UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. RESISTANT VINEYARDS GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. By FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI. Vineyard of Bench-grafts. One failed out of 750 planted. BULLETIN No. 180. W. W. SHANNON, SACRAMENTO: SUPERINTENDENT STATE PIUNTING 1 906. BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER, Ph.D., LL-D., President of the University, EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF. E. J. WICKSON, M.A., Acting Director and Horticulturist. E. W. HILGARD, Ph.D., LL.D., Chemist. W. A. SETCHELL, Ph.D., Botanist. ELWOOD MEAD, M.S., C.E., Irrigation Engineer. C. W. WOODWORTH, M.S., Entomologist. R. H. LOUGHRIDGE, Ph.D., Agricultural Geologist and Soil Physicist. (Soils and Alkali.) (Ab- M. E- JAFFA, M.S., Chemist. (Foods, Nutrition^) [sent on leave.) G. W. SHAW, M.A., Ph.D., Chemist. (Cereals, Oils', Beet-Sugar.) GEORGE E. COI^BY, M.S., Chemist. (Fruits, Waters, Insecticides.) RALPH E- SMITH, B.S., Plant Pathologist. A. R. WARD, B.S.A., D.V.M., Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. E. W. MAJOR, B.Agr., Animal Industry. F. T. BIOLETTI, M.S., Viticulturist. (Grapes, Wine, and Zymology.) H. M. HALL, M.S., Assistant Botanist. JOHN S. BURD, B.S., Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control. C. M. HARING, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. ALBERT M. WEST, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. E- H. SMITH, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. G. R. STEWART, Student Assistant in Station Laboratory. , Assistant in Soil Laboratory. RALPH BENTON, B.S.. Assistant in Entomology. LUDWIG ROSENSTEIN, Laboratory Assistant in Fertilizer Control. ALFRED TOURNIER, Assistant in Viticulture. HANS HOLM, Student Assistant in Zymology. A. J. GAUMITZ, Assistant in Cereal Laboratory. J. C. BRADLEY, A.B., Assistant in Entomology. D. L. BUNNELL, Clerk to the Director. R. E- MANSELL, Foreman of Central Station Grounds. JOHN TUOHY, Patron, ) > Tulare Substation, Tulare. , Foreman, ) J. W. MILLS, Pomona, in charge Cooperative Experiments in Southern California. T. W. ROPER, Patron, ) > University Forestry Station, Chieo. E. C. MILLER In charge, ) ROY JONES, Patron, ( . . > University Forestry Station, Santa Monica. N. D. INGHAM, Foreman, ) VINCENT J. HUNTLEY, Foreman of California Poultry Experiment Station, Petaluma. The Station publications (Reports and Bulletins), so long as avail- able, will be sent to any citizen of the State on application. CONTENTS. Page. INTRODUCTION 89 I. THE NURSERY— Choice and preparation of the soil. 93 Grafting cuttings 94 Choice of cuttings... 94 Mother vines 95 Making and conservation of cuttings.. 98 Time of grafting _ 100 Preparation of stocks.. 100 Preparation of scions 102 Grading cuttings.. . .- 102 Methods of uniting stock and scion 106 Tongue grafting 108 Wire grafting 110 Making bundles Ill Grafting rooted cuttings 112 Callusing 113 Planting in the nursery _ 118 Cultivation in the nursery 121 Removal of scion roots.. 124 Removal of raffia and suckers... 124 Digging the grafts , 125 Sorting the grafts ... 125 Pruning the grafts 126 Conservation and shipping 128 Nursery grafting 128 II. THE VINEYARD- Preparation of the soil 129 Fertilization 129 Intercalary crops 130 Planting _ 130 Pruning 133 Staking 133 Suckering and rooting 134 Cultivation 134 lxxxviii CONTENTS. III. FIELD GRAFTING— Page. Preparation of the soil 135 Cuttings or roots 135 Age for grafting __., 136 Methods of grafting 136 Tying and waxing 138 Season for field grafting 138 Treatment the first year ._ 138 Regrafting 139 Herbaceous grafting 140 Comparison of various methods 142 ILLUSTRATIONS. Young vineyard of bench-grafts {cover) Fig. 1. Effect of scion roots on old vines .. 92 2. Mother vines of resistant stock. 99 3. Gauge for cutting stocks 101 4. Notch and slot graders 103 5. Slot grader set up . 103 6. Scales for slot grader 105 7. Various methods of bench grafting. . .. 107 8. Method of holding knife .. 108 9. Wire-cutter 110 10. Bundle stand Ill 11. Callusing bed 113 12. Plan of callusing bed 114 13. Callused wire graft... 114 14. Effects of moisture on callus formation ... 115 15. Root and callus formation 116 16. Effect of temperature on callus formation. ._ 117 17. Callused whip grafts 118 18. Planting dibbles 120 19. Method of planting in nursery with dibble 121 20. Method of planting in nursery in trenches 121 21. Irrigating a nursery '.._ 122 22. Scion roots on bench grafts. ... 123 23. Grafts strangled by raffia 125 24. No. 1 bench grafts 127 25. Method of planting grafts in vineyard 131 26. Methods of field grafting 137 27. Scion roots in field-grafted vine ._ 139 28. Herbaceous graft 140 29. Herbaceous bud .. 141 RESISTANT VINEYARDS. GRAFTING, PLANTING, AND CULTIVATION. By FREDERIC T. BIOLETTI. INTRODUCTION. There is no subject connected with grape-growing about which there is more general demand for information in California than that of the growing of resistant vines. Innumerable inquiries are received at the Experiment Station regarding methods of planting, grafting, and cultivating phylloxera-resistant vineyards. Several bulletins on various phases of this subject have been published by the Station, but they are all somewhat out of date at this time, and the editions of most of them are exhausted. The two phases of the subject about which there seems to be most pressing need for information are the determination of the best varieties of resistant stocks for the various soils and climates of the State, and the best methods of starting and grafting a resistant vineyard. With regard to the first phase, the Station is carrying on tests in various localities and is gradually accumulating data which will make it possible to offer some definite recommendations at a future time. The questions of adaptation to local conditions and of affinity between stocks and scions of various varieties are complicated and difficult, and require much time and experimentation for their completely satisfac- tory solution. With regard to the second phase we have a great deal of valuable evidence drawn from the experience of growers during the last twenty years and from experiment work conducted by the Station. Though there is always room for improvement, we may say that the methods of our most progressive growers of resistant vineyards are perfectly successful in accomplishing the object in view. Unfortunately many growers are not so successful, and many of the resistant vineyards of the State are an eyesore and a source of loss to their owners. It is from such growers that originates the statement that resistant vineyards are a failure. Growers who have adopted proper methods of handling resistant vineyards are enthusiastic in their praise. It has been demon- strated here, as in Europe, that, as a rule, vineyards of vinifera vines 90 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. grafted on resistant stock, when properly handled, produce larger crops of better grapes than vineyards of ungrafted vinifera. This bulletin is issued, therefore, with the object of describing what seem to us the best methods of procedure, especially as regards the mechanical details of grafting, planting, and nursery work. Some of the chief causes of failure in unsuccessful grafted vineyards are: 1. The use of a resistant variety which is unsuited to the soil and climate of the locality. Resistant varieties are all derived from one of several species of wild vines indigenous to the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. All these species are much more difficult to suit in the matters of soil and climate than the European wild vine, Vitis vinifera, from which all our wine and raisin and most of our table grapes are derived. This question of adaptation to local conditions is only touched on here. 2. The use of an insufficiently resistant variety. Varieties of all degrees of resistance exist, from almost absolute immunity to a degree of resistance so small as to be of little practical value. Some with a medium degree of resistance, like the Lenoir, will give fair to good results when grown under the most favorable conditions, but fail more or less completely when attacked by phylloxera under less favorable conditions. This question of resistance is not discussed fully here, but all the varieties recommended have sufficient resistance under prac- tically all conditions that exist in Californian grape-growing districts, 3. The use of unselected resistants. Many of the first resistant vine- yards started in California were planted with cuttings of wild Riparia vines collected in Nebraska and other native habitats of the species. Wild vines are nearly always seedlings and, therefore, vary very much. Each vine, though of the same wild species, is in fact a different variety of the species (using the word variety in the horticultural sense). For this reason, wild vines differ greatly in many respects, and especially in the important character of vigor. Though a few of them may be sufficiently vigorous to make good grafting stock, many of them are much too weak or slender, and none of them are likely to be as good as the best named varieties which have been selected from a vast number of seedlings on account of their exceptional vigor and the possession of the greatest number of those characteristics which are desirable in a grafting stock. Most of the earlier resistant vineyards show great variation in the vigor and bearing of the vines due to this use of wild cuttings, and none of them give as good results as they would have given if grafted on a good selected variety of stock. This variation in vigor, bearing, and longevity is often found in more modern vine- yards, and is due to a mixing of varieties by the nurseryman or the grower of resistant cuttings. RESISTANT VINEYARDS— GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 91 4. Grafting the resistant vines when too old. A grafted vine to be a permanent success must have a perfect union. The younger the tissues, the more complete and lasting the union. Budding and graft- ing herbaceous canes produce unions which are practically perfect. If the scion and stock are each only one year old, as in cutting grafting, the union is nearly always as perfect and permanent. No wood older than one year is ever used as a scion, but the stock is often grafted when much older. If the stock is more than one year old many varie- ties fail to give good unions, and if three or four years old* a large number of the grafted vines will fail after they have produced a few crops. Some of the best resistant stocks fail almost completely if grafted when several years old, and though they bear well and appear strong for a few years they soon begin to fail, and every year after the first two or three crops a certain proportion of the unions fail and the tops die. A vineyard may linger in this way for eight or ten years, until finally from 50 to 75 per cent of the vines are dead. This is one of the strongest objections to field grafting, and is more thoroughly discussed later. 5. Planting or grafting too deep. The result of this is that the scions form their own roots and finally become independent of the resistant stock, which dies. Such vines are, of course, non-resistants and just as quickly killed by phylloxera as if grown in the first place from vinifera cuttings. Some vine-growers, of long experience with vinifera vine- yards but unfamiliar with resistants, do not believe that this death of the resistant stock will take place under the conditions described. They state that it is an advantage for the scion to have its own roots as well as those of the resistant. They argue that, if there is iittle or no phylloxera present, the vines will do better with two sets of roots than with one, and that, when the phylloxera increases to dangerous propor- tions and destroys the vinifera roots, the resistant roots are there to save the vine. This theory is based on the false assumption that the roots are the main, or only, feeding organs of a plant, and overlooks the fact that the roots require the materials furnished by the leaves quite as much as the leaves require those furnished by the roots. For both to be vigorous, therefore, there must be a mutual exchange of food matters. This exchange takes place through the medium of the tubes and cells of the wood and bast of the stem of the vine. The soil nutrients pass with the sap, principally through the younger wood, from the roots to the leaves. In the leaves these materials are combined with gases absorbed from the air and are elaborated into the real food of the vine which passes back, principally through the bast or region exterior to the wood, into all parts of the plant, to supply the material necessary for growth and other various vital functions. 92 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. In ungrafted vines this exchange takes place readily and all the branches and all the roots are well nourished. In grafted vines, owing to the fact that the stock and scion are of different species and, there- fore, of different structure and composition, there is some interference with the exchange, resulting in a slight weakening of the whole vine. This weakening, under proper conditions, is so slight that it does not FIG. 1. Showing effect on Resistant Stock of allowing the scion roots to remain. (Redrawn after Viala and Ravaz.) A. Old grafted vine with large top roots (S) from scion. Note small, weak resistant stock (R). B. Normal grafted vine on which no scion roots have been allowed to develop. Note smooth union (U) and strong resistant stock (R). detract from the usefulness of the vine, and, in fact, like many other slightly weakening causes, it usually has the effect of producing an increased tendency to fruitfulness. If, however, the scion is allowed to make its own roots, the return stream of nutritive material takes the course of least resistance and goes principally into the scion roots. The result is that these grow vigorously, so long as the phylloxera is absent, and the roots of the resistant stock are starved and finally die. This RESISTANT VINEYARDS— GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 93 is not mere theory, but is substantiated by the numerous 'cases where dying resistant vineyards have been examined and this condition found. This condition is particularly common with field-grafted vines. There are several ways in which the union between resistant stock and bearing scion can be brought about: (1) The scion cuttings may be grafted on the resistant cuttings or on resistant roots in the work- shop before planting in the nursery. This is called ''bench grafting." (2) The resistant cuttings may first be rooted in the nursery and then the next year grafted in place without removal. This is called "nursery grafting." (3) The resistant cuttings or roots may be planted directly in the vineyard and then the next year or some subsequent year they may be grafted. This is called "field grafting," "vineyard grafting," or "grafting in situ." Each method has its advocates and its uses, but the method of most general application and that which has given the most general satisfac- tion is the first. The last method is practised with success only where the conditions are exceptionally favorable, and even there is gradually being rejected in favor of the first by nearly every grower who has tried both methods. The reasons for this will be discussed after the various methods have been described. I. THE NURSERY. Choice and Preparation of the Soil. — The high cost of grafted vines is due partly to the skill and labor necessary in producing them, but, also, in a great degree, to the large number of grafts which fail to grow or to make a satisfactory union in the nursery. If we allow $10 per thousand for the cuttings used as stock and scion, and $15 per thousand for making and growing the grafts, they could be raised profitably for $35 per thousand if every one grew and made a good grafted vine. Probably on the average not more than fifty per cent of the grafts made are sufficiently perfect in growth, union, and root to be sold, and they must therefore bring $60 or more per thousand to be raised at a profit. While there are many causes for the failure of some of the grafts to grow, probably the most important of these is the nature of the soil in which they are rooted. Any soil which bakes on the top after rain or irrigation will cause the failure of many grafts. If the crust is not broken up, the moisture will escape and the scions dry out. If the crust is broken, many of the scions will be disturbed and fail to unite. A soil which becomes very compact will spoil many grafts by preventing the shoot from pushing its way through. Stony soils destroy many grafts in similar ways. If the soil dries out too easily and quickly many scions will fail to unite. Wet soils are even worse. A soil which remains D4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. cold and wet for any considerable time after the grafts are planted will •cause the loss of a large proportion. The ideal soil for a nursery of bench grafts is a light, well-drained, sandy loam containing an abundance of humus. It should be carefully graded in order to have no low spots where the water will lie and drown the grafts, and no high spots to which it is difficult to get the irrigation water. The physical nature and condition of the soil is of more importance than its chemical composition. The soil should not be poor, but it is, on the other hand, not desirable that it should be too rich. Grafts which grow very large in the nursery do not make the best vines in the vineyard. Extra large grafts often die the first year after they are planted out. Small dwarfed grafts are a year behind those which .are well grown, and probably never make profitable vines. A plant of medium size, with good roots, perfect union, and a growth of from 15 to 18 inches, is the best. At least two months before planting, the soil of the nursery should be thoroughly prepared. All weeds, stones, and rubbish should be removed and the ground well plowed. Most soils should be plowed or subsoiled to a depth of at least 18 inches in order to aerate and pulver- ize the soil to promote quick rooting. Unless the roots of the stock start almost as soon as the buds of the scion, the latter will dry out as soon as its little leaves begin to evaporate water. If the subsoil is clayey or contains a great deal of cementing material, it should not be turned up. Soils which are defective, if used at all, should, of course, be fertilized. Any fertilizer which improves the texture of the soil is to be preferred. Well-rotted stable manure is useful, but the best fertilizer for the purpose is a good crop of field peas or other legume plowed-in the previous autumn sufficiently early to insure its complete rotting before planting time. Cutting Grafts. Choice of Cuttings. — To obtain the best results, both in the percentage and quality of the grafted vines produced by the nursery and in the profit of the vineyard where they are planted, great care is necessary in the selection of cuttings for both scions and stocks. For scions, cuttings should be taken only from healthy vines which are known to have produced good crops. Cuttings from vines weakened by phylloxera, root-rot, or other diseases are apt to be weak, soft, badly nourished, and incompletely matured. Such cuttings will not give a high percentage of No. 1 grafts, nor make a profitable vineyard. Cut- tings showing signs of serious attacks of oidium, vine-hoppers, or other fungi and insects should be rejected. The cuttings used should be of RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 95 medium size, firm, with small, light-colored pith and short to medium joints. Very large or very small cuttings do not give the largest per- centage of successful unions, nor the best vines. The best size is about one third of an inch in diameter, though this will vary somewhat according to the variety of vine. Any cuttings under one quarter of an inch or over one half an inch in diameter should not be used. If this rule is adopted, all buds from the thick base of the cane which are apt to give unfruitful vines, and all buds from the tip of the cane which are apt to be immature and to give weak vines, will be eliminated. The choice of cuttings for stocks is almost equally important. All the precautions regarding the health and maturity of the cuttings and of the vines from which they come apply equally in . this case. The most important point to be observed, however, is that they are unmixed and true to name. If there is a slight mixture of varieties in the scion cuttings the error is not quite so serious, as the grapes may be nearly equally valuable, and at worst the vines can be regrafted. If the stocks are mixed, however, there is no easy way of detecting it, and the result will probably be a vineyard of unequal growth, in which many of the vines are unprofitable. There is great danger of this mixing of stocks, for many vineyards of mother vines in California are badly mixed with many inferior kinds of Riparia, Eupestris, etc., most of which are valueless as grafting stock. The conditions in France seem to be no better, and the risk of a mixture in imported cuttings is greater than with the home-grown, as we have no opportunity of verifying the mother vines and are quite at the mercy of the nurseryman. The size of the stock cuttings must, of course, be the same as that of the scions, as they have to be accurately matched. The cuttings sliould be smooth and straight. Crooks, curved cuttings, with large knots where laterals have been removed, are much more difficult to graft. It is to be desired that some one would make a business of raising mother vines for the production of cuttings for grafting. It would be a profitable crop, and if properly looked after would much improve the quality and lessen the cost of grafted vines. Planting and Cultivation of Mother Vines.— In planting a vineyard bant vines for the production of cuttings to be used for grafting it is important that a suitable soil and location be chosen. In order to produce a large crop of good cuttings the soil should be naturally rich or heavily fertilized. The location should be one in which the wood always ripens early and thoroughly. Spring frosts are almost as unfavorable to the production of good cuttings as of grapes. The choice of varieties to plant will depend, of course, on what the market demands. If there should be a falling off of the demand for 96 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. the kind planted, or an overproduction, it is always possible to graft the stocks with other varieties of resistants to meet the changed conditions. For the best results the land should be given the same careful preparation recommended for the planting of grafts. (See page 93.) All the usual stocks are vigorous growers, and as they are planted in fertile soil they should be given plenty of space. A distance of 9 feet by 9 feet or 8 feet by 10 feet is quite close enough. This will give about 500 vines to the acre. As a good vine properly cared for should produce 150 feet of good wood for bench grafting, the product of an acre would be about 75,000 cuttings. The varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be most used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia X Rupes- tris 3306, Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent results for years in Europe, and have all been tested successfully in California. Among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays. The only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in California is the Rupestris St. George. There can be little doubt, however, that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils, and though we may not find something better for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience of Southern France and find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better results. Without attempting to describe these varieties, but to give some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to each, the following indications are given, based principally on the opinions of L. Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited experience in California: The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous aed grows very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long pruning. In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 have given better results in France and give indications of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable. Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St. George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot. RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 97 There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most productive of aiJ, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their principal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the scion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this variety than with any other Riparia. The Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient. The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and conditions than perhaps any other varieties. Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow. In most other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended, except those which are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia 1616 is surer to give good results. The methods of pruning and training mother vines of resistant varieties will differ in several important respects from the methods suitable for varieties grown for their fruit. In the latter case we should be careful to leave as many fruitful buds as the vine can utilize; in the former the fruit is of no value, and if any is produced it will be at the expense of the wood. Our object is to produce as much wood as possible. In accordance with this idea the mother vines are often pruned in such a way as to force out each year a growth of watersprouts from the old wood. All the canes on the vine are cut off as close to the stump as possible. It is doubtful if this is the best way. So many watersprouts are forced out that the labor and care of thinning them are expensive. If they are not thinned there is a large growth of wood, but the canes produced are short and thin, and, therefore, unsuitable for grafting stock. If this method is adopted from the beginning the vine is 98 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. reduced to a prostrate stump, which makes cultivation difficult, and as the vine becomes old it becomes full of dead wood and difficult to prune. A better method is to give the vine a trunk and head exactly as in pruning ordinary vase-formed vines. A trunk from 15 to 18 inches high and with five or six arms will make a vine much easier to cultivate and prune and at least equally productive of good cuttings. In pruning, very short spurs are left, consisting simply of the base bud. The cane should be cut off through the first bud above the base bud. This will insure the starting of the base bud and will avoid the danger of injury which occurs when the cut is made too close to the bud which we desire to have grow. With this method of pruning the arms will lengthen so slowly that there will never be occasion to cut them back. During the spring and early summer all unnecessary shoots should be removed in order to throw all the vigor of the vine into those which remain. A good, strong vine in rich soil should produce from 150 to 300 feet of good grafting wood between one quarter ,and one half of an inch in diameter, and a certain amount of smaller wood good for rooting. Experience only will tell how many shoots should be left to a vine. It will depend on the age of the vine, the variety and the soil. If too few are left there is apt to be too much thick wood unsuitable for grafting, especially with certain varieties such as Rupestris St. George. If too many are left there will be too many small cuttings. Some varieties of stocks produce good grafting wood if the canes are allowed to grow over the surface of the ground without support. This has a tendency with some varieties to encourage the growth of laterals and to make the canes short and stocky. To overcome this defect high poles are sometimes placed at each vine, and the canes kept in an upright position by being tied to these poles. The poles are sometimes 15 or 20 feet high. This method produces an abundance of excellent grafting cuttings, but is expensive and troublesome. A more practical method is to put a high stake — 10 ieet high at the end of each row and to stretch a wire at that height along the row. The shoots are then trained up to this wire by means of strings renewed every year. (See Fig. 2.) Making and Conservation of Cuttings. — Cuttings for grafting, to be used either as stocks or scions, may be taken from the vines at any time between the fall of the leaves in the autumn and two weeks before the swelling of the buds in the spring. They may be used as soon as made, or kept for an indefinite time, provided they are given proper care. RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 99* It is usually more convenient to take the canes from the vines, place- them in an outhouse or shed, and make them up into cuttings in rainy weather. In a shed they may be left without protection for a couple of weeks, but it is best not to leave them longer, especially in dry weather. The scion cuttings are conveniently cut in lengths of from 18 inches to 3 feet, and tied in bundles of 100 to 250 if they are to be transported to a distance. They should be tied up in such a way that the butte of all of them are even ; this will prevent any of them drying out when. FIG. 2. Mother vines of resistant stock. (From catalog of F. Richter, Montpellier.) they are heeled in. If they are to be kept for grafting where cut, they should be made into loosely tied small bundles, which should be well covered with loose soil or sand, care being taken to cause some of the sand to fall in among the cuttings in the center of the bundle. They may be heeled in outside in some place protected from the sun and from water. They are safer, however, and will remain dormant longer if placed in a sand pile under a shed or in an underground cellar. There should be a few inches of sand both under and above the cuttings. The sand in which the cuttings are placed should be fairly dry. If too dry the cuttings may die, but the chief danger is that it will be too wet, in which case they will rot. The sand should not contain more than five per cent of moisture. With less than this amount it will not 100 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. feel moist to the hand. If a handful of sand is taken it should not form a ball when squeezed and should not leave the hand moist. There is very little danger of getting the sand too dry, unless it is taken from the top of a pile which has been exposed to the hot sun for several days. An ideal method of keeping cuttings is to cover them with a mixture of dry moss and a little powdered charcoal in a cool, moist cellar. The cuttings should be loose or in small bundles in order that they may all be in contact with the moss. Cuttings to be used as stocks should be handled in the same way, except that it is preferable to cut them up into the lengths which will be used. The length will vary from 8 to 15 inches, according to whether long- or short-grafted plants are wanted. For planting in very dry soils which are very open and liable to dry down deep, and for hillsides where the unions must be placed higher, long grafts are desirable. As a rule, a cutting of 10 inches is quite long enough for grafting. Longer cuttings are more difficult to handle in the nursery, and shorter cuttings require more care in the vineyard. The stock cuttings should be kept dormant like the scions, but a slight swelling of the buds is not so serious in this case. If the scion buds have commenced to swell they should not be used, as there will be too many fail to grow. If the stocks have started a little they can still be used successfully, provided that the bark has not become loose. Time of Grafting. — Cutting grafting may be commenced in California by the first of January, or even sooner, but the best results are obtained by grafting in February and March. The work may be continued through April and even in May if the cuttings can be kept dormant. Preparation of Stocks. — The first thing to do when everything is ready for grafting is to prepare the stocks. If it has not already been, done the resistant cuttings should be cut into the desired lengths — say 10 inches. This should be done as accurately as possible, and some kind of gauge will be needed. This gauge may be simply marks cut in the work table, or a stick of the required length held in the hand. The cut at the bottom should be made through a bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm or partition which interrupts the pith at this place. The top cut should then be made as near 10 inches from the bottom as is possible, while at the same time leaving at least 1% inches of internode above the top bud. This piece of internode is necessary for convenience in grafting. Fig. 3 shows a simple gauge for insuring accuracy in cutting the stocks. It consists of a piece of 1-inch board 18 inches long and 6 inches wide, to the middle of which is nailed a piece of wood 1 inch RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 101 square in section extending the whole length of the board. The length of the stock is determined by an adjustable piece of wood 3 inches long placed at right angles to the longitudinal piece. A corner of the board opposite this adjustable piece is cut off in such a way that the outer edge of the board is 1% inches shorter than the other edge. A guide line is then cut in the board parallel with the slanting edge left by the saw and 1% inches from this edge. In using the gauge the base of the cutting is placed against the adjustable piece and the cutting moved backwards or forwards until a bud falls just to the right of the guide line. The cutting is then cut off level with the edge of the board. This gives each stock l 1 /^ inches of internode for grafting above the top bud, with a maximum variation of 1% inches in total length. This variation is of little consequence and can not be avoided. Greater variations give trouble in planting. Any inconvenience due to even FIG. .'!. Gauge for cutting stocks. this variation may be avoided by sorting the cuttings into two or three lots according to length after cutting, though this sorting is perhaps best deferred until the grafts are made. The next process is the disbudding of the stocks. If this is done properly, it decreases greatly the number of stock suckers which will appear in the nursery and which must be removed. "With some varie- ties, such as Riparia, all that is necessary is to cut out the main bud. This is most easily and quickly done with a knife. With other varieties such as the Rupestris St. George, it is necessary to cut more deeply and to remove not only the main bud, but also the woody enlargement at its base containing a number of dormant buds which readily give rise to suckers. This is most easily done with a sharp pair of pruning shears. Every bud on the stock should be removed. It is a mistake to leave the bottom bud, as is sometimes done. This bud is of no use, as rooting takes place just as well without it, and if it forms a sucker, this sucker is the most troublesome of all to remove on account of its position. ' 2— bul. 180. 102 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. Preparation of Scions.— A scion may consist of one bud or of two buds. There are many advantages in using one bud, the chief of which is that it makes it possible to have every scion the same length what- ever the length of the internodes. With two-bud scions it is impossible to avoid a difference of 2 or 3 inches in the length, owing to the varia- tions in the distances between the buds. If the scions are of the same length it is possible to have all the unions at the same distance below the surface in the nursery. This is a most important point. The only advantage of two-bud scions is that in ground which bakes on top it is possible to have the top bud above the surface of the ground and yet have the union sufficiently deep to prevent drying out. Where the soil does not bake the scions may be covered up completely and one bud is sufficient. The scions should be cut with about 2% inches of internode below the bud and at least % inch of internode above the top bud. If cut too close, especially with blunt pruning shears, there is danger of injuring the bud. A sharp knife is the best tool for cutting scions. Grading the Cuttings. — For the best results the stock should be of exactly the same diameter as the scion. If they differ much they may unite, but the union will usually be imperfect. The more nearly they match in size the more perfect the unions and the larger the percentage of first-class grafts. If the cuttings are not sorted beforehand the grafter loses a great deal of time in looking for scions to fit his stocks. A good deal of this time may be saved if the cuttings are sorted by eye into three lots— large, medium, and small — before commencing to graft. This division, however, is not fine enough, and the grafter will still have to waste much time in selection. It is not practicable to grade the cuttings more accurately than this by eye, and some mechanical gauge or calibrator is necessary for greater accuracy. Several forms have been used in practice with success. The commonest form is the notch grader shown at the top of Fig. 4. This consists of a brass plate 12 inches long and 2 inches wide, in which are made six or more notches. Each of these notches differs from the next nearest by one sixteenth of an inch, and they usually vary from four sixteenths, the smallest, to ten sixteenths, the largest. By the use of this grader the cuttings may be separated into eight or more sizes. These sizes differ from each other by the same absolute amount, i. e., one sixteenth of an inch, but the relative difference in the smaller sizes is greater than in the larger sizes. That is to say, size No. 1 is four sixteenths of an inch in diameter, or four fifths the size of No. 2, which is five sixteenths of an inch, while size No. 7 is ten sixteenths of an inch in diameter, or ten elevenths of size No. 8. The RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 103 greatest accuracy, therefore, is obtained where it is least needed, viz., in the larger sizes. To overcome this objection and also to facilitate the work of sorting, the slot grader shown at the bottom of Fig. 4 was devised at the Experiment Station. This grader consists of a brass plate in which u 3 I S 6 y s 9 10 O o o o / — ^\ e ° a o : ) o o Scale >:/6 FIG. 4. Graders. Notch Grader, above. Each notch is of the width indicated by the corresponding number, which represents sixteenths of an inch. Slot Grader, below. Width of slot at e, £ inch; at a, \ inch. Length of slot from e to a, 7 inches. is cut a tapering slot terminated at each end by circular enlargements. Fig. 4 shows the exact dimensions and Fig. 5 the general appearance of the grader. The brass plate is screwed on to a wooden block in which is cut a groove three fourths of an inch deep and corresponding to the slot in the plate. The cuttings are graded by inserting the end FIG. 5. Slot grader mounted on a wooden block. which is to be grafted in the wide end of the slot and then passing it along the slot until it can go no farther. Cuttings over one half of an inch in diameter will not enter the slot, while those under one fourth of an inch will pass completely through. Cuttings of dimensions between these two extremes will stop the nearer the large end of the slot the thicker they are. In order to grade them into various sizes, therefore, all that is necessary is to mark lines on the brass plate, or, better, on 104 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. the top of the wooden block, and to sort them into boxes according to the position in the slot where they come to rest. The nearer we place the lines the more grades of cuttings we will have and the less varia- tion there will be in each grade. Fig. 6 shows the various positions of the lines to make four, five, or six grades of the cuttings between 2 /4 and Y2 i ncn i n diameter. To construct the grader the only measure- ments needed are the length from a to e (7 inches) and the width at e (V2 inch) and at a (14 inch). The scale can be cut with a chisel on the block and the place of the lines determined with sufficient accuracy by means of a rule showing tenths of an inch. The distances between the lines of the three scales have been calculated in such a way that each size bears a certain ratio to the one next to it. The ratios used are .8409, .8705, and .8909, respectively. This means that if we use the first scale each grade of cuttings will average almost exactly five sixths of the diameter of the next larger size. With the second scale the difference will be seven eighths, and with the third eight ninths. Or, looking at it another way, it means that the cuttings in one grade will not vary more than as 5 : 6 in the first case, 7 : 8 in the second, and 8 : 9 in the third. The following table shows the average diameters of the several grades (see Fig 6) : Scale I. Scale 1 1 . Scale III. Size 1 less than .250 in. SiV.e 1 less than .250 in. Size 1 less than .250 in. Size 2 average .274 in. Size 3 average .325 in. Size 4 average .387 in. Size 5 average .460 in. Size 2 average .269 in. Size 3 average .309 in. Size 4 average .354 in. Size 5 average .407 in. Size 6 average .468 in. Size 2 average .265 in. Size 3 average .298 in. Size 4 average .334 in. Size 5 average .375 in. Size 6 average .426 in. Size 7 average .478 in. Size 6 more than .500 in. Size 7 more than .500 in. Size 8 more than .500 in. If the grader is used according to the directions given below the cuttings will be sorted, if scale I is used, into six sizes. The largest of these will be over y 2 inch and the smallest under 14 inch ; these should be rejected. The intermediate will then fall into four sizes, which will have the following diameters indicated in the table : Average Extreme Diameter. Variation. Size 2 2736 in. .0473 Size 3 3254 in. .0562 Size 4 3870 in. .0670 Size 5 : . . 4603 in. .0795 These sizes differ from each other in such a way that the average diameter of each is almost exactly five sixths of that of the next larger ^ % ^V V sf- \ *0 ^ S s. >o ^c o> Vi, Jv *V H : bJO 60 3 o *-> o W p— t O \o Q) >^ CD Cio 306 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. size. Or, looking at it another way, the smallest cutting in any grade is just five sixths of the diameter of the largest cutting of the same grade. The green bark or growing layer on small cuttings is thinner than that on large cuttings, but in all it is just about one sixth of the diameter of the whole. If, therefore, the smallest scion of any grade is grafted on the largest stock of the same grade the outer edge of the bark of the scion will be in contact with the inner edge of the bark of the stock. This brings the growing layers sufficiently near to insure the formation of a good union. This, moreover, is an extreme case; the great majority of the grafts will fit much more nearly than this. Comparing these results with those obtained with the notch grader it will be seen that the cuttings between y± i ncn an d % inch are sorted into only four sizes with the slot, while the notches make five sizes of the same cuttings. This reduction of the number of sizes is of some practical advantage, especially as there is no loss of accuracy, but rather a gain, as the smallest sizes vary only as 5 : 6, while those of the notch grader vary as 4:5. A practised workman will grade almost as quickly with a notch grader as with the slot, but in the hands of a beginner the latter is much more rapid and accurate. Four grades is the least number that should be made of cuttings between x /4 inch and % inch. With this number some of the cuttings will not fit exactly enough to satisfy some grafters, and a little eye sorting may have to be done while grafting. This sorting by the grafter consumes a great deal of valuable time, and it is better to use a more closely graduated scale if the first does not give satisfaction. The third scale is sufficiently close to satisfy the most particular. In using the grader, every cutting should be measured through its longest diameter or much of the accuracy of the sorting will be lost. The flattening is always on the side toward which the bud points, so that the longest diameter is that at right angles to the one passing through the bud. In using the slot grader, therefore, the cutting should always be held with the bud pointing horizontally. Advantage may be taken of the difference in the two diameters to compensate for the variation in size of cuttings in the same grade. As the cuttings vary as 5 : 6 and the two diameters vary in about the same ratio, the smallest scion cut on the flat side will fit accurately the largest stock cut on' the narrow side. The only consequence is a slight angle at the point of union, as shown in Fig. 7, D 1 and 3. Methods of Uniting Stock and Scion.— Innumerable methods of cutting and splitting the stocks and scions have been described and recommended. We will have little difficulty in choosing the best of r s *h C karnp * r> draft ii m J> : II! il >; .'i i A, B.C. 77ree n>eThoh of&ncA Grafting. V ZxTtemt allou^bU ^ri^ion in me 6<> ^' on / = ^ : 6 ■?2??v- IZv-o ,#wi& <2A£ s/U-*j( /Jf^ZSTA. s^fiSL^e &urftl*>xrp Number of Square Inches per Graft. Vines. Rows. 2 inches 2 inches 3 inches 3 inches 4 incites 4 inches 36 inches 87,120 48 inches 65,340 36 inches 58,080 48 inches 43,560 36 inches 43,560 48 inches 32,670 72 96 108 144 144 192 The grafts may be planted in a trench made with a spade. It is more economical and better, however, if the soil is of good texture, properly prepared and free from stones, to plant them with a dibble. Whichever way is adopted it is essential that the greatest regularity should be maintained in the alignment of the rows and in the depth of the planting. Before planting with a dibble some form of scraper should be used which will make a shallow ditch from 12 to 18 inches wide and about 2 inches deep, perfectly smooth and level at the bottom. A line is then stretched taut about 1 inch to one side of where the row is to be and 2 inches above the bottom of the ditch. The grafts are then planted with the dibble, being put down to such a depth that the top bud comes exactly even with the taut line. Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in Fig. 18. The first, a, consists of a piece of round i/o-inch iron, 18 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end and a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft at the other. The bottom node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft forced down to the desired depth. Unless the ground is very light the other form of dibble is preferable. The other dibble, b, consists of a sword-shaped piece of iron 18 to 20 inches long and 2 inches wide, furnished also with a handle. The usual way of using it is to press it into the ground to the desired depth, open the hole a little with a lateral thrust, withdraw it and insert the graft. The dibble is then pushed into the ground again at about an inch to one side of the graft and by another lateral thrust the earth is pressed tightly around the graft. This takes more time than is necessary w T ith the other form of dibble, and unless done carefully there is danger of failing to make the soil close around 120 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. the base of the stock, which is thus left surrounded by an air space. Grafts left in this way are apt to become moldy and fail to make good roots. Both these objections are overcome by using the dibble as shown in Fig. 19. When used in this way the dibble is pushed into the ground only once for each graft and there is no possibility of the J \J (E a IA i /'i FIG. 18. Dibbles for planting grafts. graft being suspended without soil in contact with the base. Two men work together, one placing the grafts and the other manipulating the dibble. Where it is necessary to plant in compact soil or in soil containing pebbles a dibble can not be used. In this case it is necessary to dig a trench. The trench should be dug with one side slightly slanting. The grafts are laid against this side and well-pulverized soil shoveled in. If the soil is at all stiff or clayey a couple of inches of sand should RESISTANT VINEYARDS— GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 121 be placed on the side of the bottom of the trench where the bottom of the stock rests. This will very much facilitate the rooting. (See Fig. 20.) When the grafts are planted they should be completely covered, and very carefully, with 1 or 2 inches of soil. This will leave the FIG. 19. Illustrating Method of Planting with Dibble. D. Position of dibble when pressing the soil against graft 7 and opening a hole for graft 8. D Position of dibble when preparing to press soil against graft 8. S. Loose soil, which falls to bottom of hole and makes it possible to place the graft at exactly the right depth. nursery in ridges, with the unions of the grafts in the center of the ridges and at the original level of the soil. The depressions between the ridges will be about 2 inches lower than the unions. This is advisable, as it makes it possible to irrigate the grafts without injur- FIG. 20. Method of planting grafts in trenches. ing the union by too much water. The ridges should be wide. If too narrow and steep they dry out too easily and the unions will suffer. Cultivation.— By the end of April all the grafts should be planted and a good irrigation soon after this is advisable. This should be done in such a way that the ground at the base of the stock will be well wetted. This will start the formation of roots. The ridges 122 UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. should not be submerged, but they should be wetted sufficiently to prevent any danger of the drying out of the scions. This is accom- plished by lateral seepage, if the water is run slowly along the hollows between the ridges. A cultivator should be run between the rows as soon as possible after the irrigation, but the ridges should not be disturbed, if it is possible to avoid it, until the scions start. If the soil has a tendencv to form a crust, however, it will be necessary to break this crust after any rain that may occur at this time. This is one of the most fruitful causes of failure. If the crust is not broken the buds will have difficulty in pushing their way through and the hard soil will dry down rapidly and many scions be killed. The breaking of the crust must be done with great care, FIG. 21. Irrigating the nursery. or the scions will % be disturbed and make poor unions. If -2 inches of soil have been placed over the scions a careful man can go over the ridges with a short-toothed rake without injuring any grafts. This should be done as soon as the soil is dry enough not to form clods and before a crust has formed. It is better in this way to prevent the formation of a crust than to break it up after it has formed. This requires very prompt and rapid action, for in some soils a crust forms in less than twenty-four hours after a rain. Until about the first or middle of July there is nothing to do to the nursery but to keep the weeds down, and to see that the scions do not become dry before they are supplied with water by the new roots. The shoots from the scions should begin to appear above the ground in one to two weeks after planting. These shoots are at first yellowish RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 123 and are growing at the expense of the food material stored up in the scion. As soon as roots are formed the shoots become a deeper ■i FIG. 22. Effect of failure to remove'scion roots. green and are then obtaining food from the roots and from the air. By this time the unions are well formed, and the scions being supplied with water by their own roots and by those of the stock are in less 124 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. danger of drying out. The sides of the ridges should now be kept loose by hoeing, and the ground between the rows pulverized by frequent cultivation. Removal of Scion Roots.— As soon as the roots on the stock have started, the unions should be examined and all roots which have started from the scions should be removed. This will be about the beginning of July in the warmer districts, and about the end of that month in the cooler. The exact time is determined by digging up a few grafts in various parts of the nursery and examining the bases of the stocks. If all have formed roots it is time to take off the scion roots. The scion roots are useful to the graft in keeping the scion alive and perfecting the union before the stock roots start, and they should, therefore, not be removed too soon. The roots on the stock start later because they are deeper in the soil, where the temperature is lower. If the scion roots are allowed to grow too long, however, they take the nourishment elaborated by the scion leaves and the stock roots are starved. (See Fig. 22.) In this way we may get a large growth of leaves on the scion and a small growth of roots on the stock. If we remove the scion roots too late, therefore, the stock roots mav be 7 7 v insufficient to supply the large growth of leaves with the water they need, and the graft will die. It is well, whenever particularly large roots are cut off the scion, to cut back the shoot and to remove some of the leaves. This diminishes evaporation and delays the growth of the scion until the stock has developed sufficient roots to supply it with the necessary water. Removal of Raffia and Suckers. — At the same time that the scion roots are removed, the tying material, raffia or string, should be cut on all the grafts where it has not rotted. On the late grafts planted directly in the nursery without previous callusing the raffia will not require cutting if it has been used without bluestoning. The raffia or other tying material should be entirely removed or the grafts will be strangled. (See Fig. 23, b.) If the stocks have been properly disbudded before grafting they will produce very few suckers. Those which do grow should be removed as soon as they show above the ground, and any that are found when the scion roots are attended to should be carefully cut off. To perform these various operations it is necessary to dig down beside the grafts to below the union. After they are finished the soil should be replaced, but the ridges are not made quite so high as before. The unions should be covered up and any shoots which are very white should be protected by drawing the soil up around RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 125 them. This lowering of the ridges is useful in gradually hardening the unions. The soil is allowed to become dry around the unions and they are thus prepared for the complete removal of the soil around the unions which should take place later at a subsequent hoeing. Digging the Grafts.— The grafts may be removed from the nursery at any time after the leaves have, turned yellow and before they are needed for planting in the spring. It is best, however, to wait until the leaves have fallen and the vines are perfectly dormant. If dug FIG. 23. Effect of failure to remove raffia. at this time and kept in a cool place the buds will not start as soon as if they are left in the ground. The grafts should be dug carefully in order not to injure the top, body, or union. Cutting the roots does no harm, but tearing them off should be avoided. They can be removed satisfactorily with a nursery plant-digger. Sorting the Grafts. — As soon as the grafts are out of the ground they should be carefully sorted into three lots in accordance with their root and top growth, and especially with regard to the strength and completeness of the union. These lots are called No. 1 grafts, No. 2 grafts, and culls. The No. 1 grafts are those suitable for planting in the vineyard; the No. 2 grafts may be replaced in the nursery, and the culls are rejected altogether. 126 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. A No. 1 graft should have a top growth of well-ripened wood at least 10 inches long and well-developed roots at the bottom of the stock. It should have no large scion roots or scars where they have been removed. It should not show injuries due to digging, and there should not be a great difference of diameter between the stock and scion. The most important point is the condition of the union. The stock and scion should be united firmly on both sides and the union should be the strongest part of the vine. A No. 1 graft if bent sufficiently will break either above or below, but not at the union. (See Fig. 24.) The allowable difference in size between stock and scion will differ according to the varieties grafted. A Rupestris St. George or Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202 stock should be as large as the scion; a Riparia X Rupestris 3309 or 3306 may be from one fifth to one fourth smaller, while a Riparia gloire may be from one fourth to one third smaller. The lump or swelling which in nearly all cases occurs just above the union should not be too pronounced. When large it is a sign of lack of affinity between stock and scion or of an imperfect union. (See Fig. 23, a, c.) The No. 2 grafts are those which have some of the defects mentioned above, but which may develop into good vines. As there is doubt of this, however, they should not be planted directly in the vineyard, but placed in nursery for another season. The following year a large proportion of them will have overcome their defects and developed into good two-year-old vines. Grafts which have united well on one side or which have complete unions but small growth may be saved in this way, though it would probably be better for the vineyard to plant nothing but No. 1 one-year-old grafts. Certain defects can not be overcome. Grafts which have made a heavy top growth by means of scion roots and of which the stock is small and starved should be thrown away. (See Fig. 22.) If the union is imperfect on both sides, or if the enlargement above the union is excessive, there is no hope of making good vines of them. (See Fig. 23, a,c.) Pruning. — It is best not to prune the grafts until they are planted or afterwards. If the tops have made a very large growth with large laterals they may be pruned partially in order to facilitate making up into bundles and shipping. All shoots may be cut off except the largest, which should be left full length if not more than 18 inches long. When the grafts are tied up in bundles the roots may be shortened to 6 inches. This is best done by placing the bundles on a wooden block and cutting the roots with a sharp broadax. i, *:&>.<: ■* FIG. 24. No. 1 rooted bench grafts. 128 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. Conservation and Shipping.— Rooted vines require much more care than cuttings, as they are more easily damaged. They are especially liable to injury by drying-out. Grafts are even more sensitive. They should be kept in a cool, moist place until they are shipped or planted. A good way is to heel them in under an open shed or on the north side of a building in sand or loam where there is no danger of their getting too wet. If it is necessary to heel them in out in the open field they should be protected from the sun by placing over them a bed of straw at least 2 feet thick. Nursery Grafting. — Certain varieties of stocks, such as Lenoir and some of the Berlandieri and iEstivalis hybrids which root with difficulty, do not give good results with cutting grafting and must be rooted first, as already described on page 112. If they have made a good stand in the nursery and there are not too many vacant spaces, they may be grafted without removal. This is known as "nursery grafting." Cuttings under 14 inch in diameter of other varieties may also be rooted in the nursery and grafted the next year without removal. Either the tongue graft or the wire graft may be used. If the vines have made a large growth and are over V2 inch in diameter it is better to use one of the methods described on page 137. (See Fig. 26.) The tongue graft is difficult to make in the nursery and the tying* is particularly troublesome. Good results can be obtained often by omitting the tying, but the scions send out large numbers of roots. The wire method is particularly well suited to nursery grafting, is very easily performed, and gives excellent results. Over 90 per cent of first-class unions should be obtained. The grafting should be done as near the surface of the ground as possible. The soil is first hoed away and carefully cleaned off the vines, leaving them in a little trench 3 or 4 inches deep. They are then cut off with pruning shears just below the bud of the original cutting which is nearest to the surface. The grafting is then done in the same way as already described for cutting grafts. The same care in cultivation, removal of suckers, scion roots, and tying material is necessary. Grafts made in this way are very large and vigorous and will give good results if handled properly in the vineyard. There are the same objections to them as to any very large plants, however. They are more liable to injury than smaller plants in removal from the nursery, require more care in planting, and are more liable to suffer from the difference of conditions between the nursery and the vineyard. RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 129 II. THE VINEYARD. Preparation of the Land.— Whatever the method of grafting adopted, the land where the vineyard is to be planted should receive the same careful preparation. Profitable vineyards have been established in some soils which have received no more preparation than is needed for a crop of wheat. Such cases are, however, exceptional, and even in these cases better and quicker results would have been obtained if the ground had been properly prepared before planting. The need of thorough preparation of the soil is more urgent when we plant resistant vines than when we plant vinifera varieties on their own roots. This is owing both to the greater sensitiveness of resistant roots to unfavorable conditions and to the greater cost of starting a resistant vineyard, which makes the necessity of quick returns more pressing. In South Africa it is usual to obtain a crop eighteen months after planting bench grafts. This crop may amount to five tons per acre, and even more. This precocity is due in great part to the fact that before planting, the soil of the vineyard is hand-trenched to a depth of 30 inches or more. Hand-trenching is, of course, out of the question in California, where labor is expensive. We can, however, approxi- mate these results by deep plowing and subsoiling. Wherever resist- ant vines are planted, the soil should be plowed 2 or 3 inches deeper than the depth to which the bottom of the cutting or graft will reach when planted, and subsoiled several inches below this. A plow which will turn the soil over to a depth of 12 inches, followed by a subsoiler stirring the soil 6 inches deeper, will give results during the first three years of the life of the vineyard that will more than repay the cost in crop alone, and the perfect stand and strong healthy vines will insure good crops in later years. It is doubtful whether a vine which is starved and dwarfed during the first three or four years of its life ever gives the best results in crop. If the land is plowed in the way described the roots of the graft when planted will be in contact with top soil, which is the best for root growth, and the graft should make a growth of several canes 3 or 4 feet long and a strong root system the first year. Fertilization. — As a rule, no general fertilization of the soil is needed the first year, the deep plowing being sufficient to insure a strong growth. When replanting the site of an old vineyard or planting vines on land which has been occupied by an orchard, some fertilizer to renew the humus of the soil is advisable. A crop of rye or peas plowed-in the year previous to planting is useful for this purpose. A heavy manuring with from 15 to 20 tons of well-rotted stable 130 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. manure is also excellent, when it can be procured. The manure should be spread on the surface and plowed in. If the manure is not well rotted, however, it may do more harm than good, unless applied at least twelve months before the planting. The vines are apt to dry out or become moldy at the base if they are in contact with very strawy manure. In every case, it is advisable to place a little nitrogenous fertilizer below each vine when it is planted. For this purpose ground or steamed bones, tankage, or old stable manure may be used with advantage. Two or three ounces of the first two or half a shovel of the last well dug in and mixed with the soil at the bottom of each planting hole is sufficient. A general fertilization of the land is usually best postponed until the second year. Intercalary Crops. — As a rule it is better not to try to raise any crop between the vines unless there is an abundance of water. In most parts of California the young vines need all the moisture avail- able in the soil during summer and, unless summer irrigation can be given, the soil between the vines should be kept clear of crops and weeds. With irrigation it is possible to raise a crop of corn or other hoed crops without injury to the vines during the first year, providing nothing is grown nearer than 3 feet from the vines. After the first year the land should be given exclusively to the vines. Planting. — If the ground has been plowed deeply, as already explained, and no fertilizer is to be used, the grafts may be planted with a dibble. This method has several advantages and can be used in all soils which do not contain large stones or coarse gravel. It is not recommended, however, except for sandy and sandy-loam soils. It is rapid and facilitates the perfect alignment of the vines, as well as makes it much easier to attain the very important object of placing the unions at exactly the right height above the surface of the ground. For planting in this way the roots must be pruned very short. The stronger roots must be pruned down to y± inch, and the smaller removed altogether. There is probably some loss of strength to the vines by this close root pruning, but it is not very serious. The young rootlets start from the cut end of the root wherever it is cut, and the main advantage of a rooted vine over a cutting is the rapidity with which the rootlets start and grow. However long we leave the roots they are of no use to the vine until they have developed new rootlets. If we leave the roots longer when planting with a dibble they will be turned up when planted, which will result in crooked and improperly placed roots. Fig. 18c shows a convenient form of dibble. It consists of a sword- RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 131 shaped piece of iron about 15 inches long, a handle furnished with a cross-piece, and a foot-rest. In use, it is pressed into the ground by placing the foot on the foot-rest and then by a backward and forward movement of the handle the hole is opened in the soil and the dibble removed. This hole is made from 8 to 10 inches deep, according to the length of the graft. The graft is then inserted to the right depth and the dibble pressed into the ground again about 3 or 4 inches from the graft and a few inches deeper than the first time. Then by a vigorous thrust of the handle the blade of the dibble is caused to press the soil tightly around the graft. An ordinary garden spade FIG. 25. Illustrating method of planting grafts. (Redrawn after Richter.) may be used for the same purpose. It is particularly necessary that the soil should be in intimate contact with the bottom of the graft. Whatever the length of the graft, the union should be 1 or 2 inches, above the general level of the ground. On steep hillsides the union should be placed higher — 4 inches or more above the surface. Unless this is done the union will soon be covered by the soil thrown down by the sidehill plows, and it will be difficult or impossible to prevent the growth of scion roots. Grafted vines for use on hillsides should be from 2 to 4 inches longer than for level soils. The stocks should not be less than 12 inches long. A 14- or 15-inch stock and a one-bud scion is the best for this purpose. As soon as possible after planting, not later than the next day, the soil should be hoed up around the graft, leaving a broad hill reaching at least 2 or 3 inches above the union. 132 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. If the soil is stony or imperfectly prepared, or if we desire to apply fertilizers, planting with a dibble is impossible. In this case we must dig a hole for each vine. This hole need not be any wider than the spade, but should be at least 4 inches deeper than the bottom of the graft. The method of planting is shown in Fig. 25. As soon as the hole is dug, 3 or 4 inches of top soil, mixed with fertilizer if it is used, is placed at the bottom. The vine is then put in a slanting position so that its base is near the middle of the hole and its top against the marker. More top soil is then thrown in until the hole is about half full. The soil is then pressed with the foot firmly around the roots and bottom half of the stock. The hole is then filled with loose soil and the graft well hilled up several inches above the union. The hill should be very broad, in order to prevent drying out. With this method of planting great care is necessary to avoid getting any of the unions too deep. If the unions are placed below the surface of the soil the scion will send out roots. If these roots are not removed they will grow large and finally take all the nourishment coming from the leaves. This will result in the starvation and death of the resistant root, and in a few years the vine has nothing but vinifera roots and is as susceptible to injury from phylloxera as if it had never been grafted. If the scion roots are removed twice a year for the first two years and once a year until the vines are seven or eight years old this result may be avoided, and if the work is done promptly and thoroughly few scion roots will be formed after this. To do this properly, how- ever, requires a great deal of careful, conscientious work, which it is difficult to have done on a large scale, and which may be avoided by planting the grafts at the right depth. If the unions are placed too high the roots are brought too near the surface and they may dry out before they have time to grow down into the permanently moist soil. As the unions should be well covered with soil to protect them from the sun during the first summer, it is necessary to make very large mounds if the unions are placed very high. In general it is found that the most convenient position for the union is about 2 inches above the surface of the ground. This will bring the bottom of the graft 8 inches below the surface with an ordinary 10-inch stock. This is sufficiently deep for all except very dry and open soils, if the grafts are well hilled up after planting. In planting with a dibble the planter can estimate the height of the union with sufficient exactness by eye, but when planting in a hole, especially if the surface of the ground is rough or uneven, some kind of guide is necessary. For this purpose a stick 3 feet long and 1 inch in diameter may be used. This stick is laid across the hole, and shows RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 133 the true level of the ground and serves as a guide to show the planter where to place the union. In planting with a number of men where a marked rope or wire is used to show the position of each vine while planting, this rope or wire may be used as the guide to show the height of the union, provided one man is employed in watching the rope to see that it remains stretched at exactly the right height above the surface. . Pruning.— The pruning of the roots before planting has already been discussed. The top is usually pruned by removing all the shoots except the strongest and cutting that back to two good buds. The superfluous .shoots should be cut off clean close enough to the base to remove the base bud. The shoot which is left should be cut through the bud above the top one which is left. ' In France it is considered better to postpone the cutting back of the main shoot until the buds have started after planting, as indicated in Fig. 25. This prevents to some extent the early starting of the bottom buds and the danger of their injury by spring frosts. It also protects the union from injury during the period which elapses between the planting and the commencement of growth. Staking. — To obtain the best results, a vineyard of bench grafts should be staked the year it is planted. Bench grafts grow more rapidly than ungrafted vines. This is especially true when deep preparation of the soil has been practised. Moreover, with most varieties the scion will be a little larger than the stock, which makes the vine top heavy and more likely to bend over and lie flat on the ground. To prevent this and to have a well-shaped vine from the beginning, the shoots growing during the first season should be tied up to a stake. If this is done, it will be possible to give each vine a straight, smooth stem and sym- metrical head at the second pruning. It is only in this way that the full benefit can be obtained of the vigorous growth which properly planted grafts make during the first two years. If the vines are allowed to lie on the ground it will take three or four years to give them the proper shape, and much crop is lost by the heavy pruning necessary for this purpose. The size of stake will depend on the style of pruning that is to be adopted and the height at which the vines are to be headed. For ordinary short-pruned vines a stake 3 feet long and 1 or IVi inches in diameter is quite sufficient. Such a stake can be driven 2 feet into the ground and will support the vine perfectly for five or six years if the head is made at the usual height of about 10 inches, or lower. After this, the vine should be stout enough to stand without a stake. If the 4— bul. 180. 134 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. vines are to be pruned long or given a high head a 4- to 6-foot stake will be needed and may be put in the first year. As all vines should be pruned short for the first three year's, however, it is as well to use small stakes at first and to replace them with longer and heavier stakes when long pruning is commenced. If the vines are to be headed high, 15 to 18 inches, a 4-foot stake will be necessary, and this will have to be a little heavier, 1^4 to l 1 ^ inches in diameter. Suckering and Hooting. — If No. 1 bench grafts from which the stock buds were properly removed before grafting are used, and if they are planted in the way described, there will be very few suckers from the stock, or roots from the scion, produced. Any which do grow, however, must be very carefully and completely removed. The more thoroughly this is done during the first year the less trouble there will be later, and after the third year there should be hardly any suckers and no scion roots produced at all. • As the unions are kept covered during the first year a few scion roots will be produced, especially in rich and moist soil. These should be cut off once during the season about midsummer, at about the time of the second hoeing. Any which develop after that may be removed at the winter pruning. No scion roots will be formed in subsequent years if the unions are above the surface and kept uncovered, as they should be. Some stocks such as Rupestris, and especially Rupestris St. George, are very prone to throw out suckers, but careful work during the first three years will overcome this tendency. To do this the suckers should never be allowed to mature. Three or four times during the first year the vineyard should be gone over carefully and every sucker cut off close down to the stock at the place where it starts. If a piece of the base of the sucker is left, especially if the sucker has matured, a lump will form on the stock, from which there will be an inveterate tendency for suckers to form. A little extra work during the first year will prevent the need of a great deal of work in subsequent years. For the first three or four years the collar of the vine should be cleaned off down 4 or 5 inches below the surface every winter or spring by plowing and hoeing away from the vine. This will expose any suckers which have been overlooked during the summer. All such suckers should be cut out very close, care being taken to remove the slight enlargement at the base of each from which new suckers would start in the following summer. Cultivation. -The cultivation of a grafted vineyard does not differ in any way from that of an ordinary vineyard of vinifera varieties. Deep plowing and thorough summer cultivation are equally necessary RESISTANT VINEYARDS— GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 135 and, owing to the tendency of many grafted vines to heavy hearing, fertilization is more likely to be needed. As a rule, the same methods of pruning are applicable. With very vigorous stocks, such as Rupestris St. George, it may be necessary to prune some varieties longer to counteract a tendency to "go to wood/ With most stocks, on the other hand, the fertility of the vines is increased and shorter priming is advisable. In any case the amount of pruning can be determined by the strength of the vine itself as with ungrafted vines. III. FIELD GRAFTING. It is possible to start a resistant vineyard by planting the stocks directly in the field and grafting them there after they are rooted instead of planting bench grafts. This was formerly the commonest method and is still largely practised in some districts. It is, however, in all cases less satisfactory and more expensive than the methods already described. In some cases— on steep hillsides, in very stony or stiff soil — it is almost impossible to make a satisfactory vineyard by field grafting. Good results are sometimes obtained by this method in fairly level, loose soils, but the results are so much at the mercy of the weather that even with the best work it is only by chance that good paying vineyards are established in this way. Even when, by an extraordinary combination of favorable conditions, a field-grafted vineyard is successfully established the cost is always more than the cost of a similar vineyard started with bench grafts. • As field grafting is still practised to a considerable extent, and as many vineyards of resistant stocks have been planted, it seems necessary to describe the method. Preparation of the Soil. — Thorough plowing and subsoiling are even more necessary when planting ungrafted resistants than when planting bench grafts. This is because good results can be obtained only if the resistants are grafted young, and this makes it essential to obtain a good growth the first year. If the stock remains in the ground for two, three, or more years before grafting, it becomes hard and refractory to graft- ing and good unions can not be obtained. The stocks should make sufficient growth the first year to allow of their being grafted the spring following the planting. Catlings or Roots. — It is better, whenever possible, to plant good cuttings than roots. This is because when they are grafted the follow- ing year the wood where the union is made is a year younger than in the case of roots and the unions are correspondingly more perfect. This is especially true with Rupestris and Riparia stocks, which make 136 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. unreliable unions when old. With vinifera hybrids, such as Aramon X Rupestris No. 2 and Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, the age of the stock is not so important. The cuttings should be very carefully selected and only firm, healthy, well-ripened wood used. They should be sufficiently long to allow 4 inches of the top to be left above the surface of the ground. This is very necessary in order to make it possible to graft above the surface, for the graft must be made on the part of the vine corresponding to the original cutting. To graft in the new wood which has grown after planting makes it necessary to wait two or three years, as the first year 's growth is usually too thin. Vines grafted in this way, moreover, give very much more trouble by their inveterate habit of throwing out suckers. For these reasons small, thin cuttings or the tips of canes should not be planted in the field. Such cuttings, if well ripened, may be planted in the nursery, where they will make a good growth the first year, and where they may be nursery grafted. The cuttings of some resistant stocks, such as Aramon X Rupestris No. 2, root with difficulty, and if planted directly in the field would require much replanting. With these varieties it is better to plant roots. With all varieties it is better to plant roots in soils where cuttings strike with difficulty. An incomplete stand the first year is difficult to overcome, and increases the expense by spreading the work of planting, grafting, and regrafting over several years. At every stage of the process of starting a vineyard by field grafting some vines may be lost or spoiled, and it is only by the most thorough and careful work that it is possible to avoid the ragged, uneven collection of crippled mon- strosities that too often passes for a resistant vineyard. Age for Grafting. — Whenever possible the vines should be grafted the year after planting. Some stocks may make too small a growth of top and root to make a strong graft the first year, and it will be necessary to leave such stocks a year longer. Any stock which is Va i ncn thick and has made a fair top growth should be grafted. It is a great mistake to wait two or three years until the vines are % or 1 inch thick, as is done by many grafters. Methods of Grafting.— Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above the surface of the ground. In many cases, however, this will be impossible. Some cuttings will have failed to start the top buds and it will be necessary to go below the surface to find a smooth, suitable part of the stock where grafting is possible. The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock. For stocks up to % inch in diameter the methods of tongue and wire grafting already described are the best. For larger vines up to % inch a RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 137 modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the best. Reference to Fig. 26, B, BB, will show how it is modified. If the tongue graft were >" ( i 33 FIG. 26. Methods of field grafting. A. Whip graft for stocks J to § of an inch in diameter. B, BB. Whip graft for stocks § to f of an inch in diameter. C, CC. Whip graft for stocks over J of an inch in diameter. made in the usual way with stocks of this size it would be necessary to use excessively large scions, which is undesirable, or to have the barks unite only on one side. By cutting the bevel of the stock only part 138 UNIVERSITY OP 1 CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. way through the vines, as shown in Fig. 26, B, it is possible to make a smaller scion unite on both sides. For still larger vines, those over % inch in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft, shown in Fig. 26, C, CC. Tying and Waxing. — No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything which completely excludes the air prevents the knitting of the tissues. A little clay, cloth, or a leaf may be placed over the split in the stock when the cleft graft is used, simply to keep out the soil. Otherwise there is nothing more suitable or more favorable to the formation of a good union that can be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the soil is clayey, stiff or lumpy it is necessary to surround the union with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard. It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well-made cleft graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to prevent its displace- ment and no tying is necessary. Wherever there is any danger of the graft moving, however, it should be tied. There is nothing better for this purpose than ordinary raffia. The raffia should not be bluestoned, as it will last long enough without and will be sure to rot in a few weeks and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided. Cotton string or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few weeks may also be used. As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be driven and the union covered with a little earth. The hilling up of the graft may be left for a few hours, except in very hot, dry weather. Finally, the whole graft should be covered with a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches above the top of the scion. Season for Field Grafting. — Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except in the hottest and driest localities, before the middle of March. Before that there is too much danger that heavy rains may keep the soil soaked for several weeks — a condition very unfavorable to the formation of good unions. In any case the grafting should not be done while the soil is wet. Grafting may continue as long as the cuttings can be kept dormant. It is difficult to graft successfully, however, when the bark of the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the middle of April in most localities. Treatment the First Year. — Field grafts require practically the same treatment as bench grafts in the nursery, except that there is little or no danger of their drying out, if they are properly mounded up. There is usually sufficient sap in the stock to keep them moist. They should be disturbed as little as possible for two or three months after grafting. Some time in July it is necessary to remove the suckers RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 139 and scion roots. If the suckers grow rapidly and abundantly it may be necessary to remove some of them before this. They should not be allowed to grow large enough to shade the graft or to render their removal difficult without injury to the scion. It is best not to touch FIG. 27. Old grafted vine on which the scion roots have been allowed to grow. The upper series of roots are all vinifera, only the lower series tesistant. This vine was killed by phyl- loxera. the scion roots until the middle or end of July, when they should be removed with the same care exercised in the nursery. As the graft grows it should be tied up to the stake, otherwise it is liable to be broken off or loosened at the union by the wind or the cultivators. Regrafthig.—Ferhaps the most troublesome and unsatisfactory feature of field grafting is the necesshy of regrafting a large number of stocks. Though exceptionally as high as 95 per cent of the grafts have been known to grow, the usual number will be between 50 and 75 per cent, and even of these some will be weak, owing to incom- 340 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. plete unions. It is usual to attempt to regraft all the stocks which fail to grow the first time. This is done the following spring at the same time that the grafting of the vines which were too small the first year is undertaken. The regrafting must be done one joint further down than the first grafting, as the wood will be unhealthy, if not dead, where grafted the previous year. This in most cases will bring the union below the surface, with all the attendant troubles of scion roots. (See Fig. 27.) Unless the suckers have been allowed to grow the previous year FIG. 28. Herbaceous graft. where the grafts failed, the stocks will be weak and will not make- good unions. Regrafting very seldom gives a strong healthy vine,, and some even of the advocates of field grafting believe it is best to dig up all the vines which fail the first year and replace them with bench grafts. Herbaceous Grafting. — Vines may be grafted during the summer by using the canes or buds of the current year's growth. Numerous, methods have been described for doing this, but none of them have met with much success in California. A few growers, however, have successfully budded and grafted Rupestris St. George stocks during the growing season, and their methods may be of use as an adjunct, to field grafting and to a smaller extent to bench grafting. RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 141 Instead of redrafting below the ground the second year a stock which has failed, a couple of suckers may be allowed to grow during the summer of the year the grafting is done, and these suckers may be green grafted above ground the same or the following summer. When done successfully the unions are so perfect that the passage of sap from stock to scion is sufficiently free not to force the strong growth of shoots from the stock which occurs when we regraft on new wood in the usual way when the vine is dormant. Figs. 28 and 29 show two forms of herbaceous grafting which have been successfully practised in California. Fig. 29 is simply the FIG. 29. Herbaceous bud. ordinary T bud used by nurserymen on fruit trees. Fig. 28 is a tongue graft similar to that already described, but made with great care to obtain a perfect fit. For successful green grafting the wood of both stock and scion must be in just the right condition of maturity. If the grafting is done too early the tissues are too soft and brittle, dry out too easily, and few of the grafts grow. If done too late the buds can not be inserted properly and the grafts have not time to make a complete union. The following extracts from a letter kindly written by Mr. Thomas Casalegna, of San Martin, Santa Clara County, gives some very valuable hints regarding the herbaceous budding and grafting of vines : "1. All buds put in from July 15 to August 15 start the same year r 142 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. but may be injured by fall frosts. Those put in from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the following year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. '2. Budding is most successful in the month of August. '3. The buds should be taken from canes which have reached the stage of maturity indicated by the pith turning white and just before the bark turns yellow. ; '4. The buds are inserted on canes of the current year's growth, unless the vines are exceptionally vigorous. '5. Green grafting is most successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. The pith must be white. Younger scions with green pith have completely failed with me. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may be done in July. "6. The leaves are taken off the scions when they are cut. If they are to be used immediately they are placed in water; if to be carried some distance they are placed in a wet sack. "7. I tie the buds and grafts with German knitting yarn. "8. I find that green grafting is more successful than budding, if care is taken to get suitable scions in June. ' ' The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course, vary according to the locality. Hot weather immediately following the work is fatal to most of the grafts. Mr. Casalegna states that if two or three cool days follow the insertion of the buds or scions he obtains an almost perfect stand. The use of an elastic tying material such as yarn, as recom- mended, seems essential. If raffia is used the shrinkage of ttie tissues which follows grafting allows the graft to become loose and to dry out. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS METHODS OF STARTING A RESISTANT VINEYARD. Bench grafting cuttings is unhesitatingly recommended for the following reasons : 1. Both stock and scion are young and of the same size. The unions are, therefore, strong and permanent. 2. The grafting is done under conditions favorable to rapid and effective work. 3. The grafting can be done in any weather, and may extend over three or four months. Bench grafting may be done on rainy days when other work is not pressing or can not be done. 4. The work is more easily supervised. One man who thoroughly understands all details of the grafting can oversee the work of several unskilled workmen, which makes it possible to employ cheaper labor for much of the work. 5. The cultural conditions are more easily controlled. There is much less danger of inferior results due to excessively wet or dry weather RESISTANT VINEYARDS — GRAFTING, PLANTING, CULTIVATION. 143 during the growing' season. In the nursery the vines can be cultivated, irrigated, and generally attended to much more perfectly than in the field. 6. A rigid selection of vines for planting can be made, .rendering it possible to have nothing in the vineyard but strong plants and perfect unions. 7. As perfect a stand can be obtained in the vineyard the first year in any soil or season as can be obtained when planting the ordinary non- resistant vines. (See figure on cover.) 8. The union of every vine can be placed exactly where we want it. 9. The land where the vineyard is to be planted can be used for other crops for one year longer than when field grafting is adopted. 10. All the cultural operations during the first year are much less expensive, as they are spread over a much smaller area of land. Two acres of nursery will produce enough bench grafts to plant one hundred acres of vineyard. In short, starting a resistant vineyard by means of bench grafts is much better than by any other method used at present, because it is the least costly and gives the best results. This is true whether we produce our own bench grafts or whether we buy them at the present market rate. Growers are earnestly cautioned, however, against planting any bench grafts but the first choice. Second and third choice are little better than field grafts, and many have been offered for sale lately which are sure to give disappointment in the vineyard. There are several nurserymen in the State now who are producing No. 1 bench grafts Avhich are equal, and for planting here perhaps superior, to any produced in Europe. With regard to nursery grafting and bench grafting roots, all that can be said in their favor is that they are fairly good methods when bench grafting cuttings is impracticable. They enable us to produce rooted grafts with stocks which, owing to the difficulty with which they root, are very difficult to bench graft as cuttings. By their means we are enabled to utilize resistant cuttings which are too small to bench graft, and a larger percentage of well-grown grafted vines is obtained from the nursery. On the other hand, as the stock is at least two years old when grafted there is reason to fear that with some stocks many unions will fail as the vines become older. The vines are larger when they are taken from the nursery, which increases the cost of removal, and there is little if any gain in growth over bench grafts when planted in the vineyard. Finally, the method requires a year longer and is in every way more expensive. Of field grafting, nothing favorable can be said except that it is more generally understood and the expense and work are spread over several 144 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION. years instead of being principally in the first. Many of its disad- vantages may be inferred from what has already been said of the advantages of bench grafting. The principal are the extreme difficulty of obtaining a perfect stand, the trouble with scion roots and stock suckers, the impossibility of detecting imperfect unions until the vines die, and finally the greater ultimate cost. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In the preparation of this bulletin I have been greatly assisted by many grape-growers and nurserymen who have kindly allowed me to examine their methods, notably by Messrs. Frank Swett of Martinez, W. G. Doidge of Lodi, George E. Roeding of Fresno, and Thomas Casalegna of Evergreen. STATION PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR DISTRIBUTION. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1900. 1902. 1903. 1904. Reprint. No. 128. 131. 133. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147. 148. 149. 150. 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 156. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. REPORTS. Report of the Viticultural Work during the seasons 1887-93, with data regarding the Vintages of 1894-95. Resistant Vines, their Selection, Adaptation, and Grafting. Appendix to Viticultural Report for 1896. 1J Pa i895 1 -96 e and t 189697* ° f Agncultural Ex Periment Station for the years Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for the year 1897-98 Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1898-1901 Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1901-1903. Twenty-second Report of the Agricultural Experiment Station for 1903-1904. BULLETINS. Endurance of Drought in Soils of the Arid Region. Nature, Value and Utilization of Alkali Lands, and Tolerance of Alkali. (Revised and Reprint, 1905.) The Phylloxera of the Vine. Tolerance of Alkali by Various Cultures. Citrus Fruit Culture. Orange and Lemon Rot. Lands of the Colorado Delta in Salton Basin, and Supplement. Deciduous Fruits at Paso Robles. Grasshoppers in California. California Peach-Tree Borer. The Peach- Worm. The Red Spider of Citrus Trees. New Methods of Crafting and Budding Vines. Culture Work of the Substations. Resistant Vines and their Hybrids. California Sugar Industry. The Value of Oak Leaves for Forage. Arsenical Insecticides. Fumigation Dosage. Spraying with Distillates. Sulfur Sprays for Red Spider. Directions for Spraying for the Codling-Moth. Fowl Cholera. California Olive Oil ; its Manufacture. Contribution to the Study of Fermentation. The Hop Aphis. Tuberculosis in Fowls. (Reprint.) Commercial Fertilizers. (Dec. 1, 1904.) Pear Scab. Poultry Feeding and Proprietary Foods. ( Reprint. ) Asparagus and Asparagus Rust in California. Spraying for Scale Insects. Manufacture of Dry Wines in Hot Countries. Observations on Some Vine Diseases in Sonoma County. Tolerance of the Sugar Beet for Alkali. Studies in Grasshopper Control. Commercial Fertilizers. (June 30, 1905.) Further Experience in Asparagus Rust Control. Commercial Fertilizers. (December, 1905.) A New Wine-Cooling Machine. Tomato Diseases in California. Sugar Beets in the San Joaquin Valley. A New Method of Making Dry Red Wine. Mosquito Control. Commercial Fertilizers. (June, 1906.) CIRCULARS. No. 1. Texas Fever. Blackleg. 3. Hog Cholera. 4. Anthrax. 5. Contagious Abortion in Cows. 7. Remedies for Insects. 9. Asparagus Rust. 10. Reading Course in Economic Entomology. (Revision.) 11. Fumigation Practice. 12. Silk Culture. 13. The Culture of the Sugar Beet. 15. Recent Problems in Agriculture. What a University Farm is For. No. 16. Notes on Seed- Wheat. 17. 18. 19. 20.' 21. 22. 23. Why Agriculture Should be Taught in the Public Schools. Caterpillars on Oaks. Disinfection of Stables. Reading Course in Irrigation. The Advancement of Agri- cultural Education. Defecation of Must for White Wine. Pure Yeast in Wineries.