i& 
 
 COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
 DAVIS, CALIFORNIA 
 
OUTLINES 
 
 OF 
 
 ENTOMOLOGY 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE USE OF FflRMERS fiND HORTICULTURISTS, 
 
 AT THE REQUEST OF THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE AND 
 THE STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF MISSOURI. 
 
 BY -MARY E. MURTFELDT, 
 KIRKWOOD, MISSOURI. 
 
 JEFFERSON CITY, MO.: 
 
 TRIBUNE PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 
 1891. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
Copyrighted by M. E. Murtfeldt. 
 1891. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In preparing the following pages, as an introduction to the science 
 of Entomology, the primary object has been to supply a need of the 
 farmer and horticulturist. For while the ravages of noxious insects 
 have an indirect effect upon the prosperity and convenience of every 
 one, it is to the agriculturist more directly that their absence or preva- 
 lence brings financial success or failure. It is true that there are 
 already almost innumerable publications, many of them of great value, 
 on the subject of economic entomology, as well as those of more strictly 
 scientific importance, all of which are accessible to any inquirer; but 
 it is undeniable that a lack of some general knowledge of the life 
 histories of insects, and an unfamiliarity with many of the terms used 
 in description, deprive those for whom they are prepared of a large 
 share of the benefit they might derive from them. 
 
 I do not ignore the fact that this want has been realized by many of 
 our most distinguished entomologists, and that several text-books have 
 been prepared to meet it; but the objective to these is, that the authors 
 have gone into the subject too thoroughly, have dwelt upon points of 
 structure that the business man has neither time nor skill to trace out, 
 have discussed phenomena that are chiefly interesting to the philoso- 
 pher, ard which make the study seem too abstruse. 
 
 The following pages are an attempt at something more elementary, 
 remembering that there are those who have yet to learn the difference 
 between a beetle and a bug, or between a moth and a butterfly ; to whom 
 the transformations of insects offer a puzzle which they cannot solve, 
 and who are completely daunted and discouraged by a half-dozen suc- 
 cessive technical terms. This little introduction aims to help the be- 
 ginner over some of the first difficulties he is liable to encumber in 
 taking up the subject systematically, and the author hopes it will be 
 the means of attracting him to the study of the more exact and com- 
 prehensive treatises of Dr. Packard, Prof. Comstock and others. 
 
 Incomplete and simple as this work is, it is hoped, however, that 
 the definitions are sufficiently explicit to enable the student to place all 
 
II 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the more common insects in their proper order, and in most cases to 
 find the family with which they correspond in structure and habit. So 
 far as possible, throughout the work technical terms and scientific 
 names have been subordinated to popular ones, although for the sake of 
 precision and to accustom the reader to their use, the former are nearly 
 always given. While the illustrations are not so numerous as could 
 be wished, the objects themselves are so easily obtained that the 
 reader can supply the deficiency from the pages of nature, and it is 
 most earnestly recommended that he will in all cases try to do so. 
 Insects need no especial preparation for study, except to kill them with 
 the fumes of chloroform or by immersion in alcohol or gasoline. But- 
 terflies and moths and the two-winged flies cannot be placed in fluids 
 without injury, but all the other sorts are unharmed by the process. 
 A hand lens, a bit of cork and a few needles and pins are all the appli- 
 ances needed for a study of the superficial structure of the large or 
 medium-sized species with which it is best to begin. 
 
 If the writer shall succeed in introducing this delightful branch of 
 natural history to even a few of those who are surrounded by the beau* 
 ful and interesting objects discussed, and if in these pages the victim 
 of insect depredations obtains a few hints concerning the vulnerable 
 stages in the lives of his tiny but collectively potent foes, the work will 
 not have been done in vain. 
 
 In conclusion, I must acknowledge my great indebtedness to the 
 works of Dr. 0. V. Eiley, U. S. Entomologist, Dr. A. S. Packard, whose 
 " Guide " and Entomology for Beginners " are so admirably adapted to 
 the use of those desiring a thorough knowledge of the structure of in- 
 sect forms, and to Prof. Comstock's more technical and elaborate " Intro- 
 duction." 
 
 Among other authors from whose works I have obtained much as- 
 sistance are Professors Fernald, Cook, French, Osborne, the Eev. Dr. 
 McCook, Messrs. Howard, Henshaw and Saunders. 
 
 The illustrations used are mostly from electrotypes purchased from 
 Dr. C. V. Eiley, and from drawings done by Mr. Joseph Bridgham, of 
 Providence, E. I., who also supervised the heliotyping of the same. 
 Fig. 32 was engraved by the Gast Bank Note Lithographing company 
 of St. Louis, and Fig. 44 is from an electrotype presented by the Eural 
 World. 
 
 MARY E. MURTFELDT. 
 Kirkwood, Missouri. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 GENERAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 
 
 Illustrated by electrotypes from drawings by Prof. C V. Riley, Washington, D. C., and zin& 
 process work done under the supervision of Mr. Joseph Bridgham, of Providence, R. I. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 What is an insect ? This does not seem like a question difficult to 
 answer, and yet how few either of grown persons or children would be 
 able to define an insect otherwise than as " some sort of a bug." Now 
 it is true that all bugs, properly so called, are insects; but it by no 
 means follows that all insects are bugs. On the contrary, genuine bug& 
 form but a small proportion of the fluttering, buzzing, crawling myriads 
 to which the term is generally applied. 
 
 Insects are among the most familiar of natural objects. They are 
 met with in all climates and situations, and in greater or less numbers 
 at all seasons of the year. They claim our attention in a thousand 
 different ways. We admire the beauty of form and color in some, and 
 shrink from the grotesque ugliness of others. Many species injure 
 and annoy us personally or damage or destroy our property, while on 
 the other hand a few, like the honey-bee, the silk- worm and the cochi- 
 neal insect, produce some of our choicest luxuries. Is it not well then 
 for us to endeavor to learn something of the structure, habits and dif- 
 ferences of a class of animals with which we unavoidably have so much 
 to do? 
 
 How few people realize that there are as wide differences between 
 insects and some of the animals that are usually classed with them 
 for example, spiders, millepeds and earth-worms as there are between 
 cows and chickens and serpents; and there are far greater distinctions 
 between butterflies and beetles and grasshoppers than exist between 
 
4 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 horses, cows and sheep. This may seem strange to one who has given 
 the subject no attention, but a little careful observation will convince 
 him of its truth. 
 
 It is impossible to obtain a definite idea of the structure of insects r 
 and their place in the scale of being, without comparing them critically 
 with other kinds of animals and noting the points in which they differ. 
 To obtain this knowledge without the aid of books would involve a 
 wide field of observation and a great deal of labor in systematizing 
 the information gained. Therefore, to- aid and direct the observations 
 of the student, we will glance hastily over the outlines of the classifi- 
 cation of the animal kingdom as arranged by the great French natural- 
 ist, Cuvier, after whom it is called the "Cuvierian system." According 
 to this system all the animals, on or in the earth, monstrous or minute, 
 are arranged in ihefour following Sub-kingdoms : 
 
 I. BACKBONE animals (Sub-kingdom VERTEBRA), such as have an 
 internal bony frame termed a skeleton, the axis of which is a spinal 
 column composed of a number of peculiar joints called vertebrae. Ex- 
 amples Man, Birds, Fishes and Reptiles. 
 
 II. RINGED or ARTICULATE animals (Sub-kingdom A.RTICULATA), 
 having an external tough or horny framework composed of rings or 
 articulations enclosing the muscles and other soft tissues. Examples 
 Insects, Spiders, Millepeds, Crabs. 
 
 III. MOLLUSKS (Sub-kingdom MOLLUSCA), soft-bodied animals 
 usually enclosed in shells. Examples Snails, Slugs, Oysters. 
 
 IV. STAR or RADIATE animals (Sub-kingdom RADIATA). These 
 are formed somewhat upon the plan of a star or asterisk, with all the 
 members branching out from a common center. Examples Star-fish,. 
 Sea Urchin, Coral animal. This division includes mostly marine ani- 
 mals. 
 
 Each of these Sub-kingdoms is divided into several very distinct 
 classes. Passing over the classes of BACKBONE animals, we will con- 
 fine our attention to the ARTICULATA, in which insects, although by no 
 means the largest representatives, occupy, on account of their more 
 specialized structure, the highest rank. The classes of ARTICULATA 
 are five in number, viz.:* Insects (Insecta), Thousand-legged worms 
 or Millepeds (MyriapodaJ, Spiders (ArachnidaJ, Lobsters and Crabs 
 (Crustacea), and True Worms (Annelida). 
 
 * According to Cuvier, whose plans will answer our present purpose. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 5 
 
 For convenience this classification may be tabulated thus : 
 
 f Vertebra. flnsecta. 
 
 I Articulata 1 Myriapoda. 
 
 Animal Kingdom. -{ -{ Arachnida. 
 
 I Mollusca. Crustacea. 
 
 [Radiata. [Annelida. 
 
 In proceeding to separate true insects from the other members of 
 their sub-kingdom, the most obvious distinction is that they alone 
 -among articulates ever possess wings. There are, however, some in- 
 sects, mostly of the worst repute, such as fleas, bed-bugs, lice and a 
 few others, that never acquire wings. We have, therefore, to seek in 
 .some other organ, or set of organs, a characteristic by which we can 
 distinguish any insect from other articulates, and one which will, if 
 possible, have a peculiar development in each of the classes. Such a 
 distinction is found in the number of the legs. Thus insects, in their 
 perfect or adult state, always have six legs, neither more nor less 
 although in some butterflies the front pair of legs, not being used, are 
 of diminished size, and are tucked up out of the way. Millepeds, as 
 the name denotes, have numerous legs, from thirty to four hundred ; 
 spiders and mites have eight legs ; crustaceans from ten to fourteen legs, 
 while the true worms have no legs at all in any stage of their existence. 
 We have, therefore, only to count the legs of an articulate animal to 
 find out in which of the preceding classes it belongs.* 
 
 The term "insect," which is derived from two Latin words, in and 
 seco cut into in reference to the ring-jointed or insected body, was, 
 by some of the earlier writers on natural history, applied to the entire 
 .group of the articulates, and the various classes were distinguished as 
 " six-legged insects," '* eight-legged insects," 4< many-legged insects," 
 and so forth. But as the structure of these animals was more thor- 
 oughly studied, they were found to be more widely separated than was 
 at first supposed. The term " insect " was restricted to the six-legged 
 class, and other names, more suitable, applied to the remaining classes. 
 Insects are further distinguished from other articulates in having the 
 external framework composed apparently of thirteen or fourteen rings 
 or joints, which are separated into three regions, the first joint forming 
 the headj-ihe succeeding three the thorax, and the remaining nine or 
 ten the abdomen and its appendages. 
 
 In the inillepeds the number of rings varies from ten to two hun- 
 dred, and the head alone is distinct from the abdomen. In the spiders 
 the joints are so closely consolidated that two only can be perceived, 
 the first forming the combined head and thorax (cephalo thorax} and 
 the second the abdomen. In the crustaceans the number of joints is 
 
 *Except in the case of the young of some Mites, which also have only six legs. 
 
6 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 variable, and in some species the division is into three regions, as in 
 insects, while others bear some resemblance to spiders in the arrange- 
 ment of the joints. In the framework of the worms we find numerous, 
 joints, but no distinct head, thorax or hind body. 
 
 Another and very interesting peculiarity of insects is found in 
 their transformations or metamorphoses. Insect life begins with an 
 embryo contained in an egg. From this egg hatches the first active 
 form, which is called a larva (plural larva), the term signifying a mask, 
 because the true form of the insect is considered to be masked or con- 
 cealed at this stage of life. All caterpillars, grubs and maggots are 
 larvse. When the larva is full grown it changes, in most cases, to a 
 very different object, and is then termed a pupa (plural pupce), from a 
 word meaning a doll or mummy, in reference to its quiescence and the 
 swathed or bandaged appearance of its members. From the pupa in 
 due time emerges the perfect insect or imago (plural imagines], which is 
 the final form and the one in which it possesses wings, unless it be- 
 longs to the few wingless species. 
 
 The chief office of the perfect insect is to develop and lay the- 
 eggs from which another generation of larvae will hatch, and, in the 
 case of some species, to provide food for their young. 
 
 To britiy recapitulate, in answer to our opening question: An 
 insect is an articulate animal having the external skeleton composed of 
 a number of rings or joints, which are separated into three groups to- 
 form a distinct head, thorax and abdomen. It has six legs, and, in its. 
 perfect state, has two or four wings, and is further characterized by 
 changes of form and habit called metamorphoses. 
 
 The science which treats of the structure, habits and classification 
 of insects is called Entomology, a term composed of two Greek words 
 which signify a " discourse on insects." 
 
 Economic Entomology has for its object the investigation of the 
 habits of injurious insects, with a view to the better preservation of 
 our persons and property from their attacks. It also includes experi- 
 ments with such species as are or may prove to be valuable for their 
 products or properties, and endeavors to ascertain which are indirectly 
 useful to man on account of their parasitic and cannibalistic habits. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 
 
 In our introductory chapter were 
 noted some of the differences between 
 insects and vertebrate animals, and alsoi 
 between insects and other articulates. 
 Now in order to comprehend these dis- 
 tinctions still more clearly, and to under- 
 stand how the various parts and organs 
 are modified to produce the almost 
 innumerable diverse forms, it becomes 
 necessary to examine the general struc- 
 ture still more critically. 
 
 The external crust or skeleton of an 
 insect forms a many-jointed tube in which, as has already been men- 
 tioned, are enclosed and protected all the softer vital parts, such as 
 the muscles, nerves, the air and blood vessels, etc. The most common 
 form of this tube is more or less cylindrical, but in some insects it is 
 shortened and flattened so that the outline is oblong, oval or nearly- 
 circular. This body-wall is composed of fourteen ring-like sections or 
 segments which are more or less closely connected. Of these joints 
 the first, forming the head,* is most distinct. The three joints forming 
 the thorax have the appearance of being firmly soldered together, and 
 it is often difficult to trace the divisions. In the abdominal region, on 
 the contrary, the rings are loosely connected by a flexible and elastic 
 membrane, which allows them to move freely in any direction. Two 
 or three of the terminal joints of the abdomen are changed from their 
 original shape to form and support stings, piercers, forceps, and the 
 like, so that we are seldom able to distinguish more than six or seven 
 distinct rings in this part of the body. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the fourteen joints are the only divi- 
 sions of the insect skeleton. If this were the case we should never have 
 occasion to admire the grace of the butterfly's flight or the surprising 
 agility of various beetles and bugs. The fact is that each joint, although 
 it may appear like a simple ring, is composed of from six to nine vari- 
 ously shaped pieces, each piece, however closely fitted to the others,, 
 being capable of independent motion by the muscles within. Otherwise 
 an insect would never be able to move a wing or leg or other organ, 
 * Dr. Packard considers the head as composed of four joints. 
 
8 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 separately. On the thorax of manj smooth, hard-shelled insects, like 
 wasps and beetles, we can readily trace the divisions of each joint by 
 means of fine impressed lines. 
 
 The insect crust varies greatly in texture and thickness. In some 
 insects, and especially in many larvae, it is very thin, easily bent and 
 easily broken; in others it is hard and brittle like shell, or dense and 
 impenetrable like metal. Examples of the shelly texture are found in 
 the pupae termed chrysalides of butterflies and moths, while the 
 metal-like covering may be seen in the cases of the beautiful Brazilian 
 beetles, often used by jewelers in the place of gems, which are so 
 hard that they can only be pierced by a drill. 
 
 The majority of insects have the head separated from the thorax 
 nd the thorax from the abdomen by deep incisions, or the contraction 
 of the connecting joints. This will be understood by a glance at the 
 illustration at the head of this chapter, or better still by examining the 
 body of a bee, a butterfly or a fly. 
 
 The back or upper surface of the body of an insect is termed the 
 dorsum or dorsal surface, or tergum, the sides the pleurites or lateral 
 surfaces, while the under side is the venter or ventral surface. The top 
 of the thorax is sometimes further distinguished as the notum, the 
 under side, or breast, being correspondingly termed the sternum. 
 
 In exact scientific description a number of other terms are used 
 to indicate the various divisions of a segment, or to refer to precise 
 localities on the body, but these are not necessary to a general appre- 
 hension of the structure, and would only confuse and discourage a 
 beginner. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES. 
 
 As with the higher animals, the head of an insect 
 is more especially the sensorial region, because it 
 contains the organs of sight, touch, taste, smell, and 
 possibly in some species, of hearing also. The sense 
 of feeling is not, of course, confined to the append- 
 ages used by the insect for touching objects which 
 in this sense correspond to the human hand but ex- 
 tends over the entire surface of the bodv Head of Was P : . c - 
 
 J ciput; 6, epicranium; c, 
 
 Certain localities on the head are frequently re . ^ c ^/' com P OTlnde y e8; 
 ferred to in descriptions of insects. The more important of these are : 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 9 
 
 the Occiput, which is the back upper part (Fig. 2, a) ; the epicranium, 
 the front upper part (Fig. 2, bj, and the Clypeus, which occupies the 
 space between the epicranium and the mouth. The top of the head is 
 also sometimes called the Vertex; the front, the face or From; the 
 sides, the cheeks or Gence. The manner in which these parts are devel- 
 oped varies greatly in different insects. 
 
 The principal appendages or organs of the head are the Mouth, the 
 Eyes and the Antennce. 
 
 The mouth presents a variety of forms, being adapted in different 
 insects to the kind of food upon which they subsist, and also to the 
 various offices, besides those of mastication or suction, which are per- 
 formed by it. 
 
 All the variations in structure, however seemingly diverse, are 
 made upon two plans, viz.: jaws for biting and beaks or tubes for 
 sucking. 
 
 The mouth of a biting insect consists of six dis- 
 tinct parts, collectively called Trophi. These parts 
 are the lips upper and under and two pairs of 
 strong, horny organs which form the jaws and move 
 from side to side and not up and down like the jaws 
 of the higher animals. The upper lip is called the 
 Labrum (Fig. 3, c), and the under lip (not shown in 
 
 the illustration), the Labium. These parts are sub- 
 Head of Tigec beetle: a, . , 
 
 firons; 6, epistoma; c, iect to great changes in shape, and seldom bear much 
 
 labrum; d, eyes: e, man- 
 dibles; /, maxiije; g, resemblance to the lips of Vertebrates. The upper 
 
 maxillary palpi; h, labial 
 
 palpi; i, antennae. or principal jaws are termed Mandibles (Fig. 3, eej. 
 
 They are strong and sharply toothed, and are the chief instruments for 
 seizing and tearing the food. 
 
 The lower jaws (Fig. 3,ffJ are called the Maxillce (sing, maxilla), 
 and are usually more slender and flexible than the mandibles and ter- 
 minate in a point. 
 
 Besides these six principal mouth parts, most insects have from 
 one to three, generally two pairs of slender-jointed organs, called Palpi 
 (sing, palpus) or mouth- feelers. One pair is attached to the lower jaws, 
 and are termed the maxillary palpi (Fig. 3, g), the other pair, connected 
 with the lower lip, are the labial palpi (Fig. 3, h). Their office seems to 
 be to aid in the selection of food and to brush impurities from the face 
 and antennae. 
 
 The sucking or haustellate insects have the same number of mouth 
 parts, but they are developed on an entirely different plan. In some 
 species, such as the true Bugs, most of the parts are united to form a 
 stiff, jointed beak, with which the leaves of plants or the skins of ani- 
 
10 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 inals are punctured and the juices or blood extracted. In others, like 
 the Butterflies and Moths, the combined parts form a long, flexible 
 tube, usually called a tongue, through which the nectar of flowers and 
 similar fluids may be drawn. In others still, the lower lip and the 
 maxill together form a sort of tongue for collecting sweets, while the 
 mandibles are not altered. Bees and Wasps have this kind of mouth. 
 
 The organs of vision are situated upon the epicranium in front or 
 near the top of the head. 
 
 They consist of a pair of prominent compound eyes (see Figs. 2 
 and 3, M), composed of a great number of six-sided lenses. In shape 
 these compound eyes are round, oblong or reniform (kidney-shaped). 
 In addition to these, many insects are provided with three small single 
 eyes, called ocelli (sing, ocellus}, situated upon or near the apex of the 
 head, in a triangle, as shown in Fig. 2, c. 
 
 All these eyes are fixed in their sockets, but protrude so much 
 that some of the lenses face in each direction, and the insect has no 
 need to turn its eyes to obtain warning of approaching danger, or in 
 its search for food. It has been suggested that the compound eyes- 
 serve the ordinary purposes of vision, while the ocelli are used upon 
 objects that are near and minute ; but this is mere conjecture. Some of 
 the best observers and most careful investigators assert that with all the 
 provision that has apparently been made for sight in insects their vision 
 would seem to be very imperfect, especially for objects at a distance. 
 
 Black and brown are the colors most commonly seen in the eyes of 
 insects, but many species have eyes that gleam with the tints and bril- 
 liancy of jewels, and add not a little to the beauty of the species. 
 
 The most striking appendages of the head of an insect are the 
 Feelers or Antennae (sing, antenna ). These are many-jointed organs in 
 which the sense of touch is thought chiefly to reside. Many experiments 
 go to show that they are also the organs of smell. They are of a great 
 variety of forms, a few of which are represented in Fig. 4. The differ- 
 ent shapes are distinguished as knobbed, capitate, laminate, pectinate? 
 filiform, etc. They are usually attached a little below and between 
 the eyes, as shown in figures 2 and 3. 
 
 A knowledge of the form and position of the antennae is very im- 
 portant in the classification of insects, especially in such orders as the 
 Coleoptera (beetles). 
 
 All the functions of the antennas are probably not yet known ; but 
 it has been ascertained that besides serving the purposes already men- 
 tioned, they are also indispensable in guiding the flight of all winged 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 11 
 
 species, and are, to a large extent, the in- 
 struments of communication between in- 
 dividuals of the same kind, as among ants, 
 and no doubt aid the perception of in- 
 sects in many ways that are beyond our 
 comprehension. 
 
 The sense of hearing in insects is not 
 considered to be as generally developed 
 as in the higher animals. Yet unques- 
 tionably many insects do hear, although 
 the special organs of this sense have been 
 located in comparatively few species. 
 Such ears as have been discovered are 
 not found on the head, but on the front 
 legs and at the base of the abdomen, 
 ant. of beetle; 7, bristle tipped ant. of These will be more particularly described 
 
 fly: 8, knobbed ant. of butterfly; 9, 
 
 feathered ant. of moth. j n a succeeding chapter. 
 
 Antennae of insects, adapted from 
 trathors. 1 and 3, lamellate ant. of 
 beetle; 2, capitate ant. of beetle; 4, 
 pectinate ant. of beetle: 5 and 6, filiform 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE THORAX AND ABDOMEN. 
 
 The three segments immediately back of the head constitute the 
 Thorax or chest of an insect. This division of the body is very com- 
 pact and usually somewhat globular, or barrel-shaped. Each of the seg- 
 ments or joints composing it has received a special name; the anterior 
 one next the head is termed the Prothorax; the middle one, the 
 Mesothorax, and the third or posterior one the Metathorax. Each of 
 these divisions, though apparently entire, is in reality, as has already 
 been observed, made up of several irregularly shaped pieces, which are 
 connected in such a way as to afford free play to the strong muscles 
 within. 
 
 The appendages of the thorax are the wings and legs. The wings 
 of insects are their most conspicuous members, upon which the beauty 
 and, in a great measure, the safety and enjoyment of most species de- 
 pend. 
 
 In their adult and perfect state nearly all insects possess these 
 organs, the only exceptions being the members of a few small groups, 
 such as fleas, bed-bugs, lice, some of the ants, and the females of a few 
 moths and beetles. 
 
12 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Tig 5. 
 
 A. 
 
 In their general structure the wings of insects show a number of 
 very distinct plans or types, which have been made the basis for the 
 system of classification commonly adopted. 
 
 The wings are attached to the mesothorax and metathorax, and 
 where present are always four in number, except in the order of the 
 two-winged flies (Diptera), where only the upper pair are fully devel- 
 oped, the lower pair being represented by little hammer-like organs, 
 
 called Halter es or Poisers. 
 
 Wings are composed of membrane, more 
 
 or less transparent, stretched over a frame- 
 work of horny tubes, termed veins or 
 nerves. The number and arrangement of 
 these tubes constitute the Venation orNeu- 
 ration of the wings, to which frequent refer- 
 ence is made in descriptions of insects^ 
 There are usually from three to five princi- 
 pal veins in each wing. These branch and 
 intersect very differently in the types of 
 different families. The spaces between the 
 veins are called cells, which are also named 
 and numbered in regular order.* 
 
 The first or upper wings are variously 
 designated as the Anteriors, the Superiors 
 A, i and ii, upper and under wings r the Primaries, while to the lower or un- 
 oi iSJ'SKtaiSSr.ShS?" * ^ pair are applied the opposite terms of 
 Posteriors or Secondaries. Many of the best writers use the simple 
 terms of fore and hind wings. 
 
 These organs exhibit an almost endless variety of outline, texture 
 and ornamentation. The wings of butterflies and moths, for example, 
 are broad and of rather frail texture, and are covered with minute 
 scales and hairs of rich and varied colors. The upper wings of beetles 
 
 * The outline and veination of the wings of insects are made great use of in classi- 
 fication, and for the convenience of any that may be interested, I append the term& 
 applied to margins, veins and cells as follows : On the wing of an insect the upper 
 edge, from where it is joined to the body to the most distant point, is the costa or 
 costal edge. The extreme point is the apex. (In the figure A, just above Z> 4 .) The 
 outer edge extends from the apex to the inner angle at d 4 , and the inner edge from 
 this point to the insertion of the wing. The veins are the costal vein, just below 
 a; 6, sub-costal vein ; d, median vein; J 1 , 6 2 , b s . 6 4 and b 5 , sub-costal veinlets ; d 1 , 
 d 2 , d 3 and d 4 , median veinlets ; e, internal vein ; /, discal cell . The other cells bear 
 the names of the veins which enclose them and are numbered from the costal vein. 
 In, B a is the costal vein ; 1, 2, 3, costal cells ; 4, 5, 6, sub-costal cells ; 7, 8, 9, median 
 cells ; 10, 11, 12, sub-median cells ; 13, internal cell. The veins and cells in the under 
 wings correspond to the principal ones in the upper. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 13 
 
 are comparatively small, being modified into simple sheaths, often of 
 metallic hardness and luster, beneath which the longer and broader 
 membraneous lower wings are compactly folded, except during night. 
 In the majority of other insects the wings are translucent or transpar- 
 ent, more closely veined, and not clothed with scales or hairs. The 
 other organs of locomotion are the legs. In fully developed insects 
 these are invariably six in number. Some of our most conspicuous but- 
 terflies, it is true, seem to have but four, but the absence of the front 
 pair is only apparent, and close examination will reveal them folded 
 close against the breast and perfectly formed, though small and use- 
 less. The legs of insects are modified in many ways to adapt them for 
 running, leaping, burrowing and swimming, according to the habit of 
 the species. Each leg consists of six parts : a large flattened joint 
 called the coxa, which is attached to the body ; this is succeeded by a 
 joint which is very variable in form, usually small, but in some species 
 large, and having the appearance of an ornamental appendage, and is 
 termed the trocanter ( plural trocanters); next to this is a long and 
 often very stout thigh or femur (plural femora ), succeeded by the shank 
 or tibia (plural tlbce), to which is attached the foot or tarsus (plural 
 tarsi), consisting of from two to five small joints, and in many species 
 terminating in a pair of sharp claws, sometimes with a pad-like cush- 
 ion, termed a pulvillus, between them. 
 
 The abdomen in insects is composed 
 of ten remaining segments. In most 
 species, however, the hindermost 
 rings are modified into the apparatus 
 for reproduction and are drawn more 
 or less within the body, so that only 
 from five to seven joints can be clear- 
 ly distinguished. It is in this part of 
 the body that the form of the typi- 
 cal ring can be traced with greater 
 accuracy than in any other region, as 
 Legs, original and adapted; A, leg of preda- ^ segments are not apparently con- 
 
 ceous beetle; a, coxa; &, trochanter; c, femur; 
 
 d, tibia: e, tarsus; /. tareal claws; g, tibial solidated as ill the thorax, but are 
 
 K&fitt?5&'% held to s ether 4 ite loose 'y with e]as - 
 
 ted for burrowing in the earth : a, femur; b, tibia ; ||^ membrane. 
 
 c, tarsus; D, leg of watrr beetle adapted to 
 
 swimming. 
 
 Along each side of the body is a row of more or less conspicuous 
 orifices. These are the openings through which the insect breathes, 
 and are termed stomata or stigmata or spiracles. They conduct to air- 
 tubes, to which more particular reference will be made in a succeeding 
 
14 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 chapter. There are nine or ten, sometimes eleven pairs of them, two 
 on the thorax and the others on the abdomen. 
 
 The only appendages of the abdomen are the organs of reproduc- 
 tion, which, in some species, as the bee and the wasp, are connected 
 with those of defense, in the form of stings. They consist, externally, 
 of various sorts of forceps or claspers in the male, and of saws, augers, 
 swords, and more commonly, piercers and stings in the female. All of 
 these instruments are very ingenious in their construction and admi- 
 rably adopted to the work for which they are designed. They will be 
 described in detail when the species to which they pertain are under 
 consideration. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 
 
 The internal structure of insects consists of the Muscular, Nervous 
 tind Circulatory systems, together with the organs of Respiration, Nutri- 
 tion and Secretion. 
 
 The examination of these parts is a work of great difficulty, owing 
 to their extreme delicacy and minuteness. Much of it requires a high 
 power of microscope and the skill of a hand experienced in dissecting ; 
 consequently the descriptions as with the characters of external struc- 
 ture cannot be easily verified by the observations of the tyro. Only 
 a brief account, therefore, will be attempted in this chapter. 
 
 The Muscular system lies just within the external crust, or body- 
 wall, to which it is closely attached. Its use is to hold the segments 
 and their various appendages in place, and to move them according to 
 the pleasure or necessity of the insect. It consists of a great number 
 of distinct fibers, not gathered into bundles like those of higher animals, 
 but spread out in thin layers over the parts requiring their action. In 
 their arrangement the muscles correspond to the jointed structure of 
 the body. Each segment has muscles that stretch from its front edge 
 to the front edge of the one succeeding it, and others that in like man- 
 ner connect the hinder edges. There are also bands of muscular fibers 
 passing around the body and others still that extend obliquely from one 
 joint to another. The muscles of insects are a pale yellow color and 
 of a soft, jelly-like consistence. But, although so delicate in texture, 
 their contractile power is surprising. Thus, many insects, of which 
 the flea is a good example, are enabled to leap more than one hundred 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 15 
 
 times their own height, or to sustain, without injury, weights several 
 hundred times that of their own. The lofty and long-continued flights 
 of some species, the capacities of others for running, burrowing, bor- 
 ing into hard substances, and for carrying or dragging heavy burdens, 
 all attest the wonderful strength and elasticity of their muscles. 
 
 The Nervous system consists of two delicate cords which extend 
 longitudinally, the one above the other, along the ventral side of the 
 body. Insects have no brain, properly so called, tyut the lower or 
 external cord has a series of swellings or nerve knots called ganglia, 
 varying in number from two to ten, from which nerve fibers are dis- 
 tributed in various directions. The ganglion in the head is, in many 
 species, larger than the others, but does not differ from them in any 
 other particular. Next to that the ganglia of the thorax are most 
 developed, especially in perfect insects, since from them the supply of 
 nerve-force for the wings and legs must be derived. The upper or 
 Internal cord is a simple thread without nerve knots or branches. It 
 lies very close to but scarcely in contact with the ganglionic cord. We 
 find in this nearly equal distribution of nerve force the reason why 
 many insects can live for a considerable time after a part of the body 
 lias been crushed or severed, and why the separated parts seem to be 
 .alike endowed with vitality. 
 
 The Circulatory system of insects is as yet but imperfectly under- 
 stood. The blood is cold and colorless, or with a slight yellowish tint. 
 It does not flow through tubes corresponding to our arteries and veins, 
 but seems to bathe the other tissues without being confined to special 
 channels. There is, however, a long, narrow membranous sac, situated 
 near the upper surface of the body, which forms a sort of heart, the 
 pulsations of which can be distinctly seen in many thin-skinned insects, 
 especially in larvae. This tube is called the dorsal vessel, and is divided 
 into several chambers by valves which permit the blood to pass only in 
 a forward direction. The blood enters the dorsal vessel through open- 
 ings in its sides, and, flowing toward the head, is expelled through a 
 large artery called the aorta, from whence its course can no longer be 
 traced. In its progress it is aerified by contact with the air vessels 
 and mixed with chyle from the stomach, and is thus prepared to nour- 
 ish the organism. It is scant in quantity compared with the blood of 
 vertebrates, and the circulation seems to be slow. 
 
 Respiration or breathing in insects is performed, not through a 
 single trachea or air-pipe communicating with a pair of lungs, as in 
 most of the higher animals, but through a series of delicate tubes which 
 divide and subdivide so as TO permeate all parts of the body. The 
 openings to these tubes are in most insects on the sides of the seg- 
 E 2 
 
16 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ments, and are termed the spiracles or stigmata. They vary in number 
 from two in some water insects to eleven, usually nine, pairs, and are often 
 quite conspicuous, especially in larvae. In their perfect state insects 
 breathe mainly through the first four or five pairs of orifices, and conse- 
 quently most species may be easily suffocated and killed by a sharp 
 pinch or continued pressure on the thorax. Many insects have large 
 vesicles connected with the trachea which they innate when about to 
 fly, thus lessening their specific gravity and enabling them to continue 
 long on the wing with less muscular exertion than would otherwise be 
 necessary. The breathing organs of aquatic insects are termed branchia* 
 They are analogous to the gills of fishes and present many very sin- 
 gular forms. 
 
 The organs of Nutrition are few in number and simple in structure 
 They consist principally of the mouth, already described, by which the 
 food is seized and masticated, and, internally, of a large, long tube in 
 which digestion takes place. This tube is the alimentary. canal, and 
 occupies a central position in the body of the insect. In the more 
 lowly species it is simply a straight duct or sac extending the whole 
 length of the body ; but in the highly organized forms it is contracted 
 at intervals so as to form several chambers, each of which has a dis- 
 tinct function. It terminates in a convolution of minute tubes that are 
 supposed to represent the liver and the small intestines of higher ani- 
 mals. The sesophagus or gullet opens into the first chamber or cavity 
 of the central canal, which is analogous to the crop. This in turn com- 
 municates with a smaller cavity, which is ridged internally or covered 
 with hard, tooth-like points, and performs the office of a gizzard, from 
 which the food passes into the largest alimentary division, representing 
 the true stomach. In the latter are secreted the gastric and pan- 
 creatic fluids, which, mingling with the comminuted food, prepare it to 
 nourish the system. The digestive powers of insects are enormous in 
 proportion to their size, many species of herbivorous larvae being 
 capable of digesting more than twice their own weight of leaves in the- 
 course of a day. 
 
 The organs of secretion, aside from those that elaborate the fluids 
 necessary to digestion, consist mainly of the salivary, odoriferous and 
 poison glands. The salivary glands, so called, are greatly developed in 
 such insects as the silk-worm, and the bee and wasp. They consist of 
 two tubes, running parallel to the anterior portion of the alimentary 
 canal. In the silk- worm and other larvae of the same family these 
 glands secrete the gum which, when drawn out through a little pointed 
 tube beneath the mouth, becomes the beautiful and valuable fiber 
 known 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 17 
 
 The salivary fluid is used by the bee and wasp to moisten and 
 cement the particles of sap and wood from which the brood and honey 
 cells are made. 
 
 The odoriferous organs are of various construction, and are located 
 in some species in one part of the body, and in others in another. They 
 are designed in some cases as a means of attraction between the sexes ; 
 in others to repel the attacks of their enemies. 
 
 The poison glands are situated sometimes in the mouth, but more 
 frequently at the tip of the abdomen. The poison is of the nature of 
 an acid, and is injected into wounds made by the jaws or by the piercer 
 or sting. Its use is to ward off or revenge the attacks of foes and to 
 paralyze or kill the prey required by the insect for its own food or as 
 food for its young. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. 
 
 Transformations of a lepidopterous insect, the corn 
 worm or boll worm (Heliothes armigera), after Riley ; a, b, 
 egg, magnified; c, larvse; d, pupa; e /, imago or moth. 
 
 The transformations or metamorphoses of insects have been already 
 alluded to as one of their most peculiar and interesting characteristics. 
 These are certain changes of form and habit by which the life of every 
 insect, after hatching, is divided into three more or less distinct periods 
 or stages. 
 
 Transformation may be either complete or partial. It is complete when 
 the appearance and general habit of the insect is so different at each 
 stage of its existence, that only experience enables us to recognize the 
 various forms as pertaining to the same individual ; and partial when 
 the insect retains essentially the same form and habit during life, its 
 
18 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 successive stages of development being marked only by the acquisition 
 of certain organs and appendages. 
 
 The most familiar example of complete transformation is afforded 
 by an insect which in its first active state is a sluggish, worm-like cater- 
 pillar, feeding voraciously on herbage, and changing in due time to the 
 inactive, casket-like chrysalis, which bears as little resemblance to the 
 larvae that preceded it as to the imago that shall ultimately escape from 
 it, viz., the broad-winged, bright-hued butterfly, instinct with graceful 
 activity, as it hovers over the flowers from which it sips is sole nourish- 
 ment, a dainty draught of nectar. Examples of partial transformation 
 are found in such insects as grasshoppers, locusts, true bugs, etc. 
 
 The life of an insect begins with the embryo contained in an egg. 
 Instinct guides the parent insect in the placing of her eggs, so that her 
 progeny, as soon as hatched, find themselve surrounded with the kind 
 of food they require. The eggs of insects are of various forms round, 
 oval, conical or disk -like. They are deposited singly or in clusters ; 
 sometimes openly exposed on the surfaces of leaves or stems, some- 
 times concealed with the utmost ingenuity. Those of many species are 
 beautifully colored or elegantly sculptured. The eggs of some small 
 insects which produce but few are proportionately large, while on the 
 other hand many large insects lay very minute eggs, but make up in 
 number what is lacking in size. 
 
 The insect in hatching from the egg enters on its larval stage of 
 existence. This is the form in which all actual growth takes place, and 
 in which, as a consequence, the insect requires most food. It may, in 
 succeeding stages of development, assume different forms and acquire 
 additional members, but it never really increases in bulk. 
 
 The larvae of the various kinds of insects differ so much in appear- 
 ance, and in many other respects, that it is difficult to give a list of 
 characters that are common to all. The typical form is more*or less 
 worm-like: i. e., cylindrical and elongate; but the variations from this 
 type are exceedingly numerous, even among insects whose transforma- 
 tions are complete; while those that undergo only partial transforma- 
 tion do not conform to it at all. 
 
 In the majority of larvae the thorax and abdomen are not distinct, 
 except that the first mentioned region is often provided with the rudi- 
 ments of legs. The latter are of a shelly texture, small and pointed at 
 the extremity, with three or four joints. They are six in number, and 
 are termed the true or thoracic legs, to distinguish them from the fleshy 
 disks called false legs or prolegs, which in many species support the 
 hinder part of the body. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 19 
 
 Many larvae, such as those of bees, flies and some species of beetle s, 
 have neither legs nor prolegs their movements, in consequence of 
 this lack, being much restricted. 
 
 In their habits larvae are either active or inactive. The former 
 including by far the larger proportion of the young of insects are 
 capable of sufficient exertion to enable them to provide for their own 
 necessities. 
 
 Inactive or sedentary larvae, on the contrary, are hatched in cells 
 or chambers, which they never leave, and subsist upon food previously 
 stored for their use, or, as in the case of bees and ants, they are the 
 objects of constant attention from the mature insects. 
 
 In the course of their growth all larvae molt or shed their skins 
 several times. This singular process becomes necessary at intervals, 
 because the external covering will only admit of stretching to a limited 
 extent. A new skin is constantly forming under the outer one, and 
 when the latter becomes too tight it is after some preliminary fasting 
 and other preparation ruptured and cast off, and the larvae appears in 
 a new and for a time, more elastic dress. The usual number of molts 
 is four or five. A few insects of the lower orders molt but twice, while 
 others, especially certain aquatic species and others whose larval life 
 is long, molt from ten to twenty times. Sedentary larvae shed their 
 skins in shreds and by degrees. 
 
 The length of larval life varies with the different species. Many 
 complete their growth in a very short time, often within a week, while 
 some continue to grow from one to several years. The average length 
 of larval life among herbivorous insects is about four weeks. 
 
 When the limit of growth is reached the larva ceases to feed, and, 
 guided by instinct, prepares for its first transformation. Inactive larvae 
 spin a slight web around their delicate bodies, and some kinds are 
 sealed up in their cells by the mature iusects. 
 
 Active larvae take various measures to secure themselves from ob- 
 servation and injury during the time when they shall be powerless to 
 escape from or defend themselves against their enemies. Some creep 
 into crevices of stones or bark, or hide ingeniously among crumpled 
 leaves. A large proportion burrow into the earth; others spin for 
 their protection thick, silken or parchment-like cocoons, while some 
 require nothing more than a retired nook in which to suspend them- 
 selves by slender but strong cables of silk. After a longer or shorter 
 rest in their various retreats, the larval skins are cast off for the last 
 time, and each insect appears in a new and entirely different form and 
 is termed a pupa. 
 
20 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 In the pupa state most insects are quiescent and apparently life- 
 less, and while it continues are incapable of taking food or performing 
 any of the active functions of life. Pupae that are enclosed in cocoons 
 or cells are termed folliculate. A pupa destined to give forth a butter- 
 fly is designated a chrysalis, from a Greek word meaning golden, in 
 reference to the gilded ornamentation of many chrysalides. 
 
 There are two forms of quiescent pupae, the oUeeted and the 
 coarctate. In the first mentioned form the legs, wings and antennae of 
 the future imago are shown, each enclosed in a separate sheath. The 
 pupae of bees, wasps, beetles, etc., are obtected. In coarctate pupae a 
 continuous shell encloses the members as well as the body of the 
 insect. 
 
 The pupae of insects not subject to complete metamorphosis are 
 active, and do not differ much either in form or habit from the full- 
 grown larvae, except in the greater development of the rudimentary 
 wings. 
 
 After a certain time, varying with the nature of the insect and with 
 the season of the year, the second transformation takes place and the 
 insect issues from the pupa shell in its mature or perfect form. 
 
 In this stage of its existence it is, with a few exceptions, charac- 
 terized by the possession of fully developed wings. It has also large, 
 compound eyes, conspicuous antennae and various other organs which 
 did not appear in its preceding forms.. The head, thorax and abdomen 
 are now well-defined regions, and the sexes can usually be distinguished 
 with ease. In most species the females are larger than the males, and 
 the latter, besides being more slender in body, ar'e often more gaily 
 colored and have the antennae longer or more ornamental than those of 
 the female. 
 
 The abdomen of the female is furnished with an ingenious instru- 
 ment called an ovipositor, through which the eggs are conducted to 
 such situations as will be most favorable to the future larvae. It serves 
 not only to place the eggs, but is used by many insects to drill holes or 
 saw slits or otherwise prepare suitable receptacles for them. In such 
 species the ovipositor is usually a very conspicuous appendage. In 
 others it is, when not in use, drawn entirely within the body. 
 
 As previously remarked, after insects have acquired their wings 
 they never grow. Thus the idea that little flies or gnats develop into 
 "house-flies" or "blue-bottles," as some people suppose, or that little 
 beetles or bugs or butterflies ever grow to be large beetles or bugs or 
 butterflies, is seen to be entirely erroneous. 
 
 Since perfect insects do not grow, it follows that they require but 
 little food ; some are incapable of taking even a sip of dew or nectar. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 21 
 
 Others, like the butterfly and wasp, have a very different diet from that 
 upon which they subsisted as larvae. Some species, however, such as 
 locusts, leaf-eating beetles, etc., retain their voracious propensities 
 throughout life. 
 
 Hyper-metamorphosis, which attends the development of a few 
 species of parasitic beetles and some flies of the Ephemera family, is 
 the assumption of more than the usual number of forms in the process 
 of growth. The transformations of such species are not invariably 
 from a lower to a higher organization, but some of the intermediate 
 stages are often of a retrograde character. This anomalous mode of 
 development will be illustrated in succeeding chapters in connection 
 with the history of the Blister beetles, Bee parasites and Nerve -winged 
 flies. 
 
 Such is an outline of the history, continually repeated, of all insect 
 life; but the number of species is so vast, and their forms and habits 
 o different, that the careful observer finds an infinite variety of detail 
 which gives continual novelty and interest to the subject. 
 
22 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SEVEN PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF INSECTS,. 
 
 Butterfly, Order III. 
 
 Beetle, Order II. 
 
 Wood-boring Wasp, Order I. 
 
 Locust, Order VI. 
 
 Ant-Lion, Order VII. 
 
 , Syrphus fly, Order IV.. 
 
 Bug, Order V. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 23- 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND NAMES OF INSECTS. 
 
 Having in preceding chapters considered the characters by which- 
 insects are distinguished from all other animals, we shall now proceed 
 to notice those by which they may be distinguished from each other. 
 
 As a preliminary to such observation it will be a good plan for the 
 student to collect for an hour or two in various situations field, wood 
 and water-courses all the insects that he can find. When these are 
 examined he will perceive at a glance that they are not all alike that 
 they differ in form, size, color, and in many points of structure. He 
 may then proceed to assort them, placing together those that appear 
 to be exactly alike. The next step will be to compare the different 
 lots, when it will be found that several of these closely resemble one 
 or more of the other lots, and such may be arranged side by side. 
 Still other combinations may be made with these compound groups r 
 until finally the entire collection will be embraced in a few comprehen- 
 sive assemblages. These groups may be considered to represent Spe- 
 cies, Genera, Families and Orders. 
 
 Classification consists in a systematic arrangement of specimens 
 according to their place in each division, thus showing their near and 
 their remote relationships. By means of it we are enabled to consider 
 a multitude of organic forms under a few general heads. 
 
 A Species comprises all individuals that are supposed to have had 
 a common parentage, and are exactly alike in all essential points of 
 structure and habit. 
 
 A Genus ( plural genera) is an assemblage of species that are not 
 the same in all particulars, but have more points of resemblance than 
 of difference. 
 
 The characters upon which genera are based are different in the- 
 different families of insects, and even concerning insects in the same 
 family the opinions of entomologists differ as to what constitutes a 
 character of generic value. 
 
 A Family includes all the genera that have in common a few impor- 
 tant peculiarities of form and habit. 
 
 A Tribe is an assemblage of families whose relationship, though 
 remote, is inferred from the similar structure of a few organs. 
 
 An Order includes all these groups and is founded upon agreement 
 in general structure and mode of development. 
 
24 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 With insects, as with all other organic beings, the species is the 
 root of classification the only group defined by nature. All other 
 associations of forms, though based upon natural affinities, have been 
 devised by man, and, being in a sense artificial, are liable to rearrange- 
 ment, restriction or extension whenever new discoveries, or the adop- 
 tion of new theories of classification, make such changes seem desirable. 
 
 In classifying insects we first group them according to their gen- 
 eral structure : i. e., arrange them in their proper Order, Tribe, Family 
 etc., which is ordinarily quite easy, after which we proceed to look up 
 the more difficult matters of genus and species. 
 
 The first step, then, is to determine in which Order a given speci- 
 men belongs. This can usually be decided without difficulty by an 
 examination of the wings, for in the system of classification most gen- 
 erally adopted, the Orders seven in number are mainly founded upon 
 the character of these conspicuous and important organs, and the 
 names of these Orders are Greek compounds of which the termination 
 jptera means wings^ while the prefix describes the kind of wing. 
 
 There is some difference of opinion among writers as to the rela- 
 tive rank of the Orders, but the following arrangement seems most in 
 harmony with the development of the insects included in each Order, 
 -and has the sanction of a majority ot the best authorities : 
 
 I. H YMENOPTERA (membrane- wings), bees, wasps, ants, etc. 
 
 Jl. COLEOPTERA (sheath-wings), beetles. 
 
 III. LEPIDOPTERA (scale-wings), butterflies and moths. 
 
 IV. D1PTERA (two wings), house-flies, mosquitoes, gnats, etc. 
 V. HEM1PTERA (half-wings), true bugs, cicadas, plant lice, etc. 
 
 VI. ORTHOPTERA (straight- wings), grasshoppers, katy-dids, crickets, etc. 
 VII. NEUROPTERA (nerve-wings), dragon-flies, lace- wing flies, etc. 
 
 Two of these orders, COLEOPTERA and DLPTERA, were defined 
 ^according to the type of wing, by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, 
 more than three hundred years before the Christian era. Thus it will 
 be seen that entomology is one of the most ancient of the natural 
 sciences, although for many centuries it made little or no true progress. 
 
 Adopting the idea of Aristotle, Linnaeus (or Linne), a Swedish nat- 
 uralist, and the most celebrated one of the eighteenth century, pro- 
 posed five additional orders. In his system, however, the ORTHOP- 
 TERA were included with the HEM1PTERA, and the seventh order 
 APTERA was devised to contain all insects which, in their perfect state, 
 lacked wings. But as it was long since discovered that wingless spe- 
 cies and wingless females exist in each of the orders, from which it 
 would be extremely inconvenient to separate them, the order APTERA 
 was dropped and its number made good by a very necessary separa- 
 tion of the ORTHOPTERA from the HEMIPTERA. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 25 
 
 Recent authors have multiplied and rearranged the orders of in- 
 sects on various other plans, founded in many cases on" very obvious 
 natural distinctions, but the arrangement here presented forms a very 
 good basis for subdivision, and meets with continued favor from a 
 majority of our naturalists. 
 
 In science the name of every animal and plant is a double one : 
 First, the name of the genus to which it belongs, called the generic 
 name ; and second, the name of the species which it represents, called 
 the specific name. These scientific names are usually derived from the 
 Greek and Latin or have their terminations from those languages. 
 
 The names of tribes often refer to the style of that particular organ 
 in which all the species included in them agree. The names of families 
 are usually adapted from that of the leading genus. The generic name 
 may refer to some prominent characteristic of the typical species, or 
 may be entirely fanciful. It is always a proper noun and should be 
 written with a capital. 
 
 The specific name is sometimes from some attribute of the species, 
 or from the plant or other substance on which it feeds, sometimes from 
 a resemblance it bears to some other object, and not infrequently from 
 the name of the discoverer or some person whom the describer wishes 
 to compliment. It is either an adjective or a noun in the possessive 
 case, and is now seldom written with a capital, not even when it is de- 
 rived from the name of a person. 
 
 It often happens that the same species is described by two or more 
 authors, and although the name first published is considered to be the 
 correct one, it is not always easy to discover which this is. To prevent 
 confusion, therefore, as well as to give each author credit for his work, 
 it is customary to add after the name of the insect that of the author 
 who bestowed it, thus : Dynastes tityrus of Linnaeus, or Papilio asterlas, 
 Cramer. The names of the authors aife commonly abbreviated as 
 Linn, for Linnaeus, Cram, for Cramer, Fabr. for Fabricius, etc. 
 
 Besides their scientific names, many insects have common or 
 popular names. For instance, in this country we have the " Bed Ad- 
 miral" butterfly, the " Devil's riding horse," the "May beetle or June 
 bug," the "Chinch bug," the " Weevil," and many others. Some of 
 these names are known and correctly applied everywhere ; others are 
 very local, and in other sections of the country people would not 
 know to what insect they pertained. 
 
 Another advantage in the use of the scientific name-is that it is 
 perfectly intelligible to educated people in all countries, and, when 
 given in accordance with established rules, there is seldom any question 
 
26 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 as to the species designated. Whenever, therefore, exactness is re- 
 quired, the scientific name should accompany the popular one, and in* 
 these cases it is enclosed in parenthesis. For example : The Golden- 
 Tortoise beetles (Cassida aurichalcea, Fabr). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Order I. HYMENOPTERA.. 
 
 [Fi*. 9.] 
 
 Bald-faced Hornet (Vespa maculata), 
 after Biley. 
 
 This Order includes the Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon flies and 
 other four-winged parasites, Gall flies, Saw flies, and a few Wood borers. 
 These are not by any means the largest or most conspicuous of insects,. 
 but they occupy the highest rank on account of their perfection of form 
 and the remarkable intelligence which many of them display. The three 
 leading groups have from time immemorial attracted the attention of 
 man by their interesting social relations, their industry, their mechani- 
 cal skill, and their tender care for their young in these respects dis- 
 playing a wonderful analogy to the traits and enterprises of the human 
 race. 
 
 Another reason for giving this Order precedence is that among 
 its members we find the rru&st complete metamorphosis the larvae- 
 being far more helpless and dependent on the personal care or the 
 most painstaking prevision of the mature insects than is the case of 
 the young of other Orders. In this, also, there is an interesting cor- 
 respondence to man, who in infancy is utterly incapable of taking care 
 of himself, far more so than any of the lower animals. 
 
 The frame of hymenopterous insects is, in most of the species, 
 very hard and compact, especially on the thorax. The surface is, in 
 some, smooth and polished, and often brilliantly colored ; in others it i 
 densely clothed with short hairs, giving it a resemblance to plush or 
 velvet. 
 
 The head is comparatively large, and is attached, vertically, to- 
 the thorax by a short, slender neck, upon which it can be freely turned 
 in any direction. The mouth is provided with apparatus for both bit- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 27 
 
 ing and sticking, but the upper jaws (mandibles), though large and 
 sharply toothed, are but little used in mastication, but serve instead as 
 tools, of which very skillful and effective use is made in various me- 
 chanical enterprises. The lower jaws (maxillae) and lower lips (labii) are 
 greatly changed from the typical form, to adapt them for taking up liquid 
 nourishment, upon which the perfect insects mainly subsist. The com- 
 pound eyes cover a considerable portion of the head, and are either 
 round, oblong or kidney-shaped (reniform). Upon the top of the head 
 three small simple eyes (ocelli) can in most species be plainly seen. The 
 antennae are short and stout or long and slender (filiform), or flail-shaped : 
 i. e., bent in the middle and thickened more or less toward the tips. 
 
 The first joint of the thorax (the pro-thorax) is very narrow and 
 on top crowded down almost or quite out of sight ; but the second 
 and third joints (the meso-thorax and meta-thorax) are large, and to- 
 gether form a compact and nearly globular division of the body. The 
 legs vary considerably in form in the different groups, but are usually 
 long and rather slender, and terminate in five-jointed feet (tarsi). The 
 wings are composed of glassy or mica-like membrane, supported by a 
 few strong veins. In a majority of the species they are quite narrow, 
 the under pair being smaller than the upper, arid during flight are 
 -attached to the latter by the row of minute hooks which may be seen 
 on their upper (costal) edges, which catch into a ridge made for that 
 purpose on the lower (inner) margin of the upper pair. In a great 
 number of species of Hymenoptera the abdomen swells out in the mid- 
 dle, tapering to a point at the posterior end, and in the opposite 
 direction to a slender joint, of greater or less length, called the pedicel 
 or petiole, by which it is attached to the thorax. From six to eight 
 rings or segments only can be distinguished in the abdomen. Each of 
 these appears to be composed of two plates, an upper and a lower (a 
 dorsal and a ventral), the former overlapping the latter on the sides. 
 'The tip of the abdomen of the female is always modified into an ovi- 
 positor. If this organ is connected with a poison gland and drawn 
 within the body when not in use, it is called a sting; but if it is a con- 
 spicuous appendage and not capable of emitting poison, it is termed a 
 piercer. 
 
 [Figs, loaudii,] The larvae of the higher Hymenoptera are, 
 
 for the most part, soft, fleshy, footless grubs, 
 confined during the whole of the growing pe- 
 riod to the cells of wax, paper or mad in which 
 they are hatched. Some species subsist upon 
 food stored in their cells at the time the eggs 
 from which they hatch are laid ; others require 
 Larva>nd pupa- of wasp, constant feeding and care from the mature in- 
 
28 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 sects that have them in charge. The larvae of some of the lower fami- 
 lies in the Order are more independent. The mother insect having- 
 placed her eggs upon the leaves or in the wood on which her instinct 
 teaches her her young will thrive, the latter are, upon hatching, able 
 to provide for themselves. 
 
 When full grown most of these larvae spin a thin, oblong, silken 
 cocoon, within which, after a short rest, they change to pupae. The 
 pupae are quiescent and of the obtected form, each leg, wing and an- 
 tenna being enclosed in its own sheath, which fits it as neatly as a glove 
 finger fits a finger of the human hand. 
 
 All the members are closely applied to the body and remain immov- 
 able until the time of the second transformation. As a rule, eight or 
 ten days only are passed in the pupa state. Then the membranous 
 covering splits on the top of the thorax, the head, legs and embryo 
 wings are drawn out of their coverings, and the insect gnaws open the 
 end of its cocoon and lifts the covering to its cell unless the latter 
 is opened for it by one of the mature "worker" insects and after a pe- 
 riod of hardening and general preparation, varying from an hour or 
 two to one or two days, it lifts itself by its strong new wings and sails 
 away into the sunshine. The Hyinenoptera are mostly diurnal insects,, 
 and are seldom seen upon the wing, except during warm, pleasant 
 weather. The primary division of the Order, founded upon peculiari- 
 ties of structure and habit, is into two sections : 
 
 1. Stinging Insects (A o u L E A T A), comprising the Bees, Wasps 
 and Ants. 
 
 2. Piercing Insects (T E R E B R A N T I A), comprising several fami- 
 lies of Parasitic Flies, Gall-flies, Saw-flies and Wood-borers. In the 
 first section the sexes are distinguished by a difference in tl^e number 
 of the joints of the antennas and the abdomen the antennas of the 
 males having thirteen joints and the abdomen seven apparent segments, 
 while the antennae of the females have but twelve joints and the abdomen 
 only six distinguishable segments. All the females belonging in this- 
 section have the ovipositor (the organ by which the eggs are placed) 
 connected with two poison glands ; and whenever this instrument is 
 used as a weapon, a minute portion of the acrid fluid is forced into the 
 wound made by its point and causes a burning and stinging pain. 
 
 This poison is used by certain wasps to paralyze other insects and 
 spiders which they collect and store in cells as food for their young. 
 In this case it does not Jcill, but produces in the victims a state of help- 
 less torpor in which they continue until devoured by the wasp larvae. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 29 
 
 The Stinging Hymenoptera are separated into four very distinct 
 tribes : 
 
 1st. Bees (Anthophila flower-lovers). 
 
 2d. True Wasps (Diploptera double-wings). 
 
 3d. Wood and Sand Wasps (Fossores diggers). 
 
 4th. Ants (Heterogyna different females). 
 
 Each of these tribes includes several families, the peculiarities of 
 which will be noticed in succeeding chapters. The Piercing insects 
 composing the second division of the Order are distinguished chiefly 
 by the absence of the poison gland. In the higher families the form of 
 the body and the venation of the wings are much like those of bees 
 and wasps, the most obvious difference being the more lengthened ab- 
 domen and the excerted and often conspicuous ovipositor. The more 
 lowly forms of the Piercing species have the abdomen joined to the 
 thorax by a wide base instead of a slender pedicel, the wings are more 
 net-veined, and in their immature stages they approach certain groups 
 of the Lepidoptera. The section is subdivided into two comprehen- 
 sive tribes : 
 
 1st. Four-winged Parasites ( Entomophaga insect-eaters). 
 
 2d. Saw-flies and Wood-borers (Phytophaga plant-eaters). 
 
 The Plant-eaters include almost all the insects in the Order that 
 are seriously injurious. All the others are either beneficial some of 
 them in a very high degree or neutral in their relations to man. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Order HYMENOPTERA. Section Ac ULB AT A 
 BEES (Anthophila). 
 
 [Fig. 12.] 
 
 Honey Bee. 
 
 The Bees are very apppropriately termed the " Flower-lovers," since 
 they are, in all stages of their lives, wholly dependent upon the floral pro- 
 ducts, nectar and pollen, for their food. And in the economy of nature 
 this dependence is, to a great extent, mutual ; for while the Bees are seek- 
 in g sustenance for themselves and their young from flower to flower, 
 they are at the same time unconsciously assisting the latter to produce 
 good seed as a result of cross- fertilization, the pollen from the stamens 
 of one plant or blossom being carried by them to the pistils of another. 
 
.30 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Thus we see that while Bees could not live without flowers, many 
 flowering plants would soon cease to exist but for the agency of Bees 
 in assisting them to a vigorous development. 
 
 It is said there are over two thousand species of bees, the majority 
 of which are small-sized and plainly-colored insects. They are distin- 
 guished from other Hymenoptera by the structure of the mouth and 
 legs, which are peculiarly adapted for collecting and conveying nectar 
 and pollen. The mouth of the Honey Bee, for example, is quite differ- 
 13.] ent from that of other biting insects. To the naked 
 
 eye it appears like a bundle of flat, pointed bristles, 
 but when examined under the microscope these take 
 the forms represented in Fig. 13. The outer jaws 
 are large and strong, adapted for use as tools, such 
 as scissors, knives, trowels, and so forth. The inner or 
 lower jaws (maxillae), of which there are two pairs, 
 consist of long, slender jointed blades, which are 
 used for piercing and probing, while the under lip 
 (labium) is prolonged into a sort of hairy tongue. 
 Head of Bee. very flexible, with which the nectar of flowers is 
 lapped up, and with the aid of the maxillae drawn back and deposited 
 in the k ' honey crop " or provenculus where, by some mysterious chemi- 
 cal process, the crude nectar is transformed into the delicious substance 
 known as honey. Such proportion of it as is required by the insect 
 for food passes onward through the digestive tubes, while the surplus 
 is regurgitated into cells and stored for food for itself or the young of 
 which it has the care. 
 
 When not in use, all these lengthened mouth parts are drawn close 
 together and bent under the chin. 
 
 The modification of the legs, especially of the hinder pair, is to 
 adapt them to the work of gathering and carrying pollen. The shank 
 {tibia) is broad and somewhat hollowed out on the inner surface, and 
 has a rim of stiff hairs, thus forming a sort of basket in which the 
 pollen is piled when it has been gathered by the feet, the basal joints 
 of which are enlarged and otherwise especially adapted for the pur- 
 pose, and when also it has been brushed by the front and middle legs 
 from other parts of the hairy body on which it has accumulated in the 
 repeated divings of the insect into the cup of flowers. 
 
 The sting is a slender tube formed of three blades, which may be 
 protruded from the abdomen, the tip of which has a needle-like point 
 and in some species is barbed. It serves not only as an ovipositor, but 
 at the will of the insect, as a weapon, in the latter case conveying into 
 the wound made by it a minute portion of an acrid fluid the pediceled 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 31 
 
 abdomen enabling the insect to thrust its sting with considerable force. 
 The poison is of an acid nature and may be neutralized with an alkali. 
 An important secretion of many bees is the product known as wax. 
 This is an exudation from the under surface of the abdomen, which 
 Prof. Cook describes as "a solid unctuous substance and is, as shown 
 by its chemical composition, a fat-like material. * * * It is formed by 
 the secreting membrane, and there are four u wax pockets " on each 
 side." 
 
 [Fig. u.] Tne front legs of honey bees are provided with 
 
 an ingenious contrivance for dressing the antennae. 
 It is a movable spur at the end of the thigh which 
 closes over a notch in the base of the tibia, the 
 antennae being drawn through the aperture thus 
 formed. Several other functions for this contrivance 
 have been suggested. 
 
 In consideration of a difference in the length of 
 the mouth parts, the bees are separated into two 
 families : 
 
 APIVJE long-tongued bees ; and 
 
 Front Leg of Honey Bee- ANDRENIDJE Short-tongued bees. 
 
 They are further distinguished, according to their relations with 
 each other, as Social, Solitary and Parasitic or Cuckoo bees. 
 
 In this country there are but two genera of social bees, namely, 
 the genus Apis, which contains but one species melifica, the well- 
 known Hive or Honey bee, and the genus Bombus, containing about 
 fifty species of the almost equally well-known Humble or Bumble bees. 
 
 All social bees, as well as other insects of the same habit, live to- 
 gether in larger or smaller communities, and have a regular system of 
 government and labor a sort of ideal communism in which no indi- 
 vidual is independent, but each performs certain duties for the common 
 good. Among the bees each colony contains three sorts of individuals : 
 one or more perfect females, or queens, which are the mothers of the 
 swarm ; a considerable number of males or drones, only permitted or 
 developed in the hive or nest at certain seasons, and a great number of 
 smaller, imperfect females, most appropriately termed "workers," since 
 upon them devolve all the labors of the colony. 
 
 The typical species of this group is the Hive bee, celebrated from 
 time immemorial in sacred as well as classic literature, for the delicious 
 and useful products of its industry, honey and wax ; for its intelligence 
 and mechanical skill, and its various peculiar developments and adapta- 
 tions. Although an introduced species, it is now thoroughly natural- 
 
 E 3 
 
32 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ized in this country, and is often found wild in forests, where it inhabits 
 hollow trees. It is said, however, that it never occurs far from the 
 habitations of men, which fact caused the Indians, in earlier times, to 
 call it the " white man's fly." It may be considered, indeed, like the 
 silk-worm, a thoroughly domesticated insect; and though so familiar to 
 us, the study of its habits has never lost its fascination nor its reward 
 in the discovery of some remarkable attribute or power. 
 
 The form of the worker bee, with its compact, hairy body, its 
 strong wings, its large but widely separated eyes, its long proboscis, 
 and its sharp sting which has the peculiarity of being barbed, and of 
 causing the death of its user by its loss, if thrust too vigorously into 
 the skin of the offender is familiar to every one who has ever walked 
 In field or garden. The queen bee is less frequently seen, even by the 
 careful observer, although, where glass hives are used, she can occasional- 
 ly be noticed in her promenades among the brood cells. She has a much 
 longer body than the worker, and her proboscis and the pollen baskets 
 on the hinder tibiae are not so well developed. But one perfect queen 
 mother is permitted in a hive at one time, and when the colony grows 
 too large for its quarters, the mature queen goes with the migrating 
 swarm, and her place and office in the hive is assumed by one of the 
 young queens, of which, in the swarming season, there are always a 
 number at the point of development. At this season, too, the males or 
 drones are found in the hive in greatest numbers. These are stouter 
 bodied than the worker bees, and have the mouth parts and legs less per- 
 fectly developed, while the eyes are larger and almost meet at the top of 
 the head. They are hatched from unimpregnated eggs laid by an occa- 
 sional fertile worker, or by an unmated queen, or, most remarkable of all, 
 by a fertile queen, when she chooses to allow an egg to pass through the 
 oviduct without contact with the sperm cells stored, after pairing, in her 
 spermathica. In view of this we learn that the queen bee possesses a 
 power not shared, so far as known, by any other animal, viz.: that of con- 
 trolling the sex of her offspring at will. The queen cells are more than 
 twice the size of those built for the rearing of workers, and are placed 
 here and there on the edges of the brood comb and at right angles to 
 the worker cells. The egg and embryo are of the same nature as those 
 designed to produce workers, and the queens or perfect females result 
 from their more spacious cells and the more nitrogenized food called 
 "royal jelly" on which they are fed. The average life of the queen is 
 from two to three years, and instances are on record of her attaining 
 the age of five years. During the ordinary period of life she lays be- 
 tween one and two millions of eggs. The life of the worker seldom 
 exceeds eight or nine months and that of the drone two or three. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 33 
 
 The period of development, from tlie laying of the egg until the cap- 
 ping of the cells by the workers, when the larvae are full grown, is said 
 is said to be eight days. During this time they are regularly fed and 
 attended by the younger workers, on which devolves the office of nurses. 
 After the cell is covered the larva spins around itself a very delicate 
 cocoon of silk, within which it transforms to pupa. The latter has all 
 the members and the form of the mature insect, but all in a very soft 
 state and closely appressed to the body. After a repose of about three 
 weeks the young bees emerge, but remain in the hive for a few days, 
 until the wings and other members are sufficiently hardened to be ready 
 for duty. The hive bee is not torpid during winter, although many of 
 its activities are suspended. It appropriates large quantities of honey 
 and generates heat in proportion to the degree of atmospheric cold. 
 On the other hand, in every hot weather in summer, the bees, by the 
 vibrations of their wings, are able to cool and ventilate their hives. 
 
 Next in popular interest to the Honey bee, although they do not 
 contribute directly to our luxuries, are the large, clumsy, noisy Hum- 
 ble bees. They are the largest insects in their tribe. In color they 
 are black or black banded with yellow, and the entire body is densely 
 covered with short, stiff hair. The wings, instead of being transparent, 
 are of a purplish or smoky hue. The tongue and maxillae are longer 
 than those of the Honey bee, but constructed on the same plan, and 
 the added length enables these insects to extract the nectar from and 
 thus be the means of cross-fertilizing many flowers among them the 
 red clover in which the sweets are inaccessible to the former species. 
 The jaws are broad and strong, adapted for digging in the earth. The 
 nests of the largest species, Bombus pennsylvanicus, De Geer, are usu- 
 ally, if not invariably, made underground, sometimes in little caves 
 made for the purpose, but often in the deserted burrows of field mice 
 or similar cavities for the sake of economizing labor. Only the queens 
 or fertile females live over winter, and in the spring each one of these 
 founds a separate colony. Her mode of procedure is as follows : 
 After she has selected and prepared her home, she gathers a quantity 
 of pollen and honey, which she kneads into a mass, and upon which she 
 deposits a number of eggs. From these the larvae hatch in a few days 
 and eat their way into the ball of bee-bread in different directions, 
 growing, meantime, very rapidly. The rude cells thus formed are from 
 time to time strengthened and extended with wax by the mother bee, 
 until the larvae are sealed up for transformation. The first brood are 
 all workers, and as they mature the queen relinquishes her outside 
 labors to them, and devotes herself exclusively to increasing the num- 
 bers of the colony. About the middle of the season drone and queen 
 
34 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 cells are built, and upon the emergence of the occupants the two sexes 
 take their marriage flight together, after which, upon the approach of 
 cold weather, the colony disbands, and all except the perfect females 
 soon perish. The latter seek shelter about buildings, in hollows of 
 trees, and possibly some return to the nest and remain dormant through 
 the winter, reviving when spring returns to repeat the annual process 
 of founding new colonies and reproducing the species. 
 
 The Humble bees are far less skillful and exact in their mechani- 
 cal efforts than the Honey bee. The cells are oval instead of hexago- 
 nal, and very irregularly placed, and honey and brood-comb are inter- 
 mixed without much order. The honey is very sweet, but somewhat 
 rank-flavored, and in many persons produces headache, while the wax 
 is dark, coarse-grained and doughy. 
 
 The economy of the Solitary bees, belonging in the family APID^E 
 is quite different from that of the social species. Each pair, or more 
 properly each female, builds and provisions a separate nest, which con- 
 sists of from a half-dozen to a great number of cells. A quantity of 
 food, prepared mainly from pollen, is stored in each cell, in which a 
 single egg is also deposited. The cell is then closed and the mother 
 insect takes no further care for her young. 
 
 The most interesting and conspicuous of the Soliary species are 
 the Carpenter, the Mason, the Upholsterer and the Leaf-cutter bees. 
 
 The Carpenter bees (genus Xylocopa) contain a few species which 
 rival the Humble bee in size, and in many other respects closely re- 
 semble them. They may, however, be distinguished from the latter at 
 a glance by the smooth top of the abdomen, which is entirely of a 
 glossy black. Upon closer examination, the jaws (mandibles) are 
 found to be very powerful and sharply toothed. The basal joint of the 
 hind feet is very long and clothed with long stiff hairs, appearing 
 much like a bottle brush. 
 
 These bees bore holes in solid, but not growing, wood, being often 
 found at work in the cornices of houses and other buildings, in which 
 they make tunnels a foot or more in length. The entrance, for the 
 depth of an inch or more, is cut direct across the grain of the wood, 
 but the tunnel proper is at right angles to this, with the grain of the 
 wood. In this, numerous cells are partitioned off, the walls being 
 built from the chips or raspings, cemented with a sticky fluid from the 
 mouth of the little artisan. Beginning at the end farthest from the 
 entrance, each cell is finished, provided with a quantity of the usual 
 bee food, and the egg laid, before the partition wall is put up. It fol- 
 lows that there is a considerable interval of time between the com- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 35 
 
 pletion of the first and last cells, and whether the first laid eggs are 
 last to hatch, or whether, upon development, the young bees in the 
 more remote cells, remain quiet until those nearest the entrance open 
 open a passage-way, has not been ascertained ; but at all events, they 
 do not emerge until their younger brothers and sisters have passed out 
 before them. 
 
 The Mason bees (genus OsmiaJ are a group of small, handsome 
 bees of a metallic bluish or green color. They derive their name from 
 their habit of using clay, or a peculiar mortar which they prepare from 
 fine gravel, in the construction of their variously shaped cells. These 
 may often be found plastered against the sides of buildings, upon the 
 branches of trees, and sometimes even upon leaves, or within oak-galls, 
 separately, or in small groups. They are rough on the outside but 
 smooth and polished within. A few species belonging to this genus 
 are said to excavate tunnels in soft or decayed wood in which to pro- 
 tect their cells. Dr. Riley says of Anthopora sponsa, an allied species, 
 that it u builds mostly in steeply inclined or perpendicular clay-banks, 
 and, in addition, extends a tube of clay from the entrance. The bur- 
 row has usually two branches, which decline about an inch from the 
 surface of the bank, and (in them) six or eight cells are arranged end to 
 end. By means of saliva the inside of the cell is rendered impervious 
 to the moisture of the honey and bee-bread stored in it for the young." 
 
 The Upholsterer bees (genus Ceratina) resemble the Mason bees 
 in form and color. They build their nests on a plan very similar to that 
 of the Carpenter bees, but instead of boring into solid wood they se- 
 lect that which is soft from decay, or confine themselves to the pithy 
 stems of such shrubs as the elder or blackberry, or the stalks of the 
 more robust weeds. The walls of the cells are lined and the partitions 
 made of a delicate silken web the " upholstery " from which they 
 derive their popular name. 
 
 The Leaf- cutter or Taylor bees (genus MegachileJ, also in most 
 instances excavate the pithy stems of shrubs in which to build their 
 nests. In other cases they select tough leaves, which they contrive to 
 roll into cylinders and fasten firmly for the protection of the cells. 
 Within these tunnels they prepare a number of cells, forming the 
 partitions and covering the walls with sections of delicate leaves or 
 of the petals of flowers. One species, N. centuncularis, is a serious 
 pest to the flower garden, always, with rare good taste, selecting the 
 most delicately colored of the roses, geraniums and other choice flow- 
 ers for her curtains and coverlets. This is a rather stout, short-bodied 
 bee of a dull black color, banded with yellowish gray. The head is 
 broad and the scissors-like jaws are very strong, and the swiftness 
 
36 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 with which they cut out the circular pieces of leaf or petal is something 
 astonishing. The cells are over half an inch in length, nine or ten in a 
 row, placed end to end. As, in the latitude of St. Louis, these bees 
 may be seen at work from May until .September, there are doubtless 
 several broods in a season. 
 
 Bees belonging in the family Andrenidce are distinguished by hav- 
 ing the tongue short and rather broad, and the most characteristic 
 genus (Andrena) can be recognized by a lock of long curled hair on 
 each trocanter. The colors are dark, banded with dull red. This fam- 
 ily of bees includes a large number of small, prettily colored insects 
 which make their nests in tunnels excavated horizontally in banks or 
 perpendicularly in level ground. The tunnels commonly consist of a 
 straight gallery into which the separate cells open on all sides. 
 
 Many species of both Apidas and Andrenidce are sorely annoyed 
 by Parasitic or Cuckoo bees. These build no nests for themselves, 
 but when one of them discovers a Carpenter or Mason or other bee at 
 work, she constantly hovers about the spot, and as fast as the cells are 
 completed she slips in and deposits her eggs, always choosing her time 
 when the builder is absent. The larvoefrom these eggs usually kill the 
 rightful tenants of the cells, or the latter perish from starvation be- 
 cause the intruder has devoured the lion's share of the food. A few 
 of the Cuckoo bees are rather guests than parasites, living very ami- 
 cably with their hosts, on whose bounty their young are reared. This 
 is the case especially with those that choose their homes with the so- 
 cial species. A certain large species of ApaiJius is said to live in this 
 way in the nests of Humble bees, and the mature insects, which are 
 similar in appearance, are often seen together, harmoniously sipping 
 nectar from adjoining flowers. 
 
 The habits of all wild bees are extremely interesting subjects for 
 study, and have not by any means been thoroughly investigated. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 37 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Order HYMENOPTERA. Section ACULEATA. 
 
 TRUE WASPS AND DIGGER WASPS. 
 
 IFig. 15.] 
 
 Digger- wasp, stigus speciosus. 
 
 The True wasps are termed DIPLOPIERA (double wings), because 
 when not flying the upper wings are always longitudinally folded. 
 This manner of carrying the wings is the most obvious structural 
 distinction between this group and the Fossorial or Digging wasps. 
 In this tribe of insects the body wall, or external envelope, is harder, 
 and, as a rule, smoother, than that of bees, although some species have 
 parts of the body clothed with a velvety pubescence. The neck is very 
 short and the head wide at the top, giving a somewhat triangular shape 
 to the face. The jaws are broad and strong, with sharp teeth, while the 
 inner jaws and tongue, though shorter than those of bees, are not so 
 flexible, still admit of the extraction of nectar from the more open 
 flower cups. Both pairs of palpi are well developed, and on each side 
 of the tongue is a similar supplementary organ called a parraglossa. 
 
 The eyes are large and hollowed out in the middle (see Fig 2, pt. 
 1st), and the ocelli are unusually prominent. The legs are mostly 
 smooth and cylindrical, but the shanks are provided with long, thorn- 
 like spurs, and the joints of the feet are also spiny. The females have 
 a formidable sting, but the males, as with nearly all other insects, are 
 unarmed. 
 
 The larvae are much like those of bees, except that they are some- 
 what larger on the anterior end. They are reared in cells of paper or 
 mud, for wasps are incapable of excreting wax, and are fed mainly on 
 animal food-^such as the soft bodies of flies, Iarva3, bits of fresh meat 
 and the like few, if any, being fed on the honey and pollen that form 
 the sole nourishment of the mature insects. 
 
38 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Like the bees, this tribe of wasps has its social and its solitary 
 
 species. 
 
 The best representative of the former is the Bald-faced Hornet 
 (Vespa maculata, Linn.,) an insect with whose large gray paper nests 
 often eight or ten inches in diameter and whose fierce sting every 
 school-boy is familiar. The habits of this species are much like those 
 of the Humble bees. The perfect females, only, hibernate, and when 
 the spring is well advanced each one forms a few cells, mainly from a 
 glutinous secretion from the mouth, but apparently mingled with a 
 little woody fiber. These are attached by a slender pedicel, with the 
 opening downward, to a branch of some low tree or similar and secluded 
 support. The eggs are glued into the cells, and the young larvae, with 
 heads down, are at first fastened in the same manner, but as they grow 
 the swelling of the segments next the head serves to keep them in 
 position. 
 
 These first larvae speedily develop into workers and release the 
 queen from her labors. The tier of cells is added to on all sides, and 
 over it is built an umbrella-like roof, the materials being mainly fibers 
 of weather-beaten wood, collected from old fences and unpainted build- 
 ings. This is masticated and mingled with the fluids from the mouth, 
 and when thinly spread dries into a strong water-proof paper. 
 
 As the season advances and workers increase, successive tiers of 
 cells are built, attached by strong silken pillars to those above, with gal- 
 leries between, through which the wasps can easily move when caring 
 for the young. The outer envelope too is enlarged and brought down 
 at the sides, and finally made to completely enclose the nest. Late in 
 summer a brood of perfect males and females is produced, and upon 
 the approach of cold weather the ingenious little home is deserted, the 
 mature insects, it is said, first stinging to death any larvae or pupae that 
 remain, dragging them ruthlessly from their cells and casting them to 
 the ground. . 
 
 Some species of the genus Vespa for example, the smaller and 
 more brightly colored " Yellow jackets "have their homes, like the 
 Humble bees, underground. 
 
 The nests of the species belonging to the genus Polistes consist of 
 a single tier of from ten to twenty or thirty cells, built in some shel- 
 tered situation and without any external enclosing wall. The species 
 are more slender in form than the hornets, and are mostly of rust-red 
 or brown colors. From their habit of attaching their clusters of open, 
 gray paper cells under the cornices or window sills of our dwellings, 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 39 
 
 and from the familiarity with which they enter our rooms, especially in 
 the autumn when the colonies are disbanding, scarcely any one can fail 
 to have more or less knowledge of their appearance and habits. 
 
 [Fig. 16.] The few solitary species belonging 
 
 to the group of "Double-wings" 
 differ more in habit than in struc- 
 ture from the social species. No 
 so-called "neuters" or workers 
 exist among them. Each mother 
 wasp builds her own series of 
 cells, stores each with the requi- 
 site amount of food, carefully 
 yel " places her egg on the side of the 
 cell, seals it up and leaves the larva to develop without any material 
 supervision or care. 
 
 Among the most interesting of these is a small species, of a black 
 color, banded and ornamented with pale yellow, which has a great par- 
 tiality for building its mud cells (for these solitary species do not make 
 paper, but are all masons) in key-holes and crevices indoors. On one 
 occasion which came under my observation, one of these wasps took 
 possession of some spools of thread standing on the sill of an open 
 window, and built her cells in the spindle holes, as figured above. As 
 fast as one spool was filled another was supplied, and in the course of 
 three days nine spools, averaging three cells to a spool, had been com- 
 pleted. The food stored consisted of various small caterpillars, includ- 
 ing several larvae of the Codling moth, which had been stung with suf- 
 ficient severity to produce paralysis but not death. 
 
 The cells were scarcely more than half an inch in depth, but into 
 this small space six or seven or more larvae would be crowded, packed 
 with a deftness that was impossible of imitation by human fingers. The 
 wasp larvae developed rapidly, the young wasps appearing in less than 
 two weeks. 
 
 The Digging wasps (tribe FOSSORES) contain the largest and most 
 beautiful insects in the Order. (See Fig. 15.) Most of the species are 
 easily distinguished from the True wasps by their spiny legs, their 
 oval or roundish eyes, and especially by the wings not being folded in 
 repose. All the species are solitary in their habits, and as a matter of 
 course only males and perfect females are developed. A few of the 
 species bore holes in dry or decayed wood, or excavate the stems of 
 pithy plants, in which to construct their cells, while others, like the 
 Mud-dauber (Pelopwus), build a cluster of pipe-like cells plastered 
 against a beam in some shed or out-building. The great majority, how- 
 
40 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ever, burrow into the earth, especially in sandy or gravelly situations, 
 loosening the soil with their strong jaws and scrabbling it out with 
 incredible rapidity with their spiny legs. 
 
 A separate hole is dug, six or seven or more inches deep, for each 
 egg, at the bottom of which the latter is laid, after the nest has been 
 provisioned with one large or several smaller insects or spiders reduced 
 to torpor by the poisoned lance of the wasp. The shaft is then filled 
 up, the earth smoothed over, and even bits of gravel so placed as to 
 completely obliterate all trace of the excavation. 
 
 The Wood wasps (family ORABRONID^E), which bore into wood, feed 
 their larvae on plant lice, a great number of these tiny insects being 
 required to provision a single cell. Species of the genus Ammophila 
 easily recognized by the very spiny legs and the long, slender pedicel 
 gradually widening backward into the rather small abdomen provide 
 each nest with but one large caterpillar. 
 
 The elegant wasp known as" the ''Handsome Digger" (Stizus specio- 
 BUS, Drury), represented in Fig. 15, a very large species of a black color 
 gaily banded and otherwise marked with yellow, provisions its nest 
 with harvest flies (Cicadas), making use of the seventeen-year species 
 when they appear, as well as of the annual "drummers." A still larger 
 species (Pompilus formosus, Say), of a dark blue color, common in the 
 Southwestern States, is called the "Tarantula- killer," because it makes 
 the large and venemous Tarantula, the most formidable of our spiders, 
 its especial prey. The Digger wasps are a great terror to the insects 
 upon which they prey, the latter seeming to recognize them instinct- 
 ively as enemies from which there is no escape. Observers have no- 
 ticed that even the Tarantula above mentioned, large and savage as it 
 is, is seized with a violent tremor and appears to lose all courage as 
 soon as it finds itself pursued by the fierce Pompilus. 
 
 A small black wasp belonging in the genus Tiphia, common in the 
 north and west, is distinguished as one of the few insect enemies of 
 the destructive White grub, its tough, brown, silken cocoons being 
 frequently turned out by the plow in the spring from meadows and 
 corn land. 
 
 All wasps, whether social or solitary, may be considered among 
 beneficial species, for although the perfect insects feed only on honey 
 and pollen, yet in providing for their young they destroy vast numbers 
 of leaf and fruit-feeding larvse as well as various grasshoppers, cicadas 
 and flies. In preparing these insects to nourish their young the attend- 
 ing wasps of the social species thoroughly masticate and partly digest 
 them before they regurgitate the pulp into the open mouths of the 
 larvae. The Solitary species, as we have seen, have a provision for 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 41 
 
 rendering the insects upon which their young are to feed helpless to 
 escape or resist, and yet not fatally injured so that they would spoil 
 before being required for food. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 Order HYMENOPTERA. Section ACULEATA. 
 
 Worker Ant. Formica. 
 
 All the typical ants (composing the tribe HETEROGTYNA) are social 
 insects which rank next to and in some respects exceed the bees in 
 their manifestations of ingenuity and intelligence. 
 
 A colony termed a formicarium as in the case of other social in- 
 sects, always contains three and occasionally four distinct forms, males, 
 females, workers, and sometimes soldiers or some other distinct class. 
 The males and females at a certain period in their development acquire 
 wings and arise from the nest. After sporting together for a time in the 
 open air the females return to the nest or perhaps originate new col- 
 onies, and divest themselves of their wings, as these appendages in the 
 retired life they henceforth lead, would be not only useless but cumber- 
 some. The male ants, which are much smaller than the females, hav- 
 ing once left the nest never return to it, and are usually short-lived. 
 The workers and soldiers, which are imperfectly developed females, 
 never acquire wings, and differ from the perfect individuals in having 
 the joints of the thorax less compactly united, and the basal and some- 
 times the succeeding joint of the abdomen formed on top, into a sort of 
 scale or node. The head is generally more or less triangular, the anten- 
 nae are long and elbowed, and seem to be the organs of communication 
 
42 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 between the individuals of a colony. The jaws are strong and sharply 
 notched, except in the slave-making species, in which they become 
 almost useless as tools. 
 
 Some species are armed with a sting, and all secrete a peculiar acid, 
 called formic acid, which has very characteristic properties, and pro- 
 duces a slight burning sensation upon the skin. This acid is attractive 
 to certain insects which penetrate to the ants' nests to obtain it from 
 their bodies. It is thought to have medicinal qualities, and in Switzer- 
 land a highly prized vinegar is made from it by boiling the insects in 
 water. It is said that the lumbermen in our northern forests, in the 
 event of a failure of their fruit supply, use these acid insects as a sub- 
 stitute. 
 
 Ants build their formicaries in various ways, according to their 
 species. Some erect conical dwellings above ground from mortar of 
 clay or sand ; others, including a majority of the species, burrow into 
 the earth; while others still inhabit hollow trees or excavate decayed 
 stumps and logs. The nests are marvels of mechanical art, containing 
 store-rooms, nurseries, galleries and other compartments, and are some- 
 times several stories in height, each story being supported upon pillars, 
 arches and cross-beams. 
 
 Not only are these little creatures skillful artisans, but they seem 
 to have quite complex social and governmental systems. When about 
 to make war on a neighboring colony, they sally forth in regular col- 
 umns, and appear to have a corps of officers who take turns in direct- 
 ing the movements. Several species of red and yellow ants capture 
 and enslave various black species. The slaves are obtained by making 
 war on the " negro ants ;" and after the victory which they gain in a 
 majority of the battles, they carry off the pupae of the vanquished 
 colony and rear them in their own nurseries. When the captives are 
 mature, they do not attempt to escape, but seem entirely willing to 
 procure food for their owners and to serve them in any capacity re- 
 quired. 
 
 The larvae of ants are short, white cylindrical grubs, with small 
 heads which are bent forward. These larvae receive the most assiduous 
 care from the workers. They are daily carried about to those parts of 
 the nest where the temperature will best promote their growth. When 
 the weather is pleasant, they are brought in the morning to the upper 
 apartments, that they may receive the benefit of the sun's rays, and at 
 evening they are again removed to the lower chambers where there is 
 less exposure and more warmth. The food with which they are sup- 
 plied must first be chewed and submitted to a process of partial diges- 
 tion by the nurses before it is fed to them, and in all other ways they 
 are the objects of the tenderest interest and attention. 
 
OUTLINES OE ENTOMOLOGY. 43 
 
 In case of an accident to the nest, the safety of the larvae and 
 pupae seems to be the first consideration, and the workers inay be seen 
 running hither and thither in great distress with their delicate white 
 charges in their jaws, and which they will sacrifice their lives in the 
 effort to protect. 
 
 Ants feed upon a variety of animal and vegetable substances, and 
 while very fond of sweets, are not, like bees and wasps, restricted in 
 their mature state, to a diet of pollen and nectar. Some species are 
 quite valuable as scavengers, rapidly disposing of carrion. 
 
 A very good way of obtaining a perfectly clean skeleton of a bird 
 or other small animal is to place it near a large ants' nest. Every par- 
 ticle of flesh will soon be removed in the neatest manner. There are 
 no species injurious to vegetation north of Florida, but in that State a 
 certain species (Solonopsis Xyloni, McO) is said by Mr. Henry Hubbard 
 to " seriously injure the orange by gnawing away the bark and causing 
 an exudation of gum which seems, at certain seasons of the year, to 
 become one of its principal sources of food supply." In other sections 
 of the South this species makes reparation for such injuries by its 
 attacks on the cotton-worm, of which there is no room to doubt that 
 it kills great numbers. 
 
 The Leaf cutters are mainly Mexican and South American species, 
 and are often very destructive to the foliage of the orange and other 
 valuable trees. Among these appears the singular form of workers, 
 distinguished as " soldiers," with enormously large heads and other 
 peculiar adaptations. These are the protectors of the nest in time of 
 danger, and take no part in other labors. Dr. McCook has also de- 
 scribed most entertainingly the habits of the Agricultural ant, which 
 clears the ground around its nest, sows it to a sort of grass which it in due 
 time harvests, storing the seeds in its nest. In Texas and Mexico also 
 occurs another very interesting species whose habits were investigated 
 and published by the same gentleman, viz., the Honey ant. In the 
 formicaries of this species, certain workers have the power of secreting 
 honey from their food. This collects in the abdomen until the latter 
 becomes enormously enlarged and the insect is incapable of dragging 
 the heavy weight, and has to be fed by the less distended workers. 
 This honey is not disgorged into cells, but is taken direct from the 
 insect by the other inmates of the nest, and when the secretion is 
 entirely exhausted the creature perishes. 
 
 Instead depending on members of their own colony for their 
 sweets, some of our indigenous species domesticate in their nests cer- 
 tain root-feeding plant lice (Aphides), which have been called the "ants 7 
 cows," because of the sweet fluid which they yield from their nectar 
 tubes when caressed by the ant's antennas. Indeed, all these nectar- 
 
44 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 yielding aphids are great favorites with the ants, which take various 
 measures for their protection, even when they cannot transport them 
 to their nests. 
 
 The great majority of our ants belong in the genus Formica. These 
 have no sting, but will sometimes bite severely if they have access to 
 the tender skin. They have but one node between the pedicel and ab- 
 domen. Our largest species is Formica 
 pennsylvanica, which is black, and three-fifths 
 of an inch long. It is a wood- borer and may 
 often be found in hollow trees and decaying 
 stumps. Formica sanguinea, a medium-sized 
 red species, is the most common slave, 
 making ant. 
 
 Ants belonging to the genus Myrmica 
 are mostly small, bright-colored species, 
 with two nodes or scales between the abdo- 
 men proper and the thorax. One of the 
 species, Myrmica molesta, Say, is the small 
 "red ant," often so troublesome to house- 
 Red Ant (Myrmica), greatly enlarged, keepers. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Order HYMENOPTERA . Section TEREBRANTIA. 
 
 PARASITES AND GALL-FLIES. 
 
 [Fig. 19.] 
 
 Ichneumon Fly (after Riley) . 
 
 This division of the H YMENOPTER A includes both the species that 
 are of most service to man, and those that are most directly injurious. 
 They are grouped in the same section because in all, the ovipositor is 
 a piercer, adapted for penetrating either hard or soft substances. It is 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 45 
 
 usually a conspicuous appendage of the abdomen, and is of a variety of 
 singular forms, but is not connected with any poison gland, and while 
 that of some species may inflict a sharp prick, it is in no case a true sting. 
 
 Among the PIERCERS are found those species that vary most from 
 what is considered the type of the Order, many of which, in points of 
 their general structure, and in the forms of their larvae, seem to be 
 closely allied to the Lepidoptera. 
 
 The Piercers (TEREBRANTIA) are very conveniently separated 
 intotwo tribes : 
 
 1. Insect eaters ( ENTOMOPHAGA ), Parasitic flies, and also Gall- 
 flies, and a very few other vegetable feeders. 
 
 2. Plant eaters (PHYTOPHAGA), Saw-flies and Wood-borers The 
 first tribe includes a vast number of species, some with bodies, includ- 
 ing the ovipositor, two inches or more in length, others so minute that 
 their different parts can only be distinguished with a lens, the office of 
 all of which seems to be to keep in check those members of its class 
 which prey upon vegetation, and which, but for them, would multiply 
 to such an extent as to threaten extinction to many of our most valu- 
 able food plants. 
 
 The Parasitic species may be readily separated into three families, 
 ICHNEUMON IDM, PROCTOTRYPID^E and CHALCIDID^E. Some authors 
 separate various species from these groups, for which they define sev- 
 eral more families, bat those mentioned include all the more important 
 species. 
 
 Among the members of the first-named family may be found some 
 very large species, a great number that are of medium size with a 
 wing expanse of from one-third to one-half inch and some that are 
 extremely small. The typical Ichneumon flies have long and rather 
 slender bodies, usually terminated by an exserted ovipositor, which is 
 composed of several thread-like stylets, and which varies in length from 
 three or four inches in Thalessa, to a scarcely noticeable point at the 
 tip of the abdomen, as in Microgaster. 
 
 The head is somewhat square, the antennae thread-like and many- 
 jointed ; both pairs of palpi are well developed, but the biting organs 
 are rather small and weak. The thorax is compact, but the different 
 parts are often outlined by deep grooves. The veining of the wings 
 is much like that in bees and wasps, but the membrane is more delicate 
 and transparent. The legs are smooth and cylindrical. These insects 
 lay their eggs in or upon the bodies of other insects, usually caterpillars, 
 piercing the skins with their sharply pointed ovipositors. Sometimes 
 but a single egg is laid ; in other cases the dorsal surface is thickly 
 
46 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 punctured and a great number of the little grub-like larvae hatch and 
 burrow back and forth in the fatty tissue of their victim, avoiding at 
 first its vital parts ; and when it is fatally injured, though perhaps it 
 [Fig. 20.] does not die for several days, they emerge in an 
 
 erect position and cover the back of the cater- 
 pillar with their email white cocoons attached 
 r^w'thVcoonsol ** tbe lower end and standing up like grains of 
 
 pastes (after Riley). Color, ^ flU Qver j t M()gt of the largef gpecies 
 
 weave their cocoons inside the body of their victim. The internal 
 parasitic larvae are said to breathe through branchia similar to those of 
 water insects, which are situated at one end of the body and communi- 
 cate with the air tubes of the insect they infest. 
 
 The large species represented in Fig. 19 is Opihon Macrurum, Linn. 
 The abdomen broadens toward the tip and is compressed laterally. 
 The entire body and wing- veins are of a honey-yellow color. It quite 
 frequently enters our lighted rooms on summer nights, and if taken 
 into the hand will administer so sharp a thrust with its ovipositor that 
 the captor involuntarily releases it. It is parasitic on the large cater- 
 pillars belonging to the family of our native silk worms. 
 
 The PBOCTROTRYPID^S is a family of exceedingly small flies, most 
 of which are " Egg parasites." Their bodies are rather slender and the 
 wings almost without veins, but in some species are fringed with fine 
 hairs around the edges. They breed, as a rule, in the eggs of larger 
 insects, of which they destroy great numbers. The family of the 
 CHALCIDID^E is also composed mainly of very small species, some of 
 which also breed in eggs, but usually in the bodies of other insects, 
 especially in those of Aphides. They are often of beautiful metallic 
 colors. The antennae are elbowed and have from six to fourteen 
 joints. A considerable number have the thighs of the hinder legs 
 very much thickened for jumping. The wings have very few veins and 
 no enclosed cells. In the male the abdomen is seven-jointed, while in 
 the female it has only six joints. Except in a very few species the ovi- 
 positor is entirely withdrawn into the body except when in use. They are 
 not infrequently parasitic upon other parasites, and, therefore, to be reck' 
 oned among injurious species. In this group, also, we find the de- 
 structive " Joint-worm flies" (Isosoma hordii Har. tritici and I. grander 
 Biley), which puncture the stalks of small grain at the joints in de- 
 positing their eggs, the larvae afterward feeding upon the sap, and 
 where they are numerous, preventing the growth of the stalk and the 
 filling of the head. Mr. F. M. Webster of Indiana made the discovery 
 that many of the females of I. grande were wingless. As most of these 
 insects hibernate in the straw, burning the latter after threshing and 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 47 
 
 also burning the stubble is the best preventive of their increase. This 
 fly differs very slightly in structure from the parasitic species. 
 
 One family included in this group the Cynipidal while resem- 
 bling the Chalcids very closely in structure, are vegetable feeders, 
 causing on Oak, Rose and other woody plants, the singular fruit-like 
 and nut-like growths called " galls." The females differ from the para- 
 sitic CHALCIDID^: in their larger size, and in the shorter and more 
 compressed abdomen and in the notch on the under side of the latter. 
 The antennae, also, are straight and slender, with the joints all equal. 
 
 The abnormal plant growth is supposed to be caused by the depo- 
 sition of a minute quantity of a peculiar fluid, along with the egg, by 
 the parent fly, the tissue resulting forming a more suitable kind of 
 food for the larvae than ordinary wood fiber or leaves. The gall makers 
 are all more or less injurious to the plants they attack, but one species 
 makes a sort of reparation in producing on a European oak the " nut 
 galls, 77 used in the manufacture of the best ink. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Order HYMENOPTEKA. Section TEREBRANTIA. 
 
 SAW-FLIES AND HORN TAILS. 
 
 [Fig. 21.] 
 
 Native Currant Saw-fly. 
 
 Colors (a) gresn and black ; (b) black and honey-yellow. 
 Native Currant- worm Pristophora grosularia&fieT Riley. 
 
 The insects of this Order, included among the true Plant-eaters 
 (PHYTOPHAGA), differ very much in all stages of their development from 
 those described in preceding chapters. 
 
 The perfect insects have rather heavy bodies, upon which the three 
 principal divisions are not so distinct as in bees, wasps and ichneu- 
 
 E 4 
 
48 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 mons. The head is broad, connected with the thorax by a very short 
 neck, and the abdomen is sessile: i. e., joins the thorax by a wide base 
 instead of a slender stalk. 
 
 The larvae are much more independent than those of the higher 
 families of the Order. They are not confined to cells or chambers, and 
 the only provision made for them by the parent insect is the insertion 
 of her eggs in the kind of leaves or wood which her young require for 
 food. They subsist entirely upon vegetation, and are separated into 
 two families : 
 
 1st. Saw-flies (TENTHREDINTD^;), and 
 
 2d. Horn-tails or Wood-borers (UROCEUID^E). 
 
 The Saw-flies are easily lecognized by their broad, thin wings, 
 which are divided into numerous cells by fine veins or nervures, and 
 by the soft and yielding integument of the body. The antennae are 
 usually short and simple, varying in the females in the number of joints. 
 A few species have these organs knobbed at the tip or toothed or 
 feathered on one edge. The ovipositor, from the peculiar structure of 
 which these insects derive their popular name, consists of two saw- 
 like blades, the sides of which are ridged and the lower edges finely 
 serrated or notched. The blades are strengthened by a back so grooved 
 that they can slide back and forth upon it. When not in use they are 
 protected by a sheath and concealed in an opening on the under side of 
 the abdomen. With this most ingenious instrument the insect saws 
 little oblique slits in the cuticle of leaves or in the principal veins, in 
 which she places her eggs. There are some exceptions to this rule, 
 found among species that are very prolific and destructive : e. g., the 
 Imported Currant-worm, in which the eggs are attached externally to 
 the veins of the leaf and kept in place by a sticky fluid which is exuded 
 with them. In such species the ovipositor is found to have lost, in 
 great measure, its saw-like character. The Saw-flies are slow and heavy 
 in flight, sluggish in all their motions and easily captured. 
 
 The larvae are called "slugs" and "false caterpillars," and are 
 classed with the most destructive of insect pests. The Imported and 
 the Native Currant-worms, the Eose slug, the Pear slug, the White 
 Pine and the Larch false caterpillars are some of the most pernicious 
 species. They are of elongate, worm-like form, with large, roundish, 
 glossy heads, on some of which are seen a pair of antennee-like pro- 
 cesses. The thoracic legs are well developed, and the hinder end of 
 the body is supported upon six to eight pairs of fleshy points or props, 
 which differ from the pro-legs of genuine caterpillars, not only in their 
 greater number, but in lacking the little circle of hooks by which the 
 latter can so firmly attach themselves to any surface. In some of these 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 49 
 
 larvse the surface is smooth and glossy, in others spiny or niossy or cov- 
 ered with a slimy exudation, while others excrete a powdery or cottony 
 substance that gives them a very peculiar appearance. 
 
 Some species, such as the White-pine worm, have the habit of ele- 
 vating the head and tail when at rest, others keep the body coiled when 
 not feeding, while a few construct leafy cases which they carry about 
 with them or to which they retire for repose. 
 
 A few species are gregarious, feeding in large companies or spin- 
 ning large gummy webs in which they cluster in masses. When full 
 grown many of these larvae drop to the ground and form tough oval 
 cocoons among the fallen leaves and rubbish, or they burrow into the 
 earth and enclose themselves in cells thinly lined with silk. Most spe- 
 cies hibernate in the larva state, without changing to pupae until the 
 following spring. 
 
 The family of the Horn-tails (UROCERID^:) contains comparatively 
 few species. They are mostly large insects with stout cylindrical 
 bodies, characterized by a long straight horn extending from the 
 Abdomen. In the males this appendage is at the tip, but in the females 
 it arises from the middle of the underside of the abdomen and consti- 
 tutes the ovipositor. It is more auger-like than saw-like in its form and 
 use, and is used for boring into the trunks of trees, especially the elm 
 and pear, to which the boring larvae are often very destructive. 
 
 The wings are narrow but strong, expanding more than two inches, 
 and in flight making a loud buzzing sound. The length of the body 
 including the horn is also more than two inches. 
 
 The species known as the Pigeon Tremex (Tremex columba, Linn.) 
 is one of the most injurious. Its multiplication is, however, very 
 much checked by a large ichneumon fly which runs its long ovipositor 
 into the auger-holes of the Tremex, leaving in each one an egg, from 
 which hatches a deadly enemy and devourer of the first Horn-tail larva 
 which it meets. 
 
50 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Order II. COLEOPTERA. 
 
 [Fig. 22.] 
 
 A Carabid, Calosoma calidium with larva 
 (afterRiley). 
 
 This Order of insects the Beetles includes a far greater number 
 of described species more than one hundred thousand than either 
 of the other primary groups. And while among this vast assemblage 
 we find an almost infinite variety in size, form, color and the adaptation 
 of certain organs for certain functions, a single glance is sufficient to 
 enable us to recognize a member of the Order, except, perhaps, in 
 the case of a very few rare and unusual forms. 
 
 On account of the ease with which specimens may be collected and 
 preserved, and the accuracy with which the external structure may be 
 defined, these insects have always been favorites with entomologists, 
 and the student will find them most interesting and convenient subjects 
 upon which to begin his studies of insect anatomy. 
 
 The popular term " beetle " is said to be derived from an old Eng- 
 lish word signifying a "biter," and is most appropriate for this group 
 of insects in which the organs for biting are so complex and so perfect. 
 
 Beetles are chiefly characterized by the peculiar structure of the 
 upper wings, which are transformed into a pair of horny or leathery 
 cases, or sheaths meeting in a straight line down the back, and covering 
 not only the abdomen, but two joints of the thorax (the mezo and meta 
 thorax). These are called the elytra (sing, elytron). They are not used 
 to any extent in flight their office appearing to be mainly that of armor 
 for the protection of the softer parts of the body. The true membran- 
 ous wings, when not in use, are snugly folded beneath them, not only 
 lengthwise, in fan-like plaits, but, by means of a hinge or joint in the 
 supporting veins, a little beyond the middle, crosswise as well, so that 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 51 
 
 in most species they may be completely covered. This wing structure 
 can be most satisfactorily studied in the common May beetle, one of the 
 species which few people have any repugnance in handling. 
 
 The frame-work or body- wall of most beetles is very hard and firm 
 compared to that of many other insects. This is very necessary to pre- 
 serve them from the varied dangers incident to their terrestrial habits. 
 
 The mouth of beetles is considered as presenting the typical form 
 of that important organ. The six principal parts, mandibles, maxillae, 
 labrum and labium, described in chapter III, Pt. 1st (in which see Fig. 3), 
 are always present, together with other appendages of less direct use. 
 
 The eyes are usually prominent and of various forms, round, oblong, 
 kidney-shaped, curved, and in one group of water beetles entirely 
 divided in the middle, so that there would seem to be two on each 
 side. The ocelli are not usually present, though a few species have a 
 single pair, or perhaps only one. 
 
 The antennae present a great variety of forms, some of which are 
 very singular and beautiful, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 4, Pt. 
 1st. They are mostly eleven-jointed. Only the pro-thorax, which is 
 usually very wide, is visible on the back, with the exception of a small 
 wedge-shaped section of the meso-thorax, termed the scutellum. The 
 abdomen joins the thorax by a wide base, and, in a great majority of 
 beetles, is almost, if not entirely covered by the wing cases. Many of 
 the leaf-feeding species and a few of those that are predaceous, fly with 
 great ease and rapidity, but as a rule, the legs are the principal organs 
 of locomotion. They are horny and strong, and of various shapes to 
 adapt them for running, leaping, swimming and other uses. The ap- 
 parent joints of the feet vary in number from three to five, and the foot 
 terminates in most cases in a pair of sharp claws. 
 
 The Iarva3 of beetles are commonly called "grubs." Most of these 
 are soft, clumsy looking objects, with horny heads and three pairs of 
 sprawling legs on the thoracic segments. Some species have in addi- 
 tion a sort of pro-leg at the hinder end of the body, or one or two rows 
 of tubercles (fleshy points) along the sides, or on the upper or under 
 surface, by which they are enabled to move with ease in the situations 
 in which they are found. The larvae of Water-beetles have numerous 
 oar-like processes along the sides and are capable of swimming very 
 rapidly. 
 
 Besides these forms are others which, living enclosed in the fruit or 
 wood upon which they feed, have no use for legs of any kind, and conse- 
 quently do not possess them. Of such are the Gurculios and many 
 kinds of wood-borers. 
 
52 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Coleopterous larvae feed upon almost all kinds of vegetable and 
 animal substances, from the petals of the most delicate flower to the 
 most rank smelling carrion, from fruits and nuts to the most pungent 
 spices to be found at the grocer's or druggist's. A considerable pro- 
 portion are cannibals, and prey upon members of their own class* 
 Larvae of such species are usually very active, while the vegetable 
 feeders are, as a rule, awkward and sluggish in their movements. In 
 this Order the transformations are complete. The larvae molt or change 
 their skins several times, and their growing period varies in length 
 from a few weeks to two or three years. They transform either upon 
 or beneath the surface of the ground, or upon the leaves or within the 
 fruit or wood upon which they have fed. The pupae are obtected, re- 
 sembling those of Hymenoptera in having each member encased in a 
 separate sheath. 
 
 In the matter of classification, this Order is so comprehensive, that 
 it is impossible within the limits of this little work to include any sys- 
 tem that will enable the tyro to determine every species of which he 
 may find an example, except as to the primary divisions. Beyond this- 
 the most that will be attempted will be a definition of such groups as con- 
 tain conspicuously injurious or conspicuousjy beneficial species. When 
 we learn that in North America alone, exclusive of Mexico, we have more 
 than nine thousand named species, representing upwards of seventeen 
 hundred genera and about eighty distinct families, it is evident than 
 volumes are required for anything like adequate description and 
 definition. 
 
 Following the system of the recognized authorities, the primary 
 divisions of the Ooleoptera are as follows : 
 
 Sub-Order I. The True Beetles (C o L E o p T E R A), in which the 
 mouth parts are all present and the front of the head is not elongated. 
 
 Sub-Order II. The Snout Beetles (R H Y N c o p H o R A), in which 
 the front part of the head is more or less prolonged into a beak, the 
 labrum not distinguishable and the palpi reduced to minute, jointless 
 points. 
 
 The first of these Sub-Orders is then separated into two sections, 
 based upon the correspondence or lack of correspondence in the num- 
 ber of tarsal joints. 
 
 1st. ISOMERA (Similar joints) species which, wiih rare ex- 
 ceptions, have the same number of joints in all the feet. 
 
 2d. HETEROMERA (Different joints), including species which 
 have five joints in each of the front and middle feet, and only four 
 joints in each of the hinder pair. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 53 
 
 Beetles belonging in the ISOMERA are sub-divided into five 
 tribes : 
 
 I. ADEPHAGA (carnivorous beetles), Land and Water Tigers, hun- 
 ters and trappers of other insects for the most part, although a few 
 species subsist on vegetation. In these the antennae are thread-like* 
 cylindrical, with the joints distinct. 
 
 II. CLAVICORNIA (Club -horns), having the antennae thickened 
 gradually or abruptly toward the tip ; feet with from one to five joints ; 
 small beetles of various habits. 
 
 III. SERRICORNIA (Saw-horns), having the antennae toothed or 
 serrated (in some few species also enlarged at the tip, much as in the 
 preceding tribe, but the species in other respects agreeing with the 
 members of 1 this tribe). This group includes a great number of small 
 borers. 
 
 IY. LAMELLICORNIA (Leaf-horns), having the knob of the anten- 
 nae composed of several leaf-like or blade-like parts, which the insect 
 can unfold or close up at will. This Tribe includes the largest insects 
 in the Order, most of which feed, often in the perfect as well as the lar- 
 vae state, upon vegetation, foliage, roots and decayed wood. 
 
 Y. PHYTOPHAGA (Plant-eaters), mostly with thread like antennae, 
 in some species very long, in others short and slightly thickened to- 
 ward the tip ; fourth and fifth joints of the feet consolidated, the former 
 minute. All the species feed on vegetation and many are extremely 
 destructive. 
 
 Neither the Section HETEROMERA nor the Sub-Order E H Y N- 
 CHOPHORA requires division into tribes for convenience of study. 
 
 CHAPTEE XY. 
 Order COLEOPTERA. Tribe I. ADEPHAGA. 
 
 CANNIBAL BEETLES. 
 
 In this group of beetles we find mainly carnivorous species, many 
 of which prey especially on insects destructive to vegetation, and on 
 this account claim recognition as among our best friends. They also 
 merit consideration by their great beauty of form and color, and by the 
 grace and agility of their movements. The most important families are 
 the Tiger-beetles (CICINDELID^), the Caterpillar hunters 
 the Water-tigers (DYTISCID^), and the Water- whirligigs 
 
 The Tiger-beetles received their popular name on account of their 
 ferocious habits, their swift movements and the stealthy manner in which 
 their larvae lie in wait for their prey. They are diurnal insects of 
 
54 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 medium or rather small size (three- fourths inch and under in length), of 
 elegant form and often of brilliant metallic color. Their chosen haunts 
 are sunny path-ways, hard beaten roads and the sandy shores of streams, 
 lakes and the ocean. 
 
 The head of a Tiger- beetle is broader than the thorax. It is pro- 
 vided with a very complete mouth, of which the most important parts 
 are the long, sharply-toothed and curved jaws, which cross each other 
 when closed. The eyes are large, round or somwhat oblong and pro- 
 truding ; the antennae long and slender, arising from the face just above 
 the base of the mandibles. The prothorax is nearly square, the scutel- 
 lum very small, and the wing cases, which are rather narrow, widen 
 slightly toward the hinder end of the body. The under wiugs are well 
 developed, and the insect rises easily into the air for short flights. The 
 legs are long and slender and the joints of the feet spiny. The dark 
 metallic color is in some species varegated by dots and zigzag lines of 
 yellow or cream white. The larvae live in perpendicular holes in the 
 ground and are extremely ugly in appearance. They have a broad head 
 and immense jaws, and long sprawling legs. On the middle of the 
 back is a large double hump, terminating in backward curving hooks, 
 of which these creatures make use in climbing to the entrance to their 
 holes and sustaining themselves there while lying in wait for their prey. 
 Any unlucky insect happening to stray within reach of those terrible 
 jaws is seized with a grasp from which there is no escape, dragged into 
 the hole and devoured. 
 
 More than sixty species of Cicindelidce are found in the United 
 States. (See beetle on plate.) 
 
 The Ground-beetles or " Caterpillar-hunters " include a great num- 
 ber of predaceous species, which may occasionally be seen running 
 over the ground in fields and gardens, but are usually hidden under 
 stones, boards, fallen leaves and the like during the day. They are 
 easily distinguished from the Tiger-beetles by the head being narrower 
 than the prothorax, and the latter somewhat more constricted or taper- 
 ing toward the base of the wing covers. They are also, with a few 
 exceptions, of plainer coloring, and the most conspicuous species are 
 of larger size than is the rule among the Tiger-beetles. One of the 
 chief structural characters of these beetles is the peculiar eardrop- 
 shaped trochanter of each of the hinder legs. (See Part 1st, Fig. 6, 
 A, b.) 
 
 They are, as rule, nocturnal in their habits, running out of their 
 hiding places at nightfall, and exploring field and garden, even climb- 
 ing trees in the search for their six-legged game, tearing in pieces cater- 
 pillars and grubs, and even other beetles, wherever found. They are often 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 55 
 
 attracted to lamplight, and I have, on several occasions, seen the side- 
 walks around the electric light posts almost covered with dead and dis- 
 abled specimens of the beautiful, metallic-green Calosoma scrutator, 
 Fabr. As they are very swift runners, most species make but little 
 use of their wings ; indeed, the latter are in some cases entirely unde- 
 veloped, and the elytra are firmly joined at the suture on the back. 
 
 The larvae are elongate, somewhat flattened grubs, having the body 
 protected on top by horny plates, and in some instances terminated in 
 a pair of branching spines or forceps-like appendages. They burrow 
 back and forth just beneath the surface of the earth, and destroy many 
 of the soft larvae of fruit and leaf-feeding species that have entered the 
 ground for transformation. 
 
 Among the most beneficial species is the Fiery Ground-beetle (Calo- 
 soma calidium, Fabr.), a large and elegant beetle of a black color, with 
 elytra (wing covers) thickly dotted with shining, impressed, coppery 
 spots (see Fig. ). This beetle preys upon cut-worms, and its larvae, 
 having the same habit, has been called the " Out-worm lion." Another 
 smaller species, Lebia grandis, with a red-brown thorax, and legs and 
 dark-blue wing covers renders us good service in destroying the larvae 
 of the Colorado potato-beetle. 
 
 One species, a little larger than the above, but clo&ely resembling 
 it in form and color, is called the Bombardier beetle (Brachinus fumaus), 
 as it has the singular power of discharging a volatile and pungent fluid 
 from the tip of the abdomen, which rises in the air like a little puff 
 of smoke. It is a means of defense against its enemies. 
 
 The Water-tigers are quite common in ponds and sluggish streams. 
 The beetles are easily recognized by their broad, flat, ovate, pol- 
 ished bodies, often an inch and a quarter in length, and by the hairy, 
 oar-like shape of the hinder legs. When disturbed these beetles dive 
 deep under water, carrying with them a bubble of air which sustains 
 respiration until they again rise to the surface. Their larvae are long 
 and cylindrical, with a pair of breathing tubes at the posterior end that 
 can be protruded above the surface of the water. The head is armed 
 with powerful, scissor-like jaws which are kept in almost constant mo- 
 tion. They are very savage and greedy, feeding upon other aquatic 
 insects, tadpoles and small fish, in some streams proving v^ery destruc- 
 tive to the latter. When full grown they crawl upon shore and enclose 
 themselves in earthen cells within which they change to pupae. The 
 perfect insects make their way into the water as soon as they emerge. 
 
 The " Whirligigs " are another family of preying water-beetles 
 which, though allied to the Water-tigers, are distinguished from them 
 
56 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 by their smaller size, their round blue-black bodies, long front legs and 
 very short swimming legs. The eyes are bilobed, giving them the ap- 
 pearance of two on each side. They usually appear in groups on the 
 surface of the water, sporting and circling about in great apparent en- 
 joyment. The larvae look like myriapods, having a pair of long, spiny- 
 processes on each abdominal segment. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Order, COLEOPTERA. Tribes, CLAVICORNIA and SERRICORNIA* 
 
 CLUB HORNED AND SAW-HORNED BEETLES. 
 
 [Fig 23.] 
 
 Flat-headed Apple tree borer (Chrysobolbris femorata), with laiva 
 rafter Riley.) 
 
 In the first of these Tribes we find a large number of quite dis- 
 tinct families and genera of beetles in which the principal point of 
 agreement is found in the antenna, which in most of the species are 
 " clubbed," or rather thick and gradually and slightly enlarged toward 
 the tip. But even in this character there is some variation Ips fa si at a 
 and the species of Nitidula, for example, having antennae that are dis- 
 tinctly knobbed at the end. 
 
 Among the Clavicorn beetles the number of joints of the feet 
 ranges from one to five, most species having the same number in the 
 hind tarsi as in the others. 
 
 The representative Families of this subdivision of the Order are 
 the Burying beetles (SILPHIDJE), the Kove beetles (STAPHYLINID.E), 
 the Lady-bird beetles (OOCCINELLID^), and the Museum pests and 
 Carpet beetles (DERMESTID^E). 
 
 The Burying beetles or Sexton beetles are so called from their habit 
 of first burying the dead bodies of other insects, birds and small ani- 
 mals upon which their larvae feed, before placing their eggs upon them ; 
 and one is sometimes astonished upon coming across such small car- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 57 
 
 rion to find it being moved by some unseen force. If taken up or 
 turned over, several species of large beetles that were at work digging 
 out the earth beneath it will be disclosed. Many of the species are 
 easily collected by means of such unsavory traps. 
 
 These beetles differ considerably in size and color, but all have 
 rather broad, flattened bodies, five joints in all the feet, which end in 
 long claws. The antennae are rather abruptly enlarged at the tips. The 
 prothorax is expanded into a broad plate used as a shovel in the dig- 
 ging operations. Necrophorus americanus, Oliv., is our largest species, 
 frequently measuring one and one-fourth inch in length by one-half 
 inch in breadth. It is of a glossy-black color, with a large red-brown 
 spot in the middle of the head, the prothorax being almost entirely 
 of red-brown, and there are two large patches of the same bright color 
 on each wing cover. The black antennae end in a leafy knob of golden 
 brown, and the joints of the front feet are covered on the under side 
 with silky hairs of a similar color. The pointed tip of the abdomen 
 protrudes about one-fourth inch beyond the squarely cut wing covers. 
 In the genus Silpha the body is very flat and almost orbicular, the 
 prothorax being expanded into a wide, thin flange, and is usually of a 
 brighter color than the broad, roughened wing covers. 
 
 The Rove beetles have long, slender, black or dark colored bodies, 
 with very short, square wing covers which leave more than one-half of 
 the abdomen unprotected. The head is usually somewhat broader 
 than the prothorax, the sharply pointed jaws crossed in front, and the 
 rather small, oval eyes are wide apart. Some species are an inch or 
 more in length, while others are very minute. Like the preceding 
 tribe, they are carrion feeders, but prefer the carcasses of the larger 
 animals, such as dogs and horses. 
 
 trig. 24.] The Lady-bird beetles include a group of small^ 
 
 handsome beetles of an oval or hemispherical form, 
 with three-jointed feet and short antennae. The 
 surface is polished and usually ornamented with 
 round or oval spots of black on a rose-red, brick- 
 r ed or orange ground, or with red spots on a black 
 and pBpse ~ after ground. The Lady birds are among the best known 
 of their order, and deserve to be the popular favorites which they are, 
 on account of the excellent service which they render in ridding our 
 gardens and orchards of plant-lice, bark-lice and other small insect 
 pests. The larvae are ugly, alligator-shaped creatures, generally of a 
 dull, black color, in some species banded with yellow. Some have the 
 surface covered with spines, while others are simply ridged and hairy. 
 
58 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Megilla maculata, one of the most familiar, is about one-fifth of an 
 inch long, of oval shape and pink color, marked on head, thorax and 
 wing covers with large, black spots. Hippodamia sonvergens is some- 
 what larger, of a dull orange color, with very small black dots. Chilo- 
 corus bivulneris is hemispherical, about one-sixth inch in diameter, shin- 
 ing black, with a conspicuous blood-red spot on each wing cover, near 
 the base. It is an especial enemy of all sorts of bark-lice or scale 
 insects, and may be found on trees or shrubs infested with the latter. 
 Vedalia cardinalis, which resembles the above species in size and 
 shape, but is of a bright red color, with four black spots on the wing 
 covers, is at present the most celebrated member of its group, having 
 been imported under the instructions of Dr. Eiley, U. S. Entomologist, 
 from Australia into California, in 1888, for the purpose of keeping in 
 check the Fluted scale of the orange (leery a J, and having in less than 
 two years almost exterminated the pest. 
 
 About one hundred and forty-five species of Lady-birds are known 
 in North America, all of which, so far as known, are carnivorous, ex- 
 cept one species (Epilachna borealis), the Northern Lady-bird, which is 
 a vegetarian and occasionally quite destructive to squash and cucum- 
 ber vines. 
 
 The Museum Pests Dermestes are also mostly small species, 
 which are not only the special pests of museums, derstroying very 
 rapidly the contents of entomological and ornithological cabinets when 
 they have once found entrance to them, but they are very destructive, 
 also, to furs, woolens, feathers and similar animal products, and some 
 species even invade the pantry. In these beetles the head and pro- 
 thorax are short, the latter having grooves for the reception of the 
 eleven jointed antennae; the eyes are round and between them is a 
 single ocellus. The legs are short, with five jointed feet. The larvae 
 are very active, hairy grubs, some of which have a trfft of bristles at 
 the tail, and most species shun the light, although the beetles of one or 
 two kinds have been taken on flowers. 
 
 Dermestes lardarius, one of the larger species, black with broad 
 gray bands at the base of the wing covers, is sometimes destructive to 
 dried meats and similar articles of food. D. vulpinus, one-third of an 
 inch long and entirely dull black, attacks stored hides and manufactured 
 leather. Anthrenus varius, the worst of the museum pests, is round 
 oval in form, only about one-tenth inch in length, bright chestnut brown 
 with the wing covers crossed by three wavy bands of pale gray, be- 
 tween which are dashes and flecks of black. A. scrophularia, the 
 " Buffalo bug," or carpet beetle, is still smaller than the above species, 
 is black with markings of pale red and white. It was introduced 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 59 
 
 some years ago in imported carpets from Europe, and has already be- 
 come a widely disseminated pest. Among the beetles classified as 
 SERRICORNIA are found many very beautiful and interesting insects, as 
 well as some that are exceedingly pernicious. Most of the species 
 have rather short serrate antennae, are of oblong or elongate oval form, 
 with five-pointed, or in a few species, four-pointed tarsi. The most 
 important Families are Spring or snapping beetles ( ELATERID^E ), the 
 saw-horned borers (BuFRESTiD^j), and the fire-fly and soldier beetles 
 ( LAMPYRAD^E ). The spring beetles have the entirely peculiar habit, 
 if laid upon their backs, of throwing themselves into the air with a 
 jerk, in most cases coming down in proper position. If held loosely in 
 the hand, also, they will bend themselves backward and strike again and 
 again in the effort to obtain their freedom. The power to effect these 
 motions lies in an ingenious sort of spring in the shape of a strong 
 pointed projection on the prosternum ( the under side of the prothorax), 
 which by curving the body backward is caught suddenly in a socket 
 on the mezo sternum, causing an elastic rebound of the whole body. 
 These beetles are of long, oval, somewhat flattened form, and usually of 
 dull brown color, though a few species display brighter tints, and the 
 surface is covered with a fine pubescence. The outer angles of the 
 very wide prothorax are prolonged into points which curve around 
 the edge of the wing covers. 
 
 The larvae are known as " Wire- worms,* 7 in reference to their long, 
 hard, slender bodies. Some species rank with injurious insects from 
 their habit of cutting off the roots of young corn and other vegetation. 
 On the other hand, several are beneficial, and are known to find their 
 way into the tunnels of wood-boring larvae and destroy them. The 
 majority, however, so far as known, breed in decaying wood or the pith, 
 of weeds. A few large species are luminous, and are, at night, objects 
 of great splendor. 
 
 Our largest and most striking American species, the Eye-spotted 
 Elater or Snapping-beetle (Alaus oculatus, Linn.), varies in length from 
 one to one and one-half inches. It is of a black color, with the wing 
 covers longitudinally ridged, and marked with fine lines and flecks of 
 white, which, being of the nature of scale-like hairs, are liable to rub 
 off. On the top of the broad pro-thorax are two large velvety black 
 spots encircled with white, which from their resemblance to eyes are 
 often mistaken for them. 
 
 The Saw-horned borers (BUPRESTID^:), compose a large group of 
 handsome hard-shelled, compactly formed beetles, all of which have the 
 antennae, which are rather short, serrate on the inner edge. They are 
 usually of a pale brown or gray color, with brassy or coppery reflections : 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 indeed the entire surface, minutely roughened and indented as it is, ap- 
 pears like beaten metal. The head is deeply sunken into the thorax, 
 &nd the latter widens slightly behind and fits tightly over the base of 
 the wing covers. 
 
 The Buprestians are diurnal insects, flying in the sunshine or 
 basking in it while slowly crawling up and down the trunks of trees, in 
 the bark of which they deposit their eggs. The larvae are wood-borers, 
 gall-makers or leaf-miners, and are all more or less destructive to forest 
 and fruit trees and shrubbery. They are characterized by a relatively 
 enormous^ expansion of the pro-thoracic joint, from which the remain- 
 ing two joints of the thorax taper abruptly to the slender, cylindrical 
 abdominal division. There are no legs, and the enlarged joint has a 
 smooth horny plate on both upper and under sides, and is much flat- 
 tened. 
 
 The well-known Flat-headed borer (Chysobothras femorata, Fabr.), 
 so destructive to many kinds of fruit and shade trees, is the best repre- 
 sentative of the boring species. The species of Agrilus cause swellings 
 in the stems of blackberries and raspberries. These beetles are slender 
 &nd cylindrical, with dark-blue or black wing covers and copper-colored 
 thorax, and are about one-fourth of an inch long. The larvae of the 
 species, included in the genus Brachys, mine the leaves of apple and 
 oak. 
 
 The Fire-flies and Soldier beetles are very different in many re- 
 spects from the preceding group. Their bodies are very soft and the 
 wing covers thin and flexible. In the " Fire-flies" or " Lightning-bugs" 
 ( genera Photinus and Photurm), the head is almost concealed under 
 the expanded margin of the pro-thorax. The light which they emit is 
 supposed to be from a phosphorescent substance in the abdomen, and 
 is given off in flashes at irregular intervals, both during flight and re- 
 pose. In Photinus pyralis both sexes are winged and luminous. In 
 Photurus, the somewhat smaller and less brilliant species often have 
 wingless females. 
 
 The larvae, which are u glow-worms," burrow in th eearth, often com- 
 ing to the surface, and have a faint luminosity. They feed on the soft 
 larvae of other insects and on earth-worms. 
 
 The most common species of Soldier-beetle is a slender, clay-yel- 
 low insect, with a large black spot on the top of the pro-thorax and an 
 oblong one near the tip of each wing cover. This beetle bears the 
 rather formidable name of Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus, De G. The 
 larvae somewhat resemble those of the lady-birds and like them are of 
 service to us by feeding on other insects that are injurious to vegeta 
 tion. The beetles may almost always be found in the autumn upon the 
 flowers of the Golden-rod and Eupatorium. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 61 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Order COLEOPTERA. Tribe LAMELLICORNIA. 
 
 [Fig. 25.] 
 
 Spotted Pelidnota, (Pelidnotapunctata) with larvae and pupae (after Riley) . 
 
 The Tribe LAMELLICORNIA is of great extent, and in it we find 
 mostly large or medium-sized beetles which feed on vegetation, either 
 fresh or in a state of decay, or on the excrement of the larger animals. 
 These beetles resemble each other chiefly in the form of the antennae, 
 which terminate in a knob or expansion, composed of three sometimes 
 more leaf-like blades, attached by one end and capable of being opened 
 or closed like the pages of a book, at the will of the insect. 
 
 Before taking up the true Lamellicorns we find a small group, some- 
 times distinguished as PECTICORNIA (tooth-horned), in which the anten- 
 nae are furnished at the tips with several stiff projections on one side, 
 like the teeth to a comb, and are further characterized by being bent 
 or elbowed in the middle. 
 
 In this division the principal Family (LuCANiD^a) contains the Stag 
 beetles or Pinching beetles. In these the head is very broad, the eyes 
 comparatively small, the shanks (tibiae) notched or spined on the outer 
 edge, and the feet are all five-jointed. The great peculiarity, however, 
 is found in the unusual development of the jaws, which protrude from 
 the front of the head, and are from one-fourth to one-half the length 
 of the body, armed with spines and tooth-like projections on their inner 
 edges. The larvae are large, horny textured grubs, with four or six 
 sprangling thoracic legs, and are mostly found in rotten stumps or 
 roots. 
 
62 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Our largest species, Lucanus elaphus, Fab., occurs most abundantly 
 in the southern States, but is often taken as far north as St. Louis. This 
 js indeed a formidable looking insect. It is very hard and smooth, of 
 a mahogany-brown color, the body one and one-half inch in length, 
 and the immense mandibles extending forward three-fourths of an inch 
 more. It is from the resemblance of these to the antlers of a deer 
 that it receives the most appropriate name of " Stag beetle." Lucanus 
 dama, Hum., is the most common "Pinch beetle," and often enters our 
 rooms on summer evenings to the terror of nervous people, whom it 
 could not injure, but to whom it might give a severe pinch with its 
 sharply toothed jaws, which curve inward and are about one-fourth 
 inch long. The beetle is of the same form and texture, but a little 
 lighter in color and considerably smaller than the southern Stag beetle. 
 
 Another large beetle belonging in this group is the Horned Passalus 
 (Passalus cornutus, Fab.). This is a shining black species of an oblong 
 form, having the squarish pro-thorax separated on top from the abdomen 
 by a decided "waist" or constriction. The wing covers are longi- 
 tudinally grooved. In this species the jaws are not abnormally en- 
 larged, but on each side of the head is a little pointed horn, and 
 between them a longer one curving downward over the mouth. This 
 beetle is usually one and one-fourth inch in length. 
 
 The typical LAMELLICORNIA are, for convenience, separated 
 into two divisions, in consideration of their different feeding habit 
 chiefly, viz. : the Excrementivora, the larvae of which mostly breed in 
 manure, and Herbivora, in which the larvae feed on vegetation, either 
 growing or dead. In the first division the principal families are the 
 Copridce, Aphodiidce and Trogidce. 
 
 They are all scavengers and rank either as beneficial or innoxious. 
 The largest species, Copris Carolina, Lim., is a great, squarish, clumsy 
 creature, nearly an inch long and three-fourths inch wide, that frequently 
 flies into our lighted rooms at night, and after bumping about against 
 the walls and ceiling falls to the floor with a thud, generally landing 
 upon its back, and lying helpless, kicking its legs about wildly in the 
 effort to turn over. It is of a black color, somewhat hairy on the under 
 surface and legs, and the latter have the shanks of the fore legs ex- 
 panded and notched for use in digging, as is characteristic of all the 
 Lamellicorns. The female beetle tunnels perpendicularly under the 
 droppings of cows and horses, and at the bottom of the hole places a 
 large round ball of manure on which she deposits an egg. The larva, 
 an unsightly, much-wrinkled grub, very thick in the middle and taper- 
 ing toward each end, works its way into this compact ball, and beginning 
 somewhere near the middle, eats toward the surface until it is reduced 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 63 
 
 to a mere shell, which, serves as a sort of cocoon for the protection of 
 the pupa. 
 
 Here also we find the common " Tumble-bug " or "Tumble-dung" 
 (Canthon Icevis, Drury), a much smaller, dark-brown species, usually 
 seen in pairs rolling a ball of manure about the size of a large marble. 
 This species affords one of the rare instances in which the male assists 
 the female in making provision for the young. When a suitable spot 
 is found, a shaft is sunk four or five inches into the earth, the ball 
 rolled in, and the female, after pausing long enough to deposit an egg 
 upon it, begins filling up the hole, in which labor her partner assists. 
 But little pains, however, is taken with this part of the work, and often 
 the hole is left partly unfilled. A beautiful species, somewhat larger 
 than the above, has similar habits. This is (Phanceus carnifex, Linn.) 
 It is of a metallic green color with copper-colored thorax, which in the 
 male is adorned with a backward curving horn. 
 
 The APHODIDJE are all small shining black or black and red 
 beetles, which sometimes astonish gardeners by the numbers in which 
 they appear in green-houses and on hot- bed sashes, having bred from 
 the manure used as a fertilizer. 
 
 The family TROGID^E includes but one genus, Trox. The most 
 common species are small, dingy, black, roundish beetles, often attracted 
 to the light at night. They are distinguished by the widely dilated 
 thighs of the front legs and by the deeply ridged and pitted surface of 
 the thorax and wing covers. 
 
 The Leaf-chafers, Herbivorous Lamellicorns, are distinguished from 
 the manure-beetles by their more slender legs, long sharp claws, and 
 by the tip of the abdomen projecting slightly beyond the wing covers. 
 They feed entirely on vegetable matter, and unlike most other insects 
 in their perfect state, the beetles themselves often do great damage to 
 flowers and foliage. Many of the larvae live underground, subsisting 
 on the roots of grasses and other valuable plants ; others are found in 
 rotten wood or other decaying vegetation. They are fat, white, wrinkled 
 grubs, with horny heads, long, sprawling legs, and the hinder part of 
 the body in many species thicker than the remainder, and filled with 
 dark waste matter. 
 
 , This group has been separated into four families : the Monarch 
 beetles ( Dynastidce ) , the Dor beetles or May beetles (Helonthidce), the 
 Brilliant chafers (Rutelidccj, and the Flower chafers (Cetoncedw). 
 Among the Monarch beetles we find the largest insects in the Order. 
 One species, sometimes called the Ehinocerus beetle (Dynastes tit y us, 
 Linn.), is often seen in the Southern and Middle States. It is fully two 
 
 E 5 
 
64 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 inches in length, by an inch in diameter, and thick in proportion. The 
 color is pale gray, the wing covers being marked with numerous irregu- 
 lar blotches and spots of black. From the front of the head of the 
 male a long, pointed, polished horn curves upward, which is almost met 
 by a similar downward curving one on the thorax, on each side of 
 which are two small, straight ones. The female has no thoracic horn, 
 and only a small protuberance on the head. The larv* are, as a rule, 
 found in rotten wood, but are also said to injure ash trees by feeding 
 on the roots. 
 
 Under the name of Dor-beetles or May or June beetles ( MELON- 
 THIDJS), are grouped a great variety of medium-sized, leaf-feeding spe- 
 cies, most of which have thick, oblong bodies and are of a plain brown 
 color. In some the surface is smooth and shining, in others more or 
 less thickly covered with hairs or scales. One of their most peculiar 
 characters is that each of the claws of the feet is minutely bifid or 
 forked at the tip, which accounts for the persistence with which they 
 cling to any but the hardest and most polished surfaces. This fine 
 division of the claws can be distinctly seen only with a lens. 
 
 In this family the agriculturist finds a large number of the promi- 
 nent pests of his farm and orchard, to only a few of which have we 
 here space for reference. 
 
 One of these destructive species is the common May or June bee- 
 tle (Lachnosterna fusca, Froh.), a smooth, shining, chestnut-brown insect, 
 which issues from the ground in swarms during the latter part of May 
 or early in June, filling the air at twilight, and finding its way in num- 
 bers into lamp-lighted rooms, unless excluded with the utmost care. 
 These beetles settle on trees at night and feed voraciously on the foli- 
 age. They are cleanly, inodorous and inofensive creatures to handle, 
 and therefore make excellent and interesting subjects for examination 
 and experiment. 
 
 They remain hidden and dormant during the day, but awake to re- 
 newed activity for several successive evenings. After pairing the 
 male dies and the female burrows into the earth to lay her eggs. 
 
 From the latter are hatched the "white grubs," so well known as 
 among the chief pests of corn fields, meadows, lawns and strawberry 
 beds. The observations of earlier entomologists pointed to the con- 
 clusion that these grtibs required at least two years for development, 
 but Prof. Forbes, of Illinois, has demonstrated that under certain con- 
 ditions the insect attains its growth and passes through all its transfor- 
 mations in a single year. 
 
 In the same genus (Lachnosterna which means " hairy-breasted") 
 are a large number of other chafers, having essentially the same habits 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 65 
 
 as L.fusca, but many of these have not only the under side of the tho- 
 rax hairy, but the pro-thorax and wing covers also covered with a soft 
 pubescence, sometimes evenly distributed and again arranged on the 
 wing-co/ers in longitudinal ridges. Some of the species are much 
 smaller and lighter colored. The Eose chafer or Rose-bug (Macrodac- 
 tylus subspinosus, Fabr.) belongs also in this family (MELOLONTHIDJE). 
 This is an ochreous-yellow beetle, rather slender in form, about one- 
 third inch in length, with very long, spiny legs. Its color is really 
 almost black, but when fresh it is densely and evenly clothed in .pale 
 ochreous scales, which give to it its light color. It is altogether too 
 common in the Eastern and Northwestern States, where it is exceed- 
 ingly destructive to the blossoms of the grape, rose, and some other 
 plants. Its larviB feed on the roots of shrubbery, and in their turn 
 do much damage. 
 
 Among the Brilliant chafers (RuTELiD^;), which are separated 
 from the Melolonthians by the unequal claws, which are not bifid at 
 the tip, is a large species, the Spotted Pelidnota (Pelidnota punctata, 
 Linn.), which is illustrated as a type of the Family. (Fig. 25.) This is 
 one of the grape-vine pests, gnawing the foliage. It is a stout spe- 
 cies, about three-fourths of an inch long, of a clay-yellow color, with 
 three large, black dots on each wing-cover. Dr. Eiley bred the larva 
 in decaying stumps and roots. The Goldsmith beetle (Gatalpa lanigera, 
 Linn.), a beautiful species, is very like the above in form and size, but 
 is entirely of a cream yellow color, with golden and prismatic reflec- 
 tions. 
 
 Among the Flower beetles (CETONIIDJE) are a few of great size, 
 but, while none are very small, most of the North American species are 
 of medium or under medium size. The form is slightly flattened, the 
 scutellum unusually large, and the wing covers are peculiarly notched 
 or hollowed out on the sides near the base, so that it is not necessary 
 to raise them to allow the wings to be unfolded for flight. The mouth 
 is provided with a brush for collecting pollen, of which these insects 
 are very greedy, as they also are of nectar, and to procure it they cut 
 into tubular flowers. They may be found in spring drinking the sap 
 that sometimes oozes from the trunks of maples and other trees, and 
 are also quite injurious to ripe fruit. They differ from other members 
 of their family in being diurnal in habit. Allorhina nitida, Linn., is a 
 beautiful, large, velvety green species, with light- brown margins to the 
 wing covers. Euryomia inda and E. melancholic^ smaller, red-brown 
 mottled species, are the most destructive to flowers and fruit. 
 
66 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Order COLEOPTERA. Tribe PHYTOPHAGA. 
 
 BORERS AND LEAF BEETLES. 
 
 Also Section H E T E R o 31 E R A. t 
 
 BLISTER BEETLES, ETC. 
 
 [Fig. 26.] 
 
 Round-headed Apple Tree Borer (Saperda Candida.) 
 
 This division of similar footed beetles comprises a great variety 
 of forms, all of which feed on vegetation, and many of which are 
 extremely destructive to trees, herbaceous plants and seeds. Three of 
 the most important families are the Long-horned borers (CERAMBY- 
 CID.E), the Leaf beetles (CHRYSOMELID^), and the Seed beetles 
 
 (BBUCHIDJE ). 
 
 The first of these families, often termed the " Longicorns " or 
 " Capricorn s," is a large and interesting one, including many species of 
 great size, others of rare beauty and all very injurious. They may be 
 recognized at a glance by their long and usually slender antennae, 
 which in a few species are more than twice the length of the body, and 
 which curve backward like the horns of a goat. The form of the 
 body is elongate sub-cylindrical, in some species tapering toward the 
 hinder end. The head is broad, vertical, and furnished with strong- 
 jaws. The eyes are quite peculiar, being lunate (hollowed out) on 
 the inner side, with the antennae implanted in the hollows. The basal 
 joint of the latter is almost invariably longer than any of the succeed- 
 ing joints, which gradually taper to a point. The thorax is seldom as 
 broad as the hind body, and is square or barrel-shaped, often with one 
 or two spines or teeth on each side. The legs are long, but scarcely so 
 well flitted for running as for affording a secure support to the insect 
 when at rest. The joints of the feet are four in number, spongy or 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 67 
 
 cushioned beneath, and the third one bilobed. These beetles have the 
 power of producing a squeaking sound by rubbing the pro-thorax up 
 and down over the bases of the wing covers. This is done not only as 
 an expression of fear when captured, but for amusement or as a call to 
 their mates, and is termed Stridulation. The females have an oviposi- 
 tor that can be teles copically extended to a considerable length, in 
 order to place the eggs deep into holes or into the crevices of bark of 
 the trees in which the larvae feed. The colors of many species are 
 very bright, disposed in stripes or bands or in dotted patterns on a 
 plain ground. They are for the most part nocturnal, and conceal them- 
 selves carefully during the day. A few, however, are exceptional, and 
 may, at certain seasons, be found on flowers or enjoying the sunshine 
 on the trunks of trees. 
 
 The larvae are all wood-borers, and many of them do great damage 
 to fruit and forest trees, and in vineyards. They are fleshy, white 
 cylindrical grubs, terminating bluntly behind, with all the joints sepa- 
 rated by deep incisions, and the first thoracic one much enlarged and 
 covered with a horny plate. The head is small and usually dark brown, 
 the greater part of it comprised in a pair of powerful jaws, capable of 
 cutting into the hardest wood. A few of these larvae have the usual 
 number of very small thoracic legs, but the majority have no legs at all, 
 and move up and down in their burrows by alternate contractions and 
 extensions of the body, and by means of the hunched segments. It is 
 a habit with some species to keep one end of the burrow open, through 
 which to push out the chips and castings, and their presence is often 
 betrayed by the little heaps of sawdust on the bark. The great ma- 
 jority, however, leave their castings in a compact mass behind them as 
 they proceed. Many of these larvae grow for two or three years, and a 
 few even longer. When ready for transformation they tunnel their 
 way to the surface, leaving a slight shell of the bark entire over the 
 place of exit. They then retreat to a safe distance and form a cell or 
 nest of wood fibers and castings, and here assume the pupae form. In 
 this stage they are soft and white, sometimes almost transparent, but 
 with each member of the future beetle clearly defined, and they have a 
 peculiar mummified appearance. At the end of two or three weeks the 
 membranous casings are slipped off and the perfect beetle, but in a 
 very soft and imperfectly colored condition, is disclosed. The insect 
 remains quiet in its cell for some time until all the parts are hardened, 
 after which it breaks through the slight door and enters upon the en- 
 joyments find business of its mature life. 
 
68 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 In the genus Prionus we find several very large, dark-brown spe- 
 cies, whose larvse, measuring two and one-half or three inches inlength^ 
 are quite frequently found boring roots of grape-vines, apple trees and 
 similar plants. 
 
 Saperda Candida, Fab., a beautiful species of a cinnamon-brown 
 color above, with two broad milk-white stripes extending the whole 
 length of the body, is the parent of the much execrated " Round-headed 
 Apple tree borer" (see Fig. 26), which does so much damage in or 
 chards by boring the trees near the ground. 
 
 The Twig-girdler (Oncideres cingulatus, Say.) has the bad habit of 
 girdling the twigs in which the female lays her eggs, it attacks both 
 fruit and forest trees. Maples, Locust and Hickory are bored by the 
 larvae of a group of beautiful beetles of the genus Clytus. They are 
 rather large, of dark colors, ornamented with curved and V-shaped 
 [Fig. 27.] transverse bands of bright yellow, pale green or white. 
 
 The Leaf-beetles (CHR^s- 
 OMELID^E) constitute an irn- 
 e mense group of small to medi- 
 b urn-sized species, many of which 
 c display brilliant and beautiful 
 colors. The scientific name 
 given to the family, from words 
 signifying a golden apple, re- 
 fers to this quality as well 
 to the round or oval form so common among them. The 
 
 coioS g dun-brown head if * verv short and much narrower than the pro-tho- 
 and dingy- white. rax ; the antennae somewhat enlarged toward the tips and 
 set wide apart; the eyes are round and prominent ; the legs are short 
 and stout; the joints of the feet are four in number, each broad and 
 cushioned beneath. The larvae are of a variety of forms, but mostly 
 broad and thick, with well-developed thoracic legs. They feed exposed 
 upon the surface of leaves, or, in the case of a few of the smaller spe- 
 cies, they mine between the upper and under cuticles. 
 
 Among these beetles we find such notorious pests as the Colorado 
 Potato beetle f Doryphora 10-llneata, Say), the Asparagus beetle (Grio- 
 ceiisa asparagi, Linn.), the Striped Cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata, 
 Fab.), the Streaked Cottonwood beetle (Plagioperma scripta, Fab.), and 
 great numbers of others. 
 
 The Tortoise beetles, which are the especial enemies of the Sweet 
 potato plant and of other Convolvulacas are round or oval species from 
 one-fifth to one-fourth inch in length, of a flattened oval form, with a 
 
 AsparagU8 bee tie~, beetle; 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 69 
 
 membranous margin around the thorax and wing covers which almost 
 conceals the legs. The coloring is extremely beautiful in one species, 
 Cassida aurichalcea, being at times of the most brilliantly burnished 
 gold, and again with opalescent reflections. Other species are mottled 
 or striped in gold and brown. 
 
 The flat, oval larvae have a spiny surface and lateral margin, and 
 the body terminates in a pair of strong bristles, upon which during 
 growth the cast-off skins and excrement are accumulated and held up 
 over the body to shield it from the sun and from its enemies. 
 
 The larvae of species belonging to the genera Chlamys and.CWwop- 
 tera make cases, which, when feeding, they carry over or drag behind 
 them, and to which they retire for repose. 
 
 Another group with whose destructive work the farmer and gar- 
 dener is only too well acquainted, contains the Flea-beetles. These are 
 mostly small species, characterized by their greatly expanded and thick- 
 ened thighs, which give them their remarkable jumping power. Haltica, 
 chalybea, Illig., is a dark steel-blue species, often very troublesome on 
 grape-vines. The Cucumber-flea beetle Crepidodera cucumeris, Har., is 
 one of the pests of the Gourd family of plants. The Stripped Flea 
 beetles (Phyllotreta sinuata, Steph., and P. vittata, Fabr.), riddle the 
 leaves of turnips, radishes and cabbage with small, round holes. The 
 larvae feed under ground on the roots or mine the leaves of plants be- 
 longing in the same family with the vegetables mentioned. Haltica 
 (GraptoderaJ foliacea, Lee., is very destructive in the far western States 
 to the foliage of young apple trees. 
 
 The Seed weevils (BRTJCHID^) are a small family of beetles that 
 breed in seeds and grain. They are of broad oval, flattened form, from 
 one-tenth to one-fifth inch long. The antennae are rather short and 
 serrate, and the tip of the abdomen protrudes beyond the wing-covers. 
 The Pea weevil (BrucJius pisi, Linn.), the Bean weevil (B. obsoletus, Say.), 
 and the Grain weevil (B. granarius, Linn.,) are the most destructive 
 species, whose habits are well known to every farmer and gardener. 
 
 Section HETEROMERA. 
 
 In this somewhat isolated group of beetles, we find the chief 
 peculiarity in the feet, the front and middle pair of which are five- 
 jointed and the hind pair four-jointed. These are not cushioned be- 
 neath, as are those of the Leaf beetles. Many of the species are 
 exceedingly interesting to the biologist on account of their peculiar 
 development, which has one or two seemingly retrograde stages in those 
 of parasitic habits. 
 
70 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 [Fig. 29.] The Heteromerous beetles are separated into quite a 
 
 number of families, of which two only are of especial inter- 
 est to the economic entomologist, viz.: The Oil or Blister 
 beetles (MELOIDJE) and the Meal beetles (TENEBRIONIDJE). 
 The Blister beetles are rather elegantly formed insects and 
 differ from all others in having the somewhat triangular 
 head set on vertically with a distinct neck. The wing covers 
 Riiey 6 " and entire body wall are rather thin and leathery. The 
 colors are satin black or plain ash-gray, or black, margined with pale 
 gray, or striped longitudinally with yellow. They are diurnal insects, 
 and, in their perfect state, feed voraciously on the foliage of the potato 
 and also on certain kinds of flowers, and in the early autumn may be 
 found on golden rod. The larvae, which undergo what is termed 'hyper- 
 metamorphosis, exist in two forms, and are parasitic in the nests of bees 
 and on the eggs of locusts (grasshoppers). They belong to the genera 
 Cantharis and Epicauta. 
 
 Among the Meal beetles, the most abundant and pernicious spe- 
 cies is Tenebrio molitor, Linn, a plain black or very dark brown spe- 
 cies, about three-fifths inch long, rather slender and elongate, and 
 without any striking characteristics. The larvae are horny skinned, 
 slender, cylindrical worms, with well-developed feet, and are great 
 pests in warehouses and storerooms where ground grain is kept. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 71 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Order COLEOPTERA. Sub-Order RHYNCOPHORA. 
 
 SNOUT-BEETLES AND BARK-BORERS. 
 
 [Fig. 30.] 
 
 Apple curculio () natural size; (5) side 
 view; (c) back view, enlarged after Riley. 
 
 The snout-beetles are all included, by the most recent writers on the 
 subject, in seven or eight very distinct families, but the species are 
 very numerous. None of the North American species are of more 
 than medium size, while the majority are small under one-fourth inch 
 in length. The great peculiarity of these insects is found in the pro- 
 longation of the front part of the head into a beak or snout, termed the 
 rostrum, which is either broad and short, or long and thin, in some spe- 
 cies straight, in others curved. The small but sharp jaws are situated 
 at the end of the beak, and the labrum and palpi are but very slightly 
 developed or wanting. The antennae arise from the sides of the beak ; 
 they are slender, elbowed or bent in the middle, and end in a knob or 
 club. The rostrum is often grooved at the sides for the reception of 
 these organs. The eyes are small and round. The body is compact 
 and often wedge-shaped, and in many species the surface is ridged, 
 pitted and raised into tubercles. The feet are four-jointed, each joint 
 strongly bilobed and cushioned beneath. 
 
 When disturbed or frightened, most of the species "play 'possum,' 7 
 feigning death most skillfully and persistently. The antennse sink into 
 the grooves in the beak, the latter, where its structure permits, is bent 
 under, close to the body, as are also the legs, and the insect drops to 
 the ground motionless, where its color and shape so closely simulate a 
 dried bud, bit of twig or seed, that only the most practiced eye can 
 detect it. 
 
72 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 The great majority of these beetles are fruit and nut-eaters. The- 
 beak is used to drill the holes in which the eggs are placed. The larvae 
 are fat, white, thin-skinned and wrinkled grubs, without feet or prolegs- 
 
 except in one small and peculiar group, the Br3nthians, which are 
 
 wood borers. They are usually in a more or less curved position from 
 which some species, like the Apple-curculio, can 
 never straighten themselves. Some, when full 
 fed, work their way out of the fruit or nuts and 
 drop to the ground, into which the burrow to 
 transform ; others change where they have fed. 
 
 Among the more important families are the Fruit 
 and Nut weevils (OUBCULTONIDJE), the Rice weev- 
 ils and " Bill bugs " ( CALANDRID^; ), and the Leaf- 
 rollers ( ATTALABJDJE). 
 
 In the amount and value of the products de- 
 stroyed by it, the Peach or Plum curculio (Cono- 
 
 Larva and papa of Apple __ .. 
 
 cnrcuiio.--AfterRiiey. trachelus nenuphar, Herbst) may well head the list 
 of the pernicious species. Its characters and habits are so well known 
 that it is not necessary to recapitulate them here. 
 
 In some parts of the country this species is rivaled in the injury 
 done to stone fruits by a slightly larger, smoother species called the* 
 Plum Gouger (Cocoturus scutellaris Lee.) The Apple curculio (Antho- 
 nomus quadrigibbus, Say), represented in Fig. 30, breeds in the fruit and 
 passes its transformations without leaving it. The Nut weevils are 
 nearly all included in the genus Balininus. They are smooth, oval bee- 
 tles of an ochreous-drab color, with a very long, slender, dark brown 
 beak, with which they drill holes in the green nuts for the reception of 
 their eggs. 
 
 The principal genus of the CALA.NDRID^ is Sphenophorus, in which 
 are found the Corn Bill-bugs which often do so much injury to Indian 
 corn by boring the roots and lower part of the stalk. The Eice weevil 
 fCalandra oryzal, Linn.) is injurious to stored rice and other grain in the 
 Southern States. The small beetles composing the family Attalabidto 
 breed on the leaves of Oak, Rhus and other trees. After placing an egg 
 a portion of the leaf is rolled into a knapsack-like case, in which the 
 larva develops, feeding on the partially withered portions of the en- 
 closed leaf. 
 
 The Bark-beetles (SCOLYTID^E) are small, hard, cylindrical insects 
 of a shining black or brown color, the abdomen appearing as though 
 cut off obliquely behind, encircled by a ring of little points or teeth. 
 The antennae are very short and knobbed at the tip. The larvae are 
 much like those of curculios, but have stronger jaws to adapt them for 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 73 
 
 wood-boring. They bore between the bark and solid wood, several of 
 them working from a common center their burrows, which gradually 
 widen to the place of exit, radiating in all directions, making fanciful 
 carvings on the inner side of the bark and the surface of the wood. 
 They often prove very destructive in forests, to both pine and hard- 
 wood trees. A species introduced from Europe ( Scolytus rugulosus, 
 Eatz.) has recently excited alarm among the fruit-growers of Illinois, by 
 working under the bark of twigs and young branches, principally of 
 stone fruits, producing an effect like blight, and in some cases causing 
 the death of the tree. Prof. Forbes, who has published the first account 
 of its injuries in this country, finds it very generally distributed and 
 promising to become a very serious enemy to all varieties of fruit trees. 
 
 CHAPTEE XX. 
 Order III. LEPIDOPTERA. 
 
 [Fig. 32.] 
 
 
 Asterias butterfly, larva and chrysalis after Tenney. 
 
 Among the butterflies and moths we find the most attractive, and 
 with a few exceptions, the most conspicuous members of the class of 
 insects. They are recognized without difficulty by their broad and often 
 
74 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 gaily colored wings, their soft, hairy bodies, small heads, prominent 
 eyes and antennae, and in most species, the long, coiled tongue. 
 
 In the Lepidoptera the three principal divisions of the body are 
 distinct, but the neck is very short and there is no slender pedicel con- 
 necting the thorax and abdomen. The head is small, but broad in pro- 
 portion to its length, and moves freely on the neck ; the eyes are hemi- 
 spherical and of various colors, sometimes sparsely hairy. 
 
 Two ocelli are present in some of the moths, but are concealed 
 under the hairy scales that clothe the top and front of the head, and 
 probably are not of much use as organs of vision. 
 
 The antennae are always conspicuous. They are either filiform, 
 feathered or club-shaped. The upper jaws are not developed in the 
 perfect insects, and the lower jaws (maxillae) are united and length- 
 ened out to form a horny tube called the tongue or lingua, which is 
 coiled up like a watch spring when not in use. The palpi at least one 
 pair of them are large and plumy and curve up in front of the face on 
 each side of the tongue. 
 
 The usual form of the body is long and slender, tapering somewhat 
 in both directions. The pro-thorax is a very narrow ring, scarcely vis- 
 ible on top except for the two little knobs which it bears, from which 
 arise small tufts of hairs. The mezo-thorax is the most developed seg- 
 ment of the body, bearing the fore-wings and the middle legs, and the 
 two little lappets (patagia) that cover the bases of the wings. The 
 meta-thorax is also quite large, and has attached to it the hind legs and 
 hind wings. The legs are weak and slender, and are used chiefly as 
 supports for the body when the insect is at rest, and only rarely for 
 walking or crawling. They are clothed with hair-like scales, and have 
 one or two pairs of spurs at or near the outer end of the shank (tibia). 
 The feet have five slender cylindrical joints, and terminate in a pair of 
 minute claws. 
 
 The wings, in this order of insects, are the most striking features 
 of the organism, and of first importance in every respect. They are 
 formed of membrane supported by numerous strong veins (see Fig. 5), 
 and covered with a powdery substance which, when magnified, is found 
 to consist of minute scales narrowly or broadly oblong, attached by a 
 little stem; they are notched on the outer edge and overlap each other 
 in irregular rows, like the shingles on a roof. It is in the brilliant colors 
 and elegant patterns formed by the arrangement of these scales, that 
 the beauty of the butterflies and moths chiefly resides. 
 
 The patagia are covered with long hairs, and fit over the bases of 
 the upper wings like epaulettes. In their perfect state lepidopterous 
 insects are rather short-lived, if we except the comparatively few species 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 75 
 
 that hibernate. The only nourishment they require is an occasional 
 sip of nectar from flowers or water from a dew-drop or from the moist 
 earth. Their business in life is to seek their mates and place their eggs 
 upon the plants or other substances upon which their larvae subsist. 
 The eggs of butterflies are usually conical and ridged or fretted on the 
 surface, and as a rule are deposited singly, while those of moths are 
 mostly spherical or circular, and deposited in clusters. 
 
 The transformations in this order are complete, and more easily 
 observed than in most other insects. The larvae are all properly termed 
 caterpillars, but the smooth species are often popularly designated 
 " worms," as for example, " cut-worms," " canker-worms," " bud- 
 worms," etc. Like the parent insects, they vary greatly in form, size 
 and color. The body is usually cylindrical, composed of twelve or 
 thirteen segments, besides the head. The latter is covered by a horny 
 plate, often divided in the middle by a triangular "face," which has its 
 base at the labrum. The jaws are broad and strong, serrated or toothed 
 on the edges, the under lip (labium) is well developed, but the maxillae 
 and palpi are in most species quite rudimentary. The antennas are 
 represented by a pair of three or four jointed tubercles, and the eyes 
 by three or four little dots or simple eyes, which* probably enable them 
 to distinguish daylight from darkness. As Dr. Packard says, " this is 
 useful information from a caterpillar's stand-point, as most of them hide 
 by day and feed by night." The spineret is a small colnical tube on the 
 lower lip, through which a gummy substance, secreted by most cater- 
 pillars, is drawn out and becomes a fine silken thread, of which these 
 insects make great use in forming their nests or cocoons, in attaching 
 themselves when molting, or suspending themselves in the air as a 
 means of escape from their enemies. 
 
 Caterpillars, with very few exceptions, have from ten to sixteen 
 legs six of which, on the thoracic joints, are termed the true or tho- 
 racic legs, and are pointed and horny ; the others, which support the 
 hinder part of the body, are broad fleshy props, and are termed the 
 false legs or pro-legs; they terminate in a circle of minute hooks, by 
 which their possessor is enabled to cling to any surface upon which it 
 wishes to crawl. Some caterpillars have the surface of the body 
 smooth, while in others it is covered with hair or protected by clusters 
 of sharp branching spines, or roughened by warts and tubercles. On 
 the top of the first joint, just back of the head, there is in many spe- 
 cies a clearly defined horny plate called the cervical collar or shield, and 
 a similar plate at the hinder end forms the anal or supra- anal plate. 
 
76 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Iii the process of growth, lepidoptero us larvae mo It or change their 
 skins from three to five times. The operation is as follows: The 
 hindmost or anal pro-legs are made fast to some rough surface, or to a 
 mat of silk prepared for the purpose. The larva then rests and fasts 
 for a certain length of time. Presently the head plates begin to sepa- 
 rate from the neck, and a longitudinal slit appears on the top of the 
 thoracic segments, which gradually widens until the fore part of the 
 body can be forced through, after which, by alternate expansions and 
 contractions, the outgrown skin is made to slip backward until, by a 
 final effort, the anal legs are withdrawn and the crumpled mass of cast- 
 off skin, termed the exuvium (plural, exumce), is left attached to the 
 leaf or bark, while the caterpillar, in its new dress which is, in some 
 cases, quite differently colored and ornamented from the out-grown 
 one crawls off in search of food with which to renew its exhausted 
 strength. 
 
 The great majority of caterpillars subsist on the leaves, flowers and 
 fruit of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. Of these they consume 
 vast quantities every year, often partially or entirely destroying the 
 most valuable crops in satisfying their voracious appetites. A few 
 species infest drugs and grocers' wares and some gnaw furs and woolen 
 goods. 
 
 When full grown, caterpillars cease to feed, and seek some place 
 in which they will be concealed from their enemies while unable either 
 to escape or defend themselves. In this they succeed so well that it 
 is but rarely that the pupae are discovered by any but practiced eyes. 
 
 Lepidopterous pupae are called chrysalides. They are of various 
 shapes, some being angular and irregular in outline, and have the sur- 
 face roughened with humps and protuberances, while others are smooth, 
 oval or oblong and highly polished. The integument is horny or shelly 
 in its nature, composed of chitine,si substance which enters largely into 
 the composition of the body-wall of insects in all stages of develop- 
 ment. Each member is not encased in a separate sheath, as with the 
 Hymenoptera and Coleoptera, but the outlines of the parts can, in most 
 species, be distinguished through the case in which they are enclosed. 
 The chrysalides of many species have no covering or outer envelope, 
 but are simply attached by bands of silk to some surface. Others are 
 enclosed in thick cocoons, or hidden within rolled-up leaves, or formed 
 in earthen cells several inches under ground. The pupa state varies 
 in duration from eight or ten days to several months, according to the 
 habit of the species or the season of the year. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 77 
 
 The Lepidoptera cannot be so readily classified by the beginner as 
 the bees and beetles, although the primary groups are not difficult to 
 distinguish. The first division is into two sections or sub-orders: 
 I. BUTTERFLIES (Rtiopalocera club-horns). 
 
 II. MOTHS (Heterocera variable horns). 
 
 A glance at the antennse serves to show us to which of these 
 groups an insect belongs. In the butterflies these organs are stiff, 
 thread-like, and either abruptly or gradually enlarged at the tip, so that 
 they always terminate in a knob or club. The antennae of moths, on the 
 other hand, no matter what their general form may be, whether 
 feathered or filiform, or spindle-shaped, invariably end in a point. Be- 
 sides the antenna3 there are many other characters which separate the 
 insects composing these two divisions. In the butterflies the body is 
 usually small and slender in proportion to the size of the wings, while 
 in many moths it is stout and clumsy; the fore and hind wings of but- 
 terflies are not attached during flight, while those of moths are held 
 together near the base by a bristle termed a frenulum on the second- 
 
 
 
 aries, which fits into a loop or socket on the inner margin of the pri- 
 maries. The butterflies are diurnal insects, while most of the moths 
 fly at night or during the morning and evening twilight. When at rest 
 butterflies hold the wings, at least one pair of them, erect, with the 
 under surfaces exposed ; the moths on the contrary close the wings 
 either flat or roof-like over the body, with the upper pair entirely con- 
 cealing the under pair, except in one family, where both are spread 
 out. 
 
 While an entomologist rarely mistakes a butterfly larva for that of 
 a moth, or vice versa, it is somewhat difficult to give a list of the char- 
 acters by which they can be distinguished. The chrysalides of butter- 
 flies are usually unprotected by any sort of cover or cocoon, and are 
 very angular and irregular in outline, or are brightly colored, while 
 those of moths are protected in cocoons of silk, or in rolled leaves, or 
 hidden in the earth, and are mostly smooth and oval or oblong in out- 
 line, and in no instance display brilliant or metallic colors. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that in entomology the term " moth" is 
 not restricted to the few small insects that breed in furs, woolens and 
 similar substances, but is used to designate the greater proportion of 
 the scale-winged insects, without regard to size or habit. The gigantic 
 Oecropia, whose wings expand about six inches, and whose body is as 
 thick as one's finger, is as much a " moth " as is the tiny creature that 
 sometimes flutters out of closets or up from the borders of carpets, to 
 the disturbance of the thrifty housekeeper. 
 
78 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 OHAPTEK XXI. 
 Order LEPIDOPTERA. Sub-Order R H o PAL o c ERA 
 
 BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 [Fig. 33.] 
 
 6 
 
 Hackberry butterfly, Apatura-elyton, with larva and chrysalis. After Riley. 
 
 Of all the insect tribes the butterflies are the popular favorites. 
 None of the prejudice with which insects are generally regarded seems 
 to attach to them. Used by the classic writers to symbolize the soul, 
 they have ever continued to be favorites of the poets, and are associated 
 with whatever is most airily graceful and beautiful in nature. 
 
 The larvae of butterflies feed exclusively on vegetation, each species 
 being restricted to one, or at most to two or three kinds of plants. In 
 their general form they do not vary so much as the larvae of moths, 
 being all more or less cylindrical and always possessing the full com- 
 plement of six legs and ten prolegs. The head, though not always large, 
 is quite distinct, usually with a somewhat fretted or stippled surface, and 
 in a few species, adorned with branching horns (see Fig. 335), or spiny 
 tubercles. The surface of the body is in some species smooth and 
 velvety, in others bearing fleshy horns and protuberances or covered 
 with spines. 
 
 The pupae are naked, except in the species constituting one family, 
 where they are slightly enclosed in threads of silk. They are, as a rule, 
 very angular, especially toward the anterior end, and are either pendent 
 by the tail, or are supported in an upright position by a band of silk 
 which the larva, before changing, contrives to weave across its back. 
 
 Some of the characters by which butterflies are grouped into 
 families and genera are found in the outline and venation of the wings, 
 the shape of the club of the antennae and of the palpi, the presence or 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY, 79 
 
 seeming absence of the front pair of legs, and, to a certain extent, in 
 the coloring. 
 
 Butterflies have been classified and re-classified in various ways, 
 by different naturalists, each system based on some excellent ideas, but 
 all more or less defective. The simplest arrangement is that by which 
 they are all grouped into four comprehensive families, all of which 
 are numerously represented in all parts of the United States. These 
 families are : the Swallow-tails and their allies (PAPILIONID.E), the 
 Browns and Silver-spots (XYMPHALID^), the Little Blues and Coppers 
 (LYC^NID^E,) and the Skippers (HESPERID^S). 
 
 The Swallow-tails (genus Papilio j are so called from the narrow 
 lobes or tabs into which the outer edges of the lower wings are pro- 
 longed. Among these we find the largest and some of the most beau- 
 tiful of our native species. They are mostly of dark colors black or 
 rich brown, ornamented on the wings and body with spots and streaks 
 of bright yellow and orange, with shadings or lustrous reflections of 
 blue or green. The club of the antennae is rather small ; the tibiae of 
 the hind legs have a single pair of spurs, and those of the fore legs at 
 the base a sort of flap covered with long hairs. All the species in the 
 family have six equally developed legs. ( See Fig. 32.) 
 
 The Iarv83 are, with one or two exceptions, smooth, cylindrical cat- 
 erpillars, often gaily striped or ornamented with eye-like spots (see 
 Fig. ), and possess a distinguishing character in a Y-shaped scent 
 organ (osmaterium) of an orange color, which can be protruded at will 
 and emits a disagreeable odor. It is used to frighten away parasitic 
 enemies. This appendage is peculiar to the larvae of the true Papilios, 
 and when the insect is quiet, is completely retracted under the edge of 
 the segment next the head. The larva of Papilio asterias feeds on the 
 foliage of carrots, parsley, caraway and other umbeliferous plants. 
 The chrysalis is marked in wood brown and white, and has the form 
 represented in Fig. 32. The butterfly is black, with bluish shadings, 
 and is ornamented with several rows of bright yellow dots near the 
 outer edges of the wings. The Turnus butterfly ( Papilio turnus. Linn.) 
 is one of the largest and commonest species, expanding over four 
 inches. It differs from all its congeners in having the ground color of 
 the wings bright yellow, but crossed by broad dashes and streaks of 
 black, and with a black border in which are set lunate yellow spots. 
 The larva is deep green, and about one and one-half inches in length 
 deep when full grown. The front edge of the second joint and a part of 
 the fifth joint are yellow, and on each side of the fourth joint are a 
 couple of small purple spots. The chrysalis is in various shades of 
 
 E 6 
 
80 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 brown, in shape much like that of P. asterias, but is larger and has a 
 more prominent horn projecting forward over the head. The larvae 
 feed on a variety of fruit and shade trees, and are sometimes quite 
 destructive. There are eight or nine North American species of Swal- 
 low-tailed butterflies, besides several quite distinct varieties, all of 
 which are very handsome. 
 
 The Garden Whites or Cabbage butterflies (genus Pieris} include 
 about a half dozen species, among which are found several very serious 
 pests of the vegetable garden. They are of rather small size, expand- 
 ing not more than two inches, and are all of a dingy white with blackish 
 margins and dustings, or are more or less thickly spotted with grayish 
 black. The larvae are slender, cylindrical caterpillars with a rugose or 
 velvety surface, and either plain green or with a striped and checkered 
 pattern in dull green, black, lilac and white. 
 
 The European cabbage butterfly (Pieris rapce, Linn.) was accident- 
 ally introduced into this country about twenty years ago, and has now 
 become naturalized in almost every section, proving very destructive 
 to cabbages, turnips and other cruciferous plants. 
 
 The Sulphur yellows (genus ColiasJ include the medium-sized, gay 
 yellow and black or orange and black butterflies that are so numerous 
 late in spring and early in autumn. Their larvae are of a green color, 
 with a velvety surface, and many of them have a lateral band, com- 
 posed of a line of bright crimson, and one of white, extending from 
 the second to the eleventh segments. They feed upon clover, lucern 
 and other leguminous plants. 
 
 The Browns and Silver Spots composing the family NYMPHALID^E 
 are called the " four-footed " butterflies, from the apparent absence of 
 the front pair of legs. If carefully examined these members are seen 
 to be folded and closely appressed to the breast, and often have the 
 tarsi undeveloped. The majority of these butterflies are of large size 
 and of dark, rich colors, many species being elegantly ornamented on 
 the under side of the wings with silvery spots. The larvae of most 
 species have the surface covered with spines or raised into humps and 
 prominences. The pupae are always suspended by the tail and hang 
 head downward. A few of the chrysalides are smooth and casket- 
 shaped, but the majority are characterized by many angles and projec- 
 tions. Nearly all are "studded with golden or gem-like spots, which 
 disappear or lose their luster shortly before the butterfly emerges. 
 
 The manner in which these pupae contrive to attach themselves to 
 the point of support is a process so interesting that the observer is 
 well repaid for the time expended in watching it. It may be briefly 
 described as follows: The caterpillar, when ready to change, spins a 
 
OUTLINES OE ENTOMOLOGY. 81 
 
 little mat or tuft of silk upon some convenient surface. Into this it 
 entangles the hooks of the hind legs, and loosening its hold in front 
 and curling up the head, it suffers itself to drop and hang by these anal 
 pro-legs. In this position it remains from twelve to thirty-six hours. 
 The skin then bursts open just back of the head, and the anterior end 
 of the chrysalis is protruded. By violent exertion, in alternate length- 
 enings and contractions, the larval skin is shoved backward until it 
 forms a shriveled mass near the point of attachment. The crowning 
 effort is now to be made in withdrawing the tail of the chrysalis and 
 fixing it into the little mat of silk prepared for it. The chrysalis, it 
 must be remembered, is not yet hard and stiff, but is capable of con- 
 siderable motion ; accordingly, by a sharp contraction, a portion of the 
 larval skin is firmly grasped between two of the abdominal joints, and 
 with only this slight hold the hinder end of the chrysalis is withdrawn 
 from the old skin, and, with a vigorous thrust, the little spike, termed 
 the cremaster, with which it is provided, is struck sharply into the tuft 
 of silk. Sometimes the first stroke suffices to fix it ; in other cases 
 two or three efforts are required, and, occasionally, there is utter fail- 
 ure and the chrysalis drops to the ground. When the chrysalis is made 
 fast it whirls itself rapidly round and round to detach the larval skin 
 and to more firmly entangle the barbs of the cremaster. After this 
 the chrysalis contracts and hardens, and the beautiful colors which 
 characterize the particular species are displayed. 
 
 Among toe most beautiful and most easily recognized genera of 
 the four-footed butterflies may be mentioned Danais, Argynnis, Apa- 
 tura, Vanessa, Orapta and Hipparchia. The Archippus butterfly 
 (Danais archippus, Fabr.) is one of the most common and abundant 
 species. The wing expanse is between four and five inches, the color 
 a bright red-brown with black veins and black border in which are set 
 two rows of white dots. The larva feeds on the milkweed or silkweed 
 (Asc elepias},and is elegantly colored in transverse stripes of black,white 
 and yellow, with a pair of black velvety horns on the third and eleventh 
 joints. The chrysalis is shaped like a lady's ear-drop, and is of a clear 
 green color, ornamented with black and gold. 
 
 The Argynnis butterflies have broad velvety wings of a tawny 
 orange color, shaded and spotted with dark-brown on the upper sur- 
 face, while the under sides are resplendent with numerous silvery spots. 
 In these species the antennae terminate in a large, roundish knob. The 
 larvae are covered with spines and feed upon violets. 
 
 The Hackberry butterflies (genus Apatura) are of a dull brown, 
 mottled with white and black spots. The eggs of A. clyton (see Fig. 33) 
 
82 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 are laid in a mass, and the head of the larva bears a pair of branching 
 horns. 
 
 In Vanessa the edges of the wings are scalloped and angular in 
 outline. The palpi are large, and project in- front of the head like a 
 beak. The beautiful Antiopa butterfly (Vanessa antiopa, Linn), which 
 has deep purple, buff-bordered wings, and whose larva are very de- 
 structive to the Lombardy poplar and elm, and the red Admiral (V. 
 atalanta, Linn), distinguished by broad, orange-red stripes, passing- ob- 
 liquely across the upper wings and bordering the outer edges of the 
 lower ones, and whose larvae feed on the nettle, belong to this genus. 
 
 The genus Orapta may be recognized by the very jagged outline of 
 the wings. The upper pair, besides being notched, are deeply hollowed 
 out on the outer edge, and the lower pair are furnished with two short 
 "tails." The upper surface is pale reddish brown, mottled with large, 
 irregular spots of dark brown. Some species have a narrow border of 
 pale blue. The under side is of duller colors, with a single silvery or 
 golden mark. These butterflies may be popularly termed the "Punctu- 
 ation" butterflies, since, from the punctuation-like marks on the under 
 side of the wings, the various species have been named Grapta comma, 
 Orapta interrogation**, etc. 
 
 The genus Hipparclila contains the "Wood butterflies," so named 
 from the fact of their being usually found in groves and thickets, and 
 also from their wood-brown colors, relieved by eye-like spots. 
 
 The family LYC^ENID^ contains the small coppery red and the 
 blue butterflies often seen fluttering about pools of water and muddy 
 places by road-sides. 
 
 The larvae feed on grass, are smooth, short and thick, and secure 
 themselves with a loop in an upright position, when about to transform. 
 The genus Theckla may be recognized by the two thread-like tails which 
 ornament each of the hind wings. 
 
 The HESPEBID^E comprise a large number of black and brown, 
 dull-colored butterflies, mostly of small size, and which differ in so 
 many respects from the other EHOPALOCERA that they seem to fur- 
 nish the connecting link between the true butterflies and the moths. The 
 body is generally short and thick, and in repose only the fore wings 
 are held erect, and these not pressed together, while the hind wings 
 are laid flat upon the back. The antennae end in a little hook. They 
 fly with rapid, jerky motions, often alighting. Hence they are popu- 
 larly denominated "Skippers." The Iarva3 are spindle-shaped, with a 
 rough surface, a small, distinct neck and a large head, which is usually 
 somewhat heart-shaped and marked with two or more conspicuous 
 spots. They live in cases which they form by folding leaves and fast- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 83 
 
 ening them in place with what look like long stitches of coarse, white 
 silk. They leave their cases at night to feed, and when one case is 
 outgrown they construct a new one. They change to pupae within their 
 leafy homes and further enclosed in a lace-like silken cocoon. The 
 chrysalis is smooth and oval, often covered with a fine powder or 
 " bloom," and is suspended by the tail. The Tityrus skipper (Euda- 
 mus tityrus, Fabr.), the larva of which feeds on the locust and acacia, 
 is the largest and best known species. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Order LEPIDOPTERA. Sub-Order HETEROCERA. 
 MOTHS. 
 
 Fi 5 . 34. 
 
 Corn-worm (Heliothis a^migera) after Kiley; a, b, 
 egg magnified ; c, larva; d, pupa; e, f, imago or moth. 
 
 The moths greatly exceed the butterflies in number of species and 
 individuals and in diversity of size, structure and habit. Among them 
 may be found some (tropica?) species whose expanded wings measure a 
 foot from tip to tip, and others whose wing expanse is scarcely one- 
 eighth inch. Some forms are slender and graceful, and can scarcely 
 be distinguished from butterflies ; others, when on the wing, might 
 easily be mistaken for bees or wasps; still others simulate beetles, 
 while a few, destitute of wings, and in some cases of legs also, present 
 the appearance of over-grown maggots or grubs. In the peculiarities 
 of their development, also, the entomologist finds a field of inexhaust- 
 
84 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ible interest, and in which he learns much that can be turned to prac- 
 tical account in his endeavors to discover the best methods of keeping 
 pernicious species in check. A general description of the insects com- 
 posing this sub-order is almost impossible. Almost the only charac- 
 ters common to all are the pointed antennae, the horizontal position of 
 the wings in repose, the rounded or oval and inclosed pupae, and, with 
 some exceptions, the nocturnal habit. The moths are very conveni- 
 ently separated into ten families : Sphinx moths (SPHINGID^E), 
 Clear-wings (^EGERIIDJS), Butterfly Mimics (ZYG^ENIDJE), Spinners 
 (BOMBYCID^E), Owlet moths or Out- worm moths (NoCTUiD^E), Span- 
 worm or Measuring- worm moths (GEOMETRID^E), Snout moths (PYRA- 
 LID^E), Leaf-rollers (TORTRICID^;), Fringe-wings or Tineids (TINEID^) 
 and Plume moths or Feather-wings (PTEROPHORID^;). Of these fam- 
 ilies the first six are sometimes collectively termed the Macro-lepidop- 
 tera, and the remaining four the Micro-lepidoptera. 
 
 The Algerians and Zygaenids are diurnal ; the Sphinx moths are 
 crepuscular i. e., flying in the twilight while all the others are noctur- 
 nal. 
 
 The Sphinx moths are so named from a habit of many of the larvae 
 when at rest, of raising the front part of the body and drawing in the 
 head, giving them a fanciful resemblance to the figures of the Sphinx 
 in Egyptian carvings and pictures. They are also called "hawk moths" 
 from the strength of their narrow and pointed wings, and "humming- 
 bird moths" from their manner of hovering over flowers while extract- 
 ing the nectar. These moths have stout, smooth, spindle-shaped bodies, 
 and the fore wings are nearly twice the length and breadth of the hinder 
 pair, and close roof fashion over the body in repose. The antennae are 
 somewhat thickened in the middle, and in most species end in a hook. 
 The "tongue' 7 is remarkably long, often five or six inches, enabling the 
 insects, while on the wing, to reach the deepest nectaries of the flowers 
 for which they have a preference, among which may be mentioned the 
 Daturas, Petunias, and other long-tubed blossoms. The larvae are cylin- 
 drical caterpillars with a roughened or granulated surface, generally of 
 some shade of green, and often with oblique stripes along each side, 
 and almost always have a pointed horn or an eye-like spot on the top 
 of the twelfth joint, With a few exceptions they enter the ground to 
 transform, and some species have an external tongue case which is 
 bent over like a jug-handle in front. 
 
 The common tomato or tobacco worm (Sphinx quinquemaculata, 
 Haw.) and the Sphinx caterpillars of the grape vine are good examples 
 of this family. All the species are very voracious and destructive to 
 valuable trees and plants. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 85 
 
 [Fig. 35.] 
 
 The Clear- winged moths (^GERIID^E) are mostly of small size and 
 might easily be mistaken for bees or small wasps when on the wing. 
 
 They have slender bodies, some- 
 times ending in a tuft of long hairs. 
 In some species only the under- 
 wings are transparent, in others 
 there is merely a border of scales 
 around each pair. Among the larvae 
 
 Peach-borer (^rg^ Say. -after EUey. we flnd gome Qf ^ W<)r8t ^^ 
 
 such as the Peach-tree borer (^Egeria exitiosa, Say.), the Easpberry 
 borer (Mrvibi, Eiley), and the Pickle worm (Phakellura nitidalis, Cram). 
 The beautiful insects that I have termed "Butterfly Mimics" 
 (ZYG^NID^E) can scarcely be distinguished from the genuine butter- 
 flies, except by the pointed antennae, and even these organs sometimes 
 have a little silken tuft near the tip which helps the deception. They 
 delight in the hottest sunshine, and display very gay colors on their 
 broad wings. The larvae are usually transversely striped in black and 
 white with an orange-colored hump on the top of the eleventh segment. 
 Some very injurious species are known as the "Blue caterpillars of the 
 vine." When ready to change they enter the ground or bore into the 
 wood of the grape posts. 
 
 Among the spinners (BOMBYCID^E) are most of our largest and 
 most elegant moths, as well as the few species which are in the highest 
 degree valuable, viz., the silk producers. Some of these species ex- 
 pand from six to nine inches. The wings are broad, and sometimes 
 falcate: i. e., hollowed out at the outer edges. They are densely cov- 
 ered with hairs and scales of rich colors. The head is small, and the 
 antennae beautifully feathered, and are in some species so broad as to 
 
 be mistaken for an additional 
 pair of wings. The mouth parts 
 are undeveloped, and, large as 
 they are, these moths are inca- 
 pable of taking even a sip of 
 nectar. The body is stout and 
 heavy, and the plumy legs rather 
 weak. The magnificent Cecro- 
 pia moth (Samia cecropia, Linn), 
 or the Polyphemus (Telea poly- 
 phemus. Cram.) named for the 
 fabled one-eyed monster of 
 x classic Doetrv, because of the 
 
 Green-striped Maple worm (Anisota rubicunda, Fabr ) ^ ti J? 
 
 after Riley. a, larva; b, pupa; c, moth-all natural ^^ eye .ljk e spo t that 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
86 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ments each hind wing occasionally enter lighted rooms on summer 
 nights ; but, as a rule, the moths of this family are not much attracted 
 by light. The most delicately beautiful of our native species is the 
 Luna moth (Actias luna, Linn.), which is of a pale green color with an 
 eye spot at the end of the discal cell in each wing, and the hind wings 
 extended at the outer edges into lobes or tails sometimes one and one- 
 half inches long. The full grown larvae of these species are immense 
 caterpillars, usually of a green color, sparsely hairy and studded with 
 wart-like tubercles of brilliant colors, or bear, near the head, from one 
 to six long, spiny horns that give them a most formidable aspect. 
 
 The invaluable and interesting Chinese silk-worm (Bombyx mori, 
 Linn.) is a near relative of the species named above. It is of a bluish 
 or creamy white, with a few more or less distinct brown markings. 
 The surface is smooth, except for a few ridges and wrinkles on the 
 thoracic joints and a small pointed horn on the top of the eleventh 
 joint. All these species are very voracious, and feed for from four to 
 six weeks. 
 
 The native spinners are often quite destructive to various kinds of 
 fruit and shade trees, while the Chinese silk-worm thrives best on the 
 White mulberry, but may be grown successfully on the Osage orange, 
 and, in the Southern States, it is said to feed on Alfalfa. The silk 
 gland, lying along the under side of the body, is very large in all the 
 typical Bombycids, and secretes a quantity of viscid fluid, which upon 
 being drawn out through the spineret on the labium, forms fine threads 
 of the exquisite substance known as silk. Of this the larvae form thick 
 oval, or slender, oblong cocoons, weaving layer over layer until about 
 half the substance of the caterpillar is transformed into the covering 
 for the pupa. In the latter stage our native species hibernate, but the 
 imported species cuts its way out in about two weeks, appearing as 
 a rather small, white moth, whose weak wings are incapable of sup- 
 porting it in flight. The female lays a quantity of eggs, and by means 
 of these the species is carried over winter. 
 
 Among the most interesting species of Bombycids are the singular 
 forms termed " slug caterpillars." 
 
 In these the feet are but slightly developed, and the insect moves 
 with a snail-like glide, over a leaf or other surface, by means of ridges 
 on the under side, leaving a slimy track behind it. Some have a 
 rectangular shape with several fleshy prominences on the back, others 
 are almost circular, or of the shape of a beech nut. Some are adorned 
 on top with a double row of plumy spines. 
 
 Nearly all are brightly colored, or have the colors displayed in 
 peculiar and beautiful patterns. Great care must be exercised in 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 87 
 
 handling them, as the hairs and spines inflict a nettle-like sting. Quite 
 a number of species included among the spinners do not secrete silk. 
 and change to pupae under ground in a frail earthen cell. Among 
 these is the Green-striped Maple worm (Dryocampa rubicunda, Fab.), 
 (see Fig. 36), which is occasionally very destructive to the shade trees 
 from which it derives its name. 
 
 The Cut-worm moths or Owlet moths (NoCTUiD^:) are a very 
 extensive group of medium sized insects, mostly of plain clors, but 
 containing a few very gaily decked species. The body is rather thick 
 and heavy, the fore wings narrow, and in repose entirely cover the 
 hind wings, which are folded beneath them. The head is small, the 
 antennas simple (thread-like), the tongue long, and the eyes in many 
 cases hairy or encircled by hairs. 
 
 The thorax is often crested or tufted, with long, erect Scales. 
 The upper wings, whatever their color and markings, display two more 
 or less distinct spots, the one round, the other kidney-shaped (orbicu- 
 lar and reniformj. The true cut-worms are smooth, dingy-colored 
 caterpillars, many of which commonly rest in a coiled position. They 
 conceal themselves by day and crawl out by night to their work of 
 destruction, cutting off not only tender herbaceous vegetation, but 
 ascending trees and vines to nip off the young leaves. When ready 
 to transform, these " worms " burrow into the earth or conceal them 
 selves under rubbish on its surface, but never spin any regular cocoon. 
 
 The well-known Army worm (Leucanla unipuncta, Haw.), which 
 sometimes devastates numerous grain fields in a single march, is one 
 of the representatives of this group. So, also, is the wide- spread Corn 
 worm or Boll worm (Heliotliis armigera, Hub.) See Fig. 34. The large 
 moths of the genus Catocala, easily recognized by their gaily banded 
 under-wings, in which scarlet, crimson, orange or white alternates with 
 black, are also included in the family 
 
88 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 The Span-worm rig- 37. 
 
 moths (GEOMET- 
 BID JE) are mostly 
 of pale, delicate 
 colors, with slen- 
 der bodies,broad 
 thin wings, which 
 in repose are 
 spread out at 
 right angles from 
 the body, and by 
 the usuallyslight- 
 ly or broadly 
 feathered anten- 
 nae. In this fam- 
 ily the females 
 are sometimes 
 wingless. The 
 larvae are called 
 
 "Measuring Lime-tree Winter moth (Hybernia titiaria, Har.) after Riley . On left above 
 is the hroad-winged male, while the spider-like creature below is the 
 WOrms" Or Span female, which never acquires wings; on right, caterpillars. 
 
 worms" from their looping mode of crawling. This is necessitated by 
 the lack of two or three pairs of the abdominal pro-legs, so that in 
 crawling the hinder end of the body is brought up close to the head 
 at every onward motion. These worms are generally long, slender and 
 cylindrical. Some have bud-like or scale-like humps on the body, so 
 that when the latter is at rest and held out from a branch in an oblique 
 direction, it simulates a twig so closely as to escape recognition. In 
 preparing for transformation, these larvae either enter the ground or 
 enclose themselves in thin cocoons in some concealed spot. Among 
 the pernicious species we find the Apple and Elm tree Canker worms 
 (Anisopteryx vernata, Har., and A. autumnalis, Pack.), and the Lime 
 tree Winter moth (Hybernia tiliari, Har.) See Fig. 37. 
 
 The Snout moths (Pyralldce) are much like many of the Geometers 
 in general appearance, but may usually be distinguished from them by 
 their smaller size and the long, slender palpi, which are held close to- 
 gether and project in front of the head like a beak. Some of the 
 larvae are leaf-rollers ; others feed on meal or in clover hay, while others 
 are true "grass worms" and do much damage to meadows and pastures. 
 
 The true leaf-rollers (TortricidceJ are a family of small moths, many 
 of which are richly and beautifully colored. They are characterized 
 by the oblong form of the upper wings, which, in repose, are folded 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 89 
 
 roof-like over the body. The eyes are large, the antennae filiform, the 
 palpi broad, tufted and somewhat triangular. The Iarva3 are usually 
 rather soft, plainly colored worms with a heart-shaped head, a distinct 
 horny collar, and horny plate on top of the last joint. The great ma- 
 jority conceal themselves within leaves variously twisted and rolled, 
 from which habit the group derives its name. A few species feed on 
 fruit, among which the universal apple enemy, the Codling moth (Car- 
 pocopsa pomonella, Linn.), is the most notorious. 
 
 The Fringe-wings (TINEID^E) include the smallest insects in the 
 Order. They have slender, lance - shaped wings, bordered by long 
 fringes, and many of them are exquisitely colored in various metallic 
 and prismatic tints. The antennse are simple, and usually nearly as 
 long as the body. The palpi vary in form, but are, as a rule, long and 
 conspicuous, in many species curving upward in front of the head. 
 The Iarva3 are often leaf-miners or case-bearers. Others are destruc- 
 tive to fruit or grain, or feed upon feathers, furs and wool, being the 
 ^clothes moths," against whose ravages it is necessary to protect some 
 of our costliest apparel. 
 
 The Feather-wings or Plume moths (PTEROPHORIDJE) have the 
 wings cleft so that each appears composed of several feathers. They 
 are small insects, only one or two of which are seriously destructive, 
 as for example the Grape-vine Plume. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Order IV. DIPTERA. 
 
 [Fig. 33.] 
 
 Tachina fly (Lydella doryphora) Riley. 
 
 In this Order are grouped the insects that have but a single pair 
 of wings, and a few others that have no wings at all. They are popu- 
 
90 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 larly distinguished as flies. Although many flies, in the larva state, are 
 undoubtedly useful as scavengers, yet the perfect insects are, most of 
 them, so annoying, and often so positively injurious, that the entire 
 Order is regarded with much disfavor. Mosquitos, gnats, house-flies,, 
 gad-flies and other species frequently occur in such immense swarms 
 in certain localities as to render life almost intolerable. A few species 
 are brilliantly colored, or of striking size or form, but, as a rule, the 
 members of this division are the most individually inconspicuous of 
 insects. 
 
 The bodies of most flies are soft and fragile. The head is usually 
 large, round or hemispherical, often quite concave behind, and is at- 
 tached to the thorax by a peg-like neck, on which it can be twirled 
 almost completely around without being separated from the body. The 
 eyes are, except in a few very lowly organized species, very large, cov- 
 ering the greater part of the head, and their faceted structure can be 
 seen even without the aid of a lens. The mouth-parts are very differ- 
 ently developed in the different families, lut are all peculiarly fitted for 
 sipping fluids. In the house-fly the jaws and true maxillae are wanting, 
 but the secondary maxillse and the lower lip form a proboscis which 
 ends in a pair of broad flaps, whose ridged surface enables the insect 
 to lap up sweet fluids or the perspiration from the hand, or the juicea 
 of meat or other liquids to which it is attracted. When not in use, the 
 proboscis being jointed, is folded up and fits into a groove in the face. 
 The so-called "stinging flies" have the jaws modified into very sharp 
 lancets, which are so strong that they are capable of piercing even the 
 thick skin of a horse and drawing the blood. The antennas are either 
 short and stout, having but three joints and a bristle, or are many- 
 jointed, long and feathered, as in the mosquito. The thorax is large 
 and round, the first and third segments pro-thorax and meta-thorax 
 being very small and closely consolidated above with the meso-thorax,. 
 which is large and muscular. The wings are composed of thin, trans- 
 parent or smoky membrane supported by strong veins. They can be 
 vibrated with exceeding swiftness, and the insects are capable of longer 
 and more continuous flights than any of the four- winged species. At 
 the base of each wing is a little roundish scale called the icinglet or 
 aluletj the use of which has not yet been discovered. The hind wings 
 are represented by two thread-like organs ending in little knobs, which 
 are the halter es, poisers or balancers, whose function is likewise un- 
 known. The legs are generally rather weak and slender, and in some 
 species are very long. The feet are five-jointed, and besides the claws r 
 are provided with a bilobed cushion clothed with microscopic hairs- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 91 
 
 from which exudes a sticky fluid, by means of which the insect is en- 
 abled to walk up and down the panes of a window or along the ceiling 
 of a room. The old, ingenious theory of "the exhaustion of air under 
 its feet," by which the crawling of a fly on such surfaces used to be 
 explained, is now known to be erroneous. In the abdomen of the 
 stouter-bodied flies it is difficult to distinguish more than four seg- 
 ments, the terminal ones being abruptly narrowed and drawn within 
 the body to form the ovipositor. 
 
 Such flies as the house-fly and the gad-fly are on the wing and 
 troublesome only during the day. Others, like the mosquito, are most 
 active at night, while some are equally tormenting during the entire 
 twenty- four hours. 
 
 The transformations of dipterous insects are complete. The eggs 
 are deposited singly or in masses upon the solids or fluids upon which 
 the larvae feed. Those of many species are smooth and white and of 
 a linear oblong shape. 
 
 The larvae of terrestrial flies are called maggots. They are soft, 
 thin-skinned, cylindrical, and taper most toward the head, or rather 
 the mouth, for but few of them have any distinct head. They have no 
 legs or other organs of locomotion, and wriggle from place to place by 
 a peculiar twisting of the body, or, as in the case of the " cheese skip- 
 pers," they coil themselves up and seize the tail between the jaws, and 
 then by suddenly letting go, jerk themselves to great distances by the 
 rebound. 
 
 Aquatic larvae are furnished with fin-like swimming organs, and 
 some species breathe through long tubes situated on the posterior end 
 of the body, which can be elevated above the surface of the water. 
 Many dipterous larvre are parasitic ; others feed upon decaying animal 
 or vegetable matter ; those which are aquatic subsist on organic im- 
 purities of water, and a considerable proportion feed on the tissues of 
 growing plants. Except in the case of some aquatic species, the pupae 
 are inactive. They are of two forms : coarctate, that is, inclosed in the 
 dry and hardened larva skin, or obtected, with the larva skin thrown 
 off, and the rudimentary members of the mature insect separately en- 
 cased, as in the pupae of Hymenoptera and Coleoptera. The pupa 
 state is generally of short duration. The Diptera may be considered 
 under two sub-orders : 
 
 I. O R, T H o R A P H A, in which the obtected pupa escapes from 
 the larval skin through a cross slit or T-shaped opening between the 
 seventh and eighth joints; and 
 
 II. y c L o R A P H A, including mostly coarctate pupae, from 
 which the perfect fly escapes through a circular hole on top of the 
 puparium. 
 
92 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Each of these divisions contains many families which differ in 
 many points of structure and habit. Tt will be possible here to refer 
 only to those which include the species most commonly met with, and 
 of most importance from an economic standpoint. In the first we find 
 the Gall-gnats and grain-flies (OECIDOMYIDJB). These are all small 
 species, which are injurious to vegetation. They have slender bodies 
 and long antennae, which are often plumy. The wings have three or 
 four veins, extending from base to outer margin, and are usually 
 fringed around the edge. The halteres are long and round-knobbed, 
 and the legs long and slender. The gall-making species place their 
 eggs upon leaves or tender stems, into the tissues of which the larvae 
 work their way, causing by irritation, peculiar fleshy or woody swell- 
 ings. On this abnormal vegetable tissue the larvae feed. The latter are 
 minute maggots, often of a pale red color, with a peculiar, clove- 
 shaped dark mark on the under side near the head, which can be 
 clearly distinguished only by the aid of a lens. 
 
 The Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor, Say.) and the Wheat-midge 
 (Diplosis tritici, Kirby) are the most notoriously destructive of these 
 gnats. The larvae of the former are flesh-colored maggots, which are 
 found beneath the sheaths of the lower joints of the wheat stalk in au- 
 tumn and early spring, and which dwarf and sometimes entirely kill the 
 plant by extracting the sap from the tender stems. In the change to 
 pupa, the larval skin hardens and turns brown, forming a "flax-seed"- 
 like puparium, within which the transformations take place. 
 
 The Wheat-midge is a tiny, orange-colored fly which places its eggs 
 on the young heads of wheat, from which the red maggots extract the . 
 juices and cause the kernels to shrivel. 
 
 The Buffalo-gnats (SIMULID^:) are short, thick species with a very 
 rounded thorax, short antennae and strong mouth parts, capable of 
 drawing blood from cattle and mules as well as from man. At certain 
 seasons of the year they are an almost insupportable pest on the shores 
 of the northern lakes and in the south, along the principal water- 
 courses. The larvae breed in water and have a singular feathery gill at 
 the hinder end. 
 
 Mosquitos (OuLiciD^E) are characterized chiefly by the complex 
 mouth parts, which are projected straight forward in front of the head. 
 The beak or sting of the female mosquito for the males are inoffen- 
 sive creatures, that neither sing nor sting when closely examined, is 
 seen to consist of a bundle of fine bristles, seven in number, which to- 
 gether form a sharp-pointed tube by which the skin of man and the 
 larger animals is pierced, and through which a minute portion of poison 
 from a gland in the pro-thorax is forced into the wound, before or after 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 93 
 
 the blood has been drawn. The mouth parts of the male mosquito are 
 not so long, and are adapted to sipping the nectar of flowers instead of 
 the sanguinary nourishment preferred by his partner. The eyes are 
 very large and somewhat oblong. The antennae are plumy in both 
 sexes, but those of the male are much more ornamental than those of 
 the female. The thorax is considerably humped and the bind body 
 long and slender. The legs are also very long and thin. The wings 
 are fringed on the edge and the principal veins are outlined by fine 
 scales. The eggs are laid in a boat-shaped mass on the surface of still 
 water, and the larvae are the well-known "wrigglers" so often seen in 
 standing water. They swim by the aid of unsymmetrically arranged 
 tufts of bristles, and breathe through a tube at the hinder end of the 
 body, which they frequently project above the surface of the water. 
 The pupae do not take any nourishment, but are active, club-headed 
 affairs which swim by means of the two paddles in which the abdomen 
 terminates. There are a great many species of these venomous gnats, 
 some of which are strictly nocturnal while others are equally active day 
 and night. Culex ciliatus, Fab. is perhaps the most generally dis- 
 tributed species. 
 
 The Crane-flies (TIPULID.E) resemble mosquitoes in general ap- 
 pearance, but many species are from five to ten times the size of the 
 latter. They have no sting and are not injurious in any way. The 
 larvae breed in soil that is rich in decaying organic matter, and there- 
 fore often emerge from flower-pots and hot-beds. They also occur in 
 mould and other fungi, and in water. 
 
 Gad-flies or Breeze-flies (TABANID^:). In this and the two follow- 
 ing families of the Orthorapha, the antennae are short and three-jointed. 
 The Gad-flies or Horse-flies are shaped much like the house-fly, but are 
 very much larger. The mouth parts are very strong and awl-shaped, and 
 the bite is very painful. There are several species, of which the 
 " Green-head fly" (Tabanm lineola, Fabr.) and the large black Horse- 
 fly (T. atratus Fabr.) are exceedingly annoying to horses during the 
 summer months, their sharp stabs and their menacing buzz driving the 
 animals into a frenzy, and not infrequently causing them to run away. 
 
 The Mottled Breeze-fly, a somewhat smaller species, mottled in 
 a dirty white and brown, is more especially injurious to horn cattle. 
 The larvae are aquatic or semi-aquatic, and those that have been 
 described are glossy, greenish or yellowish "woims," with a row of 
 rounded tubercles on each side, and taper to a very small head. The 
 pupae are ridged or roughened on the abdominal joints, and formed in 
 the ground. 
 
94 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 The Kobber-flies ( ASILID JE) have long, slender bodies and wings, and 
 spiny, long, stout legs. The beak is short but strong, and the under 
 lip well developed. The eyes are almost globular, and the antennae 
 short, often tipped with a bristle. The body is usually hairy, varying 
 in length from one to two inches, and tapers toward the tip. The colors 
 are mostly black and white, though some species have the thorax 
 clothed with yellow hairs. In their perfect state, the Bobber-flies are 
 fierce and greedy cannibals, especially destructive to the honey-bee, of 
 which one species has been known to kill and suck the vital juices of 
 more than one hundred and forty in a day, according to Dr. Packard. 
 They sometimes make amends, however, by preying on the Cabbage 
 butterfly, though I fear this has not yet become a very general habit. 
 The larvae live in the ground, and those that have been studied have 
 fed upon roots. 
 
 The Bee-flies (BOMBYLLD^;) resemble small Humble bees in their 
 thick, hairy bodies. They are very swift on the wing, and are often 
 found on flowers, from which they extract nectar with the long pro- 
 boscis. The larvae are parasitic on bees and on the eggs of locusts 
 (grasshoppers). 
 
 In the Sub-Order CYCLORAPHA we find a large number of 
 families of flies whose larvae are parasites or scavengers and a few 
 that feed on vegetation, among which are some common gall-makers 
 also some that live in water. The transformations take place either 
 underground or on the surfaces upon which the larvae fed the larval 
 skin thickening and hardening into an oblong case, within which the 
 soft, white pupa is formed. The flies always come out through a round 
 hole on the top. They usually have rather short, thick bodies, broad 
 heads and short antennae, ending in a bristle. The following families 
 contain the species that are most directly beneficial or injurious to man : 
 Syrphus flies (SYRPHID^E). See Plate of Orders.) This is a group of 
 handsome flies, ranging in size from small to medium (having a body 
 length of from one-fifth to one-half inch). The colors are often arranged 
 in bright bands, giving the insects quite a wasp-like appearance. The 
 front of the face has no groove for the reception of the antennae, which 
 have the last joint much thickened just back of the bristle. The 
 larvae are legless and headless, leech-like creatures, which do us great 
 service in destroying all kinds of plant-lice ( Aphididcej, and may almost 
 always be found in the colonies of the latter, which they very rapidly 
 exterminate. The great majority of the beneficial species are found in 
 the genus Syrphus. Their transformations are very easily observed, as 
 they are hardy and develop rapidly. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 95 
 
 The singular " rat-tailed " larvre, often found in stagnant pools or 
 other foul water, produce hairy flies of the genus Eristalis. 
 
 Bot-flies (GSsTRiD^;) are stout, hairy insects, much resembling small 
 Humble bees. The mouth parts are but slightly developed, and the 
 small antenna, hidden in little cavities in the very narrow face, seem, at 
 first glance, to be wanting. They are chiefly interesting from the habits 
 of the larvae, which live in the stomachs of horses, in the heads of 
 sheep, and on the backs and other parts of the bodies of cattle and 
 other animals, causing great suffering and sometimes even death to the 
 poor creatures infested. The Bot-flies of the horse (Gastrophilus equi, 
 Fabr.) lay their eggs on the horse's front legs or on the flanks or hips, 
 glueing them most firmly to the hairs. The Iarva3, which are hatched 
 very shortly, produce an irritation which induces the horse to bite at 
 those parts, and by this means they enter the mouth and make their 
 way into the stomach. There they attach themselves, by means of 
 mouth hooks, to the lining membrane, feeding on the mucus and diges- 
 tive fluids, occasionally penetrating to the muscular tissue, causing 
 much irritation and pain, and, when very numerous, producing danger- 
 ous fever and weakness. When full grown, the "bots" pass out with 
 the excrement and burrow into the earth, from which the flies issue in 
 six or seven weeks. The Sheep bot-fly (CEstrus ovis, Linn.) deposits its 
 larvre, already hatched, in the nostrils of the sheep, which immediately 
 work their way into the nasal cavities and frontal sinus of the head and 
 attach themselves to the walls, producing the disease known as " grub 
 in the head,' 7 from which sheep so commonly suffer and not infrequently 
 die. When these maggots are full grown they drop from the nostrils 
 to the ground, beneath the surface of which they transform. 
 
 The Ox bot-fly (Hipoderma bovis, De Geer) is a similar, but larger 
 species, which causes tumors on the backs of cattle, usually laying its 
 eggs on parts which the creature cannot conveniently reach with its 
 tongue. The larvae, termed " warbles," burrow beneath the skin and 
 cause very disfiguring and painful swellings. 
 
 The Tachina flies (TACHINID^E) are stout, dark-colored, bristly 
 flies, which deserve to be held in the highest estimation on account of 
 the parasitic habits of all the larvae, which feed in the bodies of nu- 
 merous destructive caterpillars and grubs, and greatly reduce thd 
 numbers of these pests. The small, oval, ivory-white eggs are laid, 
 sometimes singly, sometimes two or three in a cluster, on the back of 
 the caterpillar or other insect, often just behind the head, in order to 
 be safe from the jaws of the victim. These eggs adhere so firmly that 
 
 E 7 
 
96 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 it is impossible to remove them entire. The larvae, immediately upon 
 hatching, penetrate the skin of the insect and feed upon the non- vital 
 parts, so that, as a rule, the infested specimen is able to enter the 
 ground or to spin its cocoon before it is killed by the parasite. The 
 transformations of the latter then take place, and the flies appear very 
 shortly, or, in other cases, hibernate with the remains of their host and 
 emerge in the spring, at the season when fresh victims are most numer- 
 ous. Army worms and all cut-worms, various spinners and sphinxes, 
 grasshoppers, the larvae of the Colorado potato-beetles and many other 
 pests are destroyed by them. See Fig. 38. 
 
 House-flies, blow-flies, etc. (Muscidce). No family of insects are 
 more familiar to us than the principal members of this group. At 
 almost any season of the year the student can obtain a fresh specimen 
 for examination, since many individuals of the common house-fly, and 
 also of the meat-fly, contrive to secure winter quarters in our warm 
 sitting-rooms and pantries. In these insects the greater portion of the 
 head is occupied by the eyes, which are, in some species, quite brightly 
 colored. The short antennae are plumy or sparingly bristled; the 
 labrum is elongated into a jointed proboscis, terminating in a pair of 
 broad, sucker-like flaps, which have their ridged inner surfaces closely 
 pressed together when not in use, but are spread out when lapping up 
 liquids, as may be easily observed in the House-fly. Other species have 
 the proboscis terminate in minute lancets. The body is sparingly 
 clothed with stiff hairs, and is either of a dull black and white or gray 
 , color, or, as in the " Blue-bottles " or green meat-flies, it is of a dark 
 metallic blue or green. The wings are transparent, the legs rather 
 stouter than in other flies and more or less hairy. The eggs are soft, 
 pearl-white and slender-oblong, deposited singly or in little bundles or 
 masses. The larvae are soft, white or whitish maggots, some of them 
 elongate- conical, thick and blunt at the hinder end and tapering to a 
 point in front ; others are slender and cylindrical ; most of them have 
 a smooth or somewhat ridged surface, but a few are hairy. Those of 
 the House-fly (Musca domestic^ Linn,) breed mainly in horse manure. 
 Another species which also breeds in stables and barn-yards is the 
 Lancet-fly (Stomoxys calcitraus, Linn.) It is scarcely to be distin- 
 guished from the common House-fly, except that when crawling or at 
 rest the wings are held more apart and the proboscis is more slender 
 and terminates in a point instead of a pair of fleshy lips. It bites 
 severely and is very troublesome to horses and cattle, nor does it hesi- 
 tate, upon occasion, to draw human blood. It is most abundant late 
 in summer and in early autumn. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 97 
 
 Still another plague of the herds has recently appeared in this 
 country as an immigrant from Europe. This is the Horn-fly (Hcemato- 
 bia serrata, Rob. Des). From the accounts of Dr. Eiley of Washing- 
 ton, and other eastern entomologists, we learn that it is a dark species, 
 much smaller than the house-fly, but otherwise much like it, which has 
 the habit of settling in swarms on the necks, shoulders, and around 
 the bases of the horns of cattle. It punctures the skin with its horny 
 beak and draws the blood, so worrying the poor animals that they be- 
 come reduced in flesh, and cows fail to give the usual quantity of milk. 
 The flies lay their eggs on the fresh droppings of the cattle, in which 
 the larvae breed. 
 
 The large hairy " Blue-bottle " fly (Musca ccesar, Linn.J, and the 
 smaller Green " Meat-fly" (Galiphora erythro cephala, Meig.), are well, 
 known species which give much trouble to meat dealers and house- 
 keepers. 
 
 The Screw-worm fly (Lucilia macellaria, Fabr.) has occasionally 
 proved fatal to human life by laying its eggs in wounds or in the nostrils 
 \ of persons who were sleeping in the open air. It occurs in the South- 
 western States, where it is a great plague on cattle. 
 
 The family TRYPETID^E includes a number of very pretty flies, 
 which have the wings variegated with smoky-brown spots and bands. 
 Many of these flies are gall-makers on various weeds, and are not 
 especially injurious. One, however (Trypeta pomonella, Walsh.), is the 
 parent of the Apple maggot, which has, in some of the Eastern States, 
 proved very destructive to apples, rivaling, and in some instances ex- 
 ceeding, the damage done by the Codling moth. 
 
 The Onion fly (Tritoxa flexa, Wied.) is sometimes quite injurious to 
 growing onions. It has dark, oblong wings, crossed by three curving 
 white bands. It is now placed in the family ORTALID^E. 
 
 In the PIOPHILIDJE we find the Cheese fly (Piophila casei, Linn). 
 The family DROSPHILID^ includes several small species that attack 
 ripe and preserved fruits. In OSCINID^E are a few species injurious to 
 growing grain. Meromyza amencana, Fitch., burrows in the tender 
 stalks. 
 
 A third Sub-Order (PuPiPARA) has been grouped with the 
 more lowly organized Diptera, although the usually minute insects 
 composing it are not much like the typical flies. These are the Sheep- 
 tick ( Melopliagus ovinus, Linn.) and the Horse tick (Hippobosca equina 
 Linn.), which is the only winged species. Others, very minute, are the 
 Bat-ticks and Bee-lice. 
 
 The Fleas also have many affinities with flies, and may here be con- 
 sidered in connection with them ; yet most authors now class them in a 
 
98 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 small separate Order S IPHONAPTERA. They are bard, thick, 
 wingless creatures, having the body compressed at the sides and 
 sparsely hairy. In place of the usual compound eyes they have two 
 ocelli. The pointed head is armed with backward pointing teeth. The 
 legs are stout, with the thighs greatly thickened, giving them their 
 wonderful leaping power. The eggs are scattered about in untidy 
 human dwellings, dog kennels and the like, and the slender maggot- 
 like larvae feed in the dust and organic particles that accumulate in the 
 cracks of floors, under rugs and similar hiding places. When ready to 
 transform the larvae enclose themselves in silken cocoons. The human 
 flea is Pulex irritans, Linn., while P. canis, Dug., affects the dog and 
 cat. The tropical " jigger,' 7 "chigoe" or "-chique" ( Sarcopsylla pene- 
 trans} is the pest of hot, sandy regions, but must not be confounded 
 with a small tick a species of mite that occurs further north, and 
 also burrows into the skin and causes sores, and which is likewise often 
 called a "jigger." 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Order V. HEMIPTERA.. 
 
 [Fig. 40.] 
 
 Harlequin Cabbage-bug (Murgantia histrionica, Hahn. after Riley. a, b, larva and 
 pupa (nymphse;; c, eggs natural size; d, e, same magnified; g, h, perfect bug. 
 
 This Order derives its name from a compound Greek word signi- 
 fying half-wing, and refers to the half membranous, half-leathery (cori- 
 aceous) structure of the wings of many of the representatives. It con- 
 tains the only insects that may, with perfect accuracy, be called bugs. 
 The term "bug," so generally but incorrectly applied to many kinds of 
 insects, is supposed to have had its origin in the word "bug-bear," as 
 something frightful or dangerous, and it is most fitting that, correctly 
 used, it should refer to the division which includes such insects as the 
 bed-bug, louse and similar objects of dread and disgust. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 99 
 
 The insects of this Order display great differences of form and 
 habit, but as all subsist solely on liquid nourishment, extracted from 
 living plants or animals, all the principal representatives agree per- 
 fectly in the structure of the mouth. This consists of a strong, three 
 or four-jointed beak, which is a modification of the under lip into a 
 channeled brace in which rest two pairs of very fine bristles, corres- 
 ponding to the two pairs of jaws, the combination being an admirable 
 arrangement for piercing and sucking. (In some of the more lowly 
 organized members of this Order, there is no horny -jointed beak, but 
 the front of the head is merely elongated, forming a sucker-like cup 
 provided with minute biting organs.) The upper lip (labruin) is con- 
 solidated with the lower part of the face to form a strong support to 
 the developed mouth parts. The eyes are large and round, in some 
 cases brightly colored, and two ocelli may be distinguished in many 
 species. The antennae are usually thread-like or bristle-like, in some 
 cases quite long, with the terminal joints slightly enlarged. 
 
 In their general form the Hemiptera are among the most variable 
 of insects. Some have the body almost hemispherical, others are thick 
 and square or oblong, while others still are ^ery long and slender. 
 There is no general plan on which the joints of the thorax are devel- 
 oped, some having the pro-thorax crowded down out of sight from the 
 upper side, while in others it is very large and conspicuous. The meso- 
 thorax is usually the least variable division, except as to the scutellum, 
 which is sometimes so large as to extend backward almost to the tip 
 of the abdomen. The six legs are always present and the feet are three- 
 jointed; some terminate in a very distinct claw or pair of claws with 
 cushions (pulvilli] between them, while in others these appendages can- 
 not be distinguished. The upper wings, sometimes termed hemelytra, 
 in the typical bugs lie flat upon the back, the transparent or trans- 
 lucent tips overlapping, appearing as though crossed in the middle. 
 In other forms they are altogether membranous or coriaceous, and fold 
 roof like over the body. 
 
 In this and the remaining Orders the transformations are usually 
 incomplete, the pupa being as active and as voracious as the larva or 
 the perfect insect. These Orders are termed inferior, not only on 
 account of the less distinct metamorphosis, but also because of the 
 many lowly organized forms which they include. 
 
 Hernipterists are not agreed as to the primary subdivisions of the 
 Order, some finding it more convenient to consider the various forms 
 under three Sub-Orders, while others find it necessary to define five. 
 
100 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 As two of these include but few species of general interest, we shall 
 here consider but three : 
 
 I. True Bugs (Sub-Order HETEROPTERA). 
 II. Harvest-flies, Leaf-hoppers, etc. (Sub-Order H o M o PT E RA). 
 III. Lice (Sub-Order PARA SITA). 
 
 OHAPTEE XXY. 
 Order HEMtPTEKA. Sub-Order HETEROPTERA. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF TRUE BUGS. 
 
 [Fig. 41.] 
 
 Rapacious Soldier-bug (Reduvius raptatorius, Say .) af;er Riley. 
 
 The insects in this Sub- Order always have the head horizontal 
 namely, on a plane with the body, with the beak arising from the front. 
 The form of the head is somewhat flattened and triangular, attached to 
 the thorax by a broad base or by a very short neck. The thorax from 
 above does not present any striking peculiarities, except in the varying 
 size of the scutellum; on the under side, however, of a large majority 
 of the species are two small openings, connected with an internal scent 
 gland that emit a vile and persistent odor one of the chief character- 
 istics of these insects, familiar to the farmer in the smell of the chinch- 
 bug and squashbug, and to the housekeeper in that of the bedbug. 
 The wing -covers show considerable variety in coloring and in the 
 relative size of the opaque and transparent portions. The hind wings 
 are veined somewhat like those of beetles, and afford no characters 
 used in classification. The eggs of many bugs are conspicuous for 
 their beauty, making amends, in some measure, for the deficiencies 
 of most of the perfect insects in this respect. Some of them can only 
 be compared to strings or clusters of tiny beads of the purest gold ; 
 others are bronzed or reflect prismatic colors; others, again, are re- 
 markable for their graceful shapes or for their elaborate ornamentation 
 in what appears like filigree work. Instead of larvae, the immature 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 101 
 
 bugs are termed nymplice, and after the third molt the rudiments of the 
 wings begin to show, there being two stages corresponding to the pupse 
 of the higher Orders. These nymphas are often quite differently col- 
 ored from the mature insects. 
 
 A convenient division of the Heteroptera is into three sections : 
 Terrestrial bugs, Amphibious bugs and Aquatic bugs. 
 
 The Terrestrial bugs may be again divided into Plant-eaters and 
 Cannibals. 
 
 Plant-eating bugs have a more slender beak than those that prey 
 on other insects, or draw the blood of larger animals, but are otherwise 
 not very different from them. The most important Families are : COR- 
 EID^E, LYG^ID^E, CAPSIDJE and CORIM^LIDJE. Inclusive popular 
 names are difficult to suggest for these groups. 
 
 The first of these families is best represented by the well-known 
 Squash-bug (Anasa tristis, DeGeer). (See bug on plate.) This is a me- 
 dium-sized, oblong, dingy-brown insecf, paler beneath, with the head 
 marked on top with two dull black stripes. The antenna are about 
 half the length of the body and rather stout; the feet are three-jointed. 
 The young are dull green or yellowish, much broader in proportion 
 than the perfect insect. This is one of the most universal and serious 
 pests of melon, cucumber and squash vines. Some very large and 
 striking species belonging in this family occur in the Southern states. 
 
 The LYG^EID^E is a large group of rather small bugs which are 
 gaily or contrastingly colored, among which we find the pernicious 
 Chinch-bug (Blissus leucopterus, Say). Few farmers, especially in the 
 Western States, have escaped a costly acquaintance with this insect, 
 which is one of the chief enemies of cereal crops, particularly of wheat 
 and Indian corn. The perfect bug is of oblong form, about one- eighth 
 inch in length and of clear black and white color. The yellow eggs are 
 laid in the spring upon the roots or base of the stalk of wheat or other 
 grain, and from these hatch myriads of pale-red young, which by their 
 punctures soon dwarf and deaden the plant. Although the perfect in- 
 sects have ample wings, they seldom rise into the air, and mostly per- 
 form their emigrations from field to field on foot. The false Chinch-bug 
 (Nysius destructor, Riley) is rather smaller than its namesake, and less 
 strikingly marked, being of a shaded grayish brown color. It is very 
 injurious in certain sections of the country to grape-vines, potatoes, 
 radishes and a number of other plants. 
 
 As the most familiar example of the family CAPSID.E, the Tarnished 
 Plant bug (Lygus lineolaris, Beaur.) may be instanced. This species is 
 one-fourth inch in length, of flat, oblong form, with four-jointed anten- 
 nae, the joints being long. It varies in color from yellowish gray to 
 
J02 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ochreous brown, has a yellow Y-shaped mark on the scutel, and two 
 or three parallel dark veins on each wing cover. The larvae of these 
 bugs are green, and broad oval in form. They may be found during 
 summer in great abundance in all stages of development upon flowers. 
 They injure fruit trees in the spring by puncturing the leaf and flower 
 buds and the tender twigs and sucking the sap. They also feed on 
 berries, to which they impart a flavor as nauseous as their odor. 
 
 Another abundant member of this family is the Four-lined Leaf- 
 bug (Pcecilocapsus lineatusj. This is somewhat larger than the pre- 
 ceding species, is of a deep yellow color, ornamented with four black 
 lines, extending the whole length of the body. It feeds on various 
 shrubs and herbaceous plants, and is at times seriously destructive to 
 currant bushes, clover and other valuable plants. 
 
 The CORIMEL^ENID^E contains but a single genus, the "Negro-bugs" 
 (Gorimelcena), small, shining, almost round, beetle-like insects of a 
 black color, sometimes with bluish or greenish reflections. The great 
 peculiarity is the depth of the scutellum, which extends backward so 
 far as to entirely cover the wings. These little bugs are sometimes 
 very destructive on strawberry beds and on the foliage of various 
 flowering plants. They also have a great predilection for ripe raspber- 
 ries, to which they give their own disagreeable, bed-buggy odor and 
 flavor. 
 
 Among the cannibal bugs the most important families are the 
 PENTATOMID^, EEDUVIAD^E and AOANTHIIN^E. 
 
 In the first of these groups we find many species of flattened, 
 short, oblong bugs, somewhat under medium size, having the large 
 scutellum extended backward in a rather slender point. The head 
 and pro thorax together form an obtuse angle, there being no constric- 
 tion to form a neck; the antennae are five-jointed and the thighs are 
 but slightly broadened and not spiny; the beak is stout. Although 
 the great majority of the species are predaceous, and rank among use- 
 ful insects, we find among them one serious pest. This is the Harle- 
 quin Cabbage-bug (Murgantia histrionica, Hahn.), a notorious exception 
 to the rule, being very destructfve, in the Middle and Southern States, 
 to the vegetable from which it gets its popular name. It is a hand- 
 some insect, as bugs go (See Fig, 40), of a polished black color, with 
 the scutel margined and the wing covers crossed by stripes of bright 
 red or orange, and with two distinct white spots on the head ; beneath, 
 it is marked by lines of yellow dots. Dr. Eiley says the eggs " may be 
 likened to little barrels, for though the sides are straight, the edges 
 are rounded off, and the black bands recalling the hoops, and a black 
 spot near the middle recalling the bung-hole, add to the resemblance." 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 103 
 
 The larvre, or young nymphae, are pale green, marked with black, while 
 those more mature show some of the colors of the perfect insect and 
 have large wing-pads. The development is very rapid, often requiring 
 not more than two weeks from the egg to the mature insect. It attacks 
 not only cabbage and other cruciferous plants, but sometimes injures 
 peas and other vegetables. 
 
 The other members of this family make amends for the injuries 
 done by this one. Among them we find the Spined Soldier-bug (Pod- 
 isus spinosus Dallas), long celebrated as a most persistent enemy of the 
 Colorado Potato-beetle. This insect is of a dull green, and is chiefly 
 characterized by having the sides of the pro-thorax produced into 
 sharp spines. The beak is so strong that the habit of the bug, even 
 when very young and small, is to impale the beetle larva oryoung cater- 
 pillar upon the end of it, and hold it up in the air while sucking out 
 the fluid contents of the body. 
 
 The REDUVIAD^B are fiercely predaceous and destroy great num- 
 bers of other insects, and are thus directly of the greatest benefit to 
 the agriculturist. They are more slender and elongate in form and of 
 harder texture than the members of the preceding family, and some 
 are rather elegantly colored. The strong, horny beak is folded under 
 against the breast when not in use. The legs are stout in some species, 
 somewhat bristly, but seldom toothed or spined. Some of the species 
 are more than an inch in length, but the majority only about half that 
 length. 
 
 The Wheel-bug (Prionidas cristatusj, which is quite common in the 
 more southern States, is one of the largest and most formidable species. 
 It is of a shaded gray color, and has a curious notched crest on the 
 pro-thorax, which resembles a section of a cog-wheel whence its 
 popular name. 
 
 The young bugs are bright red, with black markings. They are 
 most ferocious, and Mr. Glover says : "They kill their prey by inserting 
 into it the proboscis, which ejects a most powerful poisonous liquid 
 into the wound. The victim, thus pierced, dies in a very short time. 
 They then leisurely suck out the juices and drop the empty skin/ 7 
 
 They attack all kinds of caterpillars and grubs, and even destroy 
 one another at times in true cannibal fashion. 
 
 The Blood-sucking Cone-nose or Big Bed-bug (ConorMnus sangui- 
 sugus Lee.) is sometimes found hiding in beds arid stuffed furniture, and 
 does not hesitate to attack the rightful occupants, upon whom it in- 
 flicts very painful wounds. People have been known to die from the 
 effects of its venomed stabs. It is about an inch in length, black 
 margined all around with short red dashes. 
 
104 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 A similar but more plainly colored species has been named by Prof. 
 Comstock the Masked Bed-bug hunter (Opsiccetas personatus), from it 
 habit of preying on the genuine bed-bug. It is an European species,, 
 but a variety is also native to the Eastern States. The young secrete 
 all over the surface a viscid fluid to which dust and particles of wool 
 and feathers adhere, giving them a most singular and disguised appear- 
 ance. The Rapacious Soldier-bug (Reduvius raptatorius, Say.) is a slen- 
 der, rather graceful bug with a long narrow head, and stout raptatorial 
 front legs. The sides of the thorax are sharply angled. (See Fig. 41.) 
 It preys on all soft- bodied insects. Of similar form and habits is the 
 Many-banded robber (Milyas cinctus, Fabr.), which appears in yellow r 
 black and white colors. 
 
 The family ACANTHIIN^E, is represented by a single species of the 
 worst repute the mal-odorous and cosmopolitan bed-bug (Acanthia 
 lectularia, Linn). Few people are so happy as not to have made the 
 acquaintance of this annoying insect, if not in their own well-kept cham- 
 bers, at least in those of hotels and boarding houses, from which it can- 
 only by the greatest care be excluded. It is of flat, broad-oval form 
 and red-brown color, about one-fifth of an inch long. It never acquires 
 wings, and the perfect bugs can only be known from the young by their 
 larger size, darker color and very minute rudiments of wing covers. 
 It is strictly nocturnal, and hides by day in the smallest cracks and 
 crevices. It is capable of enduring long fasts, and it is said will 
 recover its vitality after being imprisoned for many months without 
 food. 
 
 A solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol is the most certain 
 remedy in infested rooms and on bed-steads. Benzine and kerosene 
 are also much used, and by dusting the sheets with pyrethrum powder,, 
 travelers may obtain a night's rest even in infested rooms. This bug is 
 said to occur in myriads under the dead bark of certain trees in the far 
 west, although, if animal fluids be necessary to its development, it is 
 difficult to imagine on what it can feed under such circumstances. 
 
 There are several families of amphibious bugs which are chiefly 
 interesting from their adaptation to walking lightly on the surface of 
 the water, or in marshy spots, without having the feet broadened or 
 any sail-like or oar-like processes to aid locomotion. 
 
 The Water-stiiders (HYDROBATIDJE) have the middle and hinder 
 legs very long, the bodies slender and flattened, and no distinct scutel- 
 lum. They are predaceous in habit, and leap into the air after the small 
 flies and gnats on which they subsist. 
 
 Among the Aquatic bugs are the Water scorpions and Giant water 
 bugs (]$"EPIDJE), where we find some species that exceed in size all 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 105 
 
 other species of the Order. They possess oar-like legs and flat bodies. 
 The species are all carnivorous and are provided with strong, sharp 
 beaks, upon which the bodies, not only of other insects, but of tad- 
 poles and young fish, are impaled until they can be drained of the vital 
 fluids. The Water scorpions are of slender form, and the abdomen is 
 terminated by a pair of long, slender, grooved styles, which, when shut 
 together, form a breathing tube that can be elevated above the water, 
 while the insect is making its predatory excursions beneath the sur- 
 face. The Giant water bug (Belostoma grisea, Say.) is more than two 
 inches in length, by one in width, with a flat, boat-shaped body and 
 powerful swimming legs. It also flies long distances, and is often 
 attracted in great numbers to electric lights. The Back-swimmers (No- 
 TONECTID^E) swim in a reversed position, and have very long, feathery 
 hind legs. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Order HEMIPTERA. Sub-Order HOMOPTERA. 
 
 CICADAS, LEAF-HOPPERS, PLANT-LICE AND BARK-LICE, 
 
 [Fig. 42.] 
 
 17-year Cicada (C. septemdecim, Linn.) , after Riley . , pnpa or 
 nymph; ft, shell of same; c. perfect Cicada: d, punctures in 
 twig made for the eggs; e, eggs, much magnified. 
 
 In this division of beaked insects we find the wings where these 
 organs are present of the same texture throughout, and closing roof- 
 
106 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 like over the body. In several large groups they are transparent, and 
 supported by many or few strong veins ; in others they are tough and 
 opaque, and show many different colors. The head is broad, but 
 usually very short, without any neck, and has the beak arising so far 
 under that it seems to be attached to the breast, against which it may 
 be closely folded. The eyes are round and prominent. The antennae 
 in the larger species are very inconspicuous, but in the more minute 
 forms are long, and often beautifully feathered. Some species are 
 provided with a strong, horny ovipositor by which the eggs are inserted 
 into woody stems or branches of trees ; others place their eggs on 
 exposed surfaces, or under loosened bark. 
 
 The most important families of homopterous insects are the CICA- 
 DID^E, MEMBRACID^S, JASSIDJB, APHIDIDJB and COCCID^:. 
 
 In the first of these families we find the large and noisy Harvest- 
 flies or Dog-day flies (genus Cicada J. They have an oval form, with 
 the body enclosed in a firm, shelly crust, head as broad as the thorax, 
 protruding eyes, with three distinct ocelli between them, and the an- 
 tennae are short and awl-shaped or end in a sharp-pointed bristle. The 
 feet are three-jointed; wings large and glassy; abdomen of the females 
 bearing an ovipositor which rests in a fissure on the under side of the 
 abdomen, and is adapted for sawing and boring into hard wood. The 
 males have a most ingenious musical apparatus for producing the deaf- 
 ening buzzing or "drumming " with which our shade trees and groves 
 resound from early summer until autumn. These instruments are little 
 membranous sacs, which are gathered into fine plaits and fit over cavi- 
 ties at the base of the abdomen. The sound is produced by rapid 
 expansion and contraction, by means of strong muscles within that 
 part of the body. 
 
 The most interesting of these insects is the Periodical or Seventeen- 
 year Cicada, or "Locust" incorrectly so-called (Cicada septemdecim, 
 Linn.) see Fig. 42, which enjoys the distinction of being the longest- 
 lived insect known to entomologists. The perfect cicadas are of a dark 
 brown or black color, with red eyes and glassy, orange-veined wings, 
 beneath which are situated the " drums," whose sound is thought by 
 some to be the word " Pharaoh," very much prolonged. 
 
 These singular insects appear in the same locality only once in 
 seventeen or thirteen years the development in the Southern States 
 being somewhat more rapid than in the Northern States. Their life, 
 as perfect insects, is comparatively brief, lasting not more than five or 
 six weeks. The females saw numerous consecutive, longitudinal slits 
 in the branches of fruit and forest trees, often severely injuring the 
 trees in the process. The young hatch in the course of a few weeks 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 107 
 
 and drop to the ground, into which they burrow and where they remain, 
 descending deeper and deeper year by year, feeding on the rootlets of 
 trees and growing very slowly, until ready to change to pupae, when 
 they begin to ascend. The pupa is active, and after emerging from the 
 ground crawls to the trunk of some tree or shrub, to which it clings 
 with its spiny claws, while the perfect cicada emerges. As these pupa 
 shells retain their form, except for the slit on the top, through which 
 the imago escaped, they are often mistaken for dead "locusts," and 
 it used to be a popular superstition that they " sang until they burst." 
 They appear in May or Juue. 
 
 The annual Dog-day or Harvest-flies, of which there are but two 
 or three, not very distinct species, in this country, develop about mid- 
 summer, and sing late in the afternoon and in the twilight, until frost. 
 The most common species is somewhat larger than the seventeen-year 
 species, of a green and black color, having the body thickly covered 
 by a whitish powder or "bloom," from which circumstance it received 
 its name, Cicada pruinosa, Say. 
 
 The Tree-hoppers (MEMBRACID^E) are rather small insects, but 
 among them are some of the most singular and grotesque forms of 
 animate life. The pro-thorax is the part most subject to variation. 
 This often extends backward almost to the tip of the abdomen, or the 
 front edge is prolonged into a horn that curves far over the head. 
 
 The Buffalo Tree-hopper (Ceresa bubalus, Fabr.) exhibits in its 
 form a variety of triangles ; in front, on top, and on each side, one or 
 more of these geometric figures can be traced. It is of a dull green 
 color, nearly one-half inch in length, and the female often does consid- 
 erable damage to the tender twigs of fruit trees by the numerous slits 
 which she saws in them for the reception of her eggs. 
 
 Among the Leaf-hoppers (JASSID^:) are a number of small, but 
 very destructive species. These insects have oblong forms, long 
 wings, often beautifully colored, a rounded pro-thorax and a triangular 
 head. A few are about one-half inch in length, but the greater number 
 are very small. The Grape-vine Leaf-hopper (Erythroneura vitis, Har.), 
 commonly but erroneously called " Thrips," frets the leaves of the vine 
 with innumerable punctures until they turn brown and wither. These 
 insects are often so numerous late in summer that they leap off in 
 clouds when the vines are shaken. Other species are injurious to 
 roses, growing grain and grass. 
 
 The Plant-lice (APHIDID^) are a very comprehensive and interest- 
 ing class of insects. They range from small to exceedingly minute, 
 but make up in numbers what they lack in size, and include some of 
 the most destructive pests known to the agriculturist. They are soft- 
 
108 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 bodied and gregarious, and most numerous in the wingless forms. 
 The eyes are usually quite large and of a dark color, and the antennae 
 of many species long and thread-like; the beak is two-jointed, and in 
 some cases as long or longer than the body ; legs, in the leaf-feeding 
 species, rather long and slender, but in the root-feeding and gall-inhab- 
 iting forms short and stout; wings thin and transparent, with dark 
 veins on the anterior margin. Near the tip of the abdomen, on the 
 back, many species have a pair of little tubes through which exudes a 
 sweet fluid, sometimes in such quantities as to thickly besprinkle the 
 plants infested. This is then termed " honey dew," although the genu- 
 ine "honey dew" is an excretion from the leaves of certain plants 
 during dry, hot weather. Ants, as is well known, are extremely fond 
 of "aphis nectar," and induce the insects to yield it in large quantities 
 by caressing them with their antenna, for which reason they are called 
 the "ants 7 cows." Other species of aphides excrete from a part or the 
 whole of the surface of the body a whitish powder or " bloom," or 
 numerous filaments of fine, cottony matter, in which they become com- 
 pletely enveloped. The reproductive processes of aphides are very 
 complicated and remarkable, and have been the subject of much care- 
 ful study and experiment. Our knowledge in regard to them may be 
 briefly summarized as follows : At certain seasons of the year usually 
 late in summer or early autumn individuals of both sexes are pro- 
 duced, and the females lay eggs, which in some species hatch immedi- 
 ately, in others remain dormant over winter. The sexed aphides were 
 formerly supposed to be the winged form, but later discovery shows 
 that there is not necessarily any connection between the possession of 
 wings and of true sexual organs, the wings being simply an adaptation 
 for migration from one locality or plant to another. The form hatching 
 from the egg is denominated the "stem mother," and in the course of a 
 few days begins a peculiar process of reproduction, called partheno- 
 genesis or agamis reproduction, bringing forth her young alive and in 
 very rapid succession. This process has been likened to the multipli- 
 cation of certain kinds of plants by slipping and budding. The off- 
 spring of the "stem mother " begin, in their turn, to produce vivipa- 
 rously in the course of a few days, and in this way the multiplication of 
 individuals proceeds at a most extraordinary rate. Fortunately for the 
 safety of vegetation, plant lice have a variety of natural enemies. They 
 may also be destroyed by alkaline applications, tobacco smoke or in- 
 fusion, or kerosene emulsions. Poisons such as Paris green or London 
 purple do not have much effect upon them, as they do not eat leaves, 
 but puncture them and extract the sap from beneath the cuticle. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 109 
 
 Among the excessively injurious species of Aphides may be men- 
 tioned the Grape Phylloxera (P. vastatrix, Plan.) which has caused such 
 wholesale destruction of the vineyards in France and other European 
 countries, and prevents the cultivation of many choice varieties of grapes 
 in this country. This species occurs in two forms, one inhabiting 
 warty galls on the foliage, but the most destructive form occurring on 
 the roots, which it causes to decay. This species and its allies do not 
 produce the young alive, but always by means of eggs. Another root- 
 louse, belonging in another family, is the Woolly louse of the apple 
 (Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm.) This also sometimes appears above 
 ground on the trunk of the tree, and is one of the species that clothes 
 itself in a cottony or woolly excretion. 
 
 The Hop Aphis (Phorodon humultj often occasions great loss in 
 hop-yards, and Dr. Eiley has made the interesting discovery that in 
 autumn the winged migrant form resorts to plum trees and there pro- 
 duces the sexed individuals whose eggs hibernate on the plum, on the 
 leaves of which the first spring generations feed, becoming winged 
 arly in summer and again returning to the hop-yards. The largest 
 species are found on the hickory and sycamore trees. These belong 
 to the genus Lachnus, and when thickly congregated on the trunks 
 and branches are a most repulsive sight. Some species, especially 
 those of the genus Pemphigus, cause very singular galls on trees of the 
 |3Oplar and willow family. As nearly all aphids are more or less injuri- 
 ous, it is out of the question to attempt here to give a list, even of 
 those that are serious pests. 
 
 In the family COCCTDLD^: are grouped the Scale-insects or Bark- 
 lice, the Mealy-bugs and a few similar forms, which rival the members 
 of the preceding family in rapidity of increase, in injurious effect upon 
 the plants attacked and in the difficulty with which they are eradicated 
 or even kept in check. In these insects only the males undergo trans- 
 formation, protected by a small larval scale. They acquire wings, two 
 in number, very transparent and with only one or two veins. The 
 antennae are long, and, under the microscope, are seen to be many- 
 jointed and hairy or plumy. The mouth parts are undeveloped, and in 
 their place we find a second pair of eyes. The females never acquire 
 wings, and most of the species become fixed in one spot very shortly 
 after hatching, the long but extremely fine beak penetrating to the sap- 
 wood of the tree or shrub infested and slowly imbibing the sap required 
 to perfect the growth and development of the insect. Immediately 
 upon becoming fixed the surface of the body exudes a waxy substance 
 that very soon forms, together with the motled skins, a complete shell 
 or scale over the body. After being visited by the winged male, the 
 
110 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 4 
 
 eggs begin to form and soon fill the body of the mother insect. Upon 
 hatching, the very minute lice creep from under the scale and disperse 
 with great activity all over the tree or branch, from whence some are 
 carried by birds and insects, or are wafted by the wind to other trees, 
 and in this way they are disseminated from one orchard or vineyard 
 or grove to another. Besides the waxy scale, some species excrete a 
 great quantity of white, cottony matter, as a protection to the eggs. 
 This substance is arranged in various forms characteristic of the spe- 
 cies. 
 
 Among the coccids that form simple scales is the widely-distributed 
 Oyster-shell Bark-louse of the apple (Mytilaspis pomonum, Bouche.) 
 This species covers the branches and trunks of trees with its pale 
 brown, somewhat oyster-shaped scales, beneath which are the females, 
 each with its almost invisible beak penetrating to the growing wood 
 and extracting sap in such quantities as to retard the growth of the 
 tree, and reduce the quantity and impair the quality of the fruit. 
 The young are hatched late in spring, and are active for a few days 
 only. Alkaline washes or kerosene emulsion applied at this time are 
 most effectual in preventing their increase. They have a few natural 
 enemies in the shape of Coccinelid beetles, Lace- wing fly larvae and one 
 or two minute parasitic flies. Two similar scales of other species are 
 found in the South on orange trees. Several species of white scales 
 (ChionaspisjaTQ also found on apple, pear, pine and willow. A smaller, 
 white, scurfy scale (Diaspis) is sometimes very abundant on the stems 
 of roses, blackberries and raspberries. The scale insects most trouble- 
 some in green-houses and on house-plants, and occurring also on the 
 orange, belong to the genus Aspidiotus. Among the scale insects that 
 produce cottony masses is Pulvinaria innumerabalis (Rath.), which ap- 
 pears in great numbers on grape vines, and especially on maple and 
 elm trees, covering the bark with its masses of flocculent matter and 
 honey-dew like excretions, greatly disfiguring and injuring vines and 
 trees. The orange tree is especially subject to the attacks of scale 
 insects; and one of these, the Fluted scale f leery a purchasij, seriously 
 threatened the existence of the groves of California, until Dr. Riley 
 happily discovered its chief natural enemy in Australia, from which 
 country the scale had been introduced, and secured the importation of 
 the useful Lady-bird beetle, which in about two years has almost exter- 
 minated the particular species of pest on which it naturally preys. 
 
 The Mealy bugs (Dactylopius) especially troublesome on house- 
 plants and in green-houseswhile agreeing with the scale insects in 
 many particulars, do not secrete scales and the females do not become 
 fixed in one place. The bodies are covered with a white powdery 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 matter, with short filaments around the anterior end and sides and sev- 
 eral long ones at the tail. One of the Coccidse (Coccus cacti} is the 
 insect so well known as "cochineal," which, until the invention of the 
 aniline dyes, was the source of the beautiful red and crimson colors so 
 much used in the manufacture of textile fabrics. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 Order HEMIPTERA. Sub-Order PARASITICA. 
 
 HUMAN AND CATTLE PARASITES. 
 
 [Fig. 44.] 
 
 The Short-nosed Ox-louse (Hamatopinus eurysternus) after Osborne. a. 
 female ; b. rostrum (beak) ; c, under surface of last joint of male ; 
 e - egg ; /. surface of egg, all greatly magnified. 
 
 In this Sub-order we find the most repulsive and annoying of all 
 insects the true parasites of mammals, not excepting man. The gen- 
 eral structural characters are depicted with great exactness in the 
 illustration, Fig. 44. 
 
 The true lice are all very small insects, which never acquire wings. 
 They remain close to the skin and suck the blood of the animals in- 
 fested, causing great discomfort and irritation by their presence and 
 their innumerable punctures. They are the result of neglect and squalor, 
 and on cattle and horses indicate a very unthrifty physical condition. 
 The proboscis is merely a fleshy prolongation of the front of the head, 
 at the end of which are a pair of extremely sharp lancets, which are 
 retracted within the head when not in use. At the base of these, as 
 shown at &, in the figure, is a rosette of sharp, recurved hooks, which, 
 
 E 8 
 
112 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 when the insect is feeding, are thrust into the skin to support the 
 lancets. The eyes are simple and very small, and the antennae very 
 short and minutely bristly. The legs have thick, short, notched joints 
 and end in a strong curved claw, that when closed down, meets a little 
 tooth on the shank a provision for clinging to and climbing hairs. 
 There are no transformations. The eggs are called "nits," and are 
 firmly glued at one end to the hairs. 
 
 Three species attack man under certain external conditions of pov- 
 erty and uocleanliness, namely: The Head-louse (Pediculus capitis), 
 which is confined to the hair and skin of the head, and is most frequently 
 found on neglected children ; the Body-louse (Pediculus vestmenta), 
 which hides in the seams and folds of the clothing, and draws the blood 
 frpm any part of the body; and the Crab-louse (PtMrius pubis\ which 
 attacks the arm pits and pubic region. These pests commonly aggra- 
 vate the miseries of military prisons and camps and other situations 
 where human beings are congregated without provision for cleanliness 
 and lack nourishing food. Mercurial ointment is the best remedy, with 
 entire change of clothing, where possible. 
 
 The true lice that are sometimes found on thin and neglected 
 horses, cattle, swine and other animals, differ very slightly from those 
 found on man. They are placed in the genus Hematopinus. Strong^ 
 infusions of tobacco or of larkspur seeds are among the remedial 
 washes, also an ointment of kerosene and lard, thoroughly mixed ; but 
 the experiments of Prof. 0. P. Gillette, of Colorado, have demonstrated 
 the superiority of that valuable insecticide, the ordinary kerosene emul- 
 sion, over every other preparation, in ridding animals of these pests. 
 Dr. Eiley, whose invention it was. says of it : "It has long since be- 
 come recognized as an insecticide of unrivaled merit, against most of 
 the insect enemies of plants, and also in the case of animals, as a means 
 against the Buffalo-gnat, Horse-fly, etc. * * * The only precaution 
 necessary with this substance is to see that the emulsion is properly 
 made, and that in winter time the animal be protected from severe 
 cold." 
 
 There are certain other kinds of lice occasionally found on cattle, 
 belonging to the same group with chicken-lice, bird-lice and so forth, 
 which, although they bear considerable resemblance to the true lice, 
 are structurally very different and form a low sub-order of the Neu- 
 roptera. The remedies for these are the same as for the more common 
 species. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 113 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 Order VI. OKTHOPTERA. 
 
 [Fig. 45.] 
 
 Old World Migratory Locust (Pachytylus migratorius.) 
 
 In this Order of so-called straight-winged insects we find many 
 unusually interesting species. Geologically and historically they are 
 the oldest of insects. In the stratified rocks their remains are found 
 among the very earliest forms of animal life ; while the " locusts,' 7 so 
 frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, and in equally ancient sec- 
 ular history, as suddenly swooping down upon a country and "devour- 
 ing every green thing," are among the typical representatives. Except- 
 ing the Cicadas, described in a preceding chapter, we find among the 
 Orthoptera the only insects provided with a special musical apparatus, 
 each species having its own peculiar instrument and contributing its 
 characteristic notes, called stridulations, to the insect concerts that 
 enliven the summer days and nights. Many of the most singular imi- 
 tative forms that occur in nature are also found here in the " walking 
 sticks" and "walking leaves" that compose one of the groups; and 
 by many other peculiarities of structure and habit the Orthoptera chal- 
 lenge attention from the student of pure science, the lover of nature, 
 and the economist. 
 
 The straight-winged insects are nearly all of a size to be examined 
 without the aid of a microscope, and some forms have been considered 
 superior to all others as subjects for dissection in the study of internal 
 as well as external structure. While they exhibit much variation in 
 form, all the more conspicuous species agree in the vertical position of 
 the head, the biting mouth, the large pro-thorax, and the parchment-like 
 wing-covers when these organs are present. 
 
 The head is usually large, and though somewhat sunken under the 
 pro-thorax in many species, is freely movable on the flexible neck. The 
 eyes are round or oblong, and prominent in most species. The antennae 
 
114 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 are either short, stout and few-jointed, or very long and slender with 
 an indefinite number of indistinct joints. 
 
 In these insects we find the mouth parts particularly well devel- 
 oped, and adapted for biting and masticating solid food. The mandi- 
 bles are short, but broad and strong, with a toothed cutting edge ; the 
 maxillse are adapted to the office of holding the food in place, in which 
 the two pairs of mouth-feelers (palpi) assist; the lower lip (labiuin) 
 forms the floor to the mouth, and the unusually long and broad labrimi 
 closes over the other mouth parts like a true lip, when the insect is not 
 feeding. The pro-thorax only appears on the upper side of the body, 
 and in a great majority of the species it is more or less saddle-shaped, 
 often with a longitudinal ridge on top. There is much variation in the 
 length, thickness and character of the surface of the legs, which are 
 adapted for running, jumping, burrowing, grasping and other uses. 
 The wing-covers are composed of strong membrane more or less thick- 
 ened and opaque, in which the venation is peculiar to the species. 
 They usually over-lap at the bases or for their entire length, and either 
 lie flat upon the back or are concave, and enclose the sides also like a 
 pod. The under wings are very broad, in many species composed of 
 transparent, but closely net-veined membrane. A few kinds display in 
 life various beautiful colors, which shortly disappear in cabinet speci- 
 mens. When not in use these wings are folded in fan-like plaits and 
 hidden under the upper pair. In the hind body we can count eight or 
 nine distinct segments, attached to the last of which are the variously 
 shaped claspers of the males, and the equally varied ovipositing organs 
 of the females. On the under side of this part of the body the protect- 
 ing crust seems thinner and more flexible than elsewhere, and expands 
 and contracts with the inhalation and exhalation of air. 
 
 The Orthoptera are very voracious in all stages of their develop- 
 ment, and while the majority feed on growing vegetation, others are 
 predaceous, and a considerable number are serious household pests, 
 on account of their preference for the contents of pantries and the 
 offal of kitchens. 
 
 The transformations are incomplete, and the young differ from the 
 mature insects even less than young bugs differ from those that have 
 acquired the perfect form. 
 
 There is considerable confusion in the terms applied to some of 
 the groups in this Order. Thus the true locusts are very generally 
 called "grasshoppers," while the term "locust" is in this country ap- 
 plied to the Periodical Cicada. Again, all the more conspicuous forms 
 included by entomologists among " grasshoppers " are not found on 
 grass at all, but inhabit the tops of the tallest trees. Nor does this 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 115 
 
 inapt nomenclature occur only in popular language, for we find the 
 LOCUSTID^E include only the green grasshoppers and other solitary 
 species, while the genuine, often gregarious, and infinitely more destruc- 
 tive locusts are placed in the Family ACRIDIDJE. 
 
 All the more important American species of ORTHOPTERA are 
 found in six Families, namely : Crickets (GRYLLID^E) ; Green Grass- 
 hoppers and Katydids (LocusTiD^i) ; True Locusts (ACRIDID^E) ; Walk- 
 ing sticks or Specters (PHASMID^E) ; Soothsayers, Devil's horses (MAN- 
 TID^;) and Cockroaches (BLATTID^E). The first three Families form a 
 section of the Order distinguished from their mode of progression as 
 the Jumpers (SALTATORIA) ; the fourth Family includes the Walkers 
 (AMBULATORIA) ; the fifth the Graspers (RAPTATORIA) ; the sixth the 
 Runners (CuRSORiA). 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Order, ORTHOPTERA. Section, SALTATORIA. 
 
 CRICKETS, GRASSHOPPERS, KATYDIDS, AND LOCUSTS. 
 
 The jumping Orthoptera include all the musical and nearly all the 
 injurious species, namely, the Crickets, Green Grasshoppers and Lo- 
 custs. The Crickets (GRYLLID^E) are easily separated into three groups, 
 Mole crickets, House and Field crickets and Tree crickets, each con- 
 taining comparatively few species. They all agree in having somewhat 
 cylindrical bodies, either short and stout or slender and elongate, and 
 always terminate in more or less conspicuous stylets or a long, exserted 
 ovipositor. The head is large, roundish, or obtusely triangular; eyes 
 hemispherical, widely separated; antennte long, slender and tapering; 
 upper lip nearly circular, and the palpi, of which both pairs are well 
 developed, are somewhat club-shaped. The pro-thorax is broad and of 
 a firm, horny or shelly texture. The wings and wing covers, except in 
 the Tree crickets, cover only one-half or two-thirds of the abdomen. 
 The wing covers are of thick, leathery or mica-like membrane, with a 
 peculiar ridged venation, by means of which their calls and chirps are 
 produced. The legs vary in the development of certain parts to cor- 
 respond with the habits of the species, but the hinder pair always have 
 large thighs and more or less spiny shanks. 
 
 The Mole crickets do not jump, but are peculiar for their burrow- 
 ing habits, and seldom emerge from their subterranean abodes until 
 after nightfall. They are large, stout insects, of dull brown colors, and 
 
116 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 have the surface thickly clothed with a soft pubescence in this, as in 
 many other particulars, imitating the genuine mole. In the fore legs 
 all the joints are flattened and broadened, the tibiae spreading out like 
 the palm of the hand, and having on the lower edge four long, horny, 
 finger-like processes, so that they are almost exact miniatures of the 
 shovel-like fore feet of the animal from which they are named. These 
 insects are usually found in damp soils, where their horizontal galleries 
 are betrayed by the little ridges which appear on the surface of the 
 ground. They feed upon roots and under-ground stems of plants, va- 
 rying their diet by devouring any burrowing larvae or exposed pupae 
 with which they come in contact in their tunneling operations. The 
 most common Northern species is Gryllotalpa boreales, Burm, while in 
 the Southern States O. longipennis is more frequently met with. 
 
 The House and Field crickets live in chimneys, stone walls and 
 similar situations, or in holes in the ground. Modern methods in build- 
 ing have banished the " cricket on the hearth," whose cheerful chirp 
 formerly blended with the cosy " song" of the tea-kettle, inspiring in 
 poets and novelists some of their most beautiful thoughts on the com- 
 forts of home. 
 
 The House Cricket (Gryllus domesticus) is of a brown or grayish 
 color, and is an immigrant from Europe and the far East. It is quite 
 abundant in our eastern cities, but is not yet very generally dissemi- 
 nated over the country. The larger Field Crickets are black with 
 brown wings, and the males of some species survive the winter and 
 may be heard chirping during warm evenings early in the spring. They 
 all belong in the same genus with the Mole and House Crickets, and 
 show much variation in coloring and in the development of the wings. 
 The eggs are deposited in masses of two cfr three hundred, but are not 
 enclosed in a sac as are those of the Mole Cricket. The young hatch 
 about midsummer and disperse in all directions, feeding on all varieties 
 of vegetation, often proving quite injurious. The species of Nemobius 
 appear later in the summer, are of a dull, pale brown color, sometimes 
 obscurely striped, and in one or two species the wings are wanting, and 
 the shelly elytra (wing covers) somewhat loosely enclose the body. The 
 Tree Crickets are of more slender and delicate form, with broader and 
 more glassy wing covers and long slender legs and antennae. The 
 males of CEcanthm niveus Har. and CE. latipennis Eiley are white or 
 greenish white, the wing covers transparent, flat, and when closed, com- 
 pletely over-lapping and crossed by W-shaped ridges. When stridulat- 
 ing, these wings are elevated almost at right angles to the body and 
 the surfaces rubbed together with a motion too swift to Ue followed by 
 the eye, producing a metallic " whirr " that is incredibly loud and pierc- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 117 
 
 ing in comparison with the size and delicate texture of the insect. 
 The females are quite different in appearance, being slender and almost 
 cylindrical, with the wing covers curving down at the sides so as to 
 partly enclose the body. The ovipositor is slender but very strong and 
 'horny, nearly as long as the abdomen, and terminates in a blunt tip 
 beset with minute points. With this instrument the female of (E. niveus 
 pierces the young canes of grape or of raspberry, depositing in a row 
 a considerable number of eggs. (E. latipennis forces hers into the pith 
 of stems or into bark through a series of pinhole-like punctures 
 from one -half an inch to one inch apart. The punctured twigs are 
 invariably killed, and the insects occasionally do considerable damage ; 
 but as these crickets feed almost entirely upon aphides and other mi- 
 nute pests, they make ample compensation for all the injury that they 
 do, and may be accounted beneficial rather than injurious. 
 
 The most aesthetically interesting insects among the Locustidce are 
 the " Katydids." The peculiar, interrupted stridulations of these little 
 tree-top musicians have inspired many a poetic gem and dainty bit of 
 imaginative prose. Nor are they merely favorites with the poets, who, 
 for the most part, know them only by their notes ;^ but the naturalist, 
 who keeps them as pets, finds in their habits and histories most instruct- 
 ive and suggestive revelations of insect life. They are mostly of large 
 size, and of a bright green color, in this assimilating closely to the foli- 
 age amid which they dwell. The large, free head is curiously like that 
 of a horse ; the eyes are round and bright, and of a yellowish-brown 
 color; the antennae are very long, slender and tapering; the various 
 mouth parts are easily distinguished without the aid of a lens, and the 
 processes of cutting and mastication may be closely observed, as the 
 insects will often sit upon one's finger and nibble a leaf or bit of fruit 
 in fearless enjoyment. The upper side of the pro-thorax is covered by 
 a wide collar, which projects slightly over the head in front, and, pos- 
 teriorly, overlaps the bases of the wings. In repose the wings meet on 
 the back in an acute angle, and are more or less convex at the sides, to 
 enclose the body. At the base they over-lap in a wide, flat triangle, the 
 upper surface of one and the under surface of the other being pecu- 
 liarly ridged and roughened to form the " taborets," which grate together 
 as the insect raises and lowers its wings. These wing covers display a 
 venation imitative of that of leaves. The under wings are broad, com- 
 posed of very delicate, finely-netted membrane, with green tips where 
 they project slightly beyond the upper pair. The legs are slender, with 
 the tibiae slightly spiny and the tarsi ending in long, sharp claws. The 
 hind legs are very nearly twice the length of the others. At the base 
 of the tibire of the fore legs are peculiar oval cavities covered with 
 
118 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 transparent membrane, which are supposed to be the seat of the sense 
 of hearing. The bodies of the males terminate in conspicuous stylets 
 or claspers, while those of the females bear a large sickle-shaped or 
 sword-like ovipositor, composed of two thin blades, by means of which 
 the eggs are inserted into bark or leaves, or are laid in over-lapping 
 rows on thin stems or on the edges of leaves. 
 
 The true Katydid (Cyrtophyllus concavus) is the most robust-looking 
 species, the wing- covers being oblong and very convex on the sides, 
 almost meeting below as well as on the back. The taborets consist of 
 mica-like plates, with very strong, peculiarly curving ridges. The 
 Angular- winged Katydid (Microcentrum retinervisj has longer, narrower 
 and less convex wings. The taborets are opaque, and the sounds pro- 
 duced resemble a metallic clicking sound, which has not been reduced 
 by any imaginative listener to syllables. The Narrow-winged Katydid 
 ( Phaneroptera curvicaudaj is a smaller, duller-green species, with a less 
 noticeable note. It must be remembered that the males are the musi- 
 cians of the family, although the females are capable of emitting a faint 
 response by a sudden upward jerk of the wings. 
 
 Among the Grasshoppers are some long, slender, bright-green 
 species which have the front of the head produced into a point. These 
 are called the Cone-heads. Xiphidium ensifer is the largest species. 
 The males produce the most deafening, continuous " whirr " of any of 
 the tribe. The females have a long, straight, sword-shaped ovipositor, 
 and in both sexes the wings are nearly twice the length of the body. 
 The smaller and very graceful Orchilimums, which enliven the autumn 
 days with their soft purring notes, belong also in this group. 
 
 The true Locusts (ACRIDID^E) are the species which live on grass, 
 grains and other low-growing vegetation, and are in this country very 
 generally called " grasshoppers." In this group belong not only the 
 various dull-green and brown species that are so numerous every year 
 in fields and pastures, and which in dry seasons become very injurious, 
 but certain migratory species, which, having exhausted the food supply 
 of the regions to which they are indigenous, by a common impulse rise 
 into the air in clouds and sweep like a besom of destruction over the 
 country. They fly by day and descend at night to feed, often traversing 
 thousands of miles before reaching their limit. These are the only 
 insects which have been used to any great extent as food, and this 
 mainly in trans- Atlantic countries, where the famishing inhabitants of 
 the desolated regions were forced to feed upon them or perish. The 
 Eocky Mountain Locust (Caloptenus spretus, Thorn.) is the most im- 
 portant American species of migratory locust ; but one or two Eastern 
 species manifest a like tendency, and during some years prove very 
 destructive over limited areas. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 119 
 
 The Locusts are robust insects, stouter in body and legs than the 
 Grasshopper and Katydids, and are well protected by a firm leathery 
 integument. The head is even larger in proportion to the body than in 
 the preceding family. It is set vertically, in some species receding 
 toward the mouth. The eyes are large and broadly elliptical in form ; 
 antennae short and rather thick ; the face is marked in many species by 
 three distinct ridges ; upper lip broad, with the lower edge somewhat 
 hollowed out just above the jaws. The saddle-like collar over the 
 back of the pro-thorax, or pro-notuin, is marked by transverse in- 
 dented lines, and rounds out over the insertion of the wings. Many 
 locusts have on the pro-sternum, just under the chin, a cone-like pro- 
 jection sparsely covered with short spines or prickles. The wing 
 covers are of stout, closely netted membrane, with a projecting ridge 
 or heavy vein near the middle on the outside, or a series of prominent 
 veins on the under side. They are of a narrowly oblong form and 
 slightly overlap in a straight line on the back. The broad under wings 
 are so folded as to be entirely covered by them. The legs are 
 all stout, but the hinder pair, always much thicker, and gener- 
 ally much longer also, than the others, provide the leaping power 
 which is so wonderful in these insects. The outer margins of 
 the tibiae are beset with a varying number of pairs of spines, 
 and just at the base of the three -jointed tarsi are two pairs of 
 jointed spurs. At the base of the abdomen on each side is an 
 oval orifice covered with thin membrane, like those on the fore legs 
 of the Katydids, and, like them, termed the ears or aural sacs. 
 In the abdomen of the males nine segments can be perceived from the 
 under side. The anal appendages are a pair of side claspers and an 
 upward curving ventral plate. In the abdomen of the female but 
 eight segments can be distinguished, and the tip has four horny, 
 pointed blades, which can be brought together in a point to penetrate 
 the soil, and afterward spread out to pry the earth apart and prepare 
 a cavity for the reception of the eggs, which are extruded in a compact 
 mass, inclosed in a sort of glutinous pod or case. 
 
 The stridulations of Locusts are effected in two ways by differing 
 species. Most of the larger species "fiddle," by rubbing the ridged 
 inner surface of the hind thighs over the prominent mid-vein of the out- 
 side of the wing covers. Prof. Gornstock, quoting Mr. Scudder, who 
 has made most exact and interesting studies of the so-called musical 
 insects, says: "When about to stridulate they place themselves in a 
 horizontal position, with the head a little elevated; then they raise both 
 hind legs at once, and grating the femora against the outer surface of 
 the tegmina, produce notes which in the different species vary in rapid- 
 
120 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 ity, number and duration." Another method of "fiddling" character- 
 istic of other species takes place during flight, when the under surface 
 of the upper wings is grated back and forth over the front edge of the 
 under wings. 
 
 These insects are probably all single-brooded, the young hatching 
 in the spring from the eggs laid the previous summer and autumn. The 
 very young locusts have much larger heads in proportion to their bodies 
 than the more mature forms. There are five molts before the insect 
 arrives at its perfect form. At the third molt the embryo wings begin 
 to appear. These are in a reversed position with the under wings on 
 top. By this peculiarity pupae can always be distinguished from the 
 few species of locusts that never acquire wings, but have these organs 
 represented merely by short pads on each side of the abdomen. Ex- 
 amples of these wingless species are found in the Lubber Grasshop- 
 pers of the Svputh and West, which are large, dark, clumsy species, 
 incapable of flight or stridulation. 
 
 Our largest and handsomest species is the American Locust (Acri- 
 dium americanum), which is often more than two inches in length, with 
 a golden brown stripe down the back and beautifully mottled wings ; 
 the hind shanks are bright red, beset with spines, which are ivory-white 
 tipped with black. There are red markings also on the head, thorax 
 and edges of the wings, and the fore and middle legs are also a paler 
 shade of the same color. The most common and generally distributed 
 species is the Eed-legged Locust (Caloptenus femur-rubrum DeG.). This 
 is scarcely more than one-third the size of the first-named species, is of 
 a pale, greenish-brown with dull-red hind legs. It often multiplies to 
 such an extent as to do great injury to growing grain. 
 
 The Eocky Mountain Locust, or Western Migratory Locust (Calop- 
 tenus spretus, Thomas), is only to be distinguished from the familiar red- 
 legged species by the greater length of its wing-covers and wings. 
 Concerning the destructiveness of this species at irregular periods in 
 the States and territories west of the Mississippi river, Dr. Eiley, who 
 has devoted much time and labor to the study of this insect, and to 
 devising methods for keeping it in check, writes : " It was so very 
 destructive in the Northwestern States and Territories from 1873 to 
 1877 that it may truly be said to have been one of the chief causes of 
 the business crises which characterized that period. So wide-spread and 
 disastrous were the results of its work that Congress provided for a com- 
 mission to investigate it. * * * No one who has not witnessed the 
 ravaging power of locusts can fully conceive of or appreciate it. The 
 organization and habit of the typical locust admirably fit it for raven- 
 ous work. Muscular, gregarious, with powerful jaws, and ample diges- 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 121 
 
 live and reproductive systems ; strong of wing and assisted in flight by 
 numerous buoyant air sacs all these traits conspire to make it the ter- 
 rible engine of destruction which history shows it to have been. In- 
 significant individually, but mighty collectively, locusts fall upon a 
 country like a plague or blight." 
 
 The winged locusts do not generally appear in swarms until late in 
 summer, when, after devouring all sorts of vegetation, the females fill 
 the ground with their eggs and then die. 
 
 The young locusts, which hatch in the spring, are at hand to take 
 the next crop, and unless vigorous and combined effort is made to sub- 
 due them, by repeated plowings, they take all the early vegetation of 
 the second year. Those that survive to attain their wings return in 
 small swarms to their native breeding places. 
 
 The species of (Edipoda often have the hind wings brightly colored 
 and prettily banded or bordered. The small species, termed Grouse 
 Locusts, genus Tettix, are characterized by the prolongation of the col- 
 lar backward so as to almost entirely cover the top of the abdomen and 
 taking the place of the upper wings, which, being useless, are reduced 
 to very small pads. In these insects the hind legs, though not long, 
 are very stout. They are of dull black or dark colors, and are usually 
 found along water-courses or in other damp places. None of the 
 species are especially injurious. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Order ORTHOPTERA. Sections AMBULATORIA, RAPTORIA, 
 
 and CURSORIA. 
 
 WALKING STICKS, MANTES AND COCKROACHES. 
 
 The " Walking sticks," " Walking leaves," and so forth, included in 
 the family PHASMIDJE, are mainly tropical species, exhibiting in their 
 forms the most exact and remarkable resemblances to twigs and leaves 
 that have been observed in nature. These imitations of inanimate ob- 
 jects are the sole reliance of these insects for safety, as they have no 
 means of defense agianst their enemies, and their movements are too 
 sluggish to permit them to escape. The Walking sticks, of which a 
 few species occur in the United States, are long, slender and cylindri- 
 cal in form, with long legs, the middle pair having the thighs somewhat 
 thickened. When at rest the front legs are pressed close together and 
 
122 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 stuck straight out in front of the head, with the long thread-like anten- 
 nae between them, and when in this position the eye may rest for some 
 time upon them without recognizing their difference from the twigs and 
 leaf-stalks by which they are surrounded. They also have a chameleon- 
 like power of changing their colors to assimilate with those of the 
 plant or tree which they inhabit. They never acquire even the rudi- 
 ments of wings, and the principal difference between the sexes is that 
 the females are somewhat larger and stouter than the males. The 
 former lay their eggs in the autumn, dropping them carelessly to the 
 ground. They are about the size, shape and color of spinach seed, and 
 remain unhatched until late the following spring, or for two years. The 
 young, which are about one-fourth of an inch long when hatched, are 
 precise miniatures of the mature insects, except that they are more 
 uniformly green in color. They feed at first on grass and other low- 
 growing vegetation, but soon ascend the nearest trees, in which they 
 find a home adapted to all their needs. Diapheromera femorata is the 
 only common northern species. This is, when full grown, from three 
 to four inches long, exclusive of the front legs, with a diameter varying 
 from one-eighth to one-fifth inch. It seldom appears in any locality in 
 sufficient numbers to be accounted injurious, but there are exceptions 
 to this rule, as, for example, in certain parts of the middle Atlantic 
 states, where during one or two seasons some years ago it almost de- 
 foliated the forest trees. 
 
 The second section Graspers (RAPT ORI A) contains the family 
 MANTID^E. The singular forms and attitudes of these insects have sug- 
 gested for them various expressive popular names, such as " Devil's 
 riding-horses," "Rear-horses," "Intelligence bugs," "Sooth-sajers," 
 "Praying nuns" and the like. The English names "Camel-cricket" or 
 "Praying mantis" are more appropriate, arid worthy of general adoption. 
 These insects have always been the objects of superstitious regard, not 
 only by the ignorant and uncivilized natives of tropical regions, where 
 their species are most numerous, but even by cultured, but too imagi- 
 native Europeans. It was formerly believed that they could foretell 
 good and evil fortunes, and that the person on whom one alighted was 
 especially favored of the gods, and they still receive divine honors 
 from many savage tribes. They have indeed a wickedly-wise and weird 
 look, to which their rapacious and cruel habits fully correspond. They 
 are among the fiercest of cannibals, greedily devouring all kinds of soft- 
 bodied insects, which they seize and hold between their spiny front legs 
 until slowly masticated. They do not hesitate to attack each other, 
 and when two chance to meet a battle is the almost invariable result- 
 The females are stronger and more savage than the males, and after 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 123 
 
 pairing the former generally dines upon her partner. These insects 
 are of large size two inches or more in length. The head is triangular, 
 free, very wide at the top, with large, round, singularly expressive eyes ; 
 antennae thread-like and not very long ; mouth at the apex of the in- 
 verted triangle; jaws strong, though small. The thoracic joints are 
 cylindrical and elongated, and move freely upon each other; the fore 
 legs (graspers) are not used for walking, but are folded and held up in 
 a position suggesting the attitude of prayer, though it is really one of 
 menace. The hind body is oval or oblong, somewhat flattened, and in 
 the male completely covered by the folded ample wings, and the over- 
 lapping wing covers. The female has much shorter wings and wing 
 covers, and is incapable of flight. The sexes differ also in color, the 
 male being dull-brown while the female is usually some shade of green. 
 This description applies to the only species commonly met with in the 
 United States below the thirty-ninth parallel, namely, Phasmomentis 
 Carolina. The eggs are laid in a compact oblong mass, which closely 
 resembles a fossil called a "trilobite." It is attached by its flat surface 
 to fence-posts, the wood of trellises and the stems of shrubbery. These 
 egg masses should never be destroyed, as the Mantes are very useful 
 in clearing gardens and vineyards of plant-feeding pests. 
 
 The section CURSOR! A, family BLATID^E, is represented by the 
 disgusting and omnivorous household pests, the Cockroaches. These 
 insects have no attractions of form or color, and have a disagreeable 
 odor which they communicate to the closets and rooms infested, while 
 their swift motions and the deftness with which they disappear into 
 almost invisible cracks and crevices is most exasperating to their pur- 
 suer. There is nothing to be said in their favor, except that they prey 
 upon the bed-bug, an instance in which the "cure is as bad as the dis- 
 ease." They have received various common names, such as " black 
 beetles " and " croton bugs," but are quite generally recognized as 
 "roaches" or "cockroaches." They are all nocturnal in their habits 
 and very partial to warmth and moisture, which accounts for their 
 abundance about kitchen sinks and in the holds and pantries of ships, 
 steamboats and similar situations. They are of very flat, oblong form, 
 with the head horizontal and almost concealed by the projecting margin 
 of the collar. The antennse are long and slender; the legs spiny and 
 nearly equally developed ; the wing-covers are usually present, but some- 
 times short, and the under wings often entirely wanting. The females 
 lay all their eggs in one mass, enclosed in a bean-shaped sack, which is 
 often carried about for some time before being dropped. Dr. Eiley has 
 observed that the females of some species remain with and protect 
 their young. The latter are at first pure white, and at every molt the 
 
124 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 insects revert more or less to this color, though soon becoming of the 
 shade of brown which characterizes them. 
 
 Our native species seldom give us much annoyance. The males 
 occasionally fly into lighted rooms at night, but the females are usually 
 found around rotten stumps and under bark of dead trees. The Light 
 brown cockroach fPlatamodes Pennsylvania} is the largest species. It 
 measures about an inch in length, has very delicate wings, and is of a 
 light brown color. A smaller species of a very dark brown or black 
 color, but with lighter margins, is also quite common. This is Ectobia fla- 
 vocincta. The most destructive and annoying cockroaches are found 
 among the introduced species. These are especially, the large, very 
 dark brown or black Oriental cockroach (Periplancta orientalis, Linn.), a 
 species which is supposed to be native in eastern Asia, but which now 
 occurs in all parts of the civilized world. It is about one inch long and 
 one-third of an inch wide, very flat, so that it is able to creep into the 
 smallest crack. The wing covers in the male extend over little more than 
 one-half of the abdomen, and in the female are still more rudimentary 
 These insects are very long-lived, and it is said require several years 
 to complete their transformations. The smaller, German cockroach, 
 also called the "Croton bug" (Eotobia germanicaj, has become very 
 troublesome in the eastern cities, and from its fondness for wheat bread 
 and dough, is the especial pest of bakeries and bread boxes. This 
 species has fully developed wings, and is of a light brown color, with 
 two dark stripes on the pro-thorax. 
 
 The free use of pyrethrum powder will preserve cloth-bound books 
 and similar property from the attacks of these insects, and if used 
 freely in kitchens and other places which they frequent, will render 
 them helpless, so that they may be easily swept up and^burned. Pow- 
 dered borax mixed with sugar will also kill them. 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 125 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 Order VII. NEUROPTERA, 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Dragon-fly (Plathemis tri-maculata) . 
 
 The insects here considered under the old Order NEUROPTERA 
 are now separated into from two to five minor Orders, according to the 
 importance attached by authors to the peculiar development of certain 
 organs, and, more especially, with regard to the different methods of 
 transformation which obtain among them. As very few of these insects 
 are of economic importance, however, and as all the more conspicuous 
 forms agree in general wing structure, and in the possession of biting 
 mouth parts (except in one group, where these organs are entirely un- 
 developed), it will be more convenient to discuss them as members of a 
 single primary group. 
 
 In these insects the body wall is soft and flexible, and there is but 
 little consolidation of segments in any part. The head is usually rather 
 large and free; antennae always filiform or bristle-like, but sometimes 
 very short ; eyes, except in a few of the lowliest forms, conspicuous, 
 and in many species occupying the entire sides of the head ; mouth 
 parts, especially the outer jaws and lips, peculiarly large and strong ; 
 thoracic joints more equally developed than in most species of preced- 
 ing orders. The two pairs of wings are composed of delicate, trans- 
 parent membrane, closely netted with fine veins, with strong supporting 
 ribs on the anterior margin; legs, as a rule, rather small and weak; 
 abdomen slender, oblong or lanceolate, in some cases terminated by a 
 pair of curved forceps or two or three long, bristle-like tails. 
 
 In a portion of these insects the metamorphosis is complete, the 
 pupal stage of life being one of quiescence and rest ; while in the 
 remainder of the Neuroptera the pupae are active and voracious and 
 
126 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 molt a number of times, although they differ considerably in form from 
 the larvae. Even the winged insects of a few species molt once or 
 twice, a habit that has no parallel in the life history of the more highly 
 organized forms. The great majority of the species are aquatic, and 
 feed upon insects and other small water animals. In their relation to 
 man they are, with the exception of a few small groups, either neutral 
 or beneficial. The aquatic species form a large part of the food of 
 fishes, and the few terrestrial species mostly prey on small pests of the 
 orchard and garden. 
 
 Following the idea of Prof. Comstock. it will be convenient to 
 separate the Nerve- winged insects into two sections, NEUROPTERA, 
 proper, and PSEUDONEUROPTERA. The insects included in 
 the first section undergo complete metamorphosis, and are therefore 
 ranked by many authors higher than Hemiptera or Orthoptera, although 
 their structural peculiarities would not place them in advance of the 
 latter. The principal families of Neuroptera, proper, are the Oaddice 
 flies (PHRYGANID^E), Ant lions and Lace wings (HEMEROBIAD^E) and 
 the Hellgrammite flies and others (SCIALIDJE). In the Pseudoneu- 
 roptera are grouped a large number of more or less diverse families, 
 including some wingless and degraded parasitic forms. The most 
 interesting and conspicuous species are found in the families of the 
 Dragon-flies (LIBELLULID^E), the May -flies (EPHEMERID^E), the Stone- 
 flies (PERLID^:), and the White ants (TERMITID^E). Here also be- 
 long the little creatures often seen in old or long unopened books, 
 called book-lice (PsooiD^), and the peculiar parasites referred to in a 
 previous chapter, the true Bird-lice (MALOPHAGIDJE). 
 
 The Oaddice fiies closely resemble moths in their general outline? 
 but the wings are of more delicate texture and rather sparsely covered 
 with hairs instead of scales. The antenn* also are like those of moths, 
 being long and thread-like, but there is no coiled tongue, and the other 
 mouth parts are differently developed. The female flies lay their eggs 
 upon water plants, and the aquatic larvae attract much attention on 
 account of the sigular and ingenious little cases which they construct 
 for the protection of their soft bodies. These are made of v silk, and to 
 the outside are attached small pebbles, coarse sand, or bits of sticks 
 or leaves, giving them very peculiar and often beautiful forms. Some 
 species make their cases entirely of silk, and of a very elongated cone 
 shape. The thoracic legs are long and strong, and when moving from 
 place to place, the case is dragged along over the* hinder end of the 
 body, but when resting or molting the larva retires within it and closes 
 the opening by a little door or grating, which admits the water neces- 
 sary to respiration, but excludes enemies. These case-bearing larvae 
 may be found along the shores of lakes and in the beds of shallow 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 127 
 
 streams. They feed upon small water insects and vegetation. Prof. 
 Comstock describes a species that makes a very simple case under 
 stones in rapid streams, but excites much admiration by its ingenuity 
 in fishing, catching its prey by means of a seine-like web stretched be- 
 tween two stones. 
 
 The Ant-lions (genus Myrmeleon) are very delicate and beautiful 
 flies, with slender bodies and oblong, lace-like wings, sometimes plain, 
 sometimes ornamented with black dots (see lower figure in plate). 
 They have a graceful flight, and are occasionally attracted into our 
 lamp lighted rooms at night. The larvae are ugly and ferocious look- 
 ing. The body is rough and broad-oval in shape, and the flattened 
 head is provided with a proportionately enormous pair of pincer-like 
 mandibles, adapted for seizing and holding its victims while they are 
 pierced and comminuted by the maxillae. These larvae dig funnel- 
 shaped or saucer-shaped pits in sandy soil, with a straight shaft in the 
 center in which they hide, supporting themselves with the tips of the 
 gaping jaws just above the edge, ready to close with lightning-like 
 rapidity on any unlucky ant or other insect that carelessly strays over 
 the edge of the pit-falls and slides into th'e trap at the bottom. If the 
 insect obtains its footing and attempts to crawl up the steep sides it 
 is brought down with showers of sand thrown upon it by the enraged 
 and disappointed ant-lion, and it is but very raiely that it escapes. 
 These larvae are called "doodle bugs" in some parts of the country, 
 and are most commonly found on the margins of streams and in shel- 
 tered ravines. [Fig. 48.] 
 
 The Lace-wing flies are another small 
 group of terrestrial Neuroptera. They 
 are pretty but fragile and ill-odored flies, 
 
 Lace- wing fly (Chrysopa) and eggi on 
 
 etaiks, after Riiey. Of a pale green or rosy hue, the wings re 
 
 fleeting prismatic colors. The antennae are thread-like and nearly as 
 long as the body, and the round eyes gleam like jewels. The oval pale 
 green eggs arc laid in clusters, each attached to the top of a slender 
 silken stalk. This is supposed to be a precautionary instinct of the 
 parent fly to preserve them from the rapacity of the larva that hatches 
 first. The larvae are called "Aphis-lions" from the small insects which 
 are their more especial prey. They are of depressed oval form with 
 pincer-like jaws and long, rather sprawling legs. They render valuable 
 aid to the farmer and horticulturist in clearing his trees and other 
 plants of plant lice, bark lice and similar small pests. When full grown 
 they enclose themselves in round white cocoons, which are closed on 
 top by a lid that is easily pushed up when the fly is ready to emerge. 
 
 E 9 
 
128 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 The Hellgrammite fly and the other, much smaller, species of, the 
 family SCIALIDJE have carnivorous larvae that live under stones in run- 
 ning water. The large fly above named (Corydalis cornutusj is the 
 only conspicuous member of the group. This is one of the largest, if 
 not the very largest, insect in the Order the length being between 
 two and three inches, with a wing expanse of about five inches. It is 
 quite common in most sections of the United States. The body is 
 soft, with the pro-thoracic joint rather narrow, forming a sort of neck 
 to which the much broader and rather square head is closely joined. 
 The eyes are rather small and wide apart, and the stout, many-jointed 
 antennae taper to a point. In the female the jaws are broad, curved 
 and notched at the extremity, but in the male these are modified into 
 a pair of long, cylindrical tapering tusks, with which he can clasp the 
 neck of the female. The wings are quite broad, of rather thick mem- 
 brane, with a fine net-work of veins, and stippled all over with whitish 
 dots. The general color of the insect is a dull, ash gray. The female 
 lays her eggs on sticks or leaves or stones that overhang the water, 
 protecting and surrounding them by a white substance that gives the 
 entire mass the appearance of a splash of whitewash. The larvae, upon 
 hatching, drop into the water. They are formidable- looking creatures 
 when full grown. The head is broad and almost square, with strong 
 jaws and other mouth parts. The thoracic joints, of which the first 
 is longest, are quite elegantly sculptured. The feet terminate in a pair 
 of claws. The sides of the hind body are furnished on each joint 
 with spiny, oar-like processes and feathery tufts for gills, and there 
 are also spiracles through which air can be breathed. They are 
 from two to two and a half inches long by nearly one-half inch in 
 diameter. They are highly esteemed for bait by fishermen, by whom 
 they are termed "crawlers," "dobson," etc. It is said that they are 
 nearly three years in completing their growth, and that the transfor- 
 mations are rapid and take place in cells under stones or drift-wood on 
 or near the banks of the stream. 
 
 The other insects of this group (genera Chauliodes and SialisJ 
 bear a close general resemblance to Corydalis m structure and habit, 
 but are very much smaller and do not attract much popular attention. 
 
 Among the PSEUDONEUROPTERA the most conspicuous and 
 beautiful insects are the Dragon flies or Mosquito-hawks ( LIBELLU- 
 LID^:). These are also called " Darning needles," and have been made 
 objects of terror to children by the tradition that they are constantly 
 watching for an opportunity to u sew up their ears, ?f or do them some 
 other bodily harm. In other parts of the country they are termed 
 " Snake doctors," and are said to hover over the bodies of dead reptiles 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 129 
 
 and " bring them to life." The probable foundation for the latter 
 superstition is that they are in pursuit of the flies that have been at- 
 tracted by the odor of the carrion. It is needless to say that they are 
 absolutely incapable of injuring any human being, and never show 
 even the disposition to do so. Their motions are very graceful, and 
 their habits are in the highest degree interesting. They are most 
 numerous in the neighborhood of standing water, and dart back and 
 forth through the clouds of mosquites and small gnats, seizing and 
 devouring them in great numbers. 
 
 Their appearance is familiar to every one. The body is long and 
 slender, tapering backward, and often of brilliant metallic colors, 
 terminating in more or less conspicuous claspers or other appendages. 
 The sides of the head are nearly covered by the large eyes ; the anten- 
 nae are very short and bristle-tipped; the jaws are small but strong, and 
 the parts corresponding to the lips of larger animals are both very 
 large and close completely over the other mouth parts. 
 
 The wings are long, narrow and stiff, the hinder pair a little larger 
 than the others. They are composed of transparent, closely-netted 
 membrane, in many species crossed by broad dark bands or ornamented 
 with spots and cloudings of crimson or orange. The legs are rather soft 
 and weak, and are useful chiefly as supports to the body when the insect 
 alights. The females drop their eggs in masses, embedded in a jelly- 
 like substance, into the water, or attach them to the submerged stems 
 of aquatic plants. The larvae are carnivorous, and somewhat resemble 
 the perfect insect in form, but breathe through leaf-like gills at the 
 tip or along the sides of the body. In this age the labium (lower lip) 
 shows a still more remarkable form than in the mature insect; it is very 
 broad and hinged in the middle, and when the insect is at rest folds up 
 over the face like a mask. The anterior edge is furnished with a pair 
 of sharp hooks, and the apparatus can be extended to a great length in 
 reaching after the prey, which is seized by the hooks and carried back 
 to the jaws for mastication. The pupae, when full grown, crawl up the 
 stems of water plants, to which they cling by their legs, while the fly 
 emerges through a slit on the back. 
 
 The May flies or Lake flies (Ephemera), of which there are many 
 species, often arise in clouds at night from the shores of lakes or 
 rivers, and in the morning the ground, especially around lamp-posts 
 and under lighted windows, will be covered with their dead bodies. 
 These insects are-very soft-bodied and frail, and, in the perfect state, 
 live but a few hours just long enough to pair and lay their eggs. The 
 head is small, the greater part of its surface being occupied by the 
 eyes ; the antennae are very short and fine. The fore wings are broad 
 
130 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 somewhat triangular in shape, while the hind wings are scarcely one- 
 fourth their size, and nearly circular. The legs are slender, the front 
 pair longer than the others. The abdomen tapers backward, and ends 
 in two or three bristle-like appendages that are twice or three times 
 the length of the body. The eggs are simply dropped into the water 
 in a mass. The young feed upon minute aquatic vegetation or prey 
 upon microscopic animals. Some species, whose habits have been 
 studied in aquaria, have been observed to molt more than twenty 
 times, and to require from one to three years in which to complete 
 their growth. Among other anomalous characters found in these lar- 
 vae are a pair of large tracheal gills attached to the under side of the 
 head. Another singular phenomenon occurs in these insects namely,, 
 the molting of the perfect insect. The first winged form is called the 
 sub-imago. This rises into the air, but after a short flight settles upon 
 some object and rapidly sheds its skin, wings, legs, caudal bristles and 
 all, leaving behind it the filmy integument of the sub-imago. 
 
 The Stone flies (Perlidce), so called because the young are com- 
 monly found under stones in running water, are much larger than the 
 May flies, and resemble, in general form and structure of the body 
 and wings, the Hellgrammite fly, although none of the species are so 
 large as the latter. The hind wings are also proportionately much 
 broader, and have few cross-veins. Some very minute species appear 
 very early in the spring, and are called Snow flies, being often coinci- 
 dent with late snows. 
 
 The Termites or white ants abound chiefly in tropical regions, 
 where they are excessively destructive and difficult to contend with. 
 A few species also occur in temperate climates, and one, Termes flavipes, 
 is found in all parts of the United States, and often does much damage 
 to the sills of buildings and wooden sidewalks, to fence posts and 
 similar property. In the Southern States it also occasionally attacks 
 the roots and trunks of orange trees, and the roots of Pampas grass. 
 It feeds, however, by preference upon dead wood, and works so in- 
 sidiously that its presence is not even suspected until the walls of a 
 building give way, or an article of furniture drops in pieces upon being 
 moved. Like the true ants, the Termites are social insects, and live in 
 exceedingly populous colonies. In the tropics many species are mound- 
 builders, erecting conical structures of earth or wood fiber, held in 
 place with cement, that are from eight to ten feet high. All the more 
 northern species are more secluded in their habits, avoiding the light 
 and excavating chambers deep in the earth or in the centers of the 
 largest stumps. From these, under-ground passages and tunnels ex- 
 tend for hundreds of feet in every direction. They are all small insects 
 
OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 131 
 
 probably seldom exceeding one-half inch in length, even in the equa- 
 torial regions, while our own species are only about one-fifth of an inch 
 long. In this matter of size, however, one individual in each colony is 
 an exception. This is the "queen" or fertile female, whose abdomen 
 becomes go enormously distended with eggs, that it is from two to six 
 or eight inches in length and of a proportionate thickness. The aver- 
 age size of the queen of Termes flavipes is from one to one and one- 
 half inches. These insects are of a dingy white color. The head, with 
 which the excavating is done, is large and horny and very nearly 
 square in shape, except in the "soldiers," in which it is oblong, and pro- 
 vided with long, sharp-pointed mandibles. The thoracic segments are 
 constricted anteriorly, but broaden gradually toward the oval abdomen, 
 which has the surface microscopically hairy. The wings are possessed 
 only by the perfect males and females, and by these for a few hours 
 only; they are long and narrow, with forked but not netted venation. 
 The legs are quite long and stout. 
 
 As in the colonies of the true ants, the Termites are divided into 
 castes, each nest containg not only males, females and neuters, but the 
 latter are divided into " workers " and " soldiers," the sole duty of the 
 latter being the defense of the colony, while the workers perform all 
 the labors of sapping and mining, building and provisioning the differ- 
 ent cells, taking care of the helpless queen and feeding the young. 
 Moreover, the sexed individuals are of two sorts, " kings " and " queens" 
 of the first rank, which, upon reaching maturity, acquire wings and 
 make an excursion into the upper world of light and air before settling 
 down to their one duty of providing for the continuance of the colony; 
 and in addition to these, what are termed " supplemental " kings and 
 queens, which never become winged, and whose function is to preserve 
 the colony from extermination in case, after swarming, the workers 
 fail to secure a genuinely royal pair. 
 
 The internal economy of Termes' nests has been found very diffi- 
 cult to investigate, but so far as it has been observed, corresponds 
 closely to that of the ants. The eggs, as fast as they are laid, are car- 
 ried out by the workers and placed in other apartments, and the 
 young, which are active but incapable of taking care of themselves, 
 are fed upon comminuted wood or fungi. In due time the males and 
 females acquire wings and make their way out of the nest, but after 
 flying or being wafted by the wind to greater or less distances, fall to 
 the ground and shed their wings. Each male then seizes a female by 
 his mandibles, and such of the couples as escape the greediness of 
 birds and carnivorous insects are, it is said, taken in charge by workers 
 
 which are on the watch for them, and either taken to old colonies in 
 
 7 
 
132 OUTLINES OF ENTOMOLOGY. 
 
 need of new queens and kings, or a new colony is founded for them to 
 people. They are placed in the strongest and most healthful chambers 
 and receive every attention, but are not even permitted to wander 
 about the nest, which the queen would indeed be incapable of doing in 
 a very short time. She is supposed to live for several years, and during 
 this period lays innumerable eggs. The swarming of the young males and 
 females in such vast numbers is understood to be a provision for cross- 
 fertilization, as the swarming from a number of colonies takes place at 
 once, and the chances are largely in favor of males and females from 
 different colonies coming together. In the event of the death of the 
 old queen, and the failure to secure a young one after her aerial excur- 
 sion, a wingless " supplemental " pair are brought into the royal apart- 
 ments and the colony is preserved by means of their progeny, although 
 the latter are not nearly so numerous as those of the true queen. 
 
 THE END. 
 
XltTIDEIX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acanthilnae 104 
 
 Acrididfe 118 
 
 Aculeata 28 
 
 Adephaga 53 
 
 ^Egeriadse 85 
 
 Animals, classification of 4 
 
 Andrenidae 31 
 
 Annelida 4 
 
 Ants 41 
 
 Ant-lion 127 
 
 Anthophila 29 
 
 Aphididse 107 
 
 Aphodiidae 62 
 
 Apple curculio 72 
 
 Apple maggot 97 
 
 Apple-tree bark- louse 110 
 
 Argynnis 81 
 
 Army worm 87 
 
 Asilidas 94 
 
 Asterias butterfly 79 
 
 Attalabidrc 72 
 
 Back swimmers 105 
 
 Bald-faced hornet 38 
 
 Bark beetles 72 
 
 Bed-bug 104 
 
 Bed-bug hunter 104 
 
 Big bed-bug 103 
 
 Bill bugs 72 
 
 Blatidas 123 
 
 Blister beetles 70 
 
 Blue-bottle flies 97 
 
 Bombardier beetle 55 
 
 Bombylidje 94 
 
 Bombycidae 85 
 
 Bot flies 95 
 
 Bruchidge 69 
 
 Bugs 98 
 
 Buffalo tree-hopper 107 
 
 Burying beetles 56 
 
 Cabbage butterfly 80 
 
 Caddice flies 126 
 
 Calandridaa 72 
 
 Caloptenus spretus 120 
 
 Canker worms 88 
 
 Cannibal beetles 53 
 
 Cantheris 70 
 
 Capsidae 101 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Carpenter bees 34 
 
 Catocala s7 
 
 Cecidomyidae 92 
 
 Cecropia moth 85 
 
 Cerambycidae 66 
 
 Cheese fly 97 
 
 Chalcidae 46 
 
 Chlamy 3 69 
 
 Chrysalides 76 
 
 Cicadidae 106 
 
 Circulatory system 13 
 
 Classification 2 
 
 Clavicornia 56 
 
 Cly tus 68 
 
 Cockroaches 124 
 
 Coccinelidse 57 
 
 Coccididae 109 
 
 Codling moth 89 
 
 Colias 80 
 
 Coleoptera 24 
 
 Conehead 118 
 
 Copridas 62 
 
 Corimelaenidae Ill 
 
 Corn worm 87 
 
 Corydalis 128 
 
 Cosinopcera 63 
 
 Crane flies 93 
 
 Cremaster 81 
 
 Crickets 55 
 
 Croton bug 124 
 
 Crustacea 2 
 
 Culicidas 92 
 
 Curculionidae 72 
 
 Cursoria 123 
 
 Cyclorapha 91 
 
 Cynipidrc 47 
 
 Danais 81 
 
 Dermestes 58 
 
 Digger wasp 39 
 
 Dog-day fly 106 
 
 Doryphora 68 
 
 Dragon flies 128 
 
 Drosphilidaa 97 
 
 Elateridse 59 
 
 Entomology. 4 
 
 Ephemeridoa 129 
 
 Epicanta 70 
 
 Excrementivora 62 
 
II 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 External structure ........................... 5 
 
 Feather- wings ................................ 89 
 
 Flea-beetles .................................. 69 
 
 Fleas .......................................... 98 
 
 Flies .......................................... 89 
 
 Formica ..................................... 44 
 
 Fringe-wings ................................. 89 
 
 Fruit weevils ................................. 72 
 
 Gall gnats ................................... 92 
 
 <Jeometride .............. ..................... 88 
 
 Giant water- bug ............................ 105 
 
 Goldsmith beetle ............................. 65 
 
 Grapevine leaf-hopper .................. ----- 107 
 
 Grapevine phylloxera ...................... 109 
 
 Grapta ...... . ................................ 82 
 
 Grasshoppers ................................. 118 
 
 Hackberry butterfly .......................... 73 
 
 Harlequin bug ................................ 102 
 
 Hellgrammite fly ............................ 128 
 
 Hemiptera .................................... 105 
 
 Herbivora .................................... 62 
 
 Hesperidae .................................... 82 
 
 Hessian fly ................ ................... 92 
 
 Heterocera ................................... 77 
 
 Heteromera ................................... 69 
 
 Hipparchia .................................. 82 
 
 Honey bee .................................. '. . 31 
 
 Horn flies ..................................... 97 
 
 Horn tails .................................... 41 
 
 Horse flies ____ ! ............................... 93 
 
 House crickets ................................ 116 
 
 House flies .................................... 96 
 
 Humble bees .......................... . ....... 33 
 
 Hymenoptera ................................ ?6 
 
 Hy poderma ................................... 95 
 
 Ichneumon fly ................................ 6 
 
 Imago ........................................ 4 
 
 Insect ........................................ 3 
 
 Isomera ....................................... 52 
 
 Issoma ....................................... 47 
 
 Jassidae ....................................... 107 
 
 Jigger ......................................... 98 
 
 Katydids ..................................... 117 
 
 Lace-wing .................................... 127 
 
 Lachnosterna ................................. 64 
 
 Lady-birds ................................... 57 
 
 Lamellicornia ........................... 61 
 
 Lampyridae ............................... ... 59 
 
 Lancet flies ................................. 96 
 
 Larva ............................. 4 
 
 Leaf-beetles ................................ 60 
 
 Leaf-chafers .............................. 63 
 
 Leaf-cutter bees ............................. 35 
 
 Leaf- rollers .................................. 88 
 
 Lebia grandis ................................. 55 
 
 Lepidoptera ................................ 73 
 
 Lice .................................... ...>'.; Ill 
 
 Lirne-tree moth ...... ....................... 88 
 
 Locustidae .............................. H7 
 
 Longicorns ............................... 66 
 
 Lucanidae .............................. 61 
 
 Luna moth ............................ gg 
 
 Lycaenidae ............................ 82 
 
 Lygaeidae .................................. " ' 107 
 
 Mantidae 
 
 122 
 
 Jdany-banded Robber .................... 104 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Maple worm 87 
 
 Mason bees 35 
 
 May beetle 64 
 
 May flies 129 
 
 Meal beetle 70 
 
 Mealy bugs no 
 
 Melolonthidae 64 
 
 Membracidae 107 
 
 Metamorphosis 4 
 
 Migratory locusts 113, us 
 
 Mole cricket 115 
 
 Moths 83 
 
 Muscular system 114 
 
 Murgantia histrionica 102 
 
 Muscidse % 
 
 Myriapoda 2 
 
 Myrmica 44 
 
 Necroph jridae 57 
 
 Nepidae 104 
 
 Nervous system 13 
 
 Neuroptera 125 
 
 Neuroptera, families of 126 
 
 Noctuidae 87 
 
 Notonectidae 55 
 
 Nut weevils 72 
 
 Nymphalidae 80 
 
 CEdipoda 121 
 
 CEstridae 95 
 
 Oncideres 68 
 
 Onion fly 97 
 
 Orange scale no 
 
 Orthoptera 113 
 
 Orthoptera, families of 115 
 
 Orthorapha 91 
 
 Oscinidae 97 
 
 Owlet moths 87 
 
 Parasitica m 
 
 Parthenogenesis 108 
 
 Papilio 79 
 
 Pea weevil 69 
 
 Pecticornia 61 
 
 Perlidae *. . 130 
 
 Phaoaeus carnifex 63 
 
 Phitophaga 66 
 
 Phylloxera 79 
 
 Pigeon tremex 50 
 
 Pieris so 
 
 Piophilidae 97 
 
 Plagioderma 68 
 
 Plum curculio 72 
 
 Polyphemus 85 
 
 Potter wasp 39 
 
 Preying mantis 122 
 
 Prionus 68 
 
 Pseudoneuroptera 128 
 
 Pupa 4 
 
 Pupipara 97 
 
 Pterophoridae 89 
 
 Pyralidse 89 
 
 Rapacious Soldier-bug 104 
 
 Reduviadje 103 
 
 Reproductive organs 12 
 
 Respiration 13 
 
 Rhinoceros beetle 63 
 
 Rhopalocera 77 
 
 Rhyncophora 71 
 
 Robber-flies . 94 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Rocky Mountain locust 118 
 
 Rose chafer 65 
 
 Rose slug 48 
 
 Rove beetles 57 
 
 Saltatoria 115 
 
 Saperda 68 
 
 Saw-flies 48 
 
 Scialidse 128 
 
 Scoly tidae 72 
 
 Screw-worm fly 97 
 
 Seventeen-year cicada 106 
 
 Serricornia 53 
 
 Short-horned borers 59 
 
 Simulidse 92 
 
 Silphidaa , 56 
 
 Siphonaptera 98 
 
 Slug caterpillars 86 
 
 Snapping beetles 59 
 
 Snout oeetles. . 71 
 
 Snout moths; 88 
 
 Solitary bees 34 
 
 Span worms 88 
 
 Squash bug 101 
 
 Syrphus flies 94 
 
 Stone flies 130 
 
 Tabanidas 93 
 
 Tachina flies ' 95 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tenebrio 70 
 
 Tenthredinidae 48 
 
 Terebrantia 45 
 
 Termitidae 130 
 
 Termes 130 
 
 Tettix 121 
 
 Thrips 107 
 
 Tortoise beetles 68 
 
 Tortricidae 80 
 
 Tree crickets 116 
 
 Trogidae 113 
 
 True bugs 100 
 
 Trypetidae 97 
 
 Tumble bug 63 
 
 Uroceridae 48 
 
 Vanessa.. 72 
 
 Vedalia cardinalis 58 
 
 Walking sticks 121 
 
 Wasps 37 
 
 Water scorpions 104 
 
 Water striders. 104 
 
 Wheat midge 92 
 
 White ants 130 
 
 White grub 64 
 
 Woolly apple louse 109 
 
 Wood wasps 40 
 
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