestia; and in French, especially among the so-called Gascons. But Jacob Creatin, one of the most devoted followers of Erasmus, in his "De Sono Literarum Gragcorum" admits that the ancient pronunciation of (3 was not so "ei/Tovos Kat fiofjiprjpa " as the present. Liddell and Scott likewise admit that the pronunciation was softer than our #, like the Spanish or modern Greek for instance. As for Cicero's statement, no one can assure us that the letter b had in his time exactly the pronunciation now prevalent among the followers of Erasmus. Again, it is probable that Cicero wished simply to show the similarity which exists between these two words, as respects the length of the syllables (in pronouncing). And, as a scholar affirms, these two words were not pronounced by Cicero in a speech, THE CONSONANTS. 169 but simply written in a letter, whence it may result that Cicero wished simply to show the analogy in writing which exists between these two words, rather than their sound or pronunciation. As for the "'05' TjXidios &, 77 fir) Xtyw padifa," it is evident that Cratiims used it because he had no other letter by which he could express the sound made by a sheep. For the same reason Aristophanes, when he would represent the noise made by pigs, wrote KOI, KOI (instead of got, goi\ because the Greek language has no letter so harsh in sound as #. And when Aristophanes would represent the croaking o^he frogs, he wrote /?peKe*e. Do the frogs ever say vreJcJce- keksf Or, when he would represent the cackling of hens, he wrote Tiri/co/xTTpou. Do the hens make such a sound ? There- fore it seems to me that it is absurd to attempt to determine the sound of ft by a word used to represent the bleating of sheep. For we must confess that the attempts to render the noises of animals by the articulate sounds of " /xepoVan/ dv#pw- TTOH/" are very unsatisfactory. Now, if we consider that the name of F (vau) was written in Greek fiav, that the Hebrew bau was rendered in the noun Aa/3tS by ft that Strabo (p. 213, c) renders the Latin Novum Comum, NO^OV/XKO/XOV/X, and that about the year 69 A. D. a coin of Nero bears the inscription OKTABIA 2EBA2TH, the genuineness of the pronunciation of /? as veta is proved beyond question. Finally, as a modern Greek says, the nature of the most sweetly sounding of all languages by no means admits the harsh sound of (3. Just pronounce according to the Erasmian method the words /3ow, /3SaAAei, /3Se'AAa, ^ov/?ptoo-rti/, j3paa, and you will acknowledge that the 'Grecian Minerva would never have accustomed her lips to such awkward atti- tudes when she would not learn to play on the flute because it compelled her to inflate her cheeks so ungracefully. The 170 THE CONSONANTS. reason why so many students are unable to discover the mel- ody so characteristic of the Greek pronunciation is to be attributed simply to the Erasmian system of pronunciation. What melody can there be in pronouncing "bebrabeumenos" or the word ^eySoo-rpv^w/xeVos (bebostruchomenos) ? EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION". s, vekeselenos. BXa/3?y, vldvi. Bt/3Xioypa0os, vevleogrdphos. BXuoroy, vlastos. Bt/SXiz/os-, vevlenos. BXao-(p/7/xia, vlasphemia. BXao-rai/co, vlastdno. BXaa-^/ioy, vldsplumos. BXaa>, vldzo. BXav/riy, vldpsis. BXaTrrco, vldpto. Bios, vios. BXa/3d*, vldvos. BaXcra/zoi/, vdlsamon. T before a, o, instead of iv xPv > e 'y fa/ao?, in- stead of ei/ /capo? (eV /capos aio^, Homer), whence resulted the synthetic noun ey/cap, ey/capos (just as the old grammarians were wont to read this Homeric passage). Now, many of the followers of Erasmus blame the Greek grammarians because they said that the letter v before y, *, and is changed in the synthetic words into y. " What is the use," they say, " of changing v into a y and then pronouncing it like v? Must not the v always remain a v?" We say, No! " Sia rrjv (according to Aristotle) 0,77877 rwv 06yyv TrpoafioXriv" Finally, the forms yepaKapatas and yepa/ov = tepa/capea? and tepaKwi/, and others we might enumerate show that the letter y ought never to be sounded like the hard y of the English. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. FaXttKTOTToo-ia, glialaldoposiali. FaXarm, ghalateah. F^aXe'oy, yethaleos. FaXaKTooo-ts-, ghaldktosis. FeC/xa, yevmah. Twos, ghonos. Tfixris, ye/sis. TovoKToveco, ghonoktone'oh. TVO-TIKOS, yefstikos. Fo/x^oy, gomphos. Felcroi/, ye'son. /to, ghoneah. Feiroi/ia, yetoniah. 0$-, gholeos. Foi, i/ee. os, ghoniasmos. "Ayyapos, dhngharos. Fai)po9, gdvros. 'Ayyetoi/, ahngheon. Favpa^, gMvrax. y Ayye\ia, ahnghelia. Tav\6s, ghavlos. 'AynvXos, ahnghelos. Fowos, ghoun6s. *AyKvpa, dhnglierah. Fovi/ara, ghotinatah. 'AyicuXo/ccoXoy, ahnghelokolos. rowoTraxys, ghounopahes. "Ay^is, dhnxis. Twos, yenos. 'Ay^tro/coy, ahnchitokos. ;, yentiane. 'Ay^or;, ahnchoe. i, yenemah. 'Ay^oi//;, ahnch6ne. Trjdtov, yethion. 'Ay^oraros, ahnchotatos. 172 THE CONSONANTS. is pronounced like th in this, that. The use of 0-8, 88, 8, in- stead of , as in Ko>/x/xa88ctv, Xa88otro, /x,oi;cri88et (= /xv^t^ct), TrAa- yiaSSovre?, atpi'8Se/ (o-poi/TtcrSa>, ovo/x,u(r8u>, ct/cao-8w, etc. ; 8vw, 8v/xov, AU9, etc., which forms were in use among many tribes of ancient Greece, such as the Spar- tans, the Megarians, the Boeotians, as well as the ^Eolians and Dorians, proves most conclusively that the pronuncia- tion of 8 used by the modern Greeks was prevalent among the tribes we have enumerated, long before the time of Alexander. As had a "hissing sound" (o-vpwrriKos), its dialectic substi- tute 8 should have a similar sound (6//,oio'<0oyyos) ; but if 8 were pronounced as a d, it could never be interchanged with . But we cannot agree with Oekonomos that the pronunciation of 8, as pronounced by the modern Greeks, was prevalent " throughout Greece," in the very acme of the Hellenic lan- guage. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that this soft (douce\ so to speak, pronunciation of 8 was simply dia- lectic and not general. There are many words in modern Greek, in which 8 sounds exactly as a d, from which it seems to us that originally the pronunciation of 8 as a d was not uncommon among the ancient Greeks. For instance : Aei>8poi>, pronounced the'ndron. "Avdpas, " dndras. *Av8pos, " dndros. " andriotes. " andriomenos. Now, whenever the letter 8 is preceded by a v, the modern Greeks pronounce it as a c?; in every other case it has its soft soundly The different changes of the letter 8 into various consonants are still prevalent in modern Greek. In ancient Greek we get the forms o-av8aXov changed into o-a/xy&xAov, for o/3cA.ds, Aci>s for Zeus, dpt^Xos for dpufyAos, 8e'A.oo for THE CONSONANTS. 173 0e'A.(o, 77800 for yrj#co, etc. In modern Greek we get ,opKaSiov for SopKaSiov, yie/oos for Siepds, etc. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNpIATION. In giving these examples we thought that it might be of interest to the scholar to give a few words peculiar to the conversational style of the Greeks. Now, it must not be sup- posed that these words or forms are in common use in the language of literature and of educated men. The cultivated language for the most part, as Geldart affirms, preserves the grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding most of the innovations of the later Attic dialect, as, for instance, OaXarra for Od\ao-(ra, or Xeppovr/v Mov0>v A. doga(v) Movcra(v)' Honor. Opinion. S. N. V. Tt/^ TV&M G. TI/JL^S Tva>/j,r]s A. Tikis') P. N. A. V. Tijatu'O) G. y) A host of nouns belonging to different declensions are made to follow but one : thus, Ta/xta?, "A/Vus, Maprts or 174 THE CONSONANTS. etc. are in the Singular number all declined alike ; namely, by cutting off the sign of the Nomi. ative -?, in the Genitive and Vocative, and changing it to v in the Accusative. This v is dropped in pronunciation when the phonetic laws of the language admit it (Geldart). 8') All adjectives in os have three endings : 05, 77, ov. When os is preceded by a vowel, the Feminine ends in a. The ac- cent of adjectives in os always retains its original place: S. N. (ro(f)6s (ro(j)f) (T0v IJLOVVV /noi/aw A. fiOVOVS fjiovas (lava f) The Plural of many words, especially of those of foreign origin, is formed by adding -8cs to the stem, as TrcuraSe? from 7rao-a9, /ucujuo^Se? from 17 fjidi^ov (monkey). These Plurals are always paroxytone, whatever the accent of the word in the Singular (Geldart). ^) The comparative is sometimes formed by means of TrXeov, more-) as TrXeov //-eyctAos = greater, 7rA.eov TrAovo-tos = richer. ' f]') Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are common, as rj tttya (the goat), 6 TraWpas (father), 6 ySao-tAeas (king) : S. N. Trarepa? (SaffiXeas G. Trarepa /3ao-tXea A. TrciTpa(v) /3uo-i\ea(i>) V. narepa /3ao~iXea THE CONSONANTS. 175 P. N. A. V. Trarepes /3a, G. e/ie'ra, A. P. N. G. A. f)p.as, The verb d ya>. (pas, tiozX /xas. ecra?, eVay, a-fi/a, (Ttva, eras tras (TOV. ere. is thus conjugated : S. ef/zat, etcrat, P. ei'/Me^a, ia0, S. P. five. Imperfect Indicative. Future Indicative. S. P. Also, S. ^e'Xa) elarQai, ^eXfi? flcrQai, P. 6e\op,fv ficr&ai, OeXere eiio-^nt, QeKfi ei(r0ai. 6e\ovv d Subjunctive. S. ^/zat, ^o-at, ^i/e. P. rjp.f6a, r)0<7, rjvc. 176 THE CONSONANTS. Future Subjunctive. S. rjBfXa ei. Participle. Present ovras, indeclinable. becomes ypdow ; for eypa^ov we have eyparj or ypdfat. We find ypdfaarai ; for ypa^>OjU,e^a, ypa- In like manner for Xeyo/^e^a we find Aeyo/xeo-re, Acyo- /, and various other forms down to the tragic For eypd@r]V we get eypdffaOrjKa j for eypou^T^ev, jw,vj for ypd(f>@r] Professor Gel- dart thinks, is quoted by Hesychius as a Cretan form). In the passive voice the forms Xeyeo-cu, 2d person present, Xeyo- fittcrTe or Xeyd//,e#a, as well as Xeyo/xetfev, are so plainly Archaic forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans we have Koa^ao-at, thou boastest. In the im- perative aorist active Xe'c for Xeov is Homeric. As to the imperative aorist passive Xeov, I cannot but agree with Dr. Mullach " that it is the classical middle 1st aorist imperative of a verb in pi used as a passive, there being no middle voice in modern Greek. Few who compare such forms as crracro with the corresponding modern o-rao-ou, Seov, etc. will be able to doubt this." We now proceed with our examples of pro- nunciation : (com. for 8Ki/uo>), thechno. prune, thamdskenon. a small tree, thendrdke. Aepvco, to strike, thcrno. Afo-TToira, mistress, thespena. A^oStSao-fcaXos, a teacher of a common school, themothithdskalos. Aia/SoXos-, devil, thedvolos. Ata/SoT/Toy, famous, theavoetos. Aiayooyi), conduct, theagoye. Classical. Af^//ii;Xoy, theximelos. Aiaa-rjKoo), theasekoo. AtaTrorrioy, theap6ndios. Aidvoia, thednea. Aian\T]ov, animal, zoon. ZavTavos, alive, zondanos. Zvdos, beer, zetlios. Zwrjpbs, quick, lively, zoeros. Zf]TT]fjia, question; TO 'Ai/aroXiKoi/ ^rq/xa, the Eastern Question, t6 anatolikon zetema. Za^apt, sugar, zdhare. Zeoroy, 77, ov, warm, zestos. Zoppoy, zoros. ZrjXorvnos, zel6tepos. zoster. is pronounced like th in the words thin, thicJc^ think. was changed into a- in the Laconian dialect. We have, for instance, in Aristophanes, Thucydides, and several other authors*' the forms creAei, (rerw, (rrjpoKrove, ariyrjv, dyacros, opera, 'Aaara 'Ao-ttvatot, " TO> o-tw crv/xaros," SctSe/cra TTOS, instead of the forms fle'Aei, fleroo, ^poKTOi/, '*;, 'A$ai/a, etc., roO ^cov ^v/xaros, eoSc'/cras, eoTro/xTros, In modern Greek we have d/cavTo-o^otpos for a.Kav66xoipo ^>^j o"^ j for in- stance : eplecteka, instead of 'S-, echte's, " , phtdno, " , egrdphteJcah, " egnoristeka, , astenes, " 'AcrQevtjs, os, ochtros, " Again, in the Latin language is rendered by A, e. g. Ther- situs, Thyesta, Theopompus, ^Egisthus. It must be in- teresting to the reader to notice how faithfully the modern Greeks have preserved the pronunciation of their ancestors, THE CONSONANTS. 181 so that traces of the various dialectic sounds of the letters are still in use. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Modern Greek. ia, aunt, thea. Gp^/ma, religion, threskea. s, chamber, tlidlamos. Opovos, throne, thronos. s-, tumult, tho'revos. Gu/xoy, anger, themo's. Qpffvos, lamentation, threnos. Classical. GjyXvyXojo-crop, theleglossos. QvpoKoneco, therokopeo. Qr)\v8pias, thelf.thrias. Gupo/coTro?, therokopos. e/7\ao>, theldzo. Gvp (skilvoo) for o-TiA/2oa> (stelvoo), cpKvdpiov (phJcedriori) for fjLa), body, komie*. Kou/3aX&>, to move furniture, koovald. Korra (opi/i#a), hen, kota. Kpcj3art, led, krevdte. Classical. Ka0ap7raa>, katJiarpdzo. KXr^typnv, klepsiphron. Ka&'Xica), kathe'lko. KXe^ivoos, klepsinoos. kathexis. KXc^-ippvros, klepsiretos. , kdthema. is pronounced like an Z. Of the so-called liquid letters the letter p is both the oldest and hardest, but X is what Profes- sor Mavrophredes terms " /xerayei/eo-repos " (more recent) and " /AttXa/ooTepos " (softer). Plato attributes gliding or slipperi- ness to X. " The sweetest of semivowels," says Dionysius of Halicarnassus. "'HSwei /*/ yap (TT)V CIKO^V) TO X Kat ccrrt raiv yXuKvrarov rpa^wet Se TO p /cat co-Tt TOJV 6//,oyevcoi> yev- (?r. o-w^. ovo/x. 14.) Compare Eusthatius, p. 1106. The letter X is often written instead of v and p, e. g. ^#oi/ ^>L\rarou and 7ri/A7rpr7/Ai ; from pay, dpKeco (dpr/yw) and dXeeo ; from /*apy (Sansci\ mrg'} we have d/xepyw (modern dpyu,e'yw) and d/xe'Xya>; from the root pv/c we have X^os and p^x vo? (this latter form is peculiar to the inhabitants of the island of Ohio) ; from yap we get yapuw (yT/pvoo), ypajo-o-a = yXtoo-o-a (in the Tsakonian dialect) and ycXdw, etc. These examples show that p is an older and harder letter than X. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Modern Greek. AOO-TTT;, mud, Idspe. Aepo'i/o), to soil, lerono. Aarpe/a, adoration, latrea. AVOJ/O), to dissolve, leono. co, faint, iipothemo. AUTTJ;, sorrow, lepe. i, lemon, lemdni. Classical. leplikania. Aaorpofos, laotropJios. ), lepo. AavOdva), lanthdno. Ae'crjStoy, lesvios. Adnr}, Idpe. Aa-napos, laparos. Ado-avov, Idsanon. M is pronounced like m in man. There is no dispute concern- ing the pronunciation of this letter and the same dialectic changes which occur in ancient Greek, such as /x into TT and //, into /?, i. e. /^pord?, /xopros, etc., are not uncommon in mod- ern Greek. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Modern Greek. Mfrai>, meanwhile, etc. metaxi. to translate, metdphrdzo. , midnight, mesdnecta. Mera/3d7TTco, to paint over, _ metavdpto. , o man of no importance, mithaminds. -, length, me'kos. 184 THE CONSONANTS. Classical. t, minitis. MrjvvTpov, minilron. minima. j, miniskos. i, mitiome. , mitis. , mistor. miriome. Mrjrpa, mitra. Meya0u/zos, megdthimos. N is pronounced like n in now, never. There is no difference of opinion as to the pronunciation of this letter, and the euphonic changes, such as v into y before the palatals y, *, x and , and v into /x before the labials /?, TT, , to be sleepy, nistdzo. p, baby (silly), nipios. Ne*pds, a dead man, nechrds. Classical. NaoTroAor, naopolos. Naotev yap THE CONSONANTS. 185 SLCL TOV K, TO Se i^ Sta rov IT rov o~opiypJov a7roSi<$a)(n, 1/aA.wv oi/rwv dfjL^orepw ..... Phrynichus says: "Nam multo molliorem sonem habet ty quam PS vel BS sicwtf en/o ^ melius (molliusf) sonat, sic etiam x quam GS vel cs. Its dialectic changes, especially transposition in the ^Eolic and Doric, of the con- sonants which form , as ^1^09, i$>ptov, Dor. cna, as Travos, EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. , to despise, paraphron6. Uapcia, cheek, paria. HapfK\t](riov, a country-church, pareklesion. IlapaTroprt, a back-door, paraporti. Ilapatra), to give up, pareto. , grandfather, pdpos. , everywhere, pandou. a), to neglect, paravle'po. a brave young man, palikdri. 186 THE CONSONANTS. Classical. r), paratrive. IIapaxop8<'a>, parahorthizo. parateposis. Ilapa^ea), paraheo. ), paratrope. Hape'*, parek. IlaparpT/Tos, pardtretos. IIapeK/3euV(, parekveno. Ilaparpe^o?, paratreho. Hapex/Sacris, pare'kvasis. naparpe, paratrepho. IlapeK/SoXjj, parekvole. napcn/raXta>, parapsalizo. IJapevo^Xiyo't?, parenochlesis. Hapa^aXXw, parapsdllo. Uap^o\rj t paremvole. is pronounced like the English r, but with more force. Plato says that in the utterance of p the tongue is in a state of vibration. Dionysius calls it a "rough letter": "Tpa^wet Se TO p Kal eori TW ofjioyev&v yewatorarov." The letter p was always sounded Aarc? at the beginning of a word, with the exception of the two words papos and pdpiov ("Y/AI/W cis Ar;/x,, 450), both of which have the smooth breath- ing. This is evident from the fact that the letter p, when at the beginning of a word, always had the rough breathing, as well as from its doubling when preceded by a vowel, e. g. ptTTTw, paTTTto, pryros, epptTTToi/, cppai^a, appr/To?. A scholar inti- mates that the rough breathing received by this reduplication a certain " solidity and concentration." Hence it becomes evident that the rule of the grammarians " To pw eav 8i(T(rov yevrjTai eV fJ-eo"fl X.eei, TO /xei/ TrpwTOv i^tXov- Tat, TO & Scvrepov SacrvvfTaL : otov 7rtpp>7/xa, appwo-T09, etc., \f/i\ovrai 8e TO /xev TrptoTOv, SIOTI ovSeTTOTt , Lat. sorbeo ; p-faw^i, Lat. frango ; piyeo>, Lat. frigeo ; piV(s), Sanscr. ghrdna-m; pi7ros = Lat. scirpus ; poSov, .^Eol. /?poSov; pu/o? = Fpivo's ; peyx = F P Vx w 5 ^ a ^' ru 9^ / e ^C. In modern Greek, although p is pronounced more strongly than the English r, the rough breathing of the letter p at the beginning of a word is entirely lost. EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Modern Greek. 'Pa;^;, back, rdhe. 'Po^aXi^co, to snore, rohalizo. 'Podaiuvov, peach, rothdkinon. 'Pov^iKa, clothes, roohikd. 'Pona\ov, a club (to strike with), rdpalon. , seamstress, rdptria. Classical. rathemia. 'PaTrrrjs, rdptis. 'PaStos, rdthios. 'PaTrroy, raptds. 'Pao-o-a), rosso. *Pa/i0i7, ramphe'. 'PcKfriSoOrjKr), raphithothcke. *Pdpvos, rdmnos. c Pao-/xa, rdsma. 'Pcn-u, re'po. is pronounced like s in soon, see. Plato calls a- an aspirate, and Dionysius a hissing and disagreeable letter. 188 THE CONSONANTS. A scholar says that in modern Greek the letter o- before a semivowel (/?, y, S, , X, /A, v, p) is sounded like a . So also in the proclitics TOT;?, ras before the same consonants; TOVS /3a, skirtdo. 2*ti/8aAafioff, skinthdlamos. 2*apa0oi>, skirdphion. 2*ipas, skirds. THE CONSONANTS. 189 is pronounced like t in tell, task, tin. After v it is generally sounded like a d, as ei/ro/xos = endomos. This pronunciation of the letter r as d after v is very old, judging from the fact that in an old Latin inscription (see Scalig. Yetust. Rom.) we find "Sta Travrwv" written dia pandon. Again, as regards " expression of sound " and " euphony " the reader, if he pro- nounces the following Homeric line: " IloXXd 5' &VO.VTO,, K&TavTO., irdpavrd re, 56%/ua T TjAflov," will observe that the sound of T as a d after v is much more " majestic " and " expressive." EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION". Modern Greek. TOKOS, interest (on money), tokos. TtVoTf, nothing, te'pote. TtTToreVtos, good for nothing, tepotenios. Ti/zow, rudder, temdni. Tp/o>, grind, trezo. ), to catch, tsakdno. Classical. Tapo"os, tar sos. Tapao-o-to, tardso. Tapo-oa), tarsdo. Tapaf-is, tdraxis. , tarve'o. Taptxe'/iTropos, tariheniboros. is pronounced like ph in philosopher. In some parts of an- cient Greece, especially in the Peloponnesus, the letter < was often used instead of K ; therefore it is highly probable that the letter e was originally pronounced by some as a K; that is to say, like the Latin q. In many ancient inscriptions we find the letter cf> used instead of K, as for instance opv, a scholar asserts, is akin to the Sanscr. pakdmi; in the word AvuAXaSioi/, pamphlet, phildthion. (TO), cup, phletzdni. 4>a>Xfa, nest, plioled. Classical. , philakoloothos. <$>tXap/uaros, pJiildrmatos. , phildthelphos. &i\r)peTp.os, phileretmos. &&QVOS, phthonos. 3>iXo%)ia. philotheria. /, philemon. ^iXoSouTroy, philothoopos. y, phUenthotos. 4>iX65a0j/oy, philothaphnos. &i\dpyvpos, phildryeros. is pronounced like the English h in the word house, or much more like the German h in the word haben. x an( ^ K are often interchanged both in ancient and modern Greek, e. g. Sexojjiai = SeKo/xat; we also find it interchanged in modern Greek after a-, as o-/ao> for EXAMPLES OF PRONUNCIATION. Modern Greek. w, to spoil, halnd. Xaprt, paper, harti. Xa/xevoy, lost, hamenos. Xax/^ta, a mouthful, hapsid. Xapa, joy, hard. Xavvos, lazy, hdvnos. THE CONSONANTS. 191 Classical. Xoi>7, hoe. Xvoos, hnoos. Xoipdsj herds. Xopftorovos, hortholdnos. Xvoaa>, hnodzo. * sounded like TTO-, e. g. Modern Greek. os, roasted, pseto's. aXi'St, scissors, psalithi. kase, psonizo. Classical. 0?, psaphards. ^apA6r), psamdthi. sao. ^aXXco, psdllo. -, psdmathos. CHAPTER VI. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. r before *, y, ft x is pronounced like v (ng). For example: before K, as in dyKiW, pronounced ankeon ; before y, as in ayyeXog, pronounced dng-gelos ; before ft as in ayi?, pro- nounced dnxis ; before x? as in dyxovr;, pronounced anhone. MH in middle syllables is pronounced like m b ; as a/x7reAog, pro- nounced dmbelos. NT ( occurs only in middle syllables in pure Greek words ; when v ends one word and r begins the next, the latter takes the sound of d\ for example: rov ravpov, pronounced ton ddvron / TOV ra^ov, pronounced ton ddphon. K in the middle of a word and after y or v in the same word or in consecutive words partakes of the sound of y (very soft) ; for example, eyfce<^aXos, pronounced eng-gephalos / TOV KT/TTOV, pronounced ton ghepon. n at the beginning of a word which follows one ending with v is sounded like a b ; for example : TT)V TroAu/, pronounced ten COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS. 193 bolen. It likewise takes the sound of b after /x in the middle of a word ; e. g. rv^ovov^ tembanon. 3 (dialectic pronunciation) before /?, 8, p, is pronounced like a z or like the French s in the word rose; for example: before /?, as in o-/3ecmjp, pronounced zv ester ; before 8, as in 'Atr8pov/3as, pronounced aztfirouvas / before p, as in 'lo-parjA, pronounced izrael. CHAPTER VII. EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. FOR the purpose of connected illustration, and that the 'modern Greek pronunciation may be presented to the student as definitely and clearly as possible, we give here selections from ancient and modern Greek authors, putting under each word of the original text the English symbols required to represent accurately the modern Greek method: From Xenophon's "Anabasis." "E-TTciTa 8e, ava/x,v^ yap v/xas /cat TOVS rtov Trpoyovan/ rwv Mpita thai, anamniso ghar emds ke toos ton proghonon ton ^acreptoi/ /ctvSwous, Iva ctSr/TC ws ayaOoLS T v/uv wpoo-TJ/cet etrat emeteron kinthinoos, ena ithetai os aghathis te emin proseki inai (TCU^OVTat T (TVV TOtS ^OtS KOL K TTOVV SetVWV Ot aydOoi. 'EA^OVTWV sozonde te sin tis theis ke ek pdni thinon e aghathi. Mthondon, fjiev yap Ilepcrwv Kat TWV arvv avrols TrayaTrX-^^et oroAa) ws d<^>avt- men ghar Person ke ton sin a/Us pamplethe stolo os aphani- OVVTWV TOIS 'A^ryva?, VTroo-Trjvai avrots 'AOrjvaiot ToA/^cravres iviK-r]- \oondon tas Athinas, ipostene aftis Athinei tolmisandes enike- crav airrovs /cat cv^a/xcvot ry 'Apre/xtSt OTrocrov? Kara/cavotcv TWV san aftoos ke efxdmeni te Arthemithi oposoos katakdnien ton TToAe/xttov Tocravras ^t/tatpas K.araOv(Tiv ry ^ew, CTTCI OVK et^ov polemion tosdftas himeras katathisin te theo epi ook ihon tKai/as et'peti/, eSo^ev avrot? /car Iviavrov TrevraKocrLas 6vciv, /cat ert ekanas evrin, ethoxen aftis kaf eniafton pendakosias thi'in, ke eti Kat vvv airoOvovo-iv. ke nin apothioosin. EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. 195 From " UXeiTttvos 'AiroXo-yfa SwKpdrovs. TeAevrwv ovv CTTI TOVS x L P OT ^X va7jua, OTrep Kal ot Troi^rat, /cat ot dya^oi Brjfjaovpyoi 8ta TO amdrtema oper ke e piete, ke e aghathe themioorghe. thia te rrjv Texyyjv KaXois e^cpya^eo-^at CKacrros fj^iov /cat T* aAXa TO, # tehnin kalos exerghdzesthe ekastos exioo ke f alia ta jU-eytcrra o~o^>wTaros etvat, Kat avrwv avrr/ 17 TrX^/xeActa e/cetVryv megista sofotatos ine, ke a/ton afte e plimmelia ekinin rrjv ia TT}? crwray/AaTt/c^s ^ecopta? txi/Tt/cetrat /cat ets r^v tfrvcrw To thoghma tis sintagmatikis theorias andikeie ke is ten phisin TOV dvOpwirov Kat et? T-^V (frvcnv TWV Trpay/xaTwv. *H Sevrepa /tcyaXi; 00 anthropoo ke is ten phisin don pragmdton. E theftera megdli Swa^tts r^s o-wray/jtariKTys ^ewptas cu/e 17 ai/TtTrpoo-coTrcta. O ^ov- thinamis tis sentagmatikes theorias ine e andiprosopia. voo- 196 EXAMPLES OF MODERN PRONUNCIATION. \vri]ivptov /cat TrXeov aV$pa>7r(ov, ^u>pt9 va 77 vTTOYpeco/xevos va tf#0's ekatommirioo ke pleon anthropon, horis na e epohreomenos na Bwo-y Trepl TOVTOV Xoyov. 'Evvovo-t TOLOVTOV crv/x^8oAatov 01 avOpwTroi those peri tootoo logon. Ennooosi tiooton simvoleon e dnthrope rov 8i/catov; KrySepv^crts eV erwray/xaTiK^ TroXtreta tvc ot vTrovpyot. ^oo thikeoo? Kevernisis en sindagmatike politia ene e epoorge. TlptinvTrov fteyaAov TrpwOvTrovpyov ev 'AyyAm ccrrt 6 XopSos OvaX- Protepon megdloo prothipoorgoo en Anklia esti o lorthos Oodl- Trept ov Xeyct cvjcre@opa Kar^vr^cre orvarTrjfJia Sttupyavtcr/xevov," erepos Oodlpol e thiafthord katindise sistema thiorganismenon" eteros Se ort " ovSets Ko.6* oXov TO BacrtXetov r^5 'AyyXtas vTretrr^pt^ev #^ oti " oothis katV olon to Vasilion tis Anklias ipesterizen avrov IK TrfTroiO-qo-ew;." a/ton ek pepithiseos" A Modern Greek Prayer offered before performing the Sacrament of the Eucharist. Apros Zonys, CLiwvL^ovcrrjs yevecrvo) JJLOI, TO 2wyu,a o~ov TO aytov, Artos Zois, eonizoosis genestho me, to Soma soo to dghion evo-TrXay^ve Kvptc, /cat TO Tt/xtov AT/xa, /cat voo-wv TroXirrpoTrwv aXe^ry- efsplachne Kirie, ke to timion ma, ke noson politropon alexi- terion. Be/?r;Xa>0et9, Ipyot? aTOTrot? 6 SetXatos, TOT) crov a^pavTOt; Vevelothis, erghis atopis o thileos too soo achrdndoo Soma- TO5, /cat 0etov At/x,aTO5, ava^tos VTrdp^o), Xpto~Te -nys fjitrovo-Las, rjeo-iv yevtcrOdi /u,ot TUV 7TTat(r/>taT(ov, TO a^pavroy i\dv6p(D7r, KOL TraO&v feat Q\L\}/ewv aAAorptWiv. zoin Jildnthrope, ke pathon ke thlipseon allotriosin. APPENDIX. APPENDIX. BREATHINGS. THERE are two breathings. The rough breathing e (spiri- tus asper) and the smooth breathing ' (spiritus lenis). They are indicated by the marks ' ' placed over the initial vowel. Words beginning with a diphthong take their respective breathings over the second vowel : awfy^os, etSos, cvSw. But in the improper diphthongs L never takes the breathing, even when it stands upon the line : 'fitSelov = wScioj/. The following words have the rough breathing: 1. The initial consonant p: thus, prJTwp; except 'Papo?, Earns ; 'Papios, a, ov,from Raros, Rarean : esp. the Rarian plain near Eleusis ; 'Papos, a child of premature birth / but pp appears in most editions pp: TraXtppoia. 2. All words beginning with v : thus, vSwp, vcXos. 3. The articles 6, ^, ot, at. 4. The relative pronouns and the relative adverbs : os, 17, o, OtO5, OCT05, T^AtKOS, tt>?, OTTOS, ^VtVtt, CtC. 5. The personal pronouns of the first and second person Plural and the third person Singular : ^/xets, ov, ot, c, etc. 6. The possessive pronouns which are formed from the stem of the personal pronouns ^/xeVepo?. So also the reflexive pronouns of the third person tavrov, cairnys. 7. The numerals ct?, t, cTrra, e/carov, and all their deriva- tives, e. g. eviatos, /3So/^09, cTrraKOo-tot. REMARK 1. The following words, which are alphabetically clas- sified, and their derivatives have also the rough breathing : 202 APPENDIX. aftpa, a favorite slave. afipbs, graceful. ayios, devoted to the gods. dyvbs, holy, sacred, etc. "Ayvcw or "Ayvwv, Hagnon (a proper name). oyoy, o?, reverence. dyco for a eya>. afie, 3 sing. aor. 2 of dvddva>, Horn. inf. dSeli/. 0877?, the nether world. adov for Zadov, aor. 2 of &v8dva>. , Dor. for TJO'VTTVOOS. ddvs, Dor. for rjSvs. aopai. to stand in awe of. aifjia, blood. atfiviov, a basin for*Uood. Alcoves, ow, the Hcemoneans (in- habitants of Haemonia). Alfjiovios, H&monios (a proper name). alfjios or aipos, oO, prob. any scratch- ing point, as of thorns. p, Hamus (a mountain). winning. eto, /o Aaye /Ae i>, Hcemon (a proper name). au>o>, , to grasp, to seize. a\as, salt. dXe/a, Jishing. aXerai, Ep. for aXiyrat, subj. aor. 2 of aXXo/xat, to leap. c'coy, adv. from dXiJy, Hipp. "AXta, a festival of the Rhodians. 'AXt'a, as, Ion. for 'AXi'i;, Halia (a Nereid). a\ia, Ion. dX/;, an assembly. 'AXtai, S>v, Halice, (a city). 'AXiapros, Haliartus (a city). 'AXias-, the territory of H alias. dXt/3Sua> for dXtdua), to smA: in i/ie vs, a fisher. t'^o), to gather. , Halizonium (a city). 'A\i0fparr}s, Halithersis (a proper name^. 'AXiKapvaacros, Halicarnassus. dXtfci'a, Dor. for i^Xi/aa. 'AXt/cvai, oii/, Halicyce (a city). 'AXiKvpva, Halicyrna (a region of ^Etolia). , Halimede (a Nereid). , Halimus (a deme of the Attic tribe Leontis). aXios for ^Xtos 1 . aXios = fidraios, fruitless. "AXto?, Halius (a proper name). oXis, in ^eop.s. 'AXiVapra, Halisarna (a city). dXio-yeo), eo, to pollute. dX/(r/co/Ltai, to fe taken. c AXr6S?7/Lioff, Halisodemus (a poet). aXXo/icu, to spring, leap. aXfi7, sea-water. "A\p.os, Halmus (a proper name). dXovpyi'ff, a purple robe. aXovpyos dyed with sea-purple. dXoa) = dXtV/co/xat. aXy, a of salt. oAvo-ty, a chain. 'AXwa, a festival of Ceres. APPENDIX. 203 r, one who works on a thresh- ing-floor. , Ep. for dX, 3 sing. subj. aor. 2 of dXio-Ko/zcu. dXauos = dXeoeij'd?, wsec/ in a thresh- ing-floor. 'AXans- = 'AXwas, Theocr. 7, 155. dXa>/cai'Ti, Dor. for eaXa>Kacrt, 3 pi. perf . of dXiWo/zai. dX&>/zei/ai, Ep. for aXeorai, inf. aor. 2 of dXi'ovco/zeu. aXcoi/, i>evo/zeu, dep. to wor& on a threshing floor. aXtoy = a threshing-floor. dXdxa, Ep. for dXa>, subj. aor. 2 of a/j,a, adv. at once. y, usu. in plur., the Hama- dryades (nymphs). y, a yine trained on two poles. a/uaa, a ^eayy wagon. c A/zat'a, Hamaxia (a city). }, adv. together. d'/ziXXa, a contest. afus (KOI a/zty), a s^zp. a/i/za a &no. di/Sai/a), to please. dn-aXo?, tender. aTrai/TT/, everywhere. aTrdi/rore, always. a7ra, once. Cs-, simplex. zc^: o/a Zamp. , to fasten. , hunter's net. ap/za, a chariot. tory). , Harma (a city). Harmatus (a promon- name). , Harmatus (a city). to join. Harmonides (a proper to carry off. 'ApTraXiW, Harpalion (a proper name). name). name). Harpalus (a proper Harpalycus (a proper a rojoe. e^ia, a hedge. , Harpina (a place in Elis). 'ApTroKpa.TT)s, Harpocrates (a proper name). iW, Harpocration (a proper name). "Apnviai, the Harpies. , fastidious. a tying. E. ea5a, perf 2 , perf. of d\i(TKop.ai. for /eei/ai, inf. perf. of dXttr/co/zai. cavrjcpopos, a thin, light robe. eavos, r), bv, fit for wearing. earat, 3 pi. pres. from ^/zat, Ion. for rjvraL. eavroC, ^f, of himself. fd(p0r), Horn., only found in E. y, 543, and ^,419. e/38o/zos, ?Ae seventh. 204 APPENDIX. "Efipaios, Hebrew. N. T. "Eftpos, the Hebrus. fdavos, epith. of oil in Horn., pleasant. cdva, nuptial gifts. c8os, stool. fdovfj.cn, fut. of fofuii. e&pa, a chair. eeWaro, 3 sing. aor. mid. Ep. of cearo, 3 sing. plpf. pass. Ep. of evvvfu. eb/iat, to sit. crj, fern, of e'or, his, etc. cj;Acf, Ep. for rjKf, 3 sing. aor. 1 of ITJfU. erjvSave, Ep. for rjvbavf, 3 sing. impf. act. from dv&dvo$, Ep. for eavor. ftX7, ^Ae 5wn'i* warmth. , poet, for cAry/*a. t, perf. pass, from cXtWo. Ion. 3 pi. plpf. pass, from eXt o-o-o). , aor. 1 act. of eX/ta>. v, aor. 1 pass, of eX*a>. fiX^a, less usu. aor. 1 act. from eX*a> than clXxvaa. el\ov and etXo/i^j/, aor. 2 act. and mid. of atpe'o). /, rarer form for 6fi\6- v, a sunshiny place. ^o), to wind. ff, Helot. , a Jress. , fate, elpev, 1 pi. aor. 2 opt. for cuf/icy of tyu. eipevos, part. perf. pass, of evvvpi. aor. 2 opt. mid. of tiy/u. , poet, for eve/ta. efos-, Ep. aor. for W. ipyvvfjii, to shut in. clpKTrj, prison. (Is, pia, civ, one. eiy, part. a6r. 2 of infii. flcra, I put, placed, eio-dpnv, aor. mid. of ela-a, Att. tiro, 3 sing. aor. 2 ind. (also opt.) mid. of iTjfju. f1a>s. Ep. for eW, constantly. 'Etta^n, Hecuba. 'Eicd\T), Hecale (an Attic borough). 'EKap.r)8r), Hecamede (a proper name). ficas, afar. every one. , each of two. v, a hundred. , by means of. , sixteen. "E/crcop, Hector (a proper name). CKGW, willing. eXeiai, meadow-nymphs. EXeioi, the Helei (a people of Ara- bia; Strabo). Aetoy, the dormouse. , Helen. , Helenus. e\(. eX?;, /Ae 7^ea/. fXj/, 3 subj. aor. 2 of utpcco. , Ion for eXy. , Helice (a proper name). APPENDIX. 205 'EXt/ean/, Helicon. cXivvat, to rest. !Xi, anything twisted. cXicrao), to turn round. cXKos, a wound. cXKvco, to draw. 'EXXcy, Greece. eXXe'/3opos, hellebore. v, a Greek. is, the Hellespont. c\fj.ivs, a worm. eXoifu, cXoifj.r}v, opt. aor. 2 act. and mid. of cupeeo. ^EXo?, Helos (a city). eXoy, ivet, low ground. CJJLCV and cpevai, poet, for flvai, inf. aor. 2 from fy/u. ffjievos, part. aor. 2 mid. of fy/u. evoff (xai ej/oy), a year oW. evorrjs, unity, evwfju, to clothe one's self in. (r)s, in order. co, Ep. gen. of the pers. pron. 3 pers. for ov. ol, Ep. dat. sing, of pers. pron. ov for of. eolo, Ep. gen. from coy for eoO. cols, dat. pi. from cos. coprr), a feast, cos, cf], cov, Ion. and Ep. for os, rj, , Ion. imp. from ciro(j.ai, to follow. CTTTO, seven. ZpKos, a fence, fpfta, a prop, support. fpfjiT}Vva>, to interpret. ^?, Hermes. , to creep. (pa/ca, perf. act. from optioo. W, so long as. H. fjpdo-Kot, Lat. pubescere. 77/3?;, manhood, ripe. /, Hegemon (a proper name). 'Hyrjaraios, Hegeso2us (a proper name). 'Hyrjo-ai/Spi'Sa?, Hegesandridas (a proper name). 'Hyrjvidvag, Hegesianax (a proper name). 'Hyncrias, Hegesias (apropername). 'Hyrjo-iKXens, Hegesicles (a proper name). 'Hyrjo-ivovs, Hegesinus (a proper name). 'H-yj/o-iTnror, Hegesippus (a proper name). i, to go before. , fern, from oe. to delight. 'H8v\eiov, Mt. Pledylius (in Phocis). T)8vs, fjdfla, r)8v, sweet. r]Ka, aor. 1 oftrjfjii. fJKKTTos, the least. T?KG>, / am come. i)AiKL. ia, Ion. for at/ia>Sta. j a darter. fjv, ace. sing. fern, from relat. pron. Off. fjvia, i, f Ut. Of l?7/U. "Hcpaio-ro?, Hephaistos. APPENDIX. 207 lacri, 3 pi. pres. from trjfu for iea, to sweat. I8pva>, to seat. idpu, ace. from idpvs for idpara. tSpwa, pustules. iSptos, sweat. ift, 3 sing. impf. Ion. and Att. of 7/M. if is, iflcra, lev, pres. part, from tr)p.i. te/iuu, pres. pass, and mid. from fyfu. te'/ufi/, iepcvai, Ep. pres. inf. from irjfjLt for tf'j/at. tcv, JEiol. for larav, 3 pi. impf. from ir)p.i. 'If pa (vrjaos), Hiera, one of the Lipari islands. lepa, a hawk. icpbs, sacred. idvG> (tC 40 )? t make to sit, seat. Irjfju, to set agoing. iKavbs, able. , to come, to arrive. 6Tr]s, a suppliant. 2 sing. subj. aor. 2 from to arrive. t, to be gracious. 1/j.as, a leathern strap. apiece of dress. , longing. ira, in order that, 'imrias, Hippias. oQ)!/, Hippocoon. , Hippocrates. aKprj, promontory of Hip- polaus. , Hippolochus. vTT], Hippolyte. ITTTTOS, horse. tTrra/xat, to fly. io-Ti;/it, to stand. 'lanaia, Histicea. los, Histiwus. , the chief offerer. 'KTTIOV, a sail, io-ropia, history. IO-TOS, a ship's mast. O. 076, rjyf, royf, the demon str. pron. he, she, it. 68e, iySe, roSe, the demonstr. pron. Lat. hicce, hsecce, hocce. 68r)y6s, a guide, oftomopos, a traveller, odbs, street, odev, whence, olov, neut. from ofoy. oiovavci, for olov av ft, just as if. olos, a, ov, such as. oX/cay, merchantman. oX/cea), to draw. oX/uoy, a round, smooth stone. oXoKaure'oo, to bring a burnt-offering. 0X09, whole, entire. oXcuo-ts, a making ivhole. , a noise. 208 APPENDIX. 6/LtaX6s, level, smooth. opdpiov, temple of Jupiter. o/iapreto, to meet. opaprrj, adv. together. 6(j.ds, the whole. 6fj,r,yvpts, an assembly. 6/AJ)Xt, of the same age. "Opijpos, Homer. hostage. , a throng of people. s, similar. o/iOKXeo>, tO call OUl. opos, one and the same, common. 6/LtoC, together. opms, equally. opo>s, nevertheless. owX?), a 7oo/. OTT\OV, implement. onoQfv, whence. OTTOI, adv. whither. cnrolos, of what sort* OTTOCTOS, /, oi/, as many. OTTOTCLV, whensoever. oTroTfpos, which of two. OTTOU, zt'Aere. OTTCOS, in w/ia manner. 6paa>, /o see. op/;ai or opfjai, 2 sing. pres. mid. of opaco. op//Lii, ^Eol. and Dor. for 6poo>, hence inf. opfjv. REMARK 2. When two words have the same form, but are of dif- ferent meanings, the ancient Greeks often indicated the difference by placing a breathing over the vowel or p in the middle of a word ; thus, fo-fjXaro (aorist of ffcroXXopuu, eVaXXojucu), but tV/jXaro (aorist of , KOTv\\rjppvros (KOTV\TJ pe'co), but KorvX^pvros (KoruXj/ dpva>). opTjro or opijro, 3 sing. impf. mid. of 6pa, to divide (as a border), op/cos, Ae witness of an oath. 6p/zaa>, to se in motion, urge. op/ifaro, Ion. for cap/^i/ro, 3 pi. perf. pass, of 6p/uaco. 6p/iea), to fte a anchor. rj, attack, violent pressure. to bring to a safe anchorage, oppos, a necklace, opos, a boundary, limit, os, rj, o, who, etc. 6o-?7/iepat, daily, oaios, hallowed, oa-os, as great as. oo-wpai, every hour. OOTIS, whosoever. orai/, adv. whenever. OT, when, on, for that, because. &8e, Att. <5i, from o5e, in this wise. w/itXXa, a kind of game. &pa, hour, season. wpatos, beautiful, etc. wptos, timely. a>s, adv. /^MS, so, etc. , adv. eyen a.v, JMS as. , adv.ybr, so that, in order. APPENDIX. 209 ACCENT. THE accents are three. The acute ', the grave \ and the circumflex ~. The acute can stand only on one of the last three syllables of a word ; the circumflex, on one of the last two ; and the grave, only on the last syllable. In case of a diphthong, the accent stands over the second VOWel ; thus, Travo-w, ravra, eKCtWj?, *et, etc. The acute may stand either on a long or a short syllable ; thus, Tpe'xw, Xoyovs, e'/ceu/ovs. The acute only can stand on a long penultima, followed by a long ultima : ^KOV^ yAoW^s. When the Nominative and Accusative of un contracted nouns are accented on the ultima, said cases are oxytone: fj TI/*,?}, T^V Ttjar/j/, f) x a P^ r ^ v X a P < *- v i atwv, 6 KapTro?. When a word is accented on the antepenult, said syllable is always proparoxy- tone : /^curtAcvovTos. Words ending in ev and ov, when accented on the ultima, are perispomensi; thus, e*, TTOV- except tSov, tov, and ov. When the Vocative of nouns in eus and w of the third de- clension ends in cv and 01, said case must be perispomenon if accented on the ultima : o> /foo-iAcu, w aiSoi, w O-OLTT^OI. When the Genitive and Dative of nouns end with a long syllable, said cases must be perispomena if accented on the ultima I r^s TI/A^?, rfj TL/JL^ TOV KapiroV) r<3 KapTrw, rwv TI/XWV, rots A contract ultima is always perispomenon, if the acute stood on the penultima before contraction : rt/xw (rt/taw), TrXa- KOVS (TrXa/coets). Adverbs in w?, if accented on the ultima, are perispomena: KoAois, vo-e/3oj5. REMARK 1. The circumflex stands on the Nominative and Accu- sative of many monosyllabic words ; thus, ypavs, vavs, $ovs, ^ovs, JJLVS, dpvs, (rOy, ov?, vrvp, criccop, efs, Trap, TTO.V, etc. REMARK 2. The circumflex stands also on many monosyllabic adverbs and conjunctions; thus, eu, , au, vvv, ovv, yovv, ^, /xwi/, Try, not, TroO, nai?, etc. 210 APPENDIX. In accenting a word, a syllable long by position is treated as short ; thus, Aei?, rats (but 7rpai9, 7rpay/xa, because the let- ter a in these words is long not by position, but by nature). Final at and ot have the effect of short vowels on the accent of the penult and antepenult : Avovrat, av^pawroi, TroAirat, v^troi, etc. Not so, however, in the optative mode: TraiSevot and the adverb ot/coi, at home. When the ultima is long, the antepenult is not accented : di/0pco7rou, avOpw. The Genitives Singular and Plural of some nouns of the third declension are exceptions, e. g. TroAew?, TroAecov, TT^ew?, TrT^eofl/. Primitive words accent the syllable belonging to the root ; thus, iAiKo's, aiAos. Hence we have the following rules: Whenever a new syllable is prefixed to a word, the accent is thrown back if the ultima permits it ; thus, Av'w, fXvov. When a new syllable is affixed to a word, the accent is thrown forward if the ultima requires it; e. g. 7rapaSeiy/Aa, Final and ^, after a short vowel, exclude the acute from the antepenult, but not the circumflex from the penult ; thus we have ^At, but w/cTov (but xpW T ^ Gen. PI. of the adjective xPW^ good), x^ ou/I "7^ living or feeding alone, Gen. PI. xAowwv (but y\oww, Gen. PI. of the adjective yXov- vos, epith. of gold in Hesychius (Lexicographus), and enprtat, annual winds, Gen. PI. er^o-tW. So also the Feminine dur/, anchovy, Gen. PL di/ (but d^vwi/, Gen. PI. of the adjective OL^vrfs, dull). 2. Adjectives whose Masculine is of the third declension have the Genitive Plural Feminine perispomenon ; thus, 6 - <0et9, 17 Tv(0ta-a, TtXo/ArJAa, Philomela, 'AvS/oo//,e'<$a, Andromeda, and contract substantives and adjectives in a retain the a in all the cases of the Singular number. 2. Masculine nouns in a?, with the exception of the Geni- tive Singular, follow the same rule. 3. Masculine nouns of this declension form the Accusative Singular by changing o- of the Nominative to v. The Femi- nines by affixing v to the Nominative Singular. 212 APPENDIX. 4. Masculine words in 779 form the Vocative Singular in 77. But nouns in rr) t be first, <0i/ov/j,at, to purchase, and Aarpevw, to serve, form the Vocative Singular in a short ; thus, 7roAn-a (Nom. 7roAiT779, flf citizen) ; yeu>/x,eTpa (Nom. ye ^-a^ta, speech. 5. Dissyllabic nouns in pa which have a vowel in the pen- ultima; thus, wpa, hour / 07Jpa, ?Ae chase. Except Trpaipa, a ship's prow ; x^ T p ^^ earthen pot ; o-vpa, a hammer. 6. Paroxytone nouns in oa and ca; thus, xp'> ^Ae skin; Trod, grass ; ^Aed, a^ apple-tree; Teyea, Tegea. 7. Nouns of more than ^00 syllables in ata ; thus, eAata, ^Ae olive-tree ; Kepata, Aorw. Except the names of a few cities; thus, 3> (from <^a>t9, a man) and 8as (from Sai?, afire-brand), are oxytone. REMARK. The vowel which results from contraction, if accented, must be perispomenon ; thus, yca-yi), earth. ^Except, (a) when the vowel stands before a long ultima ; (b) when it stands before the antepenult ; and (c) when the second of the contracted vowels is oxytone, e. g. eVraeoy, ey. 2. Monosyllabic words of this declension accent the Geni- tive and Dative of all numbers on the case-ending; the other cases are accented on the stem. Except, (a) Participles of one syllable, which always accent the Stem, e. g. 0a5, 0eWo9, Own, Oevra. (b) The Genitive Plural of the following nouns : Trat? a boy, girl, Trai'San/; rj Sa?, torch, SaSwv; rj ais, light, ^XOTCOJ/; dws, the APPENDIX. 215 jackal, 0oW ; 6 o-/J?, moth, o-eW. The word <w?, Gen. Sing. ^WTOS. (c) Some words which have been contracted from disyl- labic stems, e. g. cap, spring, Gen. capos or ^pos, Dat. eapt or f/pi. 4. Nouns whose final stem-letter is 8 are oxytone ; thus, eATi-t?, Ao/?e, eATrt'Sos. Except the noun cpts, strife, cptSo?, and Feminine common nouns in ns, whose Masculine ends in thus, 6 Trpoc/^T/;?, prophet, rj Adjectives. Adjectives are either of three endings, of two, or of one. The following adjectives in 05 are of three endings: (a) Verbal in ros and TCOS ; thus, ACKTOS, rj, 6V, chosen. (b) Adjectives in i/cos, Aos, vos, po?, and Aco?, e. g. voyu-iKo?, IK!;, tKov, a lawyer / o-ty^Ao?, A-j, Aov, silent; Setvo?, vrj, vov, fear- ful; awrxpos, pa, poV, causing shame; etc. (c) Comparatives and superlatives ; thus, AvTr^porepo?, orepa, orepov; AvTTTjpoTaTOs, ordrrj, orarov, from AvTnypos, sorrowful. Except a few superlatives which are found of two termina- tions among poets and Attic writers ; thus, Svo-eK^oAwraros 17 AoKpis (Thuc. e' 101), TT/V \nrarov o-PX^ (Dion. Hal. 'Pv/x. ap^. r' 1), oAowraros 63^ (Od. 8, 442). The following adjectives in 05 are of two endings: (a) Compounds and those which are derived from verbs already compounded ; thus, 6 /cat 17 OO-KOTTOS TO aorKoirov, impru- dent. (b) Positive and comparative adjectives in wi/: 6 /cat rj ev- Sat/xwv TO evSatjuov, happy, prosperous. (c) Many adjectives compounded from substantives in t?, v?, and ovs; thus, 6 /cat y ev^apt?, TO c^x a P l charming ; 6 /cat 17 TroA^TTov?, TO 7roAv7row, many-footed. (d) Words compounded with ye'Acos and Kepa?, which are also declined according to the second Attic declension ; thus, o Kat 17 TroAvyeAxoc, TO TToAvyeJW, rov TroAvyeAw Kai iroAvyeAwTO?, laughing much. 216 APPENDIX. The following adjectives are of one ending: (a) Adjectives which have been compounded with sub- stantives keep the latter unchanged even after composition ; thus, 6 /cat 77 aVais-, childless; /xaKpo^etp, long-armed. REMARK. The Genitive and Dative Plural of these adjectives are found among the poets in the Neuter gender also. Feminine Endings of Adjectives in os. The following adjectives, in os of three endings form their Feminine : (a) In t), if there is no vowel or p before the termination ; thus, ctya0os, aya&J, kind. () In a, if they end in a pure or in pos, poos, and pcos ; , thus, ayios, dyia, holy j Ka#apds, /ca#apa, proper, dean. Neuter Endings. Adjectives in os form their neuter in ot/; thus KaAo's, /caXi}, KaXov, good. The following form their neuter in o: (a) aAAos, aXXrj, aAAo, another; os, $, o, who, which; avros, avrrj, avrd, self (Lat. ipse) ; CKCIVOS, tKetViy, eKetvo, there (Lat. ille) ; OVTOS, avr?7, TOVTO, this, that. Demonstratives of quality, quantity, and age form their neuter in the following manner : TOO-OVTOS, roa-avrr], roa-omo(v), such (in quantity or number); rotoOros, roicurny, Totovro(i/), such (in quality) ; -njAiKovros, T^XtKavTTy, TT)\LKOVTO(V), such (in age or size). Cambridge : Electrotyped and Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. r : <~\\l A 1OCO mv 4iyo SUMMEP PTff Sf ** ^'-4 subject to recall after ^ AU\A i *n DEC 22 1991 RECCiRC DEC 3 1991 _ CT 5 l.q/9 g _ AHC - ^o^Mii? u.ggsg-u 6w i^^. i^r- L_* i^y i-.!^ r/ X^ U44I /^ p O 1 tU . : .! i 5 ttwa ./ *%" g^ U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES