mm- ^xfTt^V,'^' m 5T;' -'''^ L> ''?!?'< ■■^■.:?v'5(i ■ r^i.:^m^m!^0m A MANUAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY. TALBOYS AND BROWNE, PRINTERS, OXFORD. A MANUAL rf' » OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY, TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF TENNEMANN. r BY THE REV. ARTHUR JOHNSON, M.A. LATE FELLOW OF WADHAM COLLEGE, ETC. DIFFICILE EST IN PHILOSOPHIA PAUCA ESSE EI NOTA CUI NON SIN'T AUT PI.ERAQUE AUT OMNIA. CIC. TUSC. II, I . UlTIVEESITY D. A. TALBOYS. MDCCCXXXII. SI ^j-2^^z) 1 TO B. P. SYMONS, D. D. WARDEN OF WADHAM COLLEGE, THE FOLLOWING TRANSLATION IS INSCRIBED, AS A RECORD OF LONG FRIENDSHIP, BY THE AUTHOR. / \ 1 ' ■ i J • I.: •r* f« TT T*. ^ TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. The well-established reputation of Tennemann's Grund- riss der Geschichte der Philosophte^i may absolve its translator from any longer preface than is necessary to explain the principles by which he has been guided in the prosecution of his undertaking. In consequence of the extreme conciseness, in places, and the pregnant brevity of the original, I have been sometimes obliged to employ expressions of my own to convey the sense of my author; which would have been misrepresented by a literal version. Occasionally this has been made necessary by the phraseology of Tennemann, borrowed from the school of Kant to which he belonged ; and which if presented to the English reader in all its native peculiarity might have been understood by none but those who were the least likely to consult the transla- tion. As far, however, as it appeared possible, I have preserved the technical expressions of my author, sub- joining for the most part an explanation of their meaning for the benefit of those English readers who may not have plunged into the profound abyss of German meta- physics. As a Manual of the present description ought to be calculated for general use, I have in general made * I have entitled the present work a Manual of the History of Philosophy, in preference to a literal translation of the German title, for the same reasons which probably led the French translator (M. Cousin), to a similar choice. It is needless to remark, that the original is an abridgment, by Tennemann himself, of his History of Philosophy, in eleven volumes, and was first pub- lished by him in 1812 ; since which time it has been frequently reprinted, with considerable improvements and additions, principally from the pen of profes- sor Wendt, of Gbttingen. The present translation has been made from the Leipsic edition of 1829. The term Philosophy, it will be observed, implies throughout Moral Philo- sophy, or Metaphysics in general. a vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. it my object to remove from my work all those pecu- liarities which would have had the effect of embarrassing without instructing' the private student, and whenever it has appeared to me that an observation of my author was of a nature impossible to be apprehended by any but a scholar long familiar with the disputes of the Ger- man lecture rooms, I have endeavoured to express the sense of it in other words, or, in a very few instances, have preferred to omit it altogether. It is hoped that every thing which is really valuable in the original, on many accounts so admirable, will be found to have been re- tained. If it be thought that in some instances I have de- parted too far from the expressions of my author, let it be remembered that the most literal is not always the most faithful translator ; and that he who shall render verbum verbo the composition of a German metaphysician or his- torian, runs the risk of being intelligible only by a refer- ence to his author, or by having his own work done into English. There are parts of Tennemann which on this account I had much rather have composed anew than translated, particularly the Introduction, The history of German metaphysicians subsequent to Bardili, I have found it necessary to abbreviate more considerably. The articles alluded to were principally compiled by M. Wendt, in order to supply what Tenne- mann did not live to complete — an account of the living philosophers of his own country : but these sketches are so extremely concise and the language so technical that, (added to the unspeakable absurdity of many of the sys- tems reviewed), it would have been impossible to have made them intelligible to an English reader without en- larging them to a disproportionate extent. M- Cousin who felt the same difficulty has, in his translation, omitted them altogether; preserving however the catalogues of each author's works. I have preferred giving, for the most part in the author's words, some general idea of each system, and have preserved as much of the bibliographi- cal part as appeared in any degree necessary for the uses of the English reader. Another reason seems to have TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. vii contributed to induce M. Cousin to suppress these arti- cles, namely, that the metaphysicians in question are so perpetually in the habit of changing and modifying their views, that before a statement of their sentiments could have been printed at Paris or Oxford, they may very pro- bably have displaced every fragment of their own the- ories, and promulgated a new set of opinions to their pupils of Jena or Gottingen. For similar reasons I have slightly modified the con- cluding articles on the present philosophical systems of other countries 5 preserving, however, all the information they contain. It must be borne in mind that Tennemann was a Ger- man and a Kantist, with all the erudition which charac- terises his learned countrymen, and with a much larger proportion of judgment and discrimination than they are sometimes found to evince. Still, his criticisms are ne- cessarily cast in the mould of his school ; and although greatly too well informed and too acute to be a slave to its prejudices, he is apt to be encumbered by its techni- calities, and is almost necessarily possessed with a high idea of its exclusive importance. It is through the me- dium of such prepossessions that he surveys the Systems of every other School, and by them he has been induced to allow rather more than a patriotic space to the labours of his countrymen, with whom he evidently thinks that the only chance of philosophical regeneration resides. It is necessary to bear this in mind whenever the opinions of the writer under consideration elicit those of the Cri- tic ; who nevertheless has exercised considerable for- bearance in withholding as much as possible his private judgment. One of the greatest advantages possessed by this ex- cellent Manual is its copious Bibliography ; indicating all that is worth reading, (and much that is not), on every subject it embraces ; and presenting us with a catalogue of each author's works, and those of his commentators and opponents. In this department it will be found that the titles of works in German which relate to the Classics viii TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. or to writers of the Middle Ages, have been generally translated by me, in order to point out to the reader the large mine of various information contained in the libra- ries of Germany. But when arrived at the metaphy- sicians of that country, I have judged it better to retain the actual titles of their works and those of their com- mentators, as the books may be thus more easily procured than if their titles had been translated ; and because no one was likely to attack in their own language the metaphysical works of Kant or of Schelling, who was not competent to peruse their titles at least in the original. I could have wished indeed that circumstances had permitted me to enlarge the catalogue of English and Scottish writers at the expense of those of Germany, but in the mean time, while I have preserved in the text the names of all the metaphysicians of every German school, I have occasionally forborne to particularise all the com- positions of some among them who are known to us only as obscure commentators on exploded systems. A few treatises on other subjects I have struck out from the Bib- liography, as not likely to be useful, or because they were not readily procurable by the English reader. In the place of those omitted, others have been added, and more would have been, had not the supellex already furnished been more than ample for all the purposes of the student, to whatever extent he may desire to push his inquiries. The reader will observe, that the numeration of the sections in the present translation, after § 252, does not always correspond with that of the German. This has been occasioned by my subdividing some sections which originally formed one, and simplifying in one or two instances the numeration observed in the original; but principally in consequence of my abridging the introduc- tory sections from o06 to 316, which it appeared advisable to do, on account of the obscurity, as well as the repeti- tion, which there encumbers the original. The running- titles and the names of the philosophers, will sufficiently guide any one who may wish to compare the translation with the original, and obviate all difficulty which might TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. ix result from such a change. The references to the sections have been uniformly corrected according to the numera- tion thus established ; and it is hoped that many errors will not be discovered in the voluminous and minute bibliography which has cost the translator so much care. To these trivial alterations I am compelled to add that I have judged it better to omit altogether a few passages which appeared to militate against Revealed Religion, rather than to alter or to soften them. These instances, however, are exceedingly rare. In this task, (the difficulty of which will be appreciated by few), I have been materially assisted by the excellent French translation of M. Victor Cousin'', well known in the philosophical and literary world for many important publications. His thorough acquaintance with the sub- ject, no less than his knowledge of German, admirably qualified him for the undertaking he has so well exe- cuted; and if it be sometimes the case that the *' Inter- preter is the harder of the two," the fault is not that of M. Cousin, but of the French language, which, at least to English apprehensions, often fails to convey as accu- rate a sense of metaphysical distinctions as that presented by the homespun compounds of the corresponding German. I have followed M. Cousin in placing the references at the bottom of the page, instead of incor- porating them with the text, as the German typographers delight in doing ; to the great embarrassment of the English reader, and to the visible disfigurement of the page. A very few references have been occasionally omitted, as belonging to points which did not appear to me necessary to be substantiated by a quotation. Occasionally, when an expression in M. Cousin's trans- lation has seemed to me more felicitous than the original it represents, I have endeavoured to give the spirit of the former : in one or two particulars also I have preferred his subdivisions, as being more simple than those of •» Manuel de I'Histoire de la Philosophie, traduit de I'Allemand de Tenne- mann, par V. Cousin, Paris et Bnueiles, 1829, 2 vols. 8vo. X TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. M. Wendt, and recommended by his perfect acquaint- ance with philosophical history. If I were to step for a moment out of the humble path of a translator, and offer a remark on the matter which has of late occupied so large a portion of my time, I should be inclined to suggest a conclusion very different from that with which Tennemann has summed up his great undertaking. He confidently anticipates that the disputes which, from the days of Thales, have continued to agitate the philosophical world, will all eventually conduct mankind to the discovery of true philosophy ; and that all the deviations of Human Reason from the right path will prove to have been only so many avenues to the desired object. Far different is the sentiment his translator is tempted to express ! Of these everlasting disputes what has been the result ? How little has been gained by endless controversy? System has expelled system only to succeed one another, like the phantas- magoria with which children are amused : one gaudy and disproportioned figure making way for another, — equally motley and equally unsubstantial ! When the learned Casaubon visited for the first time the Sorbonne, his pompous Cicerone exclaimed, ** Here, sir, is a court which for five hundred years has been the scene of incessant disputations ! " " Eh bien ! et qu'-a-t-on done prouve V demanded the acute Genevese. These endless disputes, however, and ineffectual efforts will not have been without their use, nor will the record of them have proved an unprofitable task, if they should lead the student to a conclusion widely different from that adopted by Tennemann, but resting on a much surer foundation. The inadequacy of Human Reason to satisfy its own requirements, ought to incline the learned and the wise a little to mistrust the guide to which they are apt to commit themselves without hesitation ; and the monstrous absurdities which have been embraced by many who had rejected the plain evidences of Revelation may convince us of the fallibility of the most acute under- standings, when they surrender themselves to their own TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. xi unlimited control. The most fantastical dreams of the wildest religious enthusiast were never more repugnant to common sense than the Neoplatonism of Proclus, the Absolute Identity of Schelling, or the Ego and Non-Ego ravings of Fichte. It is pleasing to reflect that those philosophers whose views in Science were the most profound and wise, were among the firmest friends of Revealed Religion. I regret that notwithstanding the pains that have been taken, some typographical errata occur, for which my absence from Oxford may not be thought a sufficient excuse. Some of these are noticed at the end, and it is hoped there are not many more, — the nature and extent of the work considered. I am fully sensible of other imperfections for which I alone am responsible, and for which my regret that they exist is no apology. Cheltenham, February \st, 1832. y A MANUAL OF THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY, SECTION I. A HISTORY of philosophy, to be complete, demands a preliminary inquiry respecting the character of this science, as well as respecting its subject-matter, its form, and object ; and also its extent or comprehensiveness, its method, its importance, and the different ways in which it may be treated. All these particulars, with the biblio- graphy belonging to it, will form, together with some previous observations on the progress of philosophic re- search, the subject of a general introduction. The par- ticular introduction will carry us on to the first period of this history, through a rapid survey of the religious and philosophical opinions of the Orientals, as well as the first attempts of the Greeks. B GENERAL INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. CHARACTER, EXTENT, METHOD, IMPORTANCE, DIVISION, AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE HIS- TORY OF PHILOSOPHY. I. Character of the History of Philosophy, ^ Ch. Leonh. Reinhold, On the Character of the History of Philosophy, in the collection of Fiilleborn ; Fasc. I. ^^ Geo. Fred. Dan. Goess, Essay on the Character of the History of Philosophy, and on the System of Thales, Erlangen^ 1794, 8vo. with a sketch of the proper limits of the History of Philosophy, Leips. 1798, Svo. •j- J. Christ. Aug. Grohmann, On the Character of the History of Philosophy, Wittenberg^ 1797, Svo. •f W. GoTTL. Tennemann, History of Philosophy, vol. i, Leips. 1798, 8vo. Dan. Boethius, De idea Historiae Philosophise rite formanda, Upsal, 1800, 4to. -|- Fred. Aug. Carus, Observations towards a History of Phi- losophy, Leips. 1809. •f Ch. Fred. Bachmann, On Philosophy and its History; three Academic lectures; Jena, 1811, 8vo. On the History of Phi- losophy, second edition, remodeled, with a dedication to Reinhold, Jena, 1820, Svo. "f Christ. Aug. Brandis, On the Character of the History of Philosophy, Copenhagen, 1815, Svo. 2. The human mind has a tendency to attempt to enlarge the bounds of its knowledge, and gradually to SECT. 2—6.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 5 aspire to a clear development of the laws and relations of nature, and of its own operations. At first it does nothing more than obey a blind desire, without account- ing to itself sufficiently for this instinctive impulse of the understanding, and without knowing the appropriate means to be employed, or the distance by which it is re- moved from its object. Insensibly, this impulse becomes more deliberate, and regulates itself in proportion to the progress of the understanding, which gradually becomes better acquainted with itself. Such a deliberate impulse, is what we call Philosophy. 3. Thereupon arise various attempts to Approximate this mental object of the understanding^: attempts more or less differing in respect of their principles, their methods, their consequences, their extent, and, in general, their peculiar objects. In all these attempts, (which take the name of Philosophic Systems, when they present themselves in a scientific form, and the value of which is proportionate to the degree of intelligence manifested by each particular philosopher;) we trace the gradual develop- ment of the human understanding, according to its pe- culiar laws. 4. But the development of human reason is itself subject to external conditions, and is sometimes se- conded, sometimes retarded, or suspended, according to the different impressions it receives from without. 5. To give an account of the different works pro- duced by the understanding, thus in the progress of im- provement, and favoured or impeded by external cir- cumstances is, in fact, to compose a history of philosophy. G. The subject-matter of the history of philosophy, is both external and internal. The internal or immediate * Weiller, Kajet., ilber das Verhiillniss der philos. Versuche zur Philos. (Schulschrift, 1812) in dem zweit. Bd. der akad. Reden und Abhandlungen, 1822, 8vo. b2 4 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. embraces, 1st. The efforts continually made by the un- derstanding to attain to a perception of the first principles of the great objects of its pursuit (§ 2), with many inci- dental details relating to the subject of investigation, the decfree of ardour or remissness which from time to time have prevailed ; with the influence of external causes to interest men in such pursuits, or the absence of them. Sdly. The effects of philosophy, or the views, methods, and systems it has originated ; effects varying with the en- ergies out of which they sprang. In these we see the un- derstanding avail itself of materials, perpetually accu- mulating towards constituting philosophy a science, or rules and principles for collecting materials to form a scientific whole ; or, finally, maxims relating to the me- thod to be pursued in such researches. 3dly and lastly : We observe the development of the understanding as an instrument of philosophy, that is to say, the pro- gress of the understanding towards researches in which it depends solely on itself; in other words its gradual progress towards the highest degree of independence : a progress which may be observed in individuals, in nations, and in the whole race of man. Observation. The history oi systems of philosophy is not to be confounded with the history of philosophy, 7. The external matter consists in the causes, events, and circumstances which have influenced the development of philosophic reason, and the nature of its productions. To this order of facts belong : I st. The individual history of philosophers, that is to say, the degree, the proportion, and the direction of their intellectual powers ; the sphere of their studies and their lives, the interests which swayed them, and even their moral characters. 2dly. The influence of external causes, that is to say, the character and the degree of mental cultivation pre- valent in the countries to which they belonged ; the prevailing spirit of the times ; and, to ascend still farther, the climate and the properties of the country ; its insti- tutions, religion, and language. 3dly. The influence of 7—11.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 5 individuals in consequence of the admiration and imita- tion they have excited, by their doctrines or example ; an influence which betrays itself in the matter as well as in the manner of their several schools. (Bacon, Locke, Leibnitz.) 8. The fonfi of the history of philosophy consists in the suitable arrangement of these two classes of materials, so as to make one scientific whole. Nevertheless, the result is modified, partly by the end of history in general, and partly by the special end of the history of philosophy. 9. History in general is distinguished, when properly so called, from Annals, Memoirs, etc. by its form : i. e. by the combination of its incidents, and their circumstantial development. 10. To enable the history of philosophy to satisfy an enlightened curiosity, not merely a vain and idle one, its object ought to be thoroughly to explore, through its continual alternations of improvement and declension, the progress of a philosophic spirit, and the gradual develop- ment of philosophy as a science. This end cannot be attained by a mere acquaintance with historic facts, but rather by contemplating their mutual dependence, and connecting their causes and effects. 11. The efforts of philosophic reason are internal to the mind ; but by their publication, and the influence they exert on the world without, they assume the charac- ter and enter into the combinations of external facts. The facts therefore which form a groundwork for the history of philosophy may be regarded as both external and internal; because, 1st. They stand in connection with chronology, as successive or contemporaneous events. 2dly. They have their external effects and causes. 3dly. They have their origin in the constitu- tution of the human understanding, developing themselves 6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. in a variety of combinations and mutual relations. 4tlily. They have reference to a mental object. 12. The formal character, therefore, of a history of philosophy will be modified according to the above four- fold relation, and by its proper end, which is to de- monstrate at once circumstantially and with a scientific view, the causes of every revolution, and its consequences. Observation. The circumstantial account does not consist merely in a chronological statement of a series of facts, but assumes such a series as its text and groundwork. It is very compatible with a scientific character in the history of philosophy; at the same time that it must be borne in mind, that a history of phi- losophy is not philosophy itself. See the work of Grohmann cited above, at the head of § 2. 13. Consequently, the history of philosophy is the science which details the efforts of the human understand- ing to realise the idea of philosophy, by exhibiting them in their mutual dependency: it is a systematic arrange- ment of facts illustrating the continual development of philosophy, as a science. Observation. There is a difference to be observed between the history of philosophy, and the history of mankind, — the history of the cultivation of the human understanding, and the history of the sciences. The biography of philosophers, the examination of their writings, the statement of their opinions, and the biblio- graphical history of philosophy in general, are either preliminary lights and aids, or constituent parts, of the history of philosophy. II. CompreJiensiveness and Commencement of the History of Philosophy. ' See in addition to the works cited above, at the head of § 2, 'j- BcERGE RiiSBRiGii, ou the Antiquity of Philosophy, and the Cha- racter of this Science, translated from the Danish into German by J. Amb. Markussen, Copenh. 1803, 8vo. 14. The history of philosophy does not affect to com- prehend all the ideas, hypotheses, and caprices which have found a place in minds addicted to philosophic re- searches ; such an attempt would be equally impracticable 12—17.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 7 and unprofitable. The only philosophic opinions which deserve to be recorded, are those which may claim to be so for their originality, their intrinsic worth, or their in- fluence in their own and subsequent epochs. 15. It must be granted that philosophy has had a beginn'mg, because it is nothing else than a superior de- gree of energy and activity in the exercise of reason, which must have been preceded by an inferior. But it is not necessary that the history of philosophy should embrace all its first efforts, or ascend up to the very cradle of our species. 16. No sufficient reason has been alleged to induce a belief in the existence of a Primitive Philosophic People, with whom philosophy might be supposed to have com- mence(Jj and from whom all philosophic knowledge might have emanated ; for an aptness to philosophise is natural to the human mind, and has not been reserved exclusively for any one people. The very hypothesis of such a peo- ple would remove only one step farther the question of the origin of philosophy. Nor must we dignify with the name of science the symbolical notions of some of the earlier races, which did not as yet clearly apprehend and grapple with their objects. Observation. The idea of a Primitive Philosophic People is founded; 1st. On the hypothesis that all instruction came by revelation. 2dly. In the tendency of the understanding to re- fer correspondent facts to the same origin. 3dly. In the attempt to render certain doctrines more venerable by their high antiquity. The general cause is to be sought in the indolence natural to hu- man nature, and the habit of confounding opinions which have a semblance of philosophy with philosophy itself. The writers who have devoted themselves to the critical examination of history with a theological view, have declared the Hebrews to be the primitive race ; others (like Plessing) the Egyptians ; and these last have recently (since the writings of Fred. Schlegel), been displaced by the Hindoos. 17. Although we discover in every people the traces of a spirit of scientific inquiry, nevertheless this general 8 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. disposition does not appear to have developed itself in all in an equal degree : nor has philosophy among all attained to the character of a science. In general, it seems as if nature employed the civilization of one nation as the means of civilizing others, and accorded only to a few the distinction of originality in intellectual discovery. Consequently, all nations have not an equal claim to a place in the history of this science. The first belongs to those among whom the spirit of philosophy, origi- nally aided by a slight external impulse, has felt itself sufficiently strong to advance to independent re- searches, and to gain ground in the paths of science ; the second belongs to such as, without possessing so much originality and spontaneous exertion, have adopted philosophic ideas from others, — have made them their own, and thereby exerted an influence over the destinies of philosophy. 18. The Greeks are the nation whose originality of genius has created an era in the history of this science. In fact, although they were dependent for part of their first civilization on other nations, and have received from foreio-ners certain materials and incitements to the study of philosophy, we can perceive that they evinced them- selves a lively and sincere interest in such investigations, and among them this curiosity assumed a scientific cha- racter, and imparted the same to the language itself. It is among the Greeks, then, that we find for the first time a truly philosophic spirit, united to literature and good taste, and a scientific spirit of investigation which center- ed in the contemplation of the Nature of Man : to this succeeded the desire of investigating to the end and con- solidating these first bases of study (the origin this of scepticism) ; and at length ensued the formation of a phi- losophic language and method. We have moreover posi- tive and certain testimonies to enable us to follow, on grounds altogether historical, the origin and develop- ment of the philosophic literature of this nation. We may add that the philosophy and, in general, the science 18—20.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 9 of the Greeks naturally combine and form a wliole with those of more recent nations. 19. The Orientals, prior to the Greeks in point of antiquity and the date of their civilization, never attained to the same eminence, at least as far as we are enabled to judge. Their doctrines were constantly invested with the character of Revelation, diversified by the imagina- tion under a thousand different aspects. Even among the Hindoos they wear a form altogether mystical and sym- bolical. It was the genius of these nations to clothe in the colours of the fancy the opinions of the understanding, and a certain number of speculative notions, more or less capriciously conceived, in order to render them more evident ; without troubling themselves to examine the operations of mind and their principles ; with its move- ments progressive and retrograde. The notions respecting the Deity, the world, and mankind, which these nations incontestably entertained, were not, with them, the causes nor the consequences of any true philosophy. Their climate, their political constitution, and despotic govern- ments, with the institution of castes, were often ob- stacles to the free development of the mind. Besides, the history of these nations continues still to be involved in obscurity ; there is a want of positive and certain in- formation ; and the relation their intellectual progress bears to the history of philosophy cannot as yet be sufficiently ascertained. Observation. There are some interesting remarks on the Greek and Oriental characters, and on the causes of their diver- sity in the work off J. Aug. Eberhart, entitled the Spirit ofPri- mitive Christianity, vol. i, p. 63, sqq. What is generally under- stood by the Barbaric philosophy ? See Diog. Laert. I, 1, sqq. 20. The true commencement, therefore, of the his- tory of philosophy must be sought among the Greeks, and particularly at that epoch when, by the progress of imagination and intellect, the activity of the understand- ing had attained a high degree of development : an 10 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. epoch when the minds of men become more independent of rehgion, poetry, and politics, apphed themselves to the investigation of truth, and devoted themselves to regular studies. This state of things may be referred to the epoch of Thales. The different directions and forms which, in the course of ages, this spirit of philosophic research assumed ; and the effects, of every kind, which it produced, derived, through different channels, from the Greeks to the moderns, constitute the province of the history of philosophy. Observation. The definition of the true limits of the history of philosophy has only of late become an object of inquiry : (the system of ethnography, or partial histories of particular nations) opposing itself to anything like a precise limitation, and even yet there is nothing satisfactorily determined on this point ; only Tiedemann would exclude the Orientals. The reasons assigned on the other hand by f Carus, Thoughts on the History of Philoso- phy, p. 143, and -J-Bachmann, On Philosophy and its History, and the same author. Dissert. Pliilos. de peccatis Tennemanni in historia Philosophise, Jen. 1814, 4to., fail to prove that they necessarily belong to philosophy. It is true that a great interest attaches to the investigation of their doctrines, but we must distinguish well between this and the proper interest of the history of philosophy. On the whole, it may not be useless to preface the statement of Greek philosophy, by a brief review of the j)hilosophic and religious opinions of the principal nations who, in a greater or less degree, have had relations with the Greeks. III. Method, Consult, besides the works cited before (§ 2) -j" Christ. Garve, De ratione scribendi historiam Philosoj^hiae, Lips. 1768, 4to. and Legendorum veterum praecepta nonnulla et exemplum. Lips. 1770, 4to. both contained in Fulleborn's Collection, etc. Fasci- culi xi, xii. j- Geo. Gust. Fulleborn, Plan of a History of Philosophy, in the iv. Fasc. of his Collection ; and, -j" What is meant by a representation of the Spirit of Philosophy ? Fasc. v. •f Christ. Weiss, On the Method of treating the History of Philosophy in the Universities, Leips. 1800. 521. The Methody determined by the end of the sci- 21—23.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. U ence (§ 10), consists in the rules agreeably to which the materials ought to be investigated, collected, prepared, and combined to form a whole. 22, The materials for the history of philosophy may be either accidentally met with, or methodically inves- tigated. In the latter case we ought to inquire especially what are the authorities and what should be the procedure of a well-directed research. The sources to which we may have recourse are of two sorts ; the works themselves of philosophers which have descended to us ; and the notices afforded by other writers concerning the lives and the doc- trines of these philosophers ; testimonies, the authenticity and probability of which should be critically examined. The less that any philosopher has written, or the less his writings have been preserved, the more we should seek to collect information from other authors ; but, at the same time, the more necessary it becomes to be cautious in our adoption of such information ^ When only fragments remain, it is well to consider them not only philosophically but critically. 23. Besides collecting the propositions of philoso- phers, it becomes necessary to study their true sense, their extent, their origin, and their mutual connection % in order to be enabled to assume the true point of view in which the philosopher himself stood, and to appreciate the merit of his labours, without exaggeration, and without injustice. The means to this end are a perfect acquaintance with his contemporaries, with the idioms of the language, and the course of men's ideas at that time ; as well as a compai'ison of different authorities and testimonies with a view to ascer- taining their credibility. In order to attain to a faithful and true representation of the meaning and the merit of difJerent philosophical systems, it is indispensably neces- •» See H. KuHNHAnoT, De fide historicoruni recte aestinianda in Hist. Philo- sophiae. Helmst. 1796, 4to. •= Apply this, for example, to the uatunc convenienter vivere of tlie Stoics, and their aKaraXrj^ljia. 12 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. sary that we should compare one philosophical doctrine with analogous ones, whether contemporary or posterior ; that we should determine with care its points of approxi- mation and divergency; that we should investigate its place in the general system of its author, and the manner in which he appears to have been led to this doctrine ; in which particular, care must be taken to distinguish be- tween internal principles and external causes. 24. The management of the materials thus critically analyzed, demands a particular care in the choice of ex- pression ; particularly in the case of technical terms, which it is necessary to render with perspicuity ; without, however, giving them too foreign an air and character, e. g. the e|i?, habitus, of Chrysippus. For the connection of these materials, it will result from that chronological and systematic dependency of which we have spoken (§ 2), and especially from their joint relation to the final object and end of the understanding (§ 3). Ohservation. The particular ends contemplated in such a work may justify a certain diversity in the manner and method of it : and may help to resolve the question (according to cir- cumstances), whether it should be accompanied or not by cri- ticism. 25. In combining these materials into a whole it is necessary to direct an earnest and constant attention to the development of reason, and to the progressive ad- vancement of science. With this view we should establish points of repose, consisting in divisions and subdivisions, which ought, not merely to enable the reader the better to glance over the work, but should offer a clearer view of the whole, and of the mutual relation of its parts. Observation. The ethnographical method, which prevailed up to the time of Tiedemann, is useful for a collection of the ma- terials proper for a general or special history of philosophy ; but will not form such a history itself. 26. Assuming the above principle, it is required to 24—27.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 18 constitute distinct epochs: 1st. That a sensible progress should have taken place in the improvement of reason, and that new lights and new principles should have been introduced into philosophy itself, influencing the scientific combination of acquired knowledge. 2dly. That great external events should have had a powerful and lasting influence over philosopliy ^. 27. Three principal periods may be defined in the history of philosophy. First period : Comprising an ac- count of the eftbrts of the understanding to acquire a knowledge of first principles, and the laws of nature, and freedom of will and action ; without a clear conscious- ness of the method most conducive to such knowledge : — Greek and Roman philosophy. Second period : Efforts of the understanding towards the same end, but under the influence of a principle superior to itself, derived from Revelation ; subsequently an impulse to free itself from any imposed restraint ; followed by a fresh subjuga- tion to another arbitrary formulary ; a spirit exclusively dialectic : — Philosophy of the Middle Ages. Third pe- riod: Fresh and independent exertions towards the discovery of first principles ; with the purpose of ar- ranging all human knowledge in a more complete and systematic form ; an epoch remarkable for the manner in w^hich it has contributed to investigate, found, and de- fine the principles of philosophy as a science. — Modern Philosophy. Krug, in his History of Ancient Philosophy, p. 28, admits only two divisions, that of ancient and modern philosophy. He assumes as the line of demarcation the dechne of govern- ment, manners, arts, and sciences, during the first five or six centuries of the Christian era. IV. Importance of this History. ■f Fr. Ant. Zimmermann, Dissertation on the Utility of the History of Philosophy, Heidelb. 1785, 4to. <* Dan. Boethius, De praecipuis Philosophiae epochis. Lond, 1800, 4to. 14 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. if Geo. Gust. Fulleborn, Some general Deductions from the Hist, of Philosophy in his Collection, Fasc. iv, and, On certain Ad- vantages resulting from the History of Ancient Philosophy, Fasc xi. •f H. RiTTER, On the Advancement of Philosophy through the History of Philosophy (a supplement to his work, On the Influence of Descartes), Leips. 1816, 8vo. 28. If philosophy may claim the highest interest, as the most elevated of human sciences, its history, for the same reason, ought to possess a great importance. Whoever is interested in philosophy ought not to be ignorant of its history, and progress. 29. The history of philosophy, besides, possesses a scientific merit peculiar to itself; it disposes the mind to a free employment of its powers, furnishes it with useful results, respecting the proper method to be fol- lowed, renders it more sensible to its aberrations, with their causes and consequences, and thereby furnishes a valuable assistance towards establishing rules for a right conduct of the understanding, in order to the attainment of new lights, and discovery of fresh paths : sources of information indispensable to philosophy, so long as it must be considered as in a progressive state, and not yet fully matured. SO. The history of philosophy has a connection with all the other sciences and their history ; more especially with the history of Religion and of Mankind, because Reason is the basis of all knowledge, and embraces the ultimate end of all theoretical and all practical employ- ment of our faculties. 31. As a department of study, such history may ma- terially improve the understanding, all the powers of which it exercises in the research and exposition of the different systems. Nor is it less calculated to in- fluence the habits of the mind, inasmuch as it teaches the renunciation of prejudices, modesty in forming an opinion, and tolerance of the opinions of others: its 28—32.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 15 tendency is to secure the mind from exaggerated ad- miration, and to moderate attachment to opinions re- ceived on the faith of authority. Observation. On the other hand, has not the study of the liistory of philosophy its disadvantages ? Wliat are they, and how do they present themselves ? — Indecision, and hesitation of judgment, indifference to the truth and the value of every rational research, can only be effects of a light and superficial study, where the diversity of opinions is the only thing con- templated, without regard had to their principles : where the difference of doctrines is the only thing attended to, without ascending to the points of union which they have in common. Here may be applied what Bacon says of philosophy. V. Different ways in which the History of Philosophy may he treated. 32. The history of philosophy divides itself into uni- versal and particular, according to the extent of the objects which it may be the author's design to embrace. The first is the statement, by facts, of the progress of philosophy, considered as Science in general, in its prin- cipal directions, and its most conspicuous results. This sort of history embraces a consideration of the principles of all philosophy ; the most distinguished systems of philosophers ; and the progress which they have ena- bled the philosophical sciences to make in their several departments. The second is employed about instances of the progress of the understanding confined within certain limits of time and place ; and limited to cer- tain particular directions, or certain special objects of philosophy. Observation, f Carus, Thoughts on the History of Philosophy, p. 106, defines the universal history of philosophy as, " the na- tural history of human reason, its pursuits and productions." But he takes this definition in so loose a sense, that he gives us, instead of historic facts, nothing but a meagre and barren abstract of general conclusions. This way of viewing the matter does not answer the true end of a history of philosophy ; the second chapter of this general introduction contains the sub- stance of it. 16 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. sect. 33. The universal history of philosophy, may be pre- sented in an abridged or a detailed form. The principle of a good abridgment is to present a review, as complete as possible, of all the essential subjects of discussion, with a due regard to perspicuity and brevity. Truth, impartiality, and conciseness are of course requisite. 34. Agreeably to what has been laid down (§ 32) we may define many kinds of particular histories of phi- losophy; such as, 1st. (From a relation to certain times or places ;) histories of the philosophy of particular epochs ; e. g. — of the ancients, of the middle ages, or of the moderns ; with numerous subdivisions, embracing histories of the philosophy of this or that particular nation. Sdly. (From a relation to certain particular pursuits or special objects of philosophy;) histories of systems or schools, or literary questions, taken separately; of different philosophical methods ; of the technical lan- guage of philosophy ; histories of certain branches of philosophy ; histories of certain philosophical notions, principles, or theories. If a particular philosophical history be limited to one single object, we have then a special history — a monography. S5. There is an intimate relation between particular and universal history. The first supplies the other with useful and various materials ; but the latter, in its turn, develops general views, and affords lights for the exam- ination and exposition of the particular details. Conse- quently they can only become perfect when united. VI. Various Histories of Philosophy. 36. The history of philosophy has not been separately treated, as a distinct science, by the ancient philosophers. They have touched upon the subject only while occupied with the statement of their own doctrines, and only so far as the points they adverted to bore a relation to what S3— 36. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 17 they taiiglit tliemselves, in which respect the critical judg- ment of Aristotle threw a light upon the opinions of his predecessors. A collection of historic documents illus- trative of the gradual development of philosophy, was the first step towards a history of the science. Even in modern times the earliest attempt at this sort of history was made in the form of a compilation, and the model assumed was the work of Diogenes Laertius. The pre- vailing notion of the time was that of a primitive phi- losophic race (§ IG), and that all philosophy was derived from revelation; the etknogra2:)/tical method heing adopted in the execution (cf. § 25, obs.). First period. Bcnjle awakened a spirit of criticism in this kind of under- taking; Jac. Thomasius extended the circle of study necessary to the same; and Leibmt;^ indicated what the history of philosophy ought to be. Second period, from Brucker to Tennemann : philology and criticism improved the materials collected ; some imperfections in the works of the preceding age were corrected, and the science assumed more elevated pretensions. Brucker published the most complete work yet known, which, by a laborious assemblage of documents, by the judiciousness of his remarks, and particularly by what it contains on the biography of the philosophers, con- tinues to be useful: but is deficient in a philosophic spirit. Gurlett and Tiedemann pursued a better method, and rendered great services to its special history. — From Kant to our own time ; a zealous industry has been applied to its improvement in respect of theory and method; and, in consequence of the inquiries which this new sort of study has suggested, examination has been made of its proper sources and principles ; documents have been revised, and their contents more ably stated ; under the influence, more or less sensible, of a philoso- phical spirit and system^. The German nation has done ^ See a review of the principal services rendered to the history of philosophy since 1780, in the Philosophical Journal of Nieth.ammer, 1795, Nos. viii. and ix. Tennemann's Review of tlie Labours of the liiitory of Philosophy in the last fifteen years of the eighteenth Century, iu the Ergihnhl. der Allg. C 18 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. the most for this description of history, as regards both its manner and its matter; but there is still occasion for much labour in this extensive field. VII. Bibliography of the History of Philosophy, 87. Under this head are comprehended the works re- lative to the history of philosophy in general and in par- ticular. We shall particularise the writings on individual subjects, as they shall come under consideration. The works on t^e universal history of philosophy may be arranged under five heads : (a) Treatises on its Litera- ture and Method, (b) Collections, (c) Miscellanies. (d) Detailed histories, (e) Outlines. (a) Bibliographical Treatises. J. JoNsius, De scriptoribus Hist. Philosophicae libri iv, Francof. 1659. — Recogniti et ad praesentem aetatem usque perducti, cura J. Chr. Dorn, Jen. 1716, 8vo. •f J. Andr. Ortloff, Bibliographical Manual of the History of Philosophy, Erlcmgen, 1798, 8vo. part i, never completed. N. B. The Treatises on Method have been cited under the preceding sections. (b) Collections. Jac. Thomasii, Schediasma historicum, quo varia discutiuntur ad liistoriam turn philosophicam turn ecclesiasticam pertinentia. Lips. 1665, •4to. The same work under this title : Origines historiae philos. et ecclesiast., cura Chr. Thomasii, Hal. 1699, 8vo. J. Franc Buddei, Analecta Historiae Philosophiae, Hal. 1706, 8vo. second edition, 1724, 8vo. -j" Acta Philosophonim : by Chr. Aug. Heumann, 3 vols. Svo. Hal. 1715-23. Jac Bruckeri, Otium Vindelicum, sive meletematum Histo- rico-philosophicorum triga, Aug. Find. 1729, Svo. Miscellanea historiae philosophicae, litterariae, criticae, olim sparsim edita, etc. Aug. Find. 1748, Svo. "6' ' """^* ' • ^^> Lit. Z. 1801, s. 81—147, and Carus, Hints on the History of Philosophy Leips. 1809, s. 21—90. 37.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 19 CiiR. Ern. de Windiieim, Fragnientu historioe philosopliioae, etc. Erl. IToS, 8vo. With essays of various other authors. f Micii. HisMANN, Magazine of Philosophy and its History, Goett'uig. et Leips. 1778-83, 6 vols. 8vo. In this work arc many essays translated from the Academic Royale des Inscrip- tions, etc. ■j- Geo. Gust. Fuelleborn, Collection of Pieces towards a History of Philosophy, ZuUkhau, 1791-99, Fasc. xii, 8vo. Guill. Traugott Krug, Symbolae ad Histor. Philosophiae, Le'ips. 1813, 4to. Part first. f J. Fred. Fries, Pieces towards a History of Philosophy, Heidelberg, Fasc. i. (cj Miscellanies, containing researches and remarks on the History of Philosophy. The true Intellectual System of the Universe, by Ralph Cud- worth, etc. Lond. 1678, folio, second edition, by Birch, 1743, 2 vols. 4to. and 8vo. Lond. 1820, and Oxford, 1829. CuDwoRTHi Systema Intellectuale hujus Universi, seu de veris naturas rerum originibus commentarii, quibus omnis eorum phi- losophia qui Deum esse negant, funditus evertitur : accedunt reliqua ejus opuscula, Jen. 1733, folio; second edition, Leyd. 1773, 2 vols. 4to. translated by Mosheim [with the addition of many learned notes and dissertations by the translator.]. HuETii, Demonstratio Evangelica, Paris, 1679, folio, often republished. Dictionnaire historique et critique, par J. Bayle, Rotterd. 1697, 2 vols, folio. The best edition is the fourth, reviewed and augmented by Desmaizeaux, Amst. et Leid. 1740, 4 vols, folio. Various translations and extracts. [A continuation lias been published by J. G. Ciiaufpie, Amst. 1750, likewise in 4 vols, folio.] f Ern. Platner, Philosophical Aphorisms, with some Prin- ciples for a History of Philosophy, Leij)s. 1782, 2 vols. 8vo. a second edition, 1793-1800, 8vo. (d) Detailed Histories. The History of Philosophy by Thomas vStanley, Lond. 1655, folio, third edition, 1701, 4to. Latin translation with corrections by GoDEFR. Olearius, Historia Philos. Lips. 1711, 4to. et Ven. 1733, 4to. Histoire critique de la Philosophic, ou Ton traite de son Origine, de ses Progres et des diverses Revolutions qui lui sont arrivees jusqu'a notre temps, par M. D*** (Andr. Fr. Boureau Des- c 2 20 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. L Andes), Paris, 1730-36, 3 vols. Another edition, Atnsterd, 3 vols. 8vo. f J. J. Brucker, Questions on the History of Philosophy, Ulm, 1731-36, 7 vols. 12mo. with a Supplement, 1737, 12mo. J. Bruckeri, Historia critica Philosophise a Mundi incunabu- lis, etc. Lips. 1742-44, 5 vols. 4to. anew edition without altera- tions, but augmented by a Supplement, 1766-67, 6 vols. 4to. An English Abridgment by W. Enfield, History of Philosophy from the earliest times, etc. Lond. 1791, 2 vols. 4to. again in 8vo. 2 vols. Agatopisto Cromaziano (Appiano Buonafede), Delia Istoria e della indole di ogni Filosofia, Lucca, 1766-71, 5 vols. 8vo. Again Venice, 1782-83, 6 vols. 8vo. For the continuation of this work see § 38 (a). -j" History of Philosophy for Amateurs, by J. Christ. Ade- LUNG, Leips. 1786-87, second edition, 1809, 3 vols. 8vo. -f- J. Glieb Buhle, History of Philosophical Reason, Lemgo, 1793, 8vo. vol. I. Instead of this work, which he did not con- tinue, Buhle published f A Compendium of the History of Phi- losophy, and a critical Bibliography of this ScieiKje, Goetting. 1796-1804, 8 vols. 8vo. We may here add the work cited in § 38. on Modern Philosophy, which is preceded by a Review of the Ancient Systems of Philosophy up to the fifteenth century. -j- G. Gottlieb Tennemann, History of Philosophy, Leips. 1798-1819, 11 vols. 8vo. One vol. of second edition published by A. Wendt, 1828. Degerando, Histoire comparee des Systemes de la Philo- sophic, 1804, 3 vols. 8vo. second edition, augmentee, 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1822. A German translation by Tennemann, Marburg, 1806-7, 2 vols. 8vo. ■\ J. Henr. Mart. Ernesti, An Encyclopedic Manual of General Hist, of Philos. and its Bibliography, Lemgo, 1807, 8vo. -f- Fred. Aug. Carus, Hints for a Hist, of Philos. Leips. 1809, 2 vols. 8vo. (in the fourth volume of his posthumous works). f E. G. Steck, the History of Philosophy, vol. I, Riga, 1805, 8vo. -j- C. J. H. WiNDiscHMANN, Die Philosophic im Fortgang der Weltgeschichte, Bonn, 1827, 8vo. (e) OidUnes. Omitting the sketches of the History of Philosophy, which, since tlie time of Buddeus, may be found at the head of many Manuals of Philosopliy, we shall merely notice the following abstracts : 37.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 21 Geo. Hornii, Historia Philosophica, Lugd. Bat. 1655, 4to. Laur. Reinharti, Compend. Hist. Philosoph. Lips. 1724, 8vo. Jo. GoTTL. Heineccii, Element Hist. Philosopliicae, Berol'in. 1743, 8vo. -f- J. Brucker, Abridgment of his Questions on the History of Philosophy, Ulm, 173G, 12mo. with additions, 1737; under the title of Elements of the Hist, of Philos. Ulm, 1751, 8vo. •j" J. Bruckeri, Institutiones Hist. Philosophicoe, Lips. 1747, 8vo. second edition, 1756, third edition, by Fr. Gottl Born, Leips. 1790, 8vo. -j- C. G. "VV. LoDTMANN, Brief Sketch of the History of Phi- losophy, Helmst. 1754, 8vo. Forme Y, Abrege de I'Histoire de la Philosophic, Amstd. 1760, 8vo. "f Fr. Ant. Buesching, Sketch of the History of Philosophy, Berlin, 1772-74, 2 vols. 8vo. -|- Christ. Meiners, Sketch of the History of Philosophy, Lemgo, 1786, 8vo. second edition, 1789. •f Jo. GuRLiTT, Sketch of the History of Philosophy, Leips. 1786, 8vo. f Fr. Xav. Gmeiner's, Literary History of the Origin and Progress of Philosophy, and of its Sects and Systems, Greiz. 1788-89, 11 vols. 8vo. f J. Aug. Eberhard, General History of Philosophy, Halle, 1788, second edition, 1796, 8vo. Abstract of a general History, Halle, 1794, 8vo. -f Geo. Socher, Historical Sketch of the Systems of Philo- sophy from the Greeks to Kant, Munich, 1802, 8vo. f Fred. Ast, Sketch of the History of Philosophy, LandsJmt, 1807, 8vo. -|- Ch. Aug. Schaller, Manual of the History of Philosophi- cal Discoveries, etc. forming the second part of the Magaz. fiir Yerstandesiibungen, Halle, 1809, 8vo. ■f- Ph. L. Snell, Brief Sketch of the History of Philosophy : Part first, History of Ancient Philosophy, Geissen, 1813, 8vo. Part second. History of the Philosophy of the ^Middle ages, Ibid. 1819, 8vo. f Gaeten Weiller, Sketch of the History of Philosophy, Munich, 1813, 8vo. f Jos. Hillebrand, History and Methodical Systems of Philosophy, forming the second part of his Introduction to Phila- sophy, Heidelberg^ 1819, 8vo, 22f GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. -j- A. T. RixNER, Manual of the History of Philosophy, 3 vols. Salz. 1822-23, 8vo. f L. Hamerskold, Outlines of the History of Philosophy from the earliest times to the present, Stockholm, 1822, 8vo. 38. Works on the history of philosophy in detail: classed according to the distinctions given in § 34. I. (a) Histories of particular epochs. •f W. Traug. Krug, History of Ancient Philosophy particu- larly among the Greeks and Romans, Leips. 1827, 8vo. second edition. ■f Christoph. Meiners, Memoirs towards a History of the Opinions prevalent during the first centuries after the birth of Jesus Clirist, Leips. 1782, 8vo. Agatopisto Cromaziano (Appiano Buonafede), Delia ris- taurazione di ogni Filosofia nei secoli xv, xvi, xvii. This work may be considered as a sequel of one by the same author, mentioned in the preceding §. Venice, 1789, 3 vols. 8vo. -f A German translation, with corrections and additions, by Ch. Heydenreich, Leips. 1791-92, 2 vols. Svo. •f J. GoTTL. Buhle, History of Modern Pliilosophy from the revival of Letters, Goetting. 1800-5, 6 vols. 8vo. Cf. § 37 (d). -j- A. Kayssler, Memoirs towards a Critical History of Mo- dem Philosoj)hy, Halle, 1804, large 8vo. -j- Cii. Fred. Bachmann, On the Philosophy of our own Times, Jena, 1816, 8vo. -i- K. J. H. WiNDiscHMANN, Critical Reflections upon the fate of Philosophy in modern times, and the commencement of a new era, Francof. 1825, 8vo. (b) Histories of the Philosophy of particular nations. (For writings on the philosophy of the most ancient nations, see below § 68, and following.) CicERONis, Historia Philosophise antiquse ; ex omnibus illius scriptis collegit, etc. Frid. Gedike, Berl. 1782; second edition, 1801, Svo. •f Fr. Vict. Lebrecht Plessing, Historical and Philosophi- cal Researches on the Opinions, the Theology, and Philo- sophy of the most Ancient Nations, and particularly of the 38.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 23 Greeks up to the time of Aristotle, Elbing, 1785, part the first, 8vo. f Fr. Vict. Lebreciit Plessing, Memnonium, or Researches to elucidate the Mysteries of Antiquity, Le'ips. 1787, 2 vols. 8vo. -|- Fr. Vict. Lebreciit Plessing, Researches to illustrate the Pliilosophy of the most remote Antiquity, Le'ips. 1788, 2 vols. 8vo. Berchetti, Filosofia degli antichi popoli, Perugia, 1812, 8vo. f Cur. Meiners, History of the Origin, the Progress, and the Decline of the Sciences in Greece and Rome, Lemgo, 1781-82, 2 vols. 8vo. incomplete. The Philosophy of Ancient Greece investigated hy W. An- derson, Loud. 1791, 4to. (Fr. de Salignac de la Motiie Fenelon,) Abrege des Vies des Anciens Philosophes, etc. Paris, 1795, 8vo. 1796, 12mo. Deffendente Sacchi, Storia della Filosofia Greca, Pavia, 1818-20, 4 vols. 8vo. (Brought down to the times of the So- phists.) f G. Fred. Dan. Goess, The Science of Education on the Principles of the Greeks and Romans, Ansixich. 1801, 8vo. Paganinus Gaudentius, De Philosophiae apud Romanes origine et progressu, Pisa, 1643, 4to. Reprinted in the Collec- tion, Nova rariorum Collectio, Fasc. ii, iii, Halce, 1717. J. L. Blessig, Diss, de Origine Philosophicse apud Romauos, Strashurg, 1770, 4to. IL (a) Histories of different Fhilosophical Methods, Systems, and Schools. J. Gerh. Vossii, De Philosophiae et Philosophonim sectis lib. ii, Hag. Com. 1658, 4to. contin. atque supplementa adjecit. Jo. Jac. a Ryssel, Lips. 1690, 4to. again Jena^, 1705, 4to. •j" C. Fr. St.eudlin, History and Spirit of Scepticism, princi- pally in relation to Morals and Religion, Leips. 1794-95, 2 vols. 8vo. Imman. Zeender, De notione et generibus Scepticismi et hodierna praesertim ejus ratione, Bern. 1795, 8vo. For writings relative to particular schools of philosophy, see the places wherein these schools are mentioned. 24 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. fb) History of the Philosophical Sciences in detail. B. T. (Bas. Terzi) Storia critica delle Opinioni Filosoficlie, etc. intorno all' anima. Padova, 1776-78, 8vo. ■f Fr. Aug. Carus, Historj^ of Philosophy, Leips. 1808 (third vol. of his posthumous works). Pet. Gassendi, De Origine et varietate Logical, opp. torn. I. Ger. Jo. Vossii, De Natura et Constitutione Logicae, etc. Hag. Com. 1658. Jo. Alb. Fabricii, Specimen elenchticum Historiae Logicae, Hamh. 1699, 4to. JoH. Ge. Walch, Historia Logicae, in his, Parerga Academica, p. 453, sqq. Leips. 1721, 8vo. JoACH. Geo. Daries, Meditationes in Logicas veterum. Ap- pendix to his. Via ad Veritatem, Jena, 1755, 8vo. •f Fuelleborn, Brief History of Logic among the Greeks, in his Collection, Fasc. iv, No. 4. J. Gottlieb Buhle, De vetermn Philosophorum Graecorum ante Aristotelem conaminibus in arte Logica invenienda et perfi- cienda. In the Commentatt. Soc. Goetting. tom. x. * * * f W. L. G. VON Eberstein, Attempt at a History of Logic and Metaphysics among the Germans, from the time of Leibnitz to the present day, Halle, 1794-99, 2 vols. 8vo. Jac. Tiiomasii, Hist, variae fortunae, quam disciplina Meta- physica jam sub Aristotele, jam sub scholasticis, jam sub re- centioribus experta est ; at the head of his, Erotemata Metaphy- sica, Lips. 1705, 8vo. Sam. Fred. Buchner, Historia Metaphysices, Wtttemh. 1723, 8vo. LuD. R. Wachlin, Diss, de progressu Philos. Theoreticae, sec. xviii, Lund. 1796, 4to. B. T. (Bazil. Terzi), Storia critica delle Opinioni Filosof. etc. intorno alia Cosmologia, Pad. 1788, 8vo. tom. I. f Dietrich Tiedemann, Spirit of Sjoeculative Philosophy, Marhurg, 1791-97, with a table, 7 vols. 8vo. brought down to Berkeley. 38.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 25 -j- Result of Philosophical Researches on the Nature of Hu- man Knowledge, from Plato to Kant, by Th. Aug. Suabedissen. A prize composition. Marburg, 1808, 8vo. -|" Prize Compositions on the Question : What has been the Progress of Metaphysics in Germany, from the time of Leibnitz and Wolf? by J. Christ. Schwab, Ch. Leonh. Reinhold, J. H. Abicht, Berlin, 1708, 8vo. Fred. Ancillon, Melanges de Litterature et de Philosophiaj, 2 vols. Paris, 1809, 8vo. * * * De Burigny, Histoire de la Philosophic payenne, ou Sentimens des Philosophes et des peuples payens, etc. sur Dieu, sur Tame, et siir les devoirs de I'homme, La Hayc, 1723, 2 vols. 12mo. The same work, under the title of. La Theologie payenne, etc. Paris, 1753, 2 vols. 12mo. •j" J. Achates Fel. Bielke, History of Natural Theology, Leips. et Zelle, 1742, 8vo. A new History of Human Reason, Part first, 1749, Part second, 1752, 4to. Zelle, ■\ Mich. Fr. Leistikow, Memoir towards a History of Natu- ral Theology, Jena, 1750, 4to. "f J. Ge. Alb. Kipping, Essay towards a Philosophical His- tory of Natural Theology, Brunswick, 1761, Part first, 8vo. •f Chr. F. Polz, History of Natural Theology (in his, Natu- ral Theology), Jena, 1777, 4to. -j- Ph. Christ. Reinhard, Sketch of a History of the Origin and Development of Religious Opinions, Jena, 1794, 8vo. -j- Imman. Berger, History of Religious Philosophy, Berlin, 1800, 8vo. and Reflections on the Philosophy of Ecclesiastical History in St.eudlin's Beytr. Book iv, Fasc 5 (1798). ^ ^ -Jp Chr. Godefr. Ewerbeck, Super doctrinae de moribus His- toria, ejus fontibus, conscribendi ratione et utilitate, Halle, 1787, 8vo. ■f Geo. Sam. Francke, Answer to the question proposed by the Scientific Society of Copenhagen : Quinam sunt notabiliores gra- dus per quos philosophia practica, ex quo tempore systematica pertractari coepit, in eum quem hodie obtinet statum pervenerit? Altona, 1801, 8vo. Nic. HiERON. GuNDLiNG, Historia Philos. Moralis, Pars i, Hal. 170G, 4to. f Gottlieb Stolle, History of Heathen Morality, Jenar 1714, 4to. 26 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. ■f J. Barbeyrac, Preface to his French translation of the Jus Natura of PufFendorf, Basle, 1732, 4to. containing a History of Morals and Natural Right. George England, Inquiry into the Morals of the Ancients, Lond. 1757, 4to. •f Christ. Meiners, General and Critical History of Ancient and Modern Ethics, Goetting. 1800-1, Part second, 8vo. •\ C. Fr. St^udlin, History of the Philosophy of Hebrew and Christian Morals, Hanover, 1805, 8vo. and History of Moral Philosophy, Hanover, 1823, 8vo. -|" Leop. von Henning, Principles of Etliics, historically de- veloped, Berl. 1824, 8vo. ■^ J. Christ. F. Meister, On the Reasons of the Disagree- ment among Philosophers with respect to the Fundamental Principles of Moral Philosophy, at the same time that they agree on particular points of the same, 1812, 8vo. * * * J AC. Fr. Ludovici, Delineatio Historise Juris Divini Naturalis et Positivi Universalis, Halle, 1701, second edition, 1714, 8vo. Jo. Franc. Buddei, Hist. Jur. Naturalis in his Selectis Jur. Nat. et g. Cal. 1717, 8vo. Chr. Thomasii, Paulo plenior Historia Juris Naturalis, Hal. 1719, 4to. "j- Adr. Fr. Glafey, Complete History of the Rights of Rea- son, second edition, corrected, Le'ips, 1739, 4to. •\ J. J. Schmauss, History of Natural Right (in the first book of his New System), Goetting. 1753, 8vo. Essay on the History of Natural Right, Lond. 1757, 8vo. G. Christ. Gebauer, Nova Juris Naturalis Historia quam auxit Ericus Christ. Cleveshal, Wetzlar, 1774, 8vo. 'f G. Henrici, Hints to Establish the Doctrine of Right on a Scientific Foundation, Hanover, 1809-10, Part second, 8vo. The history is in the first part. (c) History of Particular Ideas, Princijiles, and Doctrines. -|- Christ. God. Bardili, Epochs of the principal Philosophi- cal Opinions, Part first, Halle, 1788, 8vo. CiiR. Fr. Polz, Fasciculus commentationum Metapliysicarum quae continent historian!, dogmata atque controversias dijudicatas de primis principiis, Jena, 1757, 4to. Ch, Batteux, Histoirc des Causes premieres, Paris, 1769, 2 3S.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 27 vols. 8vo. A German translation by J. J. Engel, Leips. 1773, 8vo. new edition, Halhcrst. 1792, 8vo. Historia philosophica Doctrinoe de Ideis (by J. J. Brucker), Aiigsb. 1723, Svo. Cf. Miscell. Hist. Phil. p. 50, sqq. GuiL. GoTTiiiLF Salzmann, Commcntatio in qua historia doctrinae de fontibus et ortu cognitionis humanae ita conscripta est, ut illorum potissimum ratio habita sit quae Plato, Aristoteles, Cartesius, Lockius, Leibnitius, et Kantius de his fontibus probare studuenmt, Goctthig, 1821, 4to. Iff* *t* "nt CiiRiSTOPii. Meiners, Historia doctrinae de vero Deo, Lemgo, 1 780, 8vo. translated into German by Meusciiing. (G. Frid. Creuzer,) Philosophorum veterum loci de provi- dcntia divina, itemque de fato, emendantur, exi)licantur, Heidelb. 1806, 4to. Jenkini Thomasii (Philips), Hist. Atheismi breviter delineata, Bas. 1709; Alt. 1713, Ed. auct. Loud. 1716, Svo. Jac. Fr. Buddei, Theses Theolog. de Atheismo et Supersti- tione, Jena, 1717, Svo. afterwards in German, 1723, Svo. Jac. Frid. Reimanni, Historia Universalis Atheismi et Athe- onim, etc. Hildes, 1725, Svo. * * * J. Gottlieb Buhle, De ortu et progressu Pantheismi Inde a Xenophane Colophonio primo ejus auctore usque ad Spinozam Comm. (In the, Commentt. Soc. Reg. Goetting. vol. x, p. 157.) "" * * * Hugo Grotius, Philosophorum sententiae de Fato et de eo quod in nostra est potestate, Amst. 1648, 12mo. ■\ J. C. GuNTHER Werdermann, Attempt at a History of Opinions respecting Fate and Free Will ; from the most Ancient Times to the most recent Philosophers, Leips. 1793, Svo. * *- * Jos. Priestley, History of the Philosophical Doctrine con- cerning the Origin of the Soul, and the Nature of Matter. In his Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit, Loud. 1777, Svo. * * * JoACH. Oporini, Historia critica de Immortalitate Mortaliumr Hamh. 1735, Svo. 2S GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. f Adam W. Franzen, Critical History of the Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul, before the Birth of our Lord, Lubeck, 1747, 8vo. J. Frid. Cott.e, Historia succincta dogmatis de vita eterna, Tiib. 1770, 4to. •f Chr. W. Flugge, History of the Belief in the Immortality of Man, and a Resurrection, etc. Leips. 1794-95,two parts, 8vo. •f Essay towards an Historical and Critical Examination of the Doctrines and Opinions of the principal Modern Philosophers, respecting the Immortality of the Human Soul, Alto)ia, 1796, 8vo. Dan. Wyttenbach, de Questione, quae fiierit veterum Philo- sophon.mi Inde a Thalete et Pythagora ad Senecam usque sen- tentia de vita et statu animarum post mortem corporis, 1783. Struve, Hist, doctrinag Graecorum ac Romanorum philoso- phorum de statu animarum post mortem, Altona, 1803. -j- C. Phil. Conz, History of the Hypothesis of the wandering State of Souls, Kcenigsh, 1791, 8vo. Stellini, De ortu et progressu morum atque opinionum ad mores pertinentium specimen, in his Dissertat. Padua, 1764, 4to. •f Christ. Garve, Treatise on the dilferent Principles of Moral Philosophy from Aristotle to the present time, Breslau, 1798, 8vo. And, in continuation of this work, Special Considerations on the most general Principles of Moral Philosophy, Ibid. 1798, 8vo. •j- G. Drewes, Conclusions of Philosophical Reason on the Principles of Morality, Leips. 1797, two parts, 8vo. •f C. C. E. ScHMiD, History of the Doctrine of Indifference, in his work entitled Adiaphora, Jena, 1809, 8vo. t Car. Fried. St^udlin, History of the Doctrine of the Morality of the Drama, Goett. 1823. * * * -f" Gottlieb Hufeland, Essay on the Principles of Natural Right, Leips. 1785, 8vo. f J. C. F. Meister, On Oaths, according to the Principles of Pure Reason, a prize composition, Leips. and ZiUlichau, 1810, 4to. Another prize composition of the same author, On the Diver- sity of Opinion among Philosophers with regard to the Funda- mental Principles of Morality and Natural Right, Ibid. 1812, 4to. 3a_4i.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 20 * -j" Micii. HissMAXN, History of the Doctrine of the Associa- tion of Ideas, Goetting. 1770, 8vo. t The same subject, at greater length, J. G. E. Maas, Essay on the Imagination, second edition, Halle, 1795, 8vo. And in his preceding work ; Paralipomena ad historiam Doctrinse de Associatione Ideanim, Hal. 1787, 8vo. For the remainder, see the treatises on the different philoso- phical sciences in particular. CHAPTER II. SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROGRESS OF PHILOSOPHIC REASON. 39. It is from without that the first impressions of the human mind are derived ; on these it speculates, at first instinctively and without method ; till having attained to a consciousness of itself and its capabilities, it acquires the power of exercising its faculties with a perfect know- ledge of them. Philosophy is the result of its attempts to satisfy its thirst for knowledge. 40. To know, is to have a perception of a determinate object, or the consciousness of a perception and of its relation to something determinate, and distinct from the perception itself. In all knowledge, the subject and the object are relative terms ; implying the percipient and the thing perceived ^. 41. Note of Translator. I have judged it better to omit altoge- K Throughout the treatise, this is necessary to be borne in mind j and, agreeably to this distinction, what belongs to the subject is called subjective ; and objectiie that which belongs to the object. so GENERAL INTRODUCTION. {sect. tlier the present section (as I have taken the liberty of altering others), not perceiving that it could be of any utility to the reader ; even if he should be fortunate enough to comprehend it. 42. By reflection and abstraction we distinguish be- tween our perceptions and the matter to which they have a reference, and it is only by reasoning on the former that we can hope to solve the problems which philosophy would investigate. In fact, the objects which present themselves to our contemplation are purely contingent, variable, and indeterminable ; while philosophy is essen- tially ^o^i/ii/*^, and concerned with the higher principles of knowledge, the reasons of things — their laws — their- universal and necessary ends. 44. Philosophy, as a science, pretends to a systematic knowledge of the conditions, reasons, and primary laws of all knowledge. Such a system ought to present a complete development of the principles of the human mind, and a perfect deduction of all that results from them, without lacuna or omission. Without this, it must be impossible to establish a theory of human knowledge which may be complete, solid, and connected through all its parts. 45. All knowledge ought to be proved and referred to a system by philosophy. All truths demand proof; that is to say, a deduction from superior principles ; except the highest truths of all, which cannot be demonstrated. Philosophy, then, as a science, is founded on something directly true and certain, and on the agreement between what is concluded, and that which is self-evident and self-established. Reason is the highest and ultimate source of all moral certainty. 46. But before the Understanding can arrive at a thorough comprehension of itself, it must pass through many intermediate degrees of improvement ; and in this transition-state, being as yet ignorant of the ultimate 42—51.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 31 principle of knowledge, and not seeking it in that direc- tion, in which alone it can be found (viz. in the mind in- stead of external objects, in the subject instead of the object), ends in mistaking for it something inferior and subordinate ; pursues certainty beyond the limits of reason ; commits innumerable errors in the demonstration of philosophical knowledge ; pretends to investigate mat- ters beyond its range ; and thus ends in opposition to itself. 49. The enlightened activity of the understanding, which, when properly cultivated, we call Philosophy (§ 2), presupposes in its turn attention, reflection, and ab- straction. These are faculties which manifest themselves in various degrees, proportioned to the diversity of intel- lectual powers. 50. The causes which influence the development of reason are : the constitution of the human understanding; certain desires, doubts, sentiments, and perceptions of the mind ; acquired knowledge ; curiosity ; emulation, result- ing from the number and the diversity of persons engaged in the same pursuit ; the influence of genius ; example ; encouragement; and the free communication of thought. 51. Previously to the scientific investigation of the principles, the laws, and the ends of phenomena presented to it, the human mind in some sort imagines, or, as it were, divines them ; and this imagination conforms itself to the laws of the fancy ; assimilating and personifying. It is thus that man, in a state of nature, conceives of all things as living and resembling himself. There is vaguely presented to his thoughts a world of spirits, at first with- out laws ; afterwards, under the empire of a law foreign and external (Fate). He conceives an idea of unity and harmony, less at first in the internal world than the exter- nal; less in the whole than the parts; less by reflection than by a poetic creation (his fancy finding objects for the conceptions of his understanding) ; and thus advances 32 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. from a capricious indulgence of the imagination to the exercise of legitimate thought. 52. The development of the understanding begins with a sentiment of rehgion. The more that man by reflec- tion extends and enlarges the sphere of his conscious- ness, the more he elevates himself, with regard to the object of his veneration, from sensation to mental concep- tion, and from opinions to general ideas. The human mind investigates the principle of its religious belief, first of all without, in the object ; subsequently within, in the in- tellectual subject, 53. It is thus that man advances, from a state of con- sciousness, obscure and imperfect, to an enlightened knowledge; from poetry to reason; from a blind to a ra- tional faith ; from individual to universal. It is thus that guided by an obscure sentiment of truth, of harmony, of analogy, he prosecutes the pursuit of something certain and necessary ; to which may be referred all the points of belief which have attracted his attention ; and which may establish the certainty of them. It is thus that he at- tempts philosophy, at first to satisfy his own mind ; after- wards, with a more general view, for the advancement of Reason itself. In the natural order of her progress. Phi- losophy apprehends at first the complex objects of the world without, which are of a nature to excite in a lively manner its attention ; subsequently, it advances by de- grees to objects more difficult of apprehension, more ob- scure, more internal, and more simple. Obserimtio?i. This progress may be observed to obtain in a greater or less degree, and with different modifications, among all nations. There is, however, this difference, that only a few have elevated the philosophy of the human mind to the rank of a for- mal science ; — whence proceeds this difference ? 54. Philosophy, when it has assumed a scientific cha- racter, has a tendency by the investigation of causes, of the laws, and the ultimate ends of things, to constitute 52—58.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 33 human knowledge as an integral system, independent, and fundamentally established (§ 2 and 44). Such is the task of philosophical reason ; but we must also dis- tinguish the differences which exist in its aiiu, method, and results. 55. As to its aim, philosophy may be influenced by a solitary and partial curiosity, confined to one point of view, or stimulated by a more liberal and scientific in- terest, at once practical and theoretical. As to method it proceeds (on general topics) either from principles to consequences (the sijnthetic order); or from conse- quences to principles (the analytic order) ; and (in special matter), as far as relates to the starting point of its re- searches, it advances, either, from a complete and pro- found inquiry into the nature of our faculties for know- ledge to the knowledge itself of things ; or from the knowledge of things to the theory of knowledge. This last method of proceeding is called, since the time of Kant, the Dogmatic method, or Dogmatism ; the other, the Critical method. 5Q. The non-critical philosophy has for its aim to es- tablish certain points of doctrine (dogmata)^ or to de- stroy the dogmatic opinions of others ; in which latter case it has the tendency, as it does not substitute other principles for those which it removes, to establish uncer- tainty and doubt as most consistent with reason. The first of these two schools ends in dogmatism positive ; the second in scepticism, or dogmatism negative, 57, Dogmatism pretends, either, that human reason is, of itself, capable of attaining to a knowledge of the laws and the nature of things ; or, that it cannot attain thereto without a superior instruction and guidance. The first of these doctrines is Nattiralism, or Rationalism, in its most extended signification ; the other is Siipernaturalism. 58. Rationalism, in the most extended signification of D 34 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. [sect. the word, proceeds sometimes upon knowledge, sometimes (like that of JacobiJ^ upon belief; and either demon- strates the truth of our impressions and knowledge, by the reality of the objects ; or, contrariwise, the reality of the objects, by the certainty of the impressions. In the first of these cases we have realism, which takes for its principle the reality of things ; in the second case we have idealism^ which takes for its foundation the certainty of our ideas ; while many philosophical systems, on the other hand, pretend that there is an original iden- tity of knowledge with its object. 59. Dogmatism, with reference to the means of acquir- ing knowledge, is either Sensualism, or Rationalism in a more restricted sense ; or compounded of both. As far as relates to the origin of knowledge, dogmatism becomes either Empirism (otherwise called Exjierimentalism), or Noologism ; or compounded of both. Lastly, with refer- ence to the number of fundamental principles, it becomes Dualism or Monism ; and to this last description belong both Materialism and Spiritualism, as well as the system of Absolute Identity. 60. "Supernaturalism not only asserts that the Deity is the active principle of all that exists, but also that revela- tion is the source of all truth ; thus referring all know- ledge to a supernatural source, unattainable by the steps of science. There are diversities in this system accord- ing to the manner in which revelation is considered rela- tively to its subject or its object; as universal or par- ticular; and as superior or subordinate to reason; or co-ordinate with it. Observation. Supernaturalism has this in common \nth scep- ticism, that it lays great stress on the false pretensions and the inefficiency of reason. 61. Scepticism is opposed to dogmatism, inasmuch as it seeks to diminish the confidence of reason in the success of its efforts. It uses as arguments the errors which are 59—63.] GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 3$ often with justice imputed to dogmatism, or alleges cer- tain formal propositions of its own, relative to the end and the principles of knowledge. It is, therefore, the perpetual antagonist of dogmatism; but in disputing the pretensions to which knowledge lays claim, it proceeds even to deny its existence and destroy it altogether. Scepticism is sometimes universal, sometimes particular, and has been the precursor of the critical method, which leads to the true science of reason. 62. The result of philosophic research is a system of philosophy ; that is to say, a collection of philosophical in- formation drawn from philosophical principles, and of this there can be only one true system, which is that ideal of the science reason perpetually aims at (§ 2). But the various attempts of individual thinkers to attain thereto have given occasion to a number of systems, which approxi- mate this ideal object in proportion to the knowledge they evince of the true end and principles of philosophy, — to the extent of information they convey, — the validity of the reasoning they contain, and the accuracy of their technical language (cf. § 3). Observation. Until a more complete examination of the powers of the miderstanding shall have been instituted, and a more ex- tensive analysis of the faculty of knowledge, systems of philoso- phy must inevitably contain a mixture of universal and ^9ar^i- cular, of true and false^ of determinate and indeterminate^ of objective and sicbjective. 63. These different systems are opposed to each other and to scepticism. The consequence has been a contest which we see carried on with a greater or less degree of ardour, maintained by the love of truth, and too fre- quently also by private interests and passions; until at last either indifference , or a revolution in the spirit of phi- losophy, or the acuteness of logicians and critics put an end to it, for the time, and introduced a more liberal sys- tem of inquiry. d2 36 GENERAL INTRODUCTION, [sect. 64, 65. 64. More than one system has figured upon the stage in various dresses, and certain philosophical questions have frequently been repeated under different forms. These apparent reiterations do not, however, prove that philosophy has been retarded in its progress ; the repe- tition of old ideas does not render its advance towards new ones more tardy, but only more sure. By this very circumstance analysis is rendered more exact and more complete ; and the search after unity, consistency, and perfection, more accurate and profound. The character and the attributes of science are more completely de- veloped, are better understood, — better appreciated ; — errors and unfounded theories more cautiously avoided. 65. But, with all these retrogradations and moments of apparent relaxation, advancement is impossible except by the aid of a sustained zeal for philosophical investigation. This science demands a perpetual agitation of doubts and discussions ; of controversy between dogmatism and scep- ticism, between the partizans of ancient systems and of modern ideas. PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. RAPID REVIEW OF THE RELIGIOUS AND PHILO- SOPHICAL OPINIONS OF THE ORIENTAL NA- TIONS, AND OF THE FIRST PERIODS OF GRE- CIAN CIVILIZATION. To this head belong the works on the rehgions and the discoveries of the East at large ; some of which, for ex- ample those of Plessing, have been noticed above, § 38 ; see, besides, the mythological treatises, such as : f Fr. Creuzer, Symbolical and Mythological System of the Ancients, etc. 4 vols. Leips. and Darmstadt, 1810-12, second edition, 1820 (and following years), 5 vols. 8vo. f J. GoRREs, History of the Fables of the Asiatic World, 2 vols. Heidelh. 1810, 8vo. f J. J. Wagner, Ideas towards an Universal Mythology of the Ancient World, Francfort on the M. 1808, 8vo. f J. G. Rhode, On the Age and Merit of certain Records of Oriental Antiquity, Berlin, 1817-18. And Memoirs towards illustrating the science of Antiquities, No. J, Berlin, 1819, No. II, 1820, 8vo. Particularly a dissertation in No. I, on the most Ancient Reli- gious Systems of the East. L. C. Baur, Symbolical and Mythological Systems, 2 parts, Stuttg. 1825, 8vo. (jQ. Instruction was in part conveyed by the nations of Asia to tlie Greeks, and the latter had gone through many gradations of intellectual improvement before the epoch when a philosophical spirit was awakened among them. Accordingly, it may not be foreign to our purpose to give a rapid sketch of the religious and philosophical 38 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. opinions of the oriental nations, as well as of the first ad- vances of intellectual improvement among the Greeks, in order to be enabled to estimate, at least generally, the in- fluence which the former may have had over Grecian genius in its infancy ; and consequently over pMlosopMj itself, in its manner as well as its matter. The Hindoos, the Persians, the Chaldeans, the Egyptians, and the Phoenicians, are the principal nations with whom the Greeks have had any intercourse ^. Hindostan, Authorities : The sacred books of the Hindoos, the Schasiers, and particularly the Vedams, whereto belong the Uimnishadas (fragments of the Oupiiekliat), and the Puranams, to which belong the ancient national poems; Ramayana (Serampore, 1806-10, 3 vols. 4to. a new edition by A. W. Schlegel), — Mahahharata — and the Dersanas. Bhaguat-Geeta, or Dialogues of Chrishna and Ardjoon in eighteen lectures, with notes, translated from the original Sanscrit by Ch. Wilkins, Lond. 1785, 4to. Bagavadam, ou Doctrine Divine ; ouvrage Indien Canonique sur I'Etre Supreme, les Dieux, les Geans, les Hommes, les diverses parties de I'Univers (par Opsonville), Paris, 1788, 8vo. L'EzouR Vedam, ou ancien Commentaire du Vedam, con- tenant I'exposition des Opinions religieuses et philosophiques des Indiens, traduit du Samskretan par un Brahme ; revu et public avec des observations preliminaires, des notes, et des eclaircissements, Yverdun, 1778, 2 vols. 12mo. (The introduc- tion, On the Wisdom of the Hindoos, is by Sainte-Croix^). Theologia et Philosophia Indica s. Oupnek'hat id est secretum tegenedum, stud, et op. Anquetil du Perron, Argent, 1801-2, 2 vols. 4to. (Deutsch im Auszuge von Thad. Anselm Rixner, Number g, 1808, 8vo.) ■\ W. VON Humboldt, on the Bhagavad-Gita, Berlin, 1826. Ambertkend, a work on the Nature of the Soul; an account of itbyDEGuiGNEsinthe Mem.de I'Acad. des Inscript. torn. XXVI. Munava Dh arm as ASTRA (English), with a preface by Sir W. Jones, Lond. 1796. Prabod'h Chandro'daya, Or the Moon of Intellect, an alle- * On the general character of thought in the East, see above, $ 19. '' Consult however t Sciilegel's Ind. Biblioth. II, 50. 67.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. 39 goric Drama : and Atma Bod'h, or the Knowledge of Spirit, etc. ; translated from the Sanscrit and Pracrit by J. Taylor, 1812, 8vo. •f Remmohon-Roy, Jena, 1817. Ctesiae Indicorum fragmenta ; Strabo ; Arrianus De Exped. Alexandri : Palladius De gentibus Indiae et Brachmanibus ; Am- brosius De moribus Brachmanum, et alius anonymus de iisdem, junctim editi cura, Ed. Biss.ei, Lond. 1668, 4to. Specimen sapientiae Indorum veterum, Grsece ex cod. Hoist, cum vers. Lat. ed. Seb. Gfr. Stark, Berol, 1697, 8vo. Alex. Dow, History of Hindostan, from the earliest account of time to the death of Akbar, translated from the Persian of Mu- HAMMED Casim Ferisiita, Loud. 1768, 3 vols. 4to. (With a learned Dissertation prefixed, concerning the Language, Manners, and Customs of the Hindoos.) J. Jag. Holwell, Interesting liistorical Events relative to the Provinces of Bengal and the Empire of Hindostan, Lond. 1766, 3 vols. 8vo. Sinner, Essai sur les dogmes de la Metempsychose et du Purgatoire, enseignes par les Brahmins de I'lndostan, Berne ^ 1771, 8vo. Asiatic Researches. Calcutta; from 1788 ; several volumes. The Dissertations and Miscellanies relative to the History of the Antiquities, Arts, Sciences, and Literature of Asia, by Sir W. Jones and others, have been extracted from the last volumes of the foregoing collection, Lond. 1792-8, 4 vols. 8vo. Systema Brachmanicum liturgicum, mythologicum, civile ex monumentis Indicis musasi Borgiani Velitris dissertationibus historico-criticis illustravit Fr. Paulinus a S. BARTHOLOMiEO, Romce, 1791, 4to. ■\ Various Dissertations in the Memoires de I'Academie des In- script, by Tiiom. Maurice, and Mignot (Memoirs on the ancient Philosophers of India, in vol. XXXI.), and De Guignes, (In- quiry respecting the Philosophers called Samaneans), vol. XXVI. ■\ J. Ith, Moral Doctrine of the Brahmins, or. The Religion of the Hindoos, Berl. and Leips. 1794, 8vo. -|- Fr. Schlegel, On the Language and Wisdom of the Hin- doos, Heidelh. 1808, 8vo. PoLiER, Mythologie des Hindous, tom. I. et 11, Paris, 1809, 8vo. •j" Fr. Mayer, L^niversal Dictionary of Mythology. The first vol. only has appeared. By the same author : Brahma, or the Religion of the Hindoos, Leips. 1818, 8vo. W. Ward, A View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the Hindoos, Lond. 1817-20. 4 vols. Particularly vol. IV. 40 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. ■f Arn. Herm. Ludw. Heeren, On the Indians ; (Suppl. to the thh'd edition of his work, Ideen ilber die Politic, etc. s. 444), Gotting. 1815-27, 8vo. •f Nic. Muller, Opinions, Arts, and Sciences, of the ancient Hindoos, Me7itz, 1822, 8vo. Launjuinais, La Religion des Indous selon les Vedah, ou Analyse de I'Oupnek'hat publie par Anq. du Perron, Paris, 1823, 8vo. See also his Memoirs on the Literature, Philosophy, etc. of the Hindoos. •f Othm. Franks, On the Hindoos, and their Literature, etc. Leips. 1826, 8vo. •f J. G. Rhode, on the same subject, Leips. 1827, 2 vols. 8vo. 67. The Hindoos early distinguished themselves for arts, industry, civilization, and science ; but the commence- ment of their history is, even yet, involved in great ob- scurity, and lost in the wildest traditions and chrono- logical pretensions. Nothing has, even yet, been posi- tively decided on the question whether their civilization and sciences be indigenous or derived from others ; nor yet, whether they may not have blended certain notions either directly or indirectly borrowed from foreign na- tions, with others which were properly their own. The same uncertainty prevails with respect to the age attri- butable to their sacred books. Of the four castes into which the nation is divided, the first consists of the priests (Brahmins) ; subdivided into a great number of sects, and modified by various revolu- tions. The compulsory emigration of many Brahminical tribes has carried their religious opinions into the adja- cent countries of Siam, China, and Tartary. The supreme being of the Hindoos is Brahma, incom- prehensible by any human understanding ; pervading and vivifying all things. Originally, he reposed in the contem- plation of himself; subsequently, his creative word has caused all things to proceed from him, by a succession of continual emanations. As creator, he is named Brahma; as the preserving power, Vishnou; as the destroyer and renovator of the forms of matter, Siva. These three relations of the divine being constitute the Trinity [Timourti) of the Hindoos. The innumerable transform- 67—68.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTIONJ ]>5 ] 41 ations of Vishnoii, or incarnations of the cUviiie' beincf, form the principal subject of their sacred books. Con- nected with this doctrine of emanation is that of the pre- existence of souls ; their derivation from the divine na- ture ; their immortality ; their fall ; and the purification of fallen spirits by successive migrations through the cor- poreal world. — (Doctrine of the migration of souls, or Metempsychosis). Subsequently, the rehgion and philosophy of the Hin- doos was split into two sects — of Brahmism and Bud- dhism. In consequence of this we find, both in their sa- cred books and among the Brahmins, the greatest dis- crepancy of opinion to prevail respecting God, the world, and the soul: that is to say, we find both realism and idealism; theism and atheism; materialism and spiritual ism. These doctrines are for the most part propounded in the form of instruction, delivered by men professing to be enlightened from above '^. Though obscured by poetic imagery, we detect throughout, the workings of an acute and ingenious spirit, w^hich made some sort of advance towards correct reasoning. After all, the true systematic and scientific genius of philosophy must not be expected in these works. Their books of moral precepts have a character of nobleness and gentleness which belong to the race ; and are, in a great measure, framed in accordance with the doctrine of the migra- tion of souls. In the religion of Buddha, to which belong the Siamese, the Talapoins, and the Bonzes, the supreme felicity of God, and of the human soul, is made to consist in a state of absolute indifference and inaction. Thibet. Besides some works enumerated § QQ, consult Alphabetum Tibetanum, auct. Aug. Ant. Georgio, Romce, 1762, 8vo. Mayer has given an extract from it in his Lexicon. •= See, concerning the Gymnosophists, Cic. Tusc. V, 27 ; concerning Me- nou-Capila, BucUlha, Calanus, Cic. do Div. I, 23; Tusc. IT, 22. 42 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. f P. S. Pallas, Collection of Historical details respecting the Mogul nations, Petersburgh, 1776-1803, 4to. f Klaproth, Travels in the neighbourhood of Caucasus, 1823, 2 vols. 8vo. •f HiJLLMANN, Critical Researches respecting the Lamaic Re- ligion, Berlin, 1796, 8vo. 68. Like the Hindoos, the Thibetians believe in a God who reveals himself in a threefold relation and form ; and suppose a great number of transformations of this deity, principally in his second character. They have, besides, various traditions respecting the origin of all things ; re- specting spirits, and their descent into the visible woi'ld ; also with regard to the different epochs of the world, and the migration of souls. Chinese. Sinensis imperii libri classici sex e Sinico idiomate in Lat. trad, a P. Franc. Noel, Prag. 1711, 4to. -f The Chou-King, one of the sacred hooks of the Chinese, translated by Father Gaubil, revised and compared with the Chinese by M. de Guignes ; with a notice concerning Y-King, another sacred book of the Chinese, Paris, 1770, 4to. -f A Treatise on some points of the Chinese Religion, by Fa- ther LoNGOBARD. Furthermore, A Treatise on some important points relative to the Mission to China, by Father Sainte- Marie ; with Letters of M. de Leibnitz on the Chinese Phi- losophy. These three works are contained in Leibnitzii Ej^ist. ed. Kortholt, 2 vols. Confucius Sinarum Philosoj)hus sive scientia Sinensis Lat. exposita studio et op. Prosperi Juonetta, Christ. Herdtrich, Franc Rougemont, Phil. Couplet, P. P. Soc. Jesu, Paris, 1687, folio. Geo. Bern. Bilfingeri, Specimen doctrinae veterum Sinarum moralis et practicae, Francof. 1724. 8vo. Chr. Wolfii, Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica, Francof. 1726. Third edition, with notes of Langius, Hal. 1736, 4to. J. Bened. Carpzovii, Memcius seu Mentius Sinensium post Confucium Philosophus, Lips. 1725, 8vo. De Pauw, Recherches philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois, Berlin, 1775, 2 vols. 68—70.] PARTICUALR INTRODUCTION. 43 Memoires concemant THistoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les Moeiirs, les Usages des Chinois, par les Missionnaires de Pekin (Amyot et d'autres), Paris, 1770-91, 4 vols. Cf. the Dissertations of De Guignes and others, in the Me- moires de I'Acad. des Inscript. vol. XXV, XXVII, XXXVI, XXXVIII. The works of Confucius, containing the original text, with a translation by Marsiiman, Serampore, 1809, 4to. Historia Philosophiae Sinensis, etc. Bruns. 1727, 4to. Klaprotii, Memoires Relatifs a I'Asie (Asiat. Magaz. from 1810). Morrison, On Chinese Literature (in the Asiatic Journal). Abel Remusat, Journal Asiatique, vol. I, July 1823, p. 3. Consult also Windisciimann, in the first vol. of his work, Philo- sophic ini Fortgange der Geschichte. 69. The popular religion of the Chinese (which was that of their most remote ancestors), consists in adoration of the heavens, the stars, and the powers of nature per- sonified, with certain superstitious notions, of more re- cent date, respecting astrology, the demons, and magic. Lao-Kiun and Fo^ mixed up these rehgious opinions (which they did not correct), with some philosophical ones. Koung-fu-tzee {Confucius)^ ahout 550 B.C., col- lected the traditions belonging to both these personages ; new-modelled the laws; and gave excellent moral pre- cepts. It is very remarkable that his writings contain no trace of a recognition of the existence of a Supreme Being, or of the immortality of the soul. Mung-chee, or Meng-dseu (Memcius) enlarged upon the doctrines of Confucius. A variety of opinions migrated from India and from Thibet into China. The improvement of science among them has for many hundred years been inconsiderable. (For what reason?) — The Japanese en- tertain similar doctrines. Persians, Authorities : The Sacred Scriptures, Herodotus, Plato, Aris- totle, Diodorus Siculus, Xenophon Cyrop., Strabo, Plutarch, *^ According to some, this last is the Buddha of the Hindoos, and the same with the Sommona-Codom of the Siamese. Cf. Bayle, art. Sommona-Codom. 44 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. Aoyia rov ^ufoa,a-r§ov, or Chaldean Oracles ; the same, with addi- tions, by Fr. Patricius, Nova de Universis Philosophia, Venet. 1595, fol. ; and also published by Stanley, in his, Philosophia Orientalis (cum notis Clerici). Thom^ Hyde, Historia Religionis veterum Persarum eorum- que Magorum, Oxonii, 1700-4 ; new edition, 1760. Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre, contenant les Idees theologiques, physiques, et morales, de ce Legislateur, les Cere- monies du culte Religieux qu'il a etabli, etc., traduit en Fran9ais sur I'original Zend, avec des remarques, et accompagne de plu- sieurs traites propres a eclaircir les matieres qui en sont I'objet ; par M. Anquetil Duperron, Paris, 1711, 4to. •\ Anquetil and Foucher, Memoirs on the Person, the Writings, and the Philosophical System of Zoroaster ; in the Memoires de I'Acad. des Inscript. XXVII, p. 257 and sqq. ; XXX, XXXI, XXXIV, XXXVII, XXXIX, XL; and in the Memoires de Litterature, vol. XXX and XXXV. (Jones), A Letter to M. A du P , containing a Cri- tique on his translation of the works attributed to Zoroaster, Lond. 1771, 8vo. C. P. Meiners, De Zoroastris vita, Institutis, Doctrina, et Libris ; In the Nov. Comment. Soc. Scient. Getting, vol. VIII, IX : and Comm. de variis religionum Persarum conversionibus ; in the Comment. Soc. Getting. 1780, cl. phil. 1,45, et sqq; II, 19, sqq; and, concerning Zoroaster, in the Biblioth. Philos. torn. IV, p. 2. T. Ch. Tyschen, Commentat. de Religionem Zoroastricarum apud exteras gentes vestigiis ; In the Nov. Comm. Soc. Scient. Gott. torn. XI, XII. The Dessatir, or Sacred Writings of the ancient Persian prophets, Bombay, 1818, 8vo. -j- J. G. Rhode, The Sacred Tradition; or, A complete Sys- tem of the Religion of the ancient Bactrians, Medes, and Per- sians, or the people of Zend, Francf. on the Maine, 1820, 8vo. Particularly p. 453 and sqq. ; and the works of the same author enumerated § QQ. Der Schahnameh des Firdusi in epitomirter Uebertragung von GoRRES, etc. 2 vols. Berlin, 1819, 8vo. Asiatic Researches, vol. VIII and IX. On the Authenticity of the books of Zend consult also, ■f BuHLE, Manual of the History of Philosophy ; f Zoega, Dissertations published by Welcker ; Valentia, Travels ; and Erskine, Dissertation on the Parsees, in the second vol. of the Literary Society of Bombay. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 45 I. In the times of the Greeks, the religion of the lians (Parsees) consisted in the adoration of the 'enly bodies (Sabeism), especially the sun; and of powers of nature. The priests were called Magi. Zio.oaster (Serduscht), a Mede by birth, reformed the religion of the Medes, which, originally confined to the worship of fire, had been modified to the worship of the sun and the planets. This worship survives to the pre- sent day in India among the Parsees, who were driven out of Persia by the Mahometans ; and who pretend to be still in possession of the sacred books of Zoroaster. This philosopher lived in the time of Guschtasb (Darius Hystaspis). He asserts the existence of a supreme being, all-powerful and eternal (Zeruane Akerene, i. e. infinite time), from whom have eternally proceeded, by his creative word (Honofer), two principles, Ormu^d and Ahriman\ Ormuzd (Oromasdes), being pure and infinite Light, Wisdom, and Perfection, the Creator of every good thing ; Ahriman the principle of darkness and evil, op- posed to Ormuzd, either originally, or in consequence of his fall. To this belief are attached fables respecting the conflicting efforts and creations of these two powers ; on the universal dominion ultimately reserved for the good principle, and the return of Ahriman during four periods, each of which is to last three thousand years ; — on the good and the evil spirits ( Amshaspands, Izeds, Ferfers^, and Deves), and their differences of sex and rank ; — on the souls of men (Ferfers), which, created by Ormuzd before their union with the body, have their habitation in the heavens ; and which ultimately, according as in this world they have served Ormuzd or Ahriman, pass after death into the dwellings of the blessed, or are precipitated into obscurity: — finally, respecting the future resurrection of the bodies of the wicked after the victory of Ormuzd and the restoration of all things. Such, with some ascetic precepts, are the leading subjects of their sacred books. The doctrines of Zoroaster had an extensive influence owing to the principles of demonology arid magic. « These have been compared to the Ideas of the Platonists. 46 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. Chaldeans. Authorities : The Scriptures, Diodorus Siculus, II, 29 ; Strabo, XVI, p. 739, ed. Casaub. ; Sext. Emp. adv. Math. lib. V. ; Cic. de Div. I, 1, 41 ; II, 46, sqq. Berosi Chaldaica, in the work of Scaliger, De Emendatione temporum ; and in Fabric Bibl. gr. t. XIV, p. 175 ; and the work itself (probably not authentic), entitled, Antiquitates totius Orbis ; published in Fr. Jo. Annii, Antiquitt. Varr. vol. XVII, Romce, 1798 (and subsequently). •f Aug. L. Schlozer, On the Chaldeans, in the Repertory of Biblical literature published by Eichhorn, vol. VIII and X. Stanleii, Philosophia Orientalis in Clerici opp. Philos. ■j- Fr. Munter, Religion of the Babylonians, Copenh. 1827, 4to. Jo. Jag. Wagner's Works before referred to. 71. The Chaldeans were devoted to the worship of the stars and to astrology : the nature of their climate and their country disposing them to it. The worship of the stars was revived by them and widely disseminated, even subsequently to the Christian era, under the name of Sabeism. The learned caste, which appropriated to itself the appellation of Chaldeans, had collected a certain num- ber of astrological facts, and carried to a great length the delusive science of astrology. Under the empire of the Persians, this caste lost much of its credit, through the influence of the Magi, and ceased to attempt any thing but common place tricks of divination. The cosmogony of Berosus ^, and the pretended Chaldean oracles (allowed to be apocryphal), are evidently the productions of another age and country. The principal divinity of this nation was called Bel. The fables related of him by the pre- tended Berosus do not deserve recital. # y^gyptians. Authorities : Books of Moses, Herodotus, lib. II, Manethonis 4 iEgyptiaca et Apotelesmatica (fragments of dubious authority), Diodorus Siculus (with Heyne's Observations in the Comm. Soc. ■ » A contemporary of Alexander tlie Great. 71.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. 47 Gott. V, VI, VII), Plutarchi Isis et Osiris, Porphyrins Dc Absti- nentia, Jambliclnis De Mysteriis -(Egyptiorum, cum ep. Porpliyrii cd. Tii. Gale, Oxon. 1678, fol., Horapollinis Hieroglyphica, Gr. et Lat.ed. DePauw, T^rry. 1727, 4to., Hermes Trismegistus in Franc. Patricii nova de Universis Philosophia, etc. Ferrar, 1591. Fr. And. Strotii, ^gyptiaca sen Vetenim Scriptorr. de reb. ^gypti commentarii et fragmenta, Gotha^ 1782-83, 2 vols. 8vo. Athan. Kirciieri, CEdipus ^Egyptiacus, Romce, 1652-54, folio, et Obeliscus Pamphilius, Ibid. 1656, folio. Jablonski, Pantheon ^gyptiac. Francf. ad Viadrim, 1750-52, 2 vols. 8vo. Conrad. Adami, Comm. de sapientia, eruditione atque inven- tis ^gyptiorum. (In his, Exercitatt. Exegett. p. 9o, sqq.) •f C. A. Heumann, On the Philosophy of the Ancient Egyp- tians ; in his, Acta Philosophorum, II, 659, sqq. De Pauw, Recherches Philosophiques sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois, Berlin^ 1773, 2 vols. 8vo. •j" J. C. Meiners, Essay on the History of the Religion of the Ancients, particularly the Egyptians, Gotting. 1775, 8vo. On the Worship of Animals, in his Philosophical Miscellanies, part I, p. 180 ; and several treatises by the same in the Comm. Soc. Gotting. 1780-89-90. -j- F. V. Lebrecht Plessing, Osiris and Socrates, Berl. and Strals. 1783, 8vo. cf. above § 38. f C. P. ^MoRiTz, Symbolical Wisdom of the Egyptians, etc. Berlin, 1793, 8vo. ■f P. J. S. VoGEL, Essay on the Religion of the Ancient Egyp- tians and Greeks, Nilrnberg, 1793, 4to. Jos. Christoph. Gatterer, De Theogoiiia ^gyptiorum ad Herodotum, in Comm. Soc. Gotting. vol. Y et VII. De Metem- psychosi, immortalitatis animomm symbolo -/Egyptiaco, vol. IX. -j- Creuzer, Religions of Antiquity (cited above, at the head of § 66), et Commentatt. Herodotese, c. II. Heeren, Ideen, etc. second part, second edition. See also the recent works on Egypt : Denon's Description ; Belzoni ; Gau; Minutoli, etc. ; Pfaff's Hieroglyphica, A^wrw 6. 1824, 8vo. 72. The Egyptians were a nation highly remarkable for the antiquity of their civilization, and the originality of all their social system. Their priests, who formed a separate caste, were the sole depositaries of the secrets of certain sacred books written in hieroglyphics^. It is very 8 See t Heerex, Thoughts on the Policy, Commerce, etc. of the Ancients; 48 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. difficult to determine with certainty, owing to the want of existing records, in what consisted their mysterious know- ledge (Esoteric doctrine). It probably had a reference to the popular religion (Exoteric doctrine), which autho- rised the worship of the constellations (Sabeism); and that of certain animals (Fetischism), as symbolical of the former; of certain deified heroes (Thaut or Thot, Her- mes, Horus) ; and lastly, maintained the doctrine of the Metempsychosis ''. Their divinities Isis and Osiris, repre- sented two principles, male and female. The peculiar character of the country seems to have given rise to, and encouraged, as the principal sciences of the Egyptians, geometry and astronomy ; to which was united astrology and other superstitions, highly popular with the people at large. It is impossible to define with accuracy the progress which the priests may have made in the above sciences ; but, previous to their intercourse with the Greeks, we cannot conclude them to have been possessed of any high degree of mental cultivation. After the foundation of the Graeco-Egyptian king- dom, the civilization of the two races was combined, and this circumstance renders yet more difficult any explana- tion of the mysteries of the ancient esoteric doctrines, and the former habits of the original inhabitants. 73. The Hebrews. See the books of the Old Testament : the Introductions to the Old Testament by Eichhorn and others ; and the Commentaries on each book, as for instance those on Job, Proverbs, and the Prophets in general. Flavii Josephi Opera ed. Haverkamp. Amstel. 1726, 2 vols, folio. Jos. Fr. BuDDiEi Introd. ad Histor. Philos. Hebraeor. Halc^i 1702, 8vo. Edit, emendata, 1721. f Fried. Andr. Walther, History of the Philosophy of the Ancient Hebrews- Gott. 1750, 4to. and the articles of the New Literary Journal of Leipsig, 1816, Nos. I and II, on the recent attempts to explain the hieroglyphics. '' IlEnoD. II, c. 123. 74.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. 49 W. Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses, new edition, Lond. 175G, 5 vols. 8vo. Supplement, 1788, 8vo. -j- Jos. Fr. Jerusalem, Letters on the Books and the Philoso- phy of Moses, Brunswick, 1762, 8vo. and 1783. f Jos. Dav. MiciiAELis, The Mosaic Law, Francf. on the M. 1770-7'), vols. 8vo. New edition, 1775 and 1803. •f- W. A. Teller, Theodice of the First Ages, etc. Jena, 1802, 8vo. f C. A. LiNDEMANN, On the Book of Job, Wittenh. 1811, 8vo. Jul. Frid. Winzer, De Philos. Morali in libro Sapientiae, quae vocatur Salomonis, exposita, Viteb. 1811, 4to. C. Frid. Staudlin, Comment, de Prophetar. Hebraeor. Doc- trina Morali, G'ott. 1798, 4to. ■f J. Jahn's Bibl. Archaeology, Vienna, 1796, second edition, 1817-18. ■f Laz. Bex David, On the Religion of the Hebrews before Moses, Berlin, 1812, 8vo. -|- Phil. Buttmann, Dissertation on the two first Mythi of the Mosaic History, etc. in the Berliner Monatsschrift, 1804, Nos. Ill and IV, and 1811 No. III. ■f Phil. Buttmann, On the Mythos of the Deluge, Berlin, 1812, 8vo. The Phoenicians. Sanchoniatho, and the authors who wrote upon him. Frag- ments of Books attributed to him in Euseb. Praeparat. Evangel. I, 10. Sanchoniatho, Phoenician History translated from the first book of Eusebiiis, etc. with a continuation, etc. by Eratos- thenes Cyrenaeus ; with historical and chronological remarks by R. Cumberland, Lond. 1720, 8vo. H. Dodwell's Appendix concerning Sanchoniathon's Phceni- cian History, Lond. 1691, 8vo. D. J. Baier, De Phcenicibus eorumque studiis et inventis, Jena, 1709, 4to. J. Mich. Weinrich, De Phcenicum Litteratura, Meiningce, 1714, 4to. See also -f Heeren (Ideen, etc. I, 2), and f Munter, Religion of the Carthaginians, Copenh. 1821, with f Bellermann, on the Phoenician and Punic Coinage, Berlin, 1812-16. 74\ The Phoenicians, a counnercial people, sewed, E I 50 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. through their continual intercourse with other nations, to disseminate widely a knowledge of the discoveries effected in the arts and sciences. Nevertheless, their mercan- tile habits restricted ° their own knowledge to the mari- time art and the mathematics. The history and the doc- trines of Sanchoniatho" and of Ochus (Mochus, Mos- chus), are, at the present time, matters of much dispute. The cosmogonies attributed to them, as well as the popular religion of the Phoenicians, are eminently material. Po- sidonius, the Stoic, cites Moschus as the first inventor of the doctrine of atoms. See Sext. Empir. adv. Mathem. IX, 363, and Strabo, Geog. XVI, p. 757. First Civilisation of the Greeks, their Mythological and Poetical Traditions. See, above, § 38, 1, h. De Pauw, Recherches Philosophiques sur les Grecs, Berlin^ 1787, 4 vols. 8vo. Barthelemy, Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece. •f J. D. Hartmann, Essay towards a History of the Civiliza- tion of the principal Nations of Greece, Lemgo, 1796, 1800, 2 vols. 8vo. Christ. Gottlob Heyne, De causis Mythorum veterum Physicis, in Opiisc. Acad. torn. I. ■j- C. Fr. Creuzer, Symbolik (above § 66). •f F. W. J. ScHELLiNG, On the Mythi, Traditions, and Philo- sophical Maxims of the first epochs of the World ; in the Me- morabilien of Paulus, No. V. •f H. E. G. Paulus, Chaos, a Poetic Fable, and not an era of physical cosmology. In his Memorabilien, No. V. -f" Fr. Ast, On the Chaos of the Greeks, in the Journal of Arts and Science, 1808, vol. I, part. 2. 75. Greece was gradually rescued from barbarism, and advanced to a state of civilization, by the means of fo- reigners. Colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phrygia, introduced inventions and arts, such as agriculture, music, religious hymns, fabulous poems, and mysteries. It can- not be doubted that, in like manner, a great number of re- " PiATO, De Rppub. IV, p. 359. ° About 1200 B. C (1). 75.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. 51 ligious opinions and ideas must have migrated from Egypt to Greece. The only question is the degree of influence we should allow to these adventitious materials, the man- ner in which they became naturalized in their new coun- try, and how far they were lost, or not, in the civilization and mental culture which they contributed to form. It is true that the Greeks possessed not only a rare aptitude for literature, but also a high degree of intellectual ori- ginality, the consequence of which necessarily was, that whatever they acquired from foreign nations speedily as- sumed among them a new and original character; the more so, because there was no sacerdotal race, no division into castes, no despotic authority to obstruct the ad- vances of society and the development of the mental powers. The religion of the Greeks, notwithstanding the sensi- ble forms which it assumed in most of its mythi (the mean- ing of which was indeterminate), presented a subject-mat- ter to engage and exercise the curiosity of the human mind. The poets laid hold on these materials, and employed them with unrivalled success. By these latter a sort of national education was established, addressing itself in part to the understanding, in part to the senses, which served as an introduction to scientific pursuits. Among those who in this respect exerted the greatest influence, was Orpheus ' / by his religious hymns, his imaginations respecting cos- mogony; by the introduction of mysteries, and by certain moral precepts'". Musceus, by his poetic description of the region of the dead, — Homer", by his national epic ' About 1250 B.C. (?) ™ De Orpheo atque de Mysteriis ^Egyptiorum, auctore K. Lycke, Hafnia, 1786, 8vo. Cf. Jos. GoTTLOB Schneider, Analecta Critica, Trajecti ad Via- drim, \111 , Bvo. (Fasc. I. sect. 4.) Wagner, Mythol. sect. 344, sqq. C. A. LoBECK, De Carminibus Orphicis, Diss. I. Regiomont. 1824. G. H. BoTHE, Orpheus Poetarum Graecorum antiquissimus, Gott. 1825, On the Mysteries, see Euseb. Praepar. Evan. II, 3, p. 61 ; ]Meiners Verm. Phil. Schriften, Th. Ill, § 164, ff ; S. Ckoix. Recherches Hist, et Critiques sur les Mysteres, 2nd ed. ed. De Sacy, 2 vols. Paris, 1817 ; and Lobeck, De Mys- teriorum Grjecorum Argumentis, Diss. I, III, Eegiomflnt. 1820, 4to ; with the Mythological works of Crelzfr, Bavr, and Voss, mentioned above. " About 1000 B.C. (?) e2 52 PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. [sect. poems, which present a faithful picture of the manners of ancient Greece, and contain a multitude of my thological recitals **, — HesiodP, by the collection he made of the sa- cred mythi (forming a system of theogony and cosmogony,) and by originating a great number of new ideas on mo- rals 'i, — Epimenides of Crete ^, and Simonides^ of Ceos, with the lyric and gnomic poets, and the authors of fables (^sop), belong to the same class, as having rendered to their country the like services * . Gnomic, or Sententious Philosophy. C. G. Heyne, De Zaleuci et Charondae Legibus atque insti- tutis. In his Opusc. Academ. torn. II. -j- On the Legislation of Solon and Lycurgus, in the Thalia of Schiller, 1790, No. XL <* Chr. Glob. Heyne, De Origine et Causis Fabularum Homericarum. Nov. Comment. Soc. Scient. Gbtt. vol. VII. t J. F. RoTHE, On Homer's Idea of a Supreme Deity, Gorlitz, 1768, 4to. C. GuiL. Halbkart, Psychologia Homerica, ZuUichau, 1796, 8vo. K. H. W. VoLCKER, On the ^ux*) ^^^ dScAov of the Iliad and Odyssey, etc., Giessen, 1825, 4to. Fr.Guil.Sturz, De Vestigiis Doctrinas de Animi Immortalitate in Homeri Carminibus, Prolusiones I — III, Gerce, 1794 — 1797, 4to. Jo. Dan. Schulze, Deus Mosis et Homeri comparatus. Lips. 1799, 4to. t Fraguier, On the Gods of Homer; in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. tom. IV. Gust. Gadolin, De Fato Homerico, Abo, 1800, 8vo. Jo. Fr. Wagner, De fontibus Honesti apud Homerum, Luneb. 1795, 4to. P About 800 B. C. 1 t L. WACHLER,On the Notions of Hesiod respecting the Gods, the World, Man, and his Duties, Rinteln, 1789, 4to. t Wagner, Homer and Hesiod, Sulzb. 8vo. Ch. Glob. Heyne, De Theogonia ab Hesiodo condita ; in the Nov. Com- ment. Soc. Gbtt. vol. VIII. Chph. Arzberger, Adumbratio doctrinae Hesiodi de origine Rerum, Deo- rumque Natur^, Erlang. 1794, 8vo. t Letters on Hesiod, by Creuzer and God. Hermann, Leips, 1818, 8vo. »■ t C. F. Heinrich, Epimenides of Crete, Leips. 1805, 8vo. Pet. Gerh. Dukeri, Diss, de Simonide Ceo, poetcl et philosopho, Ultra- jecti, 1768, 4to. ' See the article Simonides in Bayle's Dictionary. ' Ulr. Andr. Rhode, De Veterum Poetarum Sapientifi Gnomica, Hebrae- orum imprimis et Grajcorum, Hafniie, 1800, 8vo. 76.] PARTICULAR INTRODUCTION. 53 Jo. Fr. Buddei Sapientia Veterum, h. c. Dicta illustriora Sep- tem Graeciae Sapientum cxplicata, Halce^ 1699, Ito. f C. Aug. Heumann, On the Seven Sages ; in the Acta Phi- losoph. No. X. f Is. DE Larrey, History of the Seven Sages, 2 vols. Rot- terdam, 1713-16, 8vo. augmented by the remarks by Delabarre DE Beaumarchais, The Hague, 1734, 2 vols. 8vo. (French). 7G. In the legislative systems of the Greeks, particu- larly those of Lycurgus, Zaleucus, Charondas, and So- lon, we observe a high sense of liberty, a profound ob- servation of the human heart, and great political pru- dence and experience. The sentences of the Seven Wise Men", and the ancient Gnomic poets, contain, it is true, nothing more than rules of practical wisdom, expressed with energy and conciseness ; but they evince, even at this early period, an advancement in civilization, and a ripeness of intellect for the pursuits of science; whenever an occasion should present itself to facilitate their prose- cution. J. CoNH. DuRii Diss, de recondita Veteium Sapientia in Poetis, Alidorf 1655, 4to. El. Weihenmaieri Diss, de Poetarum Fabulis PhilosophiaB involucris, rimce, 1749, 4to. Chr. Glob. Heyne, Prog, quo disputantur nonnulla de Efficaci ad Disci- plinam publicam privatamque vetustissimorum Poetarum doctrina morali, Gotting. 1764, 4to. " From the XLth to the LVIIth Olympiad. I PART THE FIRST. FIRST PERIOD. GREEK AND ROMAN PHILOSOPHY. FROM THALES TO JOHN OF DAMASCUS; i.e. FROM 600 YEARS B. C. TO THE END OF THE EIGHTH CENTURY. Progress of the understanding towards knowledge, but without a clear perception of the principles which should direct it. 77. The Greeks, who had derived from foreigners the first seeds of civiHzation, distinguished themselves above all the other nations of antiquity, by their taste for poetry, for the arts and sciences. The position of their country, their religion, their political constitution, and their love of liberty, contributed to develop, in all its originality and grandeur, the native genius of their country. They thus were betimes matured for philosophy, and engaged in the pursuit of it, even from the earliest date of their po- litical liberty (§ 75). 78. A philosophical spirit having been once awakened among the Greeks, continued to extend its dominion. They devoted their attention to the most important ob- jects of science (theoretically and practically) ; introduced method into their researches, forming a system of scepti- cism in opposition to dogmatism, and rarely failing to apply these speculative inquiries to purposes of real life. The wise men of Greece have justly been regarded by succeeding ages as models ; as well for their spirit of re- search and investigation, as for the results to which these J 77—80.] GREEK AND ROMAN PHILOSOPHY. 55 have led, both in the manner and the matter of their phi- losophic inquiries ; but above all for a certain character of elegance and urbanity, and a command of philosophical language, which satisfies at once the judgment and the taste. 79. Their philosophy did not arrive at this perfection at once ; it began by disjointed speculations on the ex- ternal world. The habit of reflection which grew out of these first essays ; the diversity of the results at which they arrived ; and the continually increasing sense of a want of unity and harmony in their conclusions, recalled wandering speculation to the contemplation of the human mind, as the ultimate source of all certain knowledge ; and philosophy became more enlarged, more methodical, and more systematic. In after times, the discord of different systems ; the prevalence of a subtile scepti- cism ; the oppression of the understanding under a load of historical erudition, eventually diverted the mind from the investigation of its own properties ; till the philoso- phers of Greece, having borrowed from those of the East some of their opinions, in the hope of attaining to something like positive knowledge, fell, instead, into syn- cretism and mysticism^. It is true that the passionate enthusiasm which mixed itself up with this later philo- sophy, belonged in part to the natural character of the Greeks. 80. The history of Grecian philosophy may, therefore, be divided into three periods analogous to the ages of man; his youth — his maturity — and his decrepitude. Pe- riod the first : an ardent spirit of speculation, but with limited views and deficient in svstem : from Tliales to Socrates, i. e. from 600 to 400 B. C. Period the second : a spirit of inquiry more universal, more systematic ; both dogmatical and sceptical; from Socrates to the union of the Porch and the Academy, i. e. from 400 to 60 B. C. Pe- * [The force of these terms, as used by the author, will be sufficiently ex- plained in the course of the work. Tj-o«s.] 56 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. riod the third : cultivation of Greek philosophy by the Jews and the Romans, and its declension ; philosophical learning, without a philosophical spirit ; sceptical spe- culations under a more learned aspect, but speedily lost in mystical and enthusiastical fancies, and destroyed by the union of Grecian literature with that of the Orientals. Prevalence of Christianity, from jTlnesidemus to John of Damascus ; i. e. from the year 60 B. C. to the eighth century *. Authorities for the history of Grecian philosophy, 81. These are twofold; direct and indirect. The first are the works of the philosophers themselves, of which only a portion have come down to us entire, and for the most part consist of unconnected fragments, which have inflicted on the learned a prodigious deal of labour to ar- range and illustrate them. The indirect sources consist in notices and information respecting the lives, the doctrines, and labours of the philosophers, which are to be found in subsequent writers of whatever description; whether pre- sented to us in detached and unconnected pieces, or in a more complete form, and with a systematic arrangement. To this class belong : 1 st. The writings of philosophers which contain accounts of the theories of their prede- cessors ; among others, the works of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero (§ 180), Seneca, Plutarch (§ 185), Sextus Empi- ricus (§ 189, sqq.), Simplicius (§ 220). 2dly. The collec- tions of Diogenes Laertius^ Philostratus '', Eunapius*^, » Consult also t Ast, Epochs of Greek Philosophy, in the Europa of Fr. ScHLEGEL, vol. II, No. II. ^ Diogenes Laertius, De Vitis, dogmatibus et apophtegmatibus clarorum Philosophorum, cur& Marc. Meibomii, Am%t. 1692, 2 vols. 4to. Cur^ P. Dan. Longolii, Cur. Regn., 2 vols. 1739, 8vo. h\]is. 1759, 8vo. *^ Flav. Philostrati Vitae Sophistarum in Philostratorum Operibus, Gr. et Lat. c. not. Olearii, hx]n. 1709, fol. <> EuNAPii Vitae Philosophorum et Sophistarum, ed. Junics, Antiverp, 1568, 8vo. Ed. CoM.MELiN, //eide/fe. 1596,8vo. Ed, Schott, Geneve, 1616, 8vo. 81.] UNSYSTEMATIC SPECULATION. 57 The history of philosophy ascribed to Galen^, and that of Origen^; with the collections of the Pseudo-Plutarch s, and of Stoba?us^. Sdly. The works of other Greek and Latin authors, such as Athenaeus', Aulus Gellius'', Ma- crobius^, Suidas"^. 4thly. The writings of the eccle- siastical Fathers ; Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, Euse- bius, Lactantius, Augustine (§ 232), Nemesius, Photius (§ ^S5). CHAPTER FIRST. FROM THALES TO SOCRATES (FIRST PERIOD OF GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY). Partial and Unsyste^natic Speculation, Henr. Stephani Poesis Philosophica, Paris, 1573, 8vo. 'Hfii/cyj Ttoirja-K; seu Gnomici Poetae Graeci, ed. Brunck. Argent^ 1784, 4to. And the Works on the Seven Sages and the Legisla- tors of the Greeks. ^ Claudii Galeni Liber Trtpi (pCKoaocpov XaropiaQ, in Hippocratis et Galeni Operibus ex edit. Carterii, torn. II, p. 21, seq. ^ Origenis (piXoao^ovfjieva in Jac. Gronovii Thes. Antiq. Grasc, torn. X. (Also published by), Jo. Chph. Wolff, Compendium Historia3 Philosophicas Antiquge sivePhi- losophumena quae sub Origenis nomine circumferuutur, Hamb. 1706 — 1716, 8vo. S Plutarchus, De placitis Philosophorum,sive de PhysicisPhilosophorum decretis, ed. Chr. Dan. Beck, Lips. 1787, Bvo. •> JoH. Stob^i Eclogae Physicae et Ethicae, ed. A. H. L. Heeren, Goit. 1792—1801, 2 parts in 4 vols. Sermones, Francf. 1781, fol. Ed. Nic. Scnow, Lips. 1797, 8vo. » Athen^i Deipnosophistarum, libri XV, ed. Casaubon, Lttgd. 1657 — 64, 2 vols. fol. Jo. Schweigh^user, Argent. 1801 — 7, 14 vols. 8vo. ^ t Fragments of the History of Ancient Philosophy, drawn from the Nights of Aulus Gellius, Lemgo, 1785, 8vo. Noctes Atticae, Henr. Steph. 1585. Gronov. Lugd. Batav. 1706, 4to. etc. ' Macrobii Saturnal. ed. Jac. Gronovius, Lugd. Bat. 1670, 8vo. Ed. Zeune, Lips. 1774, 8vo. "' The modern works on the history of philosophy among the Greeks, have been mentioned, $ 38, I, a and b. 58 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. SciPio Aquilianus, De placitis Philosophorum ante Aristote- lem, Milan, 1615, 4to. Op. Ge. Monalis, Veiiet. 1620, 4to. Ed. Car. Phil. Brucker, Lips. 1756, 4to. f D. TiEDEMANN, First Philosophers of Greece, Leips. 1780, 8vo. f G. Gust. Fulleborn, On the History of the first ages of Grecian Philosophy. In his Collection, Fasc. I. J. GoTTL. BuHLE, Comment, de Veterum Philosophorum Grae- corum ante Aristotelem conaminibus in arte Logica invenienda et perficienda. Comment. Soc. Scient. Gott. tom. X. Fried. Bouterwek, De primis Philosophorum Graecorum de- cretis Physicis. Comment. Soc. Gott. tom. II, 1811. See also the works enumerated above, § 75, on the Greek My- thology, particularly on Orpheus, Homer, and Hesiod, and the Gnomic poets. 82. A spirit of philosophical research first manifested itself in some rude attemps in Ionia, made at the pe- riod when this country, colonized from Greece, enjoyed the utmost prosperity. Thence it extended to some of the neighbouring colonies ; subsequently into Magna Groecia, until the conquests of the Persians and the troubles of southern Italy compelled it to take refuge in Athens; from which, as a centre, intellectual civilization was disseminated, and, as it were, radiated over the whole of Greece. 83. The starting-point of philosophy was the question concerning the origin and the elementary principle of the world : the resolution of which was attempted after the exj)erimental method by the Ionic school ; and X\ve formal method by the Pythagoreans. The Eleatic school op- posed to each other the experimental and intellectual sys- tems ; which were combined by the Atomistic philoso- phers. Last of all came a Sophistical school, which threatened to destroy all belief, religious and moral. 84. But this progress of investigation was a sort of prelude to a more scientific philosophy, which by and by turned from the external object to the internal subject : from the world without to the mind within. Philosophical I 82—85.] lONIANS. THALES. 59 reflection, discarding poetical fictions, applied itself to practical purposes, by the discovery of moral and political apothegms, for a long time delivered in verse (GnomcCy yvhence philosophia gnomica sive Sententiaria; cf. § 75-76). In theory, men wandered, went from one hypothesis to another, until, in the end, they endeavoured to substitute for these a system of metaphysical knowledge. The earliest philosophers were solitary, and without a school (Pythagoras nevertheless being an exception). Their no- tions were disseminated at first by oral tradition ; subse- quently by writings ; which gradually disengaged them- selves from poetic fictions. I. Speculations of the Ancient lonians. •f H. RiTTER, History of the Ionian Philosophy, 5er/m, 1821, 8vo. BouTERWEK, Dissertation referred to above, at the head of §82. Thales, •f The Abbe de Canaye, Inquiry respecting the Philosophy of Thales, in the Memoires de I'Acad. des Inscript. torn. X. Chr. Alb. Doederlini Animadversiones Historico-criticae de Thaletis et Pythagorae Historica ratione, 1750, 8vo. GoDOFR. Ploucquet, Dissert. de Dogmatibus Thaletis Milesii et Anaxagorse Clazomenii, etc. Tubings 1763 ; and in his Com- ment. Philos. Select. Glieb. Chph. Harles, Tria Programmata de Thaletis Doc- trina, de Principio Rerum, imprimis de Deo, ad illustrandum Ci- ceronis de Nat. Deor. locum, lib. I, 10, Erlang. 1780-84, folio. J. Frid. Flatt, Diss, de Theismo Thaleti Milesio abjudi- cando. Tub. 1785, 4to. ^ GoEss, On the System of Thales. See above, at the head of § 2. 85. Thales (600 B. C), of Miletus, the most flourish- ing commercial city of Ionia, improved himself by travel, was possessed of some mathematical and astronomical knowledge, and was ranked by his fellow-citizens among 60 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. the Seven Sages. He was the first Grecian who dis- cussed, on principles of reason, the origin of the world. Water (vdup), or humidity^, was in his opinion (formed in consequence of some experimental observations very partial in their nature) the original element {a$x'n), whence all things proceeded^; and spirit, vdv<;, the impulsive prin- ciple. He observed the attractive power of the magnet and, consistently with his theory, supposed the stone to have a soul. Every thing is full of the divinity ^ It is not exactly known in what manner Thales associated the spiritual parts of his system with his material principle. Accordingly, the discussions which his theism has occa- sioned commenced at a very early epoch ^. Among other sentences, they attribute to him yvZOi a-eavrov. Anaximander and Pherecydes. ^ The Abbe de Canaye, Inquiry concerning Anaximander, in the Memoires de TAcad. des Inscript. torn. X. ■\ Fr. Schleiermacher, Dissertation on the Philosophy of Anaximander, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, 1804-11, Berlin, 1815, 4to. -f- H. RiTTER, The work referred to above, and the article Anaximander, IVth part of the Encyclopedia published by Ersch and Gruber. Pherecydis fragmenta e variis scriptoribus collegit, etc. com- mentationem de Pherecyde utroque philos. et historico praemisit Fr. Guil. Sturz, Gera, 1789, 8vo. second edition, 1824. -j^ Heinius, Dissertation on Pherecydes, in the Memoires de lAcad. Roy. des Sciences, Berlin, V, 1747. f See also the work of Tiedemann mentioned above, at the head of § 82, p. 172, sqq. 86. Anaximander^, a Milesian like Thales, and a friend of that philosopher, chose as the basis of his argument, on the same subject, not analogy, but an assumed philoso- phical principle. The primary essence he asserted to be infinite (aTteipov), comprehending all things, and divine (to « J. H. MuLLER, De AquJi, principio Thaletis, Altd. 1719, 4to. *> Aristot. Metaph. I, 3. De Coelo, II, 13. c Aristot. De Anim;i, I, 2, 5. Cf. De Mundo, VI. ^' Cicero, De Nat. Deor. I, 10. e About 610 B. C. 86, 87.] ANAXIMANDER AND PHERECYDES. 61 ^eiov), without, however, more exactly defining it*^. Ac- cording to some he attributed to this divine nature an es- sence akogether distinct from the elements ; according to others, he made it something intermediate between water and air. It is only in infinity that the perpetual changes of things can take place ; from infinity, opposites detach themselves by a perpetual movement, and in like manner continually return to the same. By this principle the heavens and the earth subsist : with respect to which Anaximander did not content himself with astronomical speculations only. Every thing which is contained in infinitude (to aiteipov), is subject to change, itself being unchangeable ^. Such also was the doctrine, with some slight differences, of his contemporary, (but younger than himself), Pherecydes of Syros ; who recognised as the eternal principles of all things Jupiter (zet? or aW-rjo), Time, and the Earth. It appears also that he attempted an ac- count of the origin of the celestial bodies and of the hu- man race, and that he believed the soul to be immortal''. Anaximander and Pherecydes were the first philosophers who committed their thoughts to writing. Anaximenes. Dan. Grotiiii (praes. J. Andr. Schmidt), Diss, de Anax- imenis Psychologia, Jen. 1689, 4to. 87. Anaximenes, of Miletus', followed the doctrine of his friend and teacher Anaximander ; but instead of the indeterminate uitei^ov of the latter, certain observations, though partial and limited, on the origin of things and the nature of the soul, led him to regard the air {^f) as the primitive element ^. In after time, Diogenes of Ajwl- ^ DioG. Laert. II, 1. 6 AiiiSTOT. Physic. I, 4, 5; III, 4 — 7 ; andSiMPLic. Comment, in Phys. p. 6 ; and De Coelo, p. 151. h Aristot. Metaph.XlV, 4. Diog. Laert. I, 119. Cic. Tusc. Qu. I, 16. ' Flourished about 557 B. C. •* Aristot. Metaph. I, 3. Simplic. in Phys. Arist. p. 6 et 9. Cic. Acad. Quaest. II, 37. Plutarch. De plac. Philos. I, 3. Stob. Eel. I. p. 62 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Ionia, revived and improved upon this system ; in which we may already observe a more enlarged view of nature, and a freer exercise of the understanding. II. Speculations of the Pythagoreans. Authorities : besides Plato and Aristotle, and the Pythagorean Fragments, particularly those of Philolaus : Pythagoras Aurea Carmina. Timaeus Locras. Ocellus Lu- canus. Porphyrins de Vita Pythagorae, ed. Conr. Rittershusius, Altd. 1610, 8vo. See also %pi/o-ea ctttj, in the Sententiosa vetus- tissimorum Gnomicorum opera, torn. I. ed. Glandorf, Lips. 1776, 8vo. and in the Collection of Brunck. Jamblichi De Vita Pythagorica liber Gr. cum vers. Lat. Ulr. Obrechti notisque suis edid. Ludolf Kuesterus, acced. Malchus sive Porphyrius De Vita Pythagorae cum not. L. Holstenii et Conrad. Rittershusii, Amstelod. 1707, 4to. ed. Theoph. KiESLiNG, Lips. 1815, 8vo. p. I and II. Pythagorae Sphaera Divinatoria de decubitu aegrotorum ; and the Epistolae Pythagorae, in the Opusc. Myth. Phys. of Gale, p. 735, sqq. Socratis et Socraticorum, Pythagorae et Pythagoricorum, quae feruntur Epistolae, ed. Orellius, 1816, 8vo. Rich. Bentleii, Dissert, de Phalaridis, Themistoclis, Socratis, Euripidis, aliorumque Epistolis, in Latin, sermonem convertit J. D. A. Lennep, Groning, 1777, 4to. Et, Bentleii Opuscula Philologica, Dissertationem in Phalaridis Epistolas et Epistolam ad J. MiLLiuM complectentia, Lips. 1781, 8vo. -j- Meiners, History of the Sciences in Greece and Rome, tom. I, p. 187. -f- Meiners, Dissertation on the Authenticity of some works of the Pythagorean School in the Bibliotheca Philol. tom. I, No. V. -j- TiEDEMANN, Early Philosophers of Greece, p. 188, sqq. W. Lloyd, A Chronological Account of the Life of Pythagoras, and of other Famous Men his Contemporaries, with an Epistle to Dr. Bentley, etc., Lond. 1699-1704, 8vo. Henr. Dodwelli Exercitationes duae, prima de aetate Pha- laridis, altera de astate Pythagorae, Lond. 1699-1704, 8vo. Dissertations sur I'Epoque de Pythagore, par De Lanauze et Freret, dans les Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscript. tom. XIV. 296. Sext. Emp. Hyp. Pyrrh. Ill, 30 ; Adv. Mathem. VII, 5 ; IX, 360. DiOG. JjAF.nT. II, 3. 88, 89.] PYTHAGORAS. 63 * * * Ge. Lud. Hamberger, Exerc. de Vita et Symbolis Pythagorae, Fitemb. 1676, 4to. Dacier, La Vie de Pythagore, ses symbols, ses vers dores, etc. Par. 1706, 2 vols. V2mo. Chph. Schrader, Diss, de Pythagora, in qua de ejus Ortu, Praeceptoribus et Peregrinationibus agitur. Lips. 1708, 4to. Je. Jac. Leiimann, Observatt. ad Histor. Pythagorae, Frcft. et Leips. 1731, 4to. M . . . ., Vies d'Epicure, de Platon, et de Pythagore, Amst. 1752, 12mo. \ Fred. Christ. Eilschov, History and Critical Life of Py- thagoras, translated from the Danish of Philander von der Weistritz, Kopenhagen, 1756, 8vo. -j- Aug. E. Zinserling, Pythagoras-Apollon, Lips. 1808, 8vo. JoH. SciiEFFER, Dc Natura et Constitutione Philosophiae Ita- licae, Ups. 1664. Edit. II, cum carminibus, Fitemb. 1701, 8vo. f J. Le Clerc, in his Bibliotheca, torn. X, art. II, p. 79. -|- H. RiTTER, History of the Pythagorean Philosophy, Ham- burg, 1826, 8vo. \ Ern. Reinhold, On the Pythagorean Metaphysics, Jena, 1827, 8vo. For the ancient works relative to Pythagoras and his Philoso- phy, see the f Acta Philos. of Heumann, part II, p. 370, part IV, p. 752. 88. The difficulties which embarrass this part of his- tory and demand the exercise of much critical discernment, are, — The want of authentic writings, the abundance of those which are apocryphal, the mystery which appears to involve every thing belonging to the person, the cha- racter, and views of Pythagoras and his society ; the diffi- culty of discriminating between what was his own, and what was borrowed from the Egyptians, or may have proceeded from others of his school, and finally, the re- establishment of the same school at a later period, under different masters, and with somewhat different views. 89. Pythagoras was born at Samos ^ ; and improved ' In 584, according to Meiners. 64 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. himself by his travels in Greece and Egypt "", and proba- bly also by the lessons of Thales and Pherecydes, (whose disciple he is said to have been"), as well as by those of Anaximander. After having previously attempted to esta- bUsh a school and a species of philosophical congregation, at Samos, he founded one (about 521) at Croto, in Italy, whence his school came to be called the Italic. Besides the improvement of the intellectual, moral, and rehgious capacities of man, this society had also considerable political influence ; which circumstance occasioned the ruin of the society, about the year 500; and the death of its founder o. Pythagoras may justly be esteemed a man remarkable for his talents, his discoveries, the elevation of his ideas, and the authority he possessed over others ; but the ancient Greeks and Romans invested him with something more than this, amounting to a sort of superstitious reverence. He was the first who assumed the name of philosopher. See Cic. Tusc. Qusest. V, 3, 4. Diog. Laert. VIII, 8, and I, 12. 90. He investigated the principles of the mathematical sciences; particularly of Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy; his discoveries in which are of them- selves sufficient to immortalise his name. He ascribed an occult power to words and numbers p ; and the science of arithmetic, which he considered as the key to the mathe- matics, he looked upon as containing also the essence of all philosophical knowledge^. From this principle he was led to adopt a sort of Mathematical Philosophy, which gave to his school also the name of Mathematieal. We possess only fragments of the speculations of his school on these subjects ; in which we are not enabled to distin- guish the hand of the master from that of his disciples. "' Fr. Buddei Diss, de Peregrinationib. Pythagorae, Jena, 1692, 4to. j and in his Analect. Hist. Philos. " Diog. Laert. I, 118, sqq. Cic. De Div. I, 13. ° About 504, according to Meiners ; according to others 489 B.C. P yELiAN. Var. Hist. IV, 17. Jamblicii. c. 10. '1 AmsTOT. ISIetaph. I, 5. 91, 92.] PYTHAGORAS. (}'> §91. On the subject of the Pythagorean nunil)crs, see Jac. Brxjckeh, Convenientia Nunierorum Pythagorye cum I dels Platonis, Miscell. Hist. Philos. De Numerorum, quos Arabicos vocant, vera origine Pythago- rica commentatur Conk. Mannert. Norimb. 1801, 8vo. f C. A. Brandis, On the Doctrine of Numbers of the Pytha- goreans and Platonists (in the Rhen. Mus. of Hist. Philos. etc. 1828, No. II, s. 208). Amad. Wendt, De rerum principiis secundum Pythagoreos Comment. Lips. 1827, 8vo. Numbers were defined by the Pythagoreans to be the principles (alrlai) of all things "^ ; this school being dis- posed by their mathematical studies to make the system of external things subordinate to that of numbers, agree- ably to their axiom, luf^yjo-iv clvca. to. tvra Tuv a^i6[A,Zv^ . Num- bers are equal and unequal, a^rioi and xejiiTTo/; the ele- mentary principle of the latter being umtt/ {f/.ovdi), that of the former duality (St^a?). Unequal numbers are limited and complete ; equal ones unlimited and incomplete. The abstract principle then of all perfection is unity and limitation (to ireireoaa-ixevov)', that of imperfection, duality, and indeterminateness (to aireioov). The ten elementary num- bers which are represented in the tetractys^ , and which embrace a complete system of numeration, contain also the elements of a perfect system of nature. (See Arist. Met. I, 5). In this instance they applied the theory of numbers to explain the natures and substances of things, as, in others, to illustrate their formation and origin. But on this subject, we are acquainted only with subsequent essays, and belonging to a later school*. 92. On the TVorld and the Deity. The Pythagoreans, 1 Arist. Metaph. I, 3. Jamblich. Vit. Pythag. c. xii, p. 120, ex Hera- clide Pontic. "■ Arist. Metaph. I, 5, 6 ; XII, 6, 8. » Sext. Empir. Adv. Math. IV, 3. J. Geo. MiCHAELis, Diss, de Tetracty Pythagoiica, Franco/, ad Viad. 1735. Erh. Weigil, Tetractys Pythagorica. ' Sf.xtvs, Adv. Matheni. X, 249, sijq. F 66 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. like their predecessors, considered the world to be a har- monious whole {Koa-fxoq) ; Consisting, according to a system of Decades, of ten great bodies revolving around a com- mon centre, agreeably to harmonious laws ; whence the music of the spheres ", and their explanation of the sym- bolical lyre of Apollo. The centre, or central fire (the sun), in other words, the seat of Jupiter, Aje, printed in the Opusc. IMyth. Phys. et Eth. of TiioM. Gale, p. 539, sqq., and published by D'Argens, Berlin, 1763, 8vo. translated by Bardili, in the Collection of Fulleborn, No. IX, $ 9. On this work, consult t Tf.nnemank, System of the Philosophy of Plato, vol. I, p. 93. 95, 96.] PYTHAGORAS. G9 and the authenticity of the treatise on the Universe ^, attributed to Ocellus, is even more unquestionably apo- cryphal. Among the most distinguished Pythagoreans of a later period should be mentioned, Archytas of Ta- rentum^, a contemporary of Plato, and Philolaus of Croto, or Tarentum ™ ; who became celebrated for his system of astronomy, and composed the first treatise of his school which was committed to writing", entitled, '* The Bacchae, or Inspired Women**." 9G. The doctrine of Pythagoras had great influence with the most eminent philosophers of Greece, and, in particular, with Plato ; from the impression it communi- cated to their speculations. Subsequently, however, it became the fashion to call Pythagorean all that Plato, Aristotle, and others after them, had added to the doc- trines of Pythagoras ; even opinions which they them- selves had started ; and to this medley of doctrines of va- rious origin was superadded a mass of superstitions (§ 184). •* rifpt tT]q tov iravTOQ ^ixrsujg, first published in the Opusc. of Th, Gale, p. 99, sqq. The same, by Batteux, with the work of Tim^us, Par. 1768, 3 vols. 8vo ; and also separately, by D'Argens, Berlin, 1792, Bvo; by Ro- TERMUND, Leips. 1794, Bvo; and lastly, by Rudolphi, Ocellus Lucanus de Rer. Natur^, Graece ; rec, comment, perpet. auxit et vindicare studuit Aug. Frid. Wilh. Rudolphi, Lips. 1801, 8vo., translated with a Dissertation on the Genius of Ocellus, by Bardili, ap. Fulleborn, Fasc. X, § 1 — 3. ' See C. G. Bardili, Epochen, etc., supplement to the first part. The same, Disquisitio de Archyta Tarentino, Nov. Act. Soc. Lat. Jen. vol.1, p. 1. Tentamen de Archytae Tarentini \\tk atque operibus a Jos. Navarra con- scriptum, Hafn. 1820, 4to. Collection of the pretended Fragments of Archy- tas, in the t History of the Sciences by Meiners, vol. I, p. 598. «» The contemporary of Socrates. n Concerning this philosopher, see the work of Aug. Boeckh, mentioned § 92, note j and t The Doctrine of the Pythagorean Philolaus, with the frag- ment of his work, by the same, Berl, 1819, 8vo. ° On the Pythagorean Ladies, see Jamblich. Vit. Pyth. ed. Kuster, p. 21. Theano is particularly mentioned as the wife or the daughter of Pythagoras. DiOG. Laert. VIII, 42, sqq. ; Jambl. 1. c. ; in the work of Gale, Opusc. Myth., p. 740, sqq., in the Collect, of J. Chph. Wolf, Fragmenta Mulie- rum Graecarum prosaica, p. 224, sqq., we find letters attributed to Theano and other women of this sect. See also, Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. ; t Wieland On the Pythagorean Ladies, in his works, vol. XXIV ; Fred. Schlegel, Abhandlung iiber Diotima, fourth vol. of his works, Vienna, 1822, 8vo. 70 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. III. Speculations of the Eleatic School. Liber de Xenophane, Zenone, Gorgia Aristoteli vulgo tributus, partim illustratus Commentario a Ge. Gust. Fulleborn, Hal. 1789, 4to. Ge. Lud. Spaldingii Vindiciae Philosophorum Megaricorum ; subjicitur Commentarius in priorem partem libelli de Xenophane, Zenone, et Gorgia, Hal. 1792, 8vo. -j- J. GoTTFR. Walther, The Tombs of the Eleatic Philoso- pher unclosed, second edition, Magd. et Leips. 1724. JoH. GoTTL. Buhle, Commcntatio de Ortu et Progressu Pan- theismi inde a Xenophane primo ejus auctore usque ad Spinozam, Gotting. 1790, 4to., et Commentt. Soc. Gott. vol. X, p. 157. Chr. Aug. Brandis, Commentationum Eleaticarum, p. 1. Xenophanis, Parmenidis, et Melissi doctrina e propriis Philoso- phorum reliquiis repetita, Alton. 1813, 8vo. 97. All the philosophers, whom we have hitherto had occasion to mention, made experience the basis of their arguments, and consequently were led by the evidence of their senses to the consideration of the contingent and the variable : which it was their endeavour to reconcile with the invariable and absolute, by referring all to the same original. We are now called upon to observe the com- mencement, at Elea in Italy, of a school which boldly as- serted that experience existed only in appearance : that the ideas of movement and change were unintelligible ; and, by these doctrines, were led to derive all knowledge - from the mind itself, as the only substantial foundation of Truth. The Deity they identified with the Universe. All this amounted, as is obvious, to a species of ideal- ism and pantheisfn^, which was iiiiagined by four philoso- phers, with the private circumstances of whose lives we have not much acquaintance. P Jdeulism is used to denote the theory which asserts the reality of our ideas, and from these argues the reality of external objects : Pantheism is the opinion that all Nature partakes of the divine essence. 97, 98.] XENOPHANES. 71 Xenophanes. Fragments of the Poem of Xenophanes TrepJ ^va-euq, in the Col- lection of FuLLEBORN, No. VII, § 1 ; and in Brandis Comment, (above). ToB. RoscHMANNi Diss. Hist. Philos. (praes. Feuerlin) de Xenophane, Altd. 1729, 4to. Diet. Tiedemann, Xenophanis decreta. Nova Biblioth. Philo- log. et Crit. vol. I. fasc. 11. ■\ FiJLLEBORN, Xenophanes, Collection, fasc. I, § 3. See the works mentioned in the preceding §. 98. Xefiophanes of Colophon was the contemporary of Pythagoras, and, about the year 536, estabUshed himself at Elea or Velia, in Magna Graecia. From the principle ex 7iihiIo nihil fit, he concluded that nothing could pass from non-existence to existence. According to him, all things that really exist are eternal and immutable. On this principle he looked upon all nature as subject to the same law of unity; eV to Iv koI Ttav. God, as being the most perfect essence, to ^dvruv aoia-rov Ka) Kodna-rov, is eter- nally. One ; unalterable, and always consistent with him- self; He is neither finite nor infinite, neither moveable nor mimoveable ; he cannot be represented vnider any human semblance ; he is all hearing, all sight, and all thought, and his form is spherical. The same philosopher (on the principle of experience), proposed to explain the multi- fariousness of variable essences by assuming, as primitive elements, water and earth. He appears to have hesitated between the opposite systems of empirism'^ and ration- alism, and bewailed the incertitude which he regarded as the condition of humanity ^ Xenophanes was the first to set the example of a philosopher who divested the 1 Empirism, or eiperimentalism, it is necessary to bear in mind, would derive all our knowledge from experiment, by the avenues of the senses : rationalism, on the contrary, from the mind. »■ Arist. de Xenoph. c. 3 ; Met. I, 3, 5. Sextus, Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 224, sqq. ; III, 228; Adv. Math. VII, 49, sqq. Aokoq S'LttI Train TsrvKTai, 52, 110; VllI, 326; X, 313, sqq. Dice. Laert. IX, 19, sqq. Stob. Eel. II, p. 14, sqq. ed. Heeren. 72 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Deity of the unworthy images under which he had been represented ^ Parmenides. Fragments of his Poem iteoi (pva-eaq, collected by H. Steph;ens. ■f- FuLLEBORN, Fragments of Parmenides, collected and illus- trated, Zullichaic, 1795, 8vo. The same in his Collection, fasc. VI and VII. The same Fragments, published Avith those of Em- pedocles, by Peyron ; see § 108. (On Parmenides cf. Diog. Laert. IX, 21, sqq.). J. Brucker, Letter on the Atheism of Parmenides, translated from the Latin into French, in the Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. XXII, p. 90. •f Nic. Hier. Gundling, Observations on the Philosophy of Parmenides, in the Gundlingiana, tom. XV, p. 371, sqq. •f J. T. Van Der Kemp, Parmenides, Edincs, 1781, 8vo. 99. Parmenides of Elea, who travelled with Zeno to Athens about 460, enlarged upon the above system. He maintained that the understanding alone was capable of contemplating Truth ; that the senses could afford only a deceptive appearance of it. From this principle he deduced a twofold system of true and of apparent knowledge ; the one resulting from the understanding, the other from the senses *. His poem on Nature treated of both these systems ; but the fragments of it which have come down to us make us better acquainted with the for- mer than the latter. In i\\e former ^ Parmenides begins with the idea oi pure existence, which he identifies with thought and knowledge"^ (never expressly making it the same with the Deity), and concludes that iion-existence, TO iA.ri ov, cannot be possible ; that all things which exist are one and identical ; and consequently that existence has no commencement, is invariable, indivisible, pervades all space, and is limited only by itself; and consequently « Clem. Alex. ed. Pott. p. 714, sqq. ' Sextus, Adv. Mathcm. VII, 111. Auist. Metaph. 1,5. Uioc. Laert. IX, 22. « See Frag, in FVlleborn, V, 45, 46. 88—91. 93, sqq. 99, 100.] PARMENIDES. MELISSUS. / 73 _ that all movement or change exists only in appeaxcmc^. The manner, notwithstanding, in which objects pi*cseut f Tpr\" themselves to our senses is uniform, and is called U^a.^,^r- To account for this appearance conveyed by the senses, Parmenides assumed the existence of two principles, that of heat or light (ethereal fire), and that of cold or dark- ness (the earth) ; the first pervading and active, the second dense and heavy ; the first he defined to be pos'i- iive, real; and the intellectual element (fiy]fA.iovoy6<;) ; the second the negative element, or, IXt] ; or as he preferred to style it — a limitation of the former^. From this two- fold division he derived his doctrine of changes; which he applied even to the phenomena of the mind. Melissus. Aristotelis liber de Xenophane, Zenone, Gorgia, c. I, 2 ; et Spalding Comment, ad h. lib. See Bibliogr. § 97 ; cf. Diog. Laert. lib. IX, § 24. 100. Melissus of Samos% adopted (possibly from the teaching of the two last philosophers) the same system of idealism, but characterized by greater boldness in his way of stating it, and, in some respects, by profounder views. What really existed, he maintained, could not either be produced or perish ; it exists without having either commencement or end ; infinite, (differing in this respect from Parmenides), and consequently, one, inva- riable, not composed of parts, and indivisible : which doc- trine implies a denial of the existence of bodies, and of the dimensions of space. All that our senses present to * Parmenidis Fragmenta, in the Collection of Fulleborn, V, 39, sqq. Arist. Physic. I, 2 ; Metaph. Ill, 4 ; Lib. de Xenophane, 4. Plutarch. De Plac. Philos. I, 24. Sext. Empir. Adv. Math. X, 46; Hyp. Pyrrh. Ill, 65. SiMPLic. in Phys. Arist. p. 19 et 31. Stob. Eel. I, p. 412, sqq. y SiMPLic. Comment, in Arist. de Coslo, p. 38, b. ^ Cic. Acad. Quaest. II, 37. Plutarch. De Plac. II, 7—26; III, 1, 15 ; IV, 5 ; V, 7. Sext. Empiric. IX, 7, sqq. Stob. Eel. I, p. 500. 510. 516, et al. ^ He was distinguished as a statesman and naval commander, and flouiifshed about 444 B. C, 74 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. us (that is to say, the greater part of things which exist), is nothing more than an appearance^ and is altogether beyond the hmits of real knowledge ^. As for the rela- tion between real existence and the Deity, we are igno- rant of the sentiments of Melissus on this head ; for what is reported by Diog. Laert. IX, 24, can be considered as relating only to the popular notions. Zeno, See the works mentioned in § 97. Diet. Tiedemann, Utrum Scepticus fuerit an Dogmaticiis Zeno Eleates ; Nova Bibliotheca Philol. et Crit. vol. I, fasc. 2 ; cf. "f Stuadlin, Spirit of Scepticism, vol. I, 264. 101. Zeno of Elea, an ardent lover of liberty*", tra- velled, with his friend and teacher Parmenides, to Athens, about the LXXX. Olympiad"^, and appeared in the cha- racter of a defender of the idealism of the Eleatic school, which could not but seem to people at large strange and absurd ; endeavouring, with great acuteness, to prove that the system of empiric realism is still more absurd^. 1st. Because if we admit that there is a plurality of real es- sences, we must admit them to possess qualities which are mutually destructive of each other, similitude, for example, and dissimilitude; unity and plurality; movement and re- posed 2dly. We cannot form an idea of the divisibility of an extended object without a contradiction being involved; for the parts must be either simple or compounded ; in the first of which cases the body has no magnitude, and ceases to exist ; in the second it has no unity, being at b Arist. Phys. I, 2, 3, 4 ; III, 9 ; De Coelo, III, 1 ; De Sophist. Elench. 28. SiMPLic. in Physic. Arist. p. 8 et 9. 22. 24, 25 ; in Arist. de Coelo, p. 38, a. Cic. Acad. Quaest. II, 37. Sext. Emp. Pyrrh. Hyp. Ill, 65 ) Adv. Math. X, 46. Stob. Eel. I, p. 440. <= Plutarch. Adv. Colot. ed Reiske, vol. X, p. 630. Dice. Laert. IX, 25, sqq. Vat.. Max. Ill, 3. d 460 B.C. ^ Plato, Paumknidls, p. 74, sqq. '■ Plato, Pha-'di. vol. J II, p. ^O'l. Simimk. in Phys. Arist. p. 30. 101-103.] ZENO. HERACLITUS. 75 the same time finite and infinite s. 3dly. Innumerable difficulties result (according to Zeno) from the supposi- tion of motion in space : if such motion be allowed to be possible, the consequence is, that infinite space must, in a given time, be traversed. He has acquired great cele- brity by his four logical arguments against motion *', and particularly by the well-known one named Achilles'. 4thly. We cannot form a notion of space as an object, without conceiving it to he situated in another space, and so on ad injinituni^. And in general he denies that the absolute unity which the understanding requires as a character of real existence, is in any sort to be recognised in the objects of the senses ^ By thus opposing reason to experience, Zeno opened the way to scepticism; at the same time laying the foundations of a system of logic, of which he was the first teacher™; and employing dia- logue ". 10^. The speculations of the Eleatae (to which Xenia- des of Corinth °, also attached himself p), were subse- quently pursued in the school of Megara. They did not fail to meet with opponents, but their real fallacy was not so readily discovered. Plato, by making a due dis- tinction between ideas and their objects, approached the nearest to the truth. IV. Heraclitus. JoH. BoNiTii Diss, de Heraclito Ephesio, P. I — IV, Schnee- berg, 1695, 4to. Sf SiMPLIC. 1. C. h Arist. Physic. VI, 9. 14. Cf. Plato, Parraenid. I. c. ' Car. Henr. Erd.m. Louse, Diss, (praeside Hoffbauer) de Arguraentis quibus Zeno Eleates nullum esse Motum demonstravit, etc. Hal. 1794, 8vo. •' Arist. Phys. IV, 3. 5. 1 Arist. Metaph. Ill, 4. Simtlic. in Phys. p. 30. Senec. Ep. 30. '» Plutarch. Pericles. Sext. Emp. Adv. Math. VII, 7. Diog. Laert. IX, 25, 47. " Arist. De Sophist. Elench. c. 10. " Sext. Kmp. Adv. JMath. \'1I, 48, 53 j Vlll, 5. P In the fifth century B.C. 76 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. GoTTFR. Olearii Diatribe de Principio reriim Naturalium ex mente Heracliti, Lips. 1697, 4to. Ejusdem : Diatribe de rerum Naturalium genesi ex mente Heracliti, ibid. 1072, 4to. Jo. Upmark, Diss, de Heraclito Epliesiorum Philosopho, Up- sal, 1710, 8vo. JoH. Math. Gesneri Disp. de Animabus Heracliti et Hippo- cratis, Comm. Soc. Gott. torn. I. Chr. Gottlob Heyne, Progr. de Animabus siccis ex Hera- cliteo placito optime ad sapientiam et virtutem instructis, Gbt- ting. 1781, fol. ; and in his Opusc. Acad. vol. III. -f- Fr. Schleiermacher, Heraclitus of Ephesus, surnamed the Obscure; compiled from the fragments of his work, and the testimonies of ancient writers, in the third fasciculus of vol. I, of the Musseum der Alterthumswissenschaften, Berl. 1808, 8vo. Cf. the work of Ritter, p. 60, referred to above at the head of § 85 ; and, in answer to the views of Schleiermacher, Theod. L. EicHHOFF, Dissertationes Heraclitese, partic. I, Mogunt, 1824, 4to. 103, By his birth Heraclitus of Ephesus belonged to the Ionian school^. He was a profound thinker, of an inquisitive spirit; and the founder of a sect called after him, which had considerable reputation and influence. His humour was melancholy and sarcastic, which he in- dulged at the expense of the democracy established in his native town, and with which he was disgusted. The knowledge he had acquired of the systems of preceding philosophers (vyeing with one another in boldness), of Thales, Pythagoras, and Xenophanes', created in him a habit of scepticism of which he afterwards cured him- self. The result of his meditations was committed to a volume, the obscurity® of which procured for him the appellation of a-Koreimi;^, He also made it his object to discover an elemental principle ; but either because his views were different, or from a desire to oppose himself to the Eleatae, he assumed it to be Jirey because the most 1 He flourished about 500 B. C •■ According to some, he was the disciple of this philosopher. ' This work is cited under different titles ; e. g. M-ovaai, Fragments in Henr. Steph. Poes. Philos. Cf. Schleiermacher. ' DioG. Laeu. IX, 5 ; et II, 22. Arist. Rhet. Ill ; De IMundo 5. Cic. De Nat Deor. 1, 26; 111, 14 ; De Fin. IT, 5. i lOS.] HERACLITUS. 77 subtile and active of the elements. Fire he asserted to be the foundation of all things, and the universal agent. The universe he maintained to be neither the work of gods nor men; but Sifire, continually kept alive, but with alternations of decay and resuscitation, according to fixed laws ". Hence he appears to have deduced among others the following opinions: 1. The variability, or perpetual flux of things {jo-t\ ^)^ wherein also consists the life of ani- mals y. 2. Their formation and dissolution by fire; the mo- tion from above and from below ; the first by evaporation, or avaSv/xjWi?; and the future conflagration of the universe^. 3. The origin of all changes, in consequence of two princi- ples, viz. discord (iroXe/xo?, e/Jt?), and concord (elp'^vrj, 6fAoXoyia)j and their mutual opposition (ivavTioryi<;), according to fixed laws of fate {elfAapfAevvj''). 4. The principle of force and energy he asserted to be the principle also of thought. The universe he maintained to be full of souls and dce- mones, endowed with a portion of this all-pervading fire. He maintained the excellence of the soul to consist in its aridity, or freedom from aqueous particles — ccvri xpvxv a^ia-rvj or (Tocpccrdrrj^. The soul, he continued, by its consan- guinity to the divine mind, is capable, by abstraction, of recognising the universal, and the true ; whereas by the exercise of the organs of the senses, it perceives only what is variable and individual. We may remark, that this w Aristot. Metaph. I, c. 3, 7 j De Mundo, c. 5. Simplic. in Phys. Arist. p. 6. Clem. Alexand. Strom, lib. V. ^ Plat. Cratyl. vol. Ill, ed. Bipont. p. 267. Cf. Theaetet. ibid. p. 69. y Plutarch. De Plac. Phil. I, 23, 27, 28. De d apud Delph. p. 227, 239. ^ Arist. De Coelo, I, 10; III, 1. Plutarch, de ti apud Delph. Dioo. Laert. IX, 8. ^ DiOG. Laert. IX, 7, 8, 9. Simplic. in Phys. p. 6. Plat. Sympos. c. 12. *» According to Stob., Serm. 17. and Ast, on the Phaedrus of Plato, c. Ill, ed. Lipa. 1810, Avyij ^;;p// 4'^x^l Arist, De Generat. et Corrupt. I, 7 ; Physicor. IV, 3. Diog. IX, 45, 49. Sextus, Adv. Math. IX, 113. Plut. De Decret. Philos. I, 25. Cf. Stob. Eel. I, 394. *" Arist. De Anim. I, 2. Plutarch. De Plac. Philos. IV, 3. P Arist. De Anima I, 2, 3. Plutarcii. De Plac. Philos. IV, 3, 4, 0, 13, 19. Arist. De Sensu, c. 4 ; De Divinat. per Somnum, c. 2. Sextus Adv. Math. Vll, 135, sqq.; VIII, 6, 184; Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 213, sqq. Arist. Me- taph. IV. 5. (',(. De Divin. 11,67. 105.] HERMOTIMUS AND ANAXAGORAS. 81 figure, which inhabit the air'^. To these he ascribed dreams and the causes of divination'". He carried his theory into practical pliilosophy also, laying down that happiness consisted in an equahlUty of temperament (evOv- l*.i(x) ; whence he deduced his moral principles and pru- dential maxims ^ . Democritus had many admirers * ; among others, Nessus, or Nessas, of Chios, and the countryman of the latter (and according to some his pupil), Metrodorus (by whom were propagated certain sceptical notions"); Diomenes oi Smyrna; Nausiphanes, of Teios, the master of Epicurus ; Dlagoras of Melos, the freedman and disciple of Democritus, who is also numbered among the Sophists (§ 109), and was obliged to quit Athens^, on account of his reputed atheismv; Anax- archus of Abdera, the contemporary and friend of Alex- ander the Great ; and others. It w^as from Democritus that Epicurus borrowed the principal features of his me- taphysics. VI. Others of the Ionian School, Hermotimus and Anaxagoras. For the traditions relating to Hermotimus of Clazomenae, see a -f- Critical Inquiry by Fr. Aug. Carus, in the Collection of Fiillebom, fascic. IX, p. 58, sqq. -|- Heinius, Dissertations on Anaxagoras, torn. VIII and IX of the History of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Belles Let- tres of Prussia (French); and in the Magazine of Hissmann, torn. V, § 335, sqq. (Germ.). q Jo. CoNR. ScHWARZ, Diss. de Democriti Theologia, Cohl. 1718, 4to. »■ Sextus, Adv. Math. IX, 19,24. Plutarch. Dedefectu Oraculor. IX.p. 326; Vita ^milii Paulli, II, p. 168. Cic. Nat. Deor. 1, 12, 43; De Divin. I, 3. » DiOG. Laert. IX, 45. Stob. Eel. II, p. 74, sqq. Cic. De Fin. V, 8, 29. * DioG. Laeiit. IX, 58, sqq. " Cic. Acad. Quaest. IV, 23. Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 43, 88. ^ In 415 B.C. y Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 51, sqq.; Hyp. Pyrrh. Ill, 218. Mariangelus Bonifac. a Eeuthen, de Atheismo Diagorae. J. Jac, Zimmermanni Epist. de Atheismo Evemeri et Diagora;, in Mus. Brem. vol. I, p. 4. Theod. Gott- HOLD Thienemann, On the Atheism of Diagoras, apud FiJlleb. fasc. XI, No. 2. Cf. p. 57, sqq. ; and Bayle's Diet., s. h. v. G 82 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. De Ramsay, Anaxagoras, ou Systeme qui prouve I'lmmortal- ite de I'ame par la matiere du Chaos, qui fait le Magnetisme de la Terre. La Haye, 1778, 8vo. God. Ploucquet, A work mentioned above, § 85. •\ Fr. Aug. Carus, On Anaxagoras of Clazomense, and the Genius of his Age, in the Collection of Fu'lleborn, fascic X. The same, Disser. de Cosmo-Theologiae Anaxagorae fontibus. L'qos. 1797, 4to. ■f J. VAN Vries, Two Dissert, on the Life of Anaxagoras (Dutch), Amsterd. 1806, 8vo. J. T. Hemsen, Anaxagoras Clazomenius sive de Vita ejus atque Philosophia Disquis. Philos. Hist. Gotting. 1821, 8vo. RiTTER, Work mentioned above, at the head of § 85. Anaxagor^ Clazomenii Fragmenta, quae supersunt, omnia, coUecta Commentarioque illustrata ab E. Schaubach, etc. Lijjs, 1827, 8vo. Sketch of the Life, Character, and Philosophy of Anaxagoras, Classical Journal, No. XXXIII, p. 173-177. 106. Anaxagoras'^, animated by an extraordinary love of science, distinguished himself among the most cele- brated thinkers by following this principle, that the study of the heavens and of nature is the proper occupation of man^. He is looked upon by some as the disciple of Anaximenes (which is inconsistent with chronology), and by others, of Hermotimus, who was also a native of Cla- zomense, and is said to have recognised a Superior Intel- ligence as the Author of nature ''. In his forty-fifth year Anaxagoras fixed himself at Athens ; but in conse- quence of the machinations of a party, he was accused of being an enemy to religion, without it being possible for Pericles himself to protect him ; and retired to end his days at Lampsacus*^. Nothing has so much contributed to his celebrity as his doctrine of a 'NoZq, or intellectual principle, the Author of the universe ; a conclusion to which he was led in consequence of the superior attention he paid to the system of nature : the mystical revelations of his countryman Hermotimus ^ possibly contributing to * Born at Clazomenae, about 500 B. C. The friend of Pericles. * Arist. Eth. Eudem. I, 5. '' AnisT. Met. I, 3. Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 7. c In 428 B.C. <* Arist. Metaph. 1, 3. Pmn. Hist. Nat. VII, 52. lOG.] ANAXAGORAS. 83 form in him this opinion ; as well as the manifest incon- sistency and inadequacy of all those systems which had recognised only material causes. Adhering to the prin- ciple, ex n'lhilo nihil Jit^ he admitted the existence of a chaotic matter, the constituent elements of which, always united and identical (ra o/xoce/j^)^, are incapable of being decomposed ; and by the arrangement of which and their dissemination he undertook to account for the phe- nomena of the natural world ^: adding, that this chaos, which he conceived surrounded by air and ether, must have been put in movement and animated at the first by the Intelligent Principle. NoiJ? he defined to be the a&%^ T^^ Kiv-fia-iwq. From this first principle he deduces motion, at first circular ; the result of which rotation (he main- tained), was the separation of the discordant particles; the union and amalgamation of those which were homoge- neous ; and in fine, the creation of symmetry and order. Intelligence, he considered the active and creative cause ; he believed this principle to be endowed spontaneous energy: to be simple and pure; refined from all matter; pervading all things ; defining and limiting all things ; and consequently, the principle of life, sensation, and mental perception ^. Anaxagoras was more inclined to the study of physics than of metaphysics, for which he is blamed by Plato "^ e The term Homoeomeriae appears to be of more recent invention. Another of his maxims was, kv ttuvti iravTa, that in every thing there is a portion of every thing. [Like lord Peters loaf! Transl.] f G. De Vkies, Exercitationes de Homoiomeria Anaxagorae, Ullraject. 1692, 4to. t Batteux, Conjectures respecting the Homoiomeriae, or similar Elements, of Anaxagoras. The same, Developpement d'un Principe Fonda- mental de la Physique des Anciens, etc. Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscript. torn. XXV ; and + Hismaxn, 3Iagaz. vol. Ill, sect. 153 and 191. See also G. N. Wiener, On the Homoeomeriae of Anaxagoras, Wormat. 1771 (Lat.), and EiLERS, Essay on his Principle, -bv voiiv tlvat. -jravTuv uItiov. Fcf ad M. 1822, 8vo. e DroG. Laert. IT, 6, sqq. Akist. Phys. I, 4 ; VIII, 1 ; Metaph. I, 3 ; De Generat. et Corrupt. I, 1. Simplic. in Phys. Arist. p. 33, sqq. Arist. De Anirak, I, 1. h Phaed. c. 46, sqq. g2 84 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. and by Aristotle ^ Accordingly he explained on physi- cal principles the formation of plants and animals, and even of the heavenly bodies' : which drew upon him the reproach of atheism ^ He admitted to a certain extent the validity of the evidence of the senses ; but reserved for reason (^^oV?), the discrimination of objective truth '. Diogenes of Apollonia and Archelaus. f Fr. Schleiermacher, On the Philosophy of Diogenes of Apollonia, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sc. of Berlin, 1815 (Germ.). Fr. Panzerbieter, De Diogenis ApoUoniatse Vita et Scriptis, Meining. 1823, 4to. 107. Diogenes of Apollonia (in Crete), and ArcJielaus of Miletus (or, according to others, of Athens) ; both of whom were about this time resident at Athens, appear, in different ways, to have blended the doctrines of Anaxa- goras with those of Anaximenes. Diogenes ™ maintained that air was the fundamental principle of all Nature, and imputed it to an intellectual energy" : uniting in this respect the system of Anaximenes with that of Anaxagoras. On the other hand, Archelaus, a disciple of Anaxagoras °, maintained that all things were disengaged from the origi- nal chaos by the operation of two discordant principles of •' IVIetaph. I, 4. Aristotle accuses him of using the Deity only as a machine in his philosophy. ' Maintaining that the sun was originally ejected from the earth and heated, till it became a fiery mass, by rapid motion. '' Theophrast. Hist. Plantar. Ill, 2. Diog. Laert. II, 9. Xenoph. Memorab. IV, 7. Platon, Apol. Socr. 14. ' Sextus, Hypotyp. I, 33 ; Adv. Math. VII, 90. Arist. Metaph. IV, 5, 7. Cic. Tusc. Quaest. IV, 23. 31. >" Cf. above, $ 87. He v^^as sometimes surnaraed Physicus ; and flourished about 472 B. C. In his adoption of one elementary principle he resembled the Ionian school : his book was intitled Trepi (piaeujg, of which Simplicius has preserved us several fragments. " Arist. De An. I, 2 ; De Generat. et Corrupt. I, 6. Simplic. In Phys. Arist. p. 6 and 32. Diog. Laert. IX, 57. Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 12. Euseb. Prajpar. Evang. XV. " Flourished about 460 B. C. 107, 108.] DIOGENES. EMPEDOCLES. 85 heat and cold (or of fire and water) ; that mankind had in- sensibly separated themselves from the common herd of the inferior animals ; and was inclined to believe that our ideas of what is just, and the contrary, are conventional, and not by nature l to Zikociov eivai kou to a»V%poy oi) (pvTei aXKa vofx^ P. With respect to the operations of the mind his system was one of pure materialism. The system of nature of this last is still more obscure than that of the former '^, Empedocles. Empedocles Agrigentinus, De Vita et Philosopliia ejus ex- posuit, Carminum Reliquias ex Antiquis Scriptoribiis collegit, recensuit, illustravit Fr. Guil. Sturz, Lips. 1805, 8vo. Cf. Phil. Buttmanni Observ. in Sturzii Empedoclea, in the Com- ment. Soc. Phil. Lips. 1804, et Empedoclis et Parmenidis Frag- menta, etc. ; restituta et illustrata ab Amadeo Peyron, Lips. 1810, 8vo. .To. Ge. Neumanni Progr. de Empedocle Philosopho. Fiteb. 1790, folio. -f" P. Nic. BoNAMY, Researches respecting the Life of Empe- docles ; in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscript. vol. X. ■f TiEDEMANN, System of Empedocles ; in the Magazine of Gottingen, tom. IV, No. 3. f H. RiTTER, On the Philosophic Doctrine of Empedocles, in the Litterarische Analekten of Fr. Aug. Wolf, fascic. IV. DoMENico SciNA, Mcmoric sulla Vita e Filosofia di Empedocle Gergentino. Palermo, 1813, 2 tomi 8vo. 108. Empedocles of Agrigentum •■, distinguished him- self by his knowledge of natural history and medicine ^ ; and his talents for philosophical poetry. It is generally be- lieved that he perished in the crater of ^^tna *. Some sup- pose him to have been a disciple of Pythagoras or Archy- tas (Diog. Laert. VIII, 54*, sqq.) ; others, of Parmenides. P Diog. Laert. II, 16. Cf. Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 135. *i Plutarch. De Plac. Philos. I, 3. Cf. Simplic. in Ph. Aristot. p. 6j et Stob. Eel. I. •■ Flourished about 442 ; according to others 460 B.C. * Which procured liim of old the reputation of working miracles, Diog. Laert. VIII, 51. Cf. Theoi'h. Gust. Harles, Programmata de Empedocle, num ille merito possit magiae accusari, Er/. 1788-90, fol. ' Gi . Phil. Olearii Progr. de Morte Empedoclis, Li\)s. 1733, fol. 86 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. He cannot have been an immediate scholar of the first, inasmuch at Aristotle (Met. I, 3) represents him as con- temporary with, but younger than Anaxagoras ; and be- cause he appears to have been the master of Gorgias. His philosophy, which he described in a didactic poem, of which only fragments have come down to us, combined the elements of various systems: most nearly approaching that of Pythagoras and Heraclitus, but differing from the latter, principally: 1st. Inasmuch as Empedocles more expressly recognises four elements ", earth, water, air, and fire : these elements, (compare his system, in this respect, with that of Anaxagoras), he affirmed not to be simple in their nature ; and assigned the most important place to fire''. Sdly. Besides the principle of concord ((f)i}Ja), opposed to that of discord (v€7koi;), (the one being the source of union and good, the other of their oppo- sites), he admitted into his system necessity/ also, to explain existing phenomena ^. To the first of these principles he attributed the original composition of the elements. The material world (a-cpccTpoq, p^/Acs^) he believed, as a whole, to be divine : but in the sublunar portion of it he detected a considerable admixture of evil and imperfec- tion^. He taught that at some future day all things must again sink into chaos. He advanced a subtile and scarcely intelligible theory of the active and passive affections of things (Cf. Plato Menon. ed. Steph. p. 76, C. D. Arist. De Gener. et Corr. I, 8 ; Fragm. ap. Sturz. v. 117), and drew a distinction between the world as pre- sented to our senses (/coV^o? ala-Briroq), and that which he presumed to be the type of it, the intellectual world [Koa-iAoq vofjToq) ^. He looked for the principle of life in fire : ad- mitting at the same time, the existence of a Divine Being " D. C. L. SrnuvE, De Elementis Empedoclis, Dorp. 1807, 8vo. ^ AnisT. Met. I, 4 ; De General, et Corrupt. I, 1, 8 ; U, 6. y AitiST. Phys. 11, 4 ; De Partib. Animal. 1,1; II, 8. '• SiMPLic. In Phys. Arist. ** AuisT. Metaph. I, 4 ; 111,4. Plutarch. De Solertia Animal. ^ Fragm. edit. Peyron, p. 27. Simplic. in Arist. Phys. p. 7. De Coelo, p. 128. 109.] SOPHISTS. 87 pervading the universe ^ From this superior intelligence he believed the Dcctnones to emanate, to whose nature the human soul is allied. The soul he defined to consist in a combination of the four elements (to account for the knowledge it possesses, of external objects, which he con- ceived was owing to an analogy subsisting between the subject and the object) ; and its seat he pronounced to be principally the blood ^. He appears to have made a dis- tinction also between good and evil dcemones *. VII. Sophists, Particulars and opinions respecting them to be found in Xeno- phon, Isocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, Sextus E., Diogenes Laertius, and Philostratus. LuD. Cresollii Theatrum Veterum Rhetorum, Oratorum, Declamatorum, i. e. Sophistarum, de eorum disciplina ac discendi docendique ratione, Paris. 1620, 8vo. and in Gronovius, Thes. tom. X. Ge. Nic. Kriegk, Diss, de Sophistarum Eloquentia, Jena. 1702, 4to. Jo. Ge. Walchii Diatribe de praemiis Veterum Sophistarum Rhetorum atque Oratorum; in his Parerga Academica, p. 129; and, De Enthusiasmo Veterum Sophistarum atque Oratorum, Ibid. p. 367, sqq. -f- Meiners, History of the Sciences, etc. vol. I, p. 112, sqq. and vol. II. 109. The rapid diffusion of all sorts of knowledge and every variety of speculative system among the Greeks, the uncertainty of the principles assumed and the con- clusions deduced in the highest investigations, (conse- quences of the little stability of the data on which they were grounded), together with the progress of a certain refinement which kept pace with the deterioration of their moral and religious habits, all these causes conspired to give birth to the tribe of Sophists^; that is, to a class of c Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 64 et 127. Cf. Arist. Metaph. Ill, 4. •1 Arist. De Anim. I, 2. Sext. Adv. Math. I, 303 ; VII, 121. Plu- TAKCH. De Deer. Philos. IV, 5 ; V, 25. e Plutarch, De Is. et Osir. p. 361. ^ The term (jo(piaTi](^ had at first been equivalent to that of (jo^oq. 88 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. persons possessed of a merely superficial and seeming knowledge ; to the profession of which they were influenced by merely interested motives. The Sophists GorgiaSf Pro- tagoras, Prodlcus, Hippias of Elis, Polus, Thrasymachus, and CallicleSy were orators and scholars very well prac- tised it is true in the art of speaking, of dialectics, criti- cism, rhetoric, and politics, but being totally devoid of any real love of philosophy, were anxious only so far to follow the current of their time which set that way, as to pro- mote their own advantage by means of their ability as dis- putants. All they desired was to distinguish themselves by the show of pretended universal knowledge ; by solving the most intricate, most fanciful, and most useless questions : and above all, hoped to get money by the pre- tended possession of the art of persuasion s. With this view they had contrived certain logical tricks of a kind to perplex their antagonists ; and, without possessing in the least degree a spirit of philosophy, they maintained all sorts of philosophical theories. The end of their system would have been to destroy all difference between truth and error. Their conduct reflected much of the general character of their age and country, while it had the advantageous effect of awakening at length, in others, a nobler and more elevated spirit of inquiry. 110. The celebrated orator, Gorgias of Leontium'', a disciple of Empedocles, endeavoured, in his work on Na- ture \ to demonstrate by certain subtile arguments, which it is not necessary to repeat here, that nothing real exists ; nothing which can be known ; or communicated by the means of words ^. The distinction he established between e Plat. Tim. ed. Bipont., torn. IX, p. 285. Xenoph. Memorab. I, 6. AnisT. Sophist. Elench. c. I. Cic. Acad. Qaaest. II, 23. '' Flourished about 440. Was ambassador at Athens 424 B. C. ' We find, apud Aristot. et Sext. Empir., fragments of this work, under the title : rifjoj row j^u) uutoq i) Trepl (pvaeojg. To Gorgias are also attributed the Speeches which are to be found among the Oratores Graeci of Reiske, vol. VIII. ^ Arist. De Xenoph. Zenone et Gorgi^, especially c. V, sqq. Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 65, sqq. 110.] SOPHISTS. 89 P ■ objects, impressions, and words, was important, but led to ■ no immediate result. Protagoras of Abdera (said to have been the disciple of Democritus), maintained that all human knowledge consists solely in the apprehension of the object by the subject'; that consequently that man is the standard of all things (liavTuv %/5»;jM,aT&jv jw-erpov avBpu-Koq)"^ : that, as far as truth or falsehood are concerned, there is no difference between our perceptions of external ob- jects " : that every way of considering a subject has its opposite, and that there is as much truth on the one side as the other ; and that consequently nothing can be sup- ported in argument with certainty ° : maintaining at the same time the sophistical profession, " to make the worse the better argument." As for the existence of the gods, he appears to have esteemed it doubtful p, in consequence of which he was banished from Athens (where he taught), and died in banishment, about the XCIII. Olympiad. Prodicus of Julis in the isle of Ceos*', a disciple of Pytha- goras, employed himself in investigating the synonymes of words : deduced the principle of religion from the appear- ances of a beneficent intention in external nature "" ; and > Plat. Thezetet. ed. Bip. II, 68. Sext. Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 217. Cf. Diog. Laeut. IX, 51. " Plat. Crat. torn. Ill, 234, sqq. Arist. Met. XI, 5. Sextus, Hyp. Pyrrh. I, 216, sqq. n Plat. Theaetet. p. 89, 90, 102. Sext. Adv. Math. VII, 60, sqq. 369, 388. Cic. Ac. II, 46. ° Diog. Laert. 1. 1. I' Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 12, 23. Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 56, sqq. Diog. Laeut. IX, 51, 53. On Protagoras, consult, besides the Dialogue which bears his name, in Plato, ed. Bip. vol. HI, p. 83, sqq.; and Meno, vol. IV, p. 372, sqq., /Elian, A. Gellius, Philostratus, and Suidas. t J. C. Bapt. NifuNBtRGER, Doctrine of the Sophist Protagoras, on existence and non-existence, Dortm. 1798, 8vo. Chr. Gottlob Heynii Prolusio in Narrationem de Protagora Gellii. N. A. V, 10. ; et Apuleii in Flor. IV, 18, Cwttiug. 1806, on his Sophisms and those of his disciple Evathlus. Jo. LuD. Alefeld, Mutua Pythagorae et Evathli Sophisraata, quibus olim in judicio certarunt, etc. Giess. 1730, 8vo. I About 420 B.C. ' Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 18. Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 42. 90 FIRST'PERIOD. [sect. declaimed very plausibly on the subject of virtue \ Hip- pias of Elis was a pretender to universal knowledge*. Thrasymaclius of Chalcedon " taught that '* might made right ;" and Polus of Agrigentum, Callicles of Acharnse, Eutkydemus of Chios, and others, that there is no other principle of obligation for man than instinct, caprice, and physical force; and that justice and its opposite are of political invention''. Diagoras of Melos was notorious for professing atheism (§ 105). Critias^ of Athens, the enemy of Socrates, and reckoned among the partisans of the Sophists, ascribed the origin of religion to political considerations ^, and appears, like Protagoras, to have as- serted that the soul was material and resided in the senses; which last he appears to have placed in the blood ^. CHAPTER SECOND. FROM SOCRATES TO THE END OF THE CONTEST | BETWEEN THE PORCH AND THE ACADEMY (SECOND EPOCH OF GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY). 111. The Sophists compelled their antagonists to ex- * amine narrowly human nature and themselves, in order ^ For example, in his celebrated tTridsi^ig, Hercules ad bivium. See Xenoph. Memorab. II, 1, 21 ; and Cf. Xenophontis Hercules Prodiceus et Silii Italici Scipio, perpetu^ nota illustrati a Gotth. Aug. Cub^eo, Lips. 1797, 8vo. t Plat. In Hipp. Maj. et Min. Xenoph. JMemorab. IV, 4. Cic. De Orat. Ill, 32. " Plat. De Republ. I ; ed. Bip. torn. VI, p. 165, sqq. 2* Plat. Gorgias, Theaetet., de Republ. II, de Leg. X, p. 76. y One of the thirty tyrants, died 404 B. C. ^ Sext. Hyp. Pyrrh. Ill, 218 ; Adv. Math. IX, 54. ** Arist. De Anima, I, 2. CnniJE Tyranni Carminum aliorumque ingenii Monumentorum, quae super- sunt, dispos. illustr. et emend- Nic. Bachius. Praemissa est Critiae Vita a Philostrato descripta. Lips. 1827, 8vo. Guil. Ern. Weber de Critia Tyr- ranno Progr. Francf. ad M. 182-1, 4lo. II I 111, 112.] SOCRATES. 91 to be able to discover some solid foundation on which philosophy might take its ground, and defend the princi- ples of truth, religion, and morality. With this period began a better system of Greek philosophy, established by the solid good sense of Socrates. Philosophy was diverted into a new channel, and proceeded from the subject to the object, from man to external nature, in- stead of beginning at the other end of the chain. It be- came the habit to investigate no longer merely specu- lative opinions ; but likewise, and in a still greater de- gree, practical ones also. Systematic methods of proof were now pursued, and the conclusions arrived at dili- gently compared. The want which all began to feel of positive and established principles, gave birth to different systems ; at the same time that the scrupulosity with which all such systems were examined, kept alive the spirit of original inquiry. 112. This alteration was effected under the influence of some external changes of circumstances also. Athens had now become, by her constitution and her commerce, by the character of her inhabitants, the renown she had ac- quired in the Persian war, and other political events, the focus of Grecian arts and sciences. In consequence, she was the scene of the labours of their philosophers : schools were formed in which ideas might be communicated, the intellectual powers of those who frequented them de- veloped by more frequent and more various contact of the opinions of others, and emulation continually excited towards continually higher objects. On the other hand these schools w^ere liable to the defect of fostering by their very facilities of acquiring knowledge, a certain in- tellectual indolence ; increased by the easy repetition of the doctrines of their teachers, and aided by the methodi- cal nature of the instruction itself. It was to the power- ful influence of the character and inquiries of Socrates, that the philosophy of the period owed the new impres- sions and bias which were given to it. 92 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. I. Socrates. The principal authorities are ^ : Xenophon (particularly the Memorabilia and Apology of Socrates), and Plato (Apology?) (Compare these two writers, in this respect). Secondary sources : Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius (II, 18, sqq.), Apuleius. 113. Socrates was born at Athens in 470 or 469, and was the son of a poor sculptor named Soplironiscus, and of Phaenareta a midwife. He formed himself to a cha- racter completely opposed to the frivolity and sophistical habits of the refined and corrupted age to which he be- longed, living all the while in constant habits of society, even with certain characters less distinguished for their * The pretended Epistles of Socrates, lately published (cf. the bibliography at the head of § 88), are spurious. See Chph. Meiners, Judicium de quo- rumdam Socraticorum reliquiis in Comment. Soc. Gott. vol. V, p. 45, sqq. Works on the Life, Doctrine, and Character of Socrates. Fr. Charpentier, La Vie de Socrate, troisieme edit. Amst. 1699, 12mo. J. Gilbert Cooper, The Life of Socrates, collected from the Memorabilia of Xenophon, and the Dialogues of Plato, Land. 1749-50, and 1771. Jag. GriLL. Mich. Wasser, Diss. (Pra2S. G. Chr. Knohr) de Vita, Fatis atque Philos. Socratis, (Etting. 1720, 4to. t W. Fr. Heller, Socrates, 2 parts, Francf. 1789-90, 8vo. t C. W. Brumbey, Socrates, after Diog. Laertius, Lemgo, 1800, 8vo. Dan. Heinsii Socrates, seu de Doctrin^, et Moribus Socratis Oratio; in his, Orationes, Lvgd. Bat. 1627, 8vo. Dan. Boethius, De Philosophic Socratis, p. I. Ups. 1788, 4to. t Garnier, The Character and Philosophy of Socrates ; in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscript. torn. XXXII. t G. Wiggeus, Socrates as a Man, a Citizen, and Philosopher, Rost. 1807; second edition, Neustrel. 1811, 8vo. t Ferd. DelbriJck, Reflections and Inquiry concerning Socrates, Cologne, 1816, 8vo. J. Andr. Cammii Commentatio (Praes. Jo. Schweigh^user) : Mores So- cratis ex Xenophontis Memorabilibus delineati, Argent. 1785, 4to. J. Hacker, Diss. (Praes. Fr. Vot.km. Reinhard), Imago Vitae Morumque Socratis e Scriptoribus vetustis, Viteb. 1787, 8vo. J. Lusac, Oratio de Socrate Give, Lugd. Bat. 1796, 4to. Fr. Menizii Socrates nee OfHciosus Maritus, nee laudandus pater fami- lias. Lips. 1716, 4to. Joii. Math. Gesneri Socrates Sanctus pa'derasta, in Comment. Soc. Reg. Gotting. torn. 11. 113,114.] SOCRATES. 93 virtues than their accompHshments. He took for his model the abstract idea of a true philosoplicr, who throughout his hfe, as a man, and as a citizen, should ex- hibit an instance of the perfectibility of human nature. He became the instructor of his countrymen and of man- kind, not for the love of lucre nor of reputation, but in consequence of a sense of duty. He was desirous above all things to repress the flight of speculative theories by the force of an imperturbable good sense ; to submit the pretensions of science to the control of a higher autho- rity, that of virtue ; and to re-unite religion to morality. Without becoming, properly speaking, the founder of a school or system of philosophy, he drew around him, by the charms of his conversation, a crowd of young men and others, inspiring them with more elevated thoughts and sentiments, and forming several of those most de- voted to him into very brilliant characters. He en- countered the Sophists with the arms of good sense, irony, and the powerful argument of his personal charac- ter. A constant enemy to mysticism and philosophical charlatanism (even in the circumstances of private life), he drew upon himself the hatred of many ; under which he ultimately fell ^ being put to death by hemlock in the year 400 B.C.S Ol. XCV, 1. 114. Although, properly speaking, Socrates was not ^ t On the Trial of Socrates, etc. by Tn. Christ. Tyschen, in the Bib- lioth. der alten Literatur und Kunst., I and II fasc. 1786. t W. SuvERN, On the Clouds of Aristophanes, Berl. 1826. With addi- tions, ibid. 1827. M. Car. Em.Kettner, Socratem Criminis majestatis accusatum vindicat. Lips. 1738, 4to. SicisM. Fr. Dresigii Epistola de Socrate juste Damnato, Lips. 1738, 4to. t J. C. Ciipn. Nachtigall, On the Condemnation of Socrates, etc. in the Deutsche Monatsschrift, June 1790, p. 127, sqq. Car. Lid. Richter, Commentatt. 1, II, HI, de Liberh quam Cicero vocat Socratis Contumacia, Cassel. 1788-90, 4to. c Ge. Christ. Ibbecken, Diss, de Socrate Mortem minus fortiter subeunte, Lips. 1735, 4to. Jo. Sam. M'lller, Ad Actum oratorio-dramaticum de Morte Socratis in- vitans, praefationis loco, pro Socratis fortitudine in subeundk Morte contra Ibbeckeniura pauca disputat. Ilamb, 1738, fol. 94 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. the founder of a philosophical school, yet by his charac- ter, his example, by what he taught, and his manner of communicating it, he rendered, as a wise man and popti- lar teacher, immense services to the cause of philosophy : calling the attention of inquirers to those subjects which are of everlasting importance to man, and pointing out the source from which our knowledge (to be complete), must be derived ; from an investigation of our own minds God. Wilh. Pauli, Diss, de Philosopliia Morali Socratis, Hal. 1714, 4to. Edwards, The Socratic System of Morals as delivered in Xenoph. Memorab. Oxford, 1773, 8vo. LuD. DissEN, Programma de Philosophia Morali in Xeno- phontis de Socrate Commentariis tradita, G'dtt. 1812, 4to. 115. The exclusive object of the philosophy of So- crates was the attainment of correct ideas concerning moral and religious obligation ; concerning the end of man's being, and the perfection of his nature ; and lastly his duties ; all of which he discussed in an unpretending and popular manner ; appealing to the testimony of the moral sense within us. 1st. The chief happiness of man consists in knowing the good which it his duty to do, and acting accordingly : this is the highest exercise of his faculties, and in this consists eviv^a^ia (right-action)**. The means to this end are self-knowledge, and the habit of self-control. Wisdom (a-ocpia)^ which he often represents as moderation {a-afpoa-vvri)^ may be said, to em- brace all the virtues ^ ; and on this account he sometimes called virtue a science^ The duties of man towards himself embrace also iyKpaiTeia, (continence), and courage, {avlpela)^. Our dutics towards others are comprised in justice (liKaioa-vvy}) ; the fulfilment, that is, of the laws, human and divine. Socrates appears to have been the '> Xenoph. Memorab. IK, $ 14, sqq. ; Cf. I, 5 ; IV, 4, 5, 6. c Ibid. Ill, 9, $ 4 et 5. f AnisT. Eth. Nicom. VI, 13. « Xenoph. Memorab. I, 5, $ 4; IV, 5, § 6 j IV, 6, $ 10, sqq. I 115.] SOCRATES. 9 first to make allusion to natural right or justice''. 2dly. Virtue and true happiness (ei)Sa<^ov■ Fr. Menzii Diss, de Socratis Methodo docendi non omnino praescriben- da, Lips. 1740, 4to. J. Christ. Lossius, De Arte Obstetricia Socratis, Erf. 1785, 4to. t Fr. M. Vierthaler, Spirit of the Socratic Method, Salzb. 1793, 8vo.j second ed. Wurzb. 1810. t J. F. Guaffe, The Socratic Method in its Primitive Form, Gott. 1794 ; third ed. 1798, 8vo. G. J. SiEVEns, De Methodo Socratic^, Slesv. 1810. « t C. Fr. Fraouier, Dissertation on the Irony of Socrates, his pretended Familiar Genius, and his Character ; in the Memoirs of the Academy of In- scriptions, torn. IV. r 110—118.] SOCRATES. 97 himself with his characteristic elouve/a, or affected igno- rance, and with his pecuHar logic *. 117. The services which Socrates has rendered to phi- losophy are twofold ; negative and positive. Negative, inasmuch as he avoided all vain discussions ; combated mere speculative reasoning on substantial grounds ; and had the wisdom to acknowledge ignorance when neces- sary ; but without attempting to determine accurately what is capable, and what is not, of being accurately known. Positive, inasmuch as he examined with great ability the ground directly submitted to our understand- ing, and of which Man is the centre ; without, however, any profound investigation of the different ideas and mo- tives which influence practice. He first distinguished that Free-will and Nature were both under the domi- nion of certain laws ; pointed out the proper sources of all knowledge ; and finally laid open new subjects for philosophic research. Chr. Fred. Liebegott Simox, Diss. (Praes. W. T. Krug), de Socratis meritis in Philosophiam rite aestimandis, Viteh. 1797, 4to. •f- Fr. Schleiermacher, On the Merit of Socrates as a Phi- losopher ; in the Memoirs of the Class of Philosophers of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berhn, 1818, 4to. p. 50. 118. As Socrates divided his time among men of very different habits and dispositions, some more in- clined to active life, some to retired study, a great number of disciples in very different classes of society, and with very different views, were formed by his con- versations, and still more by his method of teaching, so favourable to the development of the understand- ing". The Athenians Xenophon'' (cf. § 113,) JEschines, t Xenoph. Memorab. IV, 2. Plat. Theaetet., Meno, Sympos. p. 260. Cic. De, Fin. II, 1. » Cic. De Oratore, III, 16. Dioc. Laert. Prooem. sect. 10. ^ Born about 450, died 360 B. C. On the pretended letters of the Socratic philosophers, see the remark above, % 113. H 98 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Shno^f Crito, and the Theban Cebes^, disseminated the principles of their master and Uved agreeably to them. Among those who especially devoted themselves to the pursuits of philosophy, AntistJienes the Athenian, founder of the Cynic school, subsequently Aristippiis, the chief of the Cyrenaic, and afterwards Pyrrho, gave their at- tention exclusively to questions of morals, and their prac- tical application. Euclid of Megara, Plicedo of Elis, Menedemus of Eretria, were occupied with theoretical or metaphysical inquiries. The more exalted genius of Plato embraced at once both these topics, and united the two principal branches of Socraticism ; either of which separately was found sufficient to employ the gene- rality of the Socratic philosophers. When we examine the spirit of these different schools, the Cynics, the Cy- renaics, the Pyrrhonists, and the Megareans ; (as for the schools of Elis and Eretria we are but imperfectly ac- quainted with them); and lastly, that of the Platonists ; we find that the four first did little more than expand the ideas of Socrates, with partial views of his system ; while the latter is distinguished by a boundless activity, allied to the true Socratic spirit ; and which explored all the subjects of philosophic investigation. II. Partial Systems of the Socratics. I. Cynics. Authorities : Xenophon, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sex- tus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius, VI. Ge. Gottfr. Richteri Diss, de Cynicis, Lips, 1701, 4to. J. Ge. Meuschenii Disp. de Cynicis, Kilon. 1703, 4to. A. GoERiNG, Explicatur cur Socratici Philosophicarurn, quae inter se Dis- sentiebant, Doctrlnarum Principes, a Socratis Philosophic longius recesserint, Partennpol. 1816, 4to. y The authenticity of the two dialogues attributed to him is contested. See BoECKH, Simonis Socratici, ut videtur, Dialogi quatuor. Additi sunt incerti auctoris (vulgo ^schinis) Dialogi Eryxias et Axiochus, ed. Aug. BoECKir, Heidelb. 1810, 8vo. * The writing known under the name of Uiva^ (Cebetis Tabula) is also at- tributed to a Stoic of Cyzicus, of a later age. See also, Fr. G. Klopfer, De C. Tabula, Zwich. 1818, 4to. i 119,120.] ANTISTHENES. 99 Christ. Glieb. Joeciier, Progr. de Cynicis nulla re teneri volentibus, Lips. 1743, 4to. Fr. Mentzii Progr. de Cynismo nee Philosopho nee liomine digno, Lips. 1744, 4to. Antisthenes. GoTTLOB LuD. RicHTER, Diss. de Vita, moribus ac placitis Antisthenis Cynici, Jen. 1724, 4to. LuD. Chr. Crellii Progr. de Antistliene Cynico, Lips. 1728, 8vo. 119. Antisthenes , an Athenian^, at first the disciple of Gorgias, afterwards the friend and admirer of Socrates ; was virtuous even to excess, and proportionably arro- gant. He placed the supreme good of man in virtue ; which he defined to consist in abstinence and privations, as the means of assuring to us our independence of ex- ternal objects : by such a course he maintained that man can reach the highest perfection, the most absolute feli- city, and become like to the Deity, Nothing is so beautiful as virtue ; nothing as deformed as vice ; {r'ayaBa, Koka, ra, KaKcc ala-xpa.) ; all things else are indifferent {adid(popa), and consequently unworthy of our efforts to attain them^ On these principles he built a system of practice so ex- cessively simple, as to exclude even the decencies of social life ; and for the same reasons professed a con- tempt for speculative science*^, alleging that the natures of things are undefinable. He maintained also that opi- nions are all identical, and that no man can refute those of another **. We must not omit his idea of one Divinity, superior to those adored by the populace ^. 1 20. In spite of the unattractive austerity of his way of a Flourished about 380 B.C. ^ DioG. Laert. VI, 11, sqq., 103, 106. ^ Notwithstanding, many works of his are quoted (Dioo. Laert. VI, 15, sqq.) of which only two speeches remain to us, printed among the Orat. Graic. of Reiske, torn. VIII, p. 52, sqq. 'I Arist. Metaph. VIII, 3, V, 29. Plat. Sophist., p. 270. '' Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 13. Ji2 100 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. life, which procured him the surname o^'AtcXokvccv, Antis- thenes, by his lofty spirit and the eccentricity of his cha- racter and conduct, drew about him a great number of partisans, who were called Cynics; whether from the C?/- nosarges, where their master taught, or from the rude- ness of their manners ^ Among these we remark Di- ogenes of Sinope^, said, on doubtful authority, to have lived in a tub ; who gave himself the name of Kvav ^^ and prac- tised a species of asceticism': and after him, his disciple Crates of Thebes^, and his wife, Hipparchia of Maronea; but these latter are not distinguished for having contri- buted any thing to the cause of science. Onesicritus of i^gina, Metrocles the brother of Hipparchia, Monimus of Syracuse, Menedemus, and Menippus, are cited, but less frequently. The Cynic school finally merged in that of the Stoics : it made an ineffectual attempt to rise again in the centuries immediately succeeding the birth of our Lord ; but without displaying the spirit, merely by affect- ing the exterior of the ancient Cynics '. II. Cyrenaics. Authorities : Xenophon, Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch, Sextus Empiricus, adv. Math. VII, 11, Diog. Laert. II. ' Diog. Laert. VI, 13 et 16. & Bora 414, died 324 B.C. h Diog. Laert. VI, 20—81. * The letters which bear his name Cprobably supposititious), are found in the Collection published by Aldus Manut. (reprinted at Geneva, 1606) ; twenty-two more exist, according to the notice of the unedited letters of Di- ogenes, etc, by M. Boissonade, Notices and Extracts from the MSS. in the King's Library, torn. X, p. ii, p. 122, sqq. (French). For remarks on this philosopher consult : t F. A. Grimaldi, Life of Diogenes the Cynic, Naples, Mil , 8vo. (Ital.) Chph. Mar. Wieland, Swrcparijc {.laivonivoq, or Dialogues of Diogenes of Sinope, Leips. 1770 ; and among his works. Fried. Mentzii Diss, de Fastu Philosophico, virtutis colore Infucato, in imagine Dlogenis Cynici, Lips. 1712, 4to. Jo. Mart. Barkhusii Apologeticnm quo Diogenem Cynicum a crimine et stultitiae et imprudenti-Te expeditum sistit, Regiom. 1727, 4to. •« Diog. Laert. VI, 85, sqq. Cf. Juliani Imperat. Orat. VI, ed. Span- genb., p. 199. ' Luciani Kvuikoq, and other Dialogues. 121.] CYRENAICS. 101 Frid. Menzii Aristippiis Philosophus Socraticus, sive de ejus Vita, Moribus et Dogmatibus Commentarius, Hal. 1719, 4to. -j- Batteux, Elucidation of the Morals of Aristippus, to ex- plain a passage of Horace ; in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, tom. XXVI. ■f C. M. WiELAND, Aristippus, and some of his Contempo- raries, 4 vols. Leips. 1800, 1802. Works complete, vols. XXXIII —XXXVI. H. KuNHARDT, Diss. Philos. Histor. de Aristippi Philosophia Morali, quatenus ilia ex ipsius Philosophi dictis secundum Laer- tium potest derivari, Helmst. 179G, 4to. 121. Aristippus'" of Cyrene, a colonial city of Africa ; born to easy circumstances, and of a light and sportive character, had, when he first attended the conversations of Socrates, an inclination for self-indulgence, which the latter eventually succeeded in rendering more elevated, without being able to eradicate ". He made the summum bonum and the TeXoq of man to consist in enjoyment, ac- companied with good taste, and freedom of mind, rl Kpa- Tel'v Ka) fAV} rjTr ar], in Diod. Sic, Bibl. Hist. ed. Vesseling, torn. II, 633 ; and among the fragments of Ennius, who had translated them into Latin. Idem, ed, Hessel, p. 212. See also, con- cerning Euhemerus and Euhemerism : t Sevin, Researches concerning the Life and Works of Euhemerus ; t FouRMONT, Dissertation on the Work of Euhemerus, entitled, 'I^pd ava- 122—124.] PYRRHO AND TIMON. 108 this doctrine to the religion then prevalent ^. llegesias, who in the time of Ptolemey taught at Alexandria, a na- tive of Cyrene and pupil of the Cyrenaic Parcsbates, was equally decided in maintaining the indifference of right and wrong, hut asserted that perfect pleasure is un- attainable in our present state (aSi/Wroi/ koI awrra^KTov)^ and concluded that death was therefore preferable to life. Hence he was surnamed Yleia-Bdvaroq^, He became the founder of a sect, the Hegesiacs. 123. Anniceris of Cyrene, who appears, like Hegesias, to have been a disciple of Paraebates, and to have taught at Alexandria, endeavoured, without renouncing the prin- ciples of his sect, to get rid of their revolting conse- quences, and to reconcile them with our sentiments in favour of friendship and patriotism, by pleading the re- fined pleasures of benevolence^: thus making the Cyre- naic system approximate that of Epicurus. The success of the latter caused the downfal of the Cyrenaic school. III. Pyrrho and Timon, Authorities: Cic. De Fin. II, 13 ; IV, 16. Sextus Empiri- cus. Diog. Laert. IX, 61, sqq. 105, sqq. Euseb. Praep. Evang. XIV, 18. Cf. the bibliography § 38, II, a. ■f G. P. DE Crouzaz, Examination of Pyrrhonism, Ancient and Modem, Hague, 1733 (French). Extracts of the same work in, Formey, Triumph of Evidence ; with a Prelim. Dissert, by M. DE Haller, Berlin, 1756, 2 vols. 8vo. (French). ypacpr], etc. ; and t Foucher, Memoirs on the System of Euhemerus, in the Mem. of the Academy of Inscriptions, torn. VIII, XV, XXXIV. (all French.) '» Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 42. Plutauch. Adv. Stoicos,XIV, p. 77 ; De Is. et Osir., torn. VII, p. 420, ed. Reiske. Sextus, Adv. Math. IX, 17, 51, 55. DioG. Laert. II, 97 ; et IV, 46 — 58. Diod. Sicul. V, 11 et 45. Lact. Div. Instit. I, 11. <= Cic Tusc. Quaest. I, 34. Diog. Laert. II, 86, 93, sqq. Val. Max. XVIII, 9. J. J. Rambach, Progr. de Hegesia TrtiaOavduit, Quedlimb. 1771, 4to. Idem, in his Sylloge Diss, ad rem Litterariam pertinentium, Hamb. 1790, Bvo. No. IV. •^ Dioo.LAr.RT. II, 96, 97. 104 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. J. Arrhenii Diss, de Philosopliia Pyrrhonia, Ups. 1708, 4to. God. Ploucquet, Diss, de Epocha Pyrrhoiiis, Tubing. 1758, 4to. J. Glieb. Munch, Diss, de Notione ac Indole Scepticismi, nominatim Pyrrhonismi, Altd. 1796, 4to. Jac. Bruckeri, Observatio de Pyrrhone a Scepticismi Univer- salis macula absolvendo, Miscall. Hist. Philos, p. 1. C. Vict. Kindervater, Diss. Adumbratio Questionis, an Pyrrhonis Doctrina omnis tollatur virtus, Lips. 1789, 4to. RicARD. Brodersen, Dc Philosophia Pyrrhonia, Kil. 1819, 4to. J. RuD. Thorbecke, Responsio ad Qu. Philos. etc. num quid in Dogmaticis oppugnandis inter Academicos et Scepticos inter- fuerit (?), 1820, 4to. J. Frid. Langheinrich, Diss. I et II de Timonis Vita, Doc- trina, Scriptis, Lips. 1729-31. 124. PjjrrJio of EIis% originally a painter, together with his master Anaxarchus accompanied Alexander in his campaigns, and subsequently became a priest at Elis. In common with Socrates (whom in some particulars he resembled), he maintained that virtue alone is desirable^; that every thing else, even science, is useless and unpro- fitable. To support this last proposition, he alleged that the contradiction existing between the different principles supported by disputants {avriXoyloc, avrlQea-K; rav Xoyuv), demonstrates the incomjirehensibilitij of things (a/caraX^i/z/a). All this, he argued, should make a philoso- pher withhold his assent (eVe^eij/), and endeavour to main- tain an ocTiaBeta., or freedom from all impressions. By this doctrine, Pyrrho and his school attached a special mean- ing on the word .ri(; Xoyovq) ; attacking not SO much the premises assumed, as the conclusions drawn (eitn^opdv)^, Euhulldes of Miletus, and his disciple Alexinus of Elis (nicknamed 'EXeVltyo?), are only known as the authors of certain cap- tious questions {a^vTa)'^ which they levelled at the Empirics, and in particular at Aristotle ; such as ; the (TupeirYj<;, the \}/evU[jf.€]/o<;, the K€parivvi(;, etc. P. Diodorus surnamed Cronus, of Jasus in Caria, the pupil, according to some, of Eubu- lides, denied the twofold significations of words ^, investi- gated the question of possibilities (irepi Iwa-vav) "■, and specu- » Flourished about 400 B. C. « Cic. Acad. Quaest. IV, 42. Dioo. Laert. II, 106, 107. P DioG. Laert. II, 108, sqq. Cic. Acad. Quaest. IV, 29. Sext. Empir. Adv. Math. VII, 13 ; cf. IX. 108. A. Gell. N. A. XVI, 2. 1 A. Gell. Noct. Att. XI, 12. ■• Arist. De Interpret, c. IX ; Metaph. VIIT, 3. Cic. De Fate Frag. VII, IX. 125—127.] SCHOOLS OF ELIS AND ERETRIA. 107 lated concerning the truth of hypothetical judgments (to a-vvrjixuevov) ^ ; and finally advanced some arguments to dis- prove the reality of motion^. His disciple Philo, the Dialectic (who must not be confounded with the Stoic, or vwith the Academician of the same name), became his opponent on these subjects. «S'^i//?o of Megara, a philo- ^sopher venerable for his character", disallowed the ohjec- ^tive validity of relative ideas {ra, et'S^j) ; and the truth of opinions not identical*''. He made the character of a wise man to consist in apathy or impassibility (animus inipatiens, Senec. Ep. 9.): from which doctrine his dis- ciple Zeno deduced a great number of consequences. We find also mentioned as Megarics, Bryso or Dryso, a son of Stilpo ; Clinomachus^ and Ruphantus. V. Schools of Elis and Eretria, 1 27. The schools founded by Phoedo of Elis and Me?ie- dcmus of Eretria (§ 118), are not, as far as we can learn, more distinguishable from each other than from that of Megara. The first was a true disciple of Socrates^: his opinions w^ere set forth in dialogues which have not come down to us. The second, a hearer of Plato and Stilpo, may be said to have continued at Eretria the school of « Sext. Empir. Adv. Log. II, 11, 114, sqq. ; Adv. Phys. 11, 115; Pyrrh. Hyp. II, 110 ; Adv. Math. VIII, 112, sqq. Cic. Acad. Quaest. II, 47. » Sextus Empir. Adv. Math. X, 85, sqq.; IX, 363 ; Adv. Phys. II, 85, sqq. ; Pyrrh. Hyp. II, 242 et 245. Stob. Eel. I, p. 310. Euseb. Pra;p. Evang. XIV, 23. " Dioc. Laeut. II, 113, sqq.; flourished 300 B. C. * " liiugnete die objective Gviltigkeitder Gattungsbegriffe(ra idr]), und die Wahrheit derjenigen Urtheile, die nicht identisch sind." ^ Plutarch. Adv. Coloten, XIV, p. 174. Dice. Laert. II, 119. Plat. Soph. torn. II, p. 240, 269, 281. Simpl. In Physica, p. 26. t J. Chph. Schwab, Remarks on Stilpo, in the Philos. Arch, of Eber- HARD, torn. II, No. 1. J. Frid. Chph. Graffe, Diss, qua Judiciorum Analyticorum et Synthe- ticorum Naturam jam longe ante Kantium Antiquitatis Scriptoribus fuisse per- spectam contra Schwabium probatur, G'ott. 1794, 8vo. y DioG. Laert. II, 112. '- DioG. Laert. II, 105. 108 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Elis *. He and his disciples (in this respect resemhhng Stilpo), Umited truth to identical propositions^. They denied that it could be inferred by negative categorical propositions, or conditional and collective. III. More complete Systems, proceeding from the School of Socrates. 128. A more complete system of dogmatic philosophy was founded at the Academia by Plato ; on the principles of the Rationalists : and another by his disciple Aristotle, on those of the Empirics*^. From the Cynic school sprang the Stoics, and from the Cyrenaics the Epicureans. The dogmatism of the Stoics called forth the opposition of the Academician Arcesilaus, with whom began the scepticism of the later Academy. In this manner, from the Socratic school arose four dogmatical systems ; diverging from one another in theory and practice ; and, in addition to these, a school decidedly sceptical. I. Plato. Authorities : Plato, his works, with the Argumenta Dialogo- rum Platonis of Tiedemann (in the 12th vol. of the ed. Bipont.): Translated by Schleiermacher : Guil. van Heusde, Specimen Cri- ticum in Platon. ace. Wyttenbachii Epist. ad auct. Lugd. Bat. 1803, 8vo. Aristotle, Cicero, Plutarch. (Q,uaest. Platon.), Sext. Empiricus, Apuleius de Doctrina Platonis, Diogenes Laertius, lib. Ill, Timaeus, Suidas. Modern Works on the Life, Doctrine, and Works of Plato in general. Mars. Ficini, Vita Platonis : Introductory to his translation of Plato. Remarks on the Life and Writings of Plato, with Answers to * DioG. Laert. II, 125, sqq. *» SiMPL. In Phys. Aristot. p. 20. Diog. Laeut. II, 135. «= [The Rationalists, it will be remembered, argue from the phenomena of the mind, or the world within us ; the Empirics or Experimentalists, from those of the world without. TramL'\ ill 128, 129.] PLATO. 109 the principal Objections against him, and a General View of his Dialogues, Edhib, 1700, 8vo. -f" W. G. Tennemann, System of the Platonic Philosophy, Lc'ips. 1792-5, 4 vols. Svo. f Fr. Ast, On the Life and Writings of Plato, intended as introductory to the Study of that Philosopher, Leips. 181G, Svo. -j- Ferd. Delbruck, Discourse on Plato, Bonn. 1819, 8vo. f Jos. Socher, On the Works of Plato, Munich, 1820. A work principally relating to their authenticity and chronological order. James Geddes, Essay on the Composition and Manner of Writing of the Ancients, particularly Plato, Glasg. 1748, Svo. J. Bapt. Bernardi Seminarium Philosophiae Platonis, Venet. 1599-1605, 3 vols. fol. RuD. GocLENii Idea Philos. Platonicae, Marh. 1612, Svo. LuD. Morainvilliere, Examen Philos. Platonicae, 1659, 8vo. Sam. Parker, A Free and Impartial Censure of Platonic Philosophy, Lond. 1666, 4to. f J. J. Wagner, A Dictionary of the Platonic Philosophy, Gottlng. 1779, 8vo. with a Sketch of that System. -|- J. Fr. Herb art, De Platonic! Systematis Fundamento, Gott. 1805, Svo. Cf. his Manual to serve for an introduction to Philosophy, second edition, IV sect. ch. 4. P. G. VON Heusde, Initia Philosophiae Platonicae, Pars. I, IJltraj. 1827, Svo. Translations by Cousin (French), Sydenham, and Schleier- macher. 129. Plato^ was born at Athens 430 or 429 B. C, in the ord or 4th year of the LXXXVII. Ol., the son of Aristo and Perictione, of the family of Codrus and Solon, and was endowed with distinguished talents for poetry and philosophy. By the advice of Socrates he attached himself to the latter pursuit. He had originally some inclination for public life, but was disgusted by the per- petual changes which took place in his time in the govern- ments of Greece ; by the corruptions of the democracy, and the depravity of the manners of his countrymen *". His studies were happily promoted by a diligent cultiva- ^ His proper name was Aristocles. « Pi.AT. Epist. VII. 110 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. tion of poetry and the mathematics ; by foreign travel, particularly in Italy and Sicily; and by familiar inter- course with the most enlightened men of his time ; parti- cularly with Socrates, whose conversations he attended for eight years * ^; as well as by the correspondences which he entertained with the Pythagoreans of Magna Graecia ^. In this manner was formed this great philosopher, surpass- ing, perhaps, all, by the vastness and profoundness of his views, and the correctness and eloquence with which he expressed them : while his moral character entitled him to take his place by the side of Socrates. He founded in the Academia a school of philosophy, which for a long period was a nursery of virtuous men and profound thinkers. Plato died in the first year of the C VIII. Olympiad, 348 B.C. 130. His works, principally in the form of dialogues^; (models of excellence for the rare union of a poetic and philosophic spirit) ' ; are the only incontestible authorities respecting his opinions ; but we must not hope to attain his entire system except by conjecture, as he had certain doctrines {aypacpa, ^oyfjt.arcc) which he did not communicate * He had previously become acquainted with the sj'stem of Heraclitus. ^ Xenoph. Memorab. Ill, 6. Apuleius. s Jo. GuiL. Jani Dissert, de Institutione Platonis, Viteb. 1706. De Peri- grinatione Platonis, ibid, ejusd. Chph. Ritter, De Praeceptoribus Platonis, Gryphisw. 1707, 4to. On his intercourse with Xenophon : Aug. Boeckh, Progr. de Simultate quam Plato cum Xenophonte exercu- isse fertur, BeroL. 1811, 4to. h J. Jac. Nast, Progr. de Methodo Platonis Philosophiam tradendi Dia- logica, Stuttg. 1787. 4to. J. Aug. Goerenz, Progr. de Dialogistic^ Arte Platonis, Viteb. 1794, 4to. * Henr. Phil. Conr. Henke, De Philosophia Mythica, Platonis imprimis, Observationes variae, Helmst. 1776, 4to. t J. Aug. Eberhard, Dissert, on the proper end of Philosophy, and the Mythi of Plato, in his Vermischte Schriften, Hal. 1788, 8vo. J. Chr. HiJTTNER, De Mythis Platonis, Lips. 1788, 4to. t Garnier, Mem. on the use which Plato has made of Fables, in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscript. tom. XXXll. t M. INIarx, The Mythi of Plato, a Dissert, in the Eleutheria, a Literary Gazette of Frlbourg, published by Ehrhardt, tom. I, fasc. 2 and 3. Frib, 1819, 8vo. 130—132.] PLATO. Ill except to those whom he entrusted with his esoteric phi- losophy ^ *. 131. Plato, by his philosophical education and the superiority of his natural talents, was placed on an emi- nence which gave him a commanding view of the systems of his contemporaries, without allowing him to be in- volved in their prejudices ^ He always considered theo- retical and practical philosophy as forming essential parts of the same Whole : and conceived that it was only by means of true philosophy that human nature could attain its proper perfection '". 13^. His critical acquaintance with preceding systems, and his own advantages, enabled Plato to form more adequate notions of the proper end, extent, and cha- racter of philosophy °. Under this term he compre- hended a knowledge of the Universal, the Necessary, the Absolute ; as well as of the relations and essential pro- perties of objects °: Philosophy he defined to be Science, properly so called. The source of knowledge he pro- nounced to be notP the evidence of our senses, which ^ PtAT. Epist. II, VII, XIII. ; Phaedr. p. 388. ; Alcib. Pr. ; de Rep. IV. Arist. Phys. IV, 2 ; De Gener. et Corrupt. II, 3. Simplic. in Arist. libr. de Anima, I, p. 76. Suidas. * This is denied by others. We must not omit to notice, as sources of information respecting Plato, the passages in Aristotle, where that philosopher criticises the system of his master. See Fr. a. Trendelenburg, Platonis de Ideis et Numeris Doctrina ex Aristotele illustrata, Lips. 1826, 8vo. " Sophista, vol. II, p. 252, 265. Cratyl., p. 345, 286. m De Rep. VI, p. 76, 77 ; Ep. VII. n On the end of the philosophy of Plato, see, besides the work of Eberhard quoted in the preceding section : Aug. ^NIagn. Kraft, De Notione Philosophiae in Platonis tpaoraig, Lips. 1786, 4to. GoTTLOB Ern. Schulze, De summo secundum Platonem Philosophiae fine, Helmst. 1789, 4to. o Theajtet., p. 141 ; De Republ. VI, p. 69; V, p. 62 ; De Leg. Ill, p. 131. P Jo. Fr. Dammann, Diss. I et II de Human^ sentiendi et cogitanda fa- cultatis Natur^ ex Mente Platonis. Helmst. 1792, 4to. 112 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. are occupied with coni'ingent matter, nor yet the under- standing,* but Reason ''j whose object is that which is Invariable, and Absolute (to oWw? %v '^). He held the doc- trine of the existence in the soul of certain innate ideas (vo-^l^ara) which form the basis of our conceptions, and the elements of our practical resolutions. To these t'Sea*, as he termed them (the eternal tza^aUtjiAccra,, types or models of all things, and the »/>%«/, or principles, of our knowledge), we refer the infinite variety of indi- vidual objects presented to us (to aireipov, and ra, itoXXd^). Hence it follows that all these details of knowledge are not the results of experience, but only developed by it. The soul recollects the Ideas in proportion as it becomes acquainted with their copies (oy-oiafAccra), with which the world is filled : the process being that of recalling to mind the circumstances of a state of pre- existence*. Inasmuch as the objects thus presented to the mind correspond in part with its Ideas, they must * [The Kantists (of whom Tennemann is one), make a broad distinction between the Understanding and Reason. Trans-I q Phffido, p. 225. •• Phzedr., p. 247. 8 Besides the general treatises above, see, on the Ideas of Plato, the follow- ing works : SciPiONis Agnelli Disceptationis de Ideis Platouis, Venet. 1615, 4to. Car. Joach. Sibeth, Diss. (Resp. J. Chr. Fersen) de Ideis Platonicis, Rostoch. 1720, 4to. Jac. Bruckeri Diss, de Convenienti^ Numerorum Pythagoricorum cum Ideis Platonis ; Miscellan. Hist. Philos., p. 56. Glob. Ern. Schulze, Diss. Philosophico-Historica de Ideis Platonis, Fiteft. 1786, 4to. t Fr. V. L. Plessing, Dissertation on the Ideas of Plato, as representing at once Immaterial Essences and the Conceptions of the Understanding, in the Collection of CcEsar, vol. Ill, p. 110. Theoph. Fahse, Diss, de Ideis Platonis, Lips. 1795, 4to. De Schanz (Praes. Matth. Fremling), De Ideis Platonicis, Lund. 1795, 4to. See work of Trendelenburgii, mentioned above, § 125. H. Richteri de Ideis Platonis libellus, Lips. 1827, 8vo. J. Andr. Buttstedt, Progr. de Platonicorum Reminiscentia, Erlang. 1761, 4to. » Phaedo, p. 74, 75 ; Phaedr., p. 249. 132—134.] PLATO. 113 have some principle in common; that principle is the Divinity, who has formed these external objects after the model of the Ideas ". Such are the fundamental doctrines of the philosophy of Plato ; in accordance with which he placed the principles of identity and contradiction among the highest laws of philosophy "" ; and drew a distinction between Empirical knowledge and Rational; the one being derived from the Intellectual, the other from the External world, [KoaiAoq aWOriroi; and vo^to?): making the latter the only true object of philosophy. The system of Plato is an instance of Rationalism, 133. The division of philosophy into Logic (Dialectics), Metaphysics (Physiology or Physics), and Morals (the Political science), has been principally brought about by Plato y, who clearly laid down the chief attributes of each of these sciences, and their mutual dependencies, and distinguished also between the analytical and syn- thetical methods. Philosophy therefore is under great obligations to him, quoad for mam. She is no less in- debted to him for the lights he has thrown upon the above parts considered separately; though he did not profess to deliver a system of each, but continually excited the attention of others, in order to further discoveries. 134. Plato considered the soul to be a self-acting energy {av-vh kavih kivqvv) ^ : and viewed as combined with the body, he distinguished in it two parts, the rational {Koyia-TiKoyf vovq) ; and the irrational or animal (aXoyto-Ti/cov or cTTidy/AijTiKov) : mutually connected by a sort of middle term (Si^/ao?, or to 0t;/>ioe*Se? ^.) The animal part has its origin in the imprisonment of the soul in the body''; the intellectual still retains a consciousness of the Ideas : " De Rep. VI, p. 116—124 ; Tim., p. 348. ^ Phsdr., p. 226, 230; De Rep. VI, 122, VII, 133 ; De Leg. Ill, p. 132. y Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 16. ' De Leg. X, p. 88, sqq. * De Rep. IV, 349. ed. Stkph. •> Phaedo. I r 1 114 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. whereby it is capable of returning to the happy con- dition of Spirits. In Plato we discover also a more complete discrimination of the faculties of knowledge, sensation, and volition"^; with admirable remarks on their operations, and on the different species of perception, of sensation, of motives determining the will ; as well as the relations between Thought and Speech. (See for the last, Theaetet. ed. Steph. p. 189, E sqq. Phileb. p. 38, D.) 135. Plato has rendered no less service to philo- sophy by affording it the first sketch of the laws of thought, the rules of propositions, of conclusions, and proofs, and of the analytic method : the distinction drawn between the Universal (/coivov), and Substance (ova to) ; and the Particular and the Accidental: he diligently investi- gated the characteristics of Truth, and detected the signs of the phenomenon, or apparent Truth ^ : to him we owe the first attempt at the construction of a philosophical Language ^ : the first development of an abstract idea of knowledge and science ^ : the first logical statement of the properties of Matter, Form, Substance, Accident, Cause and Effect, of Natural and Independent Causes of Re- ality (to ov), and of Apparent Reality (<^a*K5/xevov) ; a more adequate idea of the Divinity, as a being eminently good ; with a more accurate induction of the Divine Attributes S; especially the moral ones; accompanied by remarks on c DeKep. IV, p. 367. On the doctrine of Plato as respecting the soul, consult the following works : + Chph.Meiners, Dissertation on the Nature of the Soul, a Platonic Alle- gory (after the Phaedrus) ; in the first vol. of his INIiscellany, p. 120, sqq. t C. L. Reinhold, Dissertation on the Rational Physiology of Plato : in the first vol. of his Letters on the Philosophy of Kant, Letter XL Em. Gf. Lilie, Platonis Sententia de Natur^ Animi, Getting. 1790, 8vo. ^ For the Logic of Plato, consult t J. J. Engel, Essay on a Method of Ex- tracting from the Dialogues of Plato his Doctrines respecting the Understand- ing, Berl. 1780, Bvo. « In the Cratylus. ^ The degrees of the latter are, So^a — havoia — sTTKTTrjfiT]. '-' De Rep. II, p. 250 ; VII, 133. 135.] PLATO. 115 the popular religion, and an essay towards a demonstra- tion of the existence of God by reasonings drawn from Cosmology ^. He represented the Divinity as the author of the world, inasmuch as he introduced into rude matter (t'x»j — to aiA.op(f)ov), order and harmony, by moulding it after the Ideas, and conferring (together with a rotatory motion), an harmonious body, governed as in the case of individual animals, by a rational spirit. He also de- scribed the Divinity (in respect of his providence), as the author and executor, or guardian of the laws of Morals ; and to him we owe the first speculative essay on Divine Justice; according to his views, the existence of evil not being attributable to the Deity, inasmuch as it results from matter, and he having ordered all things in such a way as to exclude as much as possible its existence '' : lastly, to him we owe the first formal development of the doc- e De Leg. X, p. 68, XII, p. 229. Cf. X, p. 82, sqq. j Phileb. p. 244; Epi- nomis, p. 254, sqq. »> De Rep. IV, 10 ; Tim., p. 505, sqq. On the Cosmogony and Theology of Plato, consult, besides the ancients (e.g. Proclus), the commentaries on, and translations of, the Timseus : t L. HoBSTEL, The Timaeus of Plato, the doctrine and the end of this work, with Remarks and Illustrations, Brunswick, 1795, 8vo ; and t The Timaaus of Plato, a Primitive and Veracious Monument of true Physical Knowledge, translated, with illustrations, by K.J. Windischmann, Hademar, 1804. Mars. Ficini Theologia Platonica, Florent. 1482, fol. Es. PuFENDORFii Diss. de Theologia. Platonis, Lips. 1653, 4to. J. Fried. Wucherer, Diss. II. de Defectibus Theologian Platonis, Jen. 1706, 4to. Ogilvie, The Theology of Plato compared with the Principles of Oriental and Grecian Philosophers, Loud. 1793, 8vo. t Diet. Tiedemann, On the Ideas of Plato respecting the Divinity, in the Mem. of the Antiq. Soc. of Cassel, torn. 1. (Fr.). Cf. Spirit of Speculative Philosophy, tom. II, p. 114, sqq. t W. Gl. Tennemann, On the Divine Intelligence: in the Memora- BiLiEN of Paulus, fasc. I, p. 2. Balth. Stolberg, De \6yy et v

" DeRep. IX, p. 48. 136.] PLATO. 117 elements : Wisdom (o-of /« — (ppovvjo-iq ) ; Courage, or Con- stancy (av^p€ia) ; Temperance (o-axppoa-vv/j) ; and Justice (S<- Kaioa-vvf] ") : which are otherwise termed the four cardinal virtues. Such virtues he describes as arising out of an Independence of, and Superiority to, the influence of the senses. In his practical philosophy Plato blended a rigid principle of moral obligation with a spirit of gentleness and humanity; and education he described as a liberal cultivation and moral discipline of the mind**. Politics he defined to be the application, on a great scale, of the laws of Morality ; (a society being composed of indi- viduals and therefore under similar obligations) ; and its end to be liberty and concord. In giving a sketch of his Republic, as governed according to reason, Plato had particularly an eye to the character and the political dif- ficulties of the Greeks p ; connecting at the same time, the discussion of this subject with his metaphysical opinions respecting the soul''. Beauty he considered to be the sensible representation of moral and physical perfection "^ : consequently it is one with Truth and Goodness, and n De Rep. IV, 443, sqq. o De Rep. Ill, p. 310 ; De Leg. I, p. 46, sqq., II, 59. P De Rep. jTa). The latter either perishable {t.x^i;%a) ; their principle of motion is within them- selvesj although they revolve in the circle to which they •^ Phys. Ill, 1 — 7; VI, 1—9. e Ibid. YUI, 5, sqq. ; l)e Ccelo, II, 3, sqq. ' DeCoelo. I, 1'2. 144, 145.] ARISTOTLE. 127 are attached. In general, this part of Aristotle's system is obscure and inconsistent, and appears to waver between two opposite doctrines^. 145. Pliysiology is indebted to Aristotle for its first cultivation; for an essay, imperfect indeed, but built upon experiment associated with theory. The soul he pro- nounced to be exclusively the active principle of Life ; the primitive form of every body capable of life, i. e. organ- ized; {4^^X^'] eVriv ivTeXex^ia, vj ■npux'/i De An. II, 1. « Ibid. I, 1—4. To this subject belong the Commentaries on the woiks of Aristotle which treat of the soul, etc. ^ De An. II, 2, 4 ; De Gener. Anim. II, 3. ' Ibid. II, 5,6, 12; 111,12. "> Ibid. II, 6; III, 12, sqq. ; De Sensu et Sensibili. " Ibid. Ill, 1, sqq. o Ibid. Ill, 3, et De jMemoriii. P Ibid. Ill, 4. 128 ARISTOTLE. [sect. able (Immortality independent of Conscience or Memory '^). The thinking faculty is an energy distinct from the body, derived from without "^j resembling the elementary matter of the stars ^ The understanding becomes Theoretical or Practical, according to its application, and, together with the Will, determines our actions. The Will (ofel^), is an impulse directed towards matters of practice, that is to say, toward Good ; which is real or apparent, ac- ing as it procures a durable or a transient enjoyment*: op€^n; is subdivided into ^ovX^o-k; and eViSi^/x./a ; the Willy properly so called, and Desire. Enjoyment is the result of the complete development of an energy : which at the same time perfects that energy. The most noble of all enjoyments is the result of Reason ". § 146. "i J. G. BuHLE, On the Authenticity of the Metaphysics of Aristotle : in the Biblioth. of Ancient Arts and Literature, fasc. IV. See also his Compend. of the Hist, of Phil. II, § 331, sqq. "f FuLLEBORN, On the Metaphysics of Aristotle : in his Collect, fascic. V. Petri Rami Scholarum Metaphysicarum lib. XIV. Par. 1566, 8vo. Primary philosophy, treating of the nature of Being in the abstract, was an attempt of Aristotle's, the first which had been made, in the science since denominated Metaphysics. It was reasonable to expect that this at- tempt should be as yet an imperfect one. It contains an analytical statement of what he denominated the Catego- ries (ten in number "), a title under which he comprised 1 De An. II, 1—6 ; III, 2, sqq., 5. •■ De Gen. Animal. II, 3. * Cic. Acad. Quaest. I, 7. « De An. Ill, 9— 11 ; Eth. Ill, VI. " Ethic. X, 4, 5,8. ^ The ten Categories, or pradicamenta of Aristotle, are : i) ovaia, to ttooov, TO TTotov, TrpoQ Ti, TTov, TTOTs, KHvOai, t^ftv, TToitiv, Trac^ftv, Substancc, Quan- tity, Quality, Relation, Place, Time, Situation, Possession, Action, Passion. Aristotle distinguishes between these and the Categoremata, or Pnrdicahilia, 146, 147.] ARISTOTLE. 129 and elucidated without much systematic order, the lead- ing characteristics of Being, as apprehended by the Un- derstanding and the Senses^. With this arrangement he connected the question of the First Being, and His pro- perties (theology^). God, the absolute cause of regular movement % is the perfection of Intelligence (vovi), to whom appertains, of his own nature, pure and independent Energy, and the most complete Felicity ^ : He is immu- table, and the end of all Nature ''. 147. Practical i^hilosophy, by the profound analysis of Aristotle, became a moral theory of happiness, on Em- pirical principles. The fundamental point was the idea of a sovereign good and final end. The final End (reXo?), is happiness {€vdaifji.Qvia, evTvpa^ia), which is the result of the energies of the soul, iv jS/oj reXeirf, in a perfect life'^: such happiness being the highest of which our nature is capable. This perfect exercise of reason is virtue ; and virtue is the perfection of speculative and practical reason : hence the subdivision of Intellectual virtue (Biavo>jT*K7j aper-ri), and moral {r]9iKri^). The first, in its per- which have reference to the former, and are five in number : 'Opor, yho^, tlSog, hacpopci, Idiov Kai avfx^t^riKOQ (Top. I, 6.) See Harris's Philos. Arrangements, Edi?j. and Land. 1775, Bvo. Cf. the Categories of Aristotle, with illustrations, offered as an introduction to a new theory of Thought, by Sal. Maimon, Berl. 1794, 8vo. On the au- thenticity of the treatise on the Categories : Krug, Observationes Ciit. et Exeget. in Aristotelis librum de Categoriis, part I, Lips. 1809, 4to. y Metaph. V, 7. Cf. Categor., II, ed. Buhle. z Besides the old treatises on the Theology of Aristotle, by J. Faustius, HiER. Capr/i:donus, FoRxuNits LiCETVs, and the treatises of Valeria- Nus Magnus and Zachar. Grapius on the Atheism of Aristotle, consult: JoH. G. Waixh, Exercitatio Histor. Philosophica de Atheismo Aristotelis. Parerga Academica, Lips. 1721, 8vo. JoH. Sev. Vater, Theologiae Aristotelicae Vindiciai, Lips. 1795, Bvo. t Fiii.LEBORN, in his Collect., fasc. III. on the Nat. Theol. of Aristotle. a Cf. $ 143—144. b Pol. VII, 1. <• Metaph. I, 1 ; XII, 7, sqq. ; De Coelo, II, 3, sqq. ; De Gener. et Cor- rupt. 1,6. d Eth. Nic.I, 1—7; X, 5,6. « Idem, I, 13; II, 1. K 130 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. fection, belongs to God only, and confers the highest degree of felicity ; the second, adapted to human nature, is the perfection of reasonable will (ef*?, habitus), the effect of a rational deliberation (7rpoa and some fragments. Opera Gr. et Lat. ed. Dan. Heinsius, Lugd. Bat. 1613, 2 vols. fol. See also the work of Hill, mentioned in the following section. V Flourished about 320 B. C. 1 Nic. DoDWELL, De Dicasarcho ejusque Fragmentis. Cf. Bredow, Epp. Paris, p. 4, et alibi, et Bayle, Diet. »■ G. L. Mahne, Diatr.de Aristoxeno Philos. Peripatetico, Amstel. 1793, 8vo. 9 Cic. Tusc. Quaest. I, 10, 31. ' Hence he was surnamed Physicus. " DioG. Laert. V, 58. Cic. Acad. Quaest. IV, 38 ; De Nat. Deor. I, 13. Sext. Emp. Hyp. Pyrrh. Ill, 32, 136, sqq.; Adv. Math. VII, 350; X, 155, 177, 228. Simplic. In Phys. p. 168 et 225. Lactant. De Ira Dei, 10. Plutarch. Adv. Coloten. p. 163; De Plac. IV, 5; De Solert. Anim. p. 141. Stob. Eel. p. 298—348. Phil. Frid. Sciilosser, De Stratone Lampsaceno et Atheismo vulgo e tributo, Viteh. 1728, 4to. 150.] EPICURUS. 133 have fewer details with regard to Demetrius Phalereus ", a follower of Theophrastus : as an orator and statesman he was sufficiently distinguished. As for those who came after, Lijco or Ghjco, of Troas, the successor of Strato^, (ahout 270 or 268 B. C), Hieronymus of Rhodes his contemporary % Aristo of Ceos, the successor of Lyco% Critolaus of Phaselis, w^ho went to Rome as ambassador at the same time with Carneades ^ and his pupil and suc- cessor Diodorus of Tyre — all we know of these Aristo- telians is that they devoted their especial attention to the investigation of the supreme good "", After them, we are ignorant even of the names of the masters of the Peripa- tetic school, till the time of Andronicus (see § 183). The system of Aristotle for a long time maintained its ground as distinct from that of Plato : subsequently, at- tempts were made to associate them, as identical ; or by giving the superiority to one or other. In the Middle ages that of Aristotle, degraded to a system of formu- laries, became universally prevalent ; till in the end it yielded to Platonism: not, however, without continuing to retain great influence, from the general adoption of its Logic"*. III. Epicurus. Authorities : Epicuri Pliysica et Meteorologica duabus Episto- lis ejusdem comprehensa, ed. Jo. Glob. Schneider, Lips. 1813, 8vo. Epicuri Fragmenta librorum II et XI, De Natura, etc., illus- trata a Rosinio ed. Orellius, Lii^is. 1818, 8vo. Brucker, Diss, de Atheismo Stratonisj Amoenitates Litterariae of Schell- HORN, torn. XIII. ^ Flourished 320 B.C. y DioG. Laeut. V, 65, sqq. ' Idem, IV, 41, sqq^68. ^ Idem, V. 70—74.' b 155 B.C. •^ Cic. Acad. Quaest. IV, 42 ; De Fin. II, 3 ; V, 5. ^ J. Launoy, De "N'aria Philosophia; Aristotelicaj Fortune, Paris, 1653, third edition, Hagce Comit. 1662, 8vo. Recudi curavit Jon. Herm. ab Elswich, nteb. 1720, 8vo. G. Pail RoETENBErK, Oratio de Philosophiai Aristotelicae per singulas ablates Fortuna Vari&, Altd, 1668, 4to. 134 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. DiOGENis Laertii De Vitis, Dogmatibus et Apophtliegmatibus clarorum Philosophorum lib. X, Gr. et Lat. separatim editus, atque Adnotatioiiibus illustratus a Car. ISurnberger, Norimb. 1791, 8vo. Cf. also the Didactic Poem of Lucretius de Rerum Natura : and likewise Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch. Petri Gassendi Animadversiones in Diogenem Laert. de Vita et Pliilosophia Epicuri, Lugd. Bat. 1649, fol. Ejusdem de Vita, Moribus et Doctrina Epicuri, libb. VIII, Lugd. 1647, 4to. Hagce Comit. 1656, 4to. -j" Sam. de Sorbiere, Letters on the Life, Character, and. Reputation of Epicurus, with Remarks on his Errors (among his Letters and Discourses), Paris, 1660, 4to. ■f J. Rondel, Life of Epicurus, Par. 1679, 8vo. transl. into Lat. Amst. 1693, 12mo. -j- Essay towards an Apology for Epicurus, by an Opponent of Batteux (J. G. Bremer), Berl. 1776, 8vo. Fr. Ant. Zimmermann (Resp. Zehner), Vita et Doctrina Epicuri Dissertatione Inaugur. Examinata, Heidelb. 1785, 4to. "i" H. E. Warnekros, Apology for, and Life of, Epicurus, Greifsw. 1795, 8vo. Nic. Hill, De Pliilosophia Epicurea, Democritea, et Theo- phrastea, Genev. 1669, 8vo. Petri Gassendi Syntagma Philosophise Epicuri, Hag. Com. 1655 et 1659, 4to. and in his 0pp. 151. Epicurus^ of the demus of Gargettos, near Athens, was born of poor parents. His father, who had settled at Samos, gained his hvehhood as a schoolmaster, and his mother by divining. The constitution of Epicu- rus was feeble, and his education imperfect, but his talents were superior. A verse of Hesiod, and the works of Demosthenes awakened in him, while yet young, a spirit of inquiry. Soon after, he attended at Athens, but in a desultory manner, the lessons of Xenocrates the Academician, Theophrastus, and others. In his thirty- second year he opened a school at Lampsacus, which, five years after, he removed to Athens'^; where he taught, in his garden, a system of philosophy which readily re- commended itself by the indulgence it held out to sensual c Born 337, died 270. ^ Diog. LAERf. X. 15. 151—153.] EPICURUS. 135 habits, combined with a taste for the refinements of social hfe, an abhorrence of superstition, and a tone of elegance and urbanity which blended with all his doctrines. He may be justly reproached with depreciating the works of other philosophers. Of his numerous writings ^ we pos- sess only a few fragments cited by Diogenes Laertius, and the book Trept cpva-cuq, which by a fortunate chance was discovered among the ruins of Herculaneum. 152. According to him, philosophy directs us to happi- ness by the means of reason''. Consequently, Ethics form a principal part of his system, and Physics, etc. are only accessories. He assigns the same inferior place to what he terms Canonics, the Dialectics of his system \ There is little originality in this theory of happiness ; and the form alone in which it is put belongs to Epicu- rus. The theory is in fact nothing more than one of Euda^monism, with a sprinkling of moral sentences, built upon an Atomic system by way of Physics ; with a the- ology suitable to such a whole : a system which if rigor- ously pursued through all its consequences, could not fail of leading to immorality. 153. Epicurus borrowed from Democritus his theory of certain subtile emanations of objects (aizoppotoci, a-noa-- Tda-eii), which he supposes to detach themselves there- from, and so disperse themselves through the air (§ 105). These, impressing the senses, produce on them corres- ponding images, and these again create the mental con- ceptions of the same ; less perfectly representing the original objects. It is from the senses that we derive all our ideas, even those which are universaly and of which there existed previously what he termed TrpoXiji/zeK "^ ; the B DioG. Laert. X, 17. '• Skxtus Emp. Adv. Mathem. XI, 169. ' Senec. Ep. 89. DiOG. Laert. X, 24 — 31. " Jon. Mich. Kern, Diss. Epicuri Piolepses, seu Anticipationes, Sensibus demum administris haustne, non vero menti innatai, in locum Cic. de Nat. Deor. I, 16, Gott. 1756, 4to. Tacoms Roorda, Disp. de Anticipatione cum omni, turn inpiimis Dei, 136 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. understanding contributing however to their formation ^ Every perception of the senses and imagination is true, because necessarily responding to the images impressed upon them, and the results are neither capable of being demonstrated nor refuted {ivapyrji;, a^oyoq). Our opinions, on the other hand {lo^cn), are either true or false, accord- ing as they respond or not to our sensible impressions ; wherefore these are always to be referred to as their cri- teria. Our sensations (Tra^r/), are our criteria with respect to what we ought to desire or to avoid (aipea-iq and (pvy^). There is no law of necessity for thought ; or a Fatalism would be the consequence. Such are the principles of his Canonics"™. § 154. -f The Morals of Epicurus, with Remarks, by M. the Baron DEs CouTUREs, Par. 1685. f With additions by Rondel, the Hague, 1686, 12mo. ■f The Morals of Epicurus, drawn from his own writings, by the Abbe Batteux, Par. 1758, 8vo. Magni Omeisii Diss. Epicurus ab Infami Dogmate, quod Summum Bonum consistat in Obscoena Corporis Voluptate, De- fensus, y4ltd. 1679, 4to. "f Investigation respecting the Partial and Exclusive Opinions of the Stoic School, and that of Epicurus, with respect to the Theory of Happiness (by E. Platner) ; in the Neue Bihlioth. der Schoenen Wissenschaften, XIX. B. Morals. Pleasure is the sovereign good of man; for all beings from their birth pursue pleasure and avoid pain. Pleasure consists in the activity or the repose of the soul ; in the enjoyment of agreeable sensations, and the absence of those which are painful (-^Sov^ ev Kiv^a-ei, and Tjhovv] Karaa-ryjiAo.riK'^). Epicurus regarded this well-being as the end of man's existence ; and pronounced the sum- atque Epicureorum et Stoicorum de Anticipationibus Doctrina, Lugd. Bat. 1823-4. ' DioG. Laert. X, 31, sqq. 46, sqq. 52. Lucret. IV, particularly vv. 471—476. 726—753. Cic. Divin. II, 67. "» Dioc. Laert. X, 32. Sext. Adv. Math. VII, 203, sqq. Cic. Acad. QuKst. IV, 25. 32 ; Nat. Deor. I, 25; De Fato, 9, 10. I 154, 155.] EPICURUS. mum bonum to be a state exempt from suffering, result of the satisfaction of all our necessary, and rd^^z "^ tural desires ". All our sensations, in themsely^s are' ok the ^ equal in worth and dignity, but differ greatl}^** niiw T7 T* H ^^ "^ tensity, duration, and their consequences. The pfcasures ^^ and the pains of the mind exceed those of thex>ody. To attain happiness, therefore, it is necessary to make a^^- choice (afpeff-^-) ; and to rule our desires by the help of reason and free-will, or individual energy independent of nature, which Epicurus explains in a manner not the most philosophical °. Consequently Prudence {(f)povri> Idem, X, 9. ' 270 B.C. ^ Si.N. Ep. 33. Who are the real Epicureans and real Sophists'? (SeeDiog. Laert. X, 26. ' LucRET. Ill, 14. Cic. Fin. 1, 5--7 ; II, 7. Dioc. Laebt. X, 12, 13. 15G, 157.] ZENO AND THE STOICS. 141 Intellectuality of the human soul, on the other it fortified it against superstition ; with the loss, it is true, of all belief derived from the understanding"'. IV. Zeno and the Stoics, Authorities : The Hymn of Cleanthes, and the Fragments of Chrysippus and Posidonius ; Cicero ; Seneca ; Arrian ; Antoni- nus ; Stobjeus ; Diogenes Laertius, VII ; PUitarch, in several of his Treatises against the Stoics ; Simplicius. Modern Works. Hemingii Forelli Zeno Philosophus leviter adumbratus. Ex- ercitatio Academica, Ups. 1700, 8vo. JusTi Lirsii jManuductio ad Stoicam Philosophiam, Antwerp, 1604, 4to.; Lugd. Bat. 1644, 12mo. Thom. Gatakeri Diss, de Disciplina Stoica cum Sectis aliis collata. Prefixed to his edition of Antonin., Cambridge, 1653, 4to. Fr. de Quevedo, Doctrina Stoica, in ejus 0pp. tom. Ill, Bruxell. 1671, 4to. Jo. Fr. Buddei Introduct. in Philos. Stoicam. Prefixed to his edition of Antonin., Lips. 1729, 8vo. Dan. Heinsii Oratio de Philos. Stoica ; in suis Orationib. Ludg. Bat. 1627, 4to., p. 326, sqq. -j- DiETR. Tiedemaxx, Systcm of the Stoic Philosophy, Ze?p5. 1776, 3 vols. 8vo. ; and in his Spirit of Speculative Philosophy, vol. II, § 427, sqq. JoH. Alb. Fabricii Disp. de Ca\'illationibus Stoicorum, Lips. 1692, 4to. 157. Zeno was born at Cittium, in Cyprus"; his father Mnaseas being a rich merchant. Having received a good education, chance, added to his own inclinations, caused him to attend the Socratic schools. He became a hearer of the Cynic Crates, Stilpo, and Diodorus Cronus the Mecrareans, and the Academicians, Xenocrates and Po- lemo, for several years. His object was to found a sys- tem of Human instruction which might oppose itself to '" LvciAN. Alexander. " About 340 B.C. 142 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Scepticism ; and, in particular, to establish rigid princi- ples of Morality, to which his own conduct was conform- able. In the Portico (o-to^), at Athens, he formed a school °, distinguished for a succession of able philoso- phers, and lovers of virtue ; a school which became memorable for the influence it possessed in the world, and its resistance to vice and tyranny. Zeno died after Epicurus P. His system was extended, developed, and completed in the course of a long rivalship with other schools, particularly that of Epicurus and the New Aca- demy. Its principal supporters were Persceus or Doro- theus of Cittium'^, Aristo of Chios '^, who founded a separate school approaching that of the Sceptics % Herillus of Carthage * ; and lastly, the pupil and worthy successor of Zeno, Cleanthes of Assos ". Next came the disciple of the last, Chrysippus of Soli or of Tarsus, the pillar of the Portico ""; then his disciple Zeno of o About 300 B.C. P Between 264 and 260 B. C. q SuiDAS, s. V. Persaeus and Hermagoras. «■ GoDOFR. BucHNEui, Dlss. Hist. Philos. de Aristone Chio, Vita et Doc- trina Noto, Lijjs. 1725, 4to. Jo. Ben. Carpzovii Diss. Paradoxon Stoicum Aristonis Chii : 'Oj^oTov ilvai Tip dyaOi^ viroKpiTy tov .yiY, matter, passive; the other active, namely the Divinity, or creative prin- ciple ; the source of activity, and author of the forms and arrangement of all things in the world. God is a living fire, unlike however to common fire ; he is named also TzveviAo. ov spirit^; he fashions, produces, and permeates all things, agreeably to certain laws (Xoyoi a-TvepixocTiKoi), Matter is thus subject to universal reason, which is the law of all nature '. Various proofs of the existence of a Divinity were e Cic. Acad. Qusest. 1, 11. Diog. Laert. VII, 56. ^ Diog. Laert. VII, 135. s Idem, VII, 140. ^' Cic. Nat. Deor. II, 14. Dioc. Laert. \l\, 139. Stob. p. 538. » Cic. Acad. Qua.'st. I, 11 ; Nat. Deor. II, 8, 9. 14.22.32. Sextis, Adv. Math. IX, 101. Dioo. Lvi ht, VII, 134. sqcj. 147 — 156, sqq. Stub. Eel. Phys. I, p. 312—538. 146 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. alleged by the Stoics, particularly by Cleantlies and Chrysippus ^, According to the doctrines we have reviewed, God is in, not without the world. The world itself is a living beine: and divine. Hence resulted the close connection maintained by these philosophers between Providence (TTpovoia) and Destiny {eli/,api/.iv7i), founded upon the rela- tions between Cause and the Effect observable in the world 1 : this notion led Chrysippus still farther, to De- terminism; and thence to Optimism^, to Divination {fAOLvriK-fi), and an attempt to explain the Mythological Po- lytheism by the aid of Physiology and Theology °. In like manner as the world was produced by the action of fire, when the four elements (a-roixe7cc)^ out of which the Divinity formed all things, were separated from primeval matter ° ; so must it ultimately perish by the same p. This combus- tion or dissolution by fire, by which all things will be re- solved into their original state (iKitvQua-iq toZ kco-ixov) has been rejected by some subsequent Stoics ^, among others by Zeno of Tarsus, Panaetius, and Posidonius^ 162. The soul is an ardent spirit (Trv€vy,cc evOepixov), being a portion of the Soul of the world, but, like every other real individual being, is corporeal and perishable ^ Cle- ^ GuiLL. Traug. Krug, Progr. de Cleanthe Divinitatis assertore ac prs;- dicatore, Lips. 1819, 4to. • Plutarch. De Stoic. Repugn, p. 1056. Stob. Eel. Phys. vol.1, p. 180. '" JoH. Mich. Kern, Disp. Stoicorum Dogmata de Deo, Gott. 1764, 4to. Jac. Brucker, De Providentia Stoic^in Miscell. Hist. Philos. p. 147. S. E. ScHULZE, Commentatio de Cohserentia Mundi partium earumque cum Deo conjunctione summa secundum Stoicorum Disciplinam. Viteb. 1785, 4to. Mich. Heixr. Reinhard, Progr. de Stoicorum Deo, Torgav. 1737, 4to. Et Comment, de Mundo Optimo praesertim ex Stoicorum Sententia. Torgav. 1738, 8vo. " Cic. Nat. Deor. I, II, III ; De Fato, c. 12, 13. 17. A. Gellius, N. Att. VI, c. 2. « DioG. Laert. VII, 142. P Cic. Nat. Deor. 11, 46. *i Philo, De ^tern. Mundi. •■ JacThomasii ExercitatiodeStoica]Mundi Exustione.ctc. Lips. 1672, 4to. Mich. Sonntag, Diss, de Palingenesiu Sioicorum, Jen. 1700, 4to. s Cic. De Nat. Deor. HI, 14; Tusc. Qua?st. T, 9. Dioo. Laert. VII, 156. 1G2, 1G3.] ZENO AND THE STOICS. 147 anthes and Panastius went so far as to endeavour to establish its mortality by proofs It consists of eight parts or powers : one, and the principal (to rjjefAoviKov^, or Intelligence (XoyKj-[Ao<;), is the source of all the rest, namely, the five senses, speech and the generative faculty ; in the same manner as the Divinity is the origin of all individual energies in the world without". The emotions also, as well as the passions and appetites of the soul {TtdOrj and opixai), are the results of the intellectual faculty ; because they are always founded on some belief of the reality of their object, on some approbation, or judgment". § 1G3. Casp. Scioppii Elementa Stoicae Philosophiie Moralis, Mogunt. 1606, 8vo. J. Fr. Buddei Exercitt. Historico Philos. IV. de Erroribus Stoicorum in Philos. Morali, Hal. 1695-96. Ern. Godf. Lilie, Commentationes de Stoicorum Philos. Morali. Comment. I. Alton. 1800, Svo. •f J. Neeb, Examination of the Morality of the Stoics com- pared with that of Christianity, Mainz, 1791, Svo. Ern. Aug. Dankegott Hoppe, Diss. Hist. Philos. : Principia Doctrinae de Moribus Stoicae et Christianae, Viteh. 1799, 4to. (See also the works of Conz and Wegscheider, cited § 182). The morality of the Stoics was built upon profound ob- servation of the essential characteristics of human Na- ture, of Reason, and Free-will ; and a close association of the laws of Practice with those of Nature ^, in virtue of this principle, that God, the inherent cause of all the exist- ing forms and proportions of the world, is himself the su- preme Intelligence and Law. In consequence of the Ra- tional nature of Man, the Stoic considers Order, Legality, • Chph. Meiners, Commentar. quo Stoicorum Sententia de Animorum post Mortem statu et fatis illustratur; Verm. Philos. Schriften, vol. II, p. 265. " Plutarch. Decret. Philos. IV. 4. 5. 21. Sextus, Adv. Math. IX, 101. « Cic. Tusc. Quajst. IV, 6, sqq. ; Fin. IV, 33. Diog. Laert. VII, 110. Stob. Eel. Eth., p. 166. 170. Plutarch. De Virt. Morali ; de Decret. Philos. IV, 25. y Cic. De Nat. Deor. I, 14. L 2 148 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. and Reason, as what we are above all things bound to respect, as the only condition on which man can attain to the end of his being, that is Virtue ; towards which all Nature is framed to lead us. Accordingly the first of all maxims is ^ : To live agreeably to the law of Right Reason (op6o(; Xoyoq) ; or according to the formulary of Cleanthes and other Stoics : To live conformably to Nature, (oixoXo- yov(jt.evu(; '^yv, or Of/.o'koyovy.evcoq ry ^va-ei ^?Jv) ^. See above Polc- mo (§ 138). Such a life is the proper end of Human ex- istence ^. 164. The most remarkable principles of the Practical system of this school are: 1st. to kuXov, (or Virtue), is the only absolute good : Vice, on the other hand, is the only positive evil : every thing else is morally indifferent, (aS/a^opov), possessing only a relative value, which renders it in a greater or less degree capable of becoming an ob- ject of choice, of avoidance, or simply of toleration, (Xtjit- rov, aXrjTvrov, fX€[/.aTa, and their contraries, transgressions, a/AapT-^/xara. The Karop6u)iA.a,Tcx, alone are virtuous and worthy of commenda- tion ; without respect to their consequences ^. Sd\y. Virtue is founded on Prudence (fpoV/ja-. 179.] CICERO. IGl they sliowed more predilection for the doctrines of the Porch or of Epicurus, than tliose of Plato and Aristotle ; which were of a more speculative character. The Ro- mans thus applied themselves to Grecian philosophy ; successfully transferred into their own language some of its treatises ; enriched by the application of them their jurisprudence and polity, but did not advance a step by any original discovery of their own. Consequently, we can distinguish only a small number of Latins who have deserved a page in the history of philosophy. We shall proceed to mention the principal of those among them, who, whether Romans or foreigners, cultivated and dif- fused the philosophy of the Greeks, with some partial modifications in their manner of teaching it. Cicero. Authorities : The works of Cicero ; Plutarch. Life of Cicero. f MoRABiN, History of Cicero, Paris, 1745, 2 vols. 4to. CoNYERS MiDDLETON, Life of Cicero. (Several editions). Jac. Facciolati, Vita Ciceronis Litteraria, Patav. 1760, 8vo. H. Chr. Fr. Hulsemann, De Indole Philosophica M. T. Ciceronis ex ingenii ipsius et aliis rationibus aestimanda, Luneh. 1799, 4to. Gautier de Sibert, Examen de la Philosophic de Ciceron ; dans les Mem. de lAcad. des Inscr. torn. XLI et XLIII. Chph. Meiners, Oratio de Philosophia Ciceronis ejusque in Universam Philosopliiam meritis ; Verm. Philos. Schriften, L § 274. J. Chph. Briegleb, Progr. de Philosophia Ciceronis, Cob. 1784, 4to. Et, De Cicerone cum Epicuro Disputante, Ibid. 1779, 4to. J. C. Waldin, Oratio de Philosophia Ciceronis Platonica, Jen. 1753, 4to. Math. Fremling (resp. Schantz), Philosophia Ciceronis, Lund. 1795, 4to. f J. Fr. Herbart, Dissert, on the Philosophy of Cicero : in the Konigsb. Archiv. No. I. R. KiinNER, M. T. Ciceronis in Philosophiam ejusq. partes merita, Hamburg, 1825, 8vo. M t 162 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Adam Bursii Logica Ciceronis Stoica, Zamosc. 1604, 4to. CoNR. Nahmmacheri Theologia Ciceronis; accedit Ontologias Ciceronis specimen. Frankenh. 1767, 8vo. Dan. Wyttenbachii Dissert, de Philosophiae Ciceronianae Loco qui est de Deo, Amstel. 1783, 4to. •f An Essay towards settling the Dispute between Middleton and Ernesti on the Philosophic Character of the Treatise De Na- tura Deorum ; in five Dissert. Altona and Leips. 1800, 8vo. Gasp. Jul. Wunderlich (resp. Andr. Schmaler), Cicero de Anima Platonizans Disp. Viteb. 1714, 4to. Ant. Bucheri Ethica Ciceroniana, Hamb. 1610, 8vo. Jasonis de Nores, Brevis et Distincta Institutio in Cic. Philos. de Vita et Moribus, Patav. 1597. 180. M. T. Ciceroni like many other young Romans of good family, was instructed by Greek preceptors. In order to improve himself in eloquence and the science of polity, he travelled to Rhodes and Athens ; where he occupied himself with the pursuit of Grecian philosophy, directing his attention particularly to the Academic and Stoic systems. He owed, in part, his success as an orator and a statesman to the ardour with which he devoted him- self to these studies. At a later period of his life, when his career as a statesman was closed by the fall of the Republic, with his characteristic patriotism, he conse- crated his leisure to the discussion of points of philosophy ; labouring to transplant the theories of the Greeks into his native soil : with little gratitude on the part of his coun- trymen '^. In all speculative questions he maintained the freedom of opinion and the impartiality which became a disciple of the New Academy: following the method also of that school in the form of his writings. In questions of morality he preferred the rigid principles of the Stoics'; but not without doing justice to Plato, Aristotle, and even Epicurus, (as far as the correctness of his life was con- cerned ''). His philosophical works, in which he appears to have made Plato his model, are a most valuable collec- s Born at Arpinum, 107 B. C, died A. D. 44. '' Cic. Orat. pro Sextio. Plutarch. Vit. Cic. V. * De Offic. I, 2. ^ De Nat. Deor. I, 5 : Acad. Qua-st. IV, 3. 180, 181.] EPICUREANS. 163 tion of interesting discussions, and luminous remarks on the most important topics, e. g. On the Nature of the Divinity; On the Supreme Good; On the Social Duties; On Fate ; Divination ; the Laws ; the Republic, etc. etc. ^ : and have proved a mine of information to succeed- ing ages, without however betraying any great depth of thought. They are likewise highly valuable as throwing light on the history of philosophy "^, and have contributed to form the technical language of this science. Epicureans. 181. The doctrine of Epicurus when first disseminated in their country attracted among the Romans a crowd of partisans", in consequence of its light and accommo- dating character, and the indulgence it afforded to the in- clinations of all ° ; as also because it had the effect of dis- engaging the mind from superstitious terrors. Unhappily it favoured at the same time a frivolous and trifling spirit. Very few of the Roman Epicureans distinguished them- selves by a truly philosophical character ; and even these adhered literally to the doctrines of their master, without advancing a step beyond them. Such, among others, was Lucretius^ i who gave a statement of those doctrines in his didactic poem De Rerum Natitrd : as a poem, a work of superior merit '^. ' De Div. II, Init. "» M. T. Ciceronis Historia Philosophiatj Antiquae. Ex illius Script, ed. Fried. Gedike, Berl. 1782, 8vo. ° Among the most considerable were, Catius and Amafanius ; C. Cassius, Tit. Pomponius Atticus, Caius Velleius, Bassus Aufidius ; add to these the poet Horace, with several more. Cic. Fin. I, 7 ; Tusc. Quaest. IV, 3 ; Ep. ad Div. XV, 19. Senec. Ep. 21, 30. P Born 95, died 50 B. C. 1 C. Plinius Secundus, author of the Natural History, who died A.D. 79, by the eruption of Vesuvius, and Lucian of Samosata, the satirist ($ 176), who flourished in the second cent, after Christ, (see t J. C. Tiemann, On the Philosophy and Language of Lucian, Zerbst. 1804, 8vo.), have been num- bered among the Epicureans without sufficient grounds : as well as the con- temporaries of the latter, Diogenes Laertius (flourished about 211), and Cel- m2 164 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Stoics and Cynics, f C. P. CoNz. Dissertations on the Hist, and Characteristics of the later Stoic Philosophy ; with an Essay on Christian Mo- rality, on Kant, and the Stoics, Tiih. 1794, 8vo. G. P. HoLLENBERG, Dc PrsBcipuis Stoicae Philosophiae Doc- toribus et Patronis apud Romanos, Leips. 1793, 4to. J. A. L. Wegscheider, Ethices Stoicorum recentiorum funda- menta ex ipsorum scriptis eruta, cum principiis Ethicis quae critica rationis practicae sec. Kantium exhibet, comparata, Hamh. 1797, 8vo. 182. Next to those of Epicurus, the doctrines of the Stoics obtained the greatest success at Rome, especially among men of a severer character'^, who had devoted their lives to public affairs. With such men, the Stoic philosophy being more closely applied to real life, and exercising a marked influence over legislation and the administration of the laws^, naturally acquired a more sus. The latter is known to us as an adversary of Christianity by the work of Origen. By some he is esteemed a Neoplatonist. ' Such, in the days of the Republic, were the Scipios, and, in particular, the second Scipio Africanus, cf. § 158. C.Laelius; the jurisconsult Pub. Rutilius Rufus, Q. Tubero, Q. Mucins Scaevola the augur j and subsequently, Calo of Utica, and M. Brutus, the assassin of Caesar. « See the preceding note. We must here take notice of the sect of the Proculians, founded. In the time of Augustus, by Antistius Labeo, and his disciple Semp. Proculus. This sect was formed in opposition to that of the Sabinians, headed by Masurius Sabinus, a disciple of C. Ateius Capito. See Just. Henning. Bcehmeri Progr. de Philosophia Jureconsultorum Stoica, Hal. 1701, 4to. Ever. Ottonis, Oratio de Stoica veteruni Jurisconsultorum Philosophia, Duish. 1714, 4to. J. Sam. Herino, De Stoica veterum Romanorum Jurisprudentia, Stettin. 1719. These three works are collected in that of Gottlieb Slevoigt, De Sectis et Philosophic Jurisconsultorum Opuscc. Jen. 1724, 8vo. Chr. Westphal, De StoC Jurisconsultor. Roman. Rest. 1727, 4to. Chr. Fried. Geo. Meister, Progr. de Philosophia Jurisconsultorum Ro- manorum Stoica in DoctrinC de Corporibus eorumque partibus, Gott. 1756, 4to. Jo. GoDOFR. ScHAUMBURG, Dc Jurisprud. veterum Jurisconsultorum Stoica, Jen. 1745, 8vo. t J. An DR. Ortloff, On the Influence of the Stoic Philos. over the Juris- prudence of the Romans : a Philos. and Jurisprudential Dissert. Erlang. j787,8vo. 182.] STOICS AND CYNICS. 165 practical spirit, and began to disengage itself in some de- gree from speculative subtilties. Besides Athenodorus of Tarsus*, C Musonius Rufiis the Volsinian", Anncetis Cornutiis or Phornutus'' of Leptis, in Africa, (the two last expelled from Rome by Nero about 66 A. C), Cheer emon of Egypt, who was a preceptor of Nero, Euphrates of Alexandria, Dio of Prusa, or Dio Chrijsostom y, Basilides and others, we must not forget, as having distinguished themselves in Moral philosophy or by their practical wis- dom, Seneca'', Epictetus of HierapoHs in Phrygia, a • Flourished about two years after Christ. t Sevix, Researches concerning the Life and Works of Athenodorus, in the Mem. of the Acad, of Inscr. torn. XIII. J. Fr. Hoffmanni Diss, de Athenodoro Tarsensi, Philosopho Stoico, Lips. 1732, 4to. " t BuRiGNY, Mem. on the Philosopher Musonius, in the Mem. of the Acad, of Inscr. torn. XXXI. C. MusoNii RuFi Reliquiae et Apothegmata, ed. J. V. Peerlkamp, Harl. 1822, 8vo. D. Wyttenbachii Diss. (resp. Niewland), de Musonio Rufo Philoso- pho Stoico, Amstel. 1783, 4to. t Four unedited Fragments of the Stoic Philosopher Musonius, translated from the Greek, with an Introduction respecting his Life and Philosophy, by G. H. MosER, accompanied by the article of Creuzer on this publication, in the Studien, 1810, torn. VI, p. 74. '' D. Martini Disp. de L. Ann^eo Cornuto, Phil, Stoico. Liigd. Bat. 1825, 8vo. To him is attributed the Oeojpia Trepl Trjg tCjv OtCJv (pvaeoig, re- published by Gale, Opusc. M. et Ph. p. 137. y Both flourished under Trajan and Adrian. ^ Luc. Ann. Seneca, of Corduba in Spain ; the preceptor of Nero. Born about 3, died 65 A. C. Senecae Opera ed. Ruiikopf. Lips. 1797, sqq. 6 vols. 8vo. Essay on the Life of the Philosopher Seneca, on his Works, and the Reigns of Claudius and Nero, with Notes (by Diderot), Paris, 1778, 12mo. It is to be found also in the collection of his works, and the French transla- tion of Seneca by La Grange. t FtL. Nuscheler, The Character of Seneca as deduced from his Life and Writings, Zurich, 1783, 8vo. 1 vol. C. P. CoNz, On the Life and Character of Seneca : as a preface to a trans- lation of the Consolatio ad Helv. etc. Tubing, 1792, 8vo. Jo. Jac.Czolbe, Vindiciae SenecaB, Jen. 1791, 4to. Jo. Andr. Schmidii Disp. de Senec& ejusque Theologia, Jen. 1668, 4to. Jo. Ph. Apini, Disp. de Religione Seneca, Viteh. 1692, 4to. JusTi SiBERi Seneca Divinii Oraculis quodammodo consonans, Dresd. 1675, 12ino. Fried. Chr. Gelpke, Tractatiuncula de Farailiarilate qua; Paulo Apos- 166 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. slave who preserved nevertheless a free spirit ^, and who, having been banished from Rome, established a school at Nicopolis in Epirus ^ : Arrian ^ a disciple of the pre- ceding, whose doctrines he preserved in writing, and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus , the philosophic emperor % and tolo cum Seneca Philosopho Intercessisse traditur verisimilliraa, Lips. 1813, 4to. Christ. Ferd. Schulze, Prolegomena ad Senecae Librum de Vit^ Beata, Lips. 1797, 4to. t L. Ann. Seneca, by Joh. Ge. Carl. Klotzscii, Wittemh. 1799, 1802, 2 vols. 8vo. Henr. Aug. Schick, Diss, de Causis, quibus Zeno et Seneca in Philosophia discrepent, Marh. 1822, 4to. E. J. Werner, De Senecse Philosophia, Berol. 1825, 8vo. z Epicteti Enchiridium et Arriani Dissert. Epicteteae ; edid. J. Schweig- H^usER ; Epicteteae Philosophiae Monumenta, etc, Lips. 1799, 1800, 5 vols. 8vo. t The Manual of Epictetus translated into German by Linck, N^iirenfe. 1783 j and by Thiele, Francf. 1790. Works of Epictetus, translated by Carter (Mrs.), Lond. 1758, 4to. t Arrian, Conversations of Epictetus v^^ith his Disciples, translated, with Remarks Historical and Philosophical, and a Brief Exposition of the Philoso- phy of Epictetus, by J. Math. Schulz, Altona, 1801 — 3, 2 vols, large 8vo. t Giles Boileau, Life of Epictetus, and Account of his Philosophy, se- cond edition, revised and corrected, Paris, 1667, 12mo. M. RossAL, Disquisitio de Epicteto qua probatur eum non fuisse Christia- num, Groning. 1708, 8vo. Jo. Dav. Schwendneri Idea Philosophiae Epicteteae ex Enchiridio deli- neata. Lips. 1681, 4to. Chph. Aug. Heumanni Diss, de Philosophia Epicteti, Jen. 1703, 4to. LuD. Chr. Crellii Diss. II, to. tov ''ETriKTrfTov vTrepcro^a icai aao^a in Doctrin^ de Deo et Officiis erga se ipsum, Lips. 1711-16, 4to. Jo. Erd. Waltheri Diss, de Vita regenda secundum Epictetum, Lips. 1747, 4to. t H. Kunhardt, On the Principal Points of the Ethics of the Stoics, after the INIanual of Epictetus : in the Neues Museimi der Philos. und Literatur, published by Bouterweck, torn. I, fascic. 2 ; and tom. 11, fascic. 1. t J. Franc. Beyer, On Epictetus and his Manual of Stoical Morality, Marb. 1795, 8vo. a Flourished about 90 A. C. ^ Flavins Arrianus of Nicomedia, prefect of Cappadocia in 134. <= Became emperor in 161, died 180 A.C. Antonini Commentarii ad se ipsum (ftg tavTov j3ij3\ia ^mSsku), ed. Thom. Gataker ; Wolle; Morus 3 Jo. Math. Schulz; Slesv. 1802, sqq., 8vo. Translated into German by the same, with Observations and an Essay on the Philosophy of Antoninus, Schlesiv. 1799, 8vo. 182.] STOICS AND CYNICS. 167 disciple of the Stoic Q. Sextus of Chaeronea, the grand- son of Plutarch. Seneca^ who appreciated the truth which he discovered in various systems of philosophy but principally attached himself to that of the Portico '', was one of the first who drew a distinction between a Scho- lastic and Practical philosophy. The latter he judged the most essential, its primary object being individual Morality; (Philosophia Prceceptiva), He gave admir- able rules of conduct, after the principles of the Stoics ®, but betraying at the same time considerable predilection for Exaggeration and Antithesis ^ Ejnctetus reduced the moral system of the Stoics to a simple formulary, avexov Ka) a7re%oi;, sustuie ct ahst'iue : and assumed as his leading principle, Freedom. Antoninus imparted to the same system a character of gentleness and benevolence, by making it subordinate to a love of Mankind, allied to Religion. These two last are much less decided advocates of suicide than Seneca (§ 1G5). About this period a great number of writings of this school proclaimed a more fixed belief in the im- mortality of the Soul. — Of the Cynics the most distin- guished during the second century were : Demonax of Cyprus, who taught at Athens ; Crescens of Megalopolis, and Peregrinus, surnamed Proteus, of Parium in Mysia; who, they say, burnt himself at Olympia about 1G8 A. C. The two last contributed nothing to the cause of Science ^. CiiPH. Meiners, De JM. Aurelii Antonini ingenio, Moribus et Scriplis, in Comment. Soc. Gotting. 1784, torn. IV, p. 107. Cf. C. Fr. Walcihi Comm. de Heligione M. Aur. Antonini in numina celebrate, Acta Soc. Lat. Jenensis, p. 209. J. Dav. Koeleri Diss, de Philosophiji M. Aurel. Antonini in Theoria et Praxi, Alton. 1717, 4to. Jo. Franc. Buddei Inlioductio ad Philosophiam Stoicam ad raentem M. Antonini ; prefixed to the edition of Antoninus by Woli-, Leips. 1729, 8vo. t J. W. Reche, Essay towards a Statement of the Stoic Maxims according to the Views of Antoninus : in his translation of Antonin. Francf. 1797, Bvo. d Ep. 20. 45. 82. 108. « Ep. 94. ^ QuiNTiL. Inst. X, I. 6 LuciAN, Demonax, et de INIorte Peregrini,— Cf. A. Gelhus, N. A. VIII, 3; XII, 11. 168 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Peripatetics. On each of the Philosophers mentioned in this section, consult Suidas, and the first volume of Patricius, a work cited § 139. 183. The philosophy of Aristotle was not suited to the practical chdiYdiCiev of the Roman mind, and such as de- voted themselves to the study of it, becam-e mere commen- tators of various merit or demerit. We must account Peripatetics : Aficlronicus of Rhodes (§ 1 50), who arranged and expounded at Rome the works of Aristotle ^ ; Cra~ tippus of Mitylene, whom Cicero the Younger and seve- ral other Romans attended at Athens '' ; Nicolas of Da- mascus * ; Xenarchus of Seleucia, who as well as the pre- ceding, gave lessons in the time of Augustus ; Alexander of i^gas, one of the preceptors of Nero ^ ; Adrastus of Aphrodisias ^ ; and more especially the celebrated com- mentator Alexander of Aphrodisias"",* the disciple of Herminus and Aristocles, who taught at Alexandria. s Flourished about 80 B. C. It is thought that he was not really the author of the book Yisgl ttciQwv, ed. HoEscHEL, Aug. Vind. 1594; and the Paraphrase of Aristotle's Ethics, ed. Dan. Heinsius, Lugd. B. 1607, 4to. ; 1617, 8vo. ; Cantab. 1678, 8vo. h Flourished about 48 B. C. • t Franc. Sevik, Inquiry concerning the Life and Works of Nicolas Damascenus, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions ; and the Frag- ments of NicolausDam., published by Orelli, Lips. 1804 ; Suppl. 1811, 8vo. Some critics have attributed to him, without sufficient grounds, the book Titpi Kocr/jiov, found among the works of Aristotle. ^ To him are attributed the Commentaries on the Meteorologies and Meta- physics of Aristotle, which by others are assigned to Alexander Aphrodisi- ensis. ' Second century after Christ. ™ At Venice and Florence have been printed, in the sixteenth century, in a separate form, the different Commentaries attributed to him, on the following works of Aristotle : The Analytica Priora, the Topics, the Elenchi Sophistarum, the books De Sensu et Sensibili, the Physics, with the treatises Dc Anim^, and De Fato (ritpi tlfiapnkvi]Q Kai tov tcp' rjjxXv). Cf. Casiri Biblioth. Arabico-Hisp., vol. I, p. 243, for the works of Alex- ander of Aphrodisias. * Called, by way of eminence, the Commentator. 183, 184.] NEW PYTHAGOREANS. 109 He founded a school of commentators/* which bore his name, and attacked the Stoic doctrine of Fatahsm, which he declared irreconcileable with Morality. Among the Syncretic Peripatetics, may be mentioned Ammonius of Alexandria, who taught at Athens"; Themlstius of Paph- lagonia; Syrianus and ShnpUcius^. (See § 2^^1). The commentaries of the latter, next to those of Alexander of Aphrodisias, are the most distinguished production of these schools. Neiu Pythagoreans, 184. Pythagoras, whose reputation and even whose philosophy had long been familiar to the Romans '' ; had at the period of which we are treating a large number of follow ers : his exemplary life, and still more the myste- rious character of his history and his doctrines, being the principal causes of the species of enthusiastic reverence with which he was regarded. Some Moral Reformers wished to adopt his principles of practice: of which nvmi- ber w ere Qu. Sextius ^, (a Roman who wrote in Greek), and Sotion of Alexandria' ; both of them acquainted with Seneca at Rome^: and to this class of Pythagoreans it is probable that we should refer Apollonius of Tyana, in * Surnamed the Alexandrians and Alexandrists. He differed from Aris- totle in his doctrine respecting the soul. " In the first century. Plut. de Ei apud Delph. ed. Reiske, torn, vii, p. 512, sqq., et torn. VI, p. 260. His various commentaries on the works of Aristotle (especially his phy- sical treatises), were published at Venice, at the end of the fifteenth and be- ginning of the sixteenth centuries. His Comment, on the JManual of Epict. has been given by Schweigh. Monum. Epict. Phil. torn. IV. P Cic. De Senect., c. 21 ; Tusc. IV, 2. 1 Or Sextus. He flourished about 2 A. C. He must not be confounded with Sextus of Chaeronea ($ 182), the Stoic. His Moral Sentences are to be found in the dubious translation of IIuffinus, published by Th. Gale, Opusc. INIythol. Phys., etc- p. 645, sqq. De Burigny, On the Philosophical System of Sextius, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions, torn. XXXI. •■ About 15 A. C. * Seneca, Ep. 108. 170 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Cappadocia*, a disciple of Euxenus of Heraclea, in Pon- tus, an imitator of Pythagoras, and a pretender to divina- tion ; and finally, Secundus of Athens ". Others (for in- stance, Atiaxilaus of Larissa, banished from Italy under a suspicion of magical practices ''), applied the principles of Pythagoras to the study of Nature; or, like Moderatus of Gades ^, and Nicomachus of Gerasa % endeavoured to discover, in the Pythagorean doctrine of Numbers, a sub- lime and occult science % which they blended with the theories of Plato. Neoplatonists, See the works mentioned § 200 ; particularly that of Route r- WECK. 185. After the downfal of the Sceptic Academy (§ 169, 170), even in the time of Augustus, a new school of Pla- tonists began to form itself, and became popular. Among t Flourished about 70 A. C. Flavius Philostratus de Vita Apollonii Tyanaei, in Philostratorum 0pp. cura Olearii, Lips. 1709, fol. : where are printed, with many other letters, those attributed to Apollonius. Jo. Laur. Mosheim, Diss, de Existimatione Apollonii Tyanaei ; in ejus Commentationib. et Oratt. Var. Arg. Hamh. 1751, 8vo., p. 347, sqq. SiGiSM. Chr. Klose, Diss. II de Apollonio Tyanensi Philosopho Pythago- rico Thaumaturgo, et de Philostrato, Viteh. 1723-24, 4to. J. C. Herzoc, Diss. Philosophia Practica Apollonii Tyana?i in Sciagraphia, Lips. 1719, 4to. See also Bayle, and the article by Buhle in the great Encyclopedia, pub- lished by Ersch, part IV. » About 120 A.C. For his Moral Sentences, see Secundi Atheniensis Responsa ad Inter- ROGATA Hadriani, iu the work of Tii. Gale, referred to above, (note *i,) p. 633, sqq. " lie flourished under Augustus. y Flourished first century after Christ. *■ Second century after Christ. Nicomachus is said to have been the author of a theory of Numbers (In- troductio in Arithmeticam, Gr. Paris, 1538, 4to.), explained by Jamblichus ; and of a Manual of Harmony (apud Meieom. : Antiqu* Music-e Auctores, VII. Amst. 1652, 4to.) Fragments of his Symbolics of the Science of Numbers (OtoKoyoviJLtva api9- fxilTiKu), arc to be found in Piiotius, Biblioth. Cod. 187, p. 237. ^ An Essay on this occult science of Numbers is to be found ap. Sext. Em- riRic. adv. Malhem. X, 248. CL also Pouimiyr. Vit. Pythagor., j 32, sqq. 184, 185.] NEOPLATONISTS. I7I these ThrasyUus of Mendes'', the Astrologer, distin- guished himself; with Thcon of Smyrna^, the author of an Exposition of Plato *' ; Alc'uwus, who has left us a brief sketch of the Platonic doctrine *" ; Alblmis, the pre- ceptor of Galen ; Plittarch of Chaeronea \ a disciple of Ammonius (§ 83), and preceptor of Adrian ; Calvisius Taurus of Berytus near Tyre ^, the master of Aulus Gel- litis ; Luc. Apuleius of Medaurus in Numidia ^ ; and Max- imus Tyrius, the Rhetorician'. These philosophers made it their object to disseminate in a popular form, the Ethics and Religious Theory of Plato, and constructed for themselves a system of allego- rical interpretation, which connected the doctrines of that system with the ancient religious Mysteries'". With this they blended much that was derived from the Pythago- reans and Aristotle ; and, in the Dogmatic manner, pur- sued the most lofty speculations (the outline of which had been traced in the treatises of Plato), on the Deity, the Creator, the Soul of the World, the Demons, the Origin of the World, and that of Evil. They supposed our ^ First century after Christ. c Eleventh century after Christ. ^ Theon Smyrnensis de iis quae in Mathematicis ad Platonis lectionem uti- lia sunt, Gr. et Lat. ed. Ism. Bullialdus, Paris. 1644, 4to. ^ Alcinoi introductio ad Platonis Dogmata. Gr. cum vers Lat. Mars. Fi- cini, Paris. 1533, 8vo. ; republished with Platonis Dialogi IV, ed. Fischer, 1783, Bvo. f Plutarchi Opera Omnia Gr. et Lat. ed. Henr. Stephanus; ed. Reiske, XII vols. Bvo. Lips. 1774—82 ; ed. Hutten, XIV vols. 1791—1804, Bvo. Plutarchi Moralia ex recensione Xylandri, Bas. 1574, fol. ; ed. Witten- BACH, V vols. 4to. Oxon. 1795—1800, et XII vols. Bvo. Plutarch was born 50 died 120 A. C. e About 139. h Flourished about 160. Apuleii Opera, Lugd. 1614, 2 vols. Bvo. ; — in usum Delphini 1688, 2 vols. 4to. Particularly his sketch therein of the Platonic Philosophy. Cf. Apuleii Theologia exhibita a Cii. Falstero in ejus Cogitationib. Phi- los., p. 37. * Flourished about 180 A.C. Maximi Tyrii Dissertationes XXXI, Gr. et Lat. ed. Dan. Heinsius, Lugd, Bat. 1607 et 1614 ; ex recens. J. Davisii recudi curavit Jo. Jac. Reiske, Lips. 1774-75, 2 vols. Bvo. '' Euseb. Praep. Evang. IX, 6, 7. 172 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Ideas to have a substantial existence; and applied their abstract principles to account for phenomena of their own days ; for instance, the cessation of oracles \ The phy- sician Galen^, the inventor of the Fourth Figure of Logic, was a calm and sedate Platonist who admitted, to account for the phenomena of Life, the existence of a two- fold Spirit, XlveviAo, ZuiKov — -^vxiKiv^: Favorinus of Arelas, in Gaul, was more inclined to Scepticism °. These Pla- tonists were at the same time for the most part Eclectics, but not altogether after the manner of Potamo of Alexan- dria p, who, while he selected what he judged most ten- able from every system, pretended to form of these ex- tracts a separate doctrine of his own ; concerning which we have not sufficient details to enable us to judge ^. The Neoplatonism of the Alexandrians, as we shall afterwards see, has been improperly deduced from this isolated attempt. Scepticism of the Empiric SchooL ^nesidemus. Authorities : Eiisebii Prepar. Evangel. XIV, 7. 18 ; Frag- ments of vEnesidemus, Uvppcoveiav Xoyuv oktw ^i[oXia, apud Pho- tium, Myriobiblion sive Bibliotlieca cod. 212 : and in Sextus Em- piricus (cf. § 189); Diog. Laert. IX. See also the article ^nesidemus by Tennemann, in the En- cyclopedia by Ersch, part. II. ' Plutarch. De Def. Orac. ; De Is. •" Claudius Galenus, born at Pergamus 131, died about 200 A. C. " Galeni Opera Omnia, ed. Ren. Ciiarterius, Paris, 1679, XIII vols. Cf. $81. t Kurt Sprengel, I>etters on the Philosophic System of Galen, in his Collection towards a History of Medicine, part. I, p. 117. " Imm. Fried. Gregorii Duaj Commenlatt. de Favorino Arelatensi Phi- losopho, etc. Laiib, 1755, 4to. Z. FoRSMANN, Diss. (prJBS. Ebr. Porth-an) de Favorino Philosopho Aca- deniico, Abo, 1789, 4to. I' The period when he lived is uncertain. C. G. Gi.ocKNi.R, Diss, de Potamonis Alexandrini Philosophia Eclectica, recentioruni Platonlcorum DiscipliniV admodum dissimili, Lips. 1745, 4to. 1 Dioo. Laert. 1, 21. 185, 180.] ^NESIDEMUS. 173 186. i^ncsidemus, a native of Gnossus in Crete, set- tled at Alexandria'^, revived, about the commencement of this period, the Scepticism * which had been silenced in the Academy, and wished to make it serve the purpose of strengthening the opinions of Heraclitus to which he was inclined*. In conformity with Heraclitus, who lays down that every thing has its contrary, he maintained that we ought to admit universally, that contradictory appear- ances are presented to each individual". He placed the Thought under the dominion of external objects, making Truth to consist in the universality of the opinion or per- ception of the subject (Man "). He accused the Acade- micians of being deficient in Generalisation, as Sceptics, and thereby contradicting themselves ^. In order there- fore to strengthen the cause of Scepticism, he extended its limits to the utmost : admitting and defending the ten Topics (lUa. rpoTTo* eVox^^), attributed also to Pyrrho(§ 124); to justify a suspense of all positive opinion. These To- pics are deduced: 1. From the diversity of Animals; 2. From that of Mankind considered individually; 3. From the fallibility of our Senses; 4. — The circumstances and condition of the Subject; 5. — Position, Distance, and other local accidents ; 6. — The combinations and associa- tions under which things present themselves to our no- tice ; 7. — The different dimensions and various properties of things; 8. — Their mutual relations ; 9. — The habitude or novelty of the sensations; 10. — The influence of Edu- cation, and Institutions, Civil and Religious ^ In short, ' He probably flourished a little later than Cicero. * According to the testimony of Aristocles, related by Eusebius, loc. laud. At the same time, Diog. Laert. (IX, 114), mentions among the disciples of Timon ($ 124), a certain Euphranor of Seleucia, whose lessons Eubulus of Alexandria had followed. To the latter he assigns, as disciple, Ptolemy of Cyrene, who, he says, revived Pyrrhonism ; and whose disciple Heraclides, a sceptical philosopher, had been the master of ^nesidemus. ' Sext. Adv. Math. IX, 337 ; X, 216. 233. " Idem, Hypot. I, 210, sqq. " Idem, Adv. Math. VII, 349, 350 ; VIII, 8. y Photius. ' EusEB. Pra>par. Evang. XIV, 18. Sextus, Adv. Math. VII, 345; Hy- pot. I, 36. Cf. Diog. Laert. IX, 87. 174 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. iEnesidemus opposed Sceptical objections to every part of Dogmatical philosophy. According to him, Scepticism (icvppu)V€io<; X070?), is a Criticism exercised with regard to Sensible Phenomena and our Ideas of them ; which would convict them all of the greatest inconsistency and confu- sion ^ The fault of this Scepticism is its End, and its preten- sions to Universality, 187. The boldest attack made by any of the ancient philosophers on the possibility of demonstrative know- ledge, was that attempted by ^Enesidemus against the reality of the Idea of Causality ; with the application of his ideas to the investigation of natural causes {^tiology^). He argued that the idea of Causality is unfounded because we cannot understand the relations of Cause and Effect : which he endeavoured to prove by arguments a priori ; and also by insisting on the mistakes and false inferences of the Dogmatists in their inquiries into the nature of Causes. 188. From the time of ^Enesidemus to that of Sextus, followed a succession of Sceptics, all of them physicians of the Empiric and Methodic Schools*^; who confined themselves to the observation of facts, and rejected all theory respecting the causes of diseases. Among these, Favorinus (§ 185), attached himself to the principles of iEnesidemus. The most distinguished were Agrippa, Menodotus of Nicomedia, and Sextus, Agrippa ^ reduced the ten Topics of Dubitation to five more extensive ones, viz. 1. Difference of Opinions; 2, The necessity that every proof should be itself capable of proof; 3. The Relativeness of our impressions ; 4. The disposition to Hypothesis ; 5. The fault of arguing in a Circle. Finally he insisted on this, that there cannot be any certain knowledge, either immediately, e| eat^Toi;, nor me- =* DioG. Laert. IX, 78. '' Sextus, Adv. Math. IX, 217, sqq. ; Hypotyp. T, 180, sqq. ^ Dioo. Laeut. IX, 116. »> First or second century after Christ. 18G— 189.] SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. 175 diately, e| irepov ; and especially applied himself to criti- cise the Formal part of knowledge *. Sextus E??ijnricus. Sexti Empirici Opera Gr. et Lat. cd. Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Lijjs. 1718, fol. Recens. Struve, Regiomont. 1823, 2 vols. 8vo. Criticisms on this author : GuiL. Langius, De Veritatibus Geometricis adv. Sextum Em- piricum, Hafn. 1G56, 4to. De primis Scientiarum Elementis, seu Theologia Naturalis me- thodo quasi Mathematica digcsta. Accessit ad haec Sexti Emj)i- rici adversus Mathematicos decern Modonim eVo^-^? seu Dubita- tionis, secundum editionem Fabricii, quibus scilicet Sextus Scep- ticorum Coryphaeus, veritati omni in os obloqui atque totidem retia tendere baud dubitavit, succincta turn Philosophica turn cri- tica refutatio (per Jac. TiiOxMSon), Regiomont. 1728, (id. 1734), fol. Gotofr. Ploucquet, Diss, examen rationem a Sexto Empirico tarn ad propugnandam quam impugnandam Dei existentiam col- lectarum, Tuhing. 1768, 4to. 189. Sextus, surnamed Empiricus, from the School of Physicians to which he belonged, was a native, as ap- pears, of Mitylene *^, and a pupil of Herodotus of Tarsus s, the Sceptic. He put the finishing stroke to the Philoso- phy of Doubt, about the end of the second century. While he availed himself of the works of his predeces- sors, especially i^nesidemus, Agrippa, and Menodotus ; he contributed much to define the object, end, and me- thod of Scepticism ; particularly in his three books Uvppw' veiuv lirorvKua-eav ; and to guard against the attacks of the Dogmatists, he made more accurate distinctions between the operation of his system and the practice of the New Academicians or of the Dogmatists themselves. 190. According to Sextus, Scepticism is the faculty (^vvafAK;), of comparing the perceptions of the senses and « DioG. Laert. IX, 88, sqq. Sextvs, Hypotyp. I, 164 — 178. f This has been proved by Visconti in his Iconographia, on the testimony of a medal of that city. fs DioG. Laert. IX, 116. 176 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. the conclusions of reason ((pccivofAeva re ku) voov[xeva), in order by such a competition, so instituted, to arrive (&»« t»;v eV ro7q avriK€i[Aevoi(; irpdyfACca-i Koi Xojok; laocrdeveiccv^, at a suspension of all judgment (eVoxv?), on matters the nature of which is obscure to us {a^Xov, a(l)av€(;) : hence results a certain re- pose of the mind (arapa^la), and, in the end, a perfect equilibrium ([xerpioTraBeict), His Scepticism admits the existence of perceptions and appearances [(paivoixeva) ; does not deny the possibility of knowledge but the certainty of it ; and abstains from its pursuit. His system is not a Doctrine, but a Manner of contemplating subjects, and consequently does not de- mand to be proved, but only requires to be stated ''. His maxim was ovlh y.aXKov ' : meaning that no one thing de- serves to be preferred to another. 191, Sextus appears sometimes to have forgotten this principle, when he would erect his system into a Doc- trine, and represent it as an Art ; and an Art destruc- tive of all inquiry after Truth, and denying the possi- bility of its attainment. He deserves this reproach be- cause : 1 . Wlien he finds himself at a loss for arguments of Doubt, he suggests that hereafter they may be disco- vered^; 2. He declines all exposition of the real nature of our impressions and knowledge'; 3. He entrenches himself, when he finds it necessary, in downright So- phisms™; 4. He endeavours, in this manner, by mere sophistical arguments, to prove that no science can be taught or learnt " ; 5. He goes so far as to argue, in op- position to his own doctrine (§ 190), against the reality of our perceptions ° ; 6. He does not define with suffi- cient perspicuity the facts which he assumes as data, e. g. our impressions, and the laws of Thought. •> Sextus, Hypotyp. I, 1.4. 25. ' Ibid, 14. " Ibid. 33, sqq.; 11,259. ' Idem, I, 9, sqq. '" Adv. Math. I, 9. " Ibid. « Ibid. 351, sqq. I 190—193.] SEXTUS EMPIRTCUS. 17Y 192. Notwithstanding these objections, his statement of Scepticism is a very important work, both in respect of the manner in which he has treated it, and as a record of the state of Science, more especially of Metaphysical Phi- losophy, among the ancients. In the five last books of his treatises, Ufo<; rolq [xa6y]f/.aTiKQv<;^ he reviews the doctrines of the principal philosophers on the most important sub- jects ; setting in a strong light the incertitude of their Principles, and contradictory or inconsistent conclusions. He endeavours to show that the Dogmatists had never discovered any solid and irrefragable criterium of Truth: and that they all disagree with respect to the Principles of Logic, Physics, and Ethics. Denying the existence of any self-apparent Certainty (in consequence of the contradictions which prevail in the theses of Philoso- phers), he begins by demanding that every truth should be proved ; and then goes on to show that such proof is impossible, for want of self-evident Data. Beginning with such principles he proceeds to demolish all the Sci- entific labours of the human understanding ; not except- ing the Mathematics. 193. Such a system of Scepticism had the tendency to cut short all farther research, and appeared to threaten Science itself with extinction. Nevertheless, such a Scep- ticism contained in itself its own contradiction : pretend- ing to restrain the natural tendency of the human under- standing to these inquiries, without being able to make good the object it promised to realise, the repose of the mind. At the time when it appeared it seems to have made little impression ; in consequence of the slight in- terest then felt for philosophical studies ; and it died with Saturninus (also called Cythenas), a disciple of Sextus ^. The only persons who paid attention to it were some phy- sicians, such as Galen, {De optima docendi gencre'^), and the philosopher Plotinus^ The latter^ opposed to it a Dogmatism allied to the Supernatural and Enthusiastic. p DioG. Laeut. IX, 116. "i See $ 185. •• See § 203. * Plot. Enn. V. lib. V, II, N 178 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Philosophic Doctrines of the Jews and Gnostics. 194. It has not been perfectly ascertained whether at this period there existed an Eastern School of Philoso- phy, ' h.varo'kiKyi hlocaKct'kia, ^ It has been asserted by Mo- sheim, Brucker ", Walch ^, and Buhle ; and denied by Meinersy and Tiedemann^. It is impossible to contro- vert the existence of certain opinions peculiar to the East ; but the question is, whether they had already as- sumed a philosophical form and character, or whether they were not rather developed and brought to perfec- tion in proportion to the progress which Grecian philo- sophy, and particularly that of Plato, made among the Orientals ^. This last conjecture becomes still more pro- bable when we reflect that at this period appeared the apo- cryphal writings, falsely ascribed to Zoroaster, Hermes, and others ; as well as when we remark the efforts made by several Gnostics ^, to depreciate the works of Plato ^. 195. On the supposition that the Orientals had a phi- losophy of their own, it is natural to suppose that the immense extent of the Roman Empire would bring it into contact with that of the Western Nations, and contribute to their admixture. History has afforded us proof of * Cf. Theodot. in Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. torn. V, p. 135 ; Porphyr. Vita Plotini, E. XVI; Eunapii Vita ^desii, p. 61. " Hist. Crit. Phil. torn. II, c. 3, p. 639, sqq. ■'' Commentat. cle Philosophia Orientali in Michaelis Syntagma Commen- tatt. part II, p. 279. y t History of Philosophy, p. 170. ' + Spirit of Speculative Philosophy, torn. Ill, p. 98. The same (a prize composition) : De Artium Magicarum Origine, Murb. 1788, 8vo. * BouTERWECK, in an excellent treatise, which we shall have occasion to no- tice § 200, considers the mystical doctrines of immediate Intuition, and the Emanation of Spirits, as having been derived from the East and from Persia ; particularly through the channel of Alexandria ; where they had already been long established. •' Plotin. Enn. I, lib. IX, 6. *= See Buhle, Compendium of the History of Philosophy (§ 37), part IV, p. 73. sqq: and the larger work of Tennemann on the History of Philosophy (ibid.) torn. VI. p. 438. 194—107.] JEWS. PHILO. 179 this in the doctrines of the Jews, tlie Gnostics, and the Neoplatonists. Alexandria, where, from the time of the Ptolemies, every system of philosophy had been taught, was the principal point of union between the Eastern and Western doctrines. I. Jews, See the works mentioned in § 73. 196. During their exile the Jews had collected many opinions belonging to the religion and philosophy of Zo- roaster (§ 70), for example, that of a Primitive Light, of Two principles, the Good and the Evil, and of the De- mons. Subsequently, a certain number of their country- men who had settled in Egypt, and, in consequence of their medical studies had engaged in speculation (parti- cularly those who were devoted to a contemplative life, and therefore called Therapeutae), acquired some know- ledge of Grecian philosophy ^ : but the discoveries which they found there they regarded as derived from their own religion. In order to substantiate this idea, Aristeas^ de- vised the story of an ancient translation into Greek of the Old Testament ; and Aristobulus ^, a Peripatetic, forged certain Apocryphal books and passages. Philo of Alexandria. Philonis Opera. Fl. Josephi Opera, (see § 73). Jo. Alb. Fabricii Diss, de Platonismo Philonis, Lips. 1693, 4to. Idem. : Sylloge Dissertat. Hamh. 1 738, 4to. '' The resemblance of the Essenes to the Pythagoreans had already been observed. See J. J. Bellermann, Historical Evidences respecting the Es- senes and Therapeutae, Berlin, 1821, 8vo. « HuMFHEDi HoDY, contra Historiam Aristeae de LXX interpretibus, etc. Oion. 1685, 8vo. Et: De Bibliorum Textibus Origin., Versionibus, etc. 1705, fol. f LuD. Casp. Valkenaer, Diatribe de Aristobulo Judc-eo, Philosopho Peri- paletico, Lugd. Bat. 1806, 4to. Other critics however consider the very ex- istence of this author as doubtful, and attribute the Commentaries on the books of Moses, which bear his name,''to a later period. He lived, perhaps, in the time of Ptolemy Philometor. N 2 180 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. f C. F. Sthal, Attempt at a Systematic Statement of the Doctrines of Philo of Alexandria : in the Allgem. Bihl. der Bihl. Literatur of Eichhorn, tom. IV, fasc. V. •f J. Chph. Schreiter, Ideas of Philo respecting the Immor- tality of the Soul, the Resurrection, and Future Retribution : in the Analecten of Keil and Tzschirner, vol. I, sect. 2 ; see also vol. Ill, sect. 2. 197. The Jew Philo g, a man of a cultivated mind, settled at Alexandria, brought forward in a better shape the same opinions. He applied his knowledge of the systems of the Greeks, and, in particular that of Plato, (who has so many points of correspondence with the Orientalists), to the setting forth in a more complete manner (as he fancied), the religion of his country. Josephus^ subsequently followed the same course. On the other hand Philo transferred into his system of Pla- tonic philosophy many of the opinions of the East, in return for those which he borrowed from Plato. He may be considered (as Bouterweck has ranked him), as the first Neoj^latonist of Alexandria. He assumes that the Divinity and Matter, are the two first principles ; exist- ing from eternity. Agreeably to the opinions of Plato, he characterises them thus : the Divinity as a Being, Real, Infinite, and Immutable; Incomprehensible to any human understanding ("Ov) : Matter, as non-existing, (|W>j oV) ; but having received from the Divinity a form and life. He represents the Deity, by certain Oriental figures, as the Primitive Light, as an Infinite Intelligence ; from whom are derived, by irradiation, all finite Intelligences. In the soul of the Divinity are concentrated the ideas of all things possible. This "koyoq of the Divine Being, the focus of all Ideas {Xoyo(; ivhdeeroq), is in fact the Ideal World ; and called also the Son of God, or the Archangel. He is the image of God, the type after which God by his creative power (Xoyo(; ir^ocpepiKoq), formed the world, such as it presented to our senses. We cannot become ac- fe' Horn at Alexandria, some years B.C. '' Flavius Josepluis, born at Jerusalem. 37 A. C. 197.] THE CABBALISTS. 181 quainted with the nature of God but by His immediate influence on our minds : hence the doctrine of internal Intuition '. We may clearly observe how, in the writings of Philo, the doctrines of the Jews were modified by those of Platonism ; and how this admixture gave birth to new opinions. Numenius of Apamea in Syria *", in part admitted these innovations, and maintained that reason is the faculty of acquiring a knowledge of that which is Absolute, and of whatever lies beyond the limits of sense. He distinguished in the nature of the Divine Being, whom he also maintained to be incorporeal (aa-ufxarov), the Supreme Divinity and Pre-existent ; an Immutable, Eter- nal, and Perfect Intelligence : and the Creator of the world or Demiurgos, (vovq) ; having a twofold relation : to the Divinity as His Son, and to the World, as its author. The same philosopher maintained the Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul, and styled Plato the Attic Moses, (arTiKiiuv^). The Cabbalists. Authority : The Talmud. Liber Jezirah, translatus et Notis illustr. a Rittangelo, Amstel. 1642, 4to. Artis Cabbalisticse, hoc est reconditae Theologiae et Philoso- phiae Scriptores; (editor, J. Pistorius), torn. I, Basil. 1587, fol. Kabbala Denudata, seu doctrina Hebrseorum transcendentalis et ^letaphysica atque Theologica, opus antiquissimae Pliilosophiae barbaricae variis speciminibus refertissimum, in quo ante ipsam libri translationem difficillimi atque in literatura Hebraica summi, commentarii nempe in Pentateuchum et quasi totum scripturarum V. T. Kabbalistici, cui nomen Sohar, tam veteris.quam recentis, ej usque Tikkunim seu supplementorum tam veterum quam re- centiorum praemittitur apparatus. Tom. I, Solish, 1677, 4to. torn. II. Liber Sohar restitutus (editore Christ. Knorr de Rosen- roth). Franco/. 1684, 4to. ■f- Rabbi Cohen Irira, Porta Coelorum. (A Commentary on ' Philo de jNIundi Opificio, de Confusione Linguarum, de Soraniis, quod Deus sit immutabilis, de Praemiis et Poenis. Euseb. Pra;p. Evang. VII, 13 j XI, 15 ; Hist. Eccles. II, 4, sqq. ; 7, sqq. '' Second century after Christ. » ErsEB. Pra^p. Evang. XI, 10. 18, IX, 6; XIII, 5; XIV, 5; XV, 17. 182 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. the two Cabbalistic books above). Wolf, Biblioth. Hebr. Hamh. 1721, 4 vols. 4to. (in the first vol.). ■\ EisENMENGER, Judaism displayed, Konigsh, 2 vols. 1711, 4to. f De la Nauze, Remarks on the Antiquity and Origin of the Cabbala, in the Mem. of the Acad, of Inscr. tom. IX. ■f J. Fr. Kleuker, On the Doctrine of Emanation among the Cai)balists, etc. Riga, 1786, 8vo. f Life of Solomon Maimon, published by Ph. Moritz, Ber- lin, 1792, in 2 parts, 8vo. '\ On the Doctrines of Emanation and Pantheism in the first ages of Antiquity, with especial reference to the writers of the Old and New Testaments. An Historical, Critical, and Expla- natory Essay, Erf. 1805, 8vo. 198. Cabbala (that is oral tradition) is a system of pre- tended illumination, diversified by a variety of fables, which the Jews affect to have received from a Divine source through secret tradition. To treat of it only as far as it belongs to the history of philosophy — it had its origin as early as the first centuries of the Christian era, and was invented or systematised by the Rabbi Akibha ™, and his disciple Simeon Ben Jochai, the spark of Moses. It consists in a string of philosophical legends, which represent all things as descending in a continued scale, from the First Light ; the Deity and Creator. They are arranged in ten Sephiroths or luminous circles ; and four worlds, Azi- luth, Briah, Jezirah, and Aziah. Adam Cadmon, the first man, was the firstborn of the Divinity, the Messiah, by whose means the rest of the universe emanated from the Almighty, who, nevertheless, continues to maintain and uphold the same : God being the inherent cause of all things. All things that exist are of a spiritual nature, and matter, is nothing but a condensation or attenuation of the rays of light ; forming, as it were, the embers of the Divine essence. In a word every substance partakes of the Divine nature. To this theory of Emanation were added a tissue of imaginations respecting the Demons, which involved a belief in magic : respecting the four elements of souls ; "' Died A. D. 138. 198, 199.] GNOSTICS. 183 their origin and formation; and lastly with regard to man considered as a microcosm, or little world in himself. This last notion gave occasion to a new fancy, that of pretending to acquire knowledge by ecstacy. The whole is a mass of strange and exaggerated fictions, conceived under the influence of the religion of the Persians, but employed by those who advanced them to recommend to general notice the sacred history and doctrines of the Jews; especially with respect to the creation, and the origin of evil. It is probable that the Cabbalistic books Jezirah and Sohar (see the works mentioned at the head of this §), the first attributed to the Rabbi Akibha, the second to Simeon Ben Jochai, have been from time to time interpolated by their expositors. The Christians became acquainted with the Cabbala, by name^ only in the fifteenth century ; the Jews having carefully concealed from them these mysteries. II. Gnostics. Walch, De Philosoph. Oriental. Gnosticorum Systematis fonte ; and MicHAELis de Indiciis Gnosticae Philosophise tempore LXX Interpretum et Philonis ; second part of his last Syntagm. Com- mentt. Ern. Ant. Lewald, Comment, ad Hist. Religionum vett. illustrandum pertinens, de Doctrina Gnosticorum, Heidelh. 1818, 8vo. ■f J. Aug. Neander, Origin and Development of the principal Gnostic Systems, Berlin, 1818, 8vo. The same author had previously published : De Fidei Gnoseos- que idea et ea, qua ad se invicem et ad Philosophiam referuntur ratione secundum mentem Clem. Alexandrini, Heidelb. 1811, 8vo. 199. The same spirit of extravagant speculation pos- sessed the Gnostics also. They pretended to a supe- rior and mysterious knowledge (yvSo-*?) of the Divine Being, and the origin of the World : blending the re- ligious dogmata of the Persians and Chaldees with those of the Greeks and Christians. The greater number of them professed Christianity, though they were looked upon as heretics : Some attached themselves to the 184 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Jewish persuasion ; others became its adversaries ; others again appear to have belonged to no particular religious creed whatsoever. The most distinguished among them, (for the most part Orientals), were Simon Magus, Menan- der the Samaritan, Cerinihus the Jew, all belonging to the first century : then Saturninus the Syrian, Basilides, Car- pocrates, and Valentinus of Alexandria, who approximated the Neoplatonists, (second century) : Marcion of Sinope ", Cerdon and Bardisanes, both Syrians °, (about the middle of the second century); and Manes^ a Persian, (put to death by Sapor A. D. 277). Their followers subsisted some ages after. One division of them recognised in the Divinity the One Great principle w^hence they derived all things, according to different degrees or classes of spirits called iEons ; another admitted the existence of Two first principles, a Good and an Evil one, continually opposed to, and conflicting with each other. Lastly, a third divi- sion of Gnostics maintaining the existence of two Princi- ples (of Light and Darkness), asserted that they were both derived from one common Creator. In general, they iden- tified matter with the Evil principle, and regarded even the formation of the Universe as a fall and declension from the Divine Being. These their leading dogmata were associated with a multitude of fictions incredibly daring and extravagant; and each of which supposed a particular revelation imparted to their authors. The imagination has been allowed among the Orientals a predominant influence, and they delight in losing themselves in a labyrinth of hypotheses allied to the supernatural. Morahty could not but suffer in consequence of such extravagancies, and was apt to sink into a narrow asceticism. " Aug. Hahn, Piogr. de Gnosi Maicionis Antinomi, P. I and II. Regio- mont. 1820-21, 8vo. Et : Antitheses Marcionis Gnostici, liber deperditus, nunc quoad ejus fieri potuit restitutus, ibid. 1823, 4to. " Aug. IIaun, Bardesanes Gnosticus Syrorum primus Hymnologus. Com- mentat. Hist. Theol. Lips. 1819, 8vo. p t Beausobre, Critical History of Maniches and Manicheism, Avisterd. 1734_39, 2 vols. 4to, (French). See also Bayle, s. v. and Walch's Hist, of Heres. part. I. sect. 770. t K. A. VON RticiiLiN Melldegg, The Theological System of Manes, and its Origin, etc., Francf. on the 31. 1825, 8vo. 200.] NEOPLATONISM OF PLOTINUS. 185 Enthusiastic Neoplatonism of Plotimis ; predecessors and successors of this philosopher. Authorities : The works of riotiniis ; Porphyry ; Jamblichus ; Julian; Eunapius, Vita; Philosophorum, (see §81); Sallustius, de Diis et Mundo ; Prochis ; Suidas. f Sainte-Croix, Letter to M. Du Theil, on a new edition of all the works of the Eclectic Philosophers, Paris, 1797, 8vo. GoTTFR. Olearii Diss. de Philosophia Eclectica ; in his translation of Stanley's History of Philosophy, p. 1205. -j- Critical History of Eclecticism, or the Neoplatonists, Avig- non, 17G6, 2 vols. 12mo. ■f- G. G. FiJLLEBORN, Neoplatonic Philosophy ; in his Collect, fasc. Ill, No. 3. ■f Chph. Meiners, Memoirs towards a History of the Opinions of the first century after Christ, with Observations on the Sys- tem of the Neoplatonists, Leips. 1782, 8vo. C. A. G. Keil, De Causis alieni Platonicorum recentiorum a Religione Christiana animi, Lijis. 1785, 4to. J. G. A. Oelrich, Comm. de Doctrina Platonis de Deo a Christianis et recentioribus Platonicis varie explicata et cor- rupta, Marb. 1788, 8vo. Alb. Christ. Roth, Diss, (prses. J. B. Carpzov) Trinitas Platonica, Lips. 1693, 4to. JoH. WiLH. Jani Diss, (praes. J. G. Neumann) Trinitas Pla- tonismi vere et falso suspecta, Viteh. 1708, 4to. H. Jac. Ledermijller, Diss, (praes. Ge. Aug. Will) de Theurgia et Virtutibus Theurgicis, Altd. 1763, 4to. J. Aug. Dietelmaier, Progr. quo seriem Vetenun in Schola Alexandrina Doctorum exponit, Alid. 1746, 4to. Im. Fichte, De Philosophise Novae Platonicae Origine, Berol. 1818, 8vo. Frid. Bouterweck, Philosophorum Alexandrinorum ac Neo- platonicorum recensio accuratior. Comment, in Soc. Gott. habita, 1821, 4to. (See Gott. gel. Anz. No. 166, 167, 1821). 200. Neoplatonism had its origin in the frequented school of the Platonists of Alexandria, and was characterised by an ardent and enthusiastic zeal. Its disciples aspired to attain the highest pinnacles of science, to acquire a know- ledge of the absolidey and an intimate union (eWo-^) there- 186 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. with, as the final end of man's being. The way thereto they held to be contemplation, {Qeupla). 201. The principal causes which led to this new system were : The decline of genuine Grecian philosophy, and the admixture with its remains of the theories of the East ; added to a continually-increasing attachment to Oriental exaggeration and enthusiasm, which they confirmed by frequent appeals to celestial revelations, while they depre- ciated the merit of Plato as a philosopher*'. The pre- vailing spirit of the age, and the decline of the Roman empire contributed to this. To these may be added two other causes : the opposition the Sceptics of the modern school continually made to all pretensions to rational knowledge ; and the alarm which the victorious progress of Christianity occasioned to the defenders of the old reli- gion, lest it should be utterly overthrown. The importance which Platonism assumed in this con- flict between the Christians and the Polytheists, added to the daily increasing influence of Oriental notions, caused that philosophy to assume a fresh distinction : its ardent character being aided by the scientific turn of the Greeks, and heightened by the admixture of many other doctrines. 202. Philo of Alexandria (§ 197), Numenius (ibid.) and Atticus,had already given specimens of this sort of mystical speculation, and association of Oriental ideas with those of the Platonists. The same is observable in the writings of many of the Greek Fathers of the Church, Justin, for instance, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen ; who not unfrequently Platonise. Ammonius of Alexandria, a man of low birth, obliged to gain his livelihood as a porter (whence his surname of Saccas), and probably also an apostate from Christianity "", but endowed with a strong love of knowledge, great talents, and an enthusiastic tem- per, threw himself into this new career of philosophy. fl Plotin. Enn. II, lib. IX, 6. • EvsEB. Hist. Eccles. VI, 19. 201—203.] NEOPLATONISM OF PLOTINUS. 187 and became the founder of a school % which hiboured to reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle on the most important topics *. He infused the same enthusiastic spirit into his disciples, among whom Longinus ", a cele- brated critic and judicious thinker^, Plotinus, Origen, and Herenidus, were the most distinguished. The three last made a solemn engagement to keep their doctrines secret^. § 203. Plotini Opera, Florentice. 1492, fol., et cum Interpret. Ficiiil, Bas. 1580, 1615, fol. Plotini liber de Pulchritudine ad Codd. fidem cum Annotatione perpetua et praeparatione, ed. Fried. Creuzer, Heidelb. 1814, 8vo. Plotinus ITept T^q TTpwT^^ ^S'X/l'i "^^v TidvTuv, etc. ; Villois Anecd. Gr. II, 237, sqq. -j- The Enneades of Plotinus translated, with Explanatory Re- marks by Doctor J. G. von Engelhardt, preceded by the Life of Plotinus by Porphyry, part. II, Erl. 1820, 8vo. See also the Studien of Creuzer, vol. I, Francf, and Heidelb, 1805. PoRPHYRii Vita Plotini, at the commencement of the editions of the works of Plotinus. Friedr. Grimmii Commentat. qua Plotini de Rerum prin- cipio sententia (Enn. II, lib. VIII, c. 8. 10) Animadversioni- bus illustratur, Lijis. 1788, 8vo. Jul. Friedr. Winzer, Progr. adumbratio decretorum Plo- tini de Rebus ad Doctrinam jVIorum pertinentibus. Spec. I, Fiteb. 1809, 4to. Plotinus was born A. D. 20.5, at Lycopolis in Egypt. Nature had endowed him with superior parts, particularly with an extraordinary depth of understanding and a bold About 193 A. C. ' C. F. RosLER, Diss, de Commentitiis Philosophiac Ammoniacai fraudibus et noxis, Tub. 1786, 4to. " Dav. Rhunkenii Diss, de Vit^ et Scriptis Longini, Liigd. Bat. 1776, and the editions of the treatise Uepi 'Yipoug attributed to him, by Toup, More, and Weiske, (Leips. 1809, 8vo.). ^ Born at Athens 213. Put to death at Pahnyra, A. D. 275. y PoRPHYR. Vita Plotini. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. 1. 1. Hieroclcs de Provi- dentia, in Puoiivs, cod. 261. 214. 188 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. and vigorous imagination. He early manifested the^ abilities in the school of Ammonius at Alexandria. Sub- sequently he determined to accompany the army of Gor- dian to the East, in order to study the Oriental systems in their native soil. He returned a dreamer, perpetually occupied with profound but extravagant meditations; labouring to attain the comprehension of the Absolute by contemplation ; a notion borrowed from Plato, which be- came exaggerated in his hands. Carried away by his enthusiasm he thought that he was developing the de- signs of the philosopher of the Academy, when in fact he exhibited his thoughts only partially and incompletely. The impetuous vivacity of his temper, which caused him perpetually to fall into extravagancies, prevented his re- ducing his mystical Rationalism to a system. His various scattered treatises were collected by Porphyry in six En- neades ^, He died in Campania, A. D, 270 ; having taught at Rome, and excited the almost superstitious veneration of his disciples. 204. Plotinus* assumes, as his principle, that philosophy can have no place except in proportion as knowledge and the thing known, — the Subjective and the Objective — are identified. The employment of philosophy is to acquire a knowledge of the Unity, (to *ov, to %v, to a^a^Lv), the essence and first principle of all things: and that not mediately by thought or meditation, but by a more exalted method, by direct intuition (itapova-la), anticipating the progress of re- flection''. The end of his philosophy according to Por- phyry (§ 215), is an immediate union with the Divine Being ^ He was led by twofold considerations, Scientific ^ PoRPiiYR. Vita Plotini, c. 6 and 24. * [The translator regrets that he has not been able to diminish much of the obscurity of the system of Plotinus, as detailed in the admirable analysis of Tennemann. Without minute attention, it is not likely that even the prac- tised reader will be abie to follow the course of his theory ; and unfortunately it will not repay the attention it demands.] »> Enn. V, lib. Ill, 8 ; lib. V, 7, sqq. ; Enn. VI, lib. IX, 3 et 4. ^ Enn. V, lib. I, 1, 2. 204— 20G.] NEOPLATONTSM OF PT.OTINUS. 189 as well as Moral, to this mystical sort of Idealism : the only path which human Reason had not yet essayed. 205. Every thing that exists, exists hy the law of Unity; is one ; and partakes in Unity. Nevertheless External Nature and Unity are not identical ; because every object comprises a plurality of others. Neither is reason Unity ; for it contemplates Unity in a complete manner, not with- out but ivithin itself. It is at once the subject contem- plating and the object contemplated : therefore it is not single but twofold ; it is not the first or Primitive Being, but only Unity deduced and derived from some other principle. Primitive Unity is not one thing, but the principle of all things ; absolute good and perfection ; absolute in itself, and incomprehensible. It has nei- ther quantity nor quality ; neither reason nor soul : it exists neither in motion nor repose ; neither in space nor time ; it is not a numeric unity nor a point, for these are comprehended in other things, in those namely which are divisible; but it is pure Existence without Accident ; of which we may form a notion by conceiving it to be sufficient to itself: it is exempt from all want or dependency, as well as from all thought or will: it is not a thinking Being, but Thought itself in action : it is the principle and cause of all things, infinitely small, and at the same time of infinite power ; the common centre of all things, — Goocl"^ — T/ie Deity. See the work of Oelrich, § 200, and : GoTTL. Will. Gerlach, Disputatio de Differentia, quae inter Plotini et Schellingii Doctrinam de Numine Summo intercedit, Viteh. 1811, 4to. 206. Unity is also represented as Primitive and Pure Light, from which perpetually radiates a luminous circle pervading all space. It imparts the sight and know- led ere of itself, and at the. same time (without losing its J Enn. VI, lib. IX, l.sciq. 190 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. Unity), it is the essence of all things that exist ^. The One and the Perfect continually overflows, and from it Being, Reason, and Life, are perpetually derived, without de- ducting any thing from its substance, inasmuch as it is simple in its nature, and not, like matter, compound*". This derivation of all things from Unity, does not resem- ble Creation which has reference to time, but takes place purely in conformity with the principles of causality and order, without volition ; because to will is to change ^. From this primordial Unity there emanates, in the first place (as light does from the sun), an eternal essence of the most perfect nature ; viz. Pure Intelligence, {vovq)^ which contemplates Unity, and requires only that for its existence. From this in its turn emanates the Soul of the world, {^vxh toS itavToq or tuv %\av). Such are the three elements of all real existence : which themselves have their origin in Unity'': this has been (somewhat impiously) called the Trinity (Trias) of Plotinus \ 207. Pure Intelligence (Noi;?), is the efflux and the image of Unity; but inasmuch as it contemplates Unity as its object, it becomes itself a subject, and is thus dis- tinguished from that which it contemplates ; hence the first instance of Duality. Inasmuch as Intelligence con- templates in Unity that which is possible , the latter ac- quires the character of something determined and li- mited ; and so becomes the Actual and Real (ov). Conse- quently, Intfelligence is the primal reality, the base of all the rest, axid inseparably united to real Being. The object contemplated and the thinking subject, are iden- tical ; and that which Intelligence thinks, it at the same e Enn. Ill, lib. VllI, 8, 9 ; Enn. VI, lib. VIII, 16 ; Enn. IV, lib. Ill, 17 ; Enn. V, lib. 1, 7. f Idem, VI, lib. IX, 9. & Idem, V, lib. I, 6. " Idem, II, lib. IX, 1. Ill ; lib. V, 3, V ; lib. I, 3 et 6 ; lib, 11, 1. ' JoM. IIkim. Feustking, De Tribus Hypostasibus Plotini, Viteh. 1694, 4to. Cf. Dissertations of Roth and Janvs, quoted § 200. 207—209.] NEOPLATONISM OF PLOTINUS. 191 time creates. By always thinking, and always in the same manner, yet continually with some new difterencc, it produces all things : it is the essence of all imperish- able essences : the sum total of infinite life **. 208. The Soul (i. e. the Soid of the World), is the off- spring of Intelligence, and the thought Q^oyo(;) of Intelli- gence, being itself also productive and creative. It is therefore Intelligence, but with a more obscure vision and less perfect knowledge ; inasmuch as it does not itself directly contemplate objects, but through the medium of Intelligence; being endowed with an energetic force which carries its perceptions beyond itself. It is not an original but reflected light, the principle of action, and of external Nature. Its proper activity consists in contemplation {B€upta) ; and in the production of objects by means of this contemplation. In this manner it produces, in its turn, different classes of souls, and among others the human ; the faculties of which have a tendency to elevation or de- basement. The energy of the lowest order, creative, and connected with matter, is Nature {(pva-i^^). 209. Nature is a contemplative and creative energy, which gives form to matter {\oyoq iroiwv) ; for form (elSo^ — /*opf^) ; and thought (^oyoq) ; are one and the same. All that takes place in the world around us is the work of contemplation"'. Thus from Unity, as from the centre of a circle, are progressively derived Plurality, Divisible Being, and Life ; by continued abstraction. In Unity, form and matter are distinguishable ; for it is Form that fashions ; which supposes something capable of receiving a determinate impression ". 210. Form and Matter, Soul and Body, are inseparable. " Enn. VI, lib. VIII, 16; Enn. IV, lib. Ill, 17 ; Enn. VI, lib. VII, 59; lib. VIII. 16; Enn. V, lib. I, 4,7; lib. III. 5. 7; lib. V, 2; lib. IX, 5; Enn. VI, lib. VII, 12, 13. ' Enn. V, lib. 1, 6, 7 ; lib. VI, 4; Enn. VI, lil). II, 22. "' Enn. Ill, lib. VIII. » Enn. IT, lib. IV, 14 ; Enn. 111. lib. \ I, 7. I 192 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. There never was a time when the universe was not ani- mated ; but as we can conceive it not to have been so, the question suggests itself: What is matter; and how was it produced by Unity (since the latter is the principle of all Reality ?) Matter is real, but devoid of Form ; it is indeterminate, capable of receiving a form, and stands in the same relation to it as shade to light. Unity, as being the cause of Reality, continually progresses from itself as a centre : and following this progressive scale of production to the end, we arrive at a final product, beyond which no other is possible ; an ultimate term whence nothing can proceed, and which ceases to re- tain any portion of unity or perfection. The Soul, by its progressive contemplation, which is at the same time production also, creates for itself the scene of its action ; that is. Space, and therewith Time also. The Soul is a light kindled by Intelligence, and shedding its rays within certain limits, beyond which is night and darkness. It contemplates this darkness, and gives it a form, from its own incapability of enduring any thing unimpressed by Thought ; and thus out of darkness it creates for itself a beautiful and diversified habitation, inseparable from the cause which produced it ; in other words it bestows on itself a body *'. Plotinus appears sometimes to regard unformed or rude matter as a product of the mind, but through an imperfection in its operations : supposing the mind while occupied in creation to have been sometimes carried out of itself, without fixing its view on the First and Perfect Principle ; and consequently becoming liable to indeter- minateness '^. At other times he speaks of unformed matter as possessed of reality, but not derived from the Soul'^. 211. There is an Intellectual as well as a Sensible World: the latter is but the image of the former, and " Enn. I, lib. VIII, 7 ; Enn. HI, lib. IV, 9 ; Enn. II, lib. Ill, IV. P Enn. 1, lib. V1I1,3. 4. 1 Enn. in, lib. VIII, 1. 210—213.] NEOPLATONISM OF PLOTINUS. 193 hence their perfect accordance. The intellectual world is a Whole, Invariable, Absolute, Living ; undivided in point of Space ; unchangeable through time : it is Unity in Plurality and Plurality in Unity.* Indeterminateness exists even in the Intellectual world : the greater the dis- tance from True Being the greater the degree of Inde- terminateness. In the Sensible World, (the reflection of the former), are plants, the earth, rocks, fire, etc. — all of them en- dued with life ; for the World itself is an animated Idea. Fire, air, and water are ideas endowed with life : a Soul inhabiting Matter, as a creative principle. Nothing in Nature is devoid o^ Reason: even the inferior animals possess it, but in a different degree from man ^ 212. Every object possesses Unity and Multiplicity. To the Body belongs Multiplicity, divisible with refer- ence to Space. The Soul is an essence devoid of extent, immaterial, and simple in its nature ; without body ; or with a body which has two natures, the superior one in- divisible : the inferior divisible. (Descent of Souls from the Intellectual to the Sensible world). Plotinus states very ably the metaphysical arguments for the immateriality and immortality of the Soul : but at the same time gives loose to an extravagant imagination in his dreams respecting the reunion of the immaterial element with the corporeal substance ^. 213. Every thing that takes place is the result of Ne- cessity, and of a principle identified with all its conse- quences ; (in this we see the rudiments of Spinozism, and the Theodicee of Leibnitz *). All things are connected * [The reader will be obliged to me for occasionally omitting small portions of this statement (as I have done elsewhere), which are too abrupt and concise to be intelligible to any one but those who may have just read the original author, and therefore have no occasion to consult the present work. Trans.'\ ' Enn. IV, lib. IV, VIII, IX ; Enn. VI, lib. IV, VII. « Enn. IV, lib. I, II, III, VI. » Enn, VI, lib. VJI, 8—10 ; Enn. IV, lib. IV, 4, 5 ; Enn. VII, lib. II, 3. O 194 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. together by a perpetual dependency ; (a system of uni- versal Determinism, from which there is only one excep- tion, and that rather apparent than real, of Unity). Out of this concatenation of things arise the principles of na- tural Magic and Divination ". As for the existence of Evil in the external world, Plotinus considers it to be sometimes an unavoidable negation of good, at others, something positive ; such as Matter, Body ; and, in this latter particular, sometimes as being superadded to the soul, and the cause of imperfection in its productions ; sometimes as seated within the soul, as its imperfect product. In this manner he falls into the very fault which he urges against the Gnostics ^. He is also led to adopt a system of Optimism and Fatalism, adverse to Morality ^ ; though occasionally he admits that moral Evil is volun- tary, and the author of it accountable ^. 214. Unity (the Divinity), being Perfection itself, is the end and object of all things, which derive from him their nature and their being ; and which cannot become perfect but through him. The Human Soul cannot attain perfection or felicity but by the contemplation of the Supreme Unity, by means of an absolute abstraction (a7rX«(7i?, Simplification), from all compounded things, and by ascending to the heights of pure existence. In this con- sists Virtue, which is twofold : Inferior Virtue, (or TroXm/c^), belonging to such souls as are in the progress of purifica- tion ; and Superior Virtue, which consists in an intimate union, by contemplation, with the Divine Being (evaa-K;). Its source is the Divinity himself. The Soul acquires by its contemplation of Divine beauty a similar grace ; and derives warmth from the Celestial fire ''. 215. This system is built on two principles unsup- " Enn. Ill, lib. II, 16 ; Enn. IV, lib. IV, 32. 40. '^ p:nn. I, lib. VIII ; Eua. II, lib. IX ; Enn. Ill, lib. II. y Enn. I, lib. VIII, 5 ; Enn. Ill, lib. II, 18. ■' Enn. Ill, lib. II, 9, 10. ^ Enn. T, lib. II, VIII, 13 ; Enn. VI, lib. VII, c. 22 j lib, IX, 9—11. 214, 215.] NEOPLATONISM OF PLOTINUS. 195 ported by proof. These are: 1st. That the Absolute and Universal, which is inaccessible to the senses, is the Principle of the Universe, and may be recognised as such : 2dly. That it can be comprehended by means of an intellectual contemplation, superior in its nature to Thought itself. Plotinus represents Thought as Contem- plation — transforms Philosophy into Poetry — and our con- ceptions into substantial objects. His doctrine is a per- version of some Platonic notions carried to extravagance by the enthusiasm prevalent in that age. Neglecting the humble question of 2)ossibilities, his philosophy pretends to supply at once a complete theory of universal know- ledge. At the same time it certainly contains several valuable hints respecting our faculties for acquiring know- ledge, and some elevated thoughts, which have been bor- rowed and improved by other philosophers. It acquired the highest popularity, principally because it derived knowledge from a source superior to the senses ; and owing to its doctrine of a Triad, and the relation it sup- poses between it and the external world : and in short was considered a complete exposition of the theory of the Great Plato : of that Plato whom men began now to consider divinely inspired ^ Next came the attempt to prove the correspondence of Plato's system with those anterior doctrines whence he was supposed to have de- rived so many of his own : viz. of Pythagoras, Orpheus, Zoroaster, and Hermes ; and they were not long without apocryphal books also, attributed to the same, to sub- stantiate this notion. They went farther, and desired to prove a like correspondence between Plato and his suc- cessors, particularly Aristotle. All these attempts, which were inconsistent with a truly philosophical spirit, did but foster the prevailing taste of the age for superstition and mystical exaggeration. (Magic and Divination, etc.). Among the numerous disciples of Plotinus were prin- cipally distinguished Porphijry (whose proper name was Malchus), and AmeUus or GentUianns of Rtruria. The " Procli Theol. Platonis, lib. I, c. 1, o2 196 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. works of the latter, illustrative of the theory of Plotinus, have not come down to us. §216. Porphyrii Liber de Vita Pythagorae, ejusdem sententia? ad in- telligibilia ducentes, cum Dissertatione de Vita et Scriptis Por- phyrii, ed. Lucas Holstenius, Rom. 1630, 8vo. Cf. § 88. Porphyrii de abstinentia ab esu Animalium libri IV, ed. Jac. DE RpioER, Traj. ad Rhen. 1767, 8vo. Ejusd. : Epist. de Diis, Daemonibus ad Anebonem (in Iambl. de Mysteriis, Fen. 1497. Cf. § 217). Ejusd. : De quinque Vocibus, seu in Categorias Aristotelis In- troductio, Gr. Paris. 1543, 4to ; Lat. per Jo. Bern. Felici- ANUM, Venet. 1546, 1566, fol. Uop^vpiov .] FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. 205 tlie solutions which were offerccl from time to time of the questions and cavils of their adversaries, — all these causes gradually led to the formation of a species of philosophy peculiar to Christianity, which successively assumed dif- ferent aspects, as regarded its principles and object. By these means something of the Grecian spirit of phi- losophy was transfused into the writings of the Fathers of the Church ; and in after times proved the germ of original speculations* 224. Many of the Fathers of the Church, especially the Grecian, considered philosophy as in harmony with the Christian religion, (or at least partially so), inasmuch as both were derived from the same common source. This source of truth in the Heathen philosophy was, ac- cording to Justin Martyr (§ 226), derived from Internal Revelation by the "koyoq, and Tradition '' : according to St, Clement ' (§ 226) and the other Alexandrians, it was drawn from Tradition recorded in the Jewish Scriptures^; ac- cording to St. Augustine (§ 232), it was simply OralK In the estimation of all these Fathers Philosophy was, if not necessary, at least useful for the defence and confirma- tion of the Christian doctrine. 225. Other Fathers of the Church, especially certain of the Latin, as TertuUian "", Arnobius ", and his disciple Lactantius'', surnamed the Christian Cicero, deemed phi- losophy a superfluous study, and adverse to Christianity, as tending to alienate man from God : — nay, some of them b Apolog. II, p. 50, 51. 83. ' Jo. Aug. Neander, De Fidei Gnoseosque ide&. et ek qu^ ad se Invicem et Philosophiam referuntur ratione secundum mentem dementis Alexandrini, Heidelb. 1811, 8 vo. •' Justini Cohortatio ad Gr.nccos. Clemens Alexandrinus, Strom. I, p. 298. 312 ; Euseb. Pra;p. Evang. XIII, 12, 13. • Aug. DeCivit. Dei, VII, 11. "' Of Carthage : became Christian about 1B5 A. C. died 220. " Taught eloquence at Sicca, and died about 326 A. C. " L. Coelius Lactantius Firmianus, teacher of elo(iuence at Nicomedia, died about 330. 206 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. did not scruple to pronounce it an invention of the Devil, and a fruitful source of heresy p. 226. Nevertheless the party which favoured snch pur- suits gradually acquired strength ; and the Fathers came to make use, on the Eclectic system, of the philosophy of the Greeks^'. Accordingly Julian thought that he was taking an effectual method of obstructing the Christian religion when he interdicted to its followers the study of that philosophy. Yet all the schools of the ancients were far from meeting with a like acceptation on the part of the Fathers. Those of Epicurus, the Stoics, and the Peripatetics were little considered, on account of the doubtful manner in which they had expressed themselves with regard to the immortality of the Soul, the existence of a Supreme Being, and his Providence ; or the oppo- sition which existed between their views and those of Christianity. The Platonic system, on the other hand, from the degree of affinity they affected to discover in it to the Jewish and Christian Revelations, was held in high esteem ^ Nay, the earliest Fathers themselves be- longed to the school of Alexandria*. Justin Martyr, P Ern. Sal. Cypriani Diatribe Academica, qua expenditur illud Tertul- liani : Hsereticorum Palriarchae Philosophi, Helmst. 1699, 4to. Ad. Rechenbergeri Diss, an Hajreticorum Patriarchae Philosophi, Lips. 1705, 4to. Chu. Gottfr. Schutz, Progr. de Regult\ Fidei apud Tertullianum, Jen. 1781, 4to. E. W. P. Ammon, Coelii Lactantii Firmiani Opiniones de Religione in Systema redactse, ErL. 1820, 8vo. Tertullian. Apologia, c. 47 ; De Praescript. Hferes., c. 7 ; Adv. Marcion. V, 19 ; Lactant. Div. Instit. IV, 2 ; passim. De Falsa Sap. lib. Ill, c. 1, § 10, sqq. ; Clem. Alex. Strom. I, p. 278. 309 ; VII, p. 755. Basilius adv. Euno- mium. I, Chrysostomi Ilomilia in Matthaiiim. '1 Clem. Alex. Strom. I, p. 288 ; Lactant. Div. Inst. VII ; Augustin. de Doctr. Christ. II, 11. 39. ' Cf. the work of Staudlin, referred to above § 135. '^ t SouvERAiN, Platonism unveiled, or an Essay concerning the Platonic Xoyoc, Cologne, 1700, 8vo. Translated into German, with a Preface and Re- marks by J. Fn. L(effler, second edition, ZuUichan and Freitsiadt, 1792, 8vo. 226.] FATHERS OF THE CHURCH. 207 affirmed that the Xoyo^ previously to Tlis incarnation had revealed Himself to the philosophers of antiquity ^ Cle- ment of Alexandria enlarged on the same idea, and pro- fessed to consider Pagan philosophy as an Introduction to Christianity. To these may be added Athenagoras'^ of Athens, and Tatiamis the Syrian ", the Apologists, who both discovered, as they thought, many points of resemblance between the Christian Religion and Plato- nism. Origen " the disciple of Clement and the adversary of Celsus, pronounced, with his master, that happiness consists in the contemplation, (Oeupia.) of the Divinity; and drew a distinction between the popular acceptation of Religion, and the same when thus explained by the learned y; (on which account he came to be considered by some as the first who hinted at the Philosophy of Chris- tianity ^). To the same class also belonged Synesius of Cyrene '\ a pupil of Hypatia ; /Eneas of Gaza'', and even, — in some respects, St, Augustine, (§ 232). In this manner the Church gradually became recon- ciled to philosophy ; especially after the discussions on t Baltus, Defence of the Fathers against the Charge of Platonism, Faris, 1711, 4to. J. Laur. Mosheim, Comment, de Turbata per recentiorcs Platonicos Ec- clesia. In Diss. Hist. Eccl. tom. I, p. 85. t J. A. Cramer, On the Influence of the Alexandrian School on the Pro- gress of the Christian Religion ; (in his continuation of Bossuet, II, 268). Cas. Aug. Theopii. Kiel, Exercitationes de Doctonbus veteris Ecclesiae culp& corruptae per Platonicas sententias Theologia: liberandis, Isiiis. 1793, sqq. 4to. Comment. I — XIV. Henr. Nic. Clausen, Apologeta) Eccl. Christianae Ante-Theodosiani Pla- tonisejusque Philosophiai arbitri, Hafn. 1817. *■ Justin INIartyr was born of heathen parents at Flavia Neapolis in Pales- tine, A.D. 89 : died a Christian 165. Apol. II, p. 83. * [I have not thought it necessary to add the works, and editions of the works, of the Fatliers, as they only incidentally belong to the subject of this Manual. Transt.'] " Both he and Athenagoras were originally heathens, and both flourishcnl about 170 A. D. ^ Of Alexandria, born 185, died 253. y Tlfpi uftx^v, lib. 1, 1. ' Ibid. Prajf. § 3. See $ 230. * Flourished about 410. *» Flourished about 187 : see $ 218. 208 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. the Arian heresy had taught them the necessity for a more subtile Logic. Nemesius*^, bishop of Emesa, in his Essay on Man, followed Aristotle (§ 230), and Boethius the Roman (§ 234), translated and commented on several of his works on Logic (§ 2'S5). 227. Philosophy was at first employed as an auxiliary to the Christian Religion, to assist in winning over the more cultivated of the Greeks to whom it was addressed ; subsequently it was turned to the refutation of heresies ; and lastly applied to the elucidation and distinct state- ment of the doctrines of the Church. Through all these successive gradations the relations of Religion and Philo- sophy continued always the same : the former being looked upon as the sole source of knowledge, the most exalted and the only true philosophy ; the latter being regarded as merely a handmaid to the former, and a science altogether earthly, — scientia ynundana^. Logic was exclusively devoted to Polemics. The prevailing system therefore of the Fathers is a Supernaturalism more .or less blended with Ra- tionalism. The former daily acquired additional pre- dominance, in consequence of the perpetual disputes with the heretics, who were inclined to place Reason side by side with Revelation : and in consequence also of the resolution of some Christian teachers to put a severe restraint on the waywardness of human interpretation as applied to the Scriptures. Revelation came to be re- garded not only as the source of all Christian belief, but as the fountain also of all knowledge, speculative and practical. Observation. The labours of the Fathers in the discussion of the doctrines of Christianity doubtless belongs to the History of c Flourished about 380. •^ Tertull. De Prscscript. IlaBiet., c. 7. Lactant. Div. Instil. I, 1 ; V, 1 ; in, 1. Salvianus, De Gubernat. Dei Pra^fat. Euseb. Pr ^' J"* Damasc. De Ortli. Fid. II, 3. y De Hierarchia Coclesti. * De Daemonibus. * August. De Quaniitate Anima;. c. 1 ; et al. : Claudianus Mamer- TiNus, a presbyter of Vienno in Gaul, composed, about 470, a treatise, De Statu Anim^ De Lihero Aibitrio, T, 14 ; II, 1. 19, 20 j 111,9; lib. 3. Qu. 41. * De Civ. Dei, XIV, 10; XV, 21 ; XXI, 12; XXII, 30. De Nuptiis et Concupiscentia, IT, 34; De Natura et Gratia; De Gestis Pelagii, contra (luas Epp. Pelagianorum, contra Julianum de Corruptione et Gratia, de Gratia et Libero Arbitrio, de Praedestinatione Sanctorum. '' t Pun. Marheinecke, Dialogues on the Opinions of Augustine, with respect to Free-will and Divine Grace, Berl. 1821, 8vo. t G. F. WiGGERs, Essay towards an Historical Statement of Augusti- nianism and Pelagianiem, etc., Berl. 1821, 8vo. ' De Quantit, An. n, 70, sqq. "1 Principia Dialectica: : et : Decern Categoria\ vol. I, edit. Bened. 233, 234.] ECLECTICS. 215 Boethius, Cassiodonts, and other Eclectics. 234. Besides the dry abstract of what were called the Seven liberal arts, by Marcianus Capella"^, we remark among the works which served as text-books to the ages following, and took a rank intermediate between the an- cient and modern philosophies, the works of two Patri- cians of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, Boethius and Cassiodorus, the last champions of classical literature in the West. Both were Eclectics, and endeavoured to reconcile the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle. Boethius'* lived at the court of the Gothic king Theodoric, who caused him to be beheaded under a false suspicion of high treason P. By him principally was preserved in the West some faint knowledge of the system of Aris- totle. He translated some treatises of that philosopher on Logic, and wrote a commentary on the translation of the Isagoge of Porphyry by Victorinus, which was looked upon as a preparation for the study of Aris- totle. He also composed, in his prison at Pavia, his treatise De Coiisolatione Philosophioe^ which became a great favourite with following ages. His contemporary Cassiodorus"^ i also preserved, especially in his work De Septe7n Discipliiiis, some relics of Grecian philosophy ; and encouraged the monks to transcribe the ancient MSS. n Marcianus Minaeus Felix Capella, flourished about 474. His work entitled, Satyricon, has been frequently printed, (see Fabric. Bibl. Lat. torn. I, p, 638), and lastly by J. A. Gof.z, Norimb. 1794, 8vo. Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius, born A. D. 470. t Gervaise, History of Boethius the Roman senator, Paris, 1715. His works : Basil. 1570, fol.; De Consolatione, published by Pertius, Lugd. Bat, 1671, Bvo. Lips. 1753, 8vo. Ed. et Vitam Auctoris adjecit Jo. Tiieod. Bj. Helfreciit, Hof, 1797, 8vo. P Between 524 A. D. and 526. 1 Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus, born at Squillacci about 480 ; died, in a convent, 575. t Fr. D. de Sainte-Martiie, Life of Cassiodorus, Paris, 1695, 12mo. Bi'AT, Life of Cassiodorus among the Dissert, of the Acad, of Sciences of Ba- varia, vol. I, s. 79. Cassiodori Opera Omnia op. ct stud. Garetii, Rotomag, 1679, 2 vols, fol.; et Venet. 1729. 216 FIRST PERIOD. [sect. In Spain, under the dominion of the Visigoths, Isidoriis, archbishop of Seville {Hispalensis), rendered a real ser- vice to learning by the composition of his useful book of reference "". In England and Ireland science survived longer than elsewhere. Bede, the Anglo-Saxon, sur- named the Venerable^, enjoyed there a great celebrity: and assisted by the works above mentioned, composed his Abstracts, of which, some time afterwards, Alcuin availed himself. (See § 244, sqq). ^S5. In the East the pretended works, (of a mystical character), of Dionysius the Areopagite *, believed to be the contemporary of our Lord and his Apostles, and First bishop of Athens, acquired considerable celebrity, and in the middle ages proved a rich mine to the Mystics (§ 229, 230, and 246). They embraced a sort of adaptation of the doctrine of Emanation and of Platonism in general to Christianity ; and are generally supposed to belong to the third or fourth century; though some, as Dallaeus, refer them to the sixth". It is true that literature in general still survived in the Grecian Empire, but without spirit or originality. It owed its existence to the Aristo- cratic constitution which still subsisted in the Greek Church, (differing in this respect from the Latin, which fell under the dominion of Papacy), and to the degree of attention still bestowed on the Greek philosophers. ' Died A. D. 636. Isidori Hispalensis Originura seu Etymologiarum libri XX. Aug. Vind. 1472, fol. c. not. Jac. Gothofredi in Auctorib. Lat. p. 811 : and in the edition of his 0pp. ed. Jac. Du Breul, Paris, 1601, fol. col 1617. « Born 673, died 735. Bedce Opera Omnia, torn. I, III, Paris. 1521 et 1544 j Colon. 1612 and 1688, 8 vols. fol. ' De Coelesti Hlerarchia, de Divinis Nominibus, de Ecclesiastic^ Hierarchic, de Mystica TheologiC. Dionys. Areop. 0pp. Gr. Bas. 1539 ; Ven. 1558 ; Paris. 1562, 8vo. ; Gr. et Lat. Paris. 1615, fol. ; Antverp. 1634, 2 vols. fol. ; and with Dissertations on the Author, Paris, 1644, 2 vols. fol. " The most recent inquires on this subject are those of: Jo. Ge. Vital. Engeliiardt, Diss.de Dionysio Areopagit^, Plotinizante, praemissis Observa- tionibus de Historic Theologiie Mysticai rite tractandC, § I et II, Erl. 1820, Bvo. L. FniD. Otto Baujujarten-Crusius, Progr. de Dionysio Areopagita, Jen. 1823, 4to. 235.] ECLECTICS. 217 In the sixth century, tJohn Stobccus, who was inclined to the doctrines of Neoplatonism (§ 221); and subsequeotl^^ in the ninth, the patriarch Photius'', formed valuable col-^ or or THJ? lections of extracts from difierent ancient authors. I j A^'is-T VPP n i i in this part of the epipire, ^^^ Oin totle also was better appreciated in this part of the ajp^pire, James of Edessa, the Monophysite, caused the dialectiiXjPOTl^ treatises to be translated into Syriac. John of Alexandria^ surnamed Philoponus^ (an Eclectic), distinguished himself by his Greek Commentaries on Aristotle ; from whom, nevertheless, he differed on the question of the eternity of the world (§ 220) ; and after him John of Damascus ^, not only gave to the East for the first time a system of Theology (§ 229, 230) ; but by his works ^ continued to direct public attention to the study of the Aristotelian philosophy, which was not extinguished till the downfal of the Greek Empire (§ 254). ^ Born A.D. 858, died 891. Mvpio(3i(3\'iov, ed. Hoeschel, Aug. Vind. 1601. y Died about 608. His Commentaries — On the Analytics (First and Second), on the Physics, Metaphysics, De Anim^, and other works of Aristotle, appeared, for the most part, at Venice, in the sixteenth centuiy. * Died about 754 ; also known by the name of Chrysorrhoas. * 'EKOtaig TTJs opOodo^TjQ Trhreug. — Opera ed. Le Quien, Paris. 1712, 2 vols. fol. PART THE SECOND. SECOND PERIOD. HISTORY OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES, OR, THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM ; FROM THE COM- MENCEMENT OF THE NINTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Attempts of the Understanding towards the ctdtivation of Science, under the influence of an extraneous 2^ri?iciple and positive laws. History of the Philosophy of the Middle Ages and of the Schoolmen, (From 800 to the Fifteenth Century), 2S6, The spirit of philosophical curiosity which had possessed so much influence throughout the preceding period, dwindled to a very slender thread, and influenced in a very inferior degree the puhlic mind during the days of barbarism and ignorance, on which we are about to enter. At the same time a new System and new Method were contained in embryo in the precious remains of old philosophy, and acquired the name of the Scholastic; be- cause it was principally formed in the schools founded since the time of Charlemagne'*. That great monarch, '^ See the Work of Launoy, § 243; and J. M. Unold, do Societate Li- teraria a Carolo M. instituta, Jen. 1752, 4to. It must not be forgotten, however, that such studies were cultivated at a still earlier period in Great Biitain. See Mviiuay, Do Briiannia atque Hi- bernia Saiculo a sexto inde ad decimum literar. domicilio ; in the Nov. Com- ment, Soc. Gott. torn. II, part II, p, 72. 236—238.] MIDDLE AGES. 219 so astonishingly superior to the age in which he Hvcd, very properly began the work of civilization by esta- bhshing elementary schools for the clergy, where were taught, in the jejune sketches of Marcianus Capella^ CassiodoruSy and Bade, the Seven Liberal arts, or, as they were termed by Boethius, the Trivium and Quadri- vium. Charlemagne founded likewise an Academy at- tached to his court, as well as a school for the instruc- tion of those destined for public affairs ; and for the im- provement of the latter he invited, principally from Eng- land, several men of eminent merit. (See Alcuin, § 244). His successors also encouraged the establishment and maintenance of Schools for the clergy, in the convents and episcopal sees. 237. In these schools, and still more in the universities which were subsequently formed, especially in that of Paris, the model of all the rest, a degree of zeal for science, as considerable as could be expected from the informa- tion and circumstances of the ecclesiastics for whom these seminaries had been principally designed, gradually un- folded itself. An alliance was now formed between Faith, which implicitly received the doctrines which the hie- rarchy of the Romish church maintained, and Reason, which laboured to investigate the principles of the same truths. The means employed were Logic and Metaphy- sics, or Dialectics. This was the origin of the scholastic philosophy, which was engaged in the application of Dialectics to Theology, (such as it was established by St. Augustine), and an intimate association of these two sciences. 238. The Human mind thus endeavoured at once, with- out any substantial knowledge or previous discipline, to grapple with the greatest of all questions, the Nature of the Divinity; and by a course the reverse of that pursued by Grecian philosophy, beginning with this great prin- ciple, sought in its descent to embrace the circle of all ac- quired knowledge. The impulse was given by Theology ; 220 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. which always continued to be the principal moving power, as well as object. At first nothing more was designed than the confirmation of certain isolated doctrines by the authority of an appeal to Reason as well as Revelation ; subsequently men were desirous of binding together into a sort of system, the results of these reasonings ; in the end it was their endeavour to consolidate, confirm, and define the sphere of knowledge which by such means they had extended. 239. Revelation had already supplied the great results of such inquiries on the most important particulars. All that remained, and all they attempted, was to invest those results with the formalities of a science. All that could be obtained by investigation had been already defined, and was strictly maintained by the Church ; nor were the means employed — Dialectics — less absolutely fixed by usage. The circle of mental activity was consequently confined ; and a spirit of minute subtilty began to prevail, more especially in establishments cut off from large com- munication with the great world, which amused the in- quisitiveness of the human mind by the discussion of puerile formularies, and a sort of intellectual see-saw applied to ideas instead of realities. 240. Philosophy at first dwindled into a mere logical skeleton after the manner of Boethius and Cassiodorus; and more recently, in conformity to the sketch of Bede (§ 234), which was adopted as his model by Alcuin; and finally, after the system attributed to St. Augustine (§ 233). It became indeed somewhat more enlarged after they had acquired from the Arabs some slight acquaintance with the Aristotelian philosophy, by means of rude translations from the Arabic and Greek. In spite of the opposition it at first encountered, and the imputation of heresy, this philosophy became daily more prevalent, and ultimately of universal influence, in consequence of being allied to Theology. 241. It is not possible to define with accuracy the du- 239—242.] MIDDLE AGES. 221 ration of the empire of scholastic philosophy. It began in the ninth century •", and has in some degree survived to our own days; but the revival of classical literature and the Reformation deprived it for ever of that unlimited authority which it possessed before. 242. Four epochs may be defined in the history of this philosophy, deducible from the history of the question concerning the Reality of Ideas; and the relations of Philosophy to Theology. First jieriod, down to the eleventh century: — A blind Realism^, with attempts to apply the elements of Philosophy to Theology. — Second period, from Roscelliti to Alexander of Hales, or Alesius, at the commencement of the thirteenth century. — The first appearance of Nominalism and of a more liberal system of inquiry, quickly repressed by the ecclesias- tical authorities, which established the triumph of Real- ism. A more close alliance was consequently brought about between philosophy and theology. — Third period. From Alexander and Albert, surnamed the Great, to Occam: — thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. During this period. Realism had exclusive dominion : the system of instruction adopted by the Church was consolidated by t^e introduction of the Aristotelian system ; and philoso- phy became still more closely connected with theology. — The age of St. Thomas Aquinas and Scotus. — Fourth period. From Occam to the sixteenth century. — A con- tinued contest between Nominalism and Realism, wherein the former obtained some partial successes. Philosophy was gradually detached from Theology, through the re- newal of their old debates. Some other disputes grew out of the attempt to introduce reforms in the systems of both. Observation. Three different relations subsisted between Phi- losophy and Theology during these periods : 1st. Philosophy ^ The origin of Scholastic philosophy is often referred to the epoch of Ros- cellin, about the end of the eleventh century ; or to the twelfth century ; or lastly, (as Tiedemann does), to the commencement of ihe thirteenth. <= [Realism supposes our \deas to have a real e&sence : Nominalism the con- trary. Tkanst..] 222 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. was considered merely subordinate : as the Ancilla Theologies : 2dly. It was associated with the latter on a footing of equality : 3dly. They were mutually separated and divorced. 243. In examining the philosophy of these ages we ought, (making due allowance for the circumstances of the times, and not appreciating what was effected then by what might be achieved now), to allow all their merit to supe- rior minds without laying to their charge the faults of their age and their contemporaries ; and to show our- selves sensible to the good as well as to the evil of the Scholastic system. Among its good results were an in- creased ability in the management of doctrinal metaphy- sics, a great subtilty of thought, and a rare sagacity in the development and distinction of ideas, with individual efforts on the part of several men of genius, notwithstand- ing the heavy bondage in which they were held. The ill effects were, the dissemination of a minute and puerile spirit of speculation, the decay of sound and practical Reason, with a neglect of the accurate and real sciences and of the sources whence they are to be derived, that is : — Experiment, History, and the Study of Languages. To these must be added the prevalence of the dominion of Authority, and Prescription ; Bad Taste ; and a rage for frivolous distinctions and subdivisions, to the neglect of the higher interests of science. General Treatises on the History of Scholastic Philosophy. LuD. ViVES, De Causis Corruptarum Artium ; (in his Works), Bas. 1555, 2 vols. 8vo. History of the Decline of the Arts and Sciences, to their Revival in the XIV and XV Centuries : serving as an Intro- duction to a Literary History of these two Centuries, Lond. CiES. Egassii Bul^i Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, etc. Paris. 1665-73, 6 vols. fol. f J. B. L. Ckevier, History of the University of Paris, from its foundation, etc. Paris, 1761, 7 vols. 12mo. .Ton. Launojus, De Celebrioribus Scholis a Carolo M. instau- r.'jtis, Par. 1672. Idem: De Varia Aristotoli.s Fortuna in Aca- 243, 244.] ALCUIN. dcmia Parisicnsi, Par. 1653, 4to. ; accesscrc J. Jonsii Diss, de Historia Pcripatctica ct cditoris de varia Aristotelis in Scholis Protestantium Fortuna Sclicdiasma, Vitemb. 1720, 8vo. CiiPH. Binder, De Scholastica Theologia, Tab. 1614, 4to. He KM. Conking, De Antiquitatibus Aeademicis Dissertt. Helmst. 1659-1673, 4to. Cura C. A. Heumanni, Gott. 1739, 4to. Ad. Tribbeciiovii De Doctoribus Scholasticis et Corrupta per eos Divinarum et Humanarum rerum Scientia liber singularis, Giss. 1665, 8vo.; ed. II cum Praefat. C. A. Heumanni, Jen. 1719, 4to. J AC. Thomasius, De Doctoribus Scholasticis, Lips. 1676, 4to. f J. A. Cramer, Continuation of Bossuet, part V, torn. II, sqq. f ScHRocKH, Ecclesiastical History, part XXII — XXXIV. Fabricii Biblioth. Lat. Mediae et Infr. iEtatis. F. Bruckeri De Natura Indole et Modo Philosophise Scho- lasticae, in his Hist. Philos. Crit., torn. Ill, p. 709, and his Hist, de Ideis, p. 198. f TiEDEMANN, Spirit of Speculative Philosophy, parts IV and V. ■j" BuHLE, Manual of the History of Philosophy, torn. V and VI. f Tennemann, History of Philosophy, torn. VIII, sqq. f W. L. G. Baron von Eberstein, Natural Theology of the Schoolmen, with Supplements on their Doctrine of Free-will, and their Notion of Truth, Leips. 1803, 8vo. FIRST PERIOD OF THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. I. Absolute Realism doivn to the commencement of the Eleventh Century. Alcuin. 244. The attempts of a spirit of Philosophy at this period were feeble and imperfect, but they might have been more successful but for the constraint imposed by the Hierarchy. Such a state of things permitted the ex- istence of only a small number of superior writers, who shed a doubtful light amid the general gloom of igno- 224 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. ranee, and laid the foundations of the Scholastic system. The first of these, in the order of time, was the English- man Alcuin or Albinus^, whom Charlemagne brought with him from Italy to his court. This learned writer (for the times in which he lived) wrote upon the Trivium and Quadrivium^ (§ 240). His pupil Rhabanus Maiirus intro- duced his dialectics into Germany ^ Johannes Scotus Erigena, •f Johannes Scotus Erigena, or an Essay on the Origin of Christian Philosophy, and its sacred character, by Peder Hjort, Copenh. 1823, 8vo. 245. John Scotus, an Irishman (hence his surname of Erigena), belonged to a much higher order : a man of great learning, and of a philosophical and original mind ; whose means of attaining to such a superiority we are ignorant of. He was invited from England to France by Charles the Bald, but subsequently obliged to quit the latter country ; being persecuted as a heretic. At the invitation of Alfred the Great he retired to Oxford, where he died about 886. His acquaintance with Latin and Greek (to which some assert he added the Arabic) ; his love for the philo- sophy of Aristotle and of Plato, his translation, (exceed- ingly esteemed throughout the West), of Dionysius the Areopagite (§ 235)', his liberal and enlightened views (which the disputes of the day called upon him to ex- press), respecting predestination^, and the eucharist, — all these entitle him to be considered a phenomenon for the times in which he lived. Add to this, that he re- garded philosophy as the Science of the Principles of all d Born at York 736, died 804. ^ In his work De Septem Artibus. See his 0pp. Omnia de novo collecta et ed. cur. Fuobenii, Ratisb. 1777, 2 vols. fol. f Born at Mentz 776 ; died archbishop of that city 856. s See on this subject his treatise, De Divintl Praedestinatione et Gratia, in GiLE. Manguini Vett. Auctt. qui IX. Sec. de Pra^destinatione et Gratia scripserunt, Opera et Fragmenta, Paris, 1650, torn. I, p. 103, sqq. 245, 24G.] BERENGER AND LANFRANC. 225 things, and as inseparable from religion ; and that he adopted a philosophical system'', (a revived Neoplato- nism), of which the foundation was the maxim : That God is the essence of all things ; that from the pleni- tude of His nature they are all derived, and to Him ulti- mately return {Primordiales causce — natura naUirata). His labours, enlightened by so much learning and suggested by so much talent, might have accomplished more if they had not been blighted by the imputation of heresy. Berenger and Lanfranc. OuDiNi Diss, de Vita Scriptis et Doctrina Berengarii, in Com- mentatt. t. II. p. G22. G. E. Lessing, Berengariiis Turonensis, Bruns. 1770, 4to. •\ See Historical and Literary Miscell., extracted from the hbrary of Wolfenb., V. vol. (Complete Works of Lessing, t. XX). Berengarius Turonensis, Dissert, by C. F. Staudlin, in his Archives of Ancient and Modern Ecclesiastical Hist. (publ. with Tzchirner), vol. II, fasc. 2, Leips. 1814. The same : Progr. Annuntiatur editio libri Berengarii Turonensis adversus Lanfrancum ; simul omnino de ejus scriptis agitur, Gott. 1814, 4to. MiLONis Crisptni Vita Lanfranci, apud Mabillon Acta Sanctor. Ordin. Bened. Saec. VI, p. 630; and his 0pp. ed. Luc.Dacherius (D'Achery), Paris, 1648, fol. 24G. Next in order comes Gerbert, a monk of Aurillac, who afterwards became pope Sylvester II.*, and acquired, at Seville and Cordova, extraordinary information, for that time, in the mathematics and Aristotelian philosophy of the Arabs, which he disseminated in the schools or monastaries of Bobbio, Rheims, Aurillac, Tours, and Sens ''. After him appeared Bereffger of Tours \ who was distinguished for his talents, his learning, and his *• De Divisione Naturae libri V, ed. Tn. Gale, Oxon. 1681, fol. (scarce). Extracts from Erigena are to be found in Heumanni Acta Philos. torn. Ill, p. 858 ; and in Dupin, Auctt. Eccles. torn. VII, p. 79. ' Born in Auvergne ; pope A.D. 999; died 1003. *^ His Dialectic treatise, De Rationali et Ratione Uti, is to be found in the Thesaur. Anecdot. Pezii, t. 1, part 2, p. 146 : and his Letters in Duchksne, Hist. Franc. Scriptt,, t. U. p. 789, sqq. ' Con. Berengarius, born about the commencement of the eleventh century, died 1088. Q 226 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. freedom of opinion, by which he drew upon himself some severe persecutions, in consequence of discussions on the subject of transubstantiation*. His opponent Z/flr/z/r^wc •", as well as the cardinal Peter Damiantis, or Damien'^f brought to perfection the art of Dialectics as applied to Theology: and his skill therein gave to the former (in the opinion of his contemporaries), the advantage over Berenger. This discussion, which was subsequently revived, had the effect of tightening still more the bonds of Papal authority. St. Ansehn of Canterbury. Anselmi Cantuariensis 0pp. lab. et stud. D. G. Gerberon, Paris. 1675 ; second edition, 1721 ; Venet. 1744, 2 vols. fol. Eadmeri Vita S. Anselmi, in the Acta Sanctorum Antw., April, t. II, p. 685, sqq., and in the edit, of the Works of Anselm above. "i A. Raineri, Panegyrical Hist, of St. Anselm, Modeiia, 1693 — 1706, 4 vols. 4to. : and Jo. Sarisburiensis De Vita Anselmi, Wharton's Anglia Sacra, part II, p. 149. 247. St. Anselm, the pupil and successor of Lanfranc (whom we must not confound with the schoolman his con- temporary, Anselm of Laon)°, was born at Aosta in 1034 : became prior and abbot of the monastery of Bee, and died, archbishop of Canterbury, 1109. He was a second Augustine ; superior to those of his age in the clearness of his understanding and powers of Logic ; and equal to the most illustrious men of his day for virtue and piety. He planned a system of religious philosophy, to be ef- fected by combining the results of controversies on such subjects, in accordance, for the most part, with the views of St. Augustine. For this purpose, he composed his Monologium sive Exemplum Meditandi de ratione Fidei ; in which he endeavoured to state systematically the great truths of religion on principles of common reason, but at * Liber Berengarii Turonensis adversus Lanfrancum ex Cod. Mscpt. Guelpherbit. edit, a Sxaudlino, Gott. 1823, 4to. (Progr. III.) «" Born at Pavia 1005; died, archbishop of Canterbury, 1089. " Of Ravenna; born 1001, died 1072. ° Died A. j). 1117. 247, 248.] HILDEBERT OF TOURS. 227 the same time presupposing the more sohd foundation of rehgious conviction. To this he added his Proslogiuniy otherwise caWed, Fides gii(vre?is Tntellectum ; where he seeks to prove the existence of God from the fact of our idea of an Ahnighty power. A monk of Marmoutier, named Gaumlou, ably attacked this sort of ontological argu- ment f". Ansehn may be looked upon as the inventor of Scholastic Metaphysics, inasmuch as he afforded the first example of it; though other systems subsequently superseded his own, and some of his ideas were never followed up. Hildebert of Tours. Hildeberti Turonensis Opera ed. Ant. Beaugendre, Paris. 1708, fol. ; and in the Biblioth. Patrum of Galland, t. XIV, p. 337, sqq. ■f W. C. L. ZiEGLER, Memoirs towards a Hist, of the Theo- loirical Belief in the Existence of a God, with an Extract from the first Dogmatical System (in the West) of Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, \}m. 1792, 8vo. 248. Hildebert of Lavardin, archbishop of Tours "J, and, as is probable, the disciple of Beranger, was equal to Anselm in sagacity and ability as a logician ; and pos- sessed the advantage of a more popular style, and more various information. To an acquaintance with the Clas- sics and other accomplishments, rare in his age, he added independence of mind, a practical understanding, and a degree of taste which preserved him from falling into the vain and puerile discussions of his contemporaries. His Tractatits Pkilosopldcus ' and his Moralis Philosophia, are the first essays towards a popular system of Theology. Othlo and Honorius, two monks of the same period, op- posed themselves to the Logicians, and shut themselves up in impregnable mysticism. 1* Gaunilonis liber pro insipiente adversus Anselmi in Proslogio ratiocinan- tem \ together with Anselmi Apologeticus contra insipientem. (In the works cited above). q Born between 1053 and 1057 ; died about 1134. ■■ Part of this treatise is comprised in the works of Hugo de St. Victor. q2 228 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. SECOND PERIOD OF THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. II. Disputes between the Nominalists and Realists , from Roscelliti fend of the Eleventh Century) to Alexander of Hales. Jac. Thomasii Oratio de Secta Nominalium ; Orationes, Lips, 1683 et 86, 8vo. | Chph. Meiners, De Nominalium ac Realium initiis ; Com- mentatt. Soc. Gott., t. XII, p. 12. LuD. Frid. Otto Baumgarten-Crusius, Progr. de Vero Scliolasticorum Realium et Nominalium discrimine et sententia Theologica, Jen. 1821, 4to. JoH. Mart. Chladenii Diss. (res. Jo. Theod. Kunneth) de Vita et hseresi Roscellini, Erlang. 1756, 4to. See also The- saurus Biog. et Bibliographicus of Geo. Ern. Waldau, Chemnit. 1792, 8vo. Roscellin. 249. The practice of Dialectics, and the questions arising out of a disputed passage in Prophyry's Introduc- tion to the Organum of Aristotle (-n-epi TreWe (pavav), respect- ing the different metaphysical opinions entertained by the Platonists and Peripatetics of the nature of General Ideas, — Such were the causes which led to the division between the Nominalists and Realists, the latter adhering to Plato, the first to Aristotle : disputes which stirred up frequent and angry debates in the schools, without any other result than that of sharpening their powers of argu- mentation ^ This long discussion was begun by John Roscellin (or Roussellin), a canon of Compiegne*, who, (on the testimony of his adversaries), maintained that the ideas of Genus and Species were nothing but mere words and terms (flatus vocis), which we use to designate qualities common to different individual objects ". He ' JoH. Sarisburiensis Metalog., c. IT, 16, 17. ^ ' About 1089. " See the treatise of Anselm De Fide Trinitatis, seu De Incarnatione Verbi, c. 2 : and John of Salisbury. l! 249, 250.] ABELARD. 229 was led on by this doctrine to some heretical opinions respecting the Trinity, which he was ultimately compelled to retract at Soissons, A. D. 1092. It is certain that Ros- cellin is the first author who obtained the appellation of a Nominalist, and from his time the school previously esta- blished, which held the creed that Genus and Species were real essences, or types and moulds of things, (Uni- versaUa ante rem according to the phrase of the School- men), was throughout the present period perpetually op- posed to Nominalism, whose partisans maintained that the Universalia subsisted only in re, or 2iOst rem : nor was the difficulty ever definitively settled. Ahelard. Petr. Abelardi et Heloisae Opera nunc prim, edita ex MSS. codd. Fr. Amboesii, etc. stud. Andr. Q,uercetani (And. Du- chesne), Pari*. 1616, 4to. Idem: In Historia Calamitatum Suarum. •\ (Gervaise), Life of P. Abeillard, Paris, 1720, 2 vols. 12mo. John Berington, The History of the Lives of Abelard and Helo'ise, etc., Birm. and Lond. 1787, 4to. -j- F. C. ScHLOssER, Abailard and Dulcin. Life and Opinions of an Enthusiast and a Philosopher, Gotha. 1807, 8vo. J. H. F. Frerich, Comment. Theol. Grit, de P. Abelardi Doctrina Dogm. et Morali, (prize comp.), Jen. 1827, 4to. 250. A celebrated discussion took place in the School of Paris on the nature of General Ideas and their con- nection with their subject-matter, between William de Champeaux^, a renowned Logician, and Peter Ahelard, or Abeillard, his pupil and opponent. Abelard, who by some has been considered the first in point of time of the Scholastic philosophers, employed in the debate none but negative arguments ; but proved himself to be endowed with some qualifications superior to the narrow dispute in which he was engaged. He was born at Palais, a village near to Nantes, A. D. 1079, and possessed rare abilities which were sedulously cultivated. To great talents as a « G. Campellcnsis ; he died bishop of Chalons, A. D. 1120. 230 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. logician, he added an extensive acquaintance with Gre- cian philosophy ; borrowed, it is true, from St. Augustine and Cicero. The perusal of the Classics had imparted to his mind a certain elegance as well as elevation, which set off his style in teaching and writing, and which at this period was rare, and proportionably admired. He evinced even greater boldness than Anselm in his at- tempts to re-state on general principles the grand doc- trines and mysteries of Christianity, particularly that of the Trinity y. He also attempted, as Hildebert had done before him (§ 5^48), to explain, on philosophical principles, the chief points of Theological Morality, as, for instance, the ideas of Vice and Virtue. He made both to consist in the mental resolution, and denied that our desires in themselves are of the nature of sin^ His talents as a teacher attracted an immense crowd of admirers from among the young men at Paris, and increased the celebrity of its university; but at the same time, his reputation drew upon him the envy of others, which, backed by his ill-fated passion for Eloisa, and the zeal of theologians rigidly attached to the doc- trines of the Romish church, and in particular the jealousy of St. Bernard, embittered the remainder of his life ; and diminished the influence his talents would otherwise have possessed. He died at Clugny, 1142. 251. In spite of the persecutions of Abelard a great number of men of talents were willing to tread in his steps, and attempted, with various success, to associate Philosophy with Theology. The principal were G. cle Conches^, and Guild, de la Porree, born in Gascony, and bishop of Poitiers ^ ; Hugh de St. Victor, of Lower y In his Introductio ad Theol. Christian., libb. III. seu De Fide Trinitatis, libb. Ill : see his Works, p. 973 sqq. : and in the larger Treatise : Theologia Christiana, libb. V, given by Edm. Martene, Ihes. Nov. Anecdot., t. V. '^ Ethica, seu liber dictus Scito te ipsura, in Pezii Thes. Noviss. Anecdoto- rum, t. Ill, part 2, p. 625. » Died 1150. *> On that account surnamed Pictaviensis. Died 1154. 251.] FOLLOWERS OF ABELARD. 231 Saxony or Flanders*'; Robert {FoUoth?) of Mclim'^ ; Ro- bert Pulleyn, the Englishman « ; Peter, surnanied Lorn- bardiis, bishop of Paris, born in a village near Novara, in Lombardy, and died 11 G4. To these must be added the disciple of the latter, Peter of Poitiers^; Hugh of Amiens^; Richard de St. Victor the mystic''; Alain de RysseV, etc. The most distinguished was LombardiiSi in consequence of his Libri Senterdiarinn, which procured him the additional appellation o^ Magister Sententiarum^. In these he put together extracts from the Fathers on different points of faith, without adding any solution of the difficulties that occurred ; supplying an abundant treasury of disputation for the logicians of his time. His works became popular — a sort of storehouse and armoury for ecclesiastical polemics ; though others of those we have mentioned possessed more real merit ; for instance, the two mystics, Hugh de St. Victor, surnamed the Second iVugustine, a man of an elegant and philosophical mind ; and his pupil Richard de St. Victor, who to his mysticism added considerable acuteness. Pulleyn also was the author of a clear and enlarged account of the correspondence of Doctrines with the principles of Reason ; and finally, Alain de Ryssel applied to these matters the exactness of a mathematical method. c Born 1096, Died 1140. Ejusd. : Opera stud, et industr. Canonicorum Regiorum Abbat. St. Vict. Rothovias:. 1618, 3 vols. fol. See C. Gfr. Derling, Diss, (praes. C. Gin. Kenffel), de Hugone a St. Victore, Helmst. 1745, 4to. «* Melidunensis, died 1173 A. C, according to the Literary History of France, torn. XlII, p. 1164. e PuUus, died between 1150 and 1154. f Pictaviensis ; died archbishop of Embrun, 1205. s Died archbishop of Rouen, (hence called Rothomagensis), 1164. •' A Scotchman, died 1173. Opera, ]'enet. 1506, 8vo. Par. 1518. • Called also Alain de I'lsle, and Alanus ab Insulis. Died 1203. Carl, de Visch, Oratio de Alano, in the Works of Alain, ed. by Viscn, Antwerp. 1653, fol. •^ Petri Lombardi libri IV Sententiarum : frequently published, parti- cularly Veil. 1477, fol. ; Colon. 1576, Bvo. See Bossuet and Cramer's Hist, part. VI, § 586. 232 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. 252, John of Salisbury (J. parvus Sarisburiensis'), a pupil of Abelard, and a man of classical erudition, in spite of his predilection for Aristotle clearly perceived the faultiness of the philosophy of his age, and the futility of that Logic which he attacked with considerable ability ™. Dialectics came in the end to be employed both for and against the system of the Church, as was shown by the ex- ample oi Simon de Tour nay (Tornacensis), oi Amalric (or Amauric de Bene, in the district of Chartres, who died 1209); and by his pupil David de Dinant. Besides a great number of paradoxical doctrines, the last taught a species of Pantheism, borrowed it is probable, from J. Scot Erigena". These heretics justly turned into deri- sion the School Dialectics. In the midst of the absurdities of the age, a certain independence of Thought manifested itself; very rude indeed as yet, but prepared to offer some opposition to dogmatising authority. By means of persecutions, anathemas, and interdictions, the adverse party succeeded in subduing it, for the time. The most distinguished leaders of the latter were St. Bernard*, abbot of Clair vaux (born 1091, died 1153), and Walter, abbot of St. Victor. THIRD PERIOD OF THE SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. Exclusive dominion of Realism; Complete alliance be- tween the Church and the Aristotelia7is,from Alexander of Hales to Occam. J. Launojus, De Varia Aristotelis Futura. (Above, at the head of § 244). 25^. It was precisely at the time when every thing ap- 1 Died bishop of Chartres 1130. ™ In his PoLicRATicus, sive de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosopho- rum, libb. VIII; et Metalogicus, libb. IV, Lugd. Bat. 1639, Amst. 1664, 8vo.; and in his CCCI Epist., Paris. 1611, 4to. " Gerson, De Concordia jMetaphysicse cum Logich, part. IV. Thomas Aq. Lib. Sent. II, dist. 17, Qu. I, a. I. Alberti Summa Theol. part I. Tract. IV, Qu. 20. * Best edition of his works by Mabillon, Paris, 1690, 6 vols. 252, 253.] DOMINION OF REALISM. 233 peared to have a tendency to discard the philosophy of Aristotle from all interference with the doctrines of the church, that it acquired the greatest ascendancy. About the year 1240 men began to be better acquainted with his works collectively^ in consequence of being brought into contact with the Greeks, who had never altogether deserted him°; and still more through the Arabians. The very circumstance that the perusal of these works was prohibited in 1209, 1215, and 1231, increased the avidity with which they were read to such a degree, that the Dominicans and Franciscans, the staunchest main- tainers of orthodoxy, who had recently assumed authority in the University of Paris, eagerly devoted themselves to the same study. — The following question appears of in- terest : How was it that the works of Aristotle came to be known in the West? From the East by the way of Constantinople, or by the way of Spain through the Arabs P? From this question is to be excepted the Or- ° In the eleventh century appeared in the Greek empire the philologist Mi- chael CoNSTANTiNE PsELLus, bom 1020 died about 1100: the author of Commentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry ; Paraphrasis Libri Arist. de Tnter- pretatione, Gr., with the Commentaries of Ammonius and Magentinus, about 1503. Compendium in Quinque voces Porphyriiet Aristotelis Praedicamenta, Gr., Paris. 1541 ; and gvvo\\/iq tig ttjv 'ApiaTOTsXovg AoyiKrjv Gr. et Lat., Aug. Vind. 1597 ; besides Introductio in sex Philos. Modos, etc., Gr. c. Lat. vers. Jac. Foscarini, Ven. 1532, Paris. 1541, 12mo. ; and a book on the Opi- nions of the old Philosophers respecting the Nature of the Soul, Gr. et Lat., with, Originis Philocalia, Paris. 1618 and 1624, 4to., subsequently reprinted. To Psellus succeeded Eustratius, metropolitan of Nicaea, in the beginning of the twelfth century, (Fabric Bibl. Gr. lib. Ill, c. 6, p. 151, sqq. note a.), and other writers of the thirteenth century, who abridged the Logic of Aristotle; such as, NicEPHOR. Blemmydes (flourished about 1254), and Geor. Ane- PONYMUS (Nicephorae Blemmydae Epitome Logicje Doctrinae Aristotelis, Gr. et Lat. Aug. Vindel. 1606, 8vo. ; Georgii Aneponymi Compendium Philos. siv. Organi Aristot. Gr. et Lat. Aug. Vind. 1600) ; Geor. Pachymerus, who survived till 1310, author of a Paraphrase of the Philosophy of Aristotle in general, of which extracts have been published, (Gr. et Lat. Oxon. 1666, 8vo., Epitome Philos. Bas. 1560, Lat. fol.) ; and Tiieod. IMetochites, who survived till 1332, and commented on the works of Aristotle relating to Physics (Fabric. Bibl. Gr. vol. IX). P See Buhle, Manual of the History of Philosophy, part. V, p. 247. Heeren, History of the Study of Classical Literature, vol. I, p. 183. This question has been thoroughly discussed, and decided in favour of a Saracenic 234 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. ganum^ which was known as early as the time of Charle- magne ; having been sent as a present to him from Con- stantinople. Arabians. j354. The Arabians, originally devoted to Sabeism, had received a fresh impulse from the doctrines of Mahomet, which suited well their ardent temperaments and inquisi- tive minds. He died 0)^2 ; but the flame was kept alive by the fiery zeal of his successors, who insisted more and more on his pretended mission from on High. In a short time they had subjected to their belief a large portion of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Their relations with the con- quered nations, especially the Syrians, Jews, and Greeks; the progress among them of luxury, and all its conse- quences ; the demand for foreign physicians and astro- logers, and the influence acquired by the latter, engen- dered among them an ardent emulation for the sciences, which was encouraged in every way by the caliphs of the house of the Abassides, Al Mansour'^, Al Mohdi'", Haroun al Raschid the contemporary of Charlemagne % Al Mamoum *, and Motassem " ; who caused the Greek authors to be translated into Arabic, founded schools, and collected valuable libraries ". origin, in the following prize composition of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, at Paris : Critical Inquiry respecting the Age and Origin of the Latin Translations of Aristotle, and the Greek or Arabic Commentaries employed by the Schoolmen, etc., by M. Jourdain, Paris, 1819, 8vo. On this work see Getting. Gel. Anz. 1819, No. 142. Or Oresmius, died bishop of Lisieux, 1382. •= Or Chrochove, in Pomerania, died 1410. ^ Born at Spires, provost of Aurach, and professor of theology and philoso- phy at Tvibingen. Epitome et Collectarium super IV libb, Sententiar. Tub. 1495, 2 vols. fol. ; Kpitome Scripti Guil. Occam Circa duos Priores Sententiarum. IIiEROv. WiF.GAND BiFi,, Diss. (prnps. GoTTi.iEn Wernsdorf) de Gar. Biel celeberrimo Papista Antipapista, Viteh. 1719. 4to. e In 1339, 1040, 1409. 1473. 256 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. gained from day to day fresh adherents ; nay, it more than once obtained, even at Paris, as well as in the uni- versities of Germany, the pre-eminence, but without com- pletely defeating the opposite party. The same scenes were perpetually acting on both these theatres of conten- tion : the nature of Ideas not being the only point of dis- pute, but combined with a complete diversity of opinions in general. On the part of the Nominalists might be noticed the gradual increase of a spirit of independence, and a tendency to more liberal principles, though asserted by very imperfect philosophical Methods. This spirit especially manifested itself in opposition to the theses of the Idealist Nicolas of Auiricuria (bachelor of Theology at Paris, 1348), and of John de Mer curia (about the same year ^), yet eventually proved abortive, and the customary opinions of the age resumed their sway. 275. The ultimate consequence of these repeated dis- cussions was a diminution of the credit and influence of the Scholastic system, and at the same time a diminished regard for philosophy, especially for Logic, of which in his time Gerson already saw reason to complain ; and this induced a disposition to Mysticism, arising out of a feeling of disgust for unmeaning verbal disputes. Mysti- cism was accordingly preached with ardour by John Tau- ler, who died at Strasburg 1361, and more especially by the celebrated Johii Charlier de Gerson of Rheims, born 1363, the disciple of Peter D'Ailly, and his suc- cessor as chancellor of Paris, in 1395; died almost in exile in 1429, at Lyon. He devoted his principal atten- tion to discussing the obligations of Practical Christianity, which procured for him the appellation of Doctor Chris- tianissiinus ; and reduced all philosophy to a mystical doctrine which he founded entirely on the occult impres- sions of Inspiration 8. He nevertheless opposed himself to enthusiastic extravagancies, retaining the use of Logic, * Sec BouLAv, Hist. Univ. Paris, torn. IV, p. 308, sqq. -' De IMystica. Theol. Consideratt. II. 27.').] NOMINALISTS. 257 and employing it after a new method ''. Next to him we must place Nicolas de Clemange (de Clemangis), a cou- rageous thinker ; wlio opposed the narrow subtilties of tlie Schools '. He was rector of the university of Paris (1.S93), and died about 1410. But the man who, as a religious writer, possessed the greatest influence in his own and succeeding ages was Thomas Hamerken (Malleo- lus), styled Thomas a Kempis^^ from the name of a vil- lage, Kempen, in the archbishopric of Cologne, where he was born A. D. 1.'380. He died 1471. Another eminent mystic* was John Wessel, surnamed Gansford, or Goesevot (Goose-foot)', styled by his contemporary ad- mirers Li/x mundi et magister contradictionum. He was at first a Nominalist, and an opponent of the dogmatism of the Schoolmen. The same dislike of the same system may be observed in the Natural Theology oi Raymond de Sahonde (or Sebunde), who taught at Toulouse in the first half of the fifteenth century, about 1436. He as- serted that man has received from the Almighty two books, wherein he may discover the important facts which concern his relation to his Creator, — namely, the book of Revelation and that of Nature : the latter he affirmed to be the most universal in its contents, and the most perspicuous. He endeavoured by specious rather than solid arguments to deduce the theology of his age, even in its more peculiar doctrines, from the •> Centilogium de Conceptibus, liber de Modis Significandi et de Concordia Metaphys. cum Logic^. J. G. Engeliiahdti CommentationesdeGersonioMystico, parti, Erl. 1822, 4to. Gersonis Opera, Bus. 1488, vol. Ill, fol. ; ed. Edm. Richer, Paris, 1606, fol., et Lui). Ellies Dupin, Antverp. 1756, 5 vols. fol. ' Opera ed. Jo. Mart. Lvdius, Lvgd. Bat. 1613, 4to. '' Especially by his well-known book De Imitatione Christi. A good edition of his Works by Sommel, Antwerp. 1600 — 1607, 4to. * [The terms Mystic and Mysticism are used in the present work in a semewhat restricted and peculiar sense. TramL] ' Born at Grbningen, 1409; died 1489. He must not be confounded with his contemporary, the Nominalist, John Burchard von ]Vessel. See Gotze, Comment, de J. Wesselo, Lut. 1719, 4to. J. Wesselii Opera, ed. Lydius, Amst. 1717, 4to. S 258 SECOND PERIOD. [sect. 275. contemplation of Nature and of Man. His attempt deserved, for its just observations on many subjects, es- pecially on Morals, greater success than it met with ; until Montaigne directed to it the attention of his con- temporaries m Observation. It cannot be expected that a minute account should have been rendered of the respective opinions, in detail, of each Schoolman ; involved as they are in endless disputes and distinctions respecting the same subjects : — Such a specification, if it had been possible, would, in an abridgment like the present, have been superfluous. The Sentences of Lombardus and the works of Aristotle were the constant subjects of their discussions from the time of Albert the Great ; respecting which their com- mentaries and disquisitions were as minute as they were volu- minous and unprofitable. "' Montaigne has translated, under the title of Natural Theology, his Liber Creaturarum sive Natura;. The Latin editions are Francof.\Q2b, and Amstel. 1761. See Montaigne's Observations in his Essays, L. 11, c. 12. PART THE Till R 13 THIRD PERIOD. MODERN PHILOSOPHY. THE SCHOLASTIC SYSTEM OPPOSED BY A RETURN TO, AND BY NEW COMBINATIONS OF, FORMER SYSTEMS PHILOSOPHY. Frojn the Fifteenth Century to the end of the Sixteenth. 276. The exclusive system we have been considering which, grounded in authority, pretended to estabHsh a philosophy maintained by logical definitions and com- binations, contained within itself the elements of its own destruction. The disputes of the two adverse sects into which its supporters were subdivided, gradually loosened its hold on the public mind, and the Nominalists in the end openly attacked its authority ; so that men became more and more awakened to the necessity (though as yet im- perfectly understood), of consolidating Science, and strengthening its foundations, by a more accurate and renewed observation of Nature, and by increased study of the Languages. The party of the Mystics especially, animated as they were by a more profound sentiment of zeal, religious and moral, were dissatisfied with the meagre and pedantic forms, which were as yet their only support. Nevertheless it was from another quarter that the revolution was destined to commence. 277. The human mind had too long lost the true path of Science, to be able immediately to recover it. In consequence of its long subjection to prescriptive ideas, s2 260 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. we find that it continued for some time to labour to un- ravel the consequences of those it had inherited, rather than apply itself to the legitimate objects of inquiry — the principles of Knowledge, and of its own operations. From want of skill to detect the concatenation of different branches of knowledge, and from the habit of confounding notions derived from very different sources, the human mind was unable to discover the faultiness of its own me- thod, and the influence of the old system was necessarily prolonged. Other circumstances contributed to the same result : the inveterate reverence for Aristotle's authority — the want of real and accurate knowledge — the bad Taste of the age, and the low state of Classical learning — added to the redoubtable authority of the Papal Hierar- chy, and the jealous zeal with which the guardians of the ancient Dogmatism protected their errors ; — all these auxiliary circumstances long continued to make it difficult to shake off the intolerable yoke, against which some bolder spirits had already begun to rebel. 278. Nevertheless certain political events in Europe gradually prepared the way, though at first distantly, for a complete change in its civil and ecclesiastical constitu- tion, — shook the supports of the old philosophy ; and, by ultimately destroying it, helped to produce a revolution in the literary world, rich in important consequences. These were: The Crusades — The Invention of Printing — The Conquest of Constantinople — The discovery of the New World — and the Reformation ; with the direct or indirect results of these events ; such as the formation of a Middle Class of citizens — the influence acquired by public opinion — the increase of the Temporal at the expense of the Spiritual Power — the consolidation of civil authority on firmer and better-established bases — the advancement of experimental knowledge and the sciences — the acquisition of models for imitation and sources of instruction in the re- covery of the authors of antiquity — and, lastly, the im- provement and cultivation of the languages of Modern Europe. The human mind became sensible of its need of 278—280.] MODERN PHILOSOPHY. 2G1 instruction and of the imperfection of its present systems, and demanded a better philosophy ; but, too weak as yet to support itself without such assistance, it leaned upon the authors of antiquity for guidance and support. The cultivation of this study brought with it an improved spirit of refinement and moral improvement, and at the same time showed by reflection the evils of that state of mental subjugation to which so many centuries of man- kind had been reduced, and awakened in those who pro- secuted it a desire to liberate themselves from such thraldom. 279. At the same time that these circumstances from without operated, or contributed to operate, so great a change in the fortunes of Philosophy, a strong disposition prevailed among many to derive all true knowledge and wisdom from no other source but Revelation ; and, con- sequently, to the devout study of the Bible was added also a Cabbalistical spirit of inquiry, which appears to have been derived by the Fathers from the Jews ; and which was in part kept alive and recommended by the constant disputes and uncertainties of a vast number of contending sects, into which the Philosophical world was soon divided. 280. The consequence of all these different causes was that a variety of systems of greater or less validity began to prevail; knowledge was cultivated and improved; — the limited horizon, which before bounded the views of all, was enlarged : some of the Grecian systems of phi- losophy were cultivated and adopted ; discussions were set on foot with regard to their respective merits, and the attempt was made to combine them (either partially or entirely) ; and to reconcile them with Christianity. The systems themselves were consequently submitted to ex- amination, attempts were made to extend the dominion of Science, more especially in the department of Natural History (as yet so imperfectly cultivated), though ac- companied with a thirst for occult and mysterious science. 262 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Lastly came the desire to combine in one system not only Theology and Philosophy, but in like manner to unite the Intellectual and Experimental theories ; — the doctrines of Plato and those of Aristotle. Revival of Greek literature in Italy : with its immediate consequences. 281. When the Greeks, who had always retained a certain degree of attachment for letters, derived from their renowned ancestors, (§ 25"^), came to solicit in Italy assistance against the Turks ; and, after the capture of Constantinople, sought there a safer residence than in their own country, they brought with them a rich fund of various arts and literary treasures, and infused a new energy into the minds of the Western nations, who were already in a state to profit by such acquisitions \ Among these precious remains of Ancient Greece were the works of Aristotle and Plato in their original form : the knowledge of which was presently disseminated through Europe with remarkable celerity. The Greeks who respectively supported the two systems of those great philosophers, (such as George Gemisthus Pletho ^, * To this age belong the poets Dante Alighieri, Petrarca, and Boccaccio, who contributed much to the general diffusion of a literary taste, though not im- mediately and directly to that of philosophy. For the learned Greeks who were instrumental in bringing about this revival of Classical literature, (^Emmanuel Chrysoloras, Th. Gaza, George of Trehi- sond, John Argyropulus, etc.)* see Humphr. Hodius, De Graecis illustribus Linguae Gr. Literarumque Humaniorum restauratoribus, Lond. 1742, 8vo. Heeren, Hist, of the Study of Class. Lit. Chph. Fr. Borner, De Doctis Hominibus GriEcis Literarum Gra^carum in Italia restauratoribus, Lips. 1750, 8vo. CiiPH. Meiners, Biography of celebrated Men. '' Of Constantinople: came to Florence 1438. Geo. Gemisthi Plethonis, De Platonicae atque Aristotelicae Philosophiag Differentia, Gr., Ven. 1540, 4to. Among his Philosophical Works : was Libellus de Fato, ejusd. et Bessarionis Epist. Amoeboefe de eod. Argumento cum Vers. Lat. H. S. Reimari, Lvgd. Bat. 1722, 8vo. De IV Virtutib. Cardinalib. Gr. et Lat. Adr. Occone interprete, Bas. 1522, 8vo., et al. De Virtutibus et Vitiis, Gr. Lat. ed. Ed. Fawconer, Oion. 1752, 8vo. See Fabric. Bibl. Gr. torn. X, p. 741. 281, 282.] GRECIAN. LITERATI. 263 on the one side, a partisan of the Neoplatonic doctrine ; and on the other George Scholarius, subsequently called Genuadius, Theodore Ga^a"^^ and more especially George of Trebisond'\ all Aristotelians), engaged in a warm dis- pute respecting the merits of their favourite systems*', which it required all the moderation of cardinal Bessa- rion ^ in any degree to temper. Attack on the Scholastic System. 282. The first result of all these circumstances was a conflict with the Scholastic system, which, besides the inherent causes of its barbarous style, bad taste, and nar- row views, was occasioned also by the recent discovery of the great difference between the Aristotelian theory as taught in the Schools, and the same as it was discovered to exist in the writings of Aristotle himself. The philolo- gists Hermolaus Barbarus s, the translator of Aristotle, of Themistius, and Dioscorides, and Angelas Politianus ^, were the first to enter the lists with its champions: Lau- rentius Valla\ and Rodolph Agricola^ the German, en- c Came into Italy about 1430; died about 1478. He was born atThessa- lonica. '• Born 1395, in the isle of Crete; professor of Greek literature in various places in Italy ; died 1484 or 86. Besides several commentaries, he wrote the dissertation styled, Comparatio Aristotelis et Platonis, Ven. 1523, 8vo. e On this subject see a Dissert, of Boivin in the Mem. of the Acad, of Inscript., torn. II, p. 775, sqq. See his work: In Calumniatorem Platonis libb. IV, Ven. 1503 et 1516, directed against the Aristotelians. Ejusd. : Epist. ad IMich. Apostolicum de Prxstantia Platonis prae Aristotele, etc., Gr. c. vers. Lat. Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscript., tom. Ill, p. 303. f Born in 1395, at Trebisond, came to Florence in 1438, died in 1472. K liermolao Barbaro, of Venice ; born 1454, died 1493. ^ Properly Angelo Ambrogini, or Cino ; surnamed Poliziano : born at JMonte Pulciano 1454; died 1494. • Lorenzo Valla of Rome ; born 1408, died 1457. Laurentii Vallae Opera, Basil. 1543, fol. De Dialectical contra Aristote- leos. Venet. 1499, fol. De Voluptate et Vero Bono libb. HI, Basil. 1519, 4to. De Libero Arbitrio, ibid. 1518, 4to. '' Rudolph Ilusmann or Ilausmann ; born at Batflen, near Groningen, 1443, died 1485. 264 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. deavoured, by removing the rubbish with which the field of Dialectics was encumbered, to render them more avail- able for useful purposes : then succeeded H. Cornelius Agrippa of Nettesheim (see § 287), Ulrich von Hutten^t Eras?nus"'j and his friend J. L. Fives'", Philip Melanch- thon (§ 292), Jacobus Faber^, Marius Nizolius^, Jac. Sa- doletus^f and Jac, Acontius^. The methods pursued by these learned men in their attacks on the system of the Schools were very dissimilar, according to the different lights in which they viewed that system, and the different objects which engrossed their attention. Renewal of the Ancient Systems. 283. In consequence of these pursuits the systems of the Grecian and Arabian philosophers were brought into discussion, and the opposition to the Scholastic system reinforced. The doctrines of Aristotle and Plato were the first which thus regained their place ; (the sort of know- ledge then cultivated favouring their reception); and, sub- RuDOLPHi Agricol^ Db Inventione Dialectica lib. Ill, Colon. 1527, 4to. Ejusd. : Lucubrationes, Basil. 1518, 4to.; et Opera, cur^ Alardi, Colon. 1539, 2 vols. fol. • Born 1488, died 1523. Opera (ed. Munch) torn. I— V, Berol. 1821-5, 8vo. ™ Desiderius Erasmus, born at Rotterdam 1467, died 1536. Des. Erasmi Dialog! et Encomium Moriae. Opera ed. Clericus, Land. 1703, 11 vols. fol. n Born at Valencia 1492, died 1540. LuDOvici VivES De Causis Corruptarum Artium, Antverp. 1531 ; and, De Initiis, Sectis et Laudibus Philosophiae. Idem : De Anim^ et Vit^ libb. Ill, Bus. 1538. Opera, Basil. 1555, 2 vols. fol. «> J. Lefevre, of 'Etaples in Picardy ; died 1537. P Of Bersello; died 1540. Jac. NisoLii Antibarbarus, seu de Veris Principiiset VeraRatione Philoso- pliandi contra Pseudo-Philosophos libb. IV, Farma. 1553, 4to. Ed. G. W. Leibnitz, Francf. 1674, 4to. 1 Of Modena ; died 1547. Jac. Sadoleti Phaedrus seu de Laudibus Phiiosophia; libb. II. In 0pp. Mogunt. 1607, 8vo. Patau. 1737, etc. ^ Born at Trent ; died 1566. iNIethodus s. Recta Investigandarum tradendarumque Artium ac Scientiarum ratio. Bas. 1558, in 8vo. 283, 284.] REVIVAL OF PLATONISM. 265 sequently, otlier theories allied to theirs. In this man- ner the Cahbalistic and Theological systems were mixed A up with the theories of the Platonists ; and the Ionian and Atomistic doctrines with the Aristotelian. The I Stoic and Sceptic systems at first had few defenders : nevertheless, as it is impossible that any of the ancient theories should give entire satisfaction in an age so dif- ferent from that in which they first appeared, and as their defects were of course gradually brought to light, it followed that attempts were occasionally made to com- bine different views, while at other times they w^ere sepa- rately attacked with Sceptical objections. In their choice of a sect, and their efforts to establish or destroy a theory, men were influenced by two sets of considera- tions ; according as they proposed to themselves to establish a Theological system, or to promote discoveries in Natural Science. I. Revival of Platonism : The Cabbalistical, Magical, and Religious Philosophies. Besides the works mentioned § 282, see the Sketch of the History of Philosophy by Buhle. LuDW. Dankegott Cramer, Diss, de Causis Instauratse Saec. XV, in Italia Philosopliiae Platonicse, Viteh. 1812, 4to. 284. The Platonic philosophy which was eagerly re- ceived in Italy by men of fanciful minds was fostered at Florence by the two Medici, Cosmo and Lorenzo % and excited there a vivid enthusiasm ; though wearing rather the character of the Neoplatonic school than of the Aca- demy. Among the recommendations it possessed in their eyes was one which in fact was purely gratuitous, viz. that it was derived, as some of the Fathers believed, from the Jewish philosophy and religion ; and hence its repu- tation of being allied to Christianity *. A similar preju- * Will. Roscoe, The Life of Lorenzo de Medici, Liverp. 1795, 2 vols. 4to. ' Jon. Pici Heptapliis, p. 1, Franc. Pici Epist. lib. IV, p. 882. 266 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. dice caused them to connect with Platonism the Cabba- listical and Mosaical doctrines. In addition to this, Platonism continually acquired fresh adherents in conse- quence of the meagre logical system of the Schools, and its inaptitude to satisfy the human mind when awakened to inquiry. It presently allied itself to Mysticism, and engaged in the rational defence of doctrines derived from a higher source ; supported by argument the Immortality of the Soul ; and served to balance the Naturalism of the mere Aristotelians; but also unfortunately in some re- spects favoured superstition, especially by the doctrine of the Intervention of Superior Beings in the government of the world". An honourable exception must be made in the case of Astrology, which it uniformly rejected. §285. C. Hartzheim, Vita Nic. de Cusa, Trevir. 1730, 8vo. Among the first of those who bade adieu to the Scho- lastic creed was the Cardinal Nicolas Ctisamis "^ ; a man of rare sagacity and an able mathematician ; who arranged and republished the Neoplatonic System, to which he was much inclined, in a very original manner, by the aid of his Mathematical knowledge. He ventured upon some philosophical explanations of the mystery of the Trinity not easy to be understood nor defended, but of which so much may be stated, that he presumed the Almighty to be Unity, and the Father of Equality, and of that which associates and unites Equality to Unity; (by which he dared to signify the Son and the Holy Ghost). According to him, it is impossible to know directly and immediately this Absolute Unity (the Divinity) ; because we can make approaches to the knowledge of Him only by the means of Number or Plurality. Consequently he allows us only the possession of very imperfect notions of God, and " FiciM, Praefatio in Plotinum ; Pomponatius De Incantationibus, c. I. X Nicolaus ChrypfFs of Kuss or Kusel (hence called Cusanus) in the arch- bisiiopiic of Treves; born 1401, died 1464. 285, 28G.] REVIVAL OF PLATONISM. 2G7 those by the aid of Mathematical symbols. Absurd and worse than absurd as many of these ideas are, and incon- sistent as he is both in other particulars, and inasmuch as he appears to have fallen into the grievous error and sin of identifying, in his theory of the Universe, the Creator and the Created ; — -obscure as he also is in his manner of stating these reveries, they contain nevertheless y, several profound observations imperfectly expressed, respecting the faculties of the understanding for the attainment of knowledge. For instance, he observes, that the princi- ples of knowledge possible to us are contained in our ideas of Number (ratio exjjUcata) and their several rela- tions ; that absolute knowledge is unattainable to us (prcecisio veritatis inattingibUis, which he styled docta ignorantia), and that all which is attainable to us is a probable knowledge (conjectura). With such opinions he expressed a sovereign contempt for the Dogmatism of the Schools. FiciNi Opera in II tomos digesta, Bas. 1561, Par. 1641, fol. Commentarius de Platonicae Philosophiae post renatas Literas apud Italos restauratione, sive Mars. Ficini Vita, auctore Joh. CoRsio ejus familiari et discipulo. Nunc primum in lucem eruit Angelus Maria Bandini, Pis. 1772. J. G. ScHELHORN, Comment, de Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis Mar- silii Ficini. In the Amaenitatc. Literar. tom. I. •f" Life of J. Picas, Count of Mirandola, in Meiner's Lives of Learned Men, 2 vols, and: Pici 0pp. Bonon. 1496, fol. Oj^era utriusque Pici, Bas. 1572-3 et 160L, 2 vols. fol. The examples of Pletho and Bessarion (§ 281) were improved upon by Marsilius Ficinius^, a Florentine phy- sician, who engaged with zeal and ability in the defence of the Platonic philosophy ; both by his translations of Plato, Plotinus, lamblichus, Proclus, etc. ; and also his original productions, devoted to the commendation of that system. Cosmo de' Medici, (who died 1464), availed y NicoLAi CusANi Opera, Paris. 1514, 3 vols, fol.; Basil. 1565,3 vols, fol. De Docta Ignorantia, torn. III. Apologia Doctae Ignorantias lib. I. De Conjecturis libb. II. De Sapienti^ libb. III. 2 Born at Florence 1433, died 1499. 268 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. himself of his services in the foundation of a Platonist Academy, about l460^ But Ficinus was a Neoplatonist, who added to the system of the Academy some Aristote- han doctrines, and regarded the Hermes Trismegistus of the Alexandrians as the inventor of the theory of Ideas. In his Theologia Platonica he displayed ability in the statement of certain arguments to establish the Immorta- lity of the Soul^, and opposed the doctrine imagined by Averroes, and maintained by the Aristotelians, of an Uni- versal Intelligence (257). The object he proposed to him- self was to apply his views of the Platonic system to the defence and explanation of Christianity. His enthusiasm won over John Picus, count of Mirandola*^, a learned man of superior parts, but extravagant imagination. He had studied the Scholastic philosophy and imbibed the notion that the philosophy of Plato was derived from the books of Moses, whence he was inclined to deduce all the arts and sciences'^. In consequence of such a per- suasion, he devoted himself to the study of the Oriental languages and Cabbalistical books ; from which he drew a large proportion of the theses which he proposed to maintain in a public disputation as announced by him at Rome, but which never really took place ^. From the same sources he drew the materials of his Essay towards a Mosaical philosophy, in his Heptaplus. He held in great esteem the Cabbalistical writings, to which he was tempted to ascribe a divine origin, and considered neces- sary to the explanation -of the Christian religion ; at the same time that he asserted their entire accordance with the philosophical systems of Pythagoras and Plato ^ His favourite design, which however he not live to realise, was to prove the consistency of the Aristotelian and Pla- * t R. SiEVEKiNG, History of the Platonist Academy of Florence, Gotting. 1812, 8vo. '' Theologia Platonica s. de Immortalitate Animorum ac ^Etern^ Felicitate libb. XVIII. Idem : in 0pp. torn. I, Paris. 1641, fol. •^ Count and prince of Concordia, born 1463, died 1494. «' Heptaplus, part. I, Basil. 1601. " Conclusiones DCCCC, Rom. 1486, fol.j Cot. 1619, 8vo. ' Apol. p. 82. 110. 116. 287.] CABBALISTIC SYSTEMS. 209 tonic systems ^. In his inaturer age when lie had emanci- pated himself from many of the common prejudices of his time, he composed an able refutation of the superstitions of the astrologers. The reputation of the Count of Mi- randola, his works, and his numerous friends, contributed to establish the credit of the Platonic and Cabbalistical doctrines. His nephew J. Fr. Picus of Miranclola (killed 1533), followed his steps, without possessing his abilities ; but more exclusively devoted than his uncle to Revealed pliilosophy '', he opposed at the same time the Heathen and the Scholastic systems. Cabbalistic and Magical Systems. f BuHLE, History of Cabbalistic Philosophy, in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century, in his History of Modern Philosophy, II, 1, 360, sqq. ^87. John ReucJdin *, a zealous restorer of philosophy and classical literature, travelled into Italy, where his in- timacy with Ficinus and Picus inclined him to the Pytha- gorico-Platonic doctrine, and to the study of Cabbalistic writings ^ ; which he disseminated in Germany by means of his works, De Verba Mirijico ^, and De Arte Cabba- listicd"^. The extravagant performance of the Francis- can monk Franc. Giorgio Zorzi^, De Harmonia Miindi istius, cantica tria, Venet. 1525, doubtless was thought s JoH. Pici Epist. ad Ficin., torn. I, p. 753. h lie wrote : De Studio Divinai et Humanae Sapientiai, edid. J. F. Bud- DEUS, Hal. 1702, 8vo. Examen Doctrina; Vanitatis Gentilium ; De Pra;no- tionibus. In the 0pp. utiiusque Pici, (see above;: Epp. ed. Cupii. Cei.- i.ARius, Jen, 1682, Bvo. ' Called also Capnio. He was born 1455, at Pforzlieim, was professor at Tiibingen, and died 1522. ^ Life of Reuchlin, in the work, of Meiners already quoted, part I, No. 2. S. F. Gehres, Life of John Reuchlin, etc., Carlsruhe, 1815, 8vo. ' Libri III, Bas.fol., (1494). '" Libri III. Hagen. 1517— 1530, fol. " Franciscus Georgius, surnamed Venetus ; because a native of that city. He flourished in the beginning of the sixteenth century. 270 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. too full of daring reveries, and was far from possessing the influence enjoyed by the works of H. Cornelius Jgrippa of Nettesheim ". The latter united to great talents uni- versal information ; but his greediness of reputation and money, and his fondness for occult sciences, imparted a character of indecision and inconsistency to his life as well as to his works. At Dole he gave with the greatest success public lectures on the work of Reuchlin, De Ver- ba Mhifico ; and at the suggestion of Tritheim, the most celebrated adept of his time, he composed his treatise, De Occulta Philosopliia'^ ^ a system of extravagant chi- meras, in which Magic, the Complement of Philosophy, as he terms it, and the key of all the secrets of Nature, is represented under the three forms, of Natural, Celestial, and Religious or Ceremonial; agreeably to the three- fold division of the Corporeal, Celestial, and Intellectual Worlds. He there enumerates, with a show of scientific classification purely superficial, the hidden powers which the Creator has assigned to the different objects of the Creation, through the agency of the Spirit of the World. It was natural that Agrippa should become a partisan of Raymond Lulli (§ 269), and accordingly he wrote a com- mentary on his Ars Magna. Nevertheless his caprice sometimes inclined him to opinions directly the reverse ; and in such a mood he rejected all dependence on human knowledge, and composed his Cynical treatise, as he terms it, T>e Incerlitudine et Vanitate Scientiarinn^. This work, which had great reputation in its day, occasionally presents us with sophistical arguments ; occasionally with admirable remarks on the uncertainty and vanity of all scientific pursuits ^ Agrippa and his follower John Wier % were of service to philosophy by opposing the " Born at Cologne 148G. V Lib. I, 1531 ; lib. Ill, Colon. 1.533, 8vo. 1 Cologne, 1527 ; Paris, 1529 ; Antwerp, 1530, 4to. •■ On this writer consult Meiners, Lives, etc. ; and Sciielhohn, in the Amaenitat. Litt., torn. 11, p. 553. Ejus Opera in duos tomos digesta, Lvgd, 73., without date, 8vo ; repub- lished 1550 et 1600. * Lorn at Grave in Brabant, 1515: died 1588. 288.] THEOSOPHY. 271 belief in witclicraft. After an adventurous life, Agrippa died 1535, at Grenoble. Theosophy. 288. The physician and theosophist Aureolus Theo- phrastiis Paracelsus (such were the names he assumed^), blended Chemistry and Therapeutics with the Neo- platonic and Cabbalistic mysticism. He was an ingeni- ous and original charlatan, with much practical inform- ation, and a sufficiently penetrating spirit of observa- tion, who though destitute of scientific information, aspired to the character of a reformer in Medicine. To effect this he made use of the Cabbalistic writers, whom he endeavoured to render popular, and expounded with a lively imagination. Among the principal mystic notions which he enlarged upon without method or consistency (very frequently so as scarcely to be intelligible), were those of an internal illumination, — an emanation from the Divinity, — the universal harmony of all things, — the influence of the stars on the sublunar world, — and the vitality of the elements, which he regarded as spirits en- cased in the visible bodies presented to our senses. His grand principle was a pretended harmony and sympathy between Salt, the Body, and the Earth : between Mer- cury, the Soul, and Water ; between Sulphur, Spirit, and Air. His extravagancies found a good number of parti- sans*. As a mystic and theosophist Valentine Weigel*^ * His real names were Philip Theophrastus Bombast von Ilohenheim ; born at Einsiedeln in Switzerland, 1493 ; died at Salzbourg, 1541. ' t J.J. LoEs, Theophrastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim, a Dissertation in the Studien of Creuzer and Daub., torn. I. Cf. Sprengel, Hist, of Medi- cine, part III. Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Physicians of the close of the Sixteenth and commencement of the Seventeenth Centuries, pub- lished by Thad. Ansel5i. Rixner, and Thad. Siber, fasc. I. Theophrastus Paracelsus, Sulzbach, 1819, 8vo. Phil. Theophrasti Paracelsi Volumen Medicinal Paramirum, Argent. 1575, Bvo. and. Works of Paracelsus, published by Jon. Huser, -Bos. 1589, 10 vols. 4to. Strasb. 1616—18, 3 vols. fol. " Born at Hayne in Misnia, 1533 ; was a Lutheran minister at Tschopau in Misnia, and died 1588. I 272 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. followed the steps of Paracelsus and Tauler (§ 275); but the doctrines of the former were especially propagated by the society of the Rosy-Cross, formed in the seven- teenth century, probably in consequence of a satiric poem " of the theologian Valentine Andrece (born at WUr- temberg, 158G, died 1654). §289. Cardanus de Vita Propria ; in the first part of his Works, Lugd. 1663, 10 vols. fol. — See Bayle's Dictionary. His Life, by W. R. Becker, in the Quartalschrift of Canzler and Meiners, year 3rd, 3 qu. fasc. V. Id. : In his Lives and Opinions of celebrated Physicians, etc., fasc. II, Sulzbach, 1820, 8vo. Jerome Cardan ^, a celebrated physician, naturalist, and mathematician, resembled Paracelsus in his eccen- tricities ; but was greatly superior to him in information. During his youth, a delicate constitution and tyrannical treatment retarded his progress, and the prejudices of the day in favour of astrology, and the imagination of a familiar spirit, gave a misdirection to his studies, to be traced in his writings ; which treat of all sorts of sub- jects, and without any systematic order ^. Sometimes he supports, sometimes he opposes the superstitions of the Astronomers and Cabbalists, and mixes up profound ob- servations and ingenious and elevated ideas with the most capricious absurdities. The Theologians of his day, who HiLLiGER, De Vitti, Fatis, et Scriptis Val. Weigelii j and Fohtsch de Weigelio, in the Miscell. Lips. torn. X, p. 171. Weigelii I'ractatus de Opere Mirabili ; Arcanum Omnium Arcanorum ; t The Golden Touch, or, the Way to learn Infallibly all Things, etc. 1578, 4to., and 1616. Instruction and Introduction to the Study of German Theology, Philosophy, Mysticism, etc., 1571. Studium Universale j nosce te ipsum s. Theologia Astrologizata, 1618. * t TheChymical INIarriage of Christian Rosenkreutz, 1603. Thesame(Ax- due/e) ; Universal Reformation of the World by means of the fama fraterni- tatis of the Kosy-Cross, Eatisb. 1614, 8vo. y Geronimo Cardano, born at Pavia, 1501 ; died 1576. ''■ See especially his treatises : De Subiilitate, et Rerum \'arietate. 289,291.] OPPONENTS OF ARISTOTLE. 27;5 condemned him as heterodox, have accused him, without sufficient grounds, of atheism. II. Revival of' the System of Aristotle. Oj^ponenfs of the same. Sec the work of J. Launoy, De Varia Aristot. Fort., etc., mentioned § 2 13. W. L. G. Baron von Eberstein, On the Logical and Meta- physical System of the Peripatetics, properly so called, Hallcy 1800, 8vo. 290. Nevertheless, the theories of Aristotle had many defenders. The Scholastic system had long nourished in the minds of men a ])rofound veneration for the author of the Organum; and the education of the age inclined men to the reception of his ideas. When his works came to be known in their original form, they were eagerly stu- died, explained, translated, and abridged. Among the theologians, and physicians in particular, was formed a numerous school of his adherents. The latter especially, who were inclined to Naturalism, were enabled to re- state on his authority certain doctrines belonging to Na- tural religion and philosophy. The distinction they drew between philosophical and religious Truth, served to pro- tect them from the censures of some zealous theologians. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Aristotelians were divided into two sects : the Acerroists, attached to the commentary of Averroes (§ 257), and the Alexandrists^ or successors of Alexander Aphrodisiensis (§ 183). These two parties drevv^ upon themselves so much notice by the acrimony of their disputes on the principles of Thought, and the Immortality of the Soul, that in 1512 the Lateran council endeavoured to cut short the dispute by pro- nouncing in favour of the more orthodox party. Italian Peripatetics. 291. Among the most renowned Peripatetics of Italy, we may remark P. Pomponatius"^ ^ of Mantua. His de- a Born 1462, died 1525 or 1530. Petri Pomponatii De Naturalium effectuum admirandorum Caiisis ieu T 274 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. votion to the doctrines of Aristotle did not prevent his originating many of his own, and detecting the weak points of his master's system. He endeavoured to arouse his contemporaries to more profound investigations, dis- cussing 'Nvith singular force and acuteness various sub- jects, such as : The Immortality of the Soul, — Free.-will, — Fate, — Providence, — and Enchantment, or Demonology (or to express it more fully) — the question whether the phenomena of nature which bear the appearance of being marvellous, are produced by the agency of Spirits (as the Platonists pretended), or that of the constellations. Hav- ing asserted that, according to Aristotle there is no cer- tain proof to be adduced of the Immortality of the Soul, Pomponatius drew upon himself a violent and formidable controversy, in which he defended himself by asserting the distinction to be maintained between revealed and natural religion. Many superior men were formed in his School, such as Simon Porta or Portias^, Pauliis Jovius^, Julius Caesar Scaliger^, who subsequently opposed Car- dan ^ ; the cardinal Gasparo Contaiim, and Augustus Ni- p/ius ^ (who became his adversaries) : the Spaniard J, Genesius Sepuheda^-^ and lastly, the paradoxical free- de Incantationibus liber. Ejusdem : De Fato, Libero Arbitrio, Praedestina- tione, Providentia Uei, libb. V, in quibus difficillima capita et quaestiones Theologicae et Philosophicae ex sana Orthodoxae Fidei Doctrina explicantur et multis raris historiis passim illustrantur per auctorem, qui se in omnibus Ca- nonicae Scripturae Sanctorumque Doctorum judicio submittit, Basil. Fen. 1525 — 1556—1567, fol. Ejusdem; Tractatus de Immortalitate Animas, Bonon. 1516, etc. Tlie latest edit., publ. by Ciiph. Gottfr. Baruili, contains an account of the life of Pomponatius. See also; Jo. Gfr. Olearii Diss, de Petro Pomponatio, Jen. 1709, 4to. Porta De Rerum Naturalibus Principiis de Anima et Mente Humana, Pior. 1551, 4 to. •» Sim. Porta, died 1555. <= Paolo Giovio, born at Como 1483, died 1552. •J Delia Scala, born at Ripa 1484, died 1559. ^ In his Exercitationcs de Subtilitate. ^ Born 1473, died 1546. Libri VI, De Intellectu et Daemonibus, Ven. 1492, fol. Et: Opera Philos., Ven. 1559, 6 vols. fol. Opusc. Moralia et Politica, Paris. 1645, 4to. e Born 1491, died 1572. 292.] GERMAN PERIPATETICS. 27.') thinker LuciUo Vamm^\ burnt at Toulouse in IGIO. Be- sides Poniponatius (who was the head of the school of Alexandrists), this sect boasted other learned men who were not among his disciples ; such as, Nicolas Leonicus, surnamed Thowreus^\ Jacobus Zabarella^, who differed on some points from Aristotle ; Ccrsar Cremouimis ', and Francis Piccolomini , etc. On the side of the Averroists, with the exception of Alexander Achillinus of Bologna "" (who was styled the second Aristotle) ; Marc Antony Zimara ", of San-Pietro in the kingdom of Naples ; and the fomous Aristotelian Andretv Cesalplni'^, we find no names of great celebrity. Cesalpini turned Averroism into an absolute Pantheism, by daring to represent the Deity not only as the cause, but as the subject-matter and substance of the world : and identified with the Uni- versal Intellisjence the minds of individual men, and even of animals. He asserted the immortality of the soul and the existence of Daemons. German Peripatetics. See the Dissertation of Elswick, quoted § 243. -j- A. H. C. Heeren, a few words on the Consequences of the Reformation as afFecting Philosophy. In the Reformat'ions- almanach of Kayser, 1819, p. 114, sqq. ^ Lucilio, or Julius Caesar Vanini, was born at Naples, about 1586. Amphitheatrura ^ternag Providentiae, etc., Lugd. 1615, 8vo. De Adrairandis Naturae, Arcanis, etc. libb. IV, Paris. 1616, Bvo. Life, Misfortunes, Character, and Opinions of Lucilio Vanini, an Atheist of the Seventeenth Century, etc, by W. D. F., Leips. 1800, Bvo. ' Born at Venice 1457, died 1533. *^ Born at Padua 1532, died 1589. De Inventione Primi Motoris, Fcf. 1618, 4to. 0pp. Philosophica, ed. J. J. Havenreuter, Fcf. 1623, 4to. ' Cesare Cremonini, born at Centi, in the duchy of Modena, A.D. 1552, died 1630. Cjps. Cremonini liber de Paedi^ Aristotelis. Diatyposis Universae Naturalis Aristotelic.ne Philosophise. Illustres Contemplationes de Auim^. Tractatus tres de Sensibus Externis, de Internis et de Facultate Appetitiv^, "> Alessandro Achillini, died 1512. n Died 1532. " Born at Arezzo 1509, died 1603. Andreae Cesalpini Quaestion. Peripateticie libb. V, Veuet. 1571, fol. Da.^- monum Investigatio Peripatetica, Ven. 1593, 4to. T 2 276 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. 292. Although Luther and Melanchthon p, in the begin- ning of the Reformation entertained unfavourable senti- ments towards the Aristotelian philosophy, on the same principle that they denounced the system of the School- men, both, nevertheless, lived to renounce this preju- dice, and Melanchthon especially, not only asserted the indispensabilty of philosophy as an auxiliary to theology, but recommended especially that of Aristotle, without confining this praise to his logic''. In Ethics, however, he maintained the principle of Morality to be the will of God. On one occasion only was war afterwards declared against philosophy (about 1621), by Dan. Hoffmann , pro- fessor of Theology at Helmstadt ; and his two disciples, J. Angelas Werdenhagen (§ 321, note), and Wenceslaiis Schilling^. The philosophy of Aristotle, disencumbered of the subtilties of the Schoolmen (though these were speedily succeeded by others), owed the favour which it enjoyed in the Protestant universities, to the authority of Melanchthon ; and a swarm of commentaries and abridg- ments of this system presently appeared, which at all events served to keep in practice those attached to such studies. Among such we may particularise Joachim Ca- merarius, who died at Leipsic 1574. The credit of Aristotle became in this manner re-esta- blished, and so continued till about the middle of the seventeenth century ; nor was it materially affected by the desertion of a few, who like Nicolaus Taurellus % the op- P Born at Bretten 1497, died 1560. 1 Melanchthonis Oratio de Vita Aristotelis, habita a. 1537, torn. II, De- clamatt., p. 381, sqq. ; et torn. Ill, p. 351, sqq. ; Dialectica, Viieb. 1534. Ini- tia Doctrinffi Physica;, 1547; Epitome Philosophise INIoralis, Viteb. 1589; De Anima, 1540, Bvo. ; Ethicae Doctrinae Elementa, Viteb. 1550. These dif- ferent works have been frequently republished, and were edited with his works at large by Caspar Peucer, Viteb. 1562, 4 vols. fol. ' Dan. Hofmann, Qui sit Veras ac Sobria^ Philosophic in Theologiii Usus? Helmst. 1581. See Corn. Martini Scriptum de Statibus controversis, etc. Helmstadii agitatis inter Dan. Hofmannum et quatuor Philosophos, Lips. 1620, 12mo. " Born at Miimpelgard 1547, died 1606. Nic. Taurelli Philosophiae Triumphus, Basil. 1573, Bvo. Alpes Caesae (against Cesalpini), Fcf. 1597, Bvo. Discussiones de Mundo adv. Fr. Pic- 293.] OPPONENTS OF ARISTOTLE. 277 ponent of Cesalpini, seceded a little from the prevailing doctrines. Opponents of the Aristotelian Pkilosophij. 293. Notwithstanding, the adversaries of the Aristo- telian system daily increased in number. Without touch- ing upon other Schools more or less opposed to his (whose universality of system impeded their progress), we may enumerate, besides Nicolaus Taurellus just men- tioned, Franc, Patrizzi^ Bruno, Berigard, Magnenus, Telesius, and Campanella : (all of whom we shall have occasion to mention hereafter); with Peter Ratni/s^, one of the ablest opponents of the Peripatetic System, and a distinguished mathematician. He engaged in the dis- pute from a disgust for the technicalities of the Schools, and laboured to give popularity to a more accessible kind of philosophy, but was deficient in a true philo- sophical spirit, and without an adequate comprehension of the principles of Aristotle ; which he attacked with- out measure or moderation; asserting that they were a tissue of error. Logic was the point he first ob- jected to"; asserting that it was altogether factitious, without order, and without perspicuity; at the same time that he composed a new one '', more adapted to practical use, which he wished to substitute for that of Aristotle. He defined it to be, " Ars bene disserendi," and considered Rhetoric to be an essential branch of it. Notwithstanding the attacks of his many enemies, who colominium, Amb. 1603, 8vo. ; Marb. 1603, 8vo. Discussiones de Ccelo, Amh. 1603, 8vo. See Jac. G. Feuerlin, Diss. Apologetica pro Nic Tau- rello, De Rerum ^ternitate, Norimb. 1734, 4to. With the Synopsis Aristo- telis INIetaphysices. ' Properly called P. de la Ramee, of a poor family in Picardy; born 1515; killed at Paris in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. JoH. Thom. Freigii Vita Petri Rami, at the end of Audomari Taltei Ora- tiones, Marb. 1599. Besides the works of Ramus mentioned § 143 and 146; see the following notes. " Animadversiones in Dialecticam Aristotelis, libb. XX, Paris. 1534, 4to. * Institutiones Diulecticai, lib. II, Paris, 1543, Bvo., 1548 ; Scholar Dia- lecticae in Liberales Artcs, Bas. 1559, fol. Orationes Apologetics, Paris. 1551, 8vo., et al. 278 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. were fcy no means temperate in their animosity, he at- tracted some partisans (called after him Ramists), especi- ally in Switzerland, England, and Scotland. Among others, Audomar Talceus^ {Taloii), his two disciples Thom. Fre- ights of Fribourg ^, and Franc. Fabricius ; Fr. Beii- chus ; Wilh. Ad, Scribomus ; Gasp. Pfaffrad^ ; Riid. Go- clenius **, who gave his name to a species of Sorites ; an Eclectic and able psychologist '^ ; and Otto Casmann^ a pupil of the latter, who laboured to complete a system of metaphysics relative to the luiman mind*^. To these may be added the celebrated English poet Milton. The principal opponents of Ramus were. Ant. Govea, Joach. PerioniuSj and Charpentier, the Aristotelian, (see biblio- graphy at the head of §§ 140, 141, 143) ; who also was his murderer on the day of St. Bartholomew. In Germany the principal were, J. Schegk^, Nic. Frischlin, Phil. Scherbius^y and Corn. Martini^. III. Revival of Stoicism. 294. The Stoic doctrines during this period were not altogether without partisans and supporters ; but notwith- standing all the advantage they may be supposed to have derived from the dissemination of the works of Cicero and Seneca, and their seeming consistency with the Christian Morals, they did not gain as many adherents as some other philosophical systems. This is ascribable in part to the peculiar theories (in physics and morals) of the y The friend of Ramus. Died at Paris in 1562. * Died 1583. a Died 1622. b Born at Corbach 1547, died at Marbourg 1628. c ^w^oXoyi'a, h, e. De Hominis Perfectione, Anim^ et Imprimis Ortu, etc., Marh. 1590—1597, 8vo. Ejusd. : Isagoge in Org. Aristotelis, Fcf. 1598, 8vo. Problemata Log. et Philos., Marh. 1614, 8vo. Cf. $ 129. •^ Psychologia Anthropologica sive Animaj Humanee Doctrina, Hanau. 1594, 8vo. ^ Professor of Natural Philosophy at Tubingen; died 1587. f Died 1605. g Died 1621. 294, 295.] VARIOUS ESSAYS. 279 Stoics, and partly to the influence of the prevaiHng spirit of the age, and the estabhshed forms of instruction. The writer who principally attached himself to these doctrines, at the period of which we are treating, was Justus Lipslus (Joost Lipss •"). Originally he favoured the Scholastic system, which he abandoned for the culti- vation of Classical literature ; particularly the works of Cicero and Seneca. Celebrated as a critic and philolo- gist, he became (though never in the proper sense of the word, a philosopher), an able expositor of the Stoic system. All that he w^anted to make him a true Stoic, (as he himself has confessed), was Constancy and Con- sistency. He seems rather to have aimed at preparing the minds of his readers for the study of these doctrines, especially as given in Seneca, than to have attempted the restoration of the system. Casp. Scioppius {Schoppe)\ a man of equivocal character, published extracts from the works of Lipsius. Thom. GataJier^ an Englishman*^, occupied himself with the historical department of this system, as well as CL Sal/tiasius, and Dan. HeinsiusK ORIGINAL ESSAYS AND PARTICULAR COMBI- NATIONS OF PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. I. Various Essays, 295. In the midst of these attempts to re-establish the theories of antiquity ; while the old and the new doctrines were brought into constant competition, and the esta- blished system not only endeavoured to repulse the at- tacks which were constantly levelled at it, but to acquire •' Born at Isea, near Brussels, 1547; died 1606. JusTi Lipsii libb. II, De Constanti^, Franco/. 1591, 8vo. Ejusd.; Opera, Aniverp. 1637, 4 vols. fol. * Born 1576; died 1649. k Born 1574; died 1644. ' Dan. Heinsii Oratt. In the Works of Scioppius and Gataker, consult the Bibliog. ^ 158 and 163. 280 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Ill . fresh credit by reconciling its discordant doctrines might be remarked from time to time some superior spirit who had the courage to quit the beaten track, and at- tempt a new one of his own ; though unhappily, from the want of well-established principles for his guidance, he too usually fell into considerable errors. Among these we must reckon the German, Nic. Taurellus, already mentioned (§ ^92), who laboured to draw a still stronger line of demarcation between philosophy and theology, and looked upon Reason as the proper source of philo- sophic knowledge. Of the Italians, Cardan (§ 289), and Vanini (§ 291), and of the French P. Ramus, who meditated a reform of philosophy. As by this time the old established Scholastic method of drawing all know- ledge from abstract ideas, was insufficient to satisfy men's minds, they attempted to attain more certain conclusions by the way of experiment. This principle was especially followed up by the Political writers and Naturalists. Among the former Niccolo MaccJiiavelU^j a statesman, matured by the study of the Classics and by knowledge of the world, had in his Principe (1515) given with great ability a picture of Political men, such as he had generally found them: and John Bodin'^, having in his Republic discarded the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, had en- deavoured to explain the principles of a form of govern- ment neither a Monarchy nor a Democracy, and regulated by mixed principles of strict justice and accommodating policy. II. Tele sins. Fr. Baco, De Principiis et Originibiis Secmidum Fabulas Cu- piclinis et Coeli, sive de Parmenidis et Telesii et Prsecipiie De- '" A writer who particularly distinguished himself on this side was the Thomht Fr. Suarez, (died 1617) ; by his Disputationes JMetaphysicae, Mo- ginit. 1614. " Born at Florence 1496; died 1527. Jon. Fr. Christii De Nic. Macchiavello libb. Ill, Lips, et Hal. 1731, 4to. Opere 1550, 4to., etc., Milan. 1805, 10 vols. 8vo. ; Flor, 1820, 10 vols. 8vo. o {Bodinus), born at Angers, about 1550; died 1596. De la Ri-publique, Penis, 1576, fol. and 1578. In Latin 1586, fol. I 296.] TELESIUS. / 281 mocriti Philosophia Tractata in Fabula de Cupidine. (^p. tpmJ III, ed. Elz., p. 208. ^'^wj f r^ Jo. Ge. Lotteri Diss, dc Bcrnardini Telesii Philosophi ttali Vita et Philosophia, L\i)s. 1726-1733, 4to. "I" Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Physicians at the end of the Sixteenth and beginning of the Seventeenth Cen- turies. Published by Tii. Aug. Rixner and Siber ; fasc. Ill, Sulzh. 296. A Reformation was attempted in Natural Phi- losophy hy BernarcUniis Telesius. Born 1508, at Cosenza in the kingdom of Naples, he received a Classical edu- cation from an uncle at Milan, and subsequently, at Rome ; and at Padua devoted himself with ardour to philosophi- cal and mathematical studies, and from which he im- bibed a disinclination for the doctrines of Aristotle. At a more advanced age he published with great success his work De Naturd juxta Propria Principia p. He became a teacher of Natural Philosophy at Naples, and founded an academy named after him, Telesiana and Consentina; which was intended to demolish the Aristotelian philoso- phy. He was compelled by the persecutions he under- went from the monks to retire to Cosenza, where he died 1588- His system is one of pvn-e Naturalism, and bears some resemblance to the views of Parmenides (§ 99). His chief objection to those of Aristotle is, that he laid down as principles mere abstractions, {abstracta et non entia). He himself maintained the existence of two incorporeal and active principles. Heat and Cold ; and a corporeal passive principle, Matter; on which the other two exercise their influences. He derived the heavens from Heat, and the earth from Cold ; and attempted, in a very unsatis- factory manner, to account for the origin of secondary natures by a supposed perpetual conflict between the Heavens and Earth. Having attributed sensation to his two incorporeal principles, he went on to assign souls to plants and animals in general. He drew however a broad P The two first books appeared at Home 1565, in 4to. The entire woik. was published at Naples in 1586 and 1588. 282 THIHD PERIOD. [sect. distinction between the immortal soul of Man, and that of other animals, and asserted that it was the immediate gift of God at the time of conception "i. He maintained that Sensation was not absolutely passive, but a perception of changes operated in the mind itself'. Knowledge ac- quired by means of inference he described as a species of imperfect Sensation. Independently of these theories Te- lesius was an Experimentalist and Materialist. His ad- versaries Marta and CJiiocci were, in their turn, attacked by Campanella% (infra). III. Franc, Patrh^i, or Patritius, •\ Lives and Opinions of the most celebrated Physicians, etc. ; published by Rixner and Siber ; fasc. IV: Fr. Patrizzi, Sulzh. 1823, 8vo. 297. Fi\ Patrizzi *, the author of a new theory of ema- nation, borrowed the materials of it from all quarters, but principally from the Neoplatonists, and the pretended records of Primitive Mysticism collected by them; as well as from the system of Telesius. He commenced this undertaking by an elaborate refutation of Aristotle". Nevertheless he attempted^ a theory of light, according to the Aristotelian method. He affects to divide his sub- ject into four parts, viz. : Panaugia, Panarchia, Pamp- sycliia and Pancosmia : and cites to support his theories a number of apocryphal mystic books y. Wisdom he defines to be Universal Science. Light is in all things the primal object of knowledge. Philosophy, therefore, or the investigation of Truth, ought to begin with the pounded it is immortal, — without limits to its energies, — and, by extension and contraction, it forms and fashions its own body. To be born is the consequence of such expansion of the Centre ; Life consists in the maintenance of a Spheri- cal shape, and Death is the contraction into the same Centre. The highest end of all free-agents is the same with that of the Divine Intellect ; namely, the perfection of the Whole. Bruno's system is nothing more than that of the Eleatag and Plotinus corrected and extended : a sort of Pan- theism f? by many misunderstood as a system of Athe- ism ; set forth with a persuasive eloquence springing from the author's own conviction, and with great richness of Imagination; and engaging the attention by a multi- tude of striking and noble ideas. The system of Bruno continued long neglected, or misunderstood, till the theories of Spinoza and Schelling directed towards it a degree of revived attention. V. Sceptical wiiters. 302. Many combined causes now gave birth to a new species of philosophical scepticism in certain calm and vigorous minds, which manifested itself according to the peculiar characters and habits of each. These causes t [Pantheism, it will be remembered, presumes the whole Universe to par- take of the Divine Nature ; or, in other words, that the Divine Nature is ex- tended to all parts of the Creation, and animates them all. Trans.'] 302, 303.] MONTAIGNE. 289 were, the renewed study of the old philosophers ; the awakened spirit of original investigation ; the extended sphere of experimental observation ; with the craving which began to be felt for more certain knowledge and better established principles; with all the discussions and theories which these causes set in motion, diversified ac- cording to the characters of their respective authors. Montaigne. Essais de Michel de Montaigne, Bordeaux^ 1580 ; Lond. 1724 ; Paris. 1725, 3 vols. 4to ; Lond. 1739, 6 vols. 12mo, etc. Eloge de Mich, de Montaigne, Couronne a I'Acad. de Bor- deaux en 1774 (par l'Abbe de Talbert), Par. 1775, 12mo. Eloge Analytique et Historique par De la Dixmerie, Par. 1781, 8vo. 303. Michel de Montaigne, or Montagne^, was the first of his age who inclined to the philosophy of Doubt. With a mind highly cultivated by the study of the An- cients, and of History ; with great knowledge of the World and Men, he contemplated human life as it is pre- sented to us, in its multiplicity and inconsistency ; with- out analysing these discrepancies so as to arrive at unity and consistency. His acute observation of the disagree- ment existing between all philosophical theories produced in him a way of thinking akin to positive Scepticism in matters of philosophy ; and he pronounced the uncer- tainty of human knowledge and the feebleness of human reason to be the grand conclusions to which all his ob- servations had led him ; reposing with a sincere faith on the authority of Divine Revelation. The uncertainty which he ascribed to all human science he extended even to matters of practice, without however denying the truth of practical obligations. His opinions are expressed with admirable candour and modesty in his delightful Essays, the originality and graces of which will ahvays make the book a favourite with men of taste ; though his philosophy has been very differently estimated by diflferent « Born in a castle of the same name in Perigord, 1533 ; died 1592. 290 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. critics. Though his own character and conduct were free from the reproach of immoraUty and irrehgion, his work has unquestionably the defect of not doing justice to its author's real sentiments ; nay, even of encouraging the contrary. Pierre Char r on. •\ De la Sagesse ; trois livres, par P. Charron, J^orrfeawa*, 1601 ; edit, expurg. Par. 1604. Eloge de P. Charron, par G. M. D. R. (George Michel de Rochemaillet), prefixed to the Works of Charron, Par. 1607. See Bayle. 304. Montaigne had great influence over two distin- guished authors of his own day : Etienne Bo'etie (died 1563), Counsellor of the parliament of Bourdeaux ; who in his Discours de la Servitude Voluntaire, set forth with considerable talent his republican principles : and Pierre Charron (born at Paris 1541), a celebrated preacher, and a man of ability and estimable character ; but who in consequence of his intimacy with Montaigne, having unhappily contracted a habit of Scepticism, in- dulged in some unwarrantable speculations on religious topics. According to him. Wisdom (La Sagesse), is the free investigation of what is common and habitual. The desire of knowledge is natural to man ; but Truth resides with God alone, and is undefinable by human reason. On this principle he grounds another, of distrust and indifference with regard to all science ; a bold dis- belief of Virtue (or the appearance of it) ; and even of great doctrines of Religion (particularly the immortality of the Soul) ; alleging that its external history did not correspond with its divine original, and the ideas he was pleased to form of God, and the worship of God. On the other hand he insisted upon the obligations of a certain Internal Religion connected with Virtue, and founded in the knowledge of God and Self, and exhorted to the practice of moral duties derived from a certain everlasting and imperishable law of Nature, which has 304, 305.] PIERRE CHARRON. 291 been implanted in the understanding by God Himself, and contains the highest Good of Man. This crude theory he expressed with some eloquence, and died 1G03, de- cried by many as an atheist ; which he did not altogether deserve. 305. We perceive that the human mind had, in the period of which we are treating, attempted many paths, already opened, to the mysteries of knowledge, by the ways of Revelation, Reason, and Experiment^. None of them had been pursued far enough ; because, occu- pied with the pursuit of results and conclusions, men had omitted to begin by examining themselves, and their own faculties, instead of the objects contemplated by the latter. They had not yet inquired in what respects Revelation may be justly expected to supply information: nor had the pretensions of Experiment and Reason to be severally the fountain-heads of knowledge been balanced, or ad- justed. A sort of Scepticism, grounded on experiment and observation, discouraged the pride of human reason, without having the effect of silencing its inquiries ; and rather busied itself with diving again into the exhausted mines of ancient disputes, than attempted any fresh proofs of the Certainty of Knowledge. A species of intellectual anarchy and chaos seemed for a time to prevail: the more exact knowledge derived from the writings of the ancients contributing rather to increase than to still the commotion ; till it ended in something like an universal fermentation, which slowly defecated. An immense mass of unorganised knowledge and misdirected views con- tended together, till the necessity came to be gradually felt of more systematic and better-founded inquiries ; and to attain this end gigantic efforts were made, which became continually more effectual and more universal. * [Reason and Experiment: the first is meant to imply the principle of the Rationalists : the latter of the Experimentalists, or Empirics. Transl.'] U 2 292 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. MODERN PHILOSOPHY. FROM THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO OUR OWN TIMES. A free and progressive sjnrit of inquiry into the piin- ciples, the laws, and limits of human Imowledge ; with at- tempts to systematise and combine them. 306. It was time that the human understanding should assume confidence in itself, and, relying on its own powers, force its way through the deep labyrinth of knowledge. Many causes which we have already enumerated com- bined to stimulate its exertions ; and among the most powerful w^ere the desire of elucidating the grounds of Religious and Moral knowledge ; and the wish to recon- cile and associate the Empiric and Rational systems. The philosophical systems of the Greeks continued to be examples of what might be effected, though they were no longer adhered to as models. The improvement in social habits, and the clearer views of moral duties, which Religion and established forms of Government had pro- moted, brought with them the necessity for a more per- fect system of Ethics than was to be found in the theories of the Ancients ; while the Scholastic system was found less and less capable of satisfying the demands of an in- creasing curiosity. The improvement effected in tlie Mathematical Sciences by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Toricelli, awakened a like enthusiasm among philo- sophers of another class ; which the analogy subsisting between their pursuits tended to promote. The grand question which began to influence such speculations was, the Origin and the Certainty of Knowledge ; with in- quiries as to the ultimate grounds of jMoral Right — Mo- ral Obligation, etc. Bacon and Descartes long exercised the most import- ant influence over succeeding philosophers, and caused 300.] MODERN PHILOSOPHY. 293 their respective principles to become for a time universal. The spirit of inquiry had been first awakened in Italy; but, being repressed there, had acquired a much more exten- sive dominion in England, France, and G*crmany. The researches of these two great men were intended to com- plete the fabric of philosophy ; but too impatient to arrive at the conclusion, they neglected to lay with suf- ficient care and accuracy a perfect foundation. Their followers felt themselves at liberty to consult their seve- ral tastes, and rushed either into a rashness of demon- stration^ which could end only in futility ; or devoted themselves to perpetual experiment, unallied to any hy- pothesis: while sober investigation of the powers of the mind itself, as the source of knowledge was, for a long time, neglected by both parties. The factions too of the Speculative and Practical philosophers came to be op- posed to each other : and, as each had much to ob- ject to the other, and much to say for themselves, they were successful in keeping up an interminable dis- pute, without any other result of their labours, but that of prejudicing the cause of philosophy in the minds of others. The Casuists and disciples of Thomas Aquinas on the one hand, and the Aristotelians (who preserved their authority among the Protestants, by whom Thomas was rejected) on the other, had long confined the atten- tion of their disciples principally to Speculative ques- tions ; and Practical philosophy had been almost en- tirely resigned into the hands of theologians. Gra- dually it became the practice to confirm the decrees of Civil Legislation by arguments derived from Revelation or from Reason : and as this caused philosophy to be- come more practical, so the habit of deducing all duties and all moral obligation from the will of God, as their ultimate source, gradually exalted it to speculation ; and brought about an union between the two systems, on the important subject of Morals. The improvements effected in the present period may be described as consisting in : A separation and distinction of Moral Philosophy from 294 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. 307. Science at large, and the assignment to it of an appro- priate and peculiar domain of its own : — A better per- ception of the essential requisites of a system of know- ledge, in its whole extent, and in its details : — A clearer discernment of the respective provinces and claims of Theology and Natural Reason: — The advancement of knowledge both in the materials collected and the man- ner in which they were arranged : — And an improvement in the method of philosophy.* o07. This period may be subdivided into two : the first extending to the end of the eighteenth century, and ca- pable of being distinguished into smaller epochs by the names of the great men who illumined it : the efforts at knowledge then made being principally of a Dogmatic character. The latter period commences with the con- cluding years of the eighteenth century, and embraces the labours of the Critical School, with the results to which they have led. * [In the above sketch I have omitted, as well as altered, much that is to be found in the original ; but which appeared to me more likely to weary by repetition, or confuse by its obscurity, than to instruct the reader. In consequence of the omission here made, the numbers of the sectiotts from this place to the end of the volume, differ from those of Tennemann ; (308 Trausl. — 316 Orig.) ; which, however, can occasion no difficulty to any one who may desire to refer to him, as the names of the philosophers will be a sufficient guide. Transt.^ I ^ FIRST PERIOD. FROM BACON TO KANT. FROM THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH. Fresh and independent Essays of Reason, with a more profound and Systematical Spirit of investigation. ATTEMPTS TO GROUND PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE ON EXPERIMENT. I. The Empirism of Bacon. Mallet's Life of Bacon, prefixed to his Works. Rawlay, the same ; and R. Stephen, Letters and Remains of Lord Chancellor Bacon, Lond. 1734, 4to. For the services rendered by Bacon to Philosophy, see Hey- DENREicH, in his transl. of Cromaziano, vol. I, p. 306 (Germ.). -j- Sprengel, Life of Bacon, in the (Halle) Biographia, vol. VIII, No. 1. 308. Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, appeared in England as a reformer of Philosophy ; a man of a clear and pene- trating judgment, great learning, great knowledge of the world and men, but of a character not free from reproach. He was born in London A. D. 1561 : attained the highest offices in the state, which he ultimately lost through his failings, and died 1626. In his youth, he studied the Aristotelian system of the Schools, and the Classics. The latter study, as well as the practical pursuits to which he presently devoted himself, taught him the poverty and insufficiency of the former. In his maturer age he applied himself to consider the means of reforming the Method 296 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. of Philosophy, to which end he composed some works ^, which by the new principles they developed had even greater influence over the fortunes of Philosophy than if he had completed an entire system of his own. 309. Bacon chose a new path, altogether diverging from the beaten one: instead of the syllogistic proof by argument, taking that of experiment by Induction : (which had been already imperfectly attempted by Telesius § 295), and proposing to re-construct the edifice of Human know- ledge. Although his views may be "said to be in some degree partial, yet he deserves the highest admiration and praise for his triumphant attacks on the School- philosophy ; for having applied for information to Nature and Experiment ; for having referred the question of Final Causes to Metaphysics rather than Physics ; for the clear development of certain points in the Science of Mind, e. g. that of the Association of Ideas; as also by his well-digested refutation of some of the super- stitions of his age, and the composition of his Organum as a new method of attaining to the knowledge of Nature ; (B. I, Aphor. 19, sqq.); and by his book, De Augmentis Scientiarum, which contains a masterly review of the Sciences, with his views for their enlargement and im- provement *^. To show how far Bacon was from being a mere experimentalist, it is sufficient to refer to his expres- sions relative to the science and object of Moral Philoso- phy. Science, he says, is nothing more than the image of Truth, inasmuch as Truth in Reality, and Truth in Knowledge, only differ as a direct ray of light does from a refracted one*^. The object of Philosophy is threefold, b DeDignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum (Latin) 1623: (English), Lond. 1605. His Works, Amsterd. 1663, 6 vols, l-2mo., with a Life by W. Rawlay : Lond. 1740, fol. 4 vols, by MALi-tx : and 1765, 5 vols. 4to. Novum Organum Scientiarum, l.ond. 1620, fol. c It is very likely that the works of Bacon suggested to J. Barclay his Treatise, called Icon Animorum, Lond. 1614, 8vo. We shall have occasion to speak of Cumberland and Hobbes presently. ■' De Augm. Sc, I, col. 18. 309, 310.] CAMPANELLA. 297 God — Nature — Man. Nature presents itself to our com- prehension, as it were, by a direct ray of light, while GocJ^,, r is revealed to us only by a reflected one". j^' ^v^\ .fUNIV. II. Philosophical system of Campanella. TiiOM.E Campanell.e, De Libris propriis, et recta ration^ studeiidi Syntagma (ed. Gabr. Naud.eus), Par. 1642, 8vo. ; Amstel. 1645 ; Rotterd. 1692, 4to. See also Crenit, Collectio Tractatuum de Philologiae studiis, liberalis Doctrinae Informatione et Educatione Literaria, Lugd. Bat. 1696, 4to. Ern. Sal. Cypriani, Vita et Philos. Thomae Campanellae, Amstel. 1705, 8vo.; ed. II, 1722, 8vo. Consult German Museum, 1780, No. XII, p. 481 ; and SciiRocKii, Biogr., etc. torn. I, p. 281 (Germ.). Prodromus Philosophiae Instaurandae, id est, Dissertationis de Natura Rerum Compendium secundum Vera Priiicipia ex Scriptis Th. Campanellae praemissum (per Tob. Adami), Francof. 1617, 4to. ■f Doctrine of Campanella on Human Knowledge, with some Remarks on his Philosophical System, by Fulleborn, Collect. Fasc. VI, p. 114. We have already had occasion (§ 295) to mention one work of Campanella, to which we may add these, at present sufficiently rare : De Sensu Rerum et Magia, Francf. 1620. Philosophise Ra- tionalis et Realis partes V, Paris. 1638, 4to. Universalis Phi- losopliiag sive Metaphysicarum Rerum juxta propria Dogmata partes tres, Paris. 1638, fol. Atheismus Triumphatus, Romce, 1631, fol. Ad Doctorem Gentium de Gentilismo non retinendo et de Praedestinatione et Gratia, Paris, 1636, 4to. Realis Phi- losophiae Epilogisticae partes IV : hoc est, De Rerum Natura, Ho- minum Moribus, Politica, cui Ci vitas solis adjuncta est, CEcono- mica cum Adnotationibus Physiologicis a Tobia Adami, nunc primum edita, Fz-rtwco/'. adM. 1623, 4to. Prodromus Philosophise Instaurandae. Civitas Solis, Ultraj. 1643, 12mo. Scelta d'Alcune Poesie Philosophiche di Septimano Squilla, 1632 (sine loco). 310. The contemporary of Bacon, Thomas Campanella, (born at Stilo in Calabria, 1568), made a like attempt to « De Augm. Sc. Ill, cap. 1. I 298 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. deduce all knowledge from experiment. Endowed with superior talents, and carefully brought up, he entered the order of Dominicans, and pursued his philosophical studies as a noviciate in the convent of Cosenza ; but when, by his own reflections as well as in consequence of the objections of Telesius*, he was led to suspect the universal authority of Aristotle, he shook off the preju- dices of his education, and endeavoured to satisfy his doubts by studying the remains of other ancient philoso- phers. But finding that these, as well as the remarks of Telesius himself, who attracted him by the freedom of his inquiries, were insufficient to set his mind completely at rest, he attempted knowledge by a path of his own. He admitted the existence of two sources, and only two, of all knowledge, Revelation and Nature: the first the origin oi Theology, the last oi Pliilosopliy : in other words, the Histories of God and of Mankind. Scepticism, with Campanella, was but a transitory state of the mind : he was too eager to supply its place by a dogmatic edifice of his own ; without having cleared his way to it by previous inquiry. He attempted too great a diversity of pursuits, and aspired to effect a reformation in every art and science, without having acquired a sufficient command of the necessary details. The adversities of his life con- tributed much to impede his progress as a philosophical reformer : for having been accused of disloyalty to the Spanish government, he was kept twenty-seven years in strict confinement; and when at last, in 16^6, acquitted and set at liberty, was obliged to remove for security to Paris, where he died 1639. 311. Campanella had a clear and philosophical under- standing, and extensive knowledge; with a genuine love of Truth ; which last he asserted to be the proper foun- dation of all philosophy. He also proposed a new ar- rangement of the Sciences. His views were often just * [It will be remembered that Telesius was born at Cosenza, where he died 1588. 7VrnKs/.] 311,312.] CAMPANELLA. 299 and clear, but his hasty and impatient Spirit prevented his bringing them to perfection. His principal efforts were directed to the construction of a system of Meta- physics containing the principles of Theology, Natural History, and Morals. He looked upon the Metaphysics of Aristotle (so called) as nothing more than a sort of Logic, and a Vocabulary. IMetaphysics is a necessary science, because our senses convey to us only that which is contingent and individual, without informing us as to the general relations of things and their real nature. Logic is not a science of that which is real and Pieces- sary — God and His creation — ; but an art of language adapted to philosophy (Phil. Rat. H, 2). The only avenue to knowledge is by the Senses ; — Sensation is the source of Knowledge [Sentire est Scire). Consistently with this theory he resolved into Sensation all the opera- tions of the mind (such as Memory, etc.), and asserted that Thought itself is nothing but a combination of the results of Sensation ; which combination itself is presented to us by means of Sense. 312. The object which Campanella had most at heart was the completion of a system of Dogmatism, which might be successfully opposed to Scepticism; and of which he gave a sufficiently accurate outline in his Meta- physics (lib. I). He either replies to the causes of doubt assigned by the Sceptic school, or invalidates them, or their consequences. He appeals to the natural desire felt by man to know, and to ascertain the grounds of knowledge. It is impossible even to deny the certainty of knowledge, without some ascertained principles of knowledge, which the Sceptic himself is compelled to refer to. He lays down certain incontestible principles of this kind drawn from general consent. Our senses in- form us. That we are, and that we are possessed of power, knowledge, and will : That our power, knowledge and will are limited : That even as we ourselves enjoy these faculties, so are they enjoyed by others also. Cam- panella did not advance beyond these first principles, be- 300 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. cause he was satisfied that the external world was a Revelation afforded by the Divine Being {operando), which, when compared with the Word of God, afforded the only satisfactory means of knowledge. 313. The great Metaphysical problem is, to give an account of external objects, and their existence. To solve this Campanella begins with the axiom, That ex- ternal objects exist and are presented to our senses. These appearances must be either true or false ; agree- ably to the obvious rule that a thing must either be, or not be ; and to the laws {Primalitates) of existence and non-existence. The Primal laws of existence are, Possi- bility or Power, {Potentia) ; Knowledge {Sapientia), and Sympathy or Love {A??ior). What can be — is : what is — must be. Every thing must possess sensation, and be the object of it; otherwise it would not exist to us. Every thing has its principle of self-preservation, and abhors annihilation ; without which it could not endure, nor energise, nor exist. The Primal laws of non-existence are Impossibility {Impotentia) ; Ignorance {Insipientid) ; and aversion {odium Metaphysicum). The three objects of the Primal laws of existence are, Being, Truth, and Good, of which the outward token is Beauty. These principles conduct the argument up to the consideration of God ; the highest Essence, or the highest Unity (Me- taph. VII, 1, sqq.). Campanella then describes the attri- butes and operations of the Divine Unity: Necessity is the result of Power, Destiny of Knowledge, and Harmony of Love. He built his system of Cosmology on Theology, as well as his contemplations respecting Psychology, etc., in which he followed the ideas of the Neoplatonists and Cabbalists, as well as those ofTelesius. He recognised in the world an Unity of Life, ( Mundiim esse Dei vivam statuam); and deduced his system of Divine Justice and the laws of necessity and chance, from certain considera- tions on the connection between Necessity and Existence ; and Non-existence and Accident. He maintained the Existence of an Incorporeal world, and of Spirits, which 313, 314.] CAMPANELLA. 301 put in motion the stars. The Soul is a corporeal spirit, which can recognise its own nature to be subtile, warm, and light. From its efforts after felicity, (unattainable in this life), he argued its immortality. In his practical system, which he grounded on the other, he brought forward several new ideas. The Infi- nite Being is the Supreme Good, the object and end of all things. Rehgion has revealed Him to us ; and points out the w^ay by which we may pass from the sensi- ble to the invisible world, and to the highest attainable perfection. It consists in the obedience to God, tlie love of Him, and the contemplation of tilings earthly and Divine. Some striking ideas are disclosed respecting Natural and Revealed religion. Internal and External, Innate and Acquired. 314. The system of Campanella is to be praised rather for its negative than its positive qualities. He displayed a genuine love of knowledge and of truth in the contest he sustained with the Aristotelian System of the Schools, with Atheism, and the false Politics of Macchiavelli ; as well as in the manner in which he asserted the ric^ht of the Understanding to attempt fresh and untried paths of Science ; but he has shown himself unable to solve the grand problems of philosophy, by the inadequacy of his principles, the want of coherence in his system, and the slender union that subsists between his own ideas and those he has associated with them of others. It ought not, however, to be forgotten, that he had the merit of having first distinctly proposed such problems for solu- tion, and attempted to effect the same, with views favour- able to rational Knowledge and Religion. (See his Treatise, De Gentilissmo non Retinendo.) 302 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. III. Modifications of the Ionic and Atomistic Schools. Basso, Berigard, Magnenus, Sennert, Gasseiidi. 315. When the Aristotelian system was laid aside as confessedly deficient, particularly with respect to Natural History, an attempt was made to revive the Ionic and Atomistic doctrines. After Sebastian Bassos ^ attack on the Physics of Aristotle (see Bibliography § 143) many others came forward to revive ancient doctrines or pro- pose new ones. Claude de Guillemert de Berigard^ ad- vanced a theory, on the Eclectic plan, borrowed partly from the lonians, and partly from the Atomic philosophers, and maintained that it was conformable to the Christian system, while he opposed the Aristotelian hypothesis of an original Matter '^. Another Frenchman, Jean-Chrysostbme Magnenus^, recommended the system of Nature of Demo- critus, as affording an adequate solution of natural pheno- mena, Dav, Sennert^ also attempted to remodel Physics on the principles of Democritus '. He maintained that Form and Matter are independent of each other, and asserted that Souls were created by the Divine Being out of Nothing; which brought him into a dispute with J. Freitag, (a professor at Groningen) in which he was defended by his disciple J, Sperling. Pietro Gassendi"", styled by Gibbon "the most learned of the philosophers of his age, and the most philosophical of the learned," undertook to defend and review with im- f About 1621. s Or Beauregard, born at Moulins 1578 ; died at Padua 1667, or later. '» CiRcuLi PisANi, seu de Veterum et Peripatetica Philosophia Dialog!, Udin. 1643—47, 4to. Patav. 1661. • Born at Luxevil, and professor of Medicine at Pavia, the author of Demo- critus Reviviscens, sive Vita et Philosophia Democriti, Ticini, 1646, 12mo. Liigd. Bat. 1648 ; et Hag. Com. 1658, 12mo. k Born at Breslau 1572, died 1637. • Dan. Sonnerti Hypomnemata Physica de Rerum Naturalium Principiis, Franco/. 1635-36, 12mo. Physica, Viteh. 1618, 8vo. Opera Omnia, Venet. 1641 ; Lugd. Bat. 1676, 6 vols. fol. •» Petrus Gassendus j born at Chartansier in Provence 1592; died at Paris 1655. 315, 316.] GROTIUS. 303 partiality the system of Epicurus ", which he asserted had not yet been done. He distinguished himself by his dis- coveries in Mathematics, Physics, and Philosophy, in all of which he displayed great judgment and learning; and was a redoubtable adversary of Aristotle °, Fludd^, and Descartes''. With a laudable love of truth he drew a true picture of the life and character of Epicurus ^, and illustrated his philosophy, without concealing the faults he had committed in respect of Theology and the doctrine of Final Causes. He endeavoured to erect upon Epicu- rism a philosophical system of his own ^ Ein. Maigfian (or Maignanus^), who attempted to revive the dreams of Empedocles, excited less attention. IV. Law of Nations of Grotius. 316. But philosophy now began to extend her re- searches from External Nature to the questions of Civil Right. Hugo Grotius, (properly Hugo de Groot "J a dis- n Sam. Sorberii Diss, de Vit^ et Moribus Petri Gassendi, prefixed to his Syntagma Philos. Epicuri. t Bernier, Abrege de la Philosophic de Gasseudi, Paris, 1678, 8vo. Lugd, Bat. 1684, 12mo. BuGEREL, Vie de P. Gassendi, Paris, 1737, 12mo. See also Lettre Cri- tique et Historique a I'auteur de la Vie de P. Gassendi, ibid. 1737, 12mo. Petri Gassendi Opera Omnia, Lvgd. 1658, 6 vols. fol. et Flor. 1727. ° Exercitationes Paradoxicae adversus Aristoteleos, libb. I, Gratianopl. 1624, Bvo. ; libb. II. Hag. C. 1659, 4to. ; (and the Answer of Engelcke) ; Censor Censuri Dignus; Philosophus Defensus, Rostock, 1697. With Disput. adv. Gassendi, lib. I, Exercitationum V, ibid. 1699. P Examen Philosophiae Rob. Fluddi. ^ Dubitationes et Instantiee ad. Cartesium. "■ Syntagma Philosophise Epicuri cum refutationibus Dogmatum quae contra Fidem Christianam ab eo asserta sunt; praefigitur Sorberii Dissert, de Vita et Moribus P. Gassendi, Hag. Com. 1655-59, 4to. ; Loud. 1668, 12mo. Aynst. 1684, 4to. ' Syntagma Philosophicum, Oper. vol. I. t Born 1601 ; died 1671. jNIaignani Cursus Philosophicus, Tolosce, 1652, 4 vols, and Lugd. 1673, ,fol. " Bom at Delft 1583 ; died at Rostock 1645. Vita Hugonis Grotii, Lugd. Bat. 1704, 4to. (P. Ambr. Lehmann), Grotii [Manes ab iniquis Obtrectationibus Vindicati, Delft. 1721 ; Lips. 1732, 3vo. 304 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. tinguished Philologist, Theologist, Jurist, and Statesman, of great learning, and a clear and sound judgment, opened the way to a new study, that of International Law, by his celebrated work on the Rights of Peace and of War ''j the first example of a philosophical statement of Na- tional Law. Some learned men had indeed prepared the way by similar labours, among others, J. Oldendorp^, Nicolas Hemming ^, Bened. Winkler, and Alb. Gentilis *. The humane and exalted mind of Grotius was led to this undertaking by the Christian wish to diminish, if possible, the frequency and the horrors of war. He took as the foundation of his argument the elements of Natural Right, and applied his immense erudition to show the universal assent paid by all nations to the principles of Right and Justice, His mode of proof was obviously a species of Induction, which he may have borrowed from his contemporary Lord Bacon. Grotius is sometimes carried away, by the abundance of his learning, from the course of his argument, but nevertheless distinguished himself above any of his predecessors by his superiority to prejudice, and prescription. He considers our idea of Right to be the result of a moral faculty, and derives its first principles from the love of society (socialitas) ; hence the obligation of defending that society (societatis custodia) ; and distinguishes between natural Right and Law, ( Dictamen rectce rationis), and positive (Jus volun- tarium), whether of Divine or Human original; fre- Life of Grotius, by Gasp. Brand, and ad. V. Cattenburg. Dordr. 1727-32, 2 vols. fol. (Dutch). t Vie de M. Hugo Grotius, par M. de Burigny, Paris, 1752, 2 vols. 12mo. t Hugo Grotius, his Life, etc. by H. Luden, Berl. 1807, 8vo. (Germ.). ^ De Jure Belli et Pacis, Paris, 1625, 4to. cum Commentario W. van DER MuELEN et aliorum, Amstelod. 169G — 1703, 3 vols. fol. Best edition, Lausanne, 1751, 4 vols. 4to. Grotius illustratus Op. H. et S. de Cocceji, Wratislv. 1745-52, 4 vols. fol. y Born 1506 ; died 1567. ' Born at Laland 1513; died 1600. * Born 1551 at Castello di San Genesio, in the March of Ancona, died 1611. De .Ture Belli Libri tres, Hanau. 1539, 8vo; ibid. 1612. 315, 316.] MATERIALISM OF IIOBRES. 305 qiicntly ivncmg positive law up to Revelation as its imme- diate source. He draws a distinction also between perfect and imperfect Right: between legal and moral obligation. Although Grotius did but lay open this rich mine of inquiry, we are indebted to him not only for having suggested the pursuit, but for having contributed towards it a valuable stock of materials. His work has formed an era in literature, and been the subject of nu- merous, and often contradictory, commentaries. Sehlen ^ by his Natural Law of the Hebrews, which was followed up by Zenfgrave^ and Alberti^i authors of the Natural Law of Christianity, — pursued a totally different system, and derived Right from the conditions of a state of Innocence. V. Materialism of Hobbes. Thomne Ilobbes, Angli Malmesburiensis Vita, (Auct. J. Au- bery), Carolopoli, 1G81, 12mo. Fr. Casp. Hagemii Memoriae Philosophorum, Oratorum, Baruthu. 1710, 8vo. Rettwig, Epistola de Veritate Philosopliia3 Hobbesianae, Brem. 1695, 8vo. 316. The influence of Bacon's philosophy was, as might have been expected, especially felt in England. Thomas HobbeSj a friend of his, entered into some of his views, from which he deduced a system of Materialism. He was born in 1588, at Malmsbury. Like Bacon he had contracted from the study of the Classics a contempt for the philosophy of the Schools ; and his travels and inti- macy with his illustrious countryman, as well as with Gas- sendi and Galileo, had led him to think for himself. But the ^ Bora at Salvington in Sussex, 1584; died 1654. Jo. Seldeni De Jure Natural! et Gentium juxta Disciplinam Ebrjeorum libb. VII. Lond. 1640, fol. Arg. 1665. 4to. c Born at Strasbourg 1643, died 1707. JoACH. Zentgravii Db Jure Natural! juxta Disciplinam Christianorum libb. VIII. Strash. 1678, 4to. '' Valent. Albeuti Compendium Juris Nat. Orthodoxa) Theologiaj con- formatura, Lips. 1676, 8vo. X 306 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. practical direction which he laboured to give to his specu- lations, had the effect of limiting them. When the civil wars broke out, he proclaimed himself by his writings a zealous advocate of unlimited monarchy, as the only secu- rity for public peace. He died 1679; having published several mathematical and philosophical Essays, which have drawn upon him the reproach of fondness for para- dox, and the stigma of Atheism. His works: O^era, Amstelod. 1638, 4 vols. 4to. Moral andPo- litical "Works, Lond. 1750, fol. Elementa Philosophica de Give, Par. 1642, 4to. ; Amstel. 1647, 12mo. Leviathan, sive de ma- teria, forma et potestate Civitatis Ecclesiasticae, et Civilis, (English Lond. 1651, foL), Lat. Amstel. 1668, 4to. ; Appendix, Amstel. 1668, 4to. Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policy, Lond. 1650, 12mo. Elementorum Pliilosophiae sectio prima de corpore (Engl. Lond. 1658, 4to.), Lat. Amstel. 1668, 4to. De Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Political, Lond. 1659, 12mo. Q,uaestiones de Libertate, Necessi- tate et Casu, contra Doctorem Bramhallum. (Engl. Lond. 1656, 4to.). Hobbes's Tripos, in Three Discourses, Lond. 1684, 8vo. 317. Hobbes appears to have aimed, above all things, at freedom and solidity in his speculations, and, rejecting every thing hypothetical, affected to confine himself to the tangible, or in other words, to the phenomena of Motion and Sensation. He defines philosophy to be the knowledge, on accurate principles, of phenomena resulting from present causes ; or vice versa the ascer- taining of possible causes by means of known effects^. Philosophy embraces as an object every body capable of producing an effect, and presenting the phenomena of composition and decomposition. Taking the term Body in its widest extent, he divides its meaning into Natural and Political, and devotes to the consi- deration of the first his Philosopliia Naturalise compre- hending the departments of Logic, Ontology, Meta- physics, Physics, etc. ; and to that of the second his Philosopliia Civilis, or Polity, comprehending Morals. All knowledge is derived from the senses : but our per- e De Corp. p. 2. ' 317,318.] MATERIALISM OF IIOBBES. 307 ceptions are nothing more than tlie effect of external ohjects operating on the brain, or setting in motion the vital spirits. Thought is calculation (computatio), and implies addition and subtraction. Truth and False- hood consist in the relations of the terms employed. We can become acquainted only with the Finite : the Infinite cannot even be imagined, much less known : the term does not convey any accurate knowledge, but belongs to a Being of whom we can form an idea only by means of Faith. Consequently, religious doctrines do not come within the compass of philosophical dis- cussion, but are determinable by the laws of Religion itself. All, therefore, that Hobbes has left free to the contemplation of philosophy is the knowledge of our natural bodies, of the mind, and polity. His whole theory has reference to the External and Objective, inas- much as he derives all our notions from the senses, and describes the soul itself as something corporeal though of extreme tenuity. Instead of a system of pure metaphy- sics, he has thus presented us with a history of mind and its phenomena, deficient it is true in general depth, but which with some narrow and limited doctrines, contains occasionally others more enlightened and correct. 318. His /?rac/2ca/ philosophy, however, attracted more attention than his speculative. In this also, Hobbes pursued an independent course, and altogether de- parted from the line of the Schoolmen. His grand object was to ascertain the most durable posture the Body Poli- tic could assume, and to define Public Right. An ideal form of government and state of morals had been ima- gined by Plato in his Republic, by Sir Thomas More ^ in his Utopia ^, by Campanella in his Civitas Solis ^, and by Harrington^ in his Oceana''. Hobbes, on the con- ^ Born at London, 1420; beheaded 1535. e Basil. 1558 ; besides many other editions. '' See above bibliography of $ 310. • Born at Upton, 1677. k Land. 1656. With his works, 1700 and 1737. X2 308 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. trary, assumes the existence of certain elements of Natu- ral Right, which he supposes to have prevailed in a state of Nature anterior to civilization, contemplated according to the experimental method ^ Agreeably to the lowest law of Nature man, if he does not aim at the injury of his neighbour, grasps at every thing which can contribute to his own well-being, and shuns every thing that can cause the contrary. Self-preserva- tion is the highest object of his pursuit, just as death is of his avoidance. All that tends to this end, and to the removal of pain, is conformable to reason, and therefore lawful. Right is the liberty of employing our natural powers agreeably to reason. Man has therefore the right of self-preservation and self-de- fence ; and consequently of using the means to this end : and he is himself the judge and arbiter of these means. But the consequence of these individual rights, in a state of nature, must be an universal collision of all ; who must be perpetually brought into opposition with one another, to the destruction of all repose and security, and even of the power of self-preservation. Self-love, therefore, (or Reason), and the love of quiet, produce a new state of things, under the form of a civil compact, (status civilis), in which a portion of the individual liberty of each is re- signed by him, and intrusted to one, or more. With this epoch commences that of external, obligatory Right. Absolute power on the part of the government, and im- plicit submission on the part of the governed, are neces- sary to the well-being of a state ; and the best of all forms of government is therefore the monarchical. Self-love is the fundamental law of Nature, and Interest the rule : the law of Nature is also the law of Morals flex moralis). Hobbes has the audacity to refer to the Bible for confirmation of such doctrines, deduced from arguments of his own. His success was not great, and the little which he had was principally among foreigners. Of the number of his ' In his treatise De Give. 319.] LORD HERBERT OF CHERBURY. 309 impartial judges, was the Dutchman Lcunbert VdUiuy' sen"^: and of his adversaries Richard Ctwiberlund'\ and Robert ScJiarrock °. VI. Lord Herbert of Cherbury. 319. Edward Lord Herbert of Cherbury f', followed a course exactly the reverse of that pursued by Hobbes, but equally opposed to the principles of true religion. He defended the notion of innate ideas, and derived our knowledge not from the understanding nor the senses, but from a certain instinctive reason ^ to which he made the former subordinate. Instead of tracing our acquaintance with religion (according to his ideas of it) to historical tra- dition, as Hobbes had done ; he derived it from a supposed internal illumination afforded to all mankind. Agreeably to these views, he pursued his researches on the Rational instead of the Empiric method, particularly with respect to the nature of Truth ; on which subject he published a separate work^ He described the soul not as a tabula rasa, but as a closed book, which opens only when Nature bids it. It derives from itself its knowledge of general truths (communes tiotiticej ; which are so far common to all men ; and ought to remove doubts and differences in philosophy and theology. He maintained the existence of what he was pleased to call an Intellectual Religion, and claimed for this religion of his own the right to ex- ™ Lamberti Velthuysen de Principiis Justi et Decori, DIssertatio Epis- tolica, continens Apologiam pro tractatu clarissimi Hobbesii de Give, Aimtelod. 1651, 12mo. " To be mentioned afterwards. •* De Officiis secundum Jus Naturale, Okoh. 1660, 8vo. P Born 1581 ; died 1648. 1 Naturalis instincius. ■■ Tractatus de Veritate prout distinguitur a Revclatione, a verisimili, a pos- sibili, et a falso, Lut. Paris. 1624 et 1633 ; Lo/u/. 1645, 4to. ; 1656, 12mo, (With the Essay, De Causis Errorum). De lleligione Gentilium Errorum- que apud eos Causis, Lond. 1645, 8vo. Part I, completed 1663, 4to. and 1670, 8vo. 310 THIRD PERIOD. [secTc amine and verify all other pretensions to revelation ^ The obscurity of his own thoughts and expressions, and the dominion at that time enjoyed by the experimental system of philosophy, caused him to be but little noticed in his day. He was however justly attacked by Divines, as an enemy to Revealed religion. VII. Mystical Naturalists and Theosophists of this period, 320. J. Baptist van Helmont^ about this time united a study of the phenomena of Nature to a degree of mysticism. He had been taught at Louvain the Scho- lastic system, by the Jesuit Martin del Rio; and had imbibed from the study of Kempis, Tauler (§ 275), and Paracelsus, a degree of enthusiasm which he carried into his art, that of medicine. With many fanciful notions of his own, he nevertheless detected errors in others, and started several good ideas. In order to effect by means of Alchemy and Philosophy a reformation in his own art, he devoted himself to the investigation of the U^ii- versum. With such a design, he attached himself prin- cipally to the doctrines of Paracelsus, and derived all knowledge from direct and immediate revelation. He maintained that all Nature is animated ; but, at the same time, asserted that nothing earthly partakes of the Di- vine Nature, which is incommunicable. All corporeal beings are replete with spirits, which by means of air and water, the only true elements, and their mutual fer- mentation, produce every thing else. Such were the principles of his spiritual Physiology". His son, Fr. Mercurius van Helmont'^, endeavoured to enlarge our knowledge of "The divine Science" — (Theosophy); and * De Verltate, p. 265, sqq. ; 282, sqq. , * Born at Brussels, 1577 j died at Vilvoorden near Brussels, 1644. " t J. J. Loos, J. Baptista van Helmont, J/eiofe/fterg. 1807, 8vo. See also B. ab Ilelmont. Opera, Amstel. 1648, 4to. ; and Franc/ . 1659, 3 vols. fol. ^ Born 1618 : spent his life in travelling in Germany and England ; and died 1699. 320, 321.] NATURALISTS AND THEOSOPHISTS. 311 by a new division of the different orders of Beings and their relations to Unity, sought to compose a system which might combine the doctrines of the Platonists and Cabbahsts with those of Christianity. He taught espe- cially the theory of an universal Sympathy of all things, with many strange notions about the relations of the soul to the body, and of the body to the soul, asserting that they differed not in essence but in form, and stood in the relation of Male and Female. To this he added a sort of Metempsychosis, combined with a belief in the neces- sity of a future judgment after deaths. Marcus Marci von Kronland^i set forth a system of Cosmology of his own, in which he blended the Ideas of Plato with the Forms of Aristotle, and endeavoured to destroy the quali- tates occidtce of the Schoolmen to make way for his klece seminales, which he affected to consider more intelligible. These Ideas are the Powers of Nature which, with the aid of light, create and form all things. Nay, the very constellations operate on the sublunary world by means of light, and by the agency of the Ideas ». 321. In England the enthusiastic system of Paracelsus found a patron in the learned physician Robert Fludd^, who sought to ally it to the Mosaic history of the crea- tion^. He was answered by Gassendi. In Germany a like enthusiasm laid hold on the pious and inquisitive y Paradoxical Discourses, Lend. 1690. Seder Olam, sive Ordo Saeculorum, hoc est Historica enarratio Doctrina Philosophicfe per unum in quo sunt om- nia, 1693, 12mo. ' Died 1676. a Jon. Mac. Marci a Kronland, Idearum Operatricium Idea sive De- lectio et Hypothesis illius Occulta; Yirtutis, quae Semina fcecunda et ex iisdem Corpora Organica producit, Vrag. 1035, 4to. Philosophia Vetus restituta, in qua de mutationibus quae in Universo sunt, de Partium Universi Constitu- tione, de Statu Hominis Secundum Naturam et Prater Naturam, et De Cura- tione Morborum, etc. libb. V, Frag. 1662, 4to. ^ Robert Fludd, or De Fluctibusj born at Milgate in Kent, 1574; died 1637. <= Ilistoria JMacio-et Microcosmi INIetaphysica, Physica et Technica, ();>- pen/i. 1717, Philosophia MosaVca, Gude. 1638. 312 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. temper of the shoemaker of Gorlitz, Jacob Bohm^, who with a mind highly excited by tlie study of the Scrip- tures, to which he added the natural philosophy of Para- celsus and his contemporaries ; — with a peculiar depth of thought, disfigured by a rude unscientific manner and a barbarous style, (partly composed of the terms of Chemis- try then in use), — gave vent to his speculations, (often un- intelligible and often profound), respecting the Deity and the Origin of all things- He affected to deliver these as something oracular, and wrote in his native language, whence his appellation of philosophiis Teutonicus. His mysticism gained disciples in Germany, and even abroad, being adopted in France by Poiret, and in England by H. More, and John Pordage a physician ; who even wrote a commentary on him. Of all these hereafter. In more recent times St. Martin has given as it were a new and able version of this species of Theosophy. S22. Bohm and Fludd had endeavoured to find autho- rity in the Bible for their own extravagancies. The like attempt was made by others, particularly by Jo. Amos Comeniiis ®, who in his Synopsis Physices ad lumen Divi- num reformatce^, detailed more clearly the opinions of Fludd and others. He supposes three elementary prin- ciples of all things ; Matter, Spirit, and Light. The first is the corporeal essence, the second is subtile, self-exist- ing, invisible, imperceptible, dispensed by the Divine Being to all living creatures, to animate and possess them. Light is the plastic spirit ; an intermediate es- sence, which penetrates matter and prepares it for the ^ Born at Alt- Seidenberg, near Gorlitz, 1575 j died 1624. t Jacob Bohm, a Biographical Essay, Dresden, 1802, 8vo. t Works of J. Bohm, Amsterd. 1620, 4 vols. Bvo. etc. ; 1730, 10 vols. Bvo. Selections from his Works, Amst. 1718 ; Francf. 1801, 8vo. — Translated into Dutch and English. <= Of the village of Comna, near Brerau in Moravia; born 1592, died at Amsterdam 1671. f Lips. 1632, 8vo ; 1663, 8vo. 322,323.] SCEPTICS. 313 admission and reception of spirit, investing it at the same time with a form. lie has also originated some re- markable ideas on philanthropy, in which he followed Val. Andreoe*^. J. Baicr, the successor of Comenius '', and some others, have bequeathed works to the same effect. VIII. Sceptics, 323. Scepticism was revived and extended by Fr, Sanchc;:: (Franc. Sanctius), a Portuguese ^ who taught medicine and philosophy at Toulouse with considerable reputation, up to the time of his death, which happened in 1632. He was obliged by his office to teach the Aris- totelian system, and not venturing openly to controvert it, assailed it under cover of his Scepticism; and hav- ing proved by means of arguments already brought for- ward, but to which his lively manner imparted an air of novelty, the uncertainty of human knowledge, he under- took to give in another work a method of his own for attaining to certainty. This promised work, however, never made its appearance. Franqois de la Mothe le Vcujer^, an author of great learning, talent, and judo-- ment, enlarged upon the grounds of Scepticism, with a reference to Science and even to Religion. He denied the existence of any common rational foundation for the ? See several articles in the Tageblatt des Menschheitlebens, published by Ch. Christ. Fr. Crause, 1811, No. XVllI, sqq., on a work of Comenius entitled, General Obseiyations on the Improvement of Human Nature, etc., Halle, 1702. h About 1606. * Born 1562 at Bracara, in Portagal. Francisci Sanchez Tractatus de multum Nobili et Prima Universali Scientiii quod nihil scitur, Lond. 1581, 4to. et 12mo; Francf. 1618, 8vo, with the re- marks of Dan. Hartnack, entitled, Sanchez aliquid Sciens., Stettin. 1665, 12mo. Tractatus Philosophici, Rotterd. 1649, 12mo. "' Born at Paris 1586; died 1672. Cinq Dialogues faits ii I'lmitation des Anciens, par IIoratius Tubero (par Francois de la Motiie le Vayeu), Mons, 1671, 12mo ; 1673, 8vo. and an Answer by M. Nahle, Berl. 1744, 8vo. (Euvres, Paris, 1654 et 1667 — 1684, 3 vols. fol. 314 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. latter, in consequence of the diversities of belief that have always prevailed, and maintained that reason in theology must give place to faith, a superior faculty, and conferred immediately by Divine Grace. In other respects he showed himself a decided unbeliever ; representing life as a miserable farce, and virtue as almost a dream. RATIONALISM OF DESCARTES, AND THE SYSTEMS TO WHICH IT GAVE RISE. I. Descartes, Baillet, La Vie de R. Descartes, Par. 1690, 4to ; abregee, Paris, 1693, 12mo. God. Guil. Leibnitii Notata circa Vitam et Doctrinam Car- tesii in Thomasii Historia Sapientias et Stultitiae, torn. II, p. 113, and in the 3rd vol. Epistolarum Leibnitii ad Diversos, p. 388. Reflexions d'un Academicien sur la Vie de Descartes, envoyees a un Ami en Hollande, A La Haye, 1692, 12mo. Eloge de Rene Descartes, par Gaillard, Paris, 1765, 8vo ; par Thomas, Paris, 1761, 8vo ; par Mercier, Geneve et Paris, 1765, 8vo. JoH. Tepelii Historia Philosophicae Cartesianas, Norimh. 1672, 12mo. De Vita et Philos. Cartesii, ibid. 1674. Recueil de quelques Pieces curieuses concernant la Pliiloso- pliie de M. Descartes (par Bayle), Amsterd. 1684, 12mo. Petri Dan. Huetii Censura Philosophise Cartesianse, Paris, 1689, 12mo. Philosophise Cartesianae adversus Censuram Pet. Dan. Huetii vindicatio, aiit D. A. P. (Augusto Petermann), Lips. 1690, 4to. Reponse au Livre qui a pour titre : P. Dan. Huetii Censura, etc. ; par P. Silvain Regis, Par. 1692, 12mo. Huet answered by his (anonymous) Nouveaux Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire du Cartesianisme ; par M. G. Paris, 1692, 12mo. Admiranda Methodus Novae Philosophise Renati Descartes, Ultraj. 1643, 12mo. Balth. Bekkeri de Philosophia Cartesii Admonitio Candida et sincera, Wesel. 1668, 12mo. Ant. le Grand, Apologia pro Cartesio, contra Sam. Par- kcrum, Lond. 1672, 4to ; Norimh. 1681, 8vo. P. DE ViLLEJVIANDY. ScC § 139. I 324, 325.] DESCARTES. 315 324. Rene Descartes (Cartesius), was born 1596, at La Ha3^e, in the Touraine, and attempted a reformation in the philosophy of his country by a method opposed to the Experimental, on the principles of pure Rationalism. His system was favourable to independent research, and met with equally violent opponents and partisans, attract- ing, as it did, universal attention. In the school of the Jesuits at La Fleche he early distinguished himself by the quickness of his parts, and his love of knowledge. Fired with this passion and eager to satisfy it by study, he devoured without a plan a multitude of books, which working upon his own ardent temper, left him more un- certain than he was at first ; his subsequent travels instead of curing contributing to increase the malady. Presently his adventurous spirit conceived the plan of erecting a philosophy of his own; no part of which should be borrowed from others. With this view he repaired to Holland, where he trusted to find leisure and freedom, and where he composed the greater part of his works ^ He presently attracted great attention, became involved in controversies, especially with theologians, and after maintaining an extensive and learned correspondence, was invited into Sweden by Queen Christina, and died there shortly after in 1650. His works : Opera, Amstelod. 1692-1701, 9 vols. 4to. Opera Philosophica, Francf. ad M. 1692, 4to. Principia Pliilosophiae, Amstel. 1644-1656, 4to. ^Meditationes de Prima Philosophia, etc., ibid. 1641, 4to. Discours de la Methode pour bien con- duire la Raison et chercher le Verite dans les Sciences. Plus, la Dioptrique, les Meteores, et la Geometrie, etc. Par. 1637, 4to. ; a Latin translation (by Courcelles) revised by Descartes, 1644, Specimina Philosophiaj seu Dissertatio de Methodo, Dioptrice, etc. Amstel. 1656, 4to. Meditationes. Tractatus de Passionibus Animas, ibid. 1656, 4to. Tractatus de Homine et de Formatione Foetus, cum Notis Lud. de la Forge, ibid. 1677, 4to. Epistolae (translated), ibid. 1688, 4to. 325. Descartes was not merely a metaphysical philoso- ' Between 1629 and 1649. 316 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. pher : he was distinguished as a mathematician, an astro- nomer, and a physiologist. His very reputation and suc- cess as a philosopher, was in a great measure owing to the discoveries he effected in those sciences. His object was to constitute philosophy a demonstrable science; but he rushed too eagerly from the state of doubt, which he considered a necessary preparation for all knowledge, to knowledge itself. He begins with the experimental observation of Consciousness and Thought: and from this concludes the existence of the thinking subject — (cogito : ergo sum) — of the soul ; which thus distin- guishes itself from material substances, and conse- quently is independent of them. Its essence consists in thought^ and is on that account more easy to be re- cognised than that of the body. Clearness and distinct- ness he regarded as the criteria of truth. The soul does not contemplate all subjects with equal distinctness, which proves its nature to be imperfect and finite. It possesses, nevertheless, the idea of an Absolute, Perfect Being, or Spirit ; the first and necessary attribute of whom is exist- ence"^; and as such ideas cannot be derived from the Im- perfect Soul, they must flow from the Perfect Being to whom they relate, and consequently must be innate. On this recognition of the existence of an All-perfect Being, the evidence and certainty of all absolute knowledge is grounded ; on the principle that the Divine Being will not suffer us to fall into error while lawfully employing the faculties for knowledge bestowed by Him. The ™ Sam. Werenfels, Judicium de Argumento Cartesii pro Existenti^ Dei, petito ex ejus Idea; in his Dissertatt. var. Argument. Pars. II ; and, on the other side, Jacquelot, Examen d'un Ecrit qui a pour titre. Judicium de Argumeto, etc. Many articles on the subject appeared in the Journal des Savans, 1701; the Histoire des Ouvrages des Savans, 1700, 1701, and the Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, 1701, 1702, et 1703. Andr. Richter, Diss. (resp. Jo. Foubin) de Religione Cartesii, Gryphis. 1705, 4to. CiiR. Breithaupt, Dissert. De Cartesii Theologi^ Naturali et Erroribus in eii commissis. Helmstud. 1735, 4to. Lvi). Fit. Ancil-lon, Judicium deJudiciis circa Argumentum pro Existentia Dei ad Nostra usque tempora Latis, Berol. 1792, 8vo. 326.] DESCARTES. 317 essence of the body consists in expansion. The body and the thinking essence, — (the body, that is, and the soul, — are essentially opposed to each other. 326. God, as the Infinite Being, is the author of the universe, which is infinite ; but the material and intellec- tual parts of which it is composed are imperfect and finite. The assistance or co-operation of the Divinity {assistentia she concursus) is necessary to the very pre- servation and maintenance of these". Descartes did not distinguish between Matter and Space, and consequently found no difficulties to oppose the application of his theory of vortices, (which he described as deriving their immediate impulse from God), to account for the pheno- mena of Creation. The Soul he asserted to be simple in its nature, or in other words, purely immaterial, (spiritualism of Des- cartes), but intimately connected with the body. The pineal gland may be supposed to be its seat, because it there appears to energise in immediate connection with the vital spirits. From the immateriality of the soul he deduced its immortality ; and lest he should be obliged by his argument to extend the same properties to other animals, he pronounced these to be living machines. The soul is free, because it feels itself to be so ; and in its freedom consists its liability to error. He drew a dis- tinction between the passive impressions and the active decisions (passiojies et actiones) of the soul. The opera- tions of the Will, the Imagination, and Thought, belong by their nature to the latter class. He constituted three classes of Ideas, those which we acquire, those which we create, and those which are born with us. The first are derived from external objects, by means of impressions communicated to our organs. Vital warmth and motion do not proceed from the Soul, but from the Animal " This doctrine was conveited by Gculinx and others into one oi Occuhoix- aliiin. See § 32B. 318 THIRD PERIOD. {sect. Spirits. He accounts for the communion existing be- tween the Soul and Body by his doctrine o^ Assistentia, The Soul determines the direction of the Vital Spirits. 327. Notwithstanding the confusion Descartes made between Thought and Knowledge, — the want of solidity in his principles, and of conclusiveness in his inferences, as well as the many contradictions they imply, which would have become more apparent if he had treated the subject of Morals also, we cannot shut our eyes to the great effect produced by his philosophy. His discussions awakened men to independent thought, both by their matter and their manner, — the form a^s^mlLas the sub- stance of his doctrines, no less than by their bold and striking character. Men were impelled to investigate the principles of Thought and Knowledge, and the differ- ences which exist between them ; efforts were made to « decide the controversy between Experimentalism and ^ Speculative philosophy, between Rationalism and Super- j naturalism ; at the same time that he gave the last blow to the Scholastic system, and introduced into the philo- sophical world a new life and energy, animating to the pursuit of Truth and the detection of Error, His doc- , trines presently attracted the notice of a great number of distinguished thinkers. In Hobbes, Gassendi °, P. Dan, Hiief^, Gabr. Daniel^, etc., he encountered able ad- versaries, who subjected his leading principles to a se- vere, but at the same time calm and philosophical ex- amination; but he was attacked in a more intemperate manner by several schoolmen and theologians, such as o Ger. de Vries, Dissertatiuncula Historico-Philosophica de Renati Car- tesli Medltationibus a Gassendo impugnatis, Ultraj. 1691, 8vo. P Censura etc. (see bibliography $ 324). This work called forth several answers. '1 See his Ilomance : Voyage du INIonde de Descartes, Paris, 1691, 12mo. Iter per Mundum Cartesii. Amslelod. 1694, 12mo. Nouvelles Difficultes proposees par un Peripateticien, Amst. 1694, 12mo. Idem en Lat. Novae Dif- ficultates, etc. ibid. 327, 328.] CARTESIANS. 319 Gishert Voetius^, Martin Schoock^ the Eclectic, Cyriac LentuUtis the Jesuit, ValoiSf and others, who taxed him with Scepticism and Atheism. A number of talented per- sons were formed in his school, or attached themselves to his system ; and in spite of the interdictions levelled against it in Holland by the Synod of Dort (1656), and also in Italy (1663), it gained ground in the Netherlands and France. In England, Italy, and Germany, it made less progress, though it produced an effect on all depart- ments of Moral Philosophy, Logic, Metaphysics, and Morals *, nay even on Theology ". S2S. Among the partisans of the philosophy of Des- cartes we may specify his friend De la Forge^, a physi- cian at Saumur; Claude de Clerselier (died 1686), the editor of his posthumous works ; Jacques Rohault (died 1 675) ; Pierre Si/lvain Regis ^, a pupil of the latter, and an able commentator on Descartes ; with many Jansenists of the Port Royal ^ who opposed a more rigid morality to ' Born at Heusden 1589; died 1676. » Born at Utrecht, 1614 ; died 1665. See Bibl. 324. t L'Art de Vivre Heureux, Paris, 1692, 8vo. In Lat. ; Ethica Cartesiana sive ars Bene Beateque Vivendi, Hal. 1776, Bvo. " Philosophia S. Scripturae Interpres (by L. Meyer, a physician and friend of Spinosa^, Eleutheropoli. 1666, 4to. third edition by Sejiler, Hal. 1776, Bvo. Valentini Alberti Tractatus de Cartesianismo et Coccejanismo, Lips. 1678, 4to. Viteb. 1701 4to. * L. DE LA Forge, Traite de I'Esprit de I'Homme, Paris, 1664, 4to. In Lat. Tractatus deMente Humantl, ejus Facultatibus et Functionibus, Amstelod. 1669; Breme, 1673, 4to. ; Amst. 1708, 8vo. y Born 1632 ; died 1707. P. Sylvain Regis, Systeme de la Phllosophie, contenant la Logique, la JMetaphysique, la Physique, et la Morale, Paris, 1690, 3 vols. 4to. Reponse aux Reflexions Critiques de M. Duhamel sur le Systeme Cartesien de la Philosophie de M. Regis, Paris, 1692, 12mo. see Bibl. o{ § 324. L'Accord de la Foi et de la Raison, Paris, 1734, 4to. ^ Among other distinguished works, this society has produced, I'Art de Penser, Paris, 1664, 12mo. Translated into Lat. by J. C. Bravn, with a preface of Fr. Buddevs, Hal. 1704, 8vo. (This treatise has been sometimes improperly ascribed to Arnauld). 320 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. the doctrines of the Jesuits. Among these were Ant. Arnauld'^, Blaise Pascal^, Nicole^, and also, Father Malebranche (see § 331), Antoine Le Grand '^ a physician at Douai, J. Clauberi/^y Adrian Heerebord, and more particularly Arnold Geidinx of Antwerp ^ From the principles of Descartes, the last derived the doctrine of % Occasional Causes {Systema causariim occasionalism — Occasionalis7nus) which supposed the Deity to be the actual cause of the motions of the body and affections of the mind, the soul and the limbs merely affording the means of their development. This notion was extended and explained by Balthazar Becker, Voider, Male- | hranche, and Spinosa. Geulinx added to this strange doctrine a pure system of morality, and maintained that the main defect of Ancient and Modern systems of Ethics was the encouragement afforded by them to Self-love ; ^ Born 1623 ; died 1694. His works, Lausanne, 1777, 30 vols. 4to. b Born at Clermont 1623 ; died 1662 (§ 332). Pascal, Pensees sur la Religion, Amst. 1697, 12nio. Paris, 1720, 12mo. Lettres Ecrites par Louis de IMontalte (Pascal) a un Provincial de ses Amis, avec Notes de Guill. Wendrock (Nicole), Cologne, 1657, 12mo.et 1684, 8vo. ; Lpyde, 1771, 4 vols. 12mo. Translated into Lat. by Nicole. c Died 1695. Essais de Morale, Paris, 1671, 6 vols. 12mo. Instructions Theologiques et Morales, Paris, 1709, 12mo. CEuvres, Paris, 1718, 24 vols. 12mo. '^ Ant. le Grand, Philosophia Veterum e Mente Renati Descartes, Lo7icl. 1671, 12mo. Institutio Philosophiae Secundum Principia Renati Descartes Nova INIethodo adornata, Lond. 1672, 8vo. ; 1678, 4to. Dissertatio de Ca- reutia Sensus et Cognitionis in Brutis, Norimb. 1679, 8vo. e Professor at Duisburg; born at Chartres 1665 ; died 1665. Jon. Claueergii Opera Philosophica, Aynstelod. 1691, 4to. Logica Vetus et Nova. Ontosophia, de Cognitione Dei et Nostri, Duisb. 1656, 8vo. Initi- atio Philosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana, 1655; jShdh. 1667, 12mo. f Born at Antwerp about 1625; died 1669. Arnoldi Geulinx, Logica Fundamentis suis, a quibus hactenus col- lapsa fuerat, restituta, Lugd. But. 1662, 12mo. ; Amstelod. 1698, 12mo. Metapbysica Vera et ad Mentem Peripateticorum, Amstelod. 1691, 12mo. TvCjOl aeavTov, sive Etbica, Anistel. 1665, and Lugd. Bat. 1675, 12mo. Ed. Philarethus, Amstel. 1696, 12mo. ; 1709, 8vo. Annotata pra^currentia ad R. Cartesii Principia, Dordraci. 1690, 4to. Annotata INIajora ad Principia Phi- losophirc R. Descartes, accedunt Opuscula Philosophica ejusdem Auctoris, iJordruci. 1691, 4to. 328.] CARTESIANS. 321 and made Virtue to consist in a pure love of — [amor cff'ec- tionis noil affeclionis)j—ix\\{\. devotion to the injunctions of practical Reason ; or, in other words, in obedience to God and to Reason, for the sake of Reason itself. The cha- racteristics of Reason thus contemplated he pronounced to be attention (diligentia), docility (obedientia), con- formity to moral obligations (justitia)y and a disregard of all other goods (humilitas). Though his ideas on Morals were often admirable for their truth and refinement, they did not meet with much success ; partly because they were entangled with his doctrine of Occasionalism ; and partly because the foundations on which they should rest were not perfectly established ; added to which they pre- scribe nothing but a blind submission to the Divine will, to such a degree as almost to take away the free exercise of Reason. Balthasar Becker^, taking for his ground the doctrines of Occasionalism, and the Spiritualism of •Descartes, denied that men were capable of being influ- enced by the agency of Spirits ; and in particular attacked the opinions then prevalent in favour of sorcery and witchcraft; which cost him his employment. On the other hand Pierre Poiret^, at first a Cartesian, then a Mystic, affected to deduce from the principles of Des- cartes, a proof of the immediate agency of God and of spiritual beings on the mind of man. Several theolo- gians and philosophers endeavoured to reconcile the Cartesian system to Revealed Religion, and defended or explained it in writings partly didactic and partly polemical. Among others may be enumerated J. Cocce- 8 Born in West Friesland, 1634 ; died 1698. Besides the work of his already mentioned (bibliogiaphy § 324) ; he wrote the Beloverte IVereld, or Enchanted World (Dutcli), Leuivarden, 1690; Amsterd. 1691-93, 4 vols. 4to. Wilh. IIei.vr. Beckkh, Schediasnia Critico- literarium de Controversiis B. Bekkero ob librum die bezauberle Welt motis, Kouigsb. et I-eipz. 1721, 4to. See the Life, Opinions, and Fortunes of B. Becker, by J. M. Schwager, Leipz. 1780, 8vo. h Born at Mentz, 1746 ; died 1719 (See $$ 331, 333). P. PoiRET. Economic Divine, 1647, 7 vols. Bvo. Cogitaliones de Deo, Animu et Malo, Avntelod. 1677-1685-171G, 4to. 322 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. jus^i Christopher Wittich^, Gerard de Vries\ Hermann Alex, Roell"", and Ruard Andala"", II. Spinoza. His works : Benedicti de Spinoza Renati Descartes Prin- cipiorum Philosophiae pars prima et secunda More Geometrico demonstratse. Accesserunt ejusdem Cogitata Metapliysica, in quibus difficiliores, quae tarn in parte Metapliysicae generali qu'aln speciali occurrunt Qusestiones bre\dter explicantur, Amstel. 1663, 2 vols. 4to. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus continens Disser- tationes aliquot, quibus ostenditur Libertatem Pliilosopliandi non tantum Salva Pietate et Reipublicae Pace posse concedi, sed eamdem nisi cum Pace Reipublicae ipsaque Pietate tolli non posse, Hamh. (Amsterd.J 1670, 4to. Under various fictitious titles : Dan. Heinsii Operum Historicum collectio prima. Ed. II, priori multo emendatior et auctior, Lugd. Bat. 1675, 8vo. Henriquez de Villacorta, M. D. a cubiculo Philippi IV, Ca- rol! II, Archiatri Opera Chirurgica Omnia sub auspiciis poten- tissimi Hispaniarum Regis, Amstel. 1673, 8vo. ; 1697, 8vo. In, * Died 1669. " Born at Brieg 1625; died 1687. Christopher Wittich. Consensus Sanctae Scripturae cum Veritate Philoso- phiae Cartesianae, Neomag. 1659, 8vo. Theologia Pacificata, Lugd. Bat. 1675, 4to. Annotationes, in quibus Method! celeb. Philosophi succincta notitia redditur, Dordr. 1688, 4to. Anti-Spinoza seu Examen Ethices Bened. de Spinoza, Amstel. 1690, 4to. 1 Ger. de Vries (see § 327, note ''). Exercitationes Rationales de Deo Divinisque perfectionibus nee non Philosophemata Miscellanea, Traj. 1685, 4to. Edit. Nova ad quam praeter alias accedit Diatribe singularis gemina, altera de Cogitatione ipsa mente, altera de Ideis rerum Innatis, Ultraj. 1695, 4to. "» He was professor of Theology at Franeker and Utrecht, and died 1718. Herm. Alex. Roel Dissert, de Religione Naturali, Franeq. 1686, folio. Disputationes Philosophicae de Theologia Naturali duae, de Ideis Innatis una, Ger. de Vries Diatribae oppositae. fourth edit. Franeq. 1700, 8vo. Ultraj. 1713. " Born in Friesland 1665 ; professor of Theology at Franeker ; died 1727. Ruard Andala Syntagma Theologico-Physico-Metaphysicum, Franeq. 1710, 4to. Cartesius verus Spinozismi eversor et Physicas Experimentalis Architectus, Ibid. 1719. In answer to J. Regius, Cartesius verus Spino- zismi Architectus : Leovard. 1718. Exercitationes Academicae in Philoso- phiam Primam et Na^uralem, in quibus Philosophia Cartesii explicatur, con- firmatur et vindicatur, Franeq. 1709, 4to. Examen Ethicae Geulinxii, Ibid. 1716, 4to. Questiones Physical, 1720. Apologia pro VerS\ et Saniore Phi- losophiil, etc. 329.] SPINOZA. 323 French ; La Clef du Sanctiiaire, par un savant liomnie do notre siecle, Leyde. 1678, 12mo. Traite des Ceremonies supersti- tieuses des Juifs, tant Anciennes que Modemes, Amsterd. 1678, 12mo. Reflexions Curieuses d'lm Esprit desinteresse sur les Matieres les plus importantes au Salut, tant public que parti- culier, Cologne^ 1678, 12mo. Annotationcs Ben. de Spinoza ad Tractatum Theologico-Po- liticum, ed Ciir. Tiieopii. de Murr, H(tg. Com. 1802, 4to. Bened. de Spinoza Opera Postlmma, Amstel. 1677, 4to. (containing : Ethica, Tractatus Politicus, de Intellectus emen- datione, Epistoloe). Bened. de Spinoza Opera quae supcrsunt Omnia, ed. H. Eberii. Gottlob Paulus, Jen. 1802, 1803, 2 vols. 8vo., with a Biography. Works on Sjiinoza and his Doctrines. John Colerus, Life of Spinoza, etc., etc. Originally pub- lished in Dutch, Utrecht, 1697 ; in French, The Hague, 1706, Svo. ; in German, Franco/, and Leips. 1733, 8vo. Refutations des Erreurs deBENOiT de Spinoza, par M. Fene- LON, par le P. Lamy, et par le Comte de Boulainvilliers, avee la Vie de Spinoza, ecrite par M. Jean Colerus, augmentee de beaucoup de particularites tirees d'une "Vie Manuscrite (from the next book), de ce Philosophe ; faite par un de ses amis, Brujcellesy 1731, 12mo. La Vie et I'Esprit de M. Benoit de Spinoza, Amsterd. 1719, 8vo. The author was a physician named Lucas, or Vraese, coun- cillor of the Court of Brabant at the Hague. Only seventy copies of a very limited edition were offered for sale, at a very high price ; which caused a number of MS. copies to be taken. The second part was burnt, but the biographical part, (also very scarce), w^as published under this title : La Vie de Spinoza par un de ses Disciples, nouvelle edition non tronquee, etc., Hamh. 1735, Svo. H. Fr. v. Dietz Ben. von Spinosa nach Lebcn und Lehren, Dess. 1783, 8vo. M. PniLiPsoN Leben Ben. von Spinosa, Brannschw. 1790, 8vo. (nach Colerus). Jariges iiber das System des Spinosa und iiber Bayle's Erinnerungen Dagegen in der Histoire de I'Acad. des Sciences de Berlin a. 1740, und in Hissmann's Magazin 5. Bd. S. 5 ff. " Fr. H. Jacobi iiber die Lehre des Spinoza, in Briefen an Urn. Moses Mendelssohn, BresL 1785 ; sec(md aufl. 1789, 8vo. und in Jacobi's Schriften, 4 B., I. Abth. Moses Mendelssohn Mor- y2 324 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. genstunden (see § 367, etc.): An die Freimde Lessing's, ein Anhang zu Jacobi's Briefwechsel, Berl. 1786, 8vo. F. H. Ja- coBi wider M. Mendelssohns Beschuldigungen, Leipz. 1786. (Math. Claudius) zwei Recensionen in Saclien Lessing, M. Mendelssohn und Jacobi, Hamb. 1786. Ueber Mendelssohn's Darstellung der Spinozistischen Philosophie in Casar's Denk- wiirdigkeiten, 4 B. K. H. Heydenreich Animadversiones in Mosis Mendelii filii Refutationem placitomm Spinosse scripsit, Lips. 1786, 4to. Derselbe : Natur und Gott nach Spinosa, 1 B. (mit Auszugen aus der oben angegebenen Vie von Lucas), Leipz. 1789, 8vo. Gott. Einige Gesprache von J. G. Herder, Gotha, 1787, 8vo. D. G. S. Francke Preisschr. iiber die neuern Schicksale des Spinozismus und seinen Einfluss auf die Philosophie iiberh. und die Vemunfttheologie insbesondere, Schleswig. 1812, 8vo. Ern. Stiedenroth nova Spinozismi delineatio, Gott, 1817, 8vo. LuD. Boumann Explicatio Spinozismi. Diss, inaugural. Berol, 1828, 8vo. Car. Rosenkranz De Spinozae Philos. Diss. Hal. et Lips. 1828, 8vo. 329. The Jew Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza, or Spinosa, entered into the speculative views of the Cartesian School with all the originality of a profound and penetrating genius. He was born at Amsterdam, 1632, and even in his childhood distinguished himself for his ardent love of knowledge. His doubts with respect to the authority of the Talmud, and his frame of mind, devout, but free from superstition, rendered him indifferent to the ceremonial part of his own faith, and were the means of bringing upon him many persecutions. Concealed in the houses of some charitable Christians, he applied himself to the study of Latin and Greek, Mathematics and Metaphysics, especially those of Descartes, the clearness and simplicity of whose system attracted his attention, without being able to satisfy his judgment. After having devoted his life to contemplation, pursued in retirement, he died at the Hague, A. D. 1G77, with the reputation of an es- timable man, and distinguished philosopher. Spinoza made it his principle to admit nothing to be true, the \ 329.] SPINOZA. 325 grounds of vvhicli lie could not distinctly recognise ; and endeavoured to found his system of Ethics, (as he termed it), on something like Mathematical demonstrations of the principles of Moral Life, founded on the knowledge of God. These speculations carried him into the highest region of Metaphysics, and gradually led him to the re- markable theory proposed also by Descartes °, which asserts the existence of only one Absolute Essence, — (the Deity), — Infinite Being, with Infinite Attributes of Ex- pansion and Thought, reducing all finite beings to the state of Apparent Essences, and limitations or modi of those Attributes. Substance is not an individual being, but the foundation and substratum of all individual beings : It never has begun to be, but exists per se and of necessity, (see Eth. P. I, prop. 5). Nothing can be said to have a beginning but finite objects, or the mutable limitations of the Attributes of Infinity : in this manner from the Attribute of Expansion arises the modification of Motion and Repose : from that of Thought those of the Understanding and Will. Infinite Expansion is, on the same principle, the ultimate Element of all finite cor- poreal objects ; and Absolute or Infinite Thought, of all finite thinking beings. The primordial Elements — Infi- nite Expansion and Infinite Thought — are mutually re- lated, without having been produced the one by the other. All finite things (e. g. Body and Soul) exist in the Deity : The Deity is their inherent Causey Natura Naturans, He himself not finite, though from him all finite things have necessarily proceeded ; there is no such thing as Accident, but an universal Necessity ; which in the case of the Deity is united to Liberty : because the Deity alone is not circumscribed by the existence or operations of any other being. He operates according to the internal necessity of His own nature ; and His will and knowledge are inseparable. There is no free Causality o H. C. W. SiGWART iiber den Zusammenhang des Spinozismus rait der Cartesianischen Philosophic, Tubing. 1816, 8vo. H. RiTTER iiber den Eiufluss des Cartes, auf die Ausbildung des Spinozis- mus, Leipz. 1816, 8vo. 326 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. of Ends and final Causes ; but only the Causality of Ne- cessity and natural Causes. The immediate and direct conception or idea of any real and present object is called the Spirit or Soul {Mens) of such object ; and the thing itself, or the direct and immediate object of such idea or conception is called the Body of such Spirit. United, they compose one and the same individual object; which may be apprehended in a twofold relation, under that of the Attribute Thought, or the Attribute Expansion. All ideas, as far as they have a relation to the Deity, are true : because all ideas which exist in the Divine mind are perfectly correspondent to their respective Objects ; and consequently every idea of our own which is absolute and corresponds with its object, is true alsoP; and the understanding contemplates things according to their true nature inasmuch as it contemplates them with a view to their eternal and necessary properties ^. Falsehood has its origin in the negation of Thought ; and the admission of irregular and imperfect notions ^. Every idea of a real object embraces at the same time a conception of the eternal and infinite essence of God, (Prop. 45) ; and con- sequently by a knowledge of the first we may attain to an adequate comprehension of the Divine nature. The human mind can therefore indisputably apprehend the nature of God ^. On the other hand, the knowledge we are able to acquire of individual objects is necessarily imperfect. In the lively contemplation of the Deity consists our greatest happiness : Since the more that we know of God, the more inclined we are to live ac- cording to his will*^; in which consists at the same time our happiness and our free-will : — Deo parere summa P Prop. 43. Sicut lux se ipsam et tenebras manifestat, sic Veritas norma sui et falsi est. 1 E natur^ rationis non est, res ut contingentes, sed ut necessarias contem- plari (et) sub quiidam eternitatis specie percipere. Propos. 44. ' Eth. P. II, Propos. 32—34 sqq. * Prop. 46, 47. * Amor Dei non nisi ex cognitione ejus oritur ; Tract. Theol. cap. IV, p. 42. 329, 330.] SPINOZA. 327 libertas est. Nevertheless our Will is not absolutely free, inasmuch as the mind is directed to this or that end by some external cause, which cause is dependent on another, and so on in perpetual concatenation. In like manner no other faculty of the mind is altogether absolute and uncontrolled (P. II, prop. 48). 330. The rude materials of his system Spinoza had amassed in the course of his early study of the Rabbini- cal writings, and the theory of Descartes had only sup- plied him with a scientific form. He draws all his con- clusions, after the mathematical method, by a regular de- duction from a small number of axioms, and a few leading ideas, which he assumes to be self-evident, such as those of Substance and Causality. His conclusions have all an appearance of mathematical strictness, but appear to labour in this respect, that it may be questioned how the infinitude of finite objects is a necessary result of the infinite attributes of the Deity. The grand defect of his theory is, that all Individuality and Free-will is lost in subordination to the Divine Essence, and that his sys- tem of Ethics is made one of mere Physics, because all finite things are made necessarily subject to the Divine Nature, and appertain to it as modifications of its at- tributes, forming parts of an universal system of abso- lute Causality ". The profoundness of his ideas ; the syllogistic method of his reasoning ; the hardihood of his attempt, — to explain things Jinite by injinite, — give an air of obscurity to the whole system, and make it difficult to be apprehended in true sense : it does not, however, deserve the appellation of an atheistic theory, which has been liberally bestowed upon it ever since its first appear- ance, rather in consequence of the passions of the dis- putants, than from any thing contained in the work itself. It may rather be called a system of Pantheism (not 7)iaterial like that of the Eleatae, hut fonnal), which em- braces and illustrates a noble idea of the Divinity, as the " Ep. 62. See Tract. Theol.-Polit. cap. XV^I. 328 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Primal Cause of Being, so far as it may be investigated by speculations purely ontological. Nevertheless, such a conception does not satisfy the understanding, and con- tradicts the principles of Theism, especially in their practical relations and application. 331. Spinoza's character was no less misrepresented than his doctrines. Few at first dared to profess them- selves his friends and adherents ''. His first opponents, either from not having understood his system, or from some secret attachment to it which they were at pains to conceal, allowed him to have the advantage, and con- tributed to his reputation. Of this number were: Fr, Cuper^ , Boulainvilliers^i Chr. Witiich^, (who answered him the most fully of them all), P. Poiret ^, Sam, Parker y (§ 333), Isaac Jacquelot ^. Those who undertook the con- flict with more sincerity (such as J. Bredenbwg '^), found " Of these we may mention, J. Oldenburg, who nevertheless, on many points, differed from Spinoza. The following writers have, perhaps improperly, been designated as Spinozists : the physicians, L.Meyer and Lucas, the first the author of a work entitled, Philosophia Sacrae Scripturae interpres : see $ 327, note ; Z. Jelles, Abh. Cufaeeer, who defended and explained Spinozism in two treatises : Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi Naturalis et Artificialis ad Pantosophiae Principia Manuducens, Hamb. (Amst.) 1684; et : Principiorum Pantosophiae, P. II. et P. Ill, Hamb. 1684; J. G. Wachter, Concordia Rationis et Fidei, etc., Amstel. (^BeroL), 1692, 8vo. ; and Theod. Lud. Law : Meditationes de Deo, Mundo, et Homine, Francof. 1717, Bvo. ; et : Medi- tationes. Theses, dubia Philosophico-Theologica, Freifstadt. 1719, Bvo. y Arcana Atheisme Revelata ; a work severely censured by H. More, 0pp. Philos.tom. I, p. 596, and by J^oer : Fr. Cuperus mala Fide aut ad minimum frigide Atheismum Spinozae oppungans, Tub. 1710. ^ The Comte de Boulainvilliers ; born 1658, died 1722. See bibliography of $ 328. ^ See § 328. ^ See § 328. Poiret, Fundamenta Atheismi eversa, in his Cogiiata de Deo, etc. c Born in Champagne, 1674; died 1708. Isaac Jacquelot, Dissertations sur I'Existence de Dieu, etc., par la Refu- tation du Systeme d'Epicure et de Spinoza, La Haye, 1697. See § 325, note. *' Enervatio Tractatus Theologico-Politici una cum Demonstratione Geome- trico ordine disposita Naturam non esse Deum, Eoterod. 1675, 4to. i 331, 332.] SPINOZA. 329 themselves involved in contradictions, being unable to refute the sophistry of Spionza, and not enduring to admit its validity. It is only of late that the talents and opinions of Spinoza have been better appreciated ; at the same time that the Critical method of the rationalists has enabled them to detect the weak side of his system *. The most recent philosophical system approaches in many respects that of Spinoza. III. Malehranche, Fardella, FoNTENELLE, Elogc dc Malcbranchc, dans le tom. I. de ses Eloges des Academiciens, A la Haye, 1731, p. 317. Nic. Malebranche, De la Recherche de la Verite, Paris, 1673, 12mo. ; seventh edit. 1712, 2 vols. 4to., or 4 vols. 12mo. In Lat. by Lenfant, De Inquirenda Veritate, Genev. 1691, 4to. ; 1753, 2 vols. 4to. Nic. Malebranche, Conversations Chretiennes, 1677. De la Nature et de la Grace, Amsdt. 1680, 12mo. Meditations Chretiennes et Metaphysiques, Cologne (Rouen), 1683, 12mo. Malebranche, Entretiens sur la Metaphysique et sur la Religion, Rotterd. 1688, 8vo. Entretiens d'un Philosophique Chretien et d'un Philosophe Chinois, sur la Nature de Dieu, Paris, 1708. Reflexions sur la Premotion Physique, etc. Paris, 1715, 8vo. ; CEuvres, Paris, 1712, 11 vols. 12mo. SS2, Nicole Malebranche ^, one of the Fathers of the Oratoire, whose disadvantageous person concealed a profound genius, and indisputably the greatest metaphy- sician that France has produced, developed the ideas of Descartes, and imparted to them a fresh originality, and greater clearness and vivacity : but his views of religion ^ Christian Wolff, for instance, and Bayle ; the first of whom has refuted the system of Spinoza in his t Translation of his P^thics, Francf. and Hamb. 1744, Bvo. See also Jariges, quoted at the head of § 329. The dispute between Jacobi and INIendelssohn on the Spinozism of Lessing, was the occa- sion of a great number of writings respecting the tenets of Spinoza. See the same section. The t Translation of the Ethics of Spinoza by Ewai.d (Gera, 1791 — 93, 8vo.), also contains a refutation of Spinozism, on the principles of the Critical system. f Born at Paris 1638 ; died 1715. 330 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. led him to superadd some tenets of his own inclining to mysticism. He has been peculiarly successful in discus- sing the theory of knowledge, the sources of error, (especially those which have their origin in illusions of the Imagination), as well as in his examination of the proper Method for the investigation of Truth. He described the understanding as passive ; maintained ex- tension to be the characteristic of Body; the soul to be an essence simple in its nature, and therefore distinct from its body ; and represented the Deity as the only source of all thought and all existence. These opinions led him to controvert, by acute arguments, the doctrine of Innate Ideas, and gave rise to the extraordinary asser- tion, that it is in and through the Divinity that we appre- hend all things, which are comprehended intellectually in His essence ; that the Divinity is the Intellectual World ; Infinite and Universal Reason, and the abode of Spirits : in these respects making near approaches to Spinozism. The doctrine of Occasionalism (which he enlarged and extended) is closely connected with such speculations ; by which he was farther led to assign to the Soul and Body a sort of Passive activity, and to represent the Deity as the original cause of all their operations : a species of Idealism, half religious and half mystical. We may trace in it the consequences of a blind devotion to Demonstration, as the only method of attaining Truth. The Abbe Foucher ^ opposed to his system one of scepti- cism, S Simon Foucher, Critique de la Recherche de la Verit6. Among the authors who discussed and opposed the theory of Malebranche, we may mention Father Du Tertre (who did not understand it) : Refutation du nouveau Systeme de M6taphisique compose par le Pere INIalebranchej Paris, 1718, 3 vols. 12mo. ; and Ant. Arnauld : Des Vraies et des Fausses Idees centre ce qu'enseigne I'Auteur de la Recherche de la V6fite, Cologne, 1683, 8vo. To the latter work INIalebranche replied by his : Reponse de I'Auteur de la Recherche de la Verile au livre de M. Arnauld, des Vraies et des Fausses Idees, Rotterdam, 1684. Defense de M. Arnauld centre la Reponse au livre des Vraies etdes Fausses Idees, Cologne, 1684, 12ino. ; Trois Lettres de I'Auteur de la Recherche de la Verite, touchant la Defense de M. Arnauld centre la Reponse, Rotterd. 1685, 12mo. The dispute was prolonged in some other writings ; by Locke, in the second vol. of his Miscell. Works' 332,333.] MALEBRANCHE. MYSTICS. 331 Michael-Angelo FardeUa '', in his Logic ', employed in the defence of Idealism the same arguments which had been used by INIalebranche, namely, that the existence of the material world is incapable of demonstration, and can only be maintained on the grounds of religious belief. IV. Supernaturalists and Mystics of this period. 333. The dissensions of the Empirical and Specu- lative Schools, brought once more upon the stage the opposite factions of the Supernaturalists, the Mystics, and the Sceptics. Among these by far the most distin- guished was Blaise Pascal; who, in consequence perhaps of his early devotion to Mathematics, imbibed a distrust of philosophical speculation, and in the latter part of his life, when his bodily sufferings increased, devoted him- self to a sort of asceticism. Theophilus Gale (Galeus) was a thinker of a diiferent stamp. He was a presby- terian minister'', and maintained that all true philosophy is contained in the revealed word of God, made known immediately to the Jews, and from them at various epochs and in various ways, derived to other nations. Conse- quently, philosophy is subordinate to theology. He re- commended for these pursuits the study of the Neo-platonic writers ^ Ralph Cudworth^ pursued the same system, but (with greater originality) turned it against the Mate- rialists and Atheists, in defence of Revealed Religion. He collected proofs of the existence of God (Syst. c. V. § 101 — 102), and of the Creation out of Nothing; and maintained the doctrine of an Intellectual system of know- Amsterd. 1732, 8vo. and by Leibnitz, in the second vol. of a Collection of Philosoph. Pieces, by Leibnitz, Clarke, Newton, etc., second edit. Aimt. 1740, 8vo. »' Died at Padua, 1718. ' Venice, 1696. k Born 1628 ; died 1677. ' Theoph. Gale, Pliilosophia Universalis, Land. 1676, 8vo. Aula Deoruni Gentilium, Ibid. 1676, 8vo. ■" Born in the county of Somerset, 1617; died a Professor at Cambridge, 1688. 332 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. ledge, founded on Innate Ideas, according to the views of Plato. The Plastic Nature ^, which he supposes may account for the conformity of created things to their uses, is nothing more than the intellectual world of Plato ; to make room for which he denies the existence either of blind chance, of mechanical necessity, or of an immediate and continual creation on the part of God. He reproached Descartes for having excluded from Physics the doctrine of Final Causes. He derives the principles of Moral Good and Rectitude from certain Moral Ideas, which are copies of the Divine Wisdom, and not from notions acquired by experience ° : on many other points also, adopting the principles of Plato. Henry More"^, a member of the same university, followed the same line of argument. He was a learned man, and of an acute understanding, who finding the Peripatetic system insufficient to satisfy his doubts, which had carried him so far as to question his own Individuality, embraced the Neoplatonic theory, borrowed principally from the works of Ficinus, studying also the Cabbalistic writings ; which he defended in several of his compositions, but without moulding these different materials into an uniform system (see § S2\). He derived all philosophical knowledge from intellectual intuition, and maintained that all the truths of philosophy are deducible from Revelation, and have reference to Man and his destiny. In his metaphysics — the subject of n Cap. Ill, § 25, sqq. <» Ralph Cudworth, The True Intellectual System of the Universe, Lond. 1678, folio : 1743, 2 vols. 4to. : 4 vols. 8vo. with Life by Birch, Oxford, 1830. Systema Intellectuale hujus Universi, etc., Lat. vert. J. L.Moshemius j ■with a Life of Cudvirorth, Jen. 1733, folio, cum Correctionib. Posth. Lugd.Bat, 1773, 2 vols. 4to. Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, Lond. 1731. P Born 1614; died 1687. . Henrici Mori Opera Philosophica Omnia, Lond. 1679, 2 vols. fol. Ejusd. Conjectura Cabbalistica in tria prima capita Geneseos. Defensio Cabbalae Triplicis. Apologia contra Sam. Andre* Examen Generale Cab- bala; Philosophical. Trium Tabularum Cabbalisticarum decem Sephiroth. Questiones et Considerationes in Tractatum primura libri Druschim. Cate- chismus Cabbalisticus, sive Mercavaeus, fuudamenta Philosophic, sive Cab- balcB - A Dualism it will be remembered implies the recognition of two ele- mentary principles. 368 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. and formal conditions of knowledge, and a disposition to exalt contradiction into an universal principle of all science. It must be added that he maintained it to be impossible to discriminate between ideas derived from the intellect and those acquired by experience ; limited the operations of the mind to the mere perception of impressions^: and in short, overlooked the characteristics which distinguish Moral Philosophy from the Mathe- matics, in respect of Form and Matter. His system led him to the construction of a number of useless and tedious formulas, which could have no other effect but that of inspiring disgust and contempt for speculative researches in general, and particularly for those of Meta- physics. His theory, like that of Leibnitz, favours the doctrine of Determinism, or moral Fatalism. 355. Wolf chiefly distinguished himself by the accuracy of his scientific method, as applied to practical philoso- phy. He laboured to ascertain some fundamental prin- ciple, from which he might deduce the whole system of Practice, and connect its details with his general theory ; which he was the first among modern philosophers to attempt. Such a fundamental principle he believed him- self to have discovered in the idea of Perfection, and thought that experiment confirmed his observation. He defined those actions to be good which perfect our condition, i. e. produce or tend to produce an unison between our condition as it was, as it is, and as it will be ; and evil those which produce the contrary effect, or are the causes of a discrepancy and discordancy in our state at different periods. Free actions are in a certain sense necessary also, and derive their qualities of evil and good from their consequences and results, and not from an original distinction made by the Divine Will. Virtue is, consequently, the art of making perfect our condition. The grand rule of virtue is, Perjice te ipsum : do that which may perfect your own condition, or that of another, and avoid all that can render it imperfect. Reason suggests what will perfect or render imperfect our state. 355.] WOLF. 369 and consequently, all moral good is dependent on know- ledge, all moral evil the consequence of defective know- ledge. The consciousness of our perfection, or approx- imation to perfection, bestows contentment : a state of contentment confers happiness ; and the consciousness of a continued and uninterrupted progress towards per- fection is the greatest happiness that can be enjoyed by man". From these principles Wolf deduces the subor- dinate laws of Morals, of Natural Right (comprehending a general theory of Rights and Duties °), and of Polity with great apparent fjicility, and much display of detailed information. The unity and consecutiveness of his system gave it a prodigious advantage, to which must be added, the circumstance that he made the intellect the source of moral knowledge. Its faults were the vagueness of its leading idea, the difficulty of deducing from such a principle the obligations of morality, and the absence of an adequate motive for virtuous action ; defects which the great abilities of many disciples of his school have not been able to palliate. In reality it is a system of Ration- alism only in appearance, and from the want of a complete discussion of the question of moral consciousness, ends in one of Eudaemonism (§ 368). Nevertheless, some par- ticular subjects have been treated by members of this school not unsuccessfully; particularly by Thorn. Abbt^. " For Wolf's Works on Ethics see § 353 ; and J. Aug. Eberhard's Sittenlehre. See $ 367, notes. *» In this respect he has been followed by most of the writers who have treated of Natural Law. Baumgarten (§ 360) and H. Kohler alone reduced this subject to the narrow limits to which it had been confined by GuNDLING (§ 352). The principal authors who have treated the subject with the views of Wolf, are: Nettelbladt (^360), Darjes (§ 358), and the Jurist J. C.F. Meister, t Rudiments of Natural Law, Francf. on Oder, 1809, 8vo. The Eclectics HoPFNER (died 1797), and Ulrich (died 1813), differed from this school only on minor questions. P Born at Ulm, 1738 ; died 1766. Thom. Abbt vom Tode fiir das Vaterland, Bresl. 1761, 8vo. Vom Ver- dienste, Berl. 1765, 8vo. Bb 370 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. ADVERSARIES OF WOLF, AND ECLECTICS. 356, Jealousy of Wolf, in addition to other more justi- fiable motives, raised up a formidable antagonist to his system in the person of John Joachhn Langs'^, who sounded the alarm against it, as a mass of Fatalism and Atheism, destructive alike of religion and government. His strictures presently excited the same apprehensions in other learned men, such as Dan. Str'dhler^^ J. Fr, M'uller^, etc. and brought about a decree against the publication of Wolf's doctrines in the Universities. The greater part of the adversaries of that philosopher were men of narrow minds, and prejudiced opinions ; some few were actuated by more laudable motives, the desire of maintaining perfect freedom of discussion and hatred of party-spirit ; but almost all directed their views only to the consequences of his system without ascending to its prin- ciples. A small number examined it with more enlarged views, and acquired a durable reputation, such as Afidreas Rudiger (following §), «7. P. de Crousa^ (the same),' and more particularly Chr, Aug. Criisius (§ 358), and J, G. 1 Born at Gardelegen 1670: professor of Theology at Halle, from 1709 to 1744. J. JoACH. Lange, Causa Dei et Religionis Naturalis adversus Atheismum, etc., Hal. 1723, 8vo. Modesta Disquisitio novi Philosophiai Systematis de Deo, Mundo, et Homine, et praesertim harmonia commercii inter Animam et Corpus Praestabilita, Hal. 1723, 4to. (The author endeavours to demon- strate the agreement, in this particular, of the doctrines of Spinoza with those of Leibnitz). Placidae Vindicias Modestae Disquisitionis, Ibid. Eod. Beschei- dene aufp'uhrliche Entdeckiiiig der Falschen und Sch'ddlicheti Philosophie, Halle, 1724, 4to. Nova Anatome seu Idea Analytica Systematis Metaphysici Wolfi- ani, Francof. et Lips. 1726, 4to. A Complete Collection of the Works published during the Controversy between Wolf and Lange has been printed (in Germ.) at Marburg, 1737, 8vo. ' Objections to the Rational Thoughts of M. Wolf on God, etc. part I, Halle, 1723, 8vo., part II, 1724. Wolf replied by his Sure Method in answer to False and Calumnious Imputations, 1723 (Germ.) * t Objections to the Rational Thoughts of Wolf on the Faculties of the Human Intellect, etc., Giessen, 1731, 8vo. 356, 357.] ECLECTICS. 371 Darjes (the same). Most of the controversies aftected less the general theory of Wolf and Leibnitz than parti- cular doctrines, for instance, the Monadologia ; the Pre- established Harmony ; Free-will and Determinism. Some fine observations relative to Method were occasionally elicited. 357. Andreas Rudiger^ distinguished himself as an Eclectic of an original character, of great acuteness and learning ; detected many imperfections inherent in the system of philosophy then prevalent, and endeavoured to reform it. He repeatedly changed, however, his own views ; nor was his mind sufficiently profound to enable him to arrive at a well-founded system. He rendered con- siderable service to Dialectics (though he erred in con- founding the province of Logic with that of Metaphysics), and particularly in his elucidation of the doctrine and theory of Probability, which in a great measure had been neglected. His thoughts on the two methods o^ sensible and intellectual demonstration (Mathematical and Meta- physical), contain some valuable hints, and the germs of a clear distinction between Mathematics and moral philo- sophy. He made sensation and reality the ultimate foundation of philosophical truth. He maintained the spirituality of the soul, yet supposed it to possess exten- sion, like all other created essences. Elasticity he held to be the characteristic property of Body. He attacked Wolf on the subject of Pre-established Harmony, assert- ing that it was incompatible with the free-agency of man. As a teacher he had considerable influence". Jean ' Born at Rochlitz, 1673: was the pupil of Thomasius (§ 352); and died at Leipzic, 1731. " Andu. RuDiGEur Disp. de eo, quod omnes Idea; Oriantur a Sensione, Lips. 1704. De Sensu Veri et Falsi libri IV, Hnl. 1709, 8vo. second edition ; Liys. 1722, 4to. Thilosophia Synthetica, Hal. 1707 ; second edition, with this title: Institutiones Eruditionis, 1711, 8vo. ; third edition, corrected, 1717. Physica Divina, Ilecta Via, eademque media inter Superstitionem et A theismum , etc. Franco/, ad M. 1716, 4to. Philosophia Tragmatica, Lips. 1723, 8vo. t Opinions of Wolf respecting the Nature of the Soul, etc., with the Ob- jections of RUdiger, 1727, 8vo. B b 2 372 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Pierre de Crousaz (§ 343) instituted a most complete ex- amination of the system of Wolf''. He was an Eclectic, as was J, F, Buddeusy (§ S52), J. G. Walch% S. C. Holl- mann ^, with several other learned men of that day. His works contain a rich fund of excellent remarks and judi- cious opinions. 358. Chr. Aug. Crusius by his acuteness as a reasoner has deserved the first place among the opponents of Wolf. He was born at Leune near Merseburg, in 1712, and having studied under Riidiger, became professor of theology and philosophy at Leipsic ; where he died in 1775. The disinclination for Wolf's system, which he ^ J. P. DE Crouzaz, Observations Critiques sur I'Abrege de la Logique de M. Wolf, Geneve, 1744, 8vo. (cf. $ 351, note ''). La Logique, ou Systeme des Reflexions qui peuvent conduire a la nettete et a I'^tendue de nos Connais- sances, Amsterd. 1712, 8vo. ; third edition, Amsterd, 1725, 4 vols. 8vo. Logicaa Systema, Genev. 1724, 11 vols. Bvo. De Mente Humana Substantia a Corpore distincta et Immortali, Dissert. Philosophica Theologica, Groning, 1726, 4to. De I'Esprit Humain, Bale, 1741, 4to. Traite du Beau, Amsterd. 1712; second edition, 1724, 2 vols. 12mo. Traite de I'Education des Infans, La Haye, 1722, 2 vols. 12rao. y Born 1667 ; died 1729. Jo. Franc. Buddei Elementa Philosophiae Instrumentalis, sive Institu- tionum Philosophiae Eclecticae, torn. I — III, Hal. 1703, Bvo. sixth edition, 1717. Elementa Philos. Theoreticag, ibid. 1703, Bvo. and other editions. Theses de Atheismo et Superstitione, Jen. 1717. t Thoughts on the Philo- sophical System of M. Wolf, Fribourg, 1724. t A Modest Reply to the Observations of Wolf, Jena, 1724, Bvo. ; and, t A Modest Proof that the Difficulties proposed by Buddeus are well founded. Elementa Philosophiae Practicae, 1695, Bvo. and other editions, Selecta Jur. Nat. et Gent. Hal. 1704—1717, Bvo. ^ Born at Meiningen, 1695 ; died 1775. G. Walch, t Introduction to Moral Philosophy. Leips. 1729, Bvo. The same in Latin, 1730, Bvo. t Philosophical Dictionary, Leips. 1726, and other editions. a Born at Alstettin, 1696 ; died 17B7. He was one of the earliest antagonists of Wolf, whom he attacked in his Commentatio Philosophica de Harmonia inter Animam et Corpus Praestabilita, Viteb. 1724, 4to. Institutiones Philosophicae, 2 vols. Viteb. 1727. Paulo uberior in omnem Philcsophiam Introductio, tom. I, Viteb. 1734, tom. II, III, Got. 1737 — 1740, Bvo. Philosophia Prima quae Metaphysica vulgo dicitur, Gotting. 1747, Bvo. Diss, de Vera Philosophiae Notione, Viteb. 1728, 4to. 358.] ECLECTICS. 373 • had imbibed from his preceptor, was confirmed by a sin- cere attachment to revealed rehgion, and by his practical temper. He endeavoured to discover a system in unison with Reason and Revelation, which might correct the errors of Wolf's theory, especially objecting to the abuse of the principle of "a Sufficient Reason." His mind, however, was not sufficiently profound nor liberal, nor his observation of the human mind sufficiently compre- hensive to enable him to detect and expose the leading errors of the Dogmatism of his day. Consequently he was unable to effect any real reformation, though his views were, in many respects, more correct than those of his contemporaries. He became the author of an in- genious, well-digested, consistent, and harmonious sys- tem; but frequently lost himself in capricious hypotheses, and mystical conceptions^. According to him, Philoso- plty is the sum of rational truths, of which the objects are durable in their nature. It is distinguished from Ma- thematics by its Object and Method. It comprehends Logic, Metaphysics, and Practical philosophy (Discipli- narphilosophie). Instead of the principle of Contrariety or Contradiction, which Wolf had adopted as the founda- tion of his system, he lays down that of Conceivahility ifiedenkbarlieii) which comprehends, as he asserts, the principles of Inseparability, and Incompatibility ; and assigns as the proximate reason of the certainty of hu- man knowledge, the impulse of which we are conscious, and (as it were) a sort of internal constraint to ac- cept certain things as truths : referring to the Divine * Christ. Aug. Crusius, Weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlassigkeit der menschlichen Erkenntniss, Leifz. 1747, 8vo. Entwurf der nolhwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten, insofern sie den zufalligen entgegengesetzt warden, Leipz. 1745, 8vo. Dissertatio de Usu et Limitibus Rationis sufficientis, Lips. 1752. De summis Rationis Principiis, Lips. 1752, 8vo. Abhandl. von dera rechten Gebrauche und der Einschrankung des sogenannten Satzes vom zureichenden oder besser determinirenden Grunde, N. A. Leipz. 1766, Bvo. Anleitung iib. Natiirl. Begebenheiten ordentlich. u. vorsichtig uacbzudeuken, 2 B. Leipz. 1774, Bvo. Justin Elias Wustemann Eiuleit. in das Lehrgebiiude des Urn. Dr. Cru- sius, ^Vittenb. 1751, 8vo. 374 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Veracity as the ultimate foundation of all ascertained Truth. In Logic he sets out with psychological observations ; attributing to the soul a plurality of faculties. In meta- physics he limits and restricts the * Sufficient Cause' of his adversaries, by distinguishing between the Essential Cause and the Causal {Existential — und Cmisalursache) ; and by assuming as the principle of Free-agency that of Original Activity : which theory implied that of Indiffer- entism. He examined with accuracy the idea of Exis- tence, and maintained that Space and Time were Ab- stracts of Existence ; which compelled him to consider them as attributes of God and elementary essences. He rejected the customary proofs of a Divinity, derived from the idea of a Perfect Being, because it was confounding, as he asserted, real with ideal existence : and also that deduced from the contingent objects of the material world : and, instead, attempted to draw one from the Contingency of Substances. He attributed to the Deity a supreme free-agency, infinite and unrestricted : ac- knowledged Him to be the sole Creator and Governor of the world : asserted His will to be the only law of rea- sonable beings : and His glory the final cause of the cre- ation. He was led by these views to reject the Optimism of Leibnitz. Another Eclectic, very popular in his day, Joach. J. Darjes^f resembled Crusius in many of his opinions. In Practical philosophy he more approximated Wolf. 359. In Morals ^, Crusius drew his conclusions not '' Born at Glistron, 1714 ; died professor of Moral Philosophy at Francfort on the Oder, 1791. Jo. Ge. Darjes, Via ad Verltatem, Jen. 1755; Deutsch. 1776, 8vo. Ele- menta Metaphysices, Jen. 1743-44, 2 vols. 4to. Aumerkungen liber einige Satze der Wolfischen Metaphysik, Frankf. u. Leipz. 1748, 4to. Pliiloso- phische Nebenstunden, Jen. 1749 — 1752. IV Sammlungeu. Bvo. Erste Griinde der Fhilosophischen Sittenlehre, Je«. 1755, 8vo. Institutiones Jurisprudentiae Universalis, Jen. 1745, Bvo. See SciiMciiTEG roll's Nekrol. for the year 1792, 2 vols. •» Crusius, Anweisung verniinftig zu leben, darinnen nach Erkliiruug des iiieuschl. Willcns die Natiirl. Ptlichtcn und die Allgem. Klugheitslchren im 1 359, 360.] WOLF AND HIS ADHERENTS. 37r> from the conceptions of the intellect, but the sugges- tions of the will and conscience. He derived the idea of duty from moral necessity or obligation : He asserted the free-agency of the human mind (which he contem- plated principally in a negative point of view, i. e. as uninfluenced by physical or material laws), and developed the formal conditions of our free-will actions, and the motives of them. The principle of a moral law led him to that of a moral Governor and Legislator, and conse- quently to the hypothesis which ascribes all moral obli- gations and laws to the Divine Authority, deducing, as the Schoolmen had done, the principles of Morals from the Will of God. That what is consistent with the nature of the Divine perfections ^ and accords with the designs of God, is good; and becomes obligatory on all rational beings. God demands of His rational creation, in the first place that they should be good : and also wills their happiness, as a consequence of virtue. This system contains many excellent and true remarks, and some well-founded though imcomplete distinctions between Necessity and Duty, or Obligation — Happiness and Virtue ; but founded as it is upon an external prin- ciple of obligation, and without a determinate notion of virtue, is far from the perfection necessary to the ends of science. DISSEMINATION OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SYS- TEM OF WOLF AND HIS ADHERENTS. 3G0. In spite of all his opponents and persecutions (especially in the first quarter of the eighteenth century). Wolf had many followers, and became the founder of a School which was long the prevailing one, (especially during the second quarter of the eighteenth century), and possessed great influence through the talents of those who espoused it. The Leibnitzo-Wolfian theory was at first defended, enlarged, and applied, in a form decidedly richtigen Zusammenhange vorgelragen werden, Leipz. 1744, 3. Aufl. 1767, 8vo. 376 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Scholastic : subsequently, a greater degree of good taste and a more liberal style was adopted by its adherents, after the manner of the French and English writers ^, The most celebrated disciples of Wolf were: G, Bern, Biljinger, or more properly Bullfinger^\ L. Ph. Thum- mig^; and among the Theologians, the provost J. G, Reinbeck^ ', I. Gottl. Catis:^] J. P. Reusch^\ and G. H. Riebov or RibbovK To these must be added the <^ K. GtJNTHER LuDovici ausfvihrlicher Entwurf einer vollsfandigen Histo- rie der Wolfischen Philosophie, II. Augs. Leipz. 1737. III. Th.8vo. Neueste Merkwiirdigkeiten der Leibnitz- Wolfischen Philosophie, Leipz. 1738, Bvo. Sammlung u. Ausziige der sammtlichen Streitschriften wegen der Wolfischen Philosophie, Leipz. 1737, II Th. Bvo. d Professor at Tiibingen ; born 1693, died 1750. Ge. Been. Bilfixger, Dilucidationes Philosophicae de Deo, Anima Hu- mana, Mundo, et Generalibus Pverum AfFectionibus, Tubing. 1725, 4to ; 1740 — 1768. Praecepta Logica curante Chph. Frid. Vellnagel, Jen. 1729, Bvo. Cf. Bibliog. § 349. Et : Epistolae Amoebeae Bulfingeri et Hollmanni de Harmonia Prsestabilita, 1728. De Triplici Rerum Cognitione, Historica, Philosophica, et Mathematica, Tubing. 1722, 4lo. Coramentationes Philoso- phicae de Origine et Permissione Mali, Praecipue Moralis, Francf. et Leips. 1724, Bvo. * Born at Culmbach, 1697 ; died professor at Cassel, 1728. LuD. Phil. Thummig, Institutiones Philosophiae Wolfians, Franco/, et Lips. 1725-26, Bvo., 2 vols. (A brief account of Wolfs system). De Immor- talitate Animae ex intima ejus Natura Demonstrata, Hal. 1721. De Principio Jur. Nat. Wolfiano, Cassellis, 1724. Meletemata varii et rarioris Argumenti in unum volumen collecta. For an account of his other w^orks, consult Hartmann, t Introduction to the History of the Systems of Leibnitz and Wolf, (mentioned above), p. 1106. f Born at Zelle, 1682 ; died 1741. See his t Preface on the Advantages of Philosophy in the study of The- ology, prefixed to Considerations on the Sacred Truths contained in the Con- fession of Augsburg, etc., Berl. et Leips. 1731, 4to. g Born at Tiibingen, 1690 ; died 1753. IsR. Gottl. Canz, Philosophiae Leibnitzianas et Wolfianae Usus in The- ologia. Franco/, et Lips. 1728 — 1734, Bvo. Disciplinae Morales Omnes, etc., Lips. 1739, 8vo. Antologia, Tubing. 1741, Bvo. h Born at Almersbach, 1691 ; died professor of Theology at Jena, 1757. Jon. Pet. Reusch, Via ad Perfectiones Intellectus Compendiaria, Isemici, 1728, Bvo. Systema Logicum, Jen. 1734, 8vo. Systema Metaphysicum An- tiquiorum atcjue recentiorum, Jen. 1735, 8vo. ' Born near Getting., 1724 ; died 1774. t Riebovius, Expansion of the Ideas of M. Wolf, respecting the Deity, etc., Franc/, et Leips. 1726 ; and, Dissertatio de Anima Brutorum, (added to his edition of llorarius), f/eimst. 1729, Bvo. 3G0.] WOLF AND HIS ADHERENTS. Jurists J, A, F. von Ickstadt ^ ; John G. Ileii^ccius (born at Eisenberg, IGSO; died a professor at Halle, 1741); J. Ulr. von Cramer^-, and Dan. Nettclhhdt^; J, J, SchierscJimidt^ •, but especially J. H. Winckler'^; J, C/tpk, Gottsched^' ; J, A. Er?iesti^; Fr, Chph. Bau- meister^; Martin Knutzen^, (the three last distinguished themselves by useful elementary works) : and, above all, Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten^. The last greatly dis- tinguished himself by a skilful analysis of our ideas, by several new hints, and by the first attempt yet made k Bom 1702 ; died 1776. De Ickstadt, Elementa Juris Gentium, Wirceh. 1740, 4to. Opuscula Ju- ridica, Ingolst. et Aug. Vindel., 1747, 2 vols. 4to. ' Born at Ulm, 1706 ; died 1776. Jo. Ulr. Cramer, Usus Philosophiae Wolfianai in Jure, Ma?'^., Specimina XIII, 1740, 4to. Opuscula, Marb., 1742, 4 vols. 4to. m Born at Rostock, 1719 ; died 1791. Dan. Nettelbladt, Systema Eleraentare Universae Jurisprudentiae Natu- ralis, usui Jurisprudentiae positivae accommodatum, HaL 1749 ; fifth edition, 1785, 8vo. " Died professor of Law at Erlangen, 1778. Born at Leipsic, 1703 ; died 1772. J. H. WiNCKLER, Institutiones Philos. Wolfianae, etc., usibus Academicis accommodatae. Lips. 1735, 8vo. P Born near Kbnigsberg, 1700 ; died, 1766. J. Chpii. Gottsched, t First Principles of all Philosophy, etc., Leips. 1734, 2 vols. 8vo.; second edition, 1735-36. 1 Born at Tennstiidt, 1707; died 1781. r Born 1708 ; died at Gorlitz, 1785. Fr. Chr. Baumeister, Philos. Definitiva, hoc est, Definitiones Philoso- phicaa ex Systeraate libri Baronis a Wolf in unum collectas, Viteb. 1735, 8vo. ; 1762. « Died 1751. Mart. Knutzen, Elementa Philosophias Rationalis sive Logica, Regio- mont. 1771, 8vo. t On the Immateriality of the Soul, Francf. 1744, 8vo. Systema Causarum EfHcientium, Lips. 1745, 8vo. • Born at Berlin, 1714 ; died at Francfort on the Oder, 1762. Alex. Gottl. Beaumgarten, Philosophia Generalis, edidit cum Dissert, prooemiali de Dubitatione et Certitudine, J. Chr. Forster, Hal. 1770, 8vo. jNIetaphysica, Hal. 1739, 8vo. Ethica Philosophica, Hal. 1740, 8vo. Jus Naturae, Hal. 1765, 8vo. De Nonnulis ad Poema pertinentibus, Hal. 1735, 4to. iEsthetica, Francof. ad Viadriin. 1750 — 58, 2 vols. 8vo. j second edi- tion, Francf. 1759. Consult G. Fn. Meier, t Life of Baumgartcn, Halle, 1763, 8vo. 378 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. at a system of ^Esthetics, (or the principles of Taste). He described philosophy as the science of properties, which can be known by other means than that of faith. G. Fr. Meier ^, a disciple of the former, commented on the treatises of his master, and enlarged on certain ques- tions. 361. Gradually, (about the middle of the eighteenth century), this school lost much of its credit, and the pecu- liar and pedantic formalities of the Wolfians were turned into ridicule "" . Metaphysics too, sank in the public esteem ; and the minds of men became directed more to the variety and multiplicity of objects to which a princi- ple may be applied, and less to the investigation of a simple principle itself: — to the acquisition of fresh know- ledge rather than to the consolidation of that already acquired. The Empiricism of Locke daily gained ground, and in consequence of this and of the prevailing spirit of the age, and a renewed taste for the history of philo- sophy, a species of Eclecticism began to prevail, more " Died at Halle, 1777. Sam. Gotth. Lange, Leben C. f . Meier's, RalU, 1778, 8vo. Ge. Fr. Meier Versuch einer allgemeinen Auslegungskunst, Halle, 1756, 8vo. Metaphysik, Halle, 1756. 4 Bde. 8vo. Beweis, dass die menschliche Seele ewig lebt. II Aufl., Halle, 1754, 8vo. Vertheidigung desselben, Halle, 1753. Beweis, dass keine Materie denken konne. Beweis der vorherbestimm- ten Uebereinstimmung, Halle, 1743, 8vo. Theoretische Lehre von den Ge- miithsbewegungen, Halle, 1744, 8vo. Versuch eines neuen Lehrgebaudes von d. Seelen der Thiere, Halle, 1756, 8vo. Gedanken von dem Zastande der Seele nach dem Tode ; Beurtheilung des abermaligen Versuchs einer Theodicee ; Gedanken von der Religion. Anfangsgriinde der schonen Wis- senschaften, Halle, 1748 ; II Aufl. 1754, III Th. 8vo. Philosophische Sit- tenlehre, Halle, 1753 — 1761 ; 5 Th. 8vo. Betrachtung iiber die natiirliche Anlage zur Tugend und zum Laster, Halle, 1776, 8vo. Recht der Natur. Halle, 1767, 8vo. Versuch von der Nothwendigkeit einer niihern OfFenba- rung, Halle, 1747, 8vo. Untersuchung verschiedener Materien aus der Welt- weisheit, Halle, 1768—1771, 4 Th. 8vo. * The French spirit of persiflage contributed much to tlys effect. Witness the Candide of Voltaire, first published 1757. See, A Complete Collection of the Controversial Writings, published in the course of the Dispute between Maupertuis and Samuel Konig, Leips. 1758, Hvo. (Germ.). 3G1, 302.] SCEPTICISM OF HUME. 379 adapted to pursuits of elegance and popular utility, than to the abstract -research of remote principles. I. Scepticism of Hume, 36S. The spirit of Experimentalism continued to retain its predominant influence in England. David Hartley^, the physician, whose religious and moral character bore a considerable resemblance to that of Bonnet (§ 365), pursued the inquiries of Locke relative to the soul, on principles exclusively materialist. The Association of ideas he made the foundation of all intellectual energy ; and derived it from certain vibrations of the nerves. He allowed to man only a subordinate degree of free-will, asserting that the Deity is the original cause of all the operations of Nature, and that mankind are nothing more than His instruments, employed with reference to the final end of the Universe. The morality or im- morality of actions is determined by their tendency to produce happiness or misery. Presently a much more acute genius pursued the path marked out by Locke, till he arrived at a more complete and decided Scepticism. The idealism of Berkeley (§ o40), which had never been popular, instead of checking, as its author had hoped, the spirit of Scepticism, contributed to encourage it. This was what David Hume did not fail to remark. He was born at Edinburgh in 1711, and early forsook the study of law for that of history and philosophy, to which he devoted the remainder of his life ^. Taking the experi- y Born at Illingworth, 1704 j died at Bath, 1757. David IIartlev, Observations on INIan, his Frame, his Duty, and his Ex- pectations ; in two parts, Loud. 1749, 2 vols. 8vo. Theory of Human IMind, with Essays, by Jos. Priestley, Load. 1775, 8vo. ^ The Life of David Hume, written by himself, Lond. 1777, 12mo. Sup- plement to the Life of D. Hume ; (See a letter from Adam Smith to W. Strachan). A Letter to Ad. Smith, on the Life, Death, and Philosophy of his friend D. Hume; by one of the people called Christians, Oxford, 1777. Apology for the Life and Writings of D. Hume, etc., Lond. 1777. Curious Particulars and Genuine Anecdotes respecting the late Lord Ches- tci field and D. Hume, etc., Lvnd. 1788. 380 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. mental principles of Locke as the foundation of his sys- tem, he deduced from them many acute hut specious conclusions respecting the nature and condition of man, as a reasonable agent. He was led on by arguments, the fallacy of which is lost in their ingenuity, to the in- ference that there is no .such thing as ascertained objec- tive truth : that our views are limited to the phenomena of Consciousness, — the impressions we are conscious of, and the subjective relations of the latter. The inves- tigations of Hume were recommended not only by a great appearance of logical argumentation, but by an elegance, and propriety of diction, and by all those graces of style which he possessed in so eminent a de- gree ; and which made his scepticism more dangerous than it deserved to be. Our perceptions, according to Hume, are to be divided into impressions or sensations and ideas : the last are copies of the former, and differ from them only inasmuch as they are less forcible and vivid. All the objects which reason can contemplate are either relations of ideas (for instance, the elements of Ma- thematics), or facts and matters of experience. Our conviction of the reality of any fact is founded on Sensa- tion, Reflection, and an estimate of the relations of cause and effect. Our acquaintance with the laws of Causality does not come to us by any a j)riori principles, but sim- ply by experience. We expect from similar causes simi- lar consequences ; and the principle of this anticipation H. D. Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, etc., Lond. 1738, 2 vols. 8vo. ; 1739, 2 vols. 4to. Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, EcUnb. 1742, part I, Bvo. Inquiry concerning Human Understanding, Lond. 1748, Bvo.; (In the third vol. of his Essays, Hume gave a new^ edition of this treatise). Political Discourses, Lnnd. 1749; Edinb. Lond. 1749 ; Edinb. 1752, (reprinted among his Essays, vol. II.). Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, Edinb. 1751, Bvo. The Natural History of Keligion, Lond. 1755, 8vo. ; (See Essays, vol. IV.). Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects, Lond. 1770 — 1784, 4 vols. Bvo. Dialogues concerning Natural Religion, second edition, Lond. 1779, Bvo. (On this subject consult J. vcobi, t David Hume, or, An Essay on Faith, Idealism, and Realism, Breslau, 17B7, Bvo. : published also in his Works. Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul, Lond. 1789, Bvo. 3C2.] SCEPTICISM OF HUME. 381 is to be sought in the habitude of the connection of certain phenomena, and in the Association of our ideas. There ex- ists therefore no certain knowledge independent of Expe- rience ; nor any Metaphysical science, properly so called. After all, Experience does not possess any such demon- strative evidence as do the Mathematics ; but is based upon a certain instinct, which may prove deceptive. We find that instinct contradicts the conclusions of philo- sophy with respect to the ideas of Space, Time, and Causality ; and consequently we are compelled to doubt the evidence of Experience in these particulars : unless we give the preference to Natural Instinct over philoso- phical Scepticism. Geometry and Arithmetic are objects of abstract Science : Criticism (in matters of Taste) and Morality are objects of Sensation, and in no respectyb/'w? 'part of the province of the understanding. In morals^ Hume asserted that merit consists in the utility or agreeableness (utile et dulce) of man's character and qua- lities, as relating to himself or to others : he allowed that the understanding had considerable weight in the forma- tion of a moral judgment, but denied that it was suffi- cient of itself to pronounce a sentence of moral ap- probation or disapprobation. Consequently he was led to make the Moral Sense, which he identified with Taste, the primum mobile of moral action. This Sense consists in a sentiment of human happiness and misery. His theory was calculated to support that of an original Moral Sense. As for the question whether Self-love or Benevolence preponderate in the human mind, he leaves it unan- swered. The Scepticism of Hume was originally directed against the conclusions only of Speculative philosophy, but in fact would destroy the foundations of all real knowledge. He directed, however, his objections principally against the existence of the Deity, His providence ; against the reality of Miracles, and the Immortality of the Soul : as- serting that all these doctrines were unsupported by sufficient evidence. 382 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. His life and character were estimable. He died, Au- gust 25th, 1776, with perfect serenity and even gaiety. OPPONENTS OF HUME, AND OTHER PHILOSOPHERS OF THE ENGLISH AND SCOTTISH SCHOOLS. S6S. The Scepticism of Hume acquired of course the greatest notoriety, attacking as it did the foundations of religious as well as moral truth. Many antagonists of his doctrines undertook to refute them, but, instead of striking at the root of his Sceptical objections, and de- monstrating their fallacy, they contented themselves with appealing to Common Sense, which was just what Hume desired. Among his opponents we must reckon in the first place three Scotchmen ; Thomas Reid^, a sincere inquirer after Truth, who maintained the existence of certain principles of knowledge, independent of expe- rience, and treated moral philosophy as the Science of the human mind, allowing it, however, no other founda- tion than that of Common Sense, or a species of Intel- lectual Instinct. The eloquent James Beattie ^, espoused the same cause with greater ardour, but with less of a philosophical spirit, and laboured to vindicate the truths attacked by the Sceptics ; admitting the principle of a Moral Sense. He was the author also of some elegant treatises on Es- thetics. '^ Born 1704; became a professor at Glasgow; and died 1796. TiiOM. Keid, Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principle of Common Sense, third edition, Lond. 1796, 8vo. Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, Edinb. 1785, 4to. Essays on the Powers of the Human Mind, Loud. 1803, 3 vols. 8vo. ^ Born 1735 ; professor of Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh, and afterwards at Aberdeen. Died 1803. Account of the Life of James Beattie, by Alex. Boweu, Land. 1804. James Beattie, Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth in Oppo- sition to Sophistry and Scepticism, Edinb. 1770 ; fifth edition, Lo)id. 1774. Theory of Language, Eond. 1788, 8vo. Dissertations Moral and Critical, Jyont/. 1783, 4to. Elements of the Science of Morals, torn. 1, Edinb. 1790; torn. II, 1793. I 363, 364.] SCOTTISH SCHOOLS. 383 Lastly, James Oswald (flourished about 17G9), a Scotch Ecclesiastic, exalted the principle of Common Sense *" into the supreme canon of all truth, and the ultimate rule in all inquiries. These authors have demonstrated the mischievousness of speculation when it would reduce all our convictions to demonstration : but have not avoided a contrary fault, that of making the intellectual principle inert and pas- sive. 364. The celebrated physician, Joseph Priestley "^^ cri- ticised at the same time both Hume and his antagonists. He may be said to have been more successful with the latter, whose histinctive principles he justly styled quali- tates occultce. In opposition to Hume he alleged a proof of the existence of the Divinity, which was untenable^. He was a rank Determinist, and consistently with his principles, controverted, as Hartley had done, the doc- trine of free-agency, and endeavoured to establish a sys- tem of materialism like that advocated by his predeces- sor ^ Next came Edward Search (his real name was *^ James Oswald, Appeal to Common Sense in Behalf of Religion, Edinb. 1766—1772, 2 vols. 8vo. ^ Born at Fieldhead, 1733 ; died 1804. « Jos. Priestley, An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind ; Dr. Beattie's Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth ; and Dr. Oswald's Appeal to the Common Sense, Lond. 1774, Bvo. Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, containing an Examination of the Principal Objec- tions to the Doctrines of Natural Religion, and especially those contained in the writings of Mr. Hume, Bath, 1780, Part. I, II. Additional Letters, 1781 — 87,; and: A Continuation of the Letters, Northumberland-town (^U. S.) 1794, 8vo. The Life of Jos. Priestley, with Critical Observations on his Works, and Extracts from his Writings illustrative of his Character, Principles, etc., by J. Carry, Lond. 1804, 8vo. ^ Jos. Priestley, Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit, etc., Loud. 1777, 8vo. Three Dissertations on the Doctrine of Materialism and Philosophical Ne- cessity, Lond. 1778, 8vo. The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity illustrated, etc., Lond. 1777, Bvo. Letters on ^Materialism and Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind, by Priestley, Lond. 1776, 8vo. The last called forth answers from Palmer 384 THIRD PERIOD. , [sect. Abraham Tucker ^), who, in questions of Morals, referred every thing to personal expediency. On the other hand, Richard Price^, in opposition to the Experimentalists, who would derive all our ideas from Sensation, main- tained that the understanding is essentially distinct from the sensual system, and the source of phenomena not to be confounded with those which originate in the senses. He investigated with acuteness and ability many import- ant questions relative to Morals, and controverted the doctrine of a Moral Sense, as irreconcileable with the unalterable character of moral ideas, which, as well as those of Substance and Cause, he maintained to be eter- nal and original principles of the intellect itself, inde- pendent of the Divine Will. He has admirably illus- trated the differences existing between Morality and Sen- sation — Virtue and Happiness ; at the same time that he points out the intimate connection existing between the two last\ On the other hand the theory of a moral sense found a defender in Henry Home^, distinguished for his Critical works ; and in Adam Ferguson ^, who and Bryant; and more particularly the work of Richard Price, entitled: Letters on Materialism and Philosophical Necessity, Lond. 1778, 8vo. Ausziige aus Dr. Priestley's Schriften iiber die Nothwendigkeit des Wil- lens und iiber die Vibrationem der Gehirnnerven als die JMateriellen Ursachen des Empfindens und Denkens, nebst Betrachtungen iiber diese Gegenstiinde und einer Vergleichung der Vibrationshypothese mit Hrn. Dr. Gall's Scha- dellehre, Altona, 1806, 8vo. s Ed. Search, Light of Nature Pursued, Lond. 1769 — 70, 5 vols. Bvo. Free-will, Fore-knowledge, and Fate, Lond. 1763, Bvo. h Born at Tynton, 1723 ; died 1791. ' Price, Review of the Principal Questions and Difficulties in Morals, particularly those respecting the Origin of our Ideas of Virtue, its Nature, Relation to the Deity, Obligation, Subject, Matter, and Sanctions, Lond. 1758, 8vo. ; third edition, Lond. 1787, 8vo. ^ Born at Edinburgh : became Lord Kaimes in 1752 ; died 1782. Henry Home, Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion, Edinb. 1751, 8vo. Historical Law, 1759, 8vo. The Principles of Equity, 1760, fol. Elements of Criticism, Lond. 1762,3 vols. 8vo. ; third edition, Etiin/n 1765, 3 vols. Bvo. Sketches on the History of Man, Lond. 1774, 2 vols. 4to. ' Born in the Highlands of Scotland, 1724 ; died 1816. Ad. Ferguson, Institutes of Moral Philosophy, Lond. 1769, Bvo. Prin- ciples of Moral and Political Science, Edinb. 1793, 2 vols. 4to. Essay on Civil Society, Edinb. 1766, 4to. ;5(>4.] FRENCH EMPIRICS. 385 made virtue consist in the progressive development of the powers of the Soul in its advance towards intellectual perfection. Adam Smith "', a friend of Hume's, and prin- cipally celebrated for his work on the Wealth of Nations, the text-book of Political Science, maintained that Mo- rality can only consist in actions which are of a sort to merit universal approbation ; and consequently made Sym- pathy the principle of Morality. By means of this fo- culty we put ourselves in the situation of the agent whose conduct we are considering, and then pass a sentence, uninfluenced by personal considerations, on the propriety or impropriety of his conduct. From such judgments, repeatedly formed, are deduced, according to Smith, ge- neral rules for our own conduct. The sum of his mo- rality is this: "So act that other men may sympathise with you." Thomas Payne"^", one of the founders of the indepen- dence of the United States, astonished even the English by the furious democracy of his ravings. In connection with the metaphysical labours of the British writers, we ought to mention essays on the principles of Taste by Alison, Gerard, and Burke; as well as their speculations on Language, and the History of Mankind. II. French Empirical School, f History of the French Revolution, or the Commencement, Progress, and Eifects of the (so called) New Philosophy of that Countrjs III Parts, Lcips. 1827-28, 8vo. "> Born at Kirkaldy 1723 ; died 1790. Ad. Smith, Theory of IMoral Sentiments, sixth edition, Land. 1790, 2 vols. 8vo. Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Lond. 1776 ; second edition, 1777, 2 vols. 4to. Essays on Philosophical Subjects, etc., to which is prefixed an account of the life and writings of the author, by DuGALD Stewart, Lond. 1795, 8vo. " Born in Norfolk, 1737 ; died in America, 1809. Common Sense, Fh'Uadelphia, 1776, 8vo. Rights of Man, being an An- swer to ^Ir. Burke's attack on the French Revolution, parts 1,11, seventh edi- tion, 1791-92. The Age of Reason, being an Investigation of True and Fa- bulous Theology, parts 1, II, I.ond. 1794. C C 386 THIRD PERIOD. [sect, 365. Philosophical research in England constantly pur- sued the path of experiment, sometimes with acute and profound, at other times with narrow and superficial views ; religion being throughout the principal object to which its inquiries were directed. The same tendency prevailed in France also, modified however by the cha- racter of the French nation, as well as by the influence still possessed by the clergy. The metaphysics of Des- cartes and Malebranche had fallen into oblivion ; Gas- sendi and Newton having taken their place ; though a still more numerous party devoted themselves to the princi- ples of Locke. Montesquieu **, who investigated the Laws of Nations with the genius of a true philosopher, and the mathematician and naturalist P. L. Moreaii de Maupertuis^f pursued the experimental method without calling in question the truth of Revealed Religion. The influence of the philosopher of Ferney was more exten- sive and pernicious (see the following §). C/i. Batteux "^^ may be considered the first Frenchman who proposed a theory of the fine arts. Etienne Bonnot de Condillac^j laboured to bring to perfection the system of Experi- mentalism, and to trace all the operations of the mind of Man, since the Fall, to Sensation, by means of the prin- ° Charles Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu ; born in the Chateau de la Brede, near Bourdeaux, 1689 ; died 1755. De TEsprit des Lois, 1748; (numerous editions). (Euvres, Lond. 1759, 3 vols. 4to ; 5 vols. 8vo. (several other editions). (Euvres Posthumes, 1798, 8vo. P Born at St. Malo, 1691 ; died at Bale, 1759. Essai de Philosophic Morale, Lond. 1750, 8vo. Essai de Cosmologie, Berl. 1750, 8vo. CEuvres, Lyon, 1756, 4 vols. 8vo. 1 Born at Allendhuy, 1713 ; died 1780. Les Beaux Ars reduits a un raeme Principe, Faris, 1746, (several editions). Cours de Belles-Lettres, ou Principes de la Litterature, Paris, 1747—50, (many editions). ' Born at Grenoble, 1716; died 1780. Cours d'Etudes du Prince de Parme, par M. I'Abbe de Condielac, Paris, \11Q, 16 vols. Bvo. Essai sur I'Origine des Connaissances Humaines, Amsterd. 1746, 2 vols. 12mo. Traite des Sensations, Lond. 1754, 2 vols. 12mo. Trait6 des Animaux, Amsterd. 1755, 2 vols. 12mo. Qluvres Philosophiques, Paris, 1795, 6 vols. 12mo. (several other editions). 36.5.] FRENCH EMPIRICS. 387 ciple of the transformation and modification of its phe- nomena. The cultivation of Language he asserted to be the medium of improvement to Science ; and maintained that Language had its origin in the involuntary cries by which we express pleasure and pain. He affected to analyse all knowledge according to the mathematical method, and laboured to reduce each particular science to its most simple expression, or in other words, to an identical proposition. It may be remarked that he confounds in his theory the principles of Experimental and Speculative philosophy, and approximates the Atomical Theory of Gassendi, by enumerating among original facts that of the existence of bodies; (see the Theory of Gassendi, § 314). Charles Bonnet ' also rendered considerable service to psychology. He was an admirable observer of Nature, with a mind habitually religious. He also derived all our ideas from sensation, by means of certain fibres and their vibrations; distinguishing the mind from the body, but allowing it to possess nothing of its own but a twofold capacity of Sen- sation and Impulsion. He denied the doctrine of in- nate ideas; deduced all the phenomena of the understand- ing from sensation, and was consequently led to main- tain that the Soul can effect nothing but through the agency of the body; which is the source of all the modifi- cations of which the other is susceptible. In this manner he approached Materialism, and admitted the existence of an affinity between the reason of men and of other animals. Other writers followed up the consequences deducible from the Empirical System with greater consistency and « Born at Geneva, 1720 ; died 1793. (Ch. de Bonnet), Essai de Psychologic, ou considerations sur les opera- tions de r^me, sur I'habitude et sur I'education, J^ond. 1755, 8vo. Essay Analytique sur les Facultes de I'ume, Copenh. 1759-60, third edit. 1775. La Palingen^sie Philosophique, ou Id^es sur I'etat passe et sur I'etat futur des etres vivans, Geneve, 1769, 2 vols. 8vo. (Euvres d'Histoire Naturelle et de Philosophic, Nenfchdtel, 1779 ; second edition, 1783, 8 vols. 4to. INIemoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Vie et des CRuvrages de !\T. Ch. Bonnet, par J. Tkembley, Berne, 1794, 8vo. c c 2 388 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. boldness ; plunging into the abyss of Atheism, Mate- rialism, and Absolute Determinism, in all questions af- fecting the Soul and Morals. Of this number was La Mettrie *, a man of infamous character, who endeavoured to account for all the operations of the mind on principles merely mechanical. Helvetius^ in like manner de- rived all its phenomena from sensible perception, and pronounced the notion of infinitude to be simply nega- tive. To these must be added the authors of the too- famous Systeme de la Nature, La Grange, or the Ba- ron D'Holbach "", and Rob'met ^. We must attribute prin- * Jul. Offroy de La Mettrie, born at St. Malo, 1709; died at Berlin, 1751. (Euvres Philosophiques de M. de La Mettrie, Lond. (Berl.), 1751, 2 vols. 4to.; Amsterd. 1753 — 64, 2 vols, 8vo. Histoire Naturelle de I'ame, La Haye, (Paris), 8vo. ; (this work, by order of the Parliament, w^as burnt by the hands of the executioner). Traite de la Vie heureuse de Seneque, Postdam, 1748. L'Ecole de la Volupt6 {id. sous le titre de I'Art de Jouir), 1750. L'Horame Machine, Leyd. 1748, 12mo. L'Homme Plante, Postdam, 1748, 8vo. In answer to these w^orks were published : L'Homme plus que Machine, par Elie Luzac, Lond. (Leid.), 1748 ; second edition, Gotting. 1755, 12mo. De Machina et Anima Humana prorsus a se invicem distinctis Commentatio, auct. Balth. Lud. Tralles, Breslav. 1749, 8vo. GoDOFR. Ploucquet, Dissert. de Materialismo, Tubing. 1750, cum Sup- plemento et Confutatione Libelli : L'Homme Machine, ibid. 1751, 4to. " Claude Adrian Helvetius, born at Paris, 1715; died 1771. De I'Esprit, Paris, 1758, 4to. ; 2 vols. 8vo. De I'Horame, de ses Facultes et de son Education, Lond. (Amsterd.), 1772, 2 vols. 8vo. Les Progres de laRaison dans la Recherche du Vrai, Lond. 1775, 8vo. OEuvres completes, Amsterd. 1776, 5 vols. 12mo. ; Deux-Ponts, 1784, 7 vols. 8vo. ; Paris, 1794, 5 vols. 8vo ; 1796, 10 vols. 12rao. Eloge de M. Helvetius, (Geneve), 1774, 8vo. Essai sur la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. Helvetius (par Duclos?), en avant de son Poeme didactique, intitule : Le Bonheur, Lond. (Amsterd.), 1773, 8vo.; and in his (Euvres completes. ^ Paul H. D. Baron von Holbach, died 1789. Systeme de la Nature, ou des Lois du Monde Physique et du Monde IMoral, par feu M. Mirabaud, (La Grange 1 le Baron d'Holbach ?), Lond. 1770, 2 vols. 8vo. In reply see : Bergieu, Examen du Materialisme, ou Refutation du Sys- teme de la Nature, Paris, 1771, 2 vols. 8vo. De Castillon, Observations sur le Livre intitule : Syst. de la Nat., Bei-l. 1771, 8vo. 366.] FRENCH EMPIRICS. 389 cipally to the influence of the French Encyclopedists the popularity which was enjoyed by a species of philosophy'' which consisted in unfounded speculations (on the prin- ciples of Materialism) on all abstruse subjects, together with arguments from analogy pushed to an extravagant length. To this must be added, the affectation of making science of every kind popular and accessible to all; and the habit of ridiculing as pedantic all serious and pro- found philosophical inquiries. 36G. The men who at this period were dignified in France with the title of philosophers, professed to remove the fetters in which freedom of thought was confined ; but influenced by narrow and frivolous views, disseminated none but worthless doctrines which had the tendency to confound rational man with brute Nature, or on the other hand to deify the material world : pronouncing the belief in a God to be superfluous or problematical, and rejecting all j^ositive or revealed religion as a device of priestcraft. The universal corruption of the aristocracy, and the puerility of a ceremonial form of worship, pro- cured for such opinions a ready acceptance. With views like these the Encyclopedists prosecuted with zeal their " Reflexions Philosophiques sur le Syst. de la Nat., par M. Holland, (Georg. Jonath.), Paris, 1772, 2 vols. 8vo. ; Neufchdtel, 1773. (Voltaire), Reponse au Systeme de la Nature, Geneve, 1772 ; et Ency- clopedie, artic. Dieu. Le Vrai Sens du Systeme de la Nature, (par Helvetius), ouvrage post- hume ; (this work is made up of extracts). t F. X. V. Mangold, A Calm Refutation of Materialism, in answer to the author of the System of Nature, Augsb. 1803, Bvo. y Jean Baptiste Robinet; born at Rennes, 1723. RoBiNET, Considerations Philos. de la Gradation Naturelle des formes de I'etre, ou les Essais de la Nature, qui apprend a faire I'llomme, Amstd. 1767, 2 vols. Bvo. Parallele de la Condition et des Facult^s de I'Homme avec celles des autres Animaux, trad, de I'Angl., Bouillon, 1769, 12mo. See bib- liog. § 349. ' On French Empiricism, consult W. R. Bodmer, Le Vulgaire et les jNIe- taphysiciens, ou Doutes et Vues critiques sur I'EcoIe Empirique, Faris, 1802, 8vo. See the works of M. M. Baranfl and Ja\, On the French Literature of Win Century, (French). I 390 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. pernicious plan ; particularly Diderot ^, and D'Alembert ^ ; aided by the popularity of Helvetius and Voltaire*^. Others (like Rousseau), whose views were not altogether so objectionable, did more harm than good by a mass of declamations, well-meant in certain respects, but per- nicious in their effects. In practical philosophy, the opi- 4 nion daily gained ground that the little Morality they chose to require, ought to be founded on experimental observation of the nature of Mind. From Self-love they deduced a system of Self-expediency, at variance with the essential characteristics of morality. In this manner Helvetius attempted to deduce all meritorious actions from interested motives, and allowed them to be merito- rious only as far as they contributed to the well-being of some particular society of men^. Others inconsistently attempted to ally the maxims of a better system of * Dennis Diderot, born at Langres, 1713 ; died 1784. Encyclopedie, ou Dictlonnaire Raisonne des Sciences, des Arts, et des JNIetiers, par une Societe de Gens de Lettres ; mis en ordre et public par M. Diderot, Paris, 1751 — 1763, 27 torn, folio pour le texte, 6 vols, de planches. Seconde edition, 1783 — 1800, 63 livraisons, 4to. Vues Philosophiques, ou Protestations et Declarations sur les Principaux Objets des Connaissances de I'Homme ; nouv. ed. Berlin, 1755, r2mo. (par Premontval.) Diderot. Pensees Philosophiques, La Haye, 1746, 12mo. (a work directed against Christianity, and burned by the hands of the executioner). Lettre sur les Aveugles, a I'Usage de ceux qui Voient, Paris, 1749. Pensees sur rinterpretation de la Nature, Paris, 1754, et 1759, 12mo. CEuvres Philo- sophiques, 6 vols. Arnsterd. 1772. CEuvres completes. Land. 1773, 5 vols. See the Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de feu M. Diderot, by his daughter. Mad. de Vaudeuil, in the periodical work of ScHELLiNG. entitled ; Zeitschrift fur Deutsche, Fasc. I, 1813. ** Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, born at Paris, 1717 ; died, 1783. Melanges de Litterature, d'Histoire et de Philosophie de M. D'Alembert, Paris, 1752, 5 vols. 12mo. ; 1770, 5 vols. 8vo. CoNDORCET, Eloge de M. D'Alembert, 1783. c Marie FRANfois Arouet de Voltaire, born, 1694, died, 1778. See his Life by Condorcet, and since by Ancillon, Melanges de Litt. et de Phil. Lettres Philosophiques, par Voltaire (burnt by the executioner). Can- dide, ou I'Optimisme. ffiuvres, several editions. •' In his work De I'Esprit, mentioned above. Among other replies to this work see : Cur. Wilh. Franch. Walch, De Consensu Virtulis Moralis et Political contra Helvetium, Gottiiig. 1759. 360.] FRENCH EMPIRICS. 391 morality to exclusive Self-love : for instance Mahly'', and Rousseau, who had the talent to declaim about virtues which he did not practise*^; and who, with Robinet^, admitted the existence of a moral sense. The daring and short-sighted speculations of Rousseau respecting Nature, Education, and Polity, are sufficiently known, as well as the pernicious results to which they con- ducted. To this second description of French moralists Diderot also belongs ''. It may be remarked that after the publication of Mon- tesquieu's splendid work on Law, a great degree of atten- tion was excited in France by the subject of Legislation ; which was treated by their writers with unrivalled temerity and extravagance. Abundance of theories on this sub- ject, as well as on the Laws of Government and Nations, appeared, professing to discuss those points with a view to the Principles of Philosophy \ « Gabriel Bonnot de Mably, born at Grenoble, 1709; died, 1785. f Born at Geneva, 1712 ; died, 1778. J. J. Rousseau, Discours sur I'Origine et les Fondemens de I'lnegalite parmi les Hommes, Amsterd. 1755, 8vo. Lettres Ecrites de la Montagne, Amsterd. 1764, part II, 8vo. Du Contrat Social, ou Principes du Droit Poli- tique, Amsterd. 1762, 12mo. Emile, ou de TEducation, Amsterd. 1762, 8vo, (Euvres completes, Geneve, 1782, 17 vols. & In the work mentioned above, § 349. See also : Vue Philosophique de la Gradation Naturelle des formes d'etre, ou les Essais de la Nature qui apprend a faire un Homme, Amsterd. 1767, 2 vols. 8vo. ^ Principes de la Philosophie Morale, ou Essai sur le Merite et la Vertu, 1745. See $ 339, note. ' We may particularise Gasp, de Real; born at Sisteron, 1682; died, 1752. Traite complet de la Science du Gouvernement, Paris, 1762 — 64, 8 vols. 4to. Mably, De la Legislation, ou Principes des Lois, Amsterd. 1776, 2 vols. 8vo. Doutes proposes aux Economistes sur I'Ordre Naturel et Essentiel des Soci^tes, Paris, 1766, 12mo. (Euvres, Paris, 1793, 12 vols. Bvo. ; and also: I'Ecole des Physiocrates, ou Economistes. Quesnav, born, 1697; died, 1774. Ordre Naturel et Essentiel des Societ6s Politiques; MiRABEAu the father, Condorcet, Mirabeau the elder, and Emm. Sieves. BuRLAMAQui (Jean-Jacq., bom, 1694, died, 1748), Principes du Droit Natur. Emmeric de Vattel, born, 1714, died, 1767. Droit des Gens (after Wolf), Loud. 1757, 2 vols. 4to. 392 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. III. German Eclectics. 367. The following authors belonging to the school of Wolf opposed themselves in part to the French philoso- phy. Herm. Sam. Reimarus^, a Naturalist and Theolo- gian, who united perspicuity to depth in his works on Logic, Natural Theology, and the instinct of brutes : Gotifried Ploucquet^, an acute thinker, who simplified Logic, discovered a logical calculus, and laboured to illustrate the principal points of the doctrine of Monado- logia. J. H. Lambert^, a distinguished Mathematician, who applied the principles of his favourite science to the more exact demonstration of metaphysical problems. •^ Born at Hamburgh, 1694; died a professor at the Gymnasium, 1765. Herm. Sam. Reimarus, + Theory of Reason, or the Method of employing Reason aright in the investigation of Truth, Hamburgh and Kiel, 1756, fifth edition, 1790, 8vo. t The Principal Truths of Natural Religion, Hamburgh, 1754. The fifth edition contains also the t Dissertation of J. A. Reimarus, on the Existence of God and the Human Soul, 1781, 8vo.; sixth edition, 1791. t Considerations on the Instinct of Brutes, 1762, 8vo. fifth edition, with the notes of J. A. Reimarus, 1798. 1 Born, 1716 ; became professor at Tiibingen ; died, 1790. G. Ploucquet (See preceding sect, and § 348.) Methodus tractandi infinila in Metaphysicis, Tubing. 1748, 4to. Methodus tam Demonstrandi directe omnes Syllogismorum Species quam vitia forraaj detegendi ope unius regulae, Tubing. 1763, 8vo. Principia de Substantiis et Phaenomenis ; acce- dit Methodus Calculandi in Logicis ab ipso inventa, cui prasmittitur Comment, de Arte Characteristica Universali, Franco/, et Lips. 1753, 8vo. ; second edition, 1764, 8vo. Fundamenta Philosophiae Speculativae, Tubing. 1759, 8vo. ; ibid. 1782, 8vo. Institutiones Philosophiae Theoreticae, ibid. 1772. Der- niere edit., intit. : Expositiones Philos. Theor., Sttittg. 1782, 8vo. Elementa Philos. Contemplativas s. de Scientia Ratiocinandi, Notionibus disciplinarum Fundamentalibus, etc., Stuttg. 1778, 8vo. Solutio Problematis Lugdunensis qua ex una hac Propositione concessa : existit aliquid, existentia entis realis- simi cum suis attributis eruitur, Tubing. 1758, 4to. Commentationes Philos. Selectiones, etc., recognitie, UltraJ. ad Rhenum, 1781, 4to. Variae Questiones Metaphysica; cum subjunctis responsionibus, Tubing. 1782, 4to. t Collection of writings referring to the Logical Calculus of professor Ploucquet, with fresh additions, published by A. F.,B6ck, Francf. and Leips. 1766. Republished since. "' Born at Miihlhauscn in Sundgau ; died at Berlin, 1777. J. H. Lam- bert, t New Organon, or. Thoughts on the Right Method of determining the Characters of Truth, etc., Leips. 1764, 2 vols. 8vo. t Treatises on Logic and Moral Philosophy (edited by J. Bernouilli), vol. I, Dessau, 1782, 8vo. 367, 368.] GERMAN ECLECTICS. 393 368. It contributed to the impression which the works of Hume at first excited in Germany, that men had become in a manner weary of long and profound inves- tigations of which they had seen so many unsuccessful instances ; and had tacitly adopted the conviction that Truth is not to be attained by any single system, but, like a ray of light, is refracted and dispersed through many. In the place therefore of laborious research suc- ceeded a species of Eclecticism ° which contented itself with adopting whatever had an appearance of probability to recommend it, more especially if it seemed likely to prove of popular utility. J, G. SuUer°, a clear-sighted and talented inquirer, who united powers of observation to those of speculation, hesitated between the views of Wolf's school and those of the British metaphysicians, and in his investigation respecting the fine arts, which have done him honour, made it his object to discover a moral principle to account for their influence. He directed the attention of his countrymen to the specula- tions of Hume. Hitherto Eclecticism had proved a species of rampart against the overwhelming influence of particular systems ; but at the epoch of which we are speaking it was nothing but a consequence of the doubt and uncertainty which embarrassed the minds of men. Empiricism had overpowered and stifled metaphysical inquiry, aided by the influence of French manners and t Introduction to the Architectonic Science, etc., Riga, 1771, 2 vols. 8vo. t Cosraological Letters on the Formation of the World, etc. Angsb. 1771, 8vo. Correspondence of Kant and Lambert, in Kant's ]Miscell. Works. " See Beausobue, Le Pyrrhonisme Raisonable, Berl. 1755, 8vo. " Born at Winterthur, 1720 ; died a professor at Berlin, 1779. J. G. Sl'lzer Moral. Betrachtungen iiber die Werke der Natur, herausg. von Sack, Berl. 1741, 8vo. Voriibungen zur Erweckung der Aufraersamkeit und des Nachdenkens, Berl. Mil, 3 Th. 8vo. AUgemeine Theorie der schbnen Klinste, Leipz. 1771—74, 2 B. letzte ; Ausg. ebend. 1792—94, 4 B. Verm Philos. Schriften, Leipz. 1773—85 ; III Aufl., 1800. Mit einer Biogr. Vorrede von v. Blankenburg, 2 B., 8vo. Particularly : liber den Ur- sprung der angenehmen and unaugenehmen Empfindungen, Leipz. 1773, 8vo. FoRMEY Eloge de Mr. Sulzer, Berl. 1779, 8vo, II. C. IIirzel an Gleim iiber Sui.zer, den Weltweisen, 2 1'h., Zurich. 1780, 8vo. Lebensbeschreibung, von ihm selbst aufgesetzt, Btrl. 1809, 8vo. 394 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. literature, which found a powerful patron in Frederic the Great p. Such a state of things gave birth to the system of J, B, Bassedow ^ ; who nevertheless en- deavoured to combine solidity of argument with popular utility; and proposed felicity, the sentiment of approbation, and analogy, as principles of Truth ; at the same time that he admitted in certain cases the obligation of belief, as a species of probable knowledge, superior to the testimony of the senses. Then came the system of the Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn^, who endeavoured to unite elegance to perspicuity in his speculations on the principles of Taste and Psychology. Next, the Naturalism of G. S, Steinbart^, and the Essays of J. A, Eberhard^^ P On the philosophy of Frederic the Great consult Fulleborn's Collect. Fasc. VII. • Born at Dessau, 1729 : died, 1786. JMosES Mendelssohn Abh. liber die Evidenz in den Metaph. WW. Berl. 1764, 4to. ; II Aufl. 1786. Phaedon oder liber die Unsterblichk. der See\e, Berl. 1767, 8vo. ; VI Aufl. herausg. von Dr. Friedlander, Berlin, 1821, 8vo. Morgenstunden oder Vorlesungen iiber das Daseyn Gottes, Berl. 1785; II Aufl. 1786, 2 B. 8vo. Briefe uber die Empfindungen, Berl. 1755, 8vo. Philosophische Schriften, Berl. 1761 ; 3 Ausg. 1777 ; 2 B. 8vo. Kleine Philos. Schriften mit einer Skizze seines Lebens von Jenisch (herausg. von Miichler), Berl. 1789, 8vo. Leben und Meinungen Mendelssohns nebst dem Geiste seiner Schriften, Humb. 1787, 8vo. s Born at Ziilichau, 1729 ; died, 1809. Gotthelf Sam. Steinbart's System der reinen Philosophic oder Gllick- seligkeitslehre des Christenthums, Z'ullichau, 1778 ; IV Aufl. 1794. Philos. Unterhaltung zur weitern Aufklarung der Gluckseligkeitslehre Heft I — III, Z'ullichau, 1782 — 86, 8vo. Gemeinnutzige Anleitung zum regelmiissigen Selbstdenken, III Aufl. 1793, 8vo. ' Born at Halberstadt, 1738 ; died a professor at Halle, 1809. Jo. Aug. Eberhard Allgem. Theorie des Denkens und Empfindens, Berl. 1776—86, 8vo. Neue Apologie des Sokrates, Berl. 1772—88. Von dem Begriffe der Philos. und ihren Theilem, Berl. 1778, 8vo. Kurzer Abriss der Melaphysik, llulle, 1794, 8vo. \'orbereilung zur Natiirlicheu Theologie, //u//e, 1781, 8vo. Sittenlehie der Vernunft, Berl. 1781—86, 8vo. Theorie der Schiinen Kiinste und Wissenschaften, llulle, 1783 j 111 Aufl. 1790, 8vo. 3G8.] GERMAN ECLECTICS. 395 a dexterous inquirer, who had the merit of making an able attempt to revive the principles of Leibnitz, and dis- tinguished himself in the application of philosophy. — E. Plainer "^ also inclined to the ideas of Leibnitz, but with a more sceptical turn of mind and greater acuteness ; and added some valuable essays on Anthropology and Physiology. The tendency to a system of mere Euda)- monism which had been remarked in Wolf's theory, betrayed itself in the modified form it assumed under the hands of Platner : according to whom happiness or well- being, is the end of all existence, and good is that which conduces to the happiness of individuals, and of all ; Virtue being free-will directed towards the attainment of what is truly good. Christian Garve " made morality consist in the fulfilment of those laws which are obligatory on mankind at large, in all their various relations : such are the several prin- ciples of Virtue — Propriety — Benevolence — and Order. The Revision of Philosophy, by Cliph. Meiners^, belongs Handbuch der ^sthetik fiirgebildete Leser, 4Th. Halle, 1803, sqq. ; II Aufl. 1807, fF. 8vo. Geist des Urchristenthums, Berl. 1807, 8vo. Versuch einer AUgemeinen Deutschen Synonymik, 6 Th. Halle, 1795 ; II Aufl. 1820. Fort- gesetzt von Maass (XI — XII B.) Vermischte Schriften, Halle, 1784, 8vo. Neueste vermischte Schriften, Halle, 1788, 8vo. Philosophisches Magazin, Halle, 1788—92 ; 4 B. 8vo. Philosophisches Archiv. 2 B. 1792—95, Bvo. See Nicolai, Gedachtnissschrift auf J. A. Eberhaud, Berl. 1810, 8vo. " Born at Leipsic, 1744 ; died there, professor of Medicine and Phi- losophy, 1818. E. Pi.ATNER Philosoph. Aphorismen, Leipzig, 1776 — 82, 2 Th. 8vo. ,- neue umgearbeitete Aufl. 1793, 1800. Anthropologie fiir Aerzte und Weltweise, Leipz. 1772, 8vo. Neue Anthropologie 1 B. Leipz. 1790, 8vo. Gesprache iiber den Atheismus, Leipz. 1781, 8vo. Lehrbuch der Logik. und Metaphysik, Leipz. 1795, 8vo. For his life and character see the memoir published by his son in the Literary Journal of Jena, No. 38, 1819. * Born at Breslau, 1742; died, 1798. Chr. Grave Abh. iib. d. Verbindung der Moral u. d. Politik, Bresl. 1768. Betrachtungen iiber die allgem. Grundsiitze der Sittenlehre, Bresl. 1798, 8vo. Versuche iiber verschiedne Gegenstiinde der Moral, etc., II Aufl. 1821, 8vo. Ueber das Daseyn Gottes, Bresl. 1802. y Born, 1747; died, 1810. Chph. Meiners Revision der Philosophie, 1 Th. G'vtt u. Golha, 1772, 8vo. Abriss der Psychologie, 1773. Grundriss der Seelenlchre, Leipz. 1786. Tntersuchungen iiber die Dcnk.- und \N illeuskriilte, CotHng. 1806, 2 'J'h. 8vo. 396 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. to his period ; and the controversy between J. C. Lossius % and the acute J. N. Tetens % on the question whether Truth be or be not objective. The former maintained it to be subjective, and derived the highest principle of Thought from certain vibrations of the nervous system. To these we must add the popular Manuals of J. H. Feder^, and J. A, H. Ulrich (§ 355, note.) Nevertheless, we may observe that the German nation did not altogether lose either its characteristic depth of research, or a regard for the sacred interests of Mankind. Of this the pious C. F. Gellert*^ is a sufficient proof; whose writings and lectures equally contributed to pre- serve a sense of religion and moral duty among his con- temporaries. 369. Tn the place of Metaphysics, in Germany as in Verm. Philos. Schriften, Leipz. 1775 — 76, 3 Th. 8vo., with several other works on Psychology and Ethics. * JoH. Christ. Lossius Physische Ursachen des Wahren. Gotha, 1775, 8vo. Unterricht der gesunden Vernunft, Gotha, 1777, 2 Th. 8vo. Neues Philos. Allgem. Reallexicon, Erf. 1803—7, 4 B. 8vo. a Born at Tetenbull, 1736 ; died, 1805. JoH. Nic. Tetens Philosophische Versuche iiber die menschliche Natur und ihre Entwickelung, Leipz. 1776 — 77, 2 B. 8vo. Gedanken iiber einige Ursachen, warum in der Metaphysik nur wenige ausgemachte Wahrheiten sind. Biitzow u. Wismar, 1760, 8vo. Ueber die allgem. speculative Philo- sophie, B'utzow, 1775, 8vo. (anonym.) ^ Born, 1740 ; died a privy-councillor of Justice at Hanover, 1821. JoH. Ge. Heinr. Feder's Institutiones Log. et Metaph. Fcf. 1717. Grun- driss der Philos. WW. Coburg, 1767, und Glob. A. Tittel's Erlauterungen dazu, 1785, 8vo. Grundsatze der Logik u. Metaphysik, Gutting. 1794, 8vo. llntersuchungen iiber den menschlichen Willen, dessen Naturtriebe, Veran- derungen, etc., Gotiing. und Lemgo, 1779 — 93, 4 Th. 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1783, sqq. with several other works. Ueber das moral. Gefiihl, Copenh. 1792, 8vo. J. G. H. Feder's Leben, Natur und Grundsatze (Autobiographic, von seinem Sohn herausgegeben), Leipzig, 1825, 8vo. c Born at Haynichen, 1715 ; died professor of moral philosophy at Leipsic, 1769. CiiR. Frciigott Gellert Discours sur la Nature, et I'etendue et I'Utilite de la Morale, BerL 1764, 8vo. Moral. Vorlesungen, herausg. von Ad. Schlegel und llcyer, 2 B., Z.eJps. 1770, 8vo. Cun. Garve Ammerkungen iiber Gel- lorts Moral, seine Schriften iiberh. und seinen Charakter, Leipz. 1770, 8vo. Gellerts sUmmtl. Schriften, Leipz. 1769 — 70, 7 Th. 8vo. 369.] GERMAN ECLECTICS. 397 Great Britain, a species of empirical Psychology had ac- quired astonishing credit and influence. Tetens, (men- tioned in preceding section), particularly distinguislied himself, by prosecuting the inquiries of Locke respecting the origin of knowledge, with great acuteness, and with- out any taint of materialism. He illustrated the opera- tions of the faculties of the understanding ; made it his object to substantiate the proofs of an objective Truth, and to refute the scepticism of Hume ; and thus eventually fell into the same path which was pursued by Kant. He attracted, however, little attention in his day. We may here place the anthropological researches of C F, Ir- wing^j J. H. Campe^, Dietr. Tiedemann^ , Plainer y Garve (see preceding section), C Ph. Moritz^, J, J, Engel^, Fr, Joach. Eschenburg *, of the able critic J. G, E. Lessing ^, •' Born at Berlin, 1728 ; died, 1801. Carl Franz v. Irwing Erfahrungen und Untersuchungen iiber den Mens- chen, Berl. 1778, 4 Th. 8vo. « Born at Teersen in Brunswick, 1746 ; died, 1818. Empfindungs- und Erkenntnisskraft der menschl, Seele, 1776, 8vo. Ueber Empfindung und Empfindelei, Hamb, 1779. Sammlung einiger Erziehungs- schriften, Hamb. 1777, 2 Th. 8vo. Theophron, Hamb, 1783, Braunschvj, 1790, u. bfter. ^ Born, 1748 ; died a professor at Marburg, 1806. Untersuchungen viber d. Menschen, Leipz. Mil — 78, 3 Th. 8vo. Iland- buch der Psychologic, herausgegeben von VVachler, Leipz. 1804, 8vo. ; Vgl. oben Litt. 26 S. g Born at Hameln, 1757 ; died, 1793. Aussichten zu einer Experimentalseelenlehre, 1782, 8vo. Magaz. zur Erfah- rungsseelenlehre, 10 Th. 1793 — 95 ; und Selbstcharakteristik in Anton Reiser, 1785 — 90. Abh. iiber die bildende Nachahmung des Schonen, Branmchw. 1788, 8vo. Grundlinien zu einer vollstand. Theorie der schonen Kiinste (besides several other works). h Born at Parchim, 1741 ; died, 1802. Besides several treatises on ^Esthetics : der Philosoph fur die Welt, Leipz. 1115—11, 2 Th. 8vo. ; N. A. 1801, sqq. ; and in his works. Bed. 1801, sqq. 6 B. • Born at Hamburgh, 1743 ; died, 1820. Entwurf einer Theorie und Litteratur des schonen Wissenschaften, Berl. 1783, 8vo. IV Aufl. 1817, 8vo. ^ Born at Kamenz, 1729 ; died, 1781. Various Essays on ^Esthetics and Criticism, and : Die Erziehung d, Menschengeschlechts. Siimmtl. Schriften, Berl. 1771 — 91, 30 B. 8vo. 398 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. and the theologian J. G, Von Herder^ ^ a man of comprehensive mind, besides many other writers on Criticism and the Fine Arts, some of whom followed the principles promulgated in Great Britain (by Hutcheson, Gerard, Hume, Home, and Burke, etc.) ; while others adopted the French theories, (particularly that of Bat- teux, see § "^^^-^ and others again attempted paths of their own. The influence of Moral Philosophy became more perceptible; not only as affecting the sciences im- mediately connected with it, such as the Mathematics, Physics, Natural History, and Medicine ; but as operating on certain subordinate branches of science up to that time neglected; such as Education (treated after Rous- seau by Basedow f Campe, Reswitz) ; the theory of Lan- guage (by Herder after Harris ^ and Monboddo) ; and The History of Mankind (zealously investigated by MeinerSf Isaac Iselin^, and Herder. The last attacked the jejune system of pretended discovery prevalent in his time, seconded by his ingenious contemporary J. G. Hamann'^, as well as by Jacobi (of w^hom presently), and by Matthias Claudius (the messenger of Wandsbeck). Among these C Th. Ant, Maria Von Dalberg also deserves a place p. • Born at Morungen, 1744 ; died at Weimar, 1803. The author of various works on Phil. Hist, and the Fine Arts, parti- cularly : Ideen zur Philos. der Gesch. der Menschheit; Preisschrift iiber den Ursprung der Sprache seit, 1772—89. Adrastea ; Kalligone; Terp- sichore, etc. m Born at Salisbury, 1709; died, 1750. » Born at Bkle, 1728 ; died, 1782. Versuch iiber die Gesch. der Menschheit, 1764, 8vo. *> Born at Konigsberg ; died at JNIiinster, 1788. Hamann's Schriften herausg. von Fr. Roth, 1 — 8 B., Berl. 1821, 8vo. (reviewed by Hegel in the Jahrbiicher der wiss. Kritik, 1829). For his cor- respondencewith Jacobi see the works of the latter. See also the Sibylline Leaves of the Magician of the North, published by D. Fn. Cramer, Leipz. 1819, 8vo. P Elector, Arch-Chancellor, and then Grand-Duke of Franckfort, and sub- sequently Archbishop of Ratisbon : born, 1744 ; died, 1817. Betrachtungen iiber das Universum, Erf. 1776, VII Aufl. 1821. Vom Verhiiltniss zwischen Moral und Staatskunst, Erf. 1786, 4to. Gedanken von 370.] RETROSPECTIVE. 391) Retrospective, 370. A review of the progress of philosophy during the period we have been considering will convince us that it had gained more in the apparent extent than the real value of its dominion. It is true that the different branches of philosophical science had acquired a rich mine of fresh materials, and a new study, that of the theory of Taste, had been laid open : the application of Philosophy to particular subjects, (for instance those of education and the political sciences), had been enlarged, and the influence of Moral Philosophy had come to be recognised throughout the whole circle of human, know- ledge. On the other hand, little progress had been made in the improvement of a philosophical Method. The questions respecting the true character of Philo- sophy, its Form, and its End, were scarcely stirred at all: the conflicting opinions with regard to the origin of knowledge had not been reconciled ; and notwithstanding the recourse which had been had to the different methods of Observation, Reflection, and Demonstration, the prin- ciples of their application had scarcely been discussed. Everywhere prevailed Incertitude, Doubt, and Dissen- sion, respecting the most important questions ; with a barren and superficial Dogmatism. The combatants on every side had laid aside their arms rather from indifler- ence and disgust for intellectual speculation, than because any one predominant and satisfactory solution of the points at issue had established peace. The philosophical sciences stood in need of more accurate limitations and more completely scientific forms, in consequence of the want of Principles ; which the reformation Psychology had pretended to effect was inadequate to supply ^. der Bestimmung des moral. Werths, Erf. 1787, 4to. Grundsatzeder yEsthetik ebend. 1791, 4to. Vom Bewusstseyn als allgem. Grunde der Weltweisheit ebend. 1793, 8vo. u. a. 1 Revision der Philosophie (by Meinehs). See above § 368, note. 400 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. 371. In Practical philosophy also might be observed a conflict between the opposite tendencies of Empiricism and Rationalism; in which the former had obviously obtained the advantage. The claims of the Intellect had not indeed been altogether rejected, but had seldom been fairly and freely discussed ; the Understanding being per- petually confounded with Reflection, and treated as the handmaid of sensation ; and not as an independent power and energy. Some inquirers (e. g. Geulinx and Rich. Price) had detected the two grand defects of most systems of Morality then received : 1st. That they either set out with self-love as their principle, or termi- nated in it as their end ; producing nothing but a series of maxims more or less subservient to the mere attain- ment of Happiness by the exercise of Prudence. 2ndly, That they did not recognise the Intellect as the first legislating principle of free-agency. No lasting reform was however brought about by these observations. The Ethics of the day, accordingly, amounted to Uttle more than a selection of what appeared to be the best results, on an Eclectic plan, and with views altogether subjective and personal; consisting in deductions from the principles of Self-love and Sympathy. Free-will — the first requisite of a sound system of Ethics — occasioned considerable perplexities to the supporters of such theories ; since either they contemplated a free-will purely psychological, or laboured to solve the problem on meta- physical grounds, and thereby inclined to Determinism : or maintained a blind and unprincipled free-agency, against which theoretical reason revolted. In proportion as the disputants became more and more sensible of the difficulties belonging to this question, they were tempted to desert the prosecution of such inquiries altogether, and to adopt in their stead the easier task of rendering Philo- sophy popular and — sujoerjicial. To this subject belong : De Premontval Pensecs sur la Liberie, Ber'l. 1754, 8vo. Le Diogene de d'Alcmbert, ou Diogene decent. Pensees libres 371.] RETROSPECTIVE. 401 sur I'Homme et siir les Principaux Objets des Connaissances dc rHomme. Nouv. ed. Berl. 1755, 12mo. Vucs Philosophiqucs, Berl. 1757; 2 torn. 8vo. Du Hazard sous I'Empire de la Providence, Berl. 1755, 8vo. Versuche einer Anleitung zu einer Sittenlehre fiir alle Mens- chen (von Schulz), Berl. 1783—87, 4 Th. 8vo. Jo. Aug. Heinr. Ulrich Eleiitheriologie, odor iiber Freiheit und Nothwendigkeit, Jen. 1788, 8vo. Dd SECOND PERIOD. FROM KANT TO OUR OWN TIMES. IMPROVEMENT EFFECTED IN MORAL PHILOSO- PHY BY MEANS OF THE CRITICAL METHOD. L GERMAN PHILOSOPHY. A. Critical Idealism of Kant, Memoirs, etc. of Kant : LuDW. Ernst. Borowski Darstellung des Lebens und Charak- ters Kants, Konigsb. 1805, 8vo. Reinhold Bernard Jachmann Im. Kant, Geschildert in Briefen an einen Freund, Konigsb. 1805, 8vo. C. A. Ch. Wasianski Im. Kant, in seinen letzten Lebensjahren, Konigbs. 1804, 8vo. Biographic Im. Kant's, Leqjz. 1804 ; 4 Th. 8vo. J. Ch. A. Grohmann dem An- denken Kant's, Berl. 1804, 8vo. Fr. Bouterweck, Im. Kant, ein Denkmal, Hamb. 1804, 8vo. F. Th. Rink Ansicliten aus Kant's Leben, Konigsb. 1805, 8vo. Kant's Gedachtnissfeier, Konigsb. 1811, 8vo. S12. A reformation in Philosophy had now become necessary. It was effected by a philosopher of the first order, who had quahfied himself to correct the principal defects of the former systems by a long and ardent, but secret study of all the branches of the subject. His appearance at that time was the more opportune, because already several men of talent {Lessing, Winkelmannj llamann, Herder, Gotke, and others) had excited by their various compositions a great degree of intellectual activity, and created a capacity for the reception of new 372, 373.] CRITICAL IDEALISM OF KANT. ^03 ideas on Science and tlie Arts. Emmanuel Kant was born at Konigsberg, the 22nd of April, 1721<; became a professor in the same city, and died February 12th, 1804. He may be styled a second Socrates, having created a new philosophy, which, by investigating the origin and the limits of human knowledge'', revived the spirit of research, extended it, taught it its present position, and directed it to the true path of Science, through the culti- vation of Self-knowledge. For the accomplishment of this task he was qualified by uncommon talents, studi- ously cultivated, and enriched by extensive reading. His piety and virtue set bounds to an exclusive spirit of speculation, and imparted to his works the character of their author. A profound love of truth and a pure moral sentiment became the principles of his philosophy, to which he added the qualities of originality, solidity, and sagacity, in an eminent degree. The revolution which he was thus enabled to effect was astonishing. It is true that it was not brought about without many impediments, but its consequences have been immense, and the whole course of philosophy has been modified by its influence. For the works of Kant see below, § 377. 373. His attention being awakened by the Scepticism of Hume (§ SQ2), he was led to remark the very different degree of certainty belonging to the deductions of Moral Philosophy and the conclusions of Mathematics ; and to speculate upon the causes of this difference. Meta- physics of course claimed his regard ; but he was led to believe, that as yet the very threshold of the science had not been passed. An examination of the different phi- losophical systems, and particularly of the jejune Dog- matism of Wolf, led him to question whether, ante- cedently to any attempt at Dogmatic philosophy, it might not be necessary to investigate the possibilif?/ of philo- * Hence called the Criticnl method , or that of investigation and ex- amination. D d 2 404 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. sophical knowledge, and he concluded that to this end an inquiry into the different sources of information and a critical examination of their origin and employment were necessary : in which respect he proposed to complete the task undertaken by Locke. He laid down in the first place that Moral Philosophy and Mathematics are, in their origin, intellectual sciences. Intellectual know- ledge is distinguished from experimental by its qualities of necessity and universality. On the possibility of intel- lectual knowledge depends that of the philosophical sciences. These are either synthetic or analytic : the latter of which methods is dependent on the first. What then is the principle of synthetical a 'priori knowledge in contradistinction to experimental ; which is founded on observation ? The existence of d priori knowledge is deducible from the mathematics, as well as from the testimony of common sense ; and it is with such know- ledge that metaphysics are chiefly conversant. A science, therefore, which may investigate with strictness the pos- sibility of such knowledge, and the principles of its em- ployment and application, is necessary for the direction of the human mind, and of the highest practical utility. Kant pursued this course of inquiry, tracing a broad line of distinction between the provinces of Moral Philosophy and the Mathematics, and investigating more completely than had yet been done the faculty of knowledge. He remarked that synthetical a priori knowledge imparts a formal character to knowledge in general, and can only be grounded in laws affecting the Individual, and in the consciousness which he has of the harmony and unison of his faculties. He then proceeds to analyse the particulars of our knowledge, and discriminates between its elemen- tary parts so often confounded in practice, with a view to ascertain the true nature of each species : the character- istics of necessity and universality which belong to a priori knowledge, being his leading principles. 374. The faculty of theoretical or speculative know- ledge is composed of Sensibility and Understanding, — 374.] CRITICAL IDEALISM OF KANT. 405 Apprehensiveness and Spontaneousness. The material part of sensibility consists in the sensations which belong to it ; the formal conditions are space and time. Space and Time have no reality except in our conception of them, but may be said to exist a priori^ as conditio?is of our perceptions. The understanding combines, in the form of ideas and judgments, the materials supplied by the sensitive faculties. The laws according to which the understanding acts, independently of experience (or rather regulating experience), are the (four) categories. These, witli the conditions of sensitive perception (viz. Space and Time), make up the forms and elements of pure Intellect. The forms of sensibility and intellect determine and define knowledge : they adapt themselves to the materials supplied by sensible experiment, and are independent in their own nature of the phenomena to to which they are applicable. The grand conclusion of the Critical system of Kant is this, that no object can be known to us except in proportion as it is apprehended by our perceptions, and definable by our faculties for know- ledge ; consequently, we know nothing per se, but only by means of its phenomena. In this consists his Critical Idealism, (being founded on a critical examination of the faculties of knowledge), or, as it is otherwise termed, his transcendental Idealism. In consequence of these dis- tinctions, it follows that our knowledge of real objects must be acquired by experience ; and that a priori know- ledge contemplates only t\\e\v formal conditions, or their possibilitf/. It is only under such limitations that syn- thetical d /?Wori knowledge is possible, and within these boundaries Metaphysics must be confined. Connected with the above is the acute distinction established by him between Thought and Knowledge*', (the neglect of which has been a fertile source of error), — between the objects apprehended and our apprehensions of them ; as well as the line drawn between Reason and Un- derstanding, with reference to Logic and the Trans- ^ Hence we are enabled completely to separate Logic from INIetaphysics. 406 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. cendental theory. Speculative reason, considered as the art of ratiocination, labours to attain a perception of absolute unity, and to produce a connected system, by means of Ideas, which impart a formal character to the operations of the mind. Knowledge, on the other hand, is not attainable by the means of Ideas, since they have no proportionate object within the province of Expe- rience ; although Reason is perpetually labouring after a complete knowledge of God, the world, the immortality and free-agency of the soul ; and although the whole artillery of Metaphysics has been constantly directed towards these points. True philosophical reason will not presume to make any constructive use of such Ideas, lest it should be betrayed into the labyrinth of apparent knowledge, and a maze of contradictions. This he pro- ceeds to evince by a critical examination of the proofs adduced of the substantiality and immortality ef the soul, — the termination and commencement of the world — (with | the contrary suppositions), — the divisibility or indivisi- bility of substances — the necessity or contingency of causation and being, in the present world, — and the ex- istence of God. Reason cannot demonstrate the existence of the objects of these ideas, which are imperceptible to the senses : nor, on the other hand, can it prove the contrary. All that is permitted to speculative reason is a moderating power in the employment of our ideas, for the ultimate extension of knowledge. 375. Reason, however, is not merely speculative, but also practical, having the effect of limiting our absolute Free-will by the ideas of Duty and Right. An ex- amination of our ideas of Duty and of well-regulated Will (in which, by the common consent of mankind, con- sists the essence of moral worth), leads him to recognise the existence of certain a priori principles of a practical nature ; which define not ivhat is, but, w/iat ought to he. Practical reason is autonomic — simply defining the formal character of the Will, and presupposing free-agency as a necessary condition. The Laws of Ethics are superior 375, 376.] CRITICAL IDEALISM OF KANT. 407 to the empirical and determinable free-will which we enjoy in matters of practice, and assume an imperative character, occupying the chief place in Practical Phi- losophy. This categorical principle becomes an abso- lute law of universal obligation, giving to our conduct an ultimate end and spring of action ; which is not to be con- sidered as a passion or affection, but as a moral sense of respect for Law. Virtue, therefore, consists in obe- dience to the dictation of Duty, or the moral constraint imposed by the legislative power of Reason ; or, in other words, in the submission of our impulses and inclinations to Reason. Morality is not Happiness, though it implies a rational title to it, and makes us worthy of being Happy. It is universal and necessary consistently with free-will. The ideas of Free-will, Immortality, and a Divinity, derive their certainty from the practical laws of Ethics. This certainty, however, is not the result of speculative science, but of a practical rational belief. By such a definition of the Summum Bonum and ultimate end of rational existence we are enabled to perceive with clear- ness the harmony which exists between the intellectual and sensual nature of man ; between speculative and prac- tical Reason. Civil or juridical law is distinguished from moral, inas- much as the former legislates only with respect to ex- ternal actions, and provides for the freedom of all by limiting and defining that of individuals. The descrip- tion of Right which results is of a Coercive character, and demands the protection of the State ; which itself reposes on a contract as its foundation; being designed for the maintenance and preservation of the rights of all. 376. Speculative knowledge (founded on the idea of Nature), and Practical (founded on that of Free-agency), form two distinct hemispheres, as it were, of the same whole, and differ altogether in their principles. The faculty of Judgment interposes between these two powers and their objects — Nature and Free-will, (which are united by an inexplicable link in the mind of man) ; and specu- 408 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. lates on their mutual accordance. It does not add any thing to objective knowledge, but enables us to reflect on Nature as a Whole, by means of a peculiar principle, that of Proportionateness of the Means to the End ; which is not objective but purely subjective. The Judg- ment therefore makes the particular subordinate to the universal ; and operates partly by means of classification, partly by reflection. In the latter case, according to a principle of our nature which prompts us to employ with freedom the energies of the mind, we apply to external nature ideas derived from the understanding in the ex- ercise of this freedom, being conscious of a species of intellectual satisfaction. In this manner we examine Na- ture with a view to the principles of formal Proportionate- ness ; we discuss the principle of the pleasure derived from the Beautiful and the Sublime, and apply the same sort of teleological^ scrutiny not only to the forms but also to the material and internal proportions of Nature. The principle by which we are guided in such observations is this : that there exists an internal proportion between the means and the end in organic nature, and although this principle does not immediately produce any direct result, it leads us to anticipate the conclusion of a final end impressed on all Nature by a Spiritual Being, im- perceptible to our senses ; which conjectural conviction is converted into certainty by Practical Knowledge. {Phy- sico-Ethico- Theology, or Teleology). 377. Works of Kant. His grand enterprise was his Critical examination of our faculties of knowledge, on the principles of a Transcendental Philosophy, i. e. of a theoi'y which deduces, from an examination of the facul- ties of the human mind, certain established principles as the conditions of its operations ; giving to all these spe- culations a systematic form. Of this great design Kant has completed some parts, with his characteristic ori- ginality, acuteness, and depth of thought : for instance, * 7V/'.('/(i,c77 denotes the consideration of final causes. 377.] CRITICAL IDEALISM OF KANT. 409 the Metaphysical system of Nature, in which he has shown himself the precursor of the Dynamic Philosophy, inasmuch as he maintains that Matter fills Space in virtue of impulsive forces (those of Expansion and Attraction). To this he added his Moral Metaphysics, or Theory of Right and Virtue; as well as separate dissertations on Religious Anthropology, Education, and other important subjects, which contain many admirable and profound observations. Kant's earlier works are : Gedunken von der wahren Schatzung der lebcndigen Krafte, Konigsb. 174:0, 8vo. Principiormn jMetaphysicor. nova diluci- datio, ibid. 1755, 4to. Betrachtungen iiber den Optimismus, Kbiiigsb. 1759, 4to. !Monadologia Physica Spec. I, ibid. 1756, 4to. Versuch den Begriff der negativen Grossen in die Welt- weish. einzufiihren, Konigsb. 1763, 8vo. Einzig moglicher Be- weisgriind zu einer Demonstration des Daseyns Gottes, ebend. 1763; zuletzt 1794, 8vo. Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier Syllog. Figuren, ebend. 1763 ; Frank/, iind Leii^z. 1797. Beo- bachtungen iiber das Gefiihl des Schonen und Erhabenen, Ko- nigsb. 1764, Svo. ; Riga, 1771. Traume eines Geistersehers, Riga, 1766, Svo. ; 1769. AUgem. Naturgesch. und Theorie des Himmels, etc. IV Aufl. Zeitz, 1808, 8vo. De Mundi Sensibilis atque Intelligibilis Forma et Principiis, Regiomont. 1770, 4to.; (a work in wliicli he gives the first hint of the plan of his great Critical undertaking). The above, with several other treatises, are collected in Kant's Kleinen Schriften, Konigsb. u. Leipz. 1797, III Bde. 8vo. Verm. Schriften, achte und vollst. Ausg. (herausg. von Tieftrunk), Halle, 1799—1807, IV Bde. 8vo. Sammlung einiger bisher unbekannt gebliebenen Schriften von Im. Kant (herausg. von Rink), Konigsb. 1800, 8vo. His principal works are : Kritik der Reinen Venmnft, Riga, 1781, VI Aufl. ; Leipz. 1818, 8vo. Kritik der Praktischen Yemnnit, Riga, 1788; V Aufl. Leipz. 1818, 8vo. Kritik der Urtheilskraft, Berl. 1790 ; III Aufl. 1799, 8vo. Prolegomena zu einer jeden kiinftigen Mataphysik, etc., Riga, 1783, 8vo. Grundlegung zur Meta- physik der Sitten, Riga, 1785, 8vo. ; IV Aufl. 1797. Meta- physische Anfangsgriinde der Naturwissenschaft, Riga, 1786, Svo. ; III Aufl. 1800. Ueber eine Entdeckung, nach der alle neue Kritik der reinen Vemunft durch eine altere entebehrlich gemacht werden soil, Konigsb. 1792, Svo. Die Religion inner- halb der Granzen der blossen Vemunft, Konigsb. 1793, Svo. ; II verm. Aufl. 1794. Zum owigen Frieden, ein Philosophischer Entwurf, Konigsb. 1795, 1796, Svo. Metaphysische Anfangs- 410 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. griinde der Reclitslehre, Konigsh. 1799, 8vo. II Aiifl. 1803, Svo. Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der Tiigendlehre, Konigsh. 1797, Svo. ; II Aufl. 1803. (Both are contained under the title of, Meta- physik der Sitten.) Anthropologic in pragmatischer Hinsicht, Kdnigsh. 1798; III Aufl. 1821, s'vo. Der Streit der Facultaten, Konigsh. 1798, Svo. Works of others illustrative of the above : -j" The Logic of Kant, a Manual for the Academical Classes, by G. B. Jahsche, Konigsh. 1800, Svo. (published from the papers of the students). ^ Education, published by Rink, ihid. 1803, Svo. "[" Lectures on Religious Philosophy, Leips. 1817, Svo. (published from the papers of the students). ■^ Lectures on Metaphysics, (published by the Editor of the Religious Phi- losophy, etc., PoLiTz), Erfurdt, 1821, Svo. 378. With regard to the general character of the Cri- tical system of Kant, we may observe that it confined it- self to a contemplation of the phenomena of Conscious- ness, and attempted to ascertain, by analysis, not of our ideas, but of the faculties of the soul, certain invariable and necessary principles of knowledge ; proceeding to define their usage, and to form an estimate of them col- lectively, with reference to their formal character : in which investigation the distinctions and definitions of those faculties adopted by the school of Wolf, were presumed to be valid. It exalted the human mind, by making it the centre of its system; but at the same time confined and restricted it by means of the con- sequences deduced. It discouraged also the spirit of Dogmatical Speculation, and the ambition of demonstrat- ing all things by means of mere intellectual ideas, making the faculties for acquiring knowledge the measure of things capable of being known, and assigning the pre- eminence to Practical Reason rather than to Speculative, in virtue of its end, viz. Wisdom ; which is the highest that reason can aspire to ; because to act virtuously is an uni- versal and unlimited, but to acquire knowledge only a conditional duty. It proscribetl Mysticism, and circum- scribed the provinces of Science and Belief. It taught men to discriminate and appreciate the grounds, the ten- dency, the defects, and partial views, as well as the ex- cellencies of other systems ; at the same time that it 378.] CRITICAL IDEALISM OF KANT. 411 embodied a lively principle for awakening and strength- ening the interest attaching to genuine philosophical re- search. It afforded to philosophy a firm and steady centre of action in the unchangeable nature of the human mind. In general, it may be observed that the theory of Kant constructed little ; and rather tended to destroy the structures of an empty Dogmatism, and prepare, by means of self-knowledge, the way for a better state of philosophical science ; seeking in Reason itself the principles on which to distinguish the several parts of philosophy. On the other hand it has been urged against this sys- tem : That it does not recognise the existence of Rational Ideas : because its author, without even examining into the claims of both, attributes to experience a preponde- rance over the opposite principle — making demonstration the sole evidence of knowledge, that it makes a distinc- tion between speculative and practical reason, and that it dislocates, (as it were), by its subdivisions, the facul- ties of the human mind. To this must be added (it is objected) a certain Formalism, which betrays itself even in his practical system, and in consequence of which the student is led to regard things principally in a subjective point of view ; that is, with a reference to the laws and forms of human action : from which to absolute Idealism is an easy step. The following works contain criticism on Kant's theory : D. Jenisch iiber den Grimd und Werth der Entdeckimgen des Hrn. Prof. Kant, Berl. 1790, 8vo. Jon. Neeb, iiber Kant's Verdienste um das Interesse der Philosophirenden Verniinft, II Aufl. Frank/, a. M. 1795, 8vo. Glo. Bj. Gerlacii Philosophie, Gesetzgebung und Aesthetik in ihrcm jetzigen Verhiiltniss zur sittlichen und asthetischen Bildung der Deutschen, eine Pries- schrift. Poseu, 1804, 8vo. Flugge's Versuch einer Historisch kritischen Darstellung des Einflusses der Kantischen Philosophie auf Religion u. Theologie. 2 Thle. Hannov. 1796, 1798, 8vo. Tr. Ben. Agap. Leo Krito oder iiber den wohlthjitigen Einfluss der kritischen Philosophie, Leipz. 180G, 8vo. Staudlin's Abh. iiber den Werth der Krit. Phil, in s. Bcitr. zur Phil. u. Gesch. der Rel. Ill, IV, V Th. Goti. 1797-98-99. See also, Bou- 412 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. TERWECK Imm. Kant ; ein Denkmal. Arthur Schopenhauer's Appendix to his work, mentioned § 407, containing a Critique of Kant's theory. V. Busse Metaphysische Anfangsgriinde der Naturwissenschaft von Im. Kant in ihren Grunden widerlegt, Dresd. 1828. Earliest Adversaries of Kanfs System, See (K. Glob. Hausius) Materialien ziir Gesch. der Krit. Phi- losopliie, nebst einer Histor. Einleitung zur Gesch. der Kant. Philos. Ill Sammlungen, Leipz. 1793, 2 Bde. 8vo. C. L. Reinhold iiber die bisherigen Schicksale der Kant. Phi- losophic, Jena, 1789, 8vo. 379. The first of Kant's great works produced, at its appearance, little sensation. When at last it began to attract attention, it excited a great sensation, and many questions with regard to its end and character. The very language in which it was couched, containing a set of phrases and terms entirely new, was an obstacle to its progress, and, no less than its contents, revolted the minds of most of the learned countrymen of its author. A great variety of mistakes were necessarily committed with respect to it. Some pronounced it superficial, and gave it credit for nothing more than an appearance of originality. Others, admitting it to be original, declared it to be dan- gerous and pernicious ; inasmuch as it set forth a system of Idealism, which would annihilate the objective reality of Knowledge, destroy all rational belief in God and the immortality of the soul, and consequently was adverse to revealed religion. Several eminent men became in va- rious ways adversaries to the new system, of whom we may particularise: Mendelssohn^ \ Hamann'^ and Jacobi ^ M. Mendelssohn's Morgenstunden. 2 Bd. Berl. 1785, 8vo.; (see $ 368). Priifung der Mendelssohnscheii Morgenstunden, oder aller speculativen Be- weise fiir das Daseyn Gottes, in Vorlesungen von L. H. Jakob. Nebst einer Abhandl. von Kant, Leij)z. 1786, 8vo. c Hamann : In his Letters to Jacobi — Jacobi's Works, I u. IV B. Jacoiu, iiber das Unternehmen dcs Kriticismus, die Vernunft zu Verstande zu bringen, etc., in Reinhold's lieitragen zur leichten Uebersicht, etc., Ill, 1. 379.] ADVERSARIES OF KANT'S SYSTEM. 413 (§398); Eberhonl^; Feder'^ {%SGS); Ad. Wcishaupt^- J, l\Flatt^; G.A.TitteV'; S. Relmarifs (^361)-, D.Tiede- mann ' (§ 369) ; Plainer (§ 3C8) ; Garve ^ ; Meiners ' ; G. E, Schulze (§ 401); J. C. Schwab"'; Herder''; IL G. ron Gerstenberg° ; F. Baader^, and others*'. f^^ J. A. Eberhaud : In the Philosophical Journals published by him : (see 368, note ')• « J. G. H. Feder, iiber Raum und Zeit zur Priinfung der Kant. Philoso- phic, Getting. 1787, 8vo. Philos. Biblioth. von Feder u. INIeiners. 1 Bd. Gott. 1788, 8vo. ^ Ad. Weishaupt, iiber die Griinde und Gewissheit der menschlichen Er- kenntniss. Zur Priifung der Kant. Kritik der reinen Vernunft, N'urnb. 1788, 8vo. Ueber Materialism us u. Idealismus, ein Philosophisches Fragment, N'tirnb. 1787; II Aufl. 1788, 8vo. Ueber die Kantischen Anschauungen und Erscheinungen, ebend. 1788, 8vo. Zweifel iiber die Kantischen Begriffe von Raum und Zeit, ebend. 1788, 8vo. He also wrote : Ueber Wahrheit und sittliche VoUkommenheit, Regensb. 3 Bde. 1793-97, 8vo. Schaumaxn and Born replied to him and to Feder. 5 J. F. Flatt's Fragmentarische Beitrage zur Bestlmmung u. Deduction des Begriffs und Grundsatzes der Causalitat und zur Grundlegung der Natiirl. Theologie, Leipzig, 1788, 8vo. See § 380, note. Also : Briefe iiber den Moral. Erkenntnissgrund der Religion in Beziehung auf die Kantische Philo- sophic, Tubing. 1789, 8vo. ^ Glo. a. Tittel, Kantische Denkformen od. Kategorieen, Frkf. a. M., 1788, 8vo. Ueber Hrn. Kant's Moralreform, Franhf. und Leipz. 1786, 8vo. • Dietr. Tiede.manx, Theatet, oder iiber das Menschliche Wissen, ein Bei- trag zur Vernunftkritik, Frankf. a. M. 1794, 8vo. In answer to this, J. Cir. F. Uietz Antitheatet, Host u. Leipz. 1798, 8vo. D. Tiedemann's Idealistische Briefe, Marb. 1798, 8vo. Beantwortung der- selbeu von Diez, Goiha, 1801, 8vo. ; und cine Abh. Tiedemann's in den Hes- sischen Beitragen, 111 St. •* Garve, in der Uebersetzung der Ethik des Aristoteles, 1 Bd. nebst einer Abh. iiber die verschiedenen Principe der Sittenlehre von Aristoteles bis auf Kant, Bvesl. 1798, 8vo. On the other side : J. Chr. Fr. Dietz iiber Phi- losophic, Philosophische Streitigkeiten, Kriticismus und Wissenschaftslehre, nebst einer Priifung der Garve'schen Beurtheilung des Kritischen Systems, Gotha, 1800, 8vo. ' See Meiners AUgemeine Geschichte der Ethik, Gotting. 1800, 2 Thle. 8vo. "> J. C. Schwab, Vergleichung des Kantischen Moralprinzips mit dem Leib- nitz- Wolfischen, Berl. 1800, 8vo. Ueber die Wahrheit der Kantischen Phi- losophic und die Wahrhcitslichc der A. L. Z. in Jena in Ansehung der Phi- losophic, Berlin, 1803, 8vo. He composed also : Von den Dunkeln Vorstel- lungen, etc., Stuttg. 1813, 8vo. " JoH. Gottfr. Herder's Verstand u. Erfahrung, eine Metakritik zur Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Leipz. 1799, 2 Bde. 8vo. Kalligone, Leipz. 1800, 3 Thle. 8vo. 414 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. The system was also attacked by many violent and passionate declaimers, such as Stattler"^ -, and in several of the universities the authorities forbade that it should be taught. Commentators and Partisans of Kant's Critical System, 380. In spite of these inherent difficulties and external assaults, the Critical philosophy continued to gain ground in Germany ; and began to exercise considerable in- fluence over the character of the other sciences. Several men of talent declared in its favour; supporting it by writings intended either to defend or illustrate it, and rendering service not only to Kant, but to the cause of philosophy at large. Among these we may enumerate J. Schuiz ^ ; C. C E. Schjnid^; C. Leo?i. ReinJiold^, (see below, § 382); Solo- in answer to this : Kiesev/etter's Priifung der Herderschen Metakritik, Berl. 1799, 2 Bd. 8vo. " (H. W. VON Gerstenberg), Die Theorie der Kategorieen entwickelt und erliintert, Altona, 1795, 8vo. Sendschreiben an Carl von Yillers das gemeinschaftl. Prinzip der Theor. und prakt. Philos. betrefFend, Altona, 1821, 8vo. vgl. mit einem kleinen Aufsatz Uber Ursache in dem Intellbl. der A. L. Z. St. 54, 1823. P Fr. Baader, Absolute Blindheit der von Kant deducirten prakt. Vernunft an Fr. H. Jakobi, 1797. Beitrage zur Elementarphilosophie, ein Gegenstiick zu Kant's met. Anfangsgr. der Naturw. Hamb. 1797, 8vo. 1 See various treatises by Brastberger, Maass, Bornutrager, Pe- zoLDi, Breyer, etc. •■ Antikant, Munich, 1788, 2 vols. 8vo. : and a work on the same subject by Reuss, Wiirzburg. 1789, 8vo., with this title: Soil Man auf Katholischen Universitiiten Kant's Philosophi studiren ? « JoH. ScHULz, Erliiuterungen uber des Hrn. Prof. Kant Kritik der reinen Vernunft, Konigsb. 1785, 8vo. u. 1791. Desselben Prufung der Kantischen Kritik der reinen Vernunft. ibid. 1789—92 ; 2 Bde. 8vo. *■ Carl Chr. Ebrh. Schmid, Kritik der reinen Vernnuit im Grundrisse. Jena, 1786, 8vo. ; III Aiifl. Jen. 1794. Wbrterbuch zum leichtern Gebrauch der Kantischen Schriften, Jena, 1788, 8vo. ; IV Aufl. 1798, 8vo. " Reiniiold's Briefe liber die Kantische Philosophie (see the German Mercury 1785—87), T.eipz. 1790; 2 Bde. 8vo. 380.] COMMENTATORS OF KANT'S SYSTEM. 415 mon jMciimon'' \ C. II. Hei)dcnreich^ \ J. Sigism. Beck''' \ Sam. Alb. Alellin^] Laz. Bendavid^; J. C. F. Diet:::'' -^ Fr. W. D. and Cli. G. Snell'^ ; J. C. G. Sc/iaumatin" ; and many others ^ These formed a numerous school of Kantists, which necessarily comprehended also a large number of disciples of inferior parts, and blindly devoted to the system of their master. It cannot be denied that the rapid progress which the system soon began to make contributed greatly to awaken a new and vigorous spirit of research. Men of superior " Sai, TMaimon's Versuch iiber die Transcendentalphilosophie, Berl. 1790, 8vo. y Heydenreich's Originalideen iiber die interessantesten Gegenstaude der Philosophie, Leipz. 1793 — 96. 5 B. 8vo. See several other works by the same author, e. g. an Introduction to the Study of Philosophy, published at Leips. 1793, (in Germ.) ^ See §. 382. * G. S. A. Mellin's JNIarginalien und Register zu Kant's Kritik des Erkennt- nissvermogens, Jena, 1794 — 95, 2 Th. 8vo. Kunstsprache der krit. Philos. alphabet, georduet, Jena, 1798, 8vo. Anhang, 1800, 8vo. (also: Marginalien u. Register zu Kant's met. Anfangsgr. der Rechtslehre.^ Encyklopiidisches Worterbuch der krit. Philosophie, Zullichau %i. Leipz. 1797 — 1803, 6 B. 8vo. etc. •• Laz. Bexdavid's Vorlesungen iiber die Kritik der reinen Vern. Wien, 1795; II Aufl. 1802. Ueber die Kritik der Urtheilskraft, ebend. 1796. Vorles. iiber die Kritik der prakt. Vernunft, nebst einer Rede iiber den Zweck der krit. Philos. ehend. 1796, 8vo. Vorlesungen iiber die metaphys. Anfangs- griinde der Naturwiss. ehend. 1798. Preisschr. iiber den Ursprung uns. Erkenntniss, Berl. 1802, 8vo. Versuch einer Rechtslehre, Berl. 1802. *= See the preceding $. He also wrote; Der Philosoph. u. die Philos. aus dem wahren Gesichtspuncte und mit Hinsicht auf die heut. Streitigkeiten, Leipz. 1802, 8vo. und : Ueber Wissen, Glauben, Mystik u. Skepticismus, Liibech, 1809, 8vo. ^ F. W. D. Snell, Darstellung u. Erliiuterung der Kant. Kritik der Ur- theilskr. Maunh. 1791 — 92, 2 Th. 8. Menon, oder Versuch in Gesprachen die vornehmsten Puncte aus der Kritik der prakt. Vern. zu erlaiitern, ibid. 1789, 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1796, 8vo. Several manuals, e. g. Lehrb. f. d. ersten Unterr.in d. Philos. 2 Th. VII verb. Aufl. 1821 ; rait Ch. W. Snell, Handb. der Philos. fiir Liebhaber, Giessen, 1802, 8vo. mit C. Ch. E. Schmid das philos. Journal. Giessen, 1793 — 95, 5 B. 8vo. *^ ScHAUMANN, lib. d. transceudentale Aesthetik, ein krit. Versuch nebst e. Schreiben an Feder iib. d. transcend. Idealismus, Leipz. 1789, 8vo. (a work principally directed against the attacks of Feder). ^ Such as Born, Abicht, Phiseldeck, Need, .Jakob, Tieftrunk, Kiese- WETTER, BovTERWECK, KrI^G, FrIES, CtC. 416 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. parts began to apply the principles it developed to the more accurate and systematic cultivation of the differ- ent departments of science, and especially to purposes of a more comprehensive study of Method. Logic was treated successfully by S. Maimon^\ Hoffhmier ; Maas ; Kiesewetter; Krvg ; Fries; etc. Metaphysics by Ja^oi"^; Schmid; and Krug. Ethics by SchmicP; Jakob; Tief- s Sal. Maimox, Versuch einer neuen Logik oder Theorie des Denkens, etc. Berl. 1794, 8vo. Hoffbauer's Analytik der Urtheile und Schlusse, Halle, 1792, 8vo. Anfangsgriinde der Logik. Halle, 1794; II Aufl. mit einer psy- chologischen Vorbereitung vermehrt, ebend. 1810, 8vo. Ueber die Analysis in der Philosophie, nebst Abhandlungen verwandten Inhalts, Halle, 1810, 8vo. Versuch iiber die schwerste und leichteste Anwendung der Analysis in den philos. Wissenschaften, eine gekriinte Preisschrift mit Zusatzen, Leipz. 1810, 8vo. Jakob's Grundriss der allgem. Logik und krit. Anfangsgrunde der allgem. Metaphysik, Halle, 1788, 8vo. IV Aufl. 1800, 8vo. Maass, Grundr. der Logik, Halle, 1793, 8vo. IV verm. Aufl. 1823. C. Chr. Ehr. Schmid's Grundriss der Logik, Jena, 1797, 8vo. Tieftrunk's Grundriss der Logik, Halle, 1801, 8vo. Die Denklehre im reindeutschen Gewande u. s. w., nebst einigen Anfsiitzen von Kant, Halle, u. Leipz. 1825, 8vo. Die angewandte Denklehre u. s. w. ebend. 1827, 8vo. Kiesewetter's Grundriss einer all- gemeinen Logik nach Kanlischen Grundsatzen, begleitet mit einer weitern Auseinandersetzung, Berl. 1791 f. 2Th. ; II Aufl. 1802 u. 1806. Also : Logik zum Gebrauch fUr Schulen, ebend. 1797 ; and : Die wichtigsten Satze der Vernunftlehre fiir Nichtstudirende, Hamb. 1806, 8vo. Fr. W. D. Snell erste Grundlinien d. Logik. Ill Aufl. Giessen, 1828, 8vo. (On the other side) : Carl Chr. Flatt, Fragmentarische Bemerkungen gegen den Kantischen u. Kiesewetterischen Grundriss der reinen allgem. Logik. Tubing. 1802, 8vo. ** Jakob's Priifung der Mendelsohnischeu Morgenstunden, nebst einer Abh. von Kant, Leipz. 1786, 8vo. Beweis fiir die Unsterblichkeit der Seele a. d. Begriffe der Pflicht. Zullichau, 1790 — 94 — 1800, 8vo. Ueber den moralischen Beweis fiir das Daseyn Gottes, Liebau, 1791, 8vo ; II verm. Aufl. 1798. Carl Ciin. Erh. Schmid's Grundriss der Metaphysik, Jena, 1799, 8vo. The vi'orks of Krug and Fries are mentioned below, §§ 404, 405. ' C. Chr. Erh. Schmid's Versuch einer Moralphilosophie, Jena, 1790, 8vo. IV Aufl. 1802, 1803 ; 2 B. 8vo. Grundriss der Moralphilosophie, Jena, 1793 ; II Aufl. 1800, 8vo. Adiaphora, philos. theol. u. hist, untersucht. Jetia, 1809, 8vo. Kiesewetter, iiber den ersten Grundsatz der Moralphilosophie, nebst einer Abhandlung iiber die Freiheit von Jakob, Halle, 1788 ; II Aufl. Berl. 1790—91, 2 Th.8vo. Jacob's philosophische Sittenlehre, Halle, 1794, 8vo. Grundsiitze der Weisheit und des menschl. Lebens, Halle, 1800, 8vo. Ueber das moral. Gefiihl. Halle, 1788, 8vo. Tieftrunk's philos. Untersuchungen ub. d. Tugendlehre, Halle, 1798—1805, 2 B. 8vo. Grundriss d. Sittenlehre, Halle, 1803, 2 Th. (Tugend- und Rechtslehre), 8vo. Hoffbauer's l^nter- 380.] PARTISANS OF KANT'S SYSTEM. 417 trunk, Iloffbauer, Ileydenreich, SttluiUin, Kri/g, Fries, Kunhardt, etc. The philosophical principles of Law and Right'', by Huf eland, Heydenreich, Buhle, Jakob, suchungen iiberdie wichtigsten Gegenstande der Moralphilosophie, insbes. die Sittenlehre und INIoraltheologie, 1 Th. Dorim. 1799, 8vo. Anfangsgriinde der Moralphilosophie und insbes. d. Sittenlehre, nebst einer allgemeinen Gesch. derselben, Halle, 1798, 8vo. IIeydenreicii's Propiideutik der Moralphiloso- phie nach Grundsiitzen der reinen Vernunft, Leipz. 1794. 3 Th. 8vo. Ueber Freiheit u. Determinismus u. ihre Vereinigung, Erlaiig. 1793, 8vo. ; und mehrere Schriften zur popuhiren IMoral. K. F. Staudlin Grundriss der Tu- gend u. Religionslehre, Gotting. 1800, 8vo. Ge. Henuici Versuch iiber den ersten Grundsatz d. Sittenlehre. 1 Th. Leipz. 1799, 8vo. Leonh. Creuzer's skeptische Betrachtungen iib. die Freiheit des Willens, Giessen, 1793, 8vo. •^ G. HuFELAND Versuch iiber den Grundsatz des Naturrechts, Leipz. 1785, Bvo. Lehrsiitze des Naturrechts, Jena, 1790; II Aufl. 1795, 8vo. Heyden- reich System der Natur, nach krit. Prinzipien, Leipz. 1794 — 95, 2 Th. 8vo. Grundsatze des Natiirl. Staatsrechts, nebst einem Anhang Staatsrechtl. Abhandlungen, Leipz. 1795, 2 Th. 8vo. Versuch iiber die Heiligkeit des Staats u. die Moralitiit der Revolutionen, Leipz. 1794, 8vo. Briii.E Lehrbuch des Naturrechts, Gdlt. 1781, 8vo. Ideen zur Rechtsw., Moral u. Politik. I Samml. G'utt. 1799, 8vo. He also wrote : Entwurf einer Transcendental - philos. Gott. 1798, 8vo. Ueber Ursprung u. Leben des Menschengeschlechts u. das kiinftige Leben nach dem Tode, Braunschw. 1821, 8vo, K. Chr. E. Schmid's Grundriss des Naturrechts, Fiir Vorles, Jena u. Leipz. 1795, 8vo. Jakob's Philosoph. Rechtslehre, Halle, 1795; II Aufl. 1802, 8vo. Auszug, ebend. 1796, 8vo. Antimachiavell. Halle, 1794, u. 1796, 8vo. Maas iiber Recht u. Verbindlichkeiten, Halle, 1794, 8vo. Untersuchungen iiber die wichtigsten Gegenstiinde des Naturrechts, Halle, 1790, 8vo. Grundriss des Naturrechts, Leipz. 1808, 8vo. Hoffbauer's Naturrecht, aus dem Beorifte des Rechts entwickelt, Halle, 1793 ; III Aufl. 1804, 8vo. Untersuchungen iiber die wichtigsten Gegenstande des Naturrechts, ebend. 1793, 8vo. Allgem. Staatsrecht u. s. w. Halle, 1797, 8vo. Dass Allgem. Naturrecht u. die Moral in ihrer gegenseit. Abhlingigkeit, etc., Halle, 1816, 8vo. Th. Schmalz Recht der Natur, 1 Th., Kdnigsh. 1792 ; II Aufl. 1795, 8vo., 2 Th. Naturl. Staatsrecht, 1794; II Aufl. 1795. Das Naturl. Farailien- und Kirchenrecht, ebend. 1795, 8vo. Erklarung der Rechte des jMenschen u. Biirgers, etc., ebend. 1798, 8vo. Handbuch der Rechtsphilosophie, ebend. 1807, 8vo. P. J. Anselm Feuerbacii's Kritik des Natiirl. Rechts, Altona, 1796. 8vo. Ueber die einzig moglichen Beweisgr'unde gegen das Daseyn u. die Giilligkeit der Natiirl. Rechte, Leipz. u. Gera, 1795, 8vo. Antihobbes, I Th. Erf. 1798, 8vo. K. Sal. Zacharia Anfangsgr. des Philos. Privatrechts, Leipz. 1804, 8vo. Anfangsgr. des Philos. Criminalrechts, ebend. 1805, 8vo. Vierzig Biicher vom Staate, 2 B. Stuitg. u. Tub. 1820, 8vo. K. II. L. Politz : Die Staats- wissenschaften im Lichte unserer Zeit, 4 B., Leipz. 1823, u. f. C. H. Gros Lehrbuch der Philos. Rechtswissenschaft. Tuhing. 1802 ; III Aufl. 1815, 8vo. J. Chr. Gottt.. Schaumann's wissenschaftl. Naturrecht, Halle, 1792, 8vo. E e 418 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. MaaSy HoffbaueTi Schmah, Feuerhach^ Fries, Solom. \ Zachariey Polite, Gros, etc. The question of Religion, ! considered as a part of Practical philosophy ^, was treated by Heydenreich, Schmid, Jakob, TieftrunJc, Krug, etc. i The theory of the Fine Arts ™ was discussed by Heyden- \ reicJi, Heusinger, and Delbruck, and the poet Schiller, j (in his prose writings) ; whose free spirit soon shook oiF the shackles of the School-philosophy. Psychology ° by Kritische AbhancUungen zur Philos. Rechtslehre, Halle, 1795, 8vo. Versuch eines neuen Systems des Natiirl. Rechts, ebend. 1796, 8vo. G. Henrici Ideen zu einer wissenschaftl. Begrundung der Rechtslehre oder iiber den Begriff u. die letzten Griinde des Rechts, etc., Hannov. 1809 — 10, 2 Th. 8vo. ; II verm. Aufl. 1822, 8vo. J. A. Bruckner Essai sur la Nature et I'Origine des Droits, Lips. 1810, 8vo. ' Heydenreich, Betrachtungen liber die Philosophie der Natiirl. Religion, Leipz. 1790 — 91, 2 B. 8vo. Grundsatze der moral. Gotteslehre, Leipz. 1793, 8vo. Briefe iiber den Atheismus, ebend. 1797, 8vo. See § 367. C. Chr. E. Schmid's Philos. Dogmatik, Jena, 1796, 8vo. Jakob's AUgemeine Re- ligion, 1797, 8vo. s. oben. Tieftrunk's Versuch e neuen Theorie der Re- ligionsphilosophie, Leipz. 1797, 8vo. Hoffbauer's Untersuchungen iiber die wichtigsten Gegenstiinde der Natiirl. Religion, Halle, 1795, 8vo. J. E. Parrow Grundriss der Vernunftreligion, Berl. 1790, 8vo. Geo. Chr. Muller's Entwurf einer Philos. Religionslehre, 1 Th. Halle, 1797, 8vo. Many critiques on the Religious Philosophy of Kant appeared from the pens of Ratze, Storr, Jachmann, G. E. Schulze, Schelling. •" Heydenreich's System der ^sthetik, I Th. (unfinished) Leipz. 1790, Bvo. ^sthet. Wcirterbuch, 4 Th. Lej/jz. 1793, fF. J.H.Glieb. Heusinger's Handbuch d. ^sthetik, Gotha, 1797, 2 B. 8vo. L. Bendavid Beitr. zur Kritik des Geschmacks, Wien, 1797. Versuch einer Geschmackslehre, BerL 1799, 8vo. Ferd. Delbruck das Schone, Berl. 1800, 8vo. F. W. D. Snell Versuch einer ^sthetik f. Liebhaber, II Aufl. Giessen, 1828. " J. Ith, Anthropologic, 1794, 8vo. C. Chr. E. Schmid's empirische Psychologic, 1 Th. Jena, 1791 ; 11 Aufl. 1796, 8vo. Psychlog. Magaz. seit, 1796; Anthropolog. Journal, 1803. Jakob's Grundriss der Erfahrungsseelen- lehre, Halle, 1791 ; IV Aufl. 1810, 8vo. Grundriss der emp. Psych. Leipz. 1814, and, Erlauterung des Grundrisses, ebend. Hoffbauer's Naturlehre d. Seele, in Briefen, Halle, 1796, 8vo. Untersuchungen iiber die Krankheiten der Seele, Halle, 1802, 3 Th. 8vo. Psychologic in ihrer Hauptanwendung auf f die Rechtspflege, Halle, 1808, 8vo. Der Grundriss vor s. Logik, u. besonders, Halle, II Aufl. 1810. Kiesewetter's kurzer Abriss der Erfahrungsseelen- lehre, Berl. 1806, 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1814. Fassl. Dartsellung der Erfahrungs- seelenlehre, Hamb. 1806, 8vo. F. W. D. Snell empir. Psychol. Giessen, 1802 ; II Aufl. 1810. Maass, s. oben s. 29. Litt. Versuch iiber die Leidenschaften, Halle, 1805 — 7, 2 B. 8vo. Versuche iiber die Gefiihle, bes. iiber d. Affiscten. 2 Th. Halle u. Leipz. 181 i — 12, 8vo. 380.] PARTISANS OF KANT'S SYSTEM. 419 Schmidf Jakob, Snell, etc. Education ° by Heusinger, Miemei/er, Schwartz y etc. All these authors, (most of them professors in the German Universities), contributed in a greater or less degree to illustrate or extend the system of their master. The most remote branches of philosophy were influenced by the central action and impulse which had been com- municated by Kant : and even his adversaries ended by doing him justice. It is true that in France p, and in Eng- land "^ his system could scarcely obtain a hearing, in spite of the zealous labours of some of its admirers ; but in Hol- land % and the North of Europe, it had greater success. o JoH. Heivr. Glteb. Heusincer's Versuch eines Lehrbuchs der Erzie- hungskunst, Leipz. 1795, 8vo. A.H. NiEMEYER'sGiundsHtze der Erziehung, Halle, 1796, 8vo. ; VI Aufl. 3 B. 1810, 8vo. Leitfaden der Padadogik und Didaktik, Halle, 1803, 8vo. Friedr. Heinr. Car. Schwarz Lehrbuch d. Piidagogik und Didaktik, Heideth. 1807 — 8. Erziehungslehre, Leipz. 1802—4, 3 B. 8vo. J. LuD. EwALD Vorlesungen iiber d. Erziehungslehre, 3 Th. Manuh. 1808, 8vo. P Philosophie de Kant, ou Principes Fondamentaux de la Philosophie Transcendentale par Charles Villers, Metz. 1801, 2 vols. 8vo. See the Critical Journal of Schelling and Hegel, vol. I, No. 3, p. 6, sqq. Germ. See also several essays in the Spectateur du Nord, Hamburgh, 1798-99. Essai d'une Exposition succinate de la Critique de la Raison pure de Mr. Kant, par Mr. Kinker, traduit du Hollandois par J. le Fr. Amsterd. 1801, 8vo. De la Metaphysique de Kant, ou Observation sur un ouvrage intitule : Essai d'une Exposition, etc. par le Citoyen Destutt-Tracy in the Memoires de rinstit. Nat. Scienc. jMoral. T. IV. Philosophie Critique Decouverte par Kant fondee sur le dernier principe du savoir, par J. Hoehne, Paris, 1802, 8vo. q NiTscH, General and Introductory View of Kant's Principles concerning Man, the World, and the Deity, Lend. l696, 8vo. /' The Principles of Critical Philosophy, selected from the works of Emm. Kant, and expounded by James Sic. Beck. Translated from the German, Land, and Edinb. 1797, 8vo. Willich's Elements of the Critical Philosophy, Lond. 1798, 8vo. •■ Paul van Hemert, Beginsels der Kantiansche VVysgeerte, Amstd. 1796, 8vo. Magazyn voor de Critische Wysbegeerte en de Geschiedenis van dezelve, Amsterd. 1798, 8vo. Epistolae ad Dan. Wyttenbachium, Amsterd. 1809, 8vo. (Dan. Wyttenbach, in answer to Hemert) (piXofxaOeiag ra airopaStjv — Miscellaneae Doctrinae, lib. i, ii, Amsterd. 1809, 8vo. J. Kinker, Essai d'une Introduction, etc. (see above). F. H. Heumann, Principes Moraux de la Philosophie Critique Developp^s et Appliques a une Legislation externe fondee sur la Justice, la liberie, et I'egalite naturelle, Amstd. 1799, 8vo. Van Bosch, Ethica Philosophiae Criticae. Ee2 420 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. We may consider as unavoidable consequences of the popularity it acquired, the number of abuses to which it gave birth, such as an unmeaning use of formularies, a blind devotion to one single system, and a contempt for all experimental knowledge. B. Philosophical Systems subsequent to that of Kant. 381. The triumph of Critical philosophy was of short duration. It opposed too many factions, and counteracted too many views and pretensions to obtain an easy victory. The various misapprehensions to which it gave birth raised suspicions of the correctness of the principles it contained, as well as of the propriety of the method by which they were developed. Some asserted that the theory was suf- ficiently refuted by Common Sense, because it amounted to nothing more than a system of mere Idealism, and de- stroyed the very reality of all external nature. Others went only half as far in their objections, alleging that Kant had thrust out real existence by one door, to let it in by another. His system was judged to be incomplete in this respect also, that by subdividing the different mental principles of Knowledge % it placed them side by side, as co-ordinate with one another, instead of making them subordinate to one supreme principle (§ o78). Many of its opponents objected to it that instead of weakening the cause of Scepticism it contributed to for- tify it : while some of its partisans brought discredit on their cause by misapplying its formularies, or by their extravagant expectations of its success*. Besides, the views developed, particularly the distinction established between Knowledge and Science, were too new to be at * Such as the principles of Thought and Knowledge; a principle of Specu- lative Science, and a principle of Practical Reason. • For instance ; t A Preliminary P^xposition of the Principles of a General System of Posts ! ! ! Gotting. IBOl. 381, 382.] REINHOLD. 421 once generally adopted or apprehended, and too repug- nant to the natural tendency to speculation, for the un- derstanding at once to submit to their discipline. The consequence was, that the Critical system itself gave occasion to a variety of attempts, partly to re-establish the old dogmatical theories": partly to exalt the new philosophy itself to the highest grade of Science, to con- stitute it a complete system of knowledge, (of which Kant had only pointed out the method), supposing it to have attained to the region of the Absolute and Perfect, in which Being and Science become identical, and all the contradictions of Reflection disappear. A variety of fresh systems made their appearance, by which man hoped to attain to a knowledge of the Absolute ; some by the way of contemplation, — some by thought, — some by science, — others again by belief. It was natural that Scepticism also should revive in exact proportion as at- temps at demonstrative science began to characterise the New Philosophy. The consequence was that from this School itself pro- ceeded fresh essays both of Dogmatism and Scepticism. C, L. Reinhold. See Reinhold's Life and Works, edited by E. Reinhold, Jena, 1825, 8vo. ''. An Account of his Doctrines, etc. ; by his pupil, E. Duboc, Hamh. 1828, 8vo. (Both in German). 382. The leader in these controversies was C. L. Rein- hold; who was born at Vienna, 1758, and subsequently became a professor at Jena and Kiel; where he died, 1823. Having by laborious study made himself thoroughly acquainted with the spirit of the Critical system, and " For instance : the Empiricism of Selle, Berlin, 1788, Bvo. The Ra- tionalism of Ebeuhard ; — and the Eclecticism of Feuer. * Containing several letters of Kant and his contemporaries. 422 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. cultivated his own talent for analysis, he convinced him- | self that he had discovered in them a principle of per- petual harmony among men of inquisitive minds, and a panacea for the evils of mortality ^\ His hope being dis- appointed by the innumerable misapprehensions which prevailed with regard to it, he laboured to discover for it some internal evidence, in corroboration of the argu- mentative proof it possessed already. He believed him- self to have detected such a principle by the observation, that although Kant had investigated fully the faculties for acquiring knowledge, he had not examined the per- ceptive and imaginative faculties, which are the ultimate source of all knowledge, and necessarily modify and de- fine it. He also complained that the Critical system was not sufficiently scientific, and, in particular, wanted a common principle influencing all its parts, and a theory founded on such a principle, which might supply the elements of Logic, Metaphysics, and the Criticism of Reason. To this end he proposed the principle of Consciousness. In consciousness we may distinguish be- tween two relative terms — the Object conceived — and the Subject which conceives : by investigating the na- ture of mental conception and its modifications of unity and multiplicity, Reinhold endeavoured to ascertain the laws and properties of Knowledge and Consciousness, as well as the results of a critical examination of the ra- tional faculties. This theory^ had the appearance of y See the letters of Kant mentioned § 380, note ". * It was styled the Theory of the Faculties of mental Conception. Versvich einer neuen Theorie des menschl. Vorstellungsvermbgens, Prag.n. Jena, 1789, 8vo. ; u. 1795. Ueber die bisherigen Schicksale der Kant. Phi- losophie, Jena, 1789, 8vo. Ueber das Fundament des Philos. Wissens. Jena, 1791, 8vo. Beitrage zur Berichtigung bisheriger Missverstiindnisse der Phi- losophic, I u. II B. Jena, 1790, 1794, 8vo. Auswahl vermischter Schriften, 2 Thle. Jena, 1796, 8vo. Preisschrift iib. die Frage : welche Fortschritte hat die Metaphysik seit Leibnitz und Wolf geinacht ( together with other prize compositions of Schwab and Abicht), Berlin, 1796, 8vo. Verhandlungen iiber ein Einverstandniss in den Grundsiitzen der sittlichsn Angelegenheil aus dem Gesichtspuncte des gemeinen und gesunden Verstandes, I B. L'ubeck, 1798, 8vo. 1 382.] REINHOLD. 423 giving to Critical Philosophy what it wanted in unity and harmony ; at the same time that it seemed to render it more intelligible by reflecting a light upon its principles as well as its consequences. It was assailed, however, at the same time by Dogmatic and Sceptical antagonists, {Flatty Heydenreich, Beck, etc. ^), but particularly by the author of ^nesidemus **. In consequence of these attacks, Reinhold himself became sceptical as to the validity of his own system, which he endeavoured to improve, partly by modifying the terms he had employed, and partly by strengthening its weak points. He ended, however, by renouncing it altogether, and adopted first the theory of Fichte"^, and afterwards that of Bardill"^. This genuine lover of Truth turned, in his latter days, his attention to the critical examination of Language, as the source of all the misunderstandings which have arisen in Philosophy (conducting his researches with an especial regard to * See the following section. ^ (GoTTLOB Ernst. Schulze), iEnesidemus, oder iiber die Fundamente der von dem Hrn. Prof. Reinhold in Jena gelieferten Elementarphilosophie, nebst einer Vertheidigung des Skepticismus gegen die Anmaassungen der Ver- nunftkritik, (Helmst.), 1792, 8vo. In reply to ^nesidemus: J. H. Abicht's Hennias, oder Auflosung der die giiltige Elementarphilos. betrefFendeu iEnesidemischen Zweifel, Erlang, 1794, 8vo. J. C. C. Visbeck's Hauptmomente der Reinholdischen Elemen- tarphilos. in Beziehung auf die Einwendungen des ^nesidemus, Leipz. 1794, 8vo. Darstellung der Amphibolic der Reflexionsbegriffe, nebst dem Versuche einer Widerlegung der Hauptmomente der Einwendungen des iEnesidemus gegen die Reinholdische Elementarphilos, Frkf. am M. 1795, Bvo. (by Beck.) In reply to Reinhold's theory : Einzig moglicher Standpuncl, von welchem die krit. Philosophie beurtheilt werden soil. Riga, 1796, Bvo. Reinhold, Fichte, Schelling von Jac. Fries, Leipz. 1803, 8vo. ^ Sendschreiben an Lavater u. Fichte iiber den Glauben an Gott, Hamb, 1799, Bvo. Ueber die Paradoxieen der neusten Philos., Hamb. 1799, Bvo. ^ Beitrage zur leichten Uebersicht des Zustandes der Philos. beim Anfange des 19, Jahrh. Hamburg. 1801 — 3, 3 Hefte, Bvo. More recently : Anleitung zur Kenntniss u. Beurtheilung der Philos. in ihren sammtl. Lehrgebiiuden, Wien. 1805, Bvo. (Anonym:) Versuch einer Auflosung der etc. Aufgabe, die Na- tur der Analysis und der analyt. INIethode in der Philos. genau anzugeben und zu untersuchen, etc., Munch. 1805, Bvo. Bardili's u. K. Lh. Reinhold's Briefwechsel iiber das Wesen der Phi- los. und das Unwesen der Speculation, herausg. v. Reinhold, Munch. 1804, 8vo. 424 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. cases of Synonymy), with the hope of effecting that har- mony among philosophical inquirers which was con- stantly his object. He endeavoured to elucidate the equivocal expressions and inconsistencies of the cus- tomary formal Logic, which he maintained to be the es- sential causes of the reproach so long incurred by Moral Philosophy, that it was incompetent to make good its pretensions to the character of a Science ^. He endea- voured also, by a new theory of the faculties of human knowledge on scientific principles^, to bring to an end the inquiries he had started in his former attempt. His son, E. Reinhold (professor of Moral Philosophy at Jena), follows the steps of his father in his inquiries respecting the relations and connection between Logic and Language ^. 383. J. Sigismund Beck (first professor at Halle, after- wards at Rostock), an acute disciple of Kant, endea- voured to recommend the Critical System by an abridg- ment of it, and by making the Critical point of view the point of view also of all original mental conception : but his ideas were confused and his method bad, and he injured the cause which he sought to support, by drawing his conclusions without any previous analysis of the facul- e Anfangsgriinde der Erkenntniss der Wahrheit in einer Fibel, Kiel, 1808, 8vo. Riige einer merkwiirdigen Sprachverwirrung unter den Weltweisen, Weimar, 1809, 8vo. Grundlegung einer Synonymik fiir den Allgem. Sprach- gebrauch in den Philos. Wissenschaften, Kiel, 1812, 8vo. Das menschl. Erkenntnissvermbgen aus dem Gesichtspuncte des durch die Wortsprache verraittelten Zusammenhangs zwischen der Sinnlichkeit und dem Denkvermo- gen, ehend. 1816, 8vo. '' Die alte Frage : Was ist die Wahrheit bei der erneuerten Streitigkeiten iiber die gottl. Offenbarung und die menschl. Vernunft in nahere Erwagung gezogen, Altona, 1820, 8vo. (See particularly the concluding bibliography $ 164). (On the other side :) Was ist Wahrheit? Eine Abhandl. veranl. durch die Frage des, etc., Reinhold, von dem Grafen H. W. A. von Kalkreuth, Breslau, 1821, 8vo. s Ern. Reinhold, Versuch eider Begriindung und neuern Darstellung der log. Formen, Leipz. 1819, 8vo. lie also wrote : Grundziige eines Systems der Erkenntiiisslehre und Denklehre, SchlemciLr, 1822, 8vo. 383, 384.] FICHTE. 425 ties for acquiring knowledge, on which tliey were founded. He also prepared the way for the most absolute transcen- dental Idealism, by making every thing depend on the understanding; deriving our very ideas of Space and Time directly from that and from original mental con- ception, and abolishing the broad distinction which sub- sists between Contemplation and Thought. Jak. Sigism. Beck erlauternder Auszug aus den kritischen Schriften des Prof. Kant. Riga, 1793-94, I und II B. Vol. Ill directed against Reinhold with this title : Einzig moglicher Standpunct, aus welchem die kritische Philosophic beurtheilt werden muss. Riga, 1796, II Bde. 8vo. Grundriss der kri- tischen Philosophic, Halle, 1796, 8vo. Propadeutik zu jedem wissensch. Studio, ehend. 1796. Commentar iiber Kant's Me- taphysik der Sitten, I Th. 1798, 8vo. Beck subsequently put forth : Grundsatze d. Gesetzgebung, 1806, em Lehrbuch der Logik. Rost. u. Schwerin, 1820, 8vo. ; and Lehrb. des Naturrechts, Jen. 1820, 8vo. Fichtes Scientific Theory. For the bibliography see below, § 389. 384. The philosophical labours of J, G. Fichte at- tracted far greater attention. He was born May 19, 1762, at Rammenau, in the Haute-Lusace, and, after having studied at the School of Pforta, and at the universities of Jena and Leipsic, passed several years in Switzerland and Prussia, and in 1793, became professor of Moral Philosophy at Jena: resigned his office in 1799, and retired to Berlin: in 1805 filled a professorial chair at Erlangen, and afterwards in the university of Berlin ; where he died, 1814. Fichte made it his object to constitute the Critical philosophy a science, founded on the most exact principles '', with the hope of precluding all future errors an-d misapprehen- sions, and of annihilating Scepticism ; the cause of which was defended, among others, by Schuhe and Sol. Mai- ^ t Idea of the Scientific Theory : Pref. p. 5. t General Principles of the Scientific Theory, p. 12. 426 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. mon. Encouraged by the success which his " Essay to- wards a Criticism of Revelation in General," obtained ', and by the example of Reinh old's theory of the percep- tive faculties, he gave full scope to his original and inde- pendent genius, which, with a firmness approaching ob- stinacy, led him constantly to maintain and boldly to profess the conclusions to which he had once arrived. His object was to concoct a system which might illustrate by a single principle, the material and formal properties of all science ; might establish the unity of plan which the Critical system had failed to maintain, and solve that most difficult of all problems regarding the connection between our conceptions and their objects. Such was the origin of his Scientific Theory'', which supposes that neither Consciousness nor the objects to which it refers, — neither the material nor formal parts of knowledge, — are to be considered as data; but are the results of an operation of Ego, and are collected by means of Reflec- tion. Fichte does not, like Kant, begin by an analysis of our faculties for acquiring knowledge, — of practical reason and judgment; nor yet, as Reinhold had done, by assuming a primitive y«c^, — that of Consciousness; but supposes an original act of the subject (Ego), from which he derives the very construction of Consciousness itself. The method he pursues is as follows. He begins by investigating the proper meaning of the term Science, It is a system of Knowledge based on a higher principle, which imparts a determinate value to Knowledge itself. The Theory of Science has for its object to demonstrate the possibility and validity of Science, the solidity of the principles on which it is founded, and consequently the connection and coherence of all human knowledge. Inas- much as this Theory or Doctrine of Science is the highest of all Scientific Systems it must be dependent on a pecu- liar principle, not deducible from that or any other science. The Theory of Science is independent of all ' Klmigsb. 1792 : second edition 1793. ^ Wissenschaftslehre. 384, 385.] FICHTE. 427 others, — self-demonstrated, and is because it is. The Tlieory of Science implies also a System connected with it ; and, contrariwise, the fact of a System implies that of a Theory, and of a first and absolute principle ; the circle of argumentation being complete and inevitable. Such a Theory of Science is what we term Moral Philosophy, which has for its object the necessary laws of human action. When the energies of our minds have been de- termined to any particular pursuit, (such as Logic, Geo- metry, etc.), they become the objects of a Special Science ; the determination to such particular pursuits being a contingent direction imparted to free-action, and conse- quently incomplete. On the other hand the Theory of Science is complete in itself, and forms a perfect whole. The objects it contemplates are, agreeably to what has been stated, the original operations of the human mind, which take place according to a certain determinate me- thod and form. These become the objects of Conscious- ness by means of the faculty of Reflection, which analyses all objects, and abstracts from them whatever is not Con- sciousness. In this way we attain to Absolute Unity, which comprehends all Sciences and their principles ; in other words, to pure Ego. Reflection and Abstrac- tion are subject to certain laws of Logic, which are ele- mentary parts of the Theory or Doctrine of Science. 885. First principle, A = A. X represents the sys- tematic dependency of the whole. A and X being sup- posed to exist in Ego may be signified by this formulary, Ego sum Ego. This is the self-evident principle of Mo- ral Philosophy and Knowledge in general; expressing the necessary form and substance of Consciousness. In virtue of this principle we form judgments ; to judge being an act and operation of Ego. Ego then esta- bhshes, absolutely and independently, its own existence ; being at once the agent and the result of the action : in which combination consists the essence of Consciousness. The first operation of Ego is that of Reflection on itself, which is occasioned by an impediment opposed to its 428 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. hitherto unrestrained energies. Ego places itself in the position of the subject, inasmuch as it opposes itself as subject to the obstacle contemplated. The second princi- ple (involved in the former), is this — that Ego is not Non- Ego. There remains yet a third principle, conditional as far as relates to its form ; but not as respects its value. To exemplify this, an action of Ego is required, which may illustrate the opposition of Ego and Non-Ego in Ego, without destroying Ego. Reality and Negation can be associated only by means of limitations. Limita- tion then is the third principle we were in search of. Li- mitation again leads us on to Divisibility. Every thing di- visible is a quantity. Consequently in Ego there must exist a divisible quantity, and therefore Ego contains something which may be supposed to exist or not to exist without detracting from the real existence of Ego. Hence we arrive at the distinction of a separable and an absolute Ego. Ego implies the opposition of a divisible Non- Ego to the divisible Ego. Both of them have their ex- istence in absolute Ego, being respectively determinable by a reference to that. Hence are derived the two fol- lowing propositions : 1 . Ego implies a limitation of its extent by means oi Non-Ego, which circumscribes its ab- solute and otherwise unlimited influence. 2. In like man- ner Ego determines and defines Non-Ego. The real ex- istence of the one circumscribes that of the other. On this point turn all the disputes between the Nominalists and Realists ; and it is by a reference to this that they must be adjusted. The grand problem which specula- tive philosophy would endeavour to solve, is the accom- plishment of such a reconciliation, and a satisfactory ex- planation of the connection between our conceptions and the objects to which they refer. The first of the two propositions above stated is necessary to be admitted, because without the opposition we have described there would be no such thing as Consciousness — without an object there could be no subject. Ego cannot be said to exist except as modified by Non-Ego. But vice versa, without a subject there can be no object : Ego must also 385.] FICHTE. 429 be admitted to exist as determining Non-Ego : The one fact implying a passion, — the other an action of Ego, Our conception of external objects, as external, is an act of EgOf whereby it transfers to Non-Ego a real existence abstracted from itself. By such an operation of the mind Non-Ego assumes the character of something real as respects Ego, inasmuch as Ego transfers to it a portion of its own reality. Allowing that external objects im- press the Thinking Subject, yet this is nothing more than the opposition of those objects as Non-Ego to our own Ego (limiting thereby the latter) ; the agent continuing to be the Thinking Subject and not the external Objects. From what has been stated, may be deduced: 1st. The reciprocity existing between Ego and Non-Ego. The action and passion of Ego are one and the same thing, as relates to Non-Ego. 2ndly. The operations of Ego tend to show that the ideal and real principles, which have been adopted to explain the connection between the mind and external objects, are identical. The explana- tion is to be sought in the fact that we contemplate Ego as active, and Non-Ego as passive ; or vice versa. By such an hypothesis the discordant claims of the Realists and Nominalists are reconciled, and the true theory of philosophical science developed. From such principles the Transcendental theory of the faculty of mental perception infers the following conclu- sions. 1. Mental perception can only take place in virtue of a reciprocal action existing between Ego and Non-Ego. 2. The influence of Ego on Non-Ego is opposed to that of Non-Ego on Ego. In such cases Ego balances, as it were, between two contrary influences. Such hesita- tion is the effect of the imagination, which equally repre- sents the passive and active operations of Ego; or, in other words, conveys them to the Consciousness. 3. Such a state of hesitation implies the act of contemplating, in which it is difficult to separate the contemplating Subject from the Object contemplated. It is not Reflection (the tendency of which is inwards), but activity directed to- wards external objects, — Production. 4. From the fa- 430 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. culty for contemplating results Contemplation, properly so called, which is the effect of the absolute spontaneousness of Reason, — i. e. of the JJnder standing. 5. Judgment, in the next place, weighs the objects presented to it by the understanding, and defines their mutual relations. 6. The contemplation of the absolute spontaneousness of Ego affords the apprehension of Reason, and the basis of all Science. Practical Ajyjplication of the Scientific Theory. 386. Tm^o facts have been up to this point required as postulates to support the above system : the reciprocal action of Ego and Non-Ego; and the occurrence of an obstacle to Ego^ which restricts its hitherto unlimited energies, and gives birth to Non-Ego. Now as the exist- ence of Ego itself (involving that of Non-Ego) is depend- ent on this very circumstance, the whole system would fall for want of a foundation, if we could not deduce from Ego itself the principle of such an obstacle. This can be effected only by practical not by theoretical philoso- phy. The Scientific Theory in its practical application contemplates absolute practical Ego, which, by defining Non-Ego, becomes the principle of the obstacle alluded to, and of the limitation of the activity of Ego. Such an Ego is free, unlimited, and independent; the only true Reality; while on the other hand Ego, considered as Intelligence determined by Non-Ego, is finite and limited. In virtue of its unlimited activity Ego commences by cir- cumscribing itself. This it does as a determining faculty, which implies the existence of something else determin- able by it. Consequently, Ego possesses by implication the power of determining that which is determinable, in other words, of determining Non-Ego ; which is ob- jective activity, and the result of pure Activity. Abso- lute Ego posseses an unlimited activity, and a perpetual tendency to become the cause of something else. With such an impulse Ego commences an unlimited career, but 386, 387.] FICHTE. 431 without attaining its object or becoming a Cause. In consequence of not accomplishing this end its energies are repulsed and reflected upon itself (Reflection). In virtue of its inherent activity and its inability to attain the end first proposed, Ego now opposes a counter- movement to its first impulse. Hence arises the ob- stacle alluded to, or Non-Ego. Non-Ego being once established, Ego assumes with reference to it the charac- teristics of practical, definitive, and causal. Non-Ego also re-acts on Ego^ determining to a certain extent EgOf and opposing a counterpoise to its influence. In this manner Non-Ego also becomes a cause with refer- ence to EgoK It is thus we arrive at the recipro- cal opposition existing between Ego and the external World ; the former in one respect assuming the charac- ter of something connected with, and dependent on, the World, (considered as Intelligence), but in another, (as Practical), continuing free and independent of the same. In this manner, by establishing the existence of Ego, we establish that of the World, and by establishing the existence of the external World we establish that of Ego, Consequently, the World can possess reality only for an EgOf in an Ego, and by an Ego. The leading proposition of the theory is this : that Ego is absolute Activity : that all which exists out of Ego is produced by Ego by means of position, opposition, etc. Ego is the subject-object, and as such the basis of the Transcendental Idealism. On certain Branches of Philosophy treated by Fichte. 387. The author of the Scientific Theory attempted to re-model on its principles some of the philosophical sciences, such as Ethics and Natural Law. His dis- quisitions respecting both contain many original and striking ideas by the side of an equal number of paradox- ' The perception of the limits of the activity of Ego is what we denominate Sensation. 432 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. ical imaginations, with an appearance of logical deduction which is fallacious and unreal, resting on no solid basis, although managed with great ability. Ethics. Having by his Idealism annihilated the objective reality of the sensi- ble world, and left nothing in its place but a system of mere Images, he proceeds to establish by means of Con- science, a belief in the existence of a sensible world, intelligible and independent of the former ; and to demon- strate the possibility of referring our actions to an attain- able end. He sets out with the idea of free-will, that is, of unrestrained independent free-agency, which is the ten- dency of Ego, and on which the idea of independence is founded. Consequently, the principle of practical Morality is the necessary conviction of Intelligence, that its freedom must be defined by the notion of complete free-agency, or, in common language, that Conscience must be obeyed without limitation ^. Such a conviction is the principle of Duty. Virtue consists in a perfect conformity and unison with self. Natural Law and Right, which Fichte was the first to treat as independent of Moral Right, instructs us as to the relations, in respect of Right, and the reciprocal actions of free-agents, and deduces them from self-consciousness, of which they are necessary conditions. Man cannot conceive himself to be a rational animal except inasmuch as he attributes to him- self a power of Causality ; nor can he suppose himself possessed of this, without extending the same to other beings, to all appearance like himself. Consequently, he conceives himself to be placed in certain relations of Right with regard to the latter, which induce him to regard his personal liberty as circumscribed by that of others. Fichte denies the existence of an Original Right, regarding it as a fiction created to meet the " In his Anwelsung zum seligen Leben, § 133, sqq., this view of morality is made superior to that presented by the principle of positive and imperative Legislation, at the same time that Fichte makes it subordinate to those of Religion and Science. According to his theory the only true life is the life in God, which gives birth to a higher principle of morality, lays open to us a new world, and creates it. 387.] FICIITE. 433 exigencies of Science. All Right has reference to some society or other, and derives its very existence from such a state. Rational beings are consequently intended to become at once members of society. A state is the realisation of Right as contemplated by Reason. — In his later account of political Right, Fichte chose to consider the realisation of the Kingdom of God upon earth as the true image of a state based on the principles of Reason ; in other words a Theocracy, founded on the revelation of God in a human shape. It may be observed in general that his leading maxim is to make every thing subordi- nate to the idea of Reason: and on this principle he founded his plan for an universal national system of education, and a permanent school or college of learned men. The Religious philosophy of Fichte has also attracted great attention. He represents the Deity as the imme- diate principle of morality, an idea to which Ego attains in consequence of feeling itself restricted in the exercise of its free-agency by the ideas of obligation. Ego labours to realise this idea of duty, and consequently to recognise a moral creation in the midst of the world without, which it has itself produced: in this manner it approximates the Deity, and attains to the life which proceeds from God. In this moral World Felicity is the result of moral worth. This felicity is not to be confounded with Happiness; which does not, and cannot exist : a doctrine which prohibits all reference to the latter as a final end. It is not necessary to think of the Deity as something distinct from the Moral World just described, notwithstanding our proneness to conceive of Him as a separate being, and the author of that creation. 1st. Because we cannot attribute to the Divinity the qualities of Intelligence or Personality, without making Him a finite being, like to ourselves. 2ndly. It is a species of profanation to conceive of the Deity as a sepa- rate essence, since such an idea implies the existence of a sensible being limited by Space and Time, ordly. We cannot impute to Him even existence without confound- Ff 434 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. ing him with sensible natures. 4thly. No satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the manner in which the creation of the world could be operated by God. 5thly. The idea and expectation of Happiness is a delusion, and when we form our notions of the Deity in accordance with such imaginations, we do but worship the idol of our own passions — the Prince of this World. Such extravagant or paradoxical rhapsodies " naturally procured for their author the reputation of Atheism, and drew upon him some persecutions not altogether un- deserved ; notwithstanding the display which he made of a profound sentiment of moral duty. He lived to renounce in some degree his heresies (see § 389) ^ Remarks on the Scientific Theory at large. 388. The system of Fichte is distinguished by a great appearance of logical accuracy and deduction. It solves many difficulties, but at the same time gives occasion to many new ones, and was exposed to the following ob- jections. By the Kantists it was urged that 1st. Fichte had proposed for solution a grand philosophical problem, without previously inquiring whether it was capable of being solved. He pretends to explain every thing, but attempts this only by means of a seeming transcendental deduction, and is constantly driven back to gratuitous assertions and cyclical arguments. Sndly. The principles laid down are those of Logic, which can never enable us to attain to an accurate knowledge of the nature and properties of any subject or object. It was farther urged " See the work on the principle of our belief in a Divine Providence, men- tioned in § 389 (notes). In his work on the Destiny of Man, p. 287, Fichte assumes the character of a mystical theist. [o It is painful to be the instrument of putting on record so much of nonsense and so much of blasphemy as is contained in the pretended philosophy of Fichte : the statement, however, will not be without its good, if the reader be led to reflect on the monstrous absurdities which men will believe at the suggestion of their own fancies, who have rejected the plain evidences of Christianity. TransL'] 388.] FICHTE. 435 that these abstract elements had been artfully invested by him with the semblance of realities, particularly in the case of Principle the first, by the substitution of Ego for the Indeterminate Object. The non-Kantists ob- jected: 1st. That this system converts Ego into an abso- lute and independent essence, annihilating the existence of external Nature, its independent reality, and its con- formity to the laws of Reason. 2ndly. It is inconsistent with itself. Ego at first is represented as nothing but infinite activity, opposing to itself as a limitation Non- Ego, and thereby producing all things — space included. But in the first place ; what is it which compels Ego, as yet unlimited and unrestrained, to circumscribe itself by the position of Non-Ego ? — " Because otherwise it could not attain to a knowledge of objects." But what necessity can be shown for its aiming at the knowledge of objects, being itself infinite and unlimited? The pre- tended principle of the Activity o^ Ego,m virtue of which it establishes an objective world, is a primordial fact, of which we have no evidence from experience, and which can only be ascertained by intellectual contemplation, and is therefore di postulate arbitrarily, and, as it were, surrep- titiously assumed for the purposes of the theory. Fichte confounds the operations of transcendental imagination in the construction of geometrical figures with the creation of determinate objects, without stopping to explain how the multiplicity of external objects and their various properties can possibly be effected by the construction of Form in Space. The postulate of an obstacle encoun- tered by the infinite activity of Ego, which throws it back upon itself, and creates a consciousness of the necessity attaching to certain mental perceptions, is not to be ac- counted for either by the nature of Ego or Non-Ego. In short, instead of one mystery, this theory would establish another still more incomprehensible, all the time pretend- ing to explain the former by the latter, and ending with an admission that its own principle of explanation is in- comprehensible. Accordingly, in the most recent state- ment of his theory, the author is compelled to assert, (in Ff2 436 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. order to account for the feeling of necessity attached to certain mental perceptions, arising from their relation to an object), that Ego is restricted in the exercise of its energies by certain determinate limits, although he had described it as Infinite Activity and Independent Action. These limits or restrictions he is pleased to call incom- prehensible and inexplicable, which nevertheless were precisely the object at which his Scientific Theory of Philosophy was levelled. His Idealism, therefore, is an example of speculation carried to the most extravagant excess, and ending in the destruction of itself; after having first annihilated all science and free-agency. Compare this transcendental Idealism with the super- natural Idealism of Berkeley ^ and the Realism of Spi- noza, 389. Fichte himself endeavoured to accommodate his theory to the opinions of others by subjecting it to va- rious modifications P, particularly with reference to the P Fichte's Works. On the Theory of Science at large : Ueber den BegrifF der Wissenschaftslehre, Weimar, 1794, 8vo. Zweite verb. u. verm. Aufl. Jena, 1798, 8vo. Grundlage der gesainmten Wissenschaftslehre, Weimar, 1794, 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1802, 8vo. Grundriss des Eigenthiimlichen der Wis- senschaftslehre, Jena u. Leipzig, 1795, 8vo. ; II verb. Aufl. ebend. 1802. Grundlage, etc., u. Grundriss, neue unveranderte Aufl. Tub. 1802. Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre, und zweite Einleitung in die Wissenschaftslehre (in dem Philosophischen Journal, herausgeg. von Nie- thammer u. Fichte, 1797. St. I.S. i f., St. IV. S. 310, S. V. S.i f. und VI). Antwortschreiben an K. L. Pveinhold anf dessen Beitr. zur leichtern Ueber- sicht des Zustandes der Philosophic beim Anfange des 19 Jahrhunderts, Tub. 1801, 8vo. Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grossere Publicum iiber das eigent- liche Wesen der neuesten Philosophic, etc., Berl. 1801, 8vo. Die Wissen- schaftslehre in ihrem allgemeinsten Umrisse dargestellt, Berlin, 1810, 8vo. Die Thatsachen des Bewusstseyns. Vorlesungen gehalten, etc., zu Berlin, 1810-11 ; Stuttg. u. Tub. 1817, 8vo. On Religious Philosophy in particular ; Versuch einer Kritik^'aller Offen- barung (anonym.) II verm. u. verb. Aufl. Konigsb. 1793, 8vo. Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine giittliche Weltregierung (Philosoph. Journal, VIII B. (1798) 1 St. Fe. K. Forberg's Entwickelung des Begrifl^^s der Re- ligion. Ebendaselbst.). Appellation an das Publicum iiber die ihm beige- messenen atheistischen .Eusserungen, Jena u. Leipz. 1799, 8vo. Der Heraus- geber des Philosophischen Journals gerichtliche Vcrantwortungssohriften gegen die Anklage des Atheismus, Jena, 1799, 8vo. (FounERc's Apologie seines 389.] FICIITE. 437 agreement he pretended to have established between it and the Critical method ; as also with regard to the means of detecting in Consciousness the original activity of Ego. At first he attempted this on the prin- ciples of Thought, but subsequently had recourse to In- tellectual Contemplation ; (in his Sonnenklarer Bericht, mentioned below). The most remarkable difference how- ever between the earlier and later editions of the Theory of Science, is this : that the first was composed on the principles of Idealism, the latter on those of Realism. The former sets out with asserting the unlimited and independ- ent activity of Ego; the latter by maintaining the absolute existence of the Deity, as the only true reality — the only pure and self-existing life — of whom the world and con- sciousness are but the image and impress ; treating ob- jective nature as nothing more than a limitation of Divine Life. The philosophical system of Schelling appears to have contributed no less than the species of religious sen- timent still retained by Fichte to effect this change. The Scientific Theory excited a prodigious deal of at- tention and gained a great number of partisans, among others : F. K. Forberg, (see the catalogue of Fichte's w^orks, No. 2); F. J. Niethammer, (born 1766); K. L. Reinhold, (see § 382) ; Schelling^ (see following §) ; J. B, Schad (§ 395), afterwards a disciple of Schelling ; Abicht (§ 396) ; Mehmel, and others ">. augeblichen Atheismus, Gotha, 1799, 8vo.). Anweisung zum seligen Leben Oder auch die Ileligionslehre, etc., Berl. 1806, Bvo. Ethical and other writings : Vorlesungen uber die Bestimmung des Gelehr- ten, Jena, 1794, 8vo. System der Sittenlehre, Jena u. Leipz. 1798, 8vo. Bei- tragre zur Berichtisunj; der Urtheile des Publicums iiber die Franzosische Re- volution, 1793, 8vo. Grundlage des Naturrechts, Jena, 1796, 1797, II Thle. 8vo. Ueber die Bestimmung des Menschen, Berlin, 1800, 8vo. Der gesch- lossene Handelsstaat. Ein Philos. Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtsl. Tubing. 1800, 8vo. Vorlesungen iiber das Wesen des Gelehrten, Berl. 1806, 8va. Die Grundziige des gegenwiirtigen Zeitalters, Berlin, 1806, 8vo. Reden an die Deutsche Nation, Berl. 1808, 8vo. Die Vorlesungen iib. den Begriffdes wahrhaften Kriegs. ebend. 1813, 8vo. Die Staatslehre od. Ub. das Verhaltn. des Urstaats zum Vernunftreiche in Vortragen, etc., aus dem Nachlasse he- rausgeg, Berl. 1820, Bvo. n Works illustrative of those of Fichte : Philosophisches Journal heraus- 438 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. It also encountered many sturdy antagonists and severe critics, especially among the Kantists "". The end of it has been the same with that of all other exclusive theo- ries, and in spite of its imposing tone of authority, which would elevate speculation at the expense of experimental knowledge (which it affects to contemn), it has failed to acquire an ascendency in matters of philosophy. At the same time, it must be confessed that in its day it had gegeben von Niethammer, Neustrel w. Jena, 1795-96, IV B. j mit Fichte, 1797—1800, V— X B. Fr. W. Jos. Schelling, Abhandlungen zur Erlauterung des Idealismus der Wissenschaftslehre in dem Philos. Journal von Fichte und Nieth. 1796, u. 1797 ; and in Schelling's Philos. Schriften, I B. JoH. Bapt. Schad, Grundriss der Wissenschaftslehre, Jena, 1800, 8vo. Gemeinfassliche Darstellung des Fichteschen Systemes und der daraus her- vorgehenden Religionstheorie, Erfurt, 1799 — 1801, III B. 8vo. Geist der Philosophie unserer Zeit, Jena, 1800,j 8vo. Absolute Harmonie des Fichte- schen Systems mit der Religion, Erf. 1802, 8vo. Transcendentale Logik, Jena, 1801, 8vo. G. E. A. Mehmel, Lehrbuch der Sittenlehre, Er/. 1811. Reine Rechts- lehre, ebend. 1815, 8vo. At an earlier date : Versuch einer vollst. analyt. Denklehre, 1803, und iiber das Verhaltniss der Philos. zur Religion, 1805, 8vo. u. a. r Criticisms of Fichte's theory : Stimrae eines Arktikers liber Fichte und sein Verfahren gegen die Kantianer (von K. Thdr. Rink), 1799, 8vo. Vom Verhaltniss des Idealismus zur Religion, oder : ist die neueste Philo- sophie auf dem Wege zum Atheismus ? 1799, 8vo. Freimiithige Gedanken iiber Fichte's Appellation gegen die Anklage des Atheismus und deren Veranlassung, Goiha, 1799, 8vo. J. H. Gli. Heusinger, Uber das Idealistisch-Atheistische System der Hrn. Prof. Fichte, Dresden u. Gotha, 1799, 8vo. K. L. Reinhold, Sendschreiben an Lavater und Fichte iiber den Glauben an Gott, Hamb. 1799, 8vo. F. H. Jacobi an Fichte, Hamb. 1799, 8vo. W. Traugott Krug, Briefe iiber die Wissenschaftslehre, Leipz. 1800, 8vo. GoTTLOB Chr. Fr. Fischhaber, Uber das Princip und die Hauptprobleme des Fichteschen Systems, nebst einem Entwurfe zu einer neuen Auflosung derselben, Carlsruhe, 1801, 8vo. C. Chr. Ehr. Schmid's Ausfuhrliche Kritik des Buchs : die Bestimmung des Menschen, in Schmid's Aufsiitzen Philosophischen und Theologischen Inhalts, Jena, 1802, 8vo. Ch. F. Bohme, Commentar Uber und gegen den ersten Grundsatz der W. L., ALtenb. 1802, 8vo. Jac. Fries, Reinhold, Fichte, und Schelling, Eeipz. 1803, 8vo. Fr. Wilh. Jos. Schelling, Darlegung des wahren Verhiiltnisses der Na- turphilosophie zu der verbesserten Fichteschen Lehre, Tubing. 1806, 8vo. I 390.] SCHELLING. 439 great influence over the minds of Fichte's contemporaries, and by the sort of eloquence which characterised his compositions, has promoted in many men a strong ten- dency to supra-sensual pursuits and investigations. ScheUing's Theory of Absolute Identity. 390. Fichte had attempted to construct a system of knowledge on the principles of Idealism, in respect both of Form and Matter; but Schelling carried Speculation a step farther, and instead of Ego, the Subject-Object, placed at the head of his system the Absolute Itself, and proposed to solve on philosophical principles the highest problem which Reason can contemplate — the nature of Absolute Being, and the manner in which all finite beings are derived from It. F. W. J. von Schelling^ is unques- tionably an original thinker, superior to Fichte for the vivacity of his imagination, — the poetical character of his genius, — and the extent of his acquirements ; more par- ticularly in the history of ancient philosophy, in antiquities, and natural history. Having studied at Tiibingen the systems of Kant, Reinhold, and ^Enesidemus (Schulze), he accused the former of failing to deduce his conclu- sions from the first axioms of Science, and desiderated a common principle which might embrace alike the Spe- culative and Practical departments of knowledge * : object- ing also to the use made of what was called the Moral Proof". Fichte's theory made a strong impression on his youthful and ardent temper, more inclined to adopt with readiness the imagination of the infinite and creative activity of the human mind, than disposed to a painful * An Aulic councillor, and at the present time a professor at Munich ; born at Leonberg in Wurtemberg, Jan. 27, 1775. ' With these views he composed his first work : Uber die IMiiglichkeit einer Form der Philos. iiberhaupt, Tubing. 1795 ; and, Vom Icn als princip der Philos., Oder iiber das Unbedingte im Menschlichen Wissen., ibid. 1805, 8vo, (see his Philos. Works, Vol. I). " See his t Philosophical Letters on Dogmatism and Criticism ; first pub- lished in the Journal of Niethammer, 1796, and since incorporated in his works. 440 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. examination of the forms and laws by which that activity is circumscribed. With such views the young scholar resorted to Jena, where he formed a close intimacy with Fichte, and defended his theory against the partisans or the adversaries of Kant ; without, however, adopting all its Dogmata. Gradually he dissented more and more from the system of his master, in proportion as he became more and more sensible of its defects. 391. Fichte had deduced all his system from the opera- tions of Ego in what may be termed a 2^^ogressive me- thod ; but without offering any proof for his leading as- sertion that the Subjective produces and creates the Ob- jective ; the latter never producing the Subjective. This process may be reversed and the argument conducted from Objective Nature to Ego ; and if a due reference be not made to the Critical system the one method is no less admissible than the other. Spinoza had already produced a system of Dogmatism carried to the highest possible point, and ending in an objective Realism; and by such considerations Schelling was led to form the idea of two opposite and parallel philosophical Sciences — the Transcendental Philosophy, and the Philosophy of Nature, to the special treatment of which, especially the latter, he devoted various works. The former begins with the consideration of Ego, and derives from that the Objective, the Multifarious, the Necessary, — in short — the system of Nature. The latter sets out with the con- templation of Nature, and deduces therefrom Ego, the Unrestricted, and the Simple. The tendency of both is to illustrate by their mutual relations the powers of Nature and the Soul, considered as identical. The principle which they have in common is this; The laws of Nature must exist within us as the laws of Con- sciousness ; and vice versa the laws of Consciousness are found to exist in objective Nature as the laws of Nature. It is to be observed, however, that the first of these two Sciences cannot investigate to the end the inexhaustible variety of external Nature ; nor can the 391.] SCHELLING. v^f4JL -^^liA/^yK second attain to a perception of the Simple and Absolute. ^ . , It is impossible to explain to ourselves how out of Unit}^ > arises Multiplicity, and out of Multiplicity — Unity; (the last combining the twofold characters of Unity and Mul- tiplicity). In this manner Schelling founded his system on the Original Identity of that which knows and that which is known, and was led to conclude the absolute identity of the Subjective and Objective, or the Indiffer- ence of the Differing ; in which consists the essence of the Absolute : — that is, the Deity. The Absolute is re- cognised by an absolute act of cognition, in which the Subjective and Objective concur : in other words, by In- tellectual Contemplation. Consequently Schelling op- poses x\bsolute Cognition or Knowledge, obtained through the medium of the Ideas, to inferior or secondary know- ledge, the result of Reflection by means of ordinary con- ceptions. The last description of knowledge is directed to things conditional, individual, and divisible, which are associated by a process of the understanding. The former contemplates the Absolute, which is independent and unconditional, and is apprehended by means of the Ideas. This is Science properly so called, and develops itself, (agreeable to its nature), as Unity, in an organic whole, in which the Subjective and Objective are indi- visible and identical : a divine Science, embracing the highest sphere of Nature ; — the only Science worthy of our serious regard, or of the name of Philosophy. In this manner the system of Schelling proposes to attain to a knowledge of the essences and forms of all things, by means of the intellectual Ideas, and asserts that to he and to know are identical : (whence its appel- lation of the System of Absolute Identity — Identitdtslehre). It is a transcendental and, according to Schelling, abso- lute system of Idealism, which would derive all know- ledge not from the partial principle of Ego, but from one still higher — The Absolute ; comprehending not only Ego but Nature also. It proposes to attain to a know- ledge of the latter by means of the Ideas '', and labours '^ The rhilosophy of Nature, or the Construction of Nature a priori. 442 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. !•' to establish a perpetual parallelism or analogy between the laws of Nature and those of Intelligence. "&' 392. The Absolute is neither infinite nor finite ; nei- ther to know nor to be; neither Subject nor Object; but that wherein all opposition of Subject and Object, — Knowledge and Existence, — Spirit and Inert Nature, — Ideal and Real, — together with all other differences and distinctions are absorbed and disappear, leaving an in- dissoluble and equal union of Knowledge and Existence. This Absolute Identity of Ideal and Real, and Absolute Indifference of the Differing (of Unity and Plurality), is the Unity which comprehends the Universe ^. Absolute Identity exists, and out of its limits nothing really exists, and consequently nothing is finite which exists per se. All that is is Absolute Identity or a development of its essence. This development takes place in conformity with certain correlative Oppositions of terms, which are derived from Absolute Identity as the poles or sides of the same object, with a preponderance to the Ideal or Real ; and become identified by the law of Totality ; the principle of their development being that oi Identity in Triplicity, Such development is sometimes styled a division of the Absolute ; sometimes a spontaneous reve- lation of the same ; sometimes a falling-off" of the Ideas from the Deity. By such a revelation Absolute Know- ledge is made possible to us ; Reason itself (as far as it is Absolute) being the identification of the Ideal and Real. The characteristic ybn?? of The Absolute is abso- lute knowledge, in which Identity and Unity assume the character of Duality, (A = A). The leading proposi- tions of this theory consequently are: 1. That there ex- ists but one identical nature ; and that merely a quanti- tive (not a qualitive) difference exists between objects, quoad essentiam, resulting from the preponderance of the Objective or Subjective, — the Ideal or Real. The Finite has only an apparent existence, inasmuch as y See Considerations on various Philosophical Principles, and particularly that of Schelling, in Fischhaber's Archis. f. Philos. 1 Heft. 392.] SCHELLING. 443 it is the product of merely relative Reflection. 2. The One Absolute Nature reveals Itself in the eternal generation of existing things, which on their part consti- tute iheforfns of the first. Consequently each individual being is a revelation of Absolute Being, in a determinate form. Nothing can exist which does not participate in the Divine Being. Consequently the Natural world is not dead, but animated and divine, no less than the Ideal. 3. This revelation of the Absolute takes place in con- formity with certain correlative Oppositions which cha- racterise different gradations of development, with a pre- ponderance of the Real or the Ideal ; and which conse- quently are nothing more than so many expressions of Absolute Identity. Science investigates these Oppo- sitions and presents a picture of the Universe, by de- ducing the Ideas of objects from the original contemplation of The Absolute, on the principle of Identity in Triplicity, (called by Schelling the process of Construction), in con- formity with the creative process observable in Nature itself. This Ideal construction is what we call Phi- losophy, (the Science of Ideas); the highest effort of which is the perception of a relative form amid the multifarious- ness of external Nature, and the recognition, in this relative form, of Absolute Identity. The scheme of such Construction is as follows : I. The Absolute — -The Universe in its original form — The Deity : manifested in II. Nature, (the Absolute in its secondary form), As Relative and Real, As Relative and Ideal ; According to the following gradations : Weight— :Matter Light — Motion Organic Structure — Life Above these gradations, (technically named by Schelling Potenzen), and independent of them, are arranged : Truth — Science Goodness — Religion Beauty — Art. Man (as a Microcosm) The System of the World (the external Universe) The State History. 444 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. 393. Schelling believed himself to have discovered in the Ideas the essence of all things and their necessary forms ; following the process of Intellectual Contemplation. He affected to amend the system of Kant, who had only recognised the existence of a knowledge of the phenome- nal world, and allowed nothing more than belief for things existing ^er se ; and thought he had refuted Fichte, who represents Ego as the only true Being, and all Nature as a dead and lifeless non-existence, incapable of any other characteristics than those belonging to a negation or limitation of Ego. Feeling confident that he had ori- ginated an ideal construction of the universe, not as it appears to us but as it really exists, he unfolded his views with great ability, without conforming himself to the sub- divisions of Philosophy usually observed, and made a skilful use of his acquaintance with the theories of Plato, Bruno, and Spinoza. After having published several statements of his theory at large, he applied himself especially to one branch of it, — the application of its principles to real existence or the Philosophy of Nature, considered as the living principle which produces all things by subdivision of itself, according to the law of Duality. Of the Ideal Department of his system he treated only some separate questions, in his later writings on Free-will and the origin of Evil, the Nature of God, etc. etc. ^. On the subject oi Morals he delivers himself as follows : The knowledge of God is the first principle of all Morality. The existence of God necessarily implies that of a moral world. Virtue is a state of the soul in which it conforms itself not to an external law, but an internal necessity of its own nature. Morality is also Happiness. Happiness is not an accidental consequence of Virtue, but Virtue itself. The essence of Morality is the tendency of the soul to unite itself to God as the centre of all things. Social life, regulated according to the Divine Example with reference to Morality and ^ In his, riiilosophy and Religion, in his Essay on Free-will, in the Letter to Eschenmayer with reference to this treatise, and {en passant) in his con- troversies with Fichte and Jacobi. 393.] SCHELLING. 445 Religion — Art and Science — is what we denominate a community, or the State. It is a harmony of necessity and free-will, with an external organisation. History, as a whole, is a revelation of the Deity, progressively de- veloped. In his treatise on Free-will, Schelling went on to make a distinction between the Deity (simply so con- sidered, or the Absolute), and the Deity as existing ^ or revealing himself, proceeding from a principle of exist- ence contained in the Deity, (Nature in the Godhead), and thus attaining the condition of a complete essence, and assuming the character of personality, {Dens imj}li- citiis expUcitus — see the following section). Every pro- duction of Nature contains in itself a double principle, viz. an obscure and a luminous one, which, to a cer- tain extent, are identical. In mankind these constitute personality, the result of spirit and will, which have the power of separating themselves from the Universal Will which sways all Nature, by virtue of individual free-will. The consequence of this opposition of Individual to Universal Will, is the origin of evil ; which becomes real only by virtue of such opposition. Schelling has treated the subject of Beauty merely with a reference to Art, defining it to be the Infinite represented in a finite shape, and describing Art as a representation of the Ideas, and a revelation of God to the human mind. This theory must be regarded as incomplete, (according to Schelling's own confession, Phil. Schr. 1 B.) ; its scientific development, as a whole, being conveyed to us only in a brief fragment *. a In the, Zeitschr. f. spec. Phys. 2 B. 2 Heft. s. 114, sqq. His works (besides those already mentioned § 390). Ideen zu einer Phi- losophie d. Natur, als Einleit. in das Stud, dieser W. 1 Th. Leipz. 1797, 8vo. Zweite durchaus verb. u. verm. Aufl. Landshut, 1803. Von der Weltseele ; eine Hypothese der hohern Physik zur Erkliirung des allgem. Organismus, nebst. einer Abhandl. iiber das Verhiiltniss des Idealen u. Kealen in der Natur, oder Entvvickelung der ersten Grundsiitze der Naturphilosophie an den Prin- cipien der Schvvere und des Lichts, Uamb. 1798, 8vo. ; III Aufl. 1809. The last treatise printed separately, Hamb. 1806, and Landshut, 1807. Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie, Jena, 1799, 8vo. Einleituno- zu seinem Entwurfe eincs Systems der Naturphil,, oder liber den Ke'i^riff der 446 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Observations on the above System. 394. The theory of Schelling is remarkable for the originahty of the views it contains, the magnitude of the problems it would solve, the consistency of its plan, and the vast circle of its application. It binds together by one single Idea all the essences of Nature, removing the limits which had been assigned by Kant to the dominion of Science, and asserting the possibility not only of a subjective apprehension, but of an objective and scientific knowledge — of a certain and determinate perception of God and Divine things, by virtue of the identity between the human mind and the essence of all Being. It em- braces the whole circle of philosophical speculation, removing, as it does, the distinction between empirical and rational knowledge ; and its principles are made applicable to all the sciences. It has the appearance how- ever of being, 1st. As relates to Practical Science, very confined and embarrassed ; nor can we discover how, in such a system of Absolute Identity, there can be room for specul. Physik, etc., ebend. 1799, 8vo. System des transcendentalen Idealis- mus. Tub. 1800, Bvo. Zeitschrift fur die speculative Physik. 1 u. 2 B. Jena, 1800—3, 8vo. Neue Zeitschrift u. s. w. Tub. 1803. Krit. Journal der Phil, herausg. von Schelling u. Hegel, 2 B. Tub. 1802 — 3, 8vo. Bruno oder liber das gottl. u. Natiirl. Princip. der Dinge. Ein Gesprach, Berl. 1802, 8vo. II Aufl. Vorlesungen iiber die Methode des akad. Studiums, Stuttg. u. Tub. 1803, 8vo. II unveriind. Aufl. 1813. Philosophic und Religion, Tub. 1804. Davlegung des wahien Verhaltnisses der Naturphilosophie zu der verbesserten Fichteschen Lehre, Tub. 1806, 8vo. Jahrbiicher der Medicin als Wissenschaft (darin Aphorismen zur Einl. in die Naturphilos. 1 B. I Heft.) Tub. 1806. Philosophische Schriften, 1 B. Laiidshut, 1809, 8vo. ; (containing also his Rede iiber das Verhiiltniss der bildenden Kiinste zu der Natur, 1807, gehalten, und die Abhandlung : Philosophische Untersuchungen iiber das Wesen der menschl. Freiheit und die damit zusammenhangengen Gegenstiinde.) Sciiel- LiNo's Denkmal der Schriftvon den gbttlichen Dingen des Hrn. F. H. Jacobi und der ihm in derselben gemachten Beschuldigung eines absichtlich tiiuschen- den, Liige redenden Atheismus. Tub. 1812, 8vo. Allgemeine Zeitschrift von und fiir Deutsche, III Ilefte ; (containing Schelling's answer to a writing of EsciiENMAYER, iiber die Abh. von der Freiheit.) Uber die Gottheiten von Samothrace, Stuttg. u. Tub. 1815, 8vo. 394.] SCHELLING. 447 practical necessity^ or, in other words, the obhgation of duty ^. The theory is characterised by a bhnd sort of Natural Necessity and Determinism : — God reveals him- self of necessity : — All History, and all the mutations of the world are but the modifications of his essence*^. Sndly. Independently of this partial view of Nature, the system is deficient in the solidity of its principles. It is not shown in what manner the human mind can elevate itself to the intellectual contemplation described : the principles, therefore, laid down, are mere suppositions. Thought without a Thinking Subject is nothing better than an abstract idea :— Absolute Identity is incon- ceivable independent of Relative Identity, Without the latter, the former is reduced to a mere non-entity. It cannot be shown that Absolute Identity constitutes the essence of all beings: Objective Reality depends upon a confusion of the nature of Thought with the essence of external objects. To pretend that a pure abstraction like this is real, and constitutes the essence of all things, is a mere unfounded hypothesis, the proof advanced by Schelling being altogether untenable ^ : to support which he has recourse to a mere jumble of words, (" Identity of Identity and Non-Identity"), — to contradiction — (*' The bond of Unity and Plurality — the Copula, — The Abso- lute in the Absolute, — The Divine in the Divine, etc."), and to a multitude of vague and indefinite terms. 3rdly. This theory has only the appearance of a scientific system. The attempt to deduce the Finite from the Infinite and Absolute, and the Particular from the Uni- versal, by means of a real demonstration, (construction), has proved abortive ^. The author maintains that a Finite and Infinite, a Real and Ideal have co-existed from the beginning of things in an indissoluble union: •> See Schelling, Philos. und Relig. s. 53 u. f. Philos. Schriften, s. 413 u. f. <^ Darst. des wahr. Verb. s. 66. •' Zeitschr. $ 7. Darst. der Verb. s. 50. e See Zeitscbiift fur specul. Fbys.k. 2 V>. II lift. s. 18 j Eruno, s. 81 — 131 ; Pbilos. u. Kel, s. 35. 448 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. but anon he is obliged to suppose a separation be- tween them, by virtue of his hypothesis of Absolute Identity. The same is the case with regard to self- revelation. The only answer he affords to the question, Why the Deity should reveal himself.'' — is a simple asser- tion that so it must be ^ Occasionally he has recourse to Plato's mythical hypothesis of a Fall of the Ideas from the Absolute ^ ; concerning which it may be queried how any thing can fall from the Absolute, which by hypothesis embraces and contains all things? Occasionally he labours to demonstrate that nothing exists besides Unity, the Copula, and the Absolute ^ : whence then are derived finite knowledge Jiaving reference to Space and Time; and the Categories? All that gives to his argument the appearance of successful demonstration is, that he has substituted for the vague idea of the Absolute certain fictions of the Imagination, and notions borrowed from experience. 4thly. Can any one presume to believe that the inscrutable nature of the Godhead is contained in the idea of Absolute Identity? His Natural Philosophy conveys to us no knowledge of God, and the little it reveals appears opposed to Religion \ It becomes a sys- tem of Pantheism by identifying the Deity with Nature ^, and makes the Deity himself subject to superior laws, supposing him obliged to reveal himself, and making the Divinity as Intelligence proceed, within the compass of Time, from non-intelligent principles — Nature in the Deity and Chaos. The Deity is supposed to render passive a certain portion of his nature with which before he energised, and to enable us to conceive of him as a personal being, we are obliged to suppose the existence in him of Nature as a negative essence '. God is repre- sented not only as a Divine Being, but as Life. Now f As a fact morally necessary : Abh. von du Freih. s. 492. e Relig. u. Philos. s. 35. h Darst. s. 62. ' See the close of the following section. ^ Schelling has endeavoured to repel this charge : Philos. u. Relig. s. 52. Schr. s. 402 ff. » Pages 96, 97. i 394, 395.] SCHELLING. 449 life pre-supposes a certain destiny, and implies passive affections and a gradual development ; and to such li- mitations we are taught to helieve that the Deity has voluntarily submitted himself"'. The whole theory is nothing better than an ingenious fiction, which, by offer- ing the appearance of a solution of all difficulties, and by its pretended Construction of Nature, proved generally attractive ; as well as by removing all idea of Constraint or Moral Obligation, — by suggesting a variety of new ideas, — and by appearing to throw open a wide perspec- tive to the views of Science. As for the manner of Schel- ling, we are called upon to remark, besides the faults of a vague and indeterminate mode of expression already noticed, the employment of certain mythical and meta- phorical terms, after the manner of Plato, which increase the difficulties belonging to his system". Partisans and Adversaries of the Sijstem of Schelling, 395. The enthusiasm which this system excited may be explained by a reference to the character of the theory itself, and of the times in which it appeared. A con- siderable school of disciples was formed among the moral philosophers, theologians, philologists, physicians, and naturalists of the day ; who professed to investigate anew their several sciences on the principles of the system of Absolute Identity, and aspired to complete that system by fresh discoveries. The views of Schelling had a more especial influence on the sciences of Natural History, Mythology, History, and the Theory of Taste. The two Schlegels at one time contributed to extend its reputation by their labours in the last department. Others of this school were less commendable ; and a dizzy spirit of ex- aggeration seemed to possess its professors, which led m Abh. iiber die Freih. s. 493, phil. Schr. " [The grave remarks of the author on this absurd theory miglit perhaps have been worthily replaced by the pithy criticism of INIr. Burchell, apud the Vicar of Wakefield, as applied to other absurdities, videlicet — Fudge— Fudge — Fudge. Transl.] Gg 450 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. them to accept as the highest efforts of wisdom the most extravagant and fantastical conceptions, and, by allying itself to superstition and enthusiasm, seemed to restore the days of Neoplatonism. To this school belonged the Naturalists H. Steffe?is°, J, Gon-es"^, the Chevalier F, von Baader"^, L. Oken^ ^ J, P. V. Troxler^, K, J. Windischmann^ ^ G. H. Schu- Born at Stavanger in Noi*way, 1773 ; a professor at Breslaw. H. Steffens, Grundziige der pliilos. Naturwissenschaft. Berl. 1806, 8vo., with his other treatises on the Natural Sciences — Ueber die Idee der Universi- taten, Berl. 1809, 8vo. Caricaturen des Heiligsten, Leipz. 1819—21, 2 B. u. a. Anthropologic , Brezl. 1822, 2 B. Von der falschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben, Bresl. 1824, 8vo. P Professor at Munich. GoRRES, Aphorismen iiber die Kunst, etc., Cohlenz, 1804, 8vo. Aphorismen iiber Organomie, ehend. 1804, u. Frcf. 1803, 1 Th. Exposition der Physiologie Cobl. 1805. Glauben und Wissen. Munch, 1805. Mythengeschichte, etc. 1 Of the university of Munich. Fr. Baader, Beitriige zur Elementarphysiologie, Hamh. 1797, 8vo. Ueber das Pythagor. Quadrat in der Natur od. die 4 Weltgegenden. Tub. 1799, u. a. kl. Schriften in den Beitragen zur dynam. Physik. Berl. 1809. Spater : Begriindung der Ethik durch die Physik. Munch. 1813. Ueber den Blitz als Vater des Lichts an H. Jung, 1815. Abhandlungen iiber die Extase ; Analogic des Erkenntnis- und des Zeugungsvermogens ; Ueber die Freiheit der Intelli- genz. Eine Rede. Munch. Ueber die Vierzahl des Lebens, Berl. 1819, 8vo. Satze aus der Bildungs- und Begriindungslehre des Lebens, Berl. 1820, 8vo. Fermenta cognitionis, I— III Heft. Berl. 1822—23. (The first treats of the origin of good and evil in men). Ueber die Vierzahl des Lebens, Berl. 1819, 8vo. Proben religibser Philosophic iilterer Zeit, Leipz. 1825, 8vo. Vorle- sungen lib. rel. Philos. im Gegensatz der irreligibsen alterer und neuerer Zeit, Munch. 1827, 8vo. •■ Professor at Munich. L. Oken's Uebersicht des Grundrisses des Systems der Naturphilosophie und der damit entstehenden Theorie der Sinnc, Fcf. a. M. (1802,) 8vo. Abriss des Systems der Biologic, Gott. 1805. Ueber die Zeugung, Bamb. 1805. Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie, Jena, 1809, sqq. 3 B. 8vo. N. Aufl. 1829. Lehrbuch d. Naturgeschichte, 1 u. 3 Th., Leipz. 1813, u. Isis. s A Swiss physician. Troxler's Versuche in der organ. Physik. Jena, 1804, 8vo. Ueber das Leben und sein Problem, Gott, 1807. Elemente der Biosophic, Leipz. 1808, (in dieser Schrift nahert cr sich mehr Jacobi) ; und Blicke in das Wesen des Menschen, Aarau, 1812, 8vo. Philosophischc Rechtslehrc der Natur u. des Gesctzes, etc., Zurich, 1820, 8vo. Naturlehrc des menschl. Erhennens od. Mctaphysik. Aarau, 1828, 8vo. ' A professor at Bonn. K. J. Windischmann's Ideen zur Physik, 1 B. W'urzb. n. Bamb. 1805, 8vo. Vergl. Darstellung des Bcgriffs der Physik in Schellings neuer Zeitschr. fijr 395.] ^^H SCHELLING. ^^^ 451 hcrf^i F, J. Schehers^'j (all of whom, with the excep- tion of Oken, inclined to the principle of Faith), K. E. SchelUng^, P. F. von Walt/ier^f J. Weber ^, W. Nasse^, D. G. Kieser, Blasclie", etc. To these must be added the moral philosophers F. Asf^, K. W. F, Solger^, (pos- sessing more originality than the rest) ; E. A, Eschen- maijer and »/. J. Wagner \ (the two last eventually be- spec. Phys. 1 B. I Ileft. 1802. Ueber die Selbstvernichtung der Zeit, HeiJelb. 1807, u. a. " A professor at IMunich. Schubert's Ansichten von der Nachtseite der Naturwissenschaft. Dresd. 1808, 8vo. ; Neue Aufl. 1817. Ahndungen einer allg. Geschichte des Lebens, Leipz. 3 Th. 1806—20, Bvo. Symbolik des Traums, etc. Bamb. 1814 ; II Aufl. 1821. Altes und Neues aus dem Gebiet der innern Seelenkunde, Leipz, 1816, 8vo. Die Urwelt und die Fixsterne, Dresd. 1822, 8vo. * A professor at Heidelberg. SciiELVERs, Elementarlehre der organ. Natur. 1 Th. Organomie, Gott. 1800. Philosophie der Medicin, Frcf. 1809, 8vo. Ueber das Geheimniss des Lebens 1814, Bvo. Von den sieben Formen des Lebens, Frcf. a. M. 1817, Bvo. y K. E. ScHELLiNG, iiber das Lebea und seine Erscheinung, Landshut, 1806, Bvo. '• Walther, iiber Geburt, Daseyn u. Tod. Nurnb. 1807. Ueber den Ego- ismus in der Natur. ebeud. 1807, u. a. S. Physiologie des Menschen, etc. Landshut, 1807—8, 8vo. * Weber's Metaphysik des Sinnl. u. Uebersinnl. Lands. 1801, 8vo. Lehrb. der Naturwissenschaft, Landshut, 1803 — 4. Philos., Rel. u. Christenthum im Bunde, M'unchen, 1808 — 11, VII Hfte. Wissenschaft der materiellen Natur oder Dynamik dei- ^Nlaterie, N'dnchen, 1821, u. a. •» Nasse, iiber Naturphilosophie, Freyberg, 1809, Bvo. Zeitschrift fiir psych, ^rzte, Leipz. seit 1818. <^ Vgl. Blasche, iiber das Wichtigste, was in der Naturphilos. seit 1801 ist geleistet worden in der Zeitschr. Jsis, herausgeg. von Oken, IX St.Jahrg. 1819. Dessen Vertheidigung des Naturphil. Systems in der Jsis, 1826 ; V Heft gegen die Einwiirfe im Hermes XXIV (von Bachmann). In Schellingscher Ansicht ist auch dessen Theodicee, unter d. Titel : das Bose im Einklange mit der "NVeltorduung, Leipz. 1827, Bvo., abgefasst. ^ Ast's Grundlinien der Philosophie, Landshut. ] 801 ; N. A. 1809. System der Kunstlehre oder Lehr- u. Handbuch der ^Esthetik, etc., Leipz. 1805, II Aufl. Grundriss der ^sthetik, Landshut, 1807, u. Auszug : Grundlinien der ^sthetik, ebend. 1813, Bvo. Gesch. der Philos. s. S. 23. ^ SoLGER, Philos. Gespriiche. Erste Sammlung, BerL 1817, Bvo. Erwin, Vier Gespriiche uber das Schone und die Kunst, BerL 1815, II Thle. Bvo. Nachgelassene Schriften und Briefwechsel. Herausg. von L. Tieck u. Fr. v. Raumer, Leipz. 1826, 11 B. Bvo. f Philosophie der Erziehungskunst, Leipz. 1803, 8vo. Von der Natur der Dinge, Leipz. 1BU3, Bvo. System der Idealphilosophie, Leipz. 1B04, 8vo. His other works will be mentioned below, $ 406. r- cr '^^ (. g ^ 452 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. came opposed to Schelling) ; and Hegel^ (§ 407), who as well as Kraiise seceded in the end from the tenets of his master. The doctrines of Schelling were expressly taught by J. B. Schad^ (§ 389) ; G. M. Klein' (the most faithful expositor of the system) ; and reduced to a course of philosophy by Ign. Thanner^, and Th. A, RixnerK By Zimmer^ and Buchner^ the theory was applied to the principles of Religion and Ethics ; and by Bach- mann^ and Nusslein^ to Esthetics. The former of these ended by adopting other opinions. s See his, Differenz des Fichteschen u. SchelHngischen Systems in Bezie- hung auf Reinhold's Beitrage, etc., Jena, 1801, 8vo.; and the Critical Jour- nal published conjointly with Schelling. ^ System der Natur- u. Transcendentalphilosophie in Verbindung darge- stellt, Landsh. 1803-4, II Thle. 8vo. Seine nachher angekiindigten : Insti- tutiones Philosophise Universae, etc., scripsit Jo. Schad, P. I. Logicam com- plectens, Charkow, 1812. Institutiones Juris Nat., ibid. 1814, 8vo. ' A professor at Wlirzburg. Klein, Beitrage zum Studium der Philoso- phie als Wissenschaft des All. Nebst einer vollst. u. fassl. Darstellung ihrer Hauptmomente, Wurzb. 1805, 8vo. Verstandeslehre, Bamb. 1810. Yer- such, die Ethik als Wissenschaft zu begrlinden, etc., Rudolst. 1811. Dar- stellung der Philos. Religions- und Sittenlehre, Bamb.u. Wiirzb. 1818, 8vo. •^ A professor at Salzburg. Thaxner's Versuch einer moglichst fasslichen Darstellung der absoluten Identitatslehre, etc., M'llnchen, 1810, 8vo. Hand- buch der Vorbereitung u. Einl. zum selbstst. wissenschaftl. Stud. bes. der Philosophic. Erster formaler Theil : die Denklehre, M'unchen, 1807. Zwei- terjmat. Th. : die Metaphysik, 1808, 8vo. Ferner ; Lehrbuch der Theoret. Philos. nach den Grundsatzen der absoluten Identitatslehre f. akad. Vorles. I. Th. Logik. ; II Th. Metaphysik (auch mit dem Titel : Logische, Metaphys. Aphorismen, etc.), Salzb. 1811-12, 8vo. Lehr- und Handbuch der Prakt. Philos. fiir Akad. Vorles. I Th. Allgem. Prakt. Philos. u. Naturrecht, ebend. 1811, 8vo. ^ A professor at Amberg. Rixner, Aphorismen aus der Philos. als Leit- faden, Landsh, 1809, 8vo. umgearbeitet : Aphorismen der gesammten Philos. zum Gebr. seiner Vorles. Ill Bdchen, Sulzbach, 1818, flf. 8vo. "> Zimmer's Philos. Religionslehre, I Th. Lehre von der Idee des Abso- luten, Landshut, 1805, 8vo. Philos. Untersuchung iiber den Allg. Verfall des menschl. Geschlechts, ebend. 1809, 8vo. n BucHNER, Uber Erkenntniss und Philos., Landshut, 1806. Grundsatze der Ethik., 1808, 8vo. Das Wesen der Religion, Dillingen, 1805, 8vo. Zweite Aufl., Landsh., 1809. o A professor at Jena. Bachmann : Die Kunstwissenschaft in ihrem allg. Urarisse dargestellt f. akad. Vorles. Jena, 1811, 8vo. Ueber Philos. u. K-anst. Jena u. Leipz. 1812, 8vo. ; (see bibl. $§ 1, 41). Von Verwandts- chaft der Physik u. Psychol. Preisschrift. Utrecht u. Leipz. 1821. System der Logik. Leipz. 1829, 8vo. 39G.] OTHER SYSTEMS. 453 Among the adversaries of the system were several dis- tinguished partisans of the theory of Kant, as well as the authors of certain new doctrines ; such as Ilerhart, Boideriveki and Jacobin whom we shall have occasion to me^ition below. The opinions of Schelling were espe- cially attacked by the theologians ; who appear, however, occasionally to have understood them but imperfectly. Others, (for instance Daub), endeavoured to reconcile them with Religion. Other Systems, 396. Fr. Douterwek'^i an acute reasoner who had ori- ginally embraced and even given a new exposition of the theory of Kant, abjured the tenets of his master from a conviction that they were not proof against Scepticism, and professed himself dissatisfied with the partial cha- racter of Fichte's system. He maintained that Science demands the recognition of something Absolute, without which no knowledge nor even thought is possible, inas- much as something real, — a Being, — the Absolute, — is pre-supposed in all demonstration. Accordingly he pro- ceeded to demonstrate the inefficacy of former philoso- phical systems, alleging that they had attempted the dis- covery of Truth only by means of mental ideas and cer- tain formularies, without ever arriving at real and ani- mated Science. His leading principles were, that all Thought and Sensation are founded on some real ground, — the Absolute ; which itself is dependent on nothing else. Such an essence is not discoverable by Thought^ inasmuch as Thought pre-supposes its existence, as some- thing superior to itself. Consequently, we are driven to conclude either that all Being is imaginary and all Thought without foundation, or that there exists an ab- P Ncsslein's Lehrb. der Kunstwissenschaft, Landahttt, 1819,8vo. Grund- linien der allg. Psychologic, etc., Mainz. 1821, 8vo. d. Logik. Barnb. 1824, 8vo. •I Born 176^5; died a professor at Gdttingen, 1828. 454 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. / solute faculty of knowledge, which neither feels nor thinks, \ constituting the fundamental principle of Reason itself, ' and by virtue of which all Being is demonstrable. Sub- ! sequently Bouterwek retracted this doctrine, and adopted i a new universal theory of Truth and Science, leading to a moderate system of Transcendental Rationalism, by means of the principle of the Cojifidence of Reason in itself He defined the end of philosophy to be the so- lution of the enigma of nature and man, by distin- guishing between the appearances and the realities of ob- jects, as far as is attainable by vmassisted human reason. This must be effected by a system of demonstration, to which empirical psychology and Logic (in the popular sense of the term), can contribute only the premises. This theory, like that of Jacobi (§ 398), supposes all merely logical thought to be mediate. All immediate knowledge (without which all discursive notions assume the character of mediate, and consequently become nuga- tory), is dependent on the original connection existing between the powers of Thought and the Internal Sense in the Virtuality of Spiritual life : — in the unity of the ac- tive properties of our nature, whether subjective or ob- jective. Reason has confidence in herself in as far as she is pure Reason, and has confidence in truth as far she recognises therein (by virtue of the connection just mentioned) her own independent energy ; and discovers in this energy the germ of ideas, by means of which she can elevate herself above sensible impressions to the dis- cussion of the original principle of all Existence and Thought, the idea of The Absolute. Consequently Truth, in the metaphysical sense of the word, (or the agreement of our conceptions with the insensible essences of things, and their necessary connection with the first principle of all Thought and Existence), — can be appre- hended by reason immediately. Metaphysics (in connec- tion with which comes Religious Philosophy founded on religious sentiment), completes the scientific development of this idea by instructing us how far a knowledge of the nature of things is possible to the human mind. Philo- 397.] OTHER SYSTEMS. 455 sophical Ethics and Natural Law are connected with the theoretical department of Philosophy by means of Uni- versal Practical Philosophy. The subject of Natural Right forms a special chapter in philosophical Ethics, in which Right is treated as a reasonable title, in virtue of which man, as a moral being, lays claims to all the external conditions appertaining to him, in all things relating to virtue and justice. Bouterwek also laboured to establish a system of Es- thetics, on psychological principles, and independent, to a certain extent, of Moral Philosophy. Fr. Bouterwek, Apliorismen, den Freunden der Vernimft- kritik iiach Kant's Lehre vorgelegt, Gott. 1793, 8vo. Paulus Septimius, oder die letzten Geheimnisse des Eleusm. Pricsters. (Philos. Roman), Halle, 1795, II Thle. 8vo. Idee einer allge- meinen Apodiktik, etc. Gott. 1799, II Th. 8vo. Anfangsgriinde der speculativen Philosophie, Gott. 1800, 8vo. Die Epochen der Vcrnunft nach der Idee der Apodiktik, Gott. 1802, 8vo. Anleitung zur Philosophie der Naturwissenschaft, Gott. 1803, 8vo. Neues Museum der Philosophie und Literatur herausgege- bcn von Fr. Bouterwek, Gott. 1803. jEsthetik, Leipz. 1806, II Th. ; III Aufi. 1824, 8vo. Ideen zur Metaphysik des Scho- nen. In vier Abhandl. ehend. 1807, 8vo. Praktische Apho- rismen ; Grundsatze zu einem neuen Systeme der moral. Wis- senschaften, Leipz. 1808. Lehrbuch der philos. Vorkenntnisse (Allgemeine Einl., Psychologie und Logik enthaltend; sollte an die Stelle der angefiihrten Anfangsgriinde treten.) Gott. 1810, 8vo. ; II Ausg. 1820, 8vo. Lehrb. der Philos. Wissenschaften nach einem neuen Systeme entworfen, II Thle. Gott. 1813, 8vo. II verm. u. verb. Aufl. ehend. 1810, 8vo. ; (the part relating to religious philosophy being entirely re-written). Religion der Vernunft, etc., ehend. 1824, 8vo. 397. C. G. Bardili^ endeavoured to make The Ab- solute the basis of a system on a new principle. He believed himself to have detected such an one in Thought, and sought to constitute Logic the source of real knowledge ; elevating it to the rank of Metaphysics. Hobbes, and the physician Leidenfrost (in his Confessio, 1793), had already represented Thought as calculation, but Bardili was the first to imagine that he could discover ■■ Born at Hlaubeucra, 17(il ^ died at Stuttgard, 1808. 456 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. in Thought per se (contemplated under its formal cha- racter), a real existence ; nay, even the essence of the Deity. The nature of Thought is such, that while it con- tinues always the same it is capable of infinite repetition and multiplication. It is A quatenus A, in A : — Identity, Thought quatenus Thought is neither Subject nor Ob- ject, nor the relation of the one to the other; but their common elementary principle, in which the conceptions and judgments of the mind have their origin, being at the same time an infinitwus determinans and a determma- tum. This principle of Thought, however, determines nothing until applied to something else, that is, to Mat- ter ; which is a necessary postulate of the system. The characteristics of Thought quatenus Thought, are Unity in Plurality : — Identity. The characteristics of Matter are Diversity and Multiplicity. Thought, the First and Absolute principle, is not determined by Matter, but vice versa the last by it. The application of Thought to Mat- ter produces : 1. Something real apprehended by the mind (B — Reality). 2. A mere conception of the mind (B — Possibility). The agreement of Thought with Mat- ter constitutes Reality, which is only a more express de- termination of the Possible. In many respects this obscure and fanciful system ap- proached the theory of Leibnitz, representing the Deity as the Manas Monadum, or pure Possibility, which multiplies itself in all individual objects, and determines all thought, — the ultimate source of all truth, and consequently the fundamental principle of all Logic. Bardili styled his performance the Primary Logic, and announced its pre- tensions with considerable arrogance, but without much success ^ The system of Rational Realism it was de- ^ Bardili's Grundriss der ersten Logik, gerelnigt von den Irrthiimern der bisher. Logik, besonders der Kantischen, Stuttg. 1800, 8vo. Philosophische Elementarlehre. I Heft. Landsh. 1802; II Heft. 1806, 8vo. Beitnige zur lieurtheilung des gegenvviirtigen Zuslandes der Vernunftlehre, Landsh. 1803, 8vo. At an earlier period Bardili had distinguished himself as an acute thinker by his: Epochen der vorziiglichsten Philosophischen Begrifle, I Th. Halle, I 398.] JACOBFS THEORY OF BELIEF. ([ r 'P^ \y signed to support was no less unsuccessful, notwithstand- ing tlie subtile analysis of Reinhold (§ 382). About the same time many similar essays appeared, for the most part distinguished by little else but their obscurity and extravajjance. Of this number was the Arch'imetria of the ingenious Swede, Th. Thorild^, which refers every thing to the theory of Magnitudes, containing many ec- centric ideas, afterwards developed by others ; and the Eplcritlgue of I\ Berg ", who assumes as the key to the nature of all Reality, — " Logical Will ;" and lastly, the " Altogether Practical Philosophy, " of Ruckert and Weiss'" (§ o99). The labours of J. H. Abie/it^ are not more deserving of specification ; consisting in a compila- tion of the works of others, in which nothing but the • phraseology is his own. PHILOSOPHY OF SENTIMENT AND BELIEF. Jacob'is Tlieory of Belief . 398. K friend of Hamann (§ 369), F, H, Jacobi^, ad- vanced a theory totally at variance with the Critical and 1788, 8vo. Sophylus oder Sittlichkeit u. Natur, als Fundament der Welt- weisheit, ebend. 1794. Allgemeine praktische Philosophie, ebend. 1795. XJeber die Gesetze der Ideenassociation, ebend. 1796, u. liber den Ursprung des BegrifFs von der Willensfreiheit (gegen Forberg), Stutig. 1796. Briefe iiber den Ursprung der Metaphysik (anonym.), Altona, 1798, 8vo. *■ Died a professor at Greifswald, 1808. INIaximum sive Archimetria, BeroL 1799, 8vo. His " Phllosophisches Glaubensbekenntniss," appears to have been suppressed by authority. " Berg, Epikritik der Philosophie, Arnstadt. u. Rudolst, 1805. * Jos. Ruckert, Der Realismus, oder Grundzlige zu einer durchaus prak- tischen Philos., Leipz. 1801. Cmr. Weiss, Winke iiber eine durchaus prakt. Philos., ebend. 1801. Lehrbuch der Logik. ebend. 1801, 8vo. y Abicht's Revidirende Kritik der Speculativen Vernunft. Altenb. 1799 — 1801, II Th. 8vo. System der Eleraentarphilosophie, oder verstandige Natur- lehre des Erkenntniss- Gefiihls u. d. Willenskraft, Erlang. 1798, 8vo. Psy- chol. Anthropol. I Abth., Erl, 1801. Encyklopiidie der Philos., Frkf. 1804, 8vo. Verbesserte Logik, oder Wahrheitswissenschaft, F'urth. 1802, 8vo. * Born at Diisseldorf, 1743 ; became in 1804 president of the Academy of Munich, and died 1819. 458 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Dogmatical systems which then divided the philosophical world, and allied to the most exalted mysticism. He possessed an enlightened and religious mind, with con- siderable powers of expression and a sincere hatred of the empty formularies of system-makers. The last prin- ciple he carried so far as almost to show himself an enemy of philosophical reason itself, from a conviction that a consistent dogmatical theory, like that of Spinoza, which admitted no truth without demonstration, could conduct only to Determinism and Pantheism ; while the Critical theory, by its prejudice in favour of demonstrative and mediate knowledge, was led to reject all perception of insensible objects, without being able to establish their reality by means of practical rational belief. He was thus led to found all philosophical knowledge on Belief ; which he describes as an instinct of reason, — a sort of knowledge produced by an immediate sensation of the mind, — a direct recognition without proof of the True and Insensible ; drawing at the same time a deep distinc- tion between such Belief and that which is positive. The external world is revealed to us by means of the senses ; but objects imperceptible to the senses, such as the Deity, — Providence, — Free-will, — Immortality, — and Morality are revealed to us by an internal sense, the organ of Truth ; which assumes the title of reason as being the faculty adapted for the apprehension of Truth. This twofold revelation (of the material and the immaterial worlds), awakens man to self-consciousness, with a per- ception of his superiority to external Nature, or a sense of Free-will ^ In the same manner Jacobi would found the principles of Morality on Sensation, Reason, as the faculty of the Ideas, which reveal themselves to the In- ternal Sense, supplies philosophy with its materials : the Understanding, or the faculty of Logical ideas, gives these a form. It is thus that he has expressed himself in his later works. He admits the great merit of Kant ' J. (j. Reiche, Rationis, qua V\. II. Jacobi e libertatis notioiie dei exis- tcntiam eviiicil, exposilio ct ceiisura, P. 1, Goliing. 1821, 8vo. 399.] PHILOSOPHY OF SENTIMENT. 459 in destroying the vain labours of theorists, and estabhsh- ing a pure system of practical philosophy, but differs from him by asserting that not only practical but also theoretical ideas, relative to real but insensible objects, are immediate ; and alleges that the Critical system annihilates not only rational apprehension but sensible perception. At the same time he maintains the impos- sibility of any true philosophical Science. Jacobi at first expressed himself somewhat obscurely on this principle of an internal revelation and consequent belief, the cor- ner-stone of his system. In consequence of this obscurity arose a multitude of objections and misapprehensions, which were also provoked by his neglecting to discrimi- nate accurately between Reason and Understanding ; and by the opposition between his Theistical theorj^ of Belief and Sensation and the systems of his contemporaries ; as well as the want of systematic arrangement it betrayed. His countrymen however have not neglected to appre- ciate the indirect services which he has rendered to the cause of philosophy. For Jacobi's writings on Spinoza, and in answer to Mendels- sohn, see above, § 329 (bibl.). Among his works were : David Hume, iiber den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Real- ismus, Breslau, 1787, 8vo. ; Ulm, 1795. Von den gottlicheu Dingen, Leipz. 1811, 8vo. Sammtliche Werke (containing also his celebrated philosophical romances), VI B. Leipz. 1812 — 1825, 8vo. On Jacobi consult Sclilegel's Charakteristiken und Kritiken, IB. Further development of the Theory of Senthnent. 399. The system of Jacobi found many adherents among men of minds similarly constituted ; but the want of precision observable in his distinctions respecting Un- derstanding and Reason, appears to have given occa- sion to a sort of schism among his followers. One party looked upon the Ideas as a sort of revelation of the Di- 460 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. vine Nature, appropriate to Reason alone ; alleging that the conceptions of the Understanding are incapable of leading us to an apprehension of the Ideas. They add that Belief precedes and comes before all knowledge. Another party attached more importance to the con- ceptions of the Understanding, and supposed philoso- phical science to be founded on the union of Reason and Understanding : its material and elementary part being derived from the former, and its formal characters from the last. Jacobi himself, at the close of his life, inclined to this opinion : the former was held by F. Kop- pen, an ingenious author and able expositor of the sys- tem he had adopted. J, Salat adhered to the latter. The leading principle in the system of Koppen was that of Liberty, which he considers as a creative power, incom- prehensible to the Understanding, the foundation of all existence, in short. Being, properly so called. Reason is the faculty by which it is apprehended. Necessity is a state of things established by Liberty. The mode of reasoning adopted by Koppen would lead us to conclude the impossibility of any true philosophical knowledge. His writings, like those of Jacobi (whatever may be thought of his theory), have the merit of ori- ginality, and have been useful by opposing a new theory to the authority of the Dogmatists. Weiller ^, a friend of Jacobi, and Weiss ^ distinguished for his psychological researches, belong to this class. Among the writings of Koppen were : Uber Offenbarung in Beziehung auf Kant und Ficht. Philoso- phic, Hamh. 1797 ; second edition, 1804. Darstellung des We- sens der Philos., Niirnb. 1810. Uber den Zweck der Philoso- phic, Miincheny 1807, 8vo. Verm. Schriften, 1806, etc., etc. '' Weiller Cof Miinich), see §§ 37 and 395. Uber die gegenw. und Kiinft. Menschheit. Mdnch. und Papau. 1799. Anleit. zur freien Ansicht der Philos., Munch. 1804, 8vo. Verstand und Vernunft. ibid. 1806, Bvo. Grund- legung zur Psychologic, ibid. 1817, 8vo. etc. ^ Weiss, Vom lebendigen Gott. und wie der Mensch zu ihm gelange, LeijK. 1812, 8vo. 400.] PHILOSOPHY OF SENTIMENT. 461 Other Disciples of the same School. 400. J. Salat, professor of Moral Philosophy at Land- shut, made an internal revelation of the Divine Nature the foundation of his philosophical system. F. A. An- cillon'^ and C A. Clodius^ held in part the opinions of Jacohi, without properly belonging to his school. Among the works of Salat were : Uber den Geist der Philos. mit krit. Blicken, etc., Miinch. 1803, 8vo. Vemmift und Verstand., Tub. 1808, II Thle. 8vo. Die Moralphilosopliie, Landsh. 1810, 8vo. ; third edition im- proved, Landsh. 1813-14, 2 vols. Socrates oder iiber den neus- ten Gegensatz Zwischen Christenthum und Philos., Sulzhach, 1820, 8vo., etc., etc. An answer to the last appeared under the title of Uber die Kunst Wort' und Nebel zu machen. Ein Sup- plement zu den Philos. Schriften, insbes. zu dem Socrates des Hrn. Salat, Amherg, 1821. Antidogmatism of Schuhe. 401. G. E. Schuhe had exposed in his ^nesidemus the weak parts of the system of Reinhold (§ SS2) : he subsequently conceived a system of Scepticism which he qualified by a new appellation, that of Antidogmatism. He has more than once altered his views and definitions, and his latest opinions approximate in some respects those of Jacobi. His works were : Einige Bemerkungen iiber Kant's Philos. Religionslehre, Kielf 1795, 8vo. Ueber den hochsten Zweck des Studiums d. Philos., Le'ipz. 1789, 8vo. Grundriss der Philos. Wissenschaften, 1788 —90, II B. 8vo. TEnesidem (see § 382), Kritik der Theo- retischen Philosophic, Hamh. 1801, II B. 8vo» Die Haupt- momente der Skeptischen Defikart iiber die menschliche Erkennt- <* Ancillon Mklanges, De Literature et de Philosophie, Paris, 1809, 2 voll. 8vo. Ueber Souveriinitat u. Staatsverfassungen, Berl. 1815, 8. Ueber die Staatswissenschaft, ehend. 1820, 8vo. Ueber Glauben u. Wissen in der Philosophie, ehend. 1824. Ueber Vermittlung der Extreme, ehend. 1828, 8vo. « Clodius, Grundriss der Allgem. Religionslelue, Leipz. 1818, 8vo. Von Gott. in d. Natur, in d. INIenschengeschiche u. im Bewusstseyn, II Thle. Leipz, 1818-19, 8vo. ; III Th. oder II Theiles II Abth. 1820, 8vo. 462 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. niss ; in Boutei-wek's Museum, III B. II Heft. Grundsatze der Allgemeinen Logik, Helmst. 1802, IV verb. Aufl. 1822. Leitfaden der Entwickelung, etc. Herbart. 402. J. F. Herbartf a professor at Konigsberg, la- boured to recal philosophy from the pursuit of psycho- logical investigations, and proposed a system of Meta- physics Avhich in some respects resembled that of the Eleatae. Stiedenroth ^ adopted certain of his opinions respecting the faculties of the soul. Philosophical works of Herbart : Ub. Philos. Studium, Gott. 1807, 8vo. AUgemeine prakt. Philosophic, Gott. 1808, 8vo. Hauptpuncte der Metaphysik, Gott. 1808, 8vo. Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der specul. Psychologic, im Konigsb. Archiv. fur Philosophic, Kbnigsb. 1811- 12. Bemerkungen ub. d. ersten Ursachen, welche das Einver- standniss ub. d. ersten Griinde der prakt. Philos. erschweren, eine Abhandl. in den nachgclassenen philos. Shcriften von Chr. Jac. Kraus, Konigsh. 1812, 8vo. Theoriae de attractione Ele- mentorum Principia Metaphysica, sect. I, II, Regiom. 1812, 8vo. Lehrbuch z. Einleitung in die Philosophic, Konigsh. 1813, 8vo. ; II schr verm. Ausg. ehend. 1821. Lehrb. zur Psychologic, Ko- nigsh. u. Leipz. 1816. Ueber das Bose, Konigsh. 1819, 8vo. De attentionis m.ensura causisque primariis. Psychologiae Prin- cipia Statica et Mechanica cxemplo illustraturus, etc., Regiom. 1822, 4to. Ueber die Moglichkeit und Nothwcndigkeit Ma- thematik auf Psychologic anzuwenden, Konigsh. 1822, 8vo. Psychologic als Wisscnschaft, neu gegriindet auf Erfahrung u. Mathematik, II Thle., ehend. 1824, f. AUgemeine Metaphysik nebst den Anfangen d. Philos. Naturlehre. Erster Histor. krit. Theil. Konigsh. 1828. Schleiermacher, 403. F. Schleiermacher %^ a well-known theologian, em- ployed himself in perfecting, with some originality, the ^ Ernst. Stiedenroth, Theorie des Wissens mit besonderer R'licksicht auf Skepticismus, etc., G'dU. 1819, 8vo. Psychologie zur Erkliir. d. Seelenerschei- nungen, II Thle. Konigsb. 1824-25. e Professor of Theology at Berlin. Born at Breslaw, 1768. 402—404.] PHILOSOPHY OF SENTIMENT. 463 departments of Moral Philosophy which bear upon the subjects of Ethics and Religion. In his works thus in- tended to combine philosophy with religion it will be thought by many that religion has lost much, without any thing being gained by philosophy. Schleiermacher has also distinguished himself by his Kritik der Moral^, and by some investigations relative to the History of Phi- losophy. His translation of Plato, enriched with intro- ductory observations on each Dialogue, has been already noticed (§ 129, bibl.). His philosophical works were : Schleiermacher, Uber die Religion. Reden an die Gebil- dctcn unter iliren Verachteni (at first anonym.), Berl. 1799 ; III verm. Ausg. 1821, 8vo. Monologen ; eine Neujahrsgabe, III Ausg. Berl. 1822, 8vo. Der Christliche Glaube nach den Gnindsatzen der ev. Kirche im Zusammenhange dargestellt, II B., Berl. 1821, 8vo. ; II Ausg. Systems allied to the Critical School. 404-. Two disciples of this school have distinguished themselves by their endeavours to illustrate and extend its doctrines : i^Lrw^', by proposing them under the form of a new system which he denominates a Transcendental Synthetism ; and Fries, by an attempt to render more complete the investigations of Kant by means of a new Criticism of Pure Reason. The system of Krug con- tains a new arrangement of the Metaphysical world, and appears to add little to that of Kant, except a superior degree of obscurity. Several of Krug's works have been already quoted, to which may be added : Entwurf eines neuen Organons der Philosophic, il/ej^^ew, 1801, Svo. Ueber die Methoden des Philosophirens u. die Systeme der Philosophic, ehend. 1802, 8vo. Fundamentalphilosophie, '' Giuncllinien einer Kritik der bisherig. Sittenlehre, Berl. 1803, Svo. j (se- cond edition?) ' VV. Tr. Khtg, born 1770 ; a professor at Leipsic. 464 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Zullich. u. Freyst. 1803 ; III verb. Aufl. 1828, (his chef- d'oeuvre). System der Theoretischen Philosophic, (I Th. Den- klehre. II Erkenntnisslehre oder Metaphysik. Ill Geschmacks- lehre oder ^Esthetik.), Konigsh. 1806 — 10 ; III verb. Aufl. 1825, III Th. System der prakt. Philos. (I Rechtslehre. II Tugeiidlehre. Ill Religionslehre), ehend. 1817 — 19, (to be had also separately). Handbuch der Philosophic, third edition, 1828. Fries, 405. J. Fr. Fries (born 1773, a professor at Jena), at- tempted an improvement of Moral Philosophy by means of Philosophical Anthropology^ founding his system, as Kant had done, on investigations respecting the faculties of the human mind. He approached the opinions of Ja- cob! in those points on which he departed from the doc- trines of Kant, of whose system he principally admired the practical department. His anthropological theories of Logic, Practical Philosophy, Ethics, and Religious Philosophy, contain many original ideas, too often ex- pressed with little precision or regard to order. His opinions were adopted and systematised by F, CalJcer^f with the addition of a new phraseology; and were applied to theology by De Wette, sl professor at Basle. Among the writings of Fries were, (besides some controversial works already referred to, § 389) : System der Philosophic als evidente Wissenschaft, Leipz, 1804, 8vo. Philosophische Rechtslehre u. Kritik allcr posit. Gesetz- gcbung, Jena, 1804, 8vo. Wissen, Glauben u. Ahnung., Jen. 1805. Neue Kritik der Vernunft, Heidelh. 1807, HI B. 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1828. System der Logik, ehend. 1811 :. II Aufl. 1819, 8vo. Allojem. staatsrechtl, Ansichten, 1816, 8vo. Vertheidi- k A professor at Bonn, published : Urgesetzlehre des AYahren, Guten u. Schonen, Ber/. 1820, 8vo. Propadeutik der Philos. I Heft: IMethodologie der Philos. Bonn, 1821, II Heft ; System der Philos. in tabellarischer Ueber- sicht, ehend. 1820, 4to. Ueber die Bedeutung der Philos., Berl. 1818, 8vo. Denklehre od. Logik u. Dialektik, nebst e. Abrisse der Gesch. ders, Bonn, 1822, 8vo. 405, 406.] PHILOSOPHY OF SENTIMENT. 463 gung meincr Lehre von der Sinnesanschauung gegen die Angrifte des Hrn. Dr. Enist. Reiiihold, Jena, 1819, 8vo. Handbuch dor allg. Etliik u. Pliilos. Moral, ebend. 1818, 8vo. Handbuch der psychol. Anthropologic, etc. II B., Jena^ 1820-21, 8vo. Die Mathem. Naturphilos. nach Philos. Methode bearbeitet. Ein Versuch, etc., Heidclb. 1822, 8vo. Julius u. Evagoras od. d. Schtinheit der Seele ; ein Philos. Roman. II B., ebend. 1822. Die Lehren der Liebe, des Glaubens u. d. HofFnung oder Haupt- satze der Tugendlehre u. Glaubcnslehre, ebend. 1823, 8vo. Po- lem. Schriften. I Th., Halle, 1824, 8vo. System der Metaphy- sik. Ein Handbuch fiir Lehrer u. zum Selbstgebrauch, He'idelb. 1824, 8vo. Systems originating in the Theory of Identity, 406. C. A, Eschenmayer (a professor at Tubingen), proposed a system more mystical still than that of Schel- ling, to which on many points it was opposed ; as was also the Mathematical Philosophy of J. Wagner (a pro- fessor at Wurzburg), who in some respects approached the reveries of Lulli and Bruno. F. Krauze (formerly a professor at Jena), in various publications, for the most part unfinished, has proposed some original ideas, differ- ing from those of Schelling principally as relates to the nature of the Godhead. To these opinions he has added a new arrangement of the subject-matter of Moral Philosophy in general. Eschenmayer's principal works : Die Philosophic in ihrem Ubergange zur Nichtphilosophie, Erlang. 1803. Einleitung in die Natur und Geschichte, Erl. 1806, 8vo. Psychologic in drei Theilen, als empirische, reine u. angewandte, Stuttg. u. Tiib. 1817, 8vo. ; II Aufl. 1822, ebend. Religionsphilosophie, I Th. Rationalismus, Tub. 1818 ; II Th. Mysticismus, ebend. 1822 ; III Th. Supematuralismus od. d. Lelire von der OfFenbarung des A. u. N. T. 1824, 8vo. System der Moralphilosophie, Stuttg. u. Tiib. 1818. Normalrecht (Na- turrecht.) II Th. ebend. 1819, 8vo. Wagner : System der Idealphilosophie u. a. s. oben S. 523, not. ^. Programm. iiber das Wesen der Philosophic, Bamb. 1804, 8vo. Journal f. W. u. Kunst. I Heft., Leipz. 1805. Von der Philos. u. Medizin, Wiirzb. 1805. Theodicee, Bamb. 1810, 8vo. Grundriss der Staatswissensch. u. Politik. Leipz. 1805, 8vo. Mathematische Philos., Erl. 1811. Krause : Diss, de Philosophiae et Matheseos notione et earum Hh 466 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. intima conjunctione, Jena, 1802. System der Sittenlehre I Band, Wissenschaftl. Begriindung der Sittenlehre, Le'ipz. 1810, (un- finished). Das Urbild der Menschheit, Dresd. 1811 ; II Aufl. 1819, 8vo. Tagblatt des Menschheitlebens, ehend. 1811, 4to. Oratio de scientia humana, Berol. 1814, 8vo. Abriss des Sys- tems der Philos. I Abth., Gbtt. 1825, 8vo. Abriss des Systems der Logik. II Ausg. ehend. 1828. Abriss des Systems der Rechtsphilos. ehend. 1828. Vorlesungen iiber das System der Philos., ehend. 8vo. Most recent Philosophical Systems. 407. It will be sufficient to enumerate here the most recent German metaphysicians, with their principal works. G. W. F. HegeP (a professor at Berlin), whose system is one of Absolute Idealism ; F, C, Weise ^ ; W. Kern " ; J, von Sinclair ° ; K. L. Vorpahl p ; A. Kayssler "^ (died 1822); and Z>. T. A, Suabedissen^ \ to whom must be added the names of Gr'dvell, Linkmaier, Schopenhauer, Von Berger, Tief trunk (of whom above, § 380), Beneke, Keyserlingk, Gerlach, Sigwartj Hillebrand, etc. ®. • Hegel's System der Wissenschaft. Erster Theil, die Phanomenologie des Geistes, Bamh. u. Wurzh. 1807, 8vo. Wissenschaft der Logik, I u. II B. die objective, III B. die subjective (mit bes. Titel : Wiss. der subj. Logik oder die Lehre von Begriff) enthaltend, N'urnb. 1812 — 16, 8vo. Encyklopa- die der Philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse, etc., Heidelb, 1817, 8vo. J 11 Ausg. 1827. Grundlinien der Philos. des Rechts (oder Naturrecht und Staatswiss. im Grundrisse), Berl. 1821, 8vo. ; (see also § 395). ™ Weise, die Architektontik aller menschlichen Erkenntnisse nach ihren neuen Fundamenten, zu Gewinnung des Friedens in der Fhilos., Heidelb. 1812, fol. ; 111 vollendete A. Heidelb. 1815, fol. " Kern's Katharonoologie, oder: Wie ist Reinmathematik moglichl G'ott. (1812), 8vo. <• Sinclair's Wahrheit u. Gewissheit, Frcft. 1811 ; III B. Versuch einer durch Metaphysik bedingten Physik., Frcft. 1813, 8vo. P Vorpahl's Versuche fiir die Vervollkommung der Philos. Erster, zvveiter u. dritter Vers., Bed. 1811 ; und. Philosophic oder Grundriss eines dynara. Lehrgebaudes derselben, Berl. 1818, 8vo. 1 Kayssler's Grundsatze der theoret. u. prakt. Philosophic, als Leitfaden zu Vorles. Breslau u. Halle, 1812, 8vo. •■ Suabedissen's Betrachtung des Menschen, I u. II Bd. Betrachtung des geistigen Lebens des Menschen, Cassel, 1815, 111 B, * Gravell: Der Mensch. Eine Untersuchung fiir gebildete Leser, Berl. 407, 408.] GREAT BRITAIN. 4G7 On the subject (connected with philosophical specu- lations) of Reason as applied to Revealed Religion, and of free-will as influenced by Divine Grace, it may be sufficient to refer to the publications of Kdhler, Schleiermacher , De Witte, and Bockshammer^, Philosophical Writers of Great Britain. 408. In Great Britain the principles of Locke have continued to preserve their influence, modified by the particular views of each of his disciples. Among the most eminent of these were T. Brown"^, and Dugald 1815; III Aufl. 1819, 8vo. Der Burger, eine weitere Untersuchung lib. d. Menschen, ehend. 1822. Der Werth der Mystik. Nachtrag zu Ewalds Briefen, etc. Leipz. 1822, 8vo. Der Regent, etc., II Thle., Stuttg. 1823. LiNKMAiER Lehrgebaude der allgem. Wahrheit nach der gesunden V^ern., I Thl. Ontol. u. Kosmol., II Aufl., Bielefeld, 1821 ; II Thl., Anthropol. 1823. Schopenhauer : die Welt als Wille u. Vorstellung : vier Biicher, nebst einem Anhange, der die Kritik der Kantischen Philosophie enthalt, Leipz. 1819, 8vo. Von Berger's Allgemeine Grundziige der Wissenschaft, Altona, 1817 — 1827, 8vo. (I Th. Analyse des Erkenntnissvermbgens. II Thl. zur Philos. Naturkentniss. Ill Thl. Anthropologic, 8. IV Th. prakt. Philos.) Beneke's Erfahrungsseelenlehre, als Grundlage alles Wissens in ihren Hauptziigen dargestellt, Berl. 1820, 8vo. Erkeuntnisslehre nach dem Be- wusstseyn der reinen Vernunft in ihren Grundziigen dargelegt, Jena, 1820, 8vo. De veris Philos. initiis, 1820, 8vo. Grundlegung zur Physik der Sit- ten, e. Gegenst. zu Kant's Grundl. der Metaph. d. S. mit e. Anh. iib. d. Wesen. u. d. Erkenntnissgriinzen der Vern. Berl. u. Posen, 1822. Keyserlingk, Entwurf einer vollst. Theorie der Anschauungsphilos. Hei- delb. 1822, 8vo. Gerlach, Grundriss der Fundamentalphilos. Halle, 1816, der Logik, ehend. 1817; II verb. Aufl. 1823; der Metaphysik, etend. 1817 ; der Religionslehre, ehend. 1818, 8vo. Slow ART, Handb. der theor. Philos., Tub. 1820. HiLLEBRAND, Propiideutik der Philos. (I Abth. Encyklopadie. II S.) Hdelb. 1819. Grundriss d. Logik u. Phil. Vorkenntnisslehre, ehend. 1820, 8vo. Die Anthropologic als Wissenschaft. Ill Thle. Mainz, 1822-23, 8vo. ' LuDw. Aug. Kahler's Supernaturalismus u. Rationalismus in ihrem Urspr., etc., Leipz. 1818. Die Abhandlungen Schleiermacher's u. d. Wette's iib. d. Lehre von der Erwiihlung, etc. in d. theol. Zeitschr. derselb. I u. II Heft., Berl. 1819-20. Gust. Ferd. Bockshammer die Freiheit des m. Willens, Stuttg. 1821, 8vo ; and, OflTenbarung u. Theologie, ehend. 1822. " Brown, Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind. II h 2 468 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. Stewart^ i recently dead, who assumes as the foundation of his Philosophy of the Human Mind, the phenomena of Consciousness. Speculative Philosophy has been alto- gether neglected by the English, and Practical treated principally with a reference to general Politics ^, The very name of Philosophy has received among them a private and improper signification, being applied to Po- litical investigations, or to researches in Natural History. Their national pride has at all times inclined them to con- cern themselves little about the philosophical pursuits of other nations, and, with few exceptions, they have at- tempted nothing by the path of abstruse and painful re- search. In consequence, they continue to know little of the labours of the philosophers of Germany, and are very imperfectly acquainted even with the system of Kant ^ Philosophers of France , Italy ^ and other countries. M. Ph. Damiron, Essai sur I'Hist. de la Philos. en France en XIX siecle. Paris, II ed. 1828, 8vo. 409. The superficial philosophy of France preserved, from the time of Condillac, a constant direction towards Empiricism, which the ingenious theosophist and mystic St. Martin ^, the disciple of J. B'ohm and of Martinet * DxTGALD Stewart, Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, second edition, Edinb. 1816, 8vo. ; (the Supplement to the Encyclopcrdia Bri- tannica contains a valuable review, written by him, of the progress of Meta- physical and Political Science). Philosophical Essays, second edition, Edinb. 1816. y For instance : John Craig, Elements of Political Science, Edinb. 18J4, 3 vols. 8vo. Jerem. Bentham, various political publications. 2 See, however, Wirgman, Principles of the Kantesian or Transcendental Philosophy, etc., Lond. 1824; and. An Entire New, Complete, and Perma- nent Science of Philosophy, founded on Kant's Critice of Pure Reason, ibid. 1824, 8vo. See also the works of Nitsch and Willich, mentioned § 380, note. * Louis Claude Saint-Martin, born at Amboise 1743, died 1804. Des Erreurs et de la V6rit6, Lyon, 1775, 8vo. Tableau Naturel des Rapports qui existent entre Dieu, I'Homme, et TUnivers, 1782, 2 vols. 8vo. De I'Esprit des Choses, 1800, 2 vols. 8vo. etc. 4 409.] FRANCE, ITALY, ETC. 409 PasqualiSi in vain endeavoured to counteract. The sys- tem of Gall and Spurzeim found a more easy accept- ance. Of the metaphysicians of this period we may enumerate Degerando^, St. Pierre'', Rapin'^, Cabanis'', and the Comte Destutt de Tracy, celebrated for his sys- tem of Ideology ^. To these may be added Laromiguiere^, A^dis^\ Garat, Volney, Fahre D' Olivet, and Chateau- briand ; while to another school which opposed the prin- ciples of theology to those of materialism, belonged the Comte J. Demaistre, De la Mennais, Bonald, etc. The Kantian system had been made known to his countrymen by C Fillers, (§ 380, note^), and ex- cited a degree of attention which from feeble begin- nings has gradually acquired more and more strength under the patronage of the celebrated translator of Plato, and editor of Proclus, Victor Cousin ' ,- whose researches set out with the ** Interrogation meditative de la Conscience." To the same party belong Berard, Virey, Maine de Biran, Roger Collard, Jouffroy Keratry, B, Massias ^, Dros ^, and the Swiss philosopher Bonstet- •» Degerando, Histoire Compar6e des Systemes de la Philosophies (see $ 37, note '^). c J. B. H. DE Saint-Pierre, Etudes de la Nature, Paris, 1784 ; and, Harmonies de la Nature, Paris, 1815. (Euvres, Paris, 1820, 16 vols. 8vo. *i Rapin, Pensees sur la Nature de I'Esprit, 1793, 8vo. « P. J. G. Cabanis, Rapports du Physique et du Moral de rHomme, Paris, 1802, 8vo. ' Destutt de Tracy, Elemens d'Ideologie, Paris, 1801 — 1804, 2 vols. Bvo. ; fourth edition, 1824. He also wrote a commentary on the vi'ork of Montesquieu, Paris, 1819, 8vo. s Laromiguiere, Lefons de Philosophic, ou Essai sur les Facultes de I'^me, Paris, 1815-18 ; second edition, 1820, 2 vols. 8vo. *» AzAis, Cours de Philosophic Generale, ou Explication Simple et Gra- duelle de tous les Faits de I'Ordre Physique, de I'Ordre Physiologique, de rOrdre Intellectuel, Moral, et Politique, Paris, 1824, 8 vols. 8vo. ' Cousin, Fragmens Philosophiques, Paris, 1826. '' Massias, Rapport de la Nature a I'llomme et de I'Honime a la Nature, ou Essai sur I'lnstinct, Intelligence, et la Vie, tom. I — IV. Paris, 1821 — 22. Principe de Litterature, de Philosophic, de Politique, et de Morale, tom. I, Paris, 1826, 8vo. ' Droz, de la Philos. jNIoralc, ou des dift'erents Systemes sur la Science de la Vie, Parts, 1823, 8vo. 470 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. ten ^, In the department of Natural Science Joyaud and AUx have distinguished themselves by treatises on the elementary principles of Nature °. Since the days of O. B. Vico° and his contemporary A, Genovese^, the Italians have produced little that is original in philosophy *i, and contented themselves with the cultivation of certain particular departments of it as applied to practical purposes ; e. g. G. Filangieri "^ and the Marchese di Beccaria^, who wrote on the subject of Legislation. Others contented themselves with adopting the views of foreigners*. Of late they have become better acquainted with the system of Kant and the labours of the German philosophers, and particularly on the subject of Esthetics ". ™ Ch. Vict, de Bonstetten, Etudes de THomme, ou Recherches sur les Facultes de Sentir et de Penser : he had before published Recherches sur la Nature et les Loix de I'lmagination, 2 vols. Genev. 1807. " Cl. Joyaxtd, Principes Naturels ou Notions Generales et Particulieres des Forces vivantes Primordiales, etc., 4 vols. 8vo. J. A. Fr. Alix, Nov. Systeme de I'Univers. A Germ, trans. Francf. 1817, 8vo. J. B. Vice, born at Naples, 1660 ; died 1744. De Antiquisim&, Italorum Sapientia lib. iii. Neapol. 1710, 12mo. An Italian Translation of his Metaphysics by Monti, Milan, 1816. De uno universi Juris Principio etfine uno, Neapol. 1720, 4to. Liber alter qui est de Constantia Jurisprudentis, ibid. 1721. His principal work was: Principi della Scienza nuova d'Intorno alia Commune natura delle Nazioni, Nap. 1725, second edition, 1730 ; third, entirely remodelled, Nap. 1744, 8vo., and follow- ing years: the seventh edition by Galotti, (Nap. 1817,) is a reprint of the first. P Born, 1712 ; died 1769. 1 The following works have however appeared : Ermenegildo Pino, Protologia analysin Scientiae sistens ratione primS, exhibitam, vol. I — III, Medial, 1803, 8vo. C^sARis Baldinotti Tentarainum Metaphysicorum, lib. Ill, Pataxj. 1817, 8vo. '^ Gaetano Filangieri, born at Naples, 1752 ; died 1788. La Scienza della Legislazione, 8 vols. Nap. 1780, 8vo. (various editions). s C.iisARE BoNESADO, maichesc di Beccaria, died 1793 : Dei delitti et delle pene. Nap. 1764, 8vo. ' The Ideology of Destutt de Tracy has been translated (Milan, 1817) : See also a CoUezione di C.'assici, Pavia, 1819 — 22. " Sacchi, of Pavia, has translated the works of Kant; and Pasquali Galappi has published Saggio Filosofico suUa Critica della Conoscenza, Napoli, 1819, 8vo, ; and Elementi de Filosofia, V tomi, Messina, 1821 — 27, 409.1 FRANCE, ITALY, ETC. 471 The work of Appiano Buofiafede on the History of Philosophy has been ah-eady mentioned (§ 37, d.). In Holland, Sweden ^y and Denmark, we meet occa- sionally with instances of a capacity for philosophical pursuits, but rarely with traces of the originality of the German school. Among the Dutch the system of Kant found, as we have had occasion to show (§ 380) many supporters. Political circumstances, no less than the dissensions existing in the school of that philosopher, appear to have impeded its progress in that country. Among those who cultivated German philosophy and adopted one or other of its systems, may be enumerated Van Hemert, D. Wyttenhachi and F. Hemsterhuis^ . The other continental nations of Eastern Europe have become acquainted with German philosophy, princi- pally in consequence of the residence of their youth at the universities of that country^. A knowledge of the same appears by this time to have penetrated even to the Brazils ^. 8vo. On JLsthetics : Giov. B. Talia, Saggio di Estetica. Venezia, 1822, 8vo. To which may be added a translation of A. W. Schlegel's Lectures on the Drama, by Geminiani. ^ Prof. Sam. Grabbe, Animadversiones in Constructionem Materiae Schel- lingianam, part I, Upsal. 1818, 4to. Prof. Nic. Fr. Biberg, Notionum Ethicarum, quas formales dicunt, dialexis critica, P. I, Upsal. 1823, 4to. y D. WyxTENBAcii, died 1820. See § 380, notes, towards the end. He also wrote Prscepta Philosophiae Logical, (applied to the Classics), edited by Eberhard, Halle, 1784, and Maas, 1820, 8vo. F. Hemsterhuis, born 1720; died 1790. Sophyle, ou de la Philosophie. — Aristee, ou de la Divinite. See his Philosophical Works, Paris, 1792, 8vo. (French) ; second edition, ibid. 1809, 2 vols. 8vo. * SiGisM. Carlowsky, Logic, A'asc/iajf, 1819. JoH. RozGONY, Aphorisrai Psychologia) Rationalis perpetu^ Philosophiae Criticae ratione habits, St. Patak. 1819, 8vo. J. E. Jankowsky, (a professor at Cracow), Logic, (in Polish), 1822. For the philosophical labours of the Poles see the Gbtt. gel. Anz. St. 205, 1822. J. GoLUCHOwsKY (a partisan of Schelling's theory) Die Philosophie in ihrem Verhiiltniss zu dem Leben ganzer Volker, etc., Erlung. 1822, 8vo. See (Russia) Essais Philosophiques sur I'Homme, ses Principaux Rapports et sa Destin^e, etc., par L. H. de Jacob, Halle, 1818, 2 vols. nouv. edit, augmentee, Pttershourg, 1822. * The Critical Philosophy is now taught there in the college of St. Paul's. See Zschocke's wochenll. Unterhaltungsblatter, Aarnu, 1824, St. 3. 472 THIRD PERIOD. [sect. 410. Conclusion. 410. The vast variety of contradictory attempts destruc- tive of each other, to which the spirit of philosophical re- search has in modern times given birth, may appear to throw suspicion on the cause itself, and to discourage the very idea of the possibility of a satisfactory solution of the problems proposed, by the discovery of a theory of knowledge, based on firm and immutable principles. The Critical system itself has failed to check, as it undertook to do, the daring flight of Speculation, or to disarm Scep- ticism ; and has had the effect of affording them renewed strength and more lofty pretensions. Nevertheless these discordant essays ought to inspire us with the hope that sooner or later Reason will attain to complete self-know- ledge ; that she will be enabled to detect, by gradual advances, the true method of philosophical research, and be taught by the experience of past ages to avoid the shoals and rocks on which so many adventurous thinkers have been stranded. Possibly a time may come when those very modes of thinking which now appear to us deviations from the true path, may be discovered to have been nothing but the necessary steps of Reason in her gradual progress to true cultivation and genuine wisdom. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE FOR THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY FROM THE TIME OF THALES. I B.C. 640 630 629 611 608 598 597 584 561 557 548 547 207 543 211 540214 536218 504 250 Rome 114 116 125 143 146 156 157 170 193 197 206 Olyinp. 500 496 494 490 489 480 472 470 469 460 254 258 260 264 265 274 282 284 285 284J 35,1 35,3 38 42,2 43,1 45,3 45,4 49 55,1 bQ 58,1 58,2 57,2 60 61 69 70,1 71,1 71,3 72,3 72,4 75,1 77 77,3 77,4 80 Thales born, ac. to Apollodorus. Solon born. Thales bom, ac to Meiners. Anaximander born. Pythagoras born, ac. to Larcher. Solon published his laws. Pherecydes born about the same time. Thales foretold an eclipse. Pythagoras born, ac. to Meiners. Solon died. Anaximenes flourished. Thales died. Anaximander died. Thales died, ac. to some. Pherecydes died. Pythagoras founded a school at Croto. Xenophanes settled at Elea. Pythagoras died. Parmenides flourished, ac. to some. Anaxagoras and Philolaus bom. Heraclitus and Leucippus flourished. Anaximenes died. Ocellus Lucanus flourished. Democritus bom. Battle of Marathon. Pythagoras died, ac. to some. Battle of Salamis. Diogenes of Apollonia flourished. Democritus bom, ac. to Thrasyllus. Socrates bom. Parmenides flourished. Parmenides came from Elea to Athens with Zeno. Democritus bom, ac. to Apollodorus. Empcdoclcs flourished, ac. to some. 474 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. 456 450 444 442 432 431 430 429 428 427 414 407 404 400 389 384 380 Olymp. 364 361 360 356 348 343 340 339 337 336 335 324 323 322 320 316 314 313 305 300 Rome 298 81 Anaxagoras repaired to Athens. 304 82,3 Xenophon born. 310 84 Melissus. Gorgias wrote his treatise rie&t <^v-. Fardella died. P. Poiret and Rich. Cumberland died. Bonnet born. I CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 487 A. C. Geriuan Eniperuis. 1721 Hiiet died. 1722 Boulainvilliers died. 1723 Ad. Smith bom. 1724 Wollaston died. Kant born. 1727 Newton died. 1728 Chr. Thomasius and Thiimmig died. 1729 Sam. Clarke, Collins, Gundling, and Fr. Buddeus died. And. Riidiger died. 1731 J. Priestley born. Mandeville died. 1733 W. Derham died. 1735 Le Clerc died. 1736 Charles VII. 1740 Frederic II. King of Prussia. 1742 Garve born. 1743 Jacobi bom. 1744 Baptist Vico and Joachim Lange died. Platner born. 1745 Francis I. 1747 Fr. Hutcheson died. 1748 De Crouzaz and Bourlamaqui died. 1750 Bilfinger died. 1751 La Mettrie died. 1752 Hansch died. 1754 Berkeley and Christ. Wolf died. 1755 Montesquieu died. 1756 1757 David Hartley died. 1758 Ch. Reinhold bom. 1759 Maupertuis died. 1762 Alex. Baumgarten died. Fichte born. 1765 Joseph II. Herm. Sam. Reimarus died. 1766 Thomas Abbt and Gottsched died. 1769 Gellert died. 1770 "W inckler, D'Argens, and Formey died. 1771 Helvetius died. 1772 J. Ulr. Cramer died. 1774 Q.uesnay died. 1775 Crusius and Walch died. Schelling born. 1776 Hume died. 1777 Meier and Lambert died. 1778 Voltaire and Rousseau died. 1779 Sulzer died. 1780 Condillac and Batteux died. 1781 Emesti and Lessing died. 1782 Henrv Home and Iselin died. 488 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A. C. 1783 1784 1785 1786 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1796 1798 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1806 1808 1809 1812 1813 1814 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1828 German Emperors. French Revolu- tion. Leopold II. Francis II. D'Alembert died. Diderot died. Baumeister and De Mably died. Mendelssohn died. Hamann and Filangieri died. A. Smith, F. Hemsterhuys and Basedow d. Rich. Price, Daries, and Nettelbladt died. Bonnet, Moritz, and Beccaria died. Th. Reid died. Garve died. Sol. Maimon died. Heidenreich and Irving died. Eno;el died. J. Beattie and Herder died. Kant, Jos. Priestley, and Saint-Martin d. Tiedemann died. Bardili died. J. A. Eberhard, Steinbart, and Thos. Payne died. K. Chr. E. Schmid died. Jo. A. H. Ulrich died. Fichte died. Ferguson died. De Dalberg died. Platner and Campe died. Jacobi and Solger died. Wyttenbach and Klein died. Feder and Buhle died. Eschenmayer died. Reinhold and Maass died. D. Stewart and Bouterwek died. ^iri UB^ ^/ INDEX. [the numbers refer to the pages.] Abano, Peter, 251. Abbt, Thos. 369. Abelard, Peter, 229. Abicht, J. H. 415, 457. Academies, Ancient, 110 — 119. New, 119—151. Platonic, at Florence, 267. Achenwall, Gottfd. 365. Achillinus, Alex. 275. Acontius, Jac. 264. Adelung, J. C. 20. Adrastus, 168. ^desius, 198, ^gidius Colonna, 246, 249. ^neas of Gaza, 199. -Snesidemus, see Schulze, 173. ^schines, Socratic, 97. Agricola, Rudolph, 263. Agrippa the Sceptic, 174. of Nettesheim, 264, 270. Akibha, Rabbi, 182. Alain de Ryssel, 231. Albert the Great, 241. Alberti, Valen. 305, 319, 350. Albinus, 171. Alcinous, 171. Alcmaeon, 68. Alcuin, 216,224. D'Alembert, 339. Alexander Achillinus, 275. of ^gaj, 168. of Aphrodisias, 168. of Hales, 232. ■ , see Alexandrists. Alexandrians, see New Platonisti. Alexandrists, 273. Alexinus, 106. Alkendi, 236. Alfarabi, 236. Algazel, 237. Alison, 385. Alix, 470. Amafanius, 163. Amalric, or Amauric de Bene, 232, Amelias, 195. Ammonius, 202. Saccas, 186. of Alexandria, the Peri- patetic, 169, 186. Anaxagoras, 82. Anaxarchus of Abdera, 81. Anaxilaus, 170. Anaximander, 60. Anaximenes, 61. Ancillon. (Father), 25, 359. F. 461, 316. Andreae Antonius, 249. Valent. 272. Andala, 322. Andronicus, 168. Aneponymus, Geo. 123, 233. Anniceris, 103. Anselm of Canterbury, 226. of Laon, 226. Antiochus, 154. Antipater of Sidon, 143, 154. Antisthenes, 99. Antoninus, M. Aurel. 166. Apollodorus, 140. Apollonius of Tyana, 169. Apono, Pet. ab, 251. Apuleius, Luc. 171. Arabians, 234. Sects of Arabian Philosophers, 238. Archelaus of Miletus, 84. Archytas of Tarentum, 69. Arete, 101. 490 INDEX. D'Argens, Marq. 349. Argyropulus, J. 262. Aristaeus of Croto, 68. Aristeas, 179. Aristippus, 98, 101. Metrodidactus, 101. Aristo of Ceos, 133. Aristobolus the Peripatetic, 179. Aristocles, 168. Aristotle, 108. 's Works, 122, 215, 241, 273. Aristotelians, school of Aristotle, see Peripatetics. Aristoxenus, 132. Arcesilaus, 152, 108. Arnauld, Ant. 320, 330, 346. Arnobius, 205. Arnold of Villa Nova, 251. Arrian, 166. Asclepiades, 202. Asclepigenia, 202. Asclepiodotus, 202. Assariah, or Fatalists, 239. Ast, Fred. 21, 50, 56, 109, 451. Athenagoras, 207. Athenodorus of Tarsus, 165. Atomistic Philosophy, 50, 58, 78. Epicur. 138, 302. Atticus, T. PomponiuSj 163. Attic Philosophy, 90. Atticus the Platonist, 186. Aufidius, Bassus, 163. Augustine, St. 213, 205. Augustinus Niphus, 274. Averroes, 237. Averroists, 273. Avicenna, 236. Axiothea, 118. Azais, 469. Baader, Franz. 413, 414, 450. Bachmann, Fr. 2, 10, 22, 452. Bacon, Fran. 295, 280, 292. , Roger, 249. Baier, J. 313. Baldlnotti, Ces. 470. Barbeyrac, J. 26, 211, 351. Barclay, John, 296. Bardisanes, 184. Bardili, Christ. God. 26, 69, 274, 456. Basedow, J. Bernh. 394, 398. Basilides the Epicurean, 140. the Stoic, 165. the Gnostic. 184. Basso, Sebast. 302, 124. Bassus Aufidius, 163. Batteux, Ch. 386, 398, 26, 69, 83, 101, 136. Baumeister, Fr. Chr. 377, 360. Baumgarten, Alex. Gottl. 377, 369. , Crusius, 159, 228. Bayle, Pierre, 348, 17, 19, 314, 343. Beattie, James, 382, 339. Beausobre, 184, 393. Beccaria, M. di, 470. Beck, Jac. Sig. 415, 423, 424, 425. Becker, 320, 321, 314. Bede the Venerable, 216. Ben David, Ear. 49, 415, 418. Beneke, F. E. 467. Bentham, Jerem. 468. Berenger of Tours, 225. Berg, Franz. 457. Berger, Imman. 25. , J. E. 467. Berigard, CI. G. de, 302, 277. Berkeley, Ge. 344, 345, 346. Bernard of Clairvaux, 232. Berosus, 46. Bessarion, 263. Bias, see Seven Sages. Biel, Gab. 255. Bilfinger, G . Bern. 376, 42, 359, 362. Bio of Borysthenis, 102. Blasche, B. H. 451. Blemmydes, Niceph.233, 123. Bluet, 346. Bodin, John, 280. Bodmer, W. R.389. Boeckh, 66, 69, 110, 116. Bockshammer, G. E. 467. Bbhm, Jac. 312, 333. INDEX. 491 Boethius, 208, 215. ,Dan. 2, 13, 92, 157. Boetie. Eli. la, 290. Bonaventura, John, 243. Bonnet, 339, 379, 387. Bonstellen, Ch. 470. Born, G. 415. Bosch, 419. Bossuet, 347. Boulainvilliers, 328, 323. Bouterwek, 58, 178, 185, 402, 453, 455. Brahmins, 41. Bradwardine, see Thomas. Brandis, Christ. Aug. 2, 65, 70, 121. Bredenburg, 328. Bromley, Thos. 333. Brown, Pet. 338. Brucker, 17, 18, 20, 21, 27, 72, 104, 112, 133, 146. Bruno, Giov. 283, 277. Bryso, or Dryso, 107. Buchner, 452. Buddeus, S. F. 365, 18, 26, 27, 48, 53, 141, 147, 167,372. Buhle, J. Gott. 20, 22, 27, 70, 120, 121, 128,235,417. Biilfinger, see BUfinger. Buonafede, App. 20, 22. Buridan, John, 254. Burigny, 169, 200. Burke, Ed. 385. Burlamaqui, J. J. 391. Burleigh, Walter, 249, 253. Cabanis, 469. Cabbala, Cabbalists, 182. 268, 269. Cajetanus, Thos. de Vio, 246. Calanus, 41. Calker, Fr. 464. Callicles, 88, 90. Callipho, 153. Camerarius, Joac. 276. Campanclla, Thos. 297, 307, 299. Carape, John Heinr. 397. Canz, I. Gottl. 376. Capella, Marc. 215. Capito, R. see llobert Grosseieite. Cardan, J. 272, 280. Carlowsky, Sig. 471. Carneades, 143, 152. Carpentarius, see Charpenlier. Carpocrates, 184. Carpzovius, Jo. Benj. 42, 142, 209. Cartesius, or Descartes, 315, 292. Cartesians, 319. Cams, Fred. Aug. 2, 10, 15, 18, 20, 24, 81. Cassiodorus, 215. Casmann, Otto, 278. Cassius, C. 163. Catius, 163. Cato, M. Pore. 164. Cebes the Theban, 98. Celsus, 163. Cerdon the Gnostic, 184. Cerinthus the Gnostic, 184. Cesalpini, And. 277. Chaeremon, 165. Chaldeans, 46. Champeaux, see William. Charleton, Gualt, 137. Charlier, see Gerson. Charpentier, Jac. 278, 122, 123, 124. Charron, Pierre, 290. Chilo, see Seven Sages. Chinese, 42. Chrysanthius, 198. Chrysippus, 141, 144, 150. Church, Fathers of the, 203. Cicero, 161. Clarke, John, 343. , Saml. 342, 343, 353, 362. Clauberg, J. 320. Claudian, 199. Claudianus Mamertinus, 211. Claudius, Matth. 398. Cleanthes of Assos, 142, 148. Clement, St. of Alexandria, 205,209, 210,57. Clerc, J. le. 339, 63, 335, 349. Clerselier, C'laudede, 319. Clinias, 68. Clinomachus, 107. 492 INDEX. Clitomachus, 154. Clodius, 461. Cocejus, J. 321, 364. Collard, Roger, 469. Collier, Arthur, 343, 344. Collins, Ant. 342. Colotes, 140. Comenius, Amos, 312. Condillac, Et. Bonn, de, 339, 386. Condorcet, 339, 391. Confucius, 43. Conring, Hern. 120, 223. Contarini, Gasp. 274. Conz, C. Phil. 28, 164, 165. Cornutus, An. 165. Cousin, Vic. 469. Coward, Will. 342. Craig, Jo. 468. Cramer, Jo. Ulr. 377. Crantor, 119. Crates of Athens (Acad.), 119. of Thebes (the Cynic,) 100. Cratippus, 168. Cremonini, Caes. 275. Crescens, 167. Creuzer, G. Frid. 27, 37, 51, 187. , L. 360, 417. Critias, 90. Critical Method, 33, 403. Idealism, 403. Crito, 98. Critolaus, 133, 143. Cromaziano, A., see Buonafede. Crouzaz,, J. P. de, 350, 370, 372, 103, 362. Crusius, 370, 372. Cudworth, Ralph, 332, 19. Cufaeler, Abr. 328. Cumberland, Rich. 341, 309. Cuper, Franz. 328. Cusanus, see Nicolans. Cynics, 98, 164, 167. Cyrenaics, 98, 101. Dalberg, C. Th. Ant. ^lar, 393. Damascius, 202. Damianus, Pet. 226. Daniel, Gabr. 318. David de Dinant, 232. Darjes, Joach. J. 374, 24, 369, 371. Degerando, 20, 469. DelbrUk, Ferd. 92, 109, 418. Demaistre, J. 469. Demetrius, Phal. 133. Democritus, 81. , school of, 135. Demonax, 167. Derham, Will. 343. Descartes, see Cartesius. Deslandes, A. F. 20. Dessatir, the, 44. Destutt de Tracy, 469, 470. Determinism (Leibnitz), 361. Dexippus, 198. Diagoras of Melos, 81, 90. Dicaearchus, 132. Diderot, Denis, 165. Dietz, Jo. Chr. Fr. 413, 415. Dio Chrysostom, 165. Diodorus Chronus, 106. of Tyre, 133. Diogenes of Apollonia, 61, 84. of Babylon, the Stoic, 143. Laertius, 17, 56, 134, 163. of Tarsus — of Seleucia, 140. of Sinope, the Cynic, 100. Diomenes of Smyrna, 81. Dionysius the Areopagite, 209, 216. Dodwell H. 49, 62, 342. N. 132. Dogmatism, 35. Dorotheus, 142. Domenic of Flanders, 246. Drewes, Ge. 28. Droz, J. 469. Dryso (Bryso), 107. Dualism, 34. Duns Scotus, 247. Durandus, 251. Eberhard, Jo. Aug. 394, 369, 413, 421, 21, 110,203, 352. Eberstein, W. L. G. 24, 223. INDEX. 403 Eclectics, see Alexandrians, 173-. , German, 392. Ecphantus, 68. Eg}'ptians, 47. Eleatic School, 58, 70. Elis, School of, 107. Empedocles, 85. Empiricism, 34. , French, 385. , English, see Sensual- ists. Empiricism, German, 393. Encyclopedists, 389. Engel, J. 114,397. Ephectics, 104. Epicharmus of Cos, 68. Epictetus, 165, 167. Epicurus, 81, 133. Epicureans, 108, 133, 163, 303. Epimenides of Crete, 52. Epochs of the History of Philosophy, 13. Erasmus, 264. Eretria, School of, 107. Erigena, J. S. 224. Ernesti, Jo. Aug. 377. Eschenburg, F. Joach.397. Eschenmayer, E. A. 465, 451. Essenes, 179. Ethnographical Method, 12. Eubulides, 107. Eubulus, 173. Euclid of Megara, 98, 106. Eudemus of Rhodes, 132. Euhemerus, 102. Eunapius, 56, 199. Euphantus, 107. Euphranor, 173. Euphrates, 165. Eusebius, 198. Eustathius, 198. Eustratius, 233. Euthydemus, 90. Euxenus, 170. Evalthus, 89. Evander, 152, Ewald, J. L. 203,419. Faber, or Lefevre, J. 264. Fabricius, Jo. Ab. 24, 141, 179. Fardella, Mich. Ang. 330. Fatalists, 239. Favorinus, 174. Feder, Joh. Ge. H. 354, 396, 413, 421. Fenelon, 23, 323. Ferguson, Ad. 384. Feuerbach, P. J. A. 417. Fichte, Sm. 185. , Jo. Gottl. 425. Ficinus, Mars. 266, 267, 108, 115. Filangieri, Gaet. 470. Fischaber, G.C. F. 438. Flatt, J. Fr. K. Chr. Fr. 59, 413, 416, 423. Fludd, Rob. 312. Flugge,28, 411. Fo, 43. Fonseca, 246. Folioth, Rob. 231. Forberg, K. F. 436. Forge, Louis de la, 319. Formey, 350, 21. Foucher, Sim. 330, 334, 44, 103, 151,362. Francke, Geo. Sara. 25, 324. Franciscus, Geo. Venetus, 269. , Patrizzi, 282. , Mayronis, 249. Freigius, Thorn. 278. Freitag, Jo. 302. Frederic the Great, 394. Fries, Jac. 417, 418, 423, 464. Frischlin, Nic. 278. FUlleborn, Ge. Gust. 2, 10, 14, 19, 24,58,70,71,72, 121, 128, 129, 131, 185. Galappi, Pasq. 470. Gale, Theoph. 331. Galen, Claud. 57. Garve, Christopher, 10, 28, 395, 396, 413. Gansford, or Gosevot, see Wessel. 494 INDEX. Gassendi, Pet. 302, 311, 318, 24, 120, 134. Gataker, Thos. 279, 141. Gaudentius, Pag. 23, 122. Gaunilon, 227. Gellert, Ch. Furchteg, 396. Gennadius, 263. Genovese, A. 470. Gentilianus, 195. Gentilus, All. 304. George of Trebisond, 263. Gerard, Alex. 385. Gerard de Vries, see Vries. Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.) 225. Gerhard, Eph. 364. Gerlach, G. W. 189, 467. Gerson, Jo. 257. Gerstenberg, 413, 414. Geulinx, Am. 320, 317. Gilbert de la Porree, 230. Glafey, Adr. Fr. 26. Glanville, Jos. 334. Glisson, 356. Glyco, or Lyco, 133. Gnomae, 53, 58, 59. Gnostics, 183. Goclenius, Rud. 109, 278. Gorres, Jos. 37, 456. Goethals, see Heinrich. Gorgias, 88. Gottsched, J. Chph. 377, Goess, Geo. Fred. Dan. 2, 23. Govea. Ant. 278. Grand, Ant. le, 320, 150, 314. Gravesande, 339, 340. Graven, C. F. VV. 466. Gregory of Rimini, 255. Greeks. 8, 9, 51, 54. ■ in Italy, 262. Grohmann, Jo. Chr. Aug. 2, 403. Gros, K. H. 418. Grosseteste, Robert, 241. Grotius, Hugo, 303, 27, 350. Guilbert, de la Porree, see Gilbert. Gundling, Nic. Jer. 364, 25, 72, 369. Gurlett, J. G. 17, 21. Gyranosophists, 41. Hamann, Jo. G. 398, 412. Hammer, Jos. 235. Hansch, Mich. Ch. 362. Harmonia praestabilita, 358. Harrington, Jam. 307. Harris, Jas. 398. Hartley, Dav. 379, 339. Hebrews, 48, 7. Hedonics, 102. Heerebord, Adr. 320. Hegel, 466, 452. Hegesias, 103. Hegesinus, 153. Hegius, 202. Henricus Gandavensis, 246. Henry of Hesse, 255. of Oyta, 255. Heineccius, John Gottl. 377, 364, 21. Heinsius, Dan. 279. Heliodorus, 202. Helmont, Jo. Bapt. 310. , Fr. Merc, van, 310. Helvetius, Adr. 388, 390. Hemert, Paul, 419, 471. Hemming, Nic. 304. Hemsterhuis, Franc. 471. Henrici, Ge. 26, 417, 418. Heraiscus, 202. Heraclides of Pontus, 119, 132. Sceptic, 173. Heraclitus of Ephesus, 75, 145. Herbart, J. Fr. 109, 161, 453, 462. Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 309. Herder, Jo. Gf. 324, 398, 413. Herennius, 187. Herillus, 142. Hermachus, 140. Hermaic Chain, 201. Hermias (New Platonic), 199. Hermolaus Barbarus, 263. Hermotimus, 82. Herodotus of Tarsus, 175. Hervaeus, 246, 249. Hesiod, 52. INDEX. 495 Ileumann, Chr. Aug. 18, 53, 150, 166. Heusinger, J. H. G. 418, 419, 438. Ileydenreich, 22, 283, 324,415,417, 418. Heyne, Chr. Glob. 52, 53, 76, 89, 157. Ilierocles, 199. Hieroaymus de Ferrariis, 249. of Rhodes, 133. Hillebrand, Jos. 21, 467. Hildebert of Tours, 227. Hindostan, see India. Hipparchia, 100. Hippasus, 68. Hippias of Elis, 88, 90. Hippo, 68. Hirnhayra, Jer. 335. Hissman, Mich. 19, 29, 352. Ilobbes, Th. 305, 318, 350. Hoehne, J. 419. Hopfner, Lud. Jul. Fr. 369. Hoffbauer, Jo. Christoph. 416, 417, 418. Hoffmann, Dan. 276. Holcot, Rob. 255. Holland, G. J. 389. Holland, 471. Hollbach, P. H. D. von, 388. HoUmann, Sam. Chr. 372. Home, Henry, 384. Homer, 51. Homoioraeriaj, 83. Honorius, 227. Horn, Ge. 21. Huet, P. Dan. 347, 19, 318. Hufeland, G. 417, 28. Hugh of Amiens, 231. St. Victor, 231. Hugo, Gust. 364. Hume, Dav. 379, 393, 403. Hutcheson, Franc. 345. Hutten. Ulr. von, 264. Hypatia, 202. Jakobi, Lud. Heinr. 416, 380, 419, 418, 417. Jacobi, F. Heinr. 457, 283, 323, 398, 412, 438, 453, 459. Jamblichus, 62, 197. James of Edessa, 217. Jankowsky, J. E. 471. Jansenists, 319. Jaquelot, Isaac, 328, 316, 349. Jariges, 323. Jiihsche, Glob. Benj, 410. Ickstadt, J. A. 377. Idealism, 34. ■ — -transcendental, 405. -, see Kani, Fichte, Berke- ley. Ideas, 26. , Platonic, 113. Identity, Absolute, 34. Jenisch, D. 411. Jerusalem, Jos. Fr. 49. Jesuits, 346. Jews, see Hebrews, 180. India — Indian Philosophy, 7, 38. John, XXI, 246. of Damascus, 217. of Mercuria, 256. Sarisburiensis, 226, 232. Philoponus, 217. Ionic Philosophy, 58, 302. Jonsius, J. 18. Josephus, 43, 180. Jourdain, 234. Jovius Paulus, 274. Joyaud, 470. Irwing, Carl. Fr. 397. Iselin, J. 398. Isidorus of Gaza, 203. Israelites, see Hebrews. Italic School, 64. Ith, C. 418. Julian, 199, 206. Justin Martyr, 206, 207, 210. Kahler, L. A. 467. Kant— Kantist Philosophers, 361, 463, 402, 464. Kayssler, A. 466, 22. Kempis, see Thos. 496 INDEX. Kern, W. 466. Keyseflingk, H. W. E. 466. Kieser, D. G. 451. Kiesewetter, J. G. K. Ch. 416, 418, 415. King, W. (Archbishop), 343. Kinker, J. 419. Klein, Gell. 452. Knutzen, Mart, 377. Kohler, Henr. 369. Kbppen, Fr. 460, 117, 203. Krause, K. C. F. 465, 452. Kronland, Marc. M. von, 311. Knig, W. T. 463, 544, 13, 19, 22, 129, 142, 146, 463. Kunhardt, H. 417, 11, 101, 116, 166. Lactantius (L. Coel. Firm.), 205. Lacydes, or Lakydes, 152. Lambert, Jo. Heinr. 392. Lamy, P. 323. , Franc. 362. Lanfranc, 226. Lange, Jo. Joach, 366, 370. Lao-Kiun, 43. Laromiguiere, P. 469. Lasthenia, 118. Launoy, Jo. 133. Law, Theod. Lud. 328. , Will. 346. Lee, Henry, 338. Leibnitz, G. W. 351, 17. 42, 264, 314,331, 349. Wolf School, 367. Lentullus, 319. Leonicus, Nic. 275. Leonteus, 140. Leontium, 140. Lessing, Jo. Gottl. Eph. 397, 402. Leucippus, 78. Linkmaier, 467. Lipsius, Just. 141, 145, 279. Locke, J. 335, 379, 386, 330. Lombardus, 231. Longinus, Dion. 187. Lossius, J. Chr. 396, 96. Lucas, 323, 328. Lucian of Samosata, 163. Lucretius, Tit. 163. Ludovici, K. G. 361, Lulli, Raym. 250. Lullists, 250, 270, 284. Luzac, El. 388. Lycaeura, 121. Lyco, or Glyco, 133. Maass, Jo. G. E. 416, 29, 414, 418. Mably, Gal. Bonn. 391. Macchiavelli, Nic. 280. Macrobius, 57, 199. Magic, 194, 270. Magi, 45. Magnenus, Joh. Chrys. 302, 79. Maignanus, (Maignan), 303. Major, 249. Maimon, Sal. 416, 129, 182. Maimonides, Mos. 239. Malchus, see Porphyrias. Malebranche, Nic. 329, 320, 346. Mamertinus, Claud. 211. Mandeville, Bern. 346. Manes, 184. Marcus Aurelius, see Antoninus. Marcianus Capella, see Capella. Marcion the Gnostic, 184. Marinus, 201,202. Marsilius, see Ficinus. of Inghen, 254. Martin, St. 468, 312. Martini, Conr. 276. Massias, 469. Materialism, 34. Matthew of Cracow, 255. Mathematical School, 64. Maupertuis, P. L. M. de, 386, 378. Maximus of Ephesus, 199. of Tyre, 171. Mayronis, Franc. 249. Medabberin, 239. Megarics, 107, Mehmel, G. E. A. 437, Meier, Ge. Fr. 377. INDEX. 497 Meiners, Chph. 395, 398, 21,22, 23, 26, 44, 47, 62, 92, 95, 114, 116, 139, 147, 149, 159, 167, 185, 198, 228, 399. Meister, Jo. Chr. Ft. 28, 369. Melancthon, Phil. 276, 264. Melissus, 73. Mellin, G. S. A. 415. Memcius, Mung-chee, orMeng-dseu, 43. Menander the Gnostic, 184. Mendelssohn, M. 394, 323, 412. Mendoza, Pet. li. de, 246. Menedemus of Eretria, 98, 107, the Cynic, 100. Menippus, 100. Menodotus, 175. Mersenne, Pierre, 334. Metempsychosis, 48, 66, 41. Methods of the Philosophers, 33. Metrocles, 100. Metrodorus of Chios, 81. of Lampsacus, the Epi- curean, 140. Mettrie, La, 388. Meyers, Lud. 328, 319. Michael Scott, 241. Michelet, K. L. 130. Mirabeau, V. R. 391. Mirandula, see Picus. Mnesarchus, 68. Moderatus, 170. Mohammed, 237. Monadologia, 356. Monboddo, J. B. L. 398. Monimus, 100. Monism, 34. Montorius, Jo. Bapt. 249, 120. Montaigne, Mich, de, 258, 289. Montesquieu, 386. Moral Philosophy, English, 341. , Scotch, 345. , French, 346. , German, 350. More, Thos. 307. More, Hen. 332, 312. Moritz, Karl. Phil. 397. Mosaic Philosophy, 268, 311. Moschus, 50. Mothe, de la, see Vayer. Miiller, Jac. Fr. 370. Musaeus, 51. Musonius Rufus the Stoic, 165. jMysticism, Platonic Philosophy al- lied to, 266, 332. Nagel, Jo. A. 235. Nasse, W. 451. Naturalism, 33. Nausiphanes of Teios, 81. Neeb, 147, 411, 415. Nemesius, 208, 210. Nessas, or Nessus, of Chios, 81. Nettelbladt, Dan. 377, 369. Neoplatonists, 119, 170. of Alexandria, 180, 185. ' among the Fathers of the Church, 206. New Pythagoreans, 169. Newton, Is. 339, 362. Nicolas of Autricuria, 256. ofClemange, (deClemangis), 257. ■ Cusanus, 267. of Damascus, 168. Oramus, see Oramus. Nicole, Peter, 320, 346, 347. Nicomachus, 170. Niemeyer, A. H. 419. Niethammer, F. J. 437, 438. Nitsch. 419, 468. Nizolius JNIarius, 264. Nominalists, 228, 252, 254. Norris, John, 338. Numenius, 181. Nunnesius, Pet. Jo. 121. Niisslein, F. A. 452. Occam, Will. 252. Ochus, see Moschus. Ocellus Lucanus. 68. Occasionalism, 320, 330. Oken. Ludg. 451. Oldenburg, Jo. 328. Kk 498 INDEX. Oldendorp, Jo. 304. Olearius, Gfr. 76, 95, 185. , G. Phil. 85. Olympiodorus, 199. Omeisius, Magn. 117, 136, 150. Onesicritus, 100. Optimism of Stoics, 146. of Plotinus, 194. of Leibnitz, 359. Oramus, or Oresmius, Nic. 255. Orientals — Oriental Philosophy, 37. Origines — Christian Philosophy of, 57, 164, 207, 211. Heathen Philosophy, 187. Orpheus, 51. Oswald, 383. Othlo, 227. Pachymerus, G. 233. Panaetius, 143, 147. Paracelsus, Theoph. 271, 310. Parker, Sam. 333, 328, 109. Parmenides, 72. Parsees, 45. Pascal Blaise, 331, 320, 346. Patritius (Patrizzi), Pranc. 282, 119, 277. Payne, T. 385. Pelagius, 214. Peregrinus Proteus, 167. Periander, see Seven Wise Men. Perionius, Joach. 278. Peripatetics — Peripatetic School, 121 , 168, 275. Persaeus, 142. Persians, 43. Peter d'Ailly (de Alliaco), 254. of Apono, or Abano, 251. of No vara, see Lombardus. of Poitiers, 231. Petrus Hispanus, 246. Petrus Lombardus, see L. Pfaff, C. M. 348. PfafFrad, Gasp. 278. Pha)do, 98, 107. Phaidrus, 140. Pherecydes, 60, 64. Philo, the Academic, 154. the Jew, 181, 186. the Dialectic, 107. Philodemus, 140. Philolaus, 69. Philoponus, Jo. 217. Philosophers in France, 385. Philosopher, appellation of, 64. Phoenicians, 49. Photius, 217. Phornutus, see Cornutus, Piccolomini, F. 275. Picus of Mirandula, 268. Joh. Franc. 269. Pierre, Henr. de St. 469. Pino, Ermengildo, 470. Pittacus, see Seven Wise Men. Platner, Ern. 395, 19, 136, 260, 413. Plato— Platonism, 111, 108, 109. Platonic Philosophy, 265. Academy at Florence, 267. Plessing, F. V. L. 7, 23, 47, 112, 120. Pletho, Ge. Gemist. 262. Plinius, C. Secundus, 163. Plotinus, 178, 185, 187, 188. Ploucquet, Gottf. 392, 59, 82, 104, 137. Plutarch of Athens, 199. of Chasronea, 171. Politz, K. H. L. 418, 417. Poiret, Pet. 333, 312, 321, 328. Polemo of Athens, 119. Poles, 471. Polyaenus of Lampsacus, 140. Polystratus, 140. Pomponatius, Pet. 275. Pordage, Joh. 333, 312. Porphyrins, 187, 188, 196, 228. Porta (Fortius), Sim. 274. Posidonius of Apamea, the Rho- dian, 143, 146. Potamo, 172. Premontval, 400. Price, R. 384, 400. Priestley, Jos. 384, 339. 27. INDEX. 49f) Priscus, 198. Proclus, 200. Proculians, 164. Prodicus of Ceos, 88, 89. Protagoras, 88, 89. Psellus, Mich. 123. Ptolemey, 173. Pufendorf, Sam. 351. Pulleyn, see liohcrt. Pyrrho, 98, 103, 104. Pyrrlionists, 104. Pythagoras, 58, 62, 170. Pythagoreans, 62, 69, 170. Pythagorean Women, 69. Philosophers. 58, 62. Quesnay, Fr. 391. Ramists, 277. Ramus, Pet. 277, 280, 120, 124, 128. Rapin, 122. Rationalism, 33, 34. Ray, J. 343. RajTiiond de Sabonde, 257. Real, G. de, 391. Realism — Realists, 34. of the Schoolmen, 223, 228. of Thos. Aquinas, 245. of Scotus, 248. Regis, Pierre Syl. 319. Reid, Thos. 382. Reimarus, Ilenr. Sam. 392, 413. Reinbeck, Jo. Gust. 376. Reinhold, E. 421, 424. C. L. 421, 414, 1, 25, 63, 114, 412, 414, 438. Reuchlin, Joh. 269. Reusch, Jo. Pet. 376. Rhabanus ^laurus, 224. Rhode, J. G. 37, 40, 44. Richard of iMiddleton, 247. of St. Victor, 231. Riebov, or Ribhov, Ge. H. 376. Ritter, H. 14, 60, 63, 85, 325. Rixner, Thadd. Ans. 452, 22, 38. Robinet, J. B. 388, 360, 391. Rochefoucauld, Fr. de la, 346, 339. Roell, Alex. 322. Romans, 157, 160. Robert Folioth of Melun, 231. Grosseteste (Capito), 241. Ilolcot, 255. Pulleyn, 231. Rohault, Jac. 319. Roscellin, John, 228. Rousseau, Jean Jacq. 390, 391. Rozgony, Jo. 471. Riidiger, Jo. Andr. 370, 339. Riickert, Jos. 457. Rufus Musonius, 165. Russia, 471. Sabeism, 45, 46, 48. Sacchi, 470, 23. Sadoletus, Jac. 264. St. Martin, see Martin. Salat, Jac. 461, 460. Salmasius, CI. 279. Sallust, 199. Sanchoniatho, 49. Sanchez (Sanctius), Fr. 313. Saturninus, the Sceptic, 177. the Gnostic, 184. Scaliger, Jul. Caes. 274. Schad, J. B. 437, 452. Scharrock, Rob. 309. Schaumann, J. C. G. 415, 417, 413. Sceptics, 23, 34, 35, 104, 108, 151, 154, 156, 173. New, 288, 313, 334, 347. Schegk, J. 278. Schelling, Fr. Wilh. Jos. 439, 50, 437, 438. ■ ,K. E. 451. Schelvers, Fr. J. 451. Scherbius, Phil. 278. Schierschmidt, J. J. 377. Schiller, Fried. 418. Schilling, Wences. 276. Schlegel, Fr. 7, 39. , F. A. W. 449, 38. 500 INDEX. Schleiermacher, Fr. 462, 60, 76, 84, 97, 467. Schmalz, Theod. 418, 417. Schmid, K. Ch. E. 416, 28, 417, 418, 419, 438. , Phiseld,415. Scholarius, Geo. see Gennadius. Scholastics — Scholastic Philosophy, 218, 222. ■ , Period of, 223. , Attack on, 263. Schoock, Mart. 319, 334. Schopenhauer, Arth. 467. Schoppe (Scioppius), Casp. 279, 147. Scottish Moral ^Philosophers, 345, 382. Schrubert, Jos. H. 451. Schulz, Jo. 414. Schulze, G. E. 461, 413, 423, 112, 146, 336, 364, 425. Schwab, Jo. Chr. 413, 25, 107. Schwartz, F. H. C. 419. Scioppius, see Schoppe. Scribonius, Wilh. Ad. 278. Scotists, 249. Scotus, J. Duns, 247. ,Erigena, 224. , Michael, 241. Search, Edw. (Tucker), 384. Secundus, 170. Selden, Jo. 305. Selle, 421. Seneca, 165, 167. Sennert, Dan. 302. Sensualism, 34, 335. Sepulveda, Jo. Gen. 274. Severianus, 202. Sextius, Q. Pythag. 169. Sextus (Q) Stoic, 167. Empiricus, 175. Shaftesbury, 341. Seven Wise Men, 53. Sigwart, H. C. W. 467, 359. Silhon, Jean de, 334. Simeon, Ben. Joachi, 183. Simo of Athens, 98. Simon Magus, 184. Porta, 274. of Tournay, (Tornacensis), 232. Simonides of Ceos, 52. Simplicius, 169, 203. Sinclair, J. Bar. von, 466. Smith, Ad. 385. Snell, Dan. Chr. W. 415. 416, 418, 419. , Phil. Lud. 21. Socher, John, 21, 109. Socrates. 91, 93. Socratics, 98. Sofis Sufis Sufismus, 236. Solger, K. W". F. 451. Solon, 52. Sophists, 58, 88. Sopater, 198. Sorbiere, Sam. 134, 334. Sosipatra, 202. Sotion, 169. Spalding, 70, 105. Sperling, Jo. 302. Speusippus, 119. Spinoza, 322. Spiritualism, 34. Stanley, Thos. 19. Staudlin, K. F. 23, 26, 28, 49, 115, 206, 212, 225, 411, 417. Steffens. 450. Steinbart, 394. Stewart, Dugald, 468. Stiedenroth, E. 462, 324. Stilpo of Megara, 107. Stob^us, Joh. 57,202,217. Stoics— Stoic School, 108, 141, 164, 278. / Strahler, Dan. 370. Strato, 132. Struve, 28. Suarez, Franc. 246, 280. Suabedissen, Th. Ang. 466, 25,*145. Suisset (or Swinshead), 255. Sulzer, Jo. Ge. 393. Supernaturalism, 33, 208, 331. Sylvester II, see Gerhert. INDEX. 493 Synesius, 207. Synlhetism, 33, 463. Syrianus, 169, 199. Systeme de la Nature, 388. Talasus (Talon) Audomer, 278. Talia, Giov. Batt. 471. Tartaretus, 249. Tatianus, 207. Tauler, 256. Taurellus, Nic. 276, 280. Taurus, Calvisius, 171. Teleauges, 68. Telecles, 152. Telesius, Bernh. 277, 281. Tennemann, 2, 20, 109, 116, 335. Tertre, Father du, 330. Tertullian, 205, 211. Tetens, J. Nic. 396, 397. Thales, 59. Thanner, Ign. 452. Theano, 69. Themista, 140. Themistius of Paphlagonia, 169, 199. Theon of Smyrna, 171. Theology of Plato, 115. St. Augustine, 213. Thomas Aquinus, 245. Campanella, 300. Leibnitz, 360. Theodorus Gaza, 263. Theodorus Metochites, 233. of Gyrene, 102. Theophrastus of Eressus, 132. Paracelsus, see P. Theosophy— Theosophists, 271, 310. Tholuck, F. A. D. 236. Thomas a Kern pis, 257. Aquinas, 244. de Bradwardine, 254. de Strasburg, 254. de Vio Cajetanus, 246. Thomasius, Jac, 17, 18, 24, 146, 223, 228. Thomasius, Chr. 363, 26. Thomists, 248. Thophail, 237. Thorbecke, Rud. 151. Thorild, Thorn. 457. Thrasyllus, 171. Thrasymachus, the Sophist, 88, 90. Thiimmig, L. Ph. 376. Thibetians, 41. Tiedemann, Dietr. 10, 17, 24, 58, 85.108, 116, 141,397, 413. Tieftrunk, Jo. H. 416, 418. Timffius of Locri, 68. Timocrates, 140. Timon of Phlius, the Sceptic, 103. Tittel, G. A. 396, 413. Tralles, Lud. 388. Trismegistus, 47. Thoxler, J.V. P.450. Tschirnhausen, L. W. 339, 363. Ulpian, 202. Ulrich, Joh. Aug. Heinr. 369, 396, 401. Valentinus, 184. Valla, Laurentius, 263. Vanini, Luc. 275. Vattel, E. de, 362. Vayer, Franz, de La Mothe, 313. Velasquez, Gabr. 246. Velleius, C. 163. Velthuysen, Lamb. 309. Vico, Gio. Batt. 470. Victorinus, 215. Villiers, Ch. 419, 469. Villemandy, Pet.de, 120, 350. Vincent of Beauvais, 241. Vives, Lud. 222, 264. Voetius, Gisb. 319. Voider, 320. Voltaire, 340, 378, 389, 390. Vorpahl, Lud. Heinr. 466. Voss, Ger. Jo. 24. l1 494 INDEX. Vries, Ger. de, 83, 318. , J. Van, 82. Wachter, Jo. Ge. 328. Wagner, Jo. Jac. 52, 109, 451, 465, Walcb, Jo. Ge. 24, 87, 105, 129, 184,372. Walther, P. F. 451. Weber, Jos. 451. Weigel, Valent. 272. Weishaupt, Ad. 413. WeillerKay, 3, 21,460. Wise raen. Seven, 53. Weise, Ferd. Chph. 466. Weiss, Chr. 10, 36, 460, 466. Weisse, Chr. Herm. 122, 466. Werdenhagen, John Angel. 276. Werdermann, J. C. G. 27. Wessel, Joh. Burchard, 257. Wessel, John, 257. Wier, Joh.270. Winckler, Joh. Heinr. 377. , Bened. 304. William of Auvergne, 240. of Champeaux, 229. de Conches, 230. Willich, 419. Windheim, Ch. E. 116, 19. Windischmann, K. 20, 43, 115, 450. Wissenschaftslehre, see Fichte. Wittich, Chph. 322, 328. Wolf, Chr. 42, 329, 362, 366. Wolfists— Wolfian System, 375. WoUaston, Will. 342. Wray, John, 343. Wyttenbach, Dan. 28, 162, 165, 419, 471. Xenarchus, 168. Xeniades, 75. Xenocrates, 119. Xenophanes, 71. Xenophon, 98. Zabarella, Jac. 275. Zacharia, R. S. 417, 418. Zend-Avesta, 44. Zeno of Elea, 74. the Epicurean, of Sidon, 140. the Stoic, of Cittium, 141. of Tarsus, 142, 146. Zenodotus, 202. Zentgrave, 305, 350. Zimara, Marc. Ant. 275. Zimmer, B. 452. Zoroaster, 44, 45. , Writings of, 179, 196. Zorzi (Giorgio), 269. THE END, TALBOYS AND BUOWNE, PHINTERS, OXFOKD. i ,.. ■' ■ ■mmmfimm-^- -''m w^^m^^^m^e:mm^w-^^. ••^'■■.'i ^% 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. m iTTWr-i, ^ REG. CIR. DEC 03*62 FEB 15 1992 :,UTO. ''^^'-O- \j AN 2 '^..n.n -VTw ^H933- SEP 2 1 1992 CIRni!( ATIO.K, LD2lA-l0wi-8,'73 (R1902S1 0)476 — A-31 GeaexnlUhnrr . University of Cmlifomia Berkeley LD 21-100OT-7/33 ^^^*^?:?;f;;^2^--:€;^: U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD3fi71fl7fiM V UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY