THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 ,. JRANCH, 
 
 OF CALiFORNlA. 
 
 IBRARY,
 
 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY
 
 jUM^ 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 
 HEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
 ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 
 
 LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
 MELBOURNE 
 
 THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lro. 
 
 TORONTO
 
 OUTLINES OF CHILD 
 STUDY 
 
 A Manual for Parents 
 and Teachers 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 BENJAMIN C. GRUENBERG 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE FEDERATION FOR CHILD STUDY 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD L, THORNDIKE 
 
 il3eto ipotk 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1923 
 
 AU rightt reterved 
 
 4935 3
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 
 COPTHIQHT, 1922 
 
 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1922.
 
 
 TO 
 BIRD STEIN GANS 
 
 WHOSE INSPIRATION kND UNTIRING DEVOTION 
 
 MADE POSSIBLE THE EXISTENCE AND 
 
 CONTINUED GROWTH OF 
 
 THE FEDERATION FOR CHILD STUDY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED 
 BY HER FELLOW WORKERS
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 It is a privilege to introduce to those unacquainted 
 
 with it one aspect of the work of the Federation for 
 
 Child Study. Of all the organizations which have 
 
 sought to stimulate parents to study and know their 
 
 children, the Federation has had probably the most 
 
 X experience. For over a score of years its leaders have 
 
 J* been guiding the reading and discussion of groups of 
 
 , parents and teachers, but especially of parents. Upon 
 
 ^^ their experience are based these Outhnes of Child 
 
 Study. The arrangement is topical; and each topic is 
 
 presented by (1) a statement of the general state of 
 
 "iji knowledge of the topic, (2) an outline which lists the 
 
 ■^ detailed facts and problems concerning which there is 
 
 information available, and (3) a list of helpfully graded 
 
 references, ranging from attractive popular articles to 
 
 ^ technical monographs. 
 
 a The treatment is comprehensive, both in the topics 
 •^ chosen and in the outUne and references for each. 
 Especially valuable are the sections on concrete aspects 
 of human behavior, such as Toys, Manners, The Use 
 of Money, Pets and Plants, and Hobbies, which the 
 ordinary manuals of Child Study have relatively 
 neglected. The treatment is modem; mental tests, 
 psycho-analysis and the conditioned reflex receiving 
 due (some conservative critics may think, undue) 
 attention, and recent work in all lines being considered. 
 
 vii
 
 viii INTRODUCTION 
 
 Suitable connections with the general sciences of 
 human nature are made so that the student who follows 
 the Outlines for any dozen or so of topics is almost 
 certain to be made acquainted with representative 
 scientific work in biology, psychology and sociology. 
 
 Many earnest parents and teachers will use this book 
 and thank The Federation for Child Study and Dr. 
 Gruenberg for it. 
 
 Edward L. Thorndike.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Every thoughtful person who has to deal with 
 children comes sooner or later to realize that most of 
 his acts, as well as most of the children's acts, arise, at 
 least in part, from blind impulse. Some of these acts 
 we recognize to be, if not harmful or foolish, at least 
 futile or irrelevant. But, since we believe that what- 
 ever we do for the child or to the child should have a 
 purpose in relation to his education, his development, 
 his adjustment', we are driven by considerations of self- 
 esteem to justify our conduct — to rationaUze it, as the 
 psychiatrists say — by attributing to it some approved 
 purpose. We say, for example, that punishment, often 
 but a manifestation of bad temper, is designed to teach 
 the child a lesson; we say that our dismissal of the 
 importunate questioner is for the purpose of teaching 
 him to be considerate of busy people, and so on. The 
 Federation for Child Study takes the position that we 
 must make deUberate and systematic effort to replace 
 impulse with purpose in all our deaHngs with children. 
 We ought to know what we are driving at, we ought to 
 know how our ends are to be achieved; we should not 
 be content merely to carry on, merely to drive, for that 
 is futile, and often pernicious. 
 
 Every attempt to substitute rational treatment of 
 children for rationaUzed impulse raises the question of 
 what is sound practise. And in no field are there 
 more controversial issues. Here everybody feels free 
 
 ix
 
 X OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 to have opinions and nobody hesitates to give expres- 
 sion to his own. And with so many opinions to draw 
 upon, so many that are supported by reputable names, 
 it is very easy to continue upon our impulsive careers 
 unchecked, for we have simply to claim that we are 
 following this or that set of "methods" to make our 
 conduct appear calculated and piurposeful, not to say 
 "scientific." The Federation has undertaken to separ- 
 ate usable knowledge from mere opinion. This does 
 not mean that opinions can be wholly disregarded, for 
 they cannot. Vast as is the accumulation of facts 
 concerning the nature of the child, there are many 
 questions about him that cannot to-day be definitely 
 answered. The point is, first, to make use of such 
 knowledge as is available, and second, to recognize 
 where knowledge is lacking and where, therefore, we are 
 using the best judgments to be had. 
 
 Finally, we recognize that between the child and 
 his mentors there is always and everywhere — and 
 necessarily — more or less friction. How much of this 
 is inherent in the nature of man and of his young, and 
 how much of it is potentially within the control of 
 intelligence, we do not know; but we are led to hope that 
 it is not entirely unavoidable by observing the experience 
 of those who do actually manage to live with growing 
 children under conditions of peace and friendship. 
 The Federation for Child Study has assumed that 
 responsibihty for reducing this friction to a minimum 
 rests with the elders, and that an essential element in 
 deahng with the difficulties is a sympathetic under- 
 standing by them of the younger folks. 
 
 The aims of the Federation may thus be sum-
 
 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY xi 
 
 marized as being the substitution of purpose for 
 impulse or inertia, of knowledge for uncritical opinion, 
 and of sympathy for friction and antagonism. To 
 further these aims the members of the groups have 
 devoted themselves to a study of the characteristics of 
 children in their various stages of development, of the 
 forces and experiences that modify their conduct and 
 attitudes, of the conditions favorable to their whole- 
 some development. This study has been far from aca- 
 demic. Every individual has been concerned with real 
 problems of real children. The subject-matter of this 
 study has been children's behavior — or misbehavior — 
 and elders' perplexities. Moreover, since knowing 
 what 'twere well to do is by no means a guarantee of 
 its being done, the members of these study groups have 
 had much more to acquire than the conclusions of their 
 discussions or the doctrines of some authority. The 
 value of the methods developed may be inferred from 
 the many practical results which the members feel they 
 have attained in their own families or schools; but the 
 outstanding value of the discussions is well illustrated 
 by the extent to which those who have taken part in 
 them have overcome their long-standing inhibitions to 
 the rational, objective consideration of certain intimate 
 problems related to the sex life of the child. 
 
 The Federation for Child Study was founded over 
 thirty years ago by a small group of mothers, at the 
 suggestion of Dr. FeHx Adler, as "The Society for the 
 Study of Child Nature." Since its estabhshment it has 
 evolved an effective method of child study for parents, 
 teachers, institutional and social workers — that is, 
 for those who are vitally and practically concerned
 
 jdi OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 with children, rather than for students with a purely 
 academic interest in the subject. This book is an 
 attempt to make available to others both the benefits 
 of this method and some of the concrete results of the 
 Federation's efforts. The Outhnes have all been 
 worked out on the basis of actual problems, both con- 
 crete and theoretical, which the members of the study 
 groups have brought out in the course of their study 
 and discussion. They are snapshots, so to say, of 
 constantly changing plans ; they are therefore not to be 
 considered as in any sense final. They do represent, 
 however, as experience has shown, very helpful guides 
 to individual and group study, and are offered as 
 practical working plans for those who can benefit from 
 a better understanding of the various phases and pro- 
 cesses of childhood. It is the intention of the Federa- 
 tion to issue from time to time supplementary material 
 designed to keep workers who follow this plan up to 
 date. 
 
 The references represent the best available literature 
 at the present time. New knowledge is constantly 
 being produced by observers, investigators and experi- 
 menters, and every alert person will want to keep 
 informed regarding significant discoveries. Yet most 
 of the readings suggested will be found to be of rela- 
 tively enduring value. There is variety to allow for 
 divergent viewpoints on controversial topics, and for 
 different degrees of technical training on the part of the 
 students. 
 
 In assembling this material, the active members of 
 the Federation have done the bulk of the work. This 
 has consisted of digesting and abstracting the reports
 
 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY xiii 
 
 and minutes of hundreds of discussion and study 
 meetings, of eliminating duplications and irrelevancies, 
 of selecting the most helpful topics and modes of 
 approach, and of indicating the most helpful readings. 
 It is only one who has had the opportunity to look 
 over the voluminous records of the Federation's 
 activities for nearly a third of a century that can 
 reahze both the radical change in viewpoint undergone 
 by these students, in common with professional in- 
 vestigators and educators, and the great amount of 
 selection necessary to make the most usable part of 
 these records available in the present form. 
 
 It would be impossible to enumerate those who 
 have assisted in this work, for they number hterally 
 himdreds; but all who have taken part will feel amply 
 rewarded if this work proves to be of practical help to 
 their fellows. 
 
 October, 1922.
 
 ir% 
 
 j^
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction by Edward L. Thomdike vii 
 
 Preface ix 
 
 Suggestions for Study xvii 
 
 A Survey of the Child's Development 3 
 
 The Child as an Organism 8 
 
 *" Health Factors 13 
 
 Thysical Disturbances 16 
 
 Infancy and Its Discipline 19 
 
 Obedience 23 
 
 Punishment 26 
 
 ' Imagination 30 
 
 Truth and Falsehood 34 
 
 Curiosity 38 
 
 Fear 42 
 
 Imitation and Suggestion 47 
 
 Instinct and Habit 52 
 
 Freedom and Discipline 57 
 
 Constructing and Destroying 61 
 
 >Toys and Tools 65 
 
 Language and Speech Development 71 
 
 Foreign Languages 75 
 
 'Manners 78 
 
 The Use of Money 82 
 
 Acquisitiveness 85 
 
 Initiative and Spontaneity 92 
 
 Ambitions and Ideals 97 
 
 Rivab*y and Competition 104 
 
 Clubs and Gangs 106 
 
 Fighting Ill 
 
 XV
 
 xvi CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Play 116 
 
 Travel and Adventure 121 
 
 Pets and Plants 125 
 
 The Outdoor Life 128 
 
 Hobbies 132 
 
 Children's Books and Reading 135 
 
 Arts in the Life of the Child 141 
 
 Music 146 
 
 Heredity 151 
 
 Sex Education 157 
 
 Adolescence — Physical 163 
 
 Adolescence — Emotional 167 
 
 Adolescence — Intellectual 174 
 
 Coeducation 180 
 
 Choosing an Occupation 185 
 
 Training in Social Responsibility 190 
 
 Religious Training 196 
 
 Civic Interests 199 
 
 The Exceptional Child— Deficient 203 
 
 The Exceptional Child— Delinquent 209 
 
 The Exceptional Child — Superior 213 
 
 Mental Hygiene 218 
 
 Mental Tests 222 
 
 The Festival in the Child's Education 226 
 
 Cooperation Between School and Home 231
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 
 
 The sections that make up this book give a general 
 survey of the more common problems that arise from 
 our having to Uve with children. The mere reading 
 of the text, however, will hardly serve as a substitute 
 for the continuous watchful and thoughtful study of 
 children, and of other people's thoughts and observa- 
 tions upon children. There is offered here merely a 
 guide for study and reading. 
 
 The table of contents will give a sufficient indication 
 of the kind and the range of topics discussed. The 
 individual reader or the study group or class will select 
 a topic or a series of topics in accordance with actual 
 needs or interests. If there is a baby in the house you 
 will ignore for the time being the discussion of the use 
 of money, but will give your attention to the problems 
 of infancy. If your chief concerns are with the play- 
 mates and mannerisms of a particular child, you will 
 look in another part of the book for help. It is desir- 
 able, however, that the study be systematic and 
 progressive rather than random and spasmodic, 
 although it is not necessary to take the topics in the 
 order given. 
 
 After a topic or series of related topics has been 
 selected for study, it will be found profitable to read 
 first the text. This is intended to give a suggestion 
 as to the nature of the problem, as to its relation to 
 
 xvii
 
 xviii SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 
 
 various practical matters (sometimes also its theoretical 
 bearings), and as to the directions in which solutions 
 have been tried or worked out. 
 
 The "outline" proper should then be read carefully. 
 The student should first read the main headings 
 (numbered 1, 2, 3, etc.), pausing long enough to make 
 sure of the general significance of the divisions. Then 
 the subdivisions should be studied with some effort to 
 recall concrete experiences related to the characteristic 
 behavior, qualities, feelings, or whatever is indicated. 
 
 For this reading of the outhne, some help may be 
 had by again referring to the text. 
 
 Where the topic has been divided for study and 
 report by members of a group, reading assignments as 
 well as sub-topic assignments may be made in accord- 
 ance with individual interests and special facilities. 
 In general, the more ''popular" readings and the 
 "non-technical" readings will be found to touch on all 
 the phases of the topics, whereas the "technical" 
 papers usually confine themselves to some special 
 phase, which is often apparent from the title. 
 
 It is not to be expected that any student will read 
 most of the papers or chapters referred to; but it is 
 desirable that where a group is studying a topic, some 
 one or more members be assigned to read and report 
 each reference that is accessible. 
 
 Make haste slowly. Only those who have had 
 considerable training or experience can profitably start 
 ofif with the technical literature. For beginners, the 
 best plan is to read first one or two of the "popular" 
 references; then, as the subject and vocabulary become 
 more familiar, to advance to the "non-technical";
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING xix 
 
 and eventually to attempt the ''technical" readings, 
 if at all, only after fairly complete acquaintance with 
 various aspects of the special problem and with the 
 terminology. It will be found that in very many cases 
 the only difference between a ''popular" and a "non- 
 technical" paper on a given topic is that the former is 
 written in a more familiar or readable style and avoids 
 unusual words. In the same way a "technical" paper 
 is often no more difficult of comprehension than a 
 "non-technical," differing only from the latter in a 
 severer style, but having no more depth of thought 
 and reveaUng no greater insight. 
 
 Another important matter in the selecting of 
 references is the fact that different styles of writing 
 make different appeals to different individuals. It is, 
 therefore, worth while becoming acquainted with 
 several authors, discovering for ourselves which are 
 most helpful. This does not necessarily mean that 
 all the authors tell us substantially the same story and 
 differ from each other merely in style. We shall find 
 that some authors are more helpful, and that some are 
 more easily read. The point is that we are to make no 
 virtue of reading what is particularly difficult, when we 
 can get the same practical results with less effort. 
 
 In reading a given chapter or paper, it is well to 
 have the outline before us, either in the book or copied 
 with generous spacing on blank paper or in a notebook. 
 If notes are made, they can then be entered in an order 
 corresponding to the plan followed by other members 
 of the class. This is especially helpful where a group 
 is engaged in a study or where the reader refers to two
 
 XX SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AND READING 
 
 or more authors, since it makes possible the comparison 
 of notes gathered from various sources. 
 
 A slow, critical reading that attempts to check 
 generalizations and new ideas against previous ex- 
 perience and that seeks to visualize the concrete situa- 
 tions described or the practical results implied, is of 
 the utmost value. One such thorough reading with the 
 problems and plans clearly in mind is worth more than 
 several repetitions that are directed merely to "learn- 
 ing" what the book says. 
 
 Hand in hand with the analysis of the problems and 
 the study of the references should go the noting of the 
 related traits to be observed in the children. Observa- 
 tion may well be recorded briefly in connection with 
 the notes, together with any questions that suggest 
 themselves. 
 
 In reporting upon a topic, we must be careful to 
 separate clearly our abstract of the author's facts or 
 thoughts from our own observations, criticisms, or 
 views. 
 
 A rereading of the text after the study of the outhne 
 and the references will serve as a summary of the topic, 
 and the important points will be seen to have a new 
 meaning. 
 
 From time to time the reader will come across news- 
 paper items, magazine articles, or passages in novels or 
 in other books that are related to the study of child- 
 hood. It is worth while in such cases to make a brief 
 note and reference to the item in question on the 
 appropriate page in the Manual.
 
 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY
 
 1. A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S 
 DEVELOPMENT 
 
 In considering the successive stages of the develop- 
 ing child, we must bear in mind that no two children 
 are exactly alike, and that the rates of development 
 and the degrees of development of the several charac- 
 ters will vary. The stages listed are not sharply sep- 
 arated from one another. The traits mentioned do not 
 show themselves suddenly, but each in its turn grad- 
 ually becomes distinguishable from the whole mass of 
 actions and feelings. Our control Ues in the fact that 
 we can to a large extent determine the kinds of stim- 
 ulations which the child receives. Our study should 
 discover how the child responds to various kinds of 
 treatment, to various conditions — to the ''stimuli" in 
 short — and to find and apply the stimuli which pro- 
 duce the responses leading to desirable types of conduct. 
 
 The survey of characteristics that become promi- 
 nent in the successive stages must be considered only 
 as a tentative approximation. It is neither a record 
 of what any particular child has done, nor a calendar 
 of what any particular child "ought" to do. It is 
 helpful as an "average," in proportion to the insight 
 we exercise in discovering the meaning of the conduct 
 of the particular child in whom we are interested, and 
 in proportion to the judgment we use in fitting the 
 surroundings, including ourselves, to the child's present 
 needs.
 
 4 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 This survey shows that the child develops pro- 
 gressively from a comparatively passive organism 
 dependent upon external stimulations and suggestions 
 to a relatively self-directing personality. So obedience 
 to suggestion or guidance and even command is the 
 condition for establishing habits that are related to 
 fundamental physical and social needs. Gradually 
 this dependence must be replaced by a body of prin- 
 ciples and ideals as well as by habit of inquiry and 
 reflection, so that eventually the child becomes both 
 independent and responsible. 
 
 At every stage may be observed the gradual differ- 
 entiation of new capacities, new interests, and new 
 attitudes from an earher, relatively shapeless mass of 
 activities and feehngs. At the same time there is an 
 increasing integration of the various manifestations of 
 inner impulses in subordination to dominating purpose. 
 These facts of development are illustrated by the 
 child's games, by his attitude toward others, by his 
 choice of companions, by his hobbies. The differentia- 
 tions are most conspicuous during the period of child- 
 hood, say from the sixth to the twelfth year; the 
 integration becomes conspicuous during adolescence. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. INFANCY FIRST 11 TO 15 MONTHS 
 
 a. Need for individual care 
 
 b. Movements, reflex and random 
 
 e. Experience of environment, reaction, and self — un- 
 differentiated
 
 A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT 5 
 
 2. WALKING-TALKING PERIOD, 2 TO 3 YEARS 
 
 a. Imitation and discovery of individuals 
 
 b. Stimuli from language, expression, gesture, etc. 
 
 c. Separation of sensations from objects 
 
 d. Separation of emotions from stimuli and action 
 
 e. Appearance of play as a detached activity 
 
 f. Imaginations 
 
 3. PRE-SCHOOL AGE, 4 TO 6 YEARS 
 
 a. Self-consciousness 
 
 b. Self-assertiveness 
 
 c. Curiosity 
 
 d. Discovery of imagined and real 
 
 e. Appropriation 
 
 f . Control of larger movements 
 
 g. Activity 
 
 h. Play about objects, toys, symbols 
 
 4. THE LATENT PERIOD, 6 TO 12 YEARS 
 
 a. Rivalry 
 
 b. Pugnacity 
 
 c. Ambition 
 
 d. Socialization and loyalties 
 
 e. Control of smaller movements 
 
 f. Constructiveness 
 
 g. Collecting 
 
 h. Rise and decline of imitativeness (related to compe- 
 tition) 
 
 i. Emergence of team games 
 
 j. Adventure (prowess) 
 k. Ready assimilation, drill 
 
 5. THE ADOLESCENT AGE, 12 TO 16 YEARS 
 
 a. Development of puberty 
 
 b. Sex consciousness 
 
 c. New interest 
 
 d. New energies 
 
 e. New ideals 
 
 f . Self-discovery and self-determination
 
 6 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 6. MATURING PERIOD, 18 TO 24 YEARS 
 
 a. Assimilation of thought and activities of the race 
 
 b. Assumption of place in community, and of responsi- 
 
 bility 
 
 c. Participation in the shaping of social destiny 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Drummond, M. — Five Years Old or Thereahovis 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 67-70 
 
 Non-Technical 
 -. KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 
 Chap. Ill, "General Description"; 
 Chap. IX, "General Characteristics" 
 
 \ NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood: 
 Chap. XIV, " Physical Development of the Child" ; 
 Chap. XV, "A Cross Section of Child Life at Five 
 and at Eleven" 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 
 
 Chap. II, "Growth of the Body"; 
 
 Chap. XIV, "Impulsive, Reflex, and Instinctive 
 
 Movements"; 
 Chap. XX, "Play" 
 
 Technical 
 King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 
 
 Chap. XIV, Concluding Remarks on "Interests" 
 
 .^ KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Studies in Development and Learning: 
 Archives of Psychology, II, 4-101, March, 1909: 
 Development of auditory and visual memory, 4-8; 
 Development in quickness of perception and move- 
 ment, 9-14; Artistic sense, 15-24; Ways of learning
 
 A SURVEY OF THE CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT 7 
 
 visual forms, 54-59; How children study, 65-66; 
 Experimental study of musical learning, 68-71; 
 Incidental memory, 79-85; Children's ideas of right 
 and wrong, 79-89 
 
 Rasmussen, Vilhelm — Child Psychology: 
 
 Chap. I, "Development in the First Four Years"
 
 2. THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 
 
 Most of us have become accustomed to think of the 
 child, at least after he is able to talk, as a cunning 
 intelligence bent upon mischief or upon the pursuit of 
 inscrutable purposes often resulting in mischief. In 
 fact, however, the child is for the most part quite 
 unconscious of any purposes until he gets well along in 
 years, and most of what he does might better be inter- 
 preted as the inevitable result of forces acting upon 
 him and through him than as the calculated result of 
 his planning or desire. 
 
 .Like an intelligent animal or machine, the child 
 responds to the impressions he receives in a manner 
 determined by his structure and constitution. He is 
 not, to be sure, a purely automatic machine; but his 
 intelligence appears not in doing from the first what is 
 wise or well calculated, but in his capacity to learn 
 enough of himself and of his world to enable him 
 eventually to act wisely or effectively in new situations, 
 to solve problems, to adopt new purposes. This means 
 that we must learn to think of the child and to treat 
 him, at least at first, as a mechanism, and to try to 
 understand his workings. 
 
 Again we must recognize that this mechanism 
 differs from our artificial machines in the striking unity 
 of its action and in the intimate interdependence of 
 its parts. Anything happening to the child or going on 
 inside him may affect all his processes: a glare of 
 
 8
 
 THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 9 
 
 light may affect his digestion, his digestion may affect 
 his mood, his mood may affect his breathing or the 
 workings of his heart ; and this unity must be observed 
 when we are deaUng with his higher intellectual and 
 emotional development as well as when we are con- 
 cerned merely with his physical health. 
 
 The child changes from day to day, not merely in 
 size, but in the relative strength and activity of the 
 various organs, in his interests, and in his capacities. 
 We must recognize this fact of progressive change and 
 not limit his opportunities or our outlook for the future 
 because at a given moment everything seems to go well; 
 nor, on the other hand, need we despair because for the 
 time being there are imperfect adjustments or unhappy 
 incidents. Moreover, we must recognize that the 
 child's progressive development results in part from 
 inner forces, and in part from the very experiences 
 through which he passes day by day. Hence, the 
 importance not alone of ''training" as commonly 
 understood, which consists of supplying for the child 
 controlled experiences, but of wise handling of experi- 
 ences that constantly arise of themselves. 
 
 Finally, we must recognize that, hke other beings, 
 the child is a unique individual. This does not mean 
 that we must expect of each child the manifestations of 
 genius or some striking pecuharity. It means that each 
 child departs in greater or less degree from the mean or 
 ''average" in regard to every characteristic. We must 
 avoid, therefore, the temptation to standardize our 
 expectations and our demands. We must study rather 
 to discover the more-or-less that is distinctive, to 
 accept certain shortcomings as quite normal, to
 
 10 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 discover compensations worth cultivating, to adjust our 
 demands to the capacities of the child, and to apply our 
 stimuli and encouragement where they will do the most 
 good. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE PHYSICAL BASIS 
 
 a. Interdependence of organs and functions 
 
 b. Responsiveness to environment 
 
 c. Modifications resulting from responses 
 
 2. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Inherent tendency to change 
 
 b. Dependence upon external factors — physical, mental 
 e. Differences between child and adult 
 
 3. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION 
 
 a. No two alike 
 
 b. Essential race characters 
 
 c. Normal range and family variations 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 GuLiCK, L. H. — Exercise and Rest: 
 
 Russell Sage Foundation, Department of Child Hy- 
 giene, Pub. No. 76 
 
 GuYER, Michael F. — Being Well Born: 
 
 Through Chap. VIII, "Mental and Nervous De- 
 fects" 
 
 Lay, Wilfrid — The Child's Unconscious Mind: 
 Chap. VI, "The Aim of Education"; 
 Chap. IX, "Conclusion — Medical Origin" 
 
 Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family: 
 
 (especially chapters on Child Feeding)
 
 THE CHILD AS AN ORGANISM 11 
 
 MuREiAY AND Smitb — Child Under Eight 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child 
 Tyler, John Mason — Growth and Education 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Conklin, E. G. — Heredity and Environment: 
 
 Chap. I, "Facts and Factors of Development" 
 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 Modern Science Concerning Education: 
 "Biology of Children in Relation to Education" 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: Pts. 
 I and II 
 
 Mackenzie, R. T. — Exercise in EducaUon and Medicine: 
 Chaps. I-VI 
 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
 
 Through Chap. XIV, "Physical Development of the 
 Child" 
 
 Sandiford, Peter — Mental and Physcial Life of School 
 Children: Sees. I-V 
 
 Terman, L. M. — Hygiene of the School Child: 
 
 Chap. II, "The Physical Basis of Education"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Factors Influencing Growth" 
 
 Woodrow, H. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
 Chap. IV, "Brains" 
 
 Technical 
 Benedict and Talbot — Metabolism and Growth from Birth 
 to Puberty: 1-21. 32-36, 44-52. 69-72, 100, 128, 
 176, 186 
 
 Dennett, Roger H. — Exercise and Diet in Relation to 
 Growth: 
 New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 756-759, 1913
 
 12 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 HooBLER, Raymond — Diseases Influencing Growth: 
 
 New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 769-771, 1913 
 
 Mendel, Lafayette B. — Nutrition and Growth 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
 Pt. I, "The Original Nature of Man"; 
 Pt. II, "The Psychology of Learning"; Chap. X, 
 "The Laws of Learning in Animals", Chap. XI, 
 "Associative Learning in Man"; 
 Pt. Ill, "Individual Differences and Their Causes" 
 
 Vincent, Swale — Glands of Internal Secretion
 
 3. HEALTH FACTORS 
 
 In the day-by-day treatment of the child with a 
 view both to present comfort and to future character 
 and happiness, we cannot separate the mind from the 
 body. The child is to be considered as a unity, and 
 the body should receive its due share of consideration. 
 While it is true that many physical ills have their source 
 in mental or emotional derangements, it is equally true 
 that many mental and emotional disturbances are 
 caused by physical derangements. The body is basic 
 in the sense that upon its health depends the energy 
 and the balance of the mind. It is also in many ways 
 more readily and more directly controlled. 
 
 Since during infancy there cannot be any question 
 of worry or hatred the primary consideration is physical 
 health. Attention must accordingly be given from the 
 start to the conditions that insure physical comfort. 
 These conditions include such factors as food, ventila- 
 tion, temperature, adequate and regular ehmination 
 from the bowels and bladder, abundant sleep, and 
 freedom from irritation, pain or annoyance. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. INTERDEPENDENCE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM AND OTHER PARTS 
 OF THE BODY 
 
 a. The sense organs and the nervous system 
 
 b. The muscles and the nervous system 
 
 c. The glands and the nervous system 
 
 d. The sympathetic nervous system 
 
 e. Automatic adjustments 
 
 13
 
 14 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 2. FACTORS IN PHYSICAL HEALTH 
 
 a. Nutrition 
 
 b. Oxygenation 
 
 c. Elimination 
 
 d. Circulation 
 
 e. Exercise 
 
 f. Recreation 
 
 g. Rest and sleep 
 h. Cleanliness 
 
 3. DISTURBING FACTORS TO BE AVOIDED 
 
 a. Physical irritation 
 
 b. Pain 
 
 c. Annoyance, fright, nagging, etc. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 BuRBANK, L. — The Training of the Human Plant 
 DiTMAN, N. E. — Home Hygiene and Prevention of Disease 
 
 KiNNE AND CooLEY — Clothing and Health: 240-248 
 Food and Health 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child 
 Dennett, R. H. — The Healthy Baby 
 
 Fisher, L. — Health Care of the Baby 
 
 Health Care of the Growing Child: Pts. I and II 
 
 Holt, L. E. — The Care and Feeding of Children 
 
 Oppenheim, N. — The Development of the Child: Chap. II-IV, 
 IX-XI 
 
 Tweddell, F. — How to Take Care of the Baby 
 
 Technical 
 Ramsey, W. R. — Care and Feeding of Infants and Children 
 Terman, L. M. — The Hygiene of the School Child
 
 HEALTH FACTORS 15 
 
 Pamphlets 
 Reports on "Minimum Standards for Children," issued by 
 the U. S. Children's Bureau, Department of Labor, Wash- 
 ington, D. C: 
 
 Series No. 1, Pub. No. 59 — Malnutrition; 
 Series No. 4, Pub. No. 35 — Milk; 
 Series No. 2, Pub. No. 8 — Infant Care; 
 Series No. 5, Pub. No. 69 — Child Welfare Special; 
 Series No, 4, Pub. No. 67 — Children's Year, A 
 Brief Summary
 
 4. PHYSICAL DISTURBANCES 
 
 The mental processes and the emotional states or 
 moods of the child are easily modified by comparatively 
 slight departures from the normal or routine conditions; 
 and they in turn react vigorously upon the digestion, 
 the circulation, the breathing, and the nerves. 
 
 The petty frustration that stirs the child's anger, 
 resentment, or shame, the sudden trifle that startles 
 him, may initiate a long chain of serious interferences 
 with the normal vegetative processes. It is also true 
 that extreme pleasurable excitations produce unfavor- 
 able reactions, especially through their effects upon the 
 digestive system. 
 
 On the other hand, the increased irritabihty of the 
 fatigued child, the despondency or sulkiness associated 
 with constipation, and the sluggishness of the poorly 
 oxygenated organism, illustrate the dependence of 
 essential elements in behavior upon physical conditions. 
 Fatigue, not properly remedied, illustrates the tendency 
 of many sets of reactions to develop into a chronic 
 state, or a vicious circle. Eyestrain, defective hearing, 
 obstructed breathing, carious teeth, bUnd abscesses or 
 ulcers, flat feet, and other conditions of stress are 
 common sources of difficulty in the child's development. 
 
 16
 
 PHYSICAL DISTURBANCES 17 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. EXTERNAL SOURCES OF DISTURBANCE AND IRRITATION 
 
 a. Pain 
 
 b. Chafing and pressure from clothes 
 
 c. Extremes of temperature and humidity 
 
 d. Strained or awkward positions 
 
 e. Noises 
 
 f. Glare 
 
 2. ORGANIC SOURCES OF IRRITATION 
 
 a. Eye defects 
 
 b. Defects in hearing 
 
 c. Obstructed breathing; adenoids 
 
 d. Defective teeth 
 
 e. Abscesses and ulcers; infected tonsils 
 
 f. Flat feet 
 
 g. Defects of heart and other organs 
 
 3. FUNCTIONAL SOURCES OF IRRITATION 
 
 a. Hunger or thirst 
 
 b. Need for voiding bladder or bowels 
 
 c. Constipation 
 
 d. Fatigue 
 
 4. REACTION BETWEEN THE EMOTIONS AND ORGANIC FUNC- 
 
 TIONS 
 
 a. The emotions and internal secretions 
 
 b. The emotions and the muscles 
 
 (1) Involuntary 
 
 (2) Voluntary 
 
 5. SECONDARY CAUSES OF DISTURBANCH 
 
 a. Anger 
 
 b. Feeling of slight or inferiority 
 
 c. Worry or anxiety 
 
 d. Envy and jealousy 
 
 e. Various denials and repressions
 
 18 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Bruce, H. A. — Handicaps of Childhood: 87-95 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 20-44 
 
 White, W. A. — The Mental Hygiene of Childhood: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Problems: Education — Punishment" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 Modern Science Concerning Education: "Biology of 
 Children in Relation to Education" (H. S. Jen- 
 nings), 3-50 
 
 Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning Eduxxition: 
 "Mental and Moral Health in a Constructive 
 School Program" and "Modern Conceptions of 
 Mental Diseases" (Adolf Meyer), 103-153, 201-211 
 
 Technical 
 Cannon, W. B. — Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, 
 and Rage: 1-21, 184-214, 232-266 
 
 Chile, G. W. — Man, an Adaptive Organism: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Diseases of the Kinetic System"; 
 Chap. XIII, "Pain, Laughter, and Weeping"; 
 Chap. XIV, "Transformationof Energy and Acido- 
 sis" 
 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 Modern Science Concerning Education: "Primary 
 Group Norms in Modern Education" (William 
 J. Thomas), 1-50 
 
 Wallin, J. E. W. — Mental Health of the School Child: 1-21, 
 300-314, 315-336
 
 5. INFANCY AND ITS DISCIPLINE 
 
 During the first twelve to fifteen months, the life 
 of the infant is characterized by the gradual separation 
 from a shapeless bundle of wriggles and squeals, of 
 more or less definite movements, more or less articulate 
 sounds, and various expressions of mood and feehng. 
 The outward movements are at first apparently 
 random, unrelated to what is happening in the 
 surroundings, or reflex, related only as a direct and 
 immediate response to stimulation. In time we can 
 see that a sound, instead of merely producing spas- 
 modic or "startled" movements, will produce one 
 effect if it is mother's footstep and a different one 
 if it is father's voice. A change in illumination, instead 
 of producing a stupid bhnking, will produce one effect 
 if it is brought about by the sight of the milk bottle 
 and a different effect if it is accompanied by the sight 
 of an unfriendly face. We say that the child begins to 
 ''recognize," which means that the elements of the 
 environment, instead of being merely stimuli to general 
 muscular contractions, gradually come to have the 
 distinct effects of objects and persons, of pleasure or 
 pain. 
 
 The emergence of a different attitude toward, and a 
 different response to, the various things and persons 
 of the environment depends upon the child's receiving 
 different kinds or degrees of satisfaction or annoyance 
 from these various elements as they encroach upon 
 
 19
 
 20 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 him through his senses. It is therefore important that 
 during this early period there should be first of all 
 undisturbed sleep, and secondly regular routine of 
 feeding. The first is necessary for avoiding ii-ritations, 
 excitements, overstimulation ; the second, for estabhsh- 
 ing a useful rhythm in the basic physiological proc- 
 esses of nutrition and elimination. 
 
 It is possible for the child during this period to 
 vegetate most of the time and to learn many of the 
 simple proprieties of his station in life. He will insist 
 upon attention if he has learned that he can get it by 
 insisting; or he will be content to remain ignored for a 
 long period if he has learned that insistence does not 
 help. He will insist upon getting everything he sees, 
 or he will be content to play with the things merely in 
 reach. He will imitate facial expressions and the feel- 
 ings that go with them; and he will imitate gestures 
 and tones of voice. 
 
 His capacity to modify his simple reflexes by accept- 
 ing substitutes and symbols for the direct satisfaction 
 of his simple desires, and his tendency to reflect the 
 actions and noises he observes, furnish the foundation 
 for his discipHne. The simple routine of attending to 
 his needs, of avoiding disturbances, and of a happy 
 atmosphere, accompanied by consistency in all deahngs, 
 are the essential requirements. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERIOD 
 
 a. Movements 
 
 (1) Random 
 
 (2) Reflex 
 
 (3) Imitative
 
 INFANCY AND ITS DISCIPLINE 21 
 
 b. Sensorial Development 
 
 (1) Touch and taste 
 
 (2) Sight 
 
 (3) Sound 
 
 c. Emotions 
 
 (1) Anger when frustrated 
 
 (2) Fear when startled 
 
 (3) Pleasure 
 
 (4) Disgust or aversion; pain 
 
 (5) Hunger 
 
 2. MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR 
 
 a. EstabHshment of associations or conditioned reflexes 
 
 b. Transition of sensations from stimuli to suggestions 
 
 or symbols 
 
 c. Establishment of routine by rhythm or repetition 
 
 d. Imitation of movements, sounds, expression 
 
 3. PROGRESS OF THE PERIOD 
 
 a. Differentiation of articulate speech from cooing and 
 
 babbhng 
 
 b. Manipulation of objects 
 
 c. Recognition of people and things 
 
 d. Distinction between permitted and forbidden actions 
 
 4. SPECIAL ATTAINMENTS 
 
 a. Sleeping when placed in certain position or place 
 
 b. Waiting for food 
 
 c. Regular bowel movements 
 
 d. Following suggestions, warnings, etc. 
 
 5. MANIFESTATIONS OF SEX 
 
 a. Sucking thumb 
 
 b. Cuddling 
 
 c. Masturbation 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child
 
 22 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Read, Mary L. — Mothercraft Manual: 
 Chap. VII, "Care of the Baby"; 
 Chap. X, "Education of the Little Child"; 
 Chap. XII, "A Curriculum for Babyhood" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 King, Irving — Psychology of Child Development: 
 
 Chap. II, "Primary Problems Relating to the 
 Child's Earliest Experience" 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. V, "The Early Development of the Human 
 Infant"; 
 
 Chap. VI, "Development of Individualistic In- 
 stincts"; 
 
 Chap. VIII, "Development of Instincts — Imita- 
 tion"; 
 
 Chap. IX, "Development of Adaptive Instincts — 
 Play" 
 
 Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 95-100, 115, 138, 156-159, 160, 162, 173-179, 180, 
 257, 261-262, 283-284, 289, 292 
 
 Watson, John B. — The Psychology of Infancy: 
 Scientific Monthly, December, 1921 
 
 Technical 
 
 Holt, E. B. — The Freudian Wish: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "The Wish in Ethics" 
 
 Watson, John B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a 
 Behaviorist: 
 
 Chap. VI, "Hereditary Modes of Response: Emo- 
 tions," especially pages 198-207, 212-214; 
 
 Chap. VII, "Hereditary Modes of Response: In- 
 stinct," especially pages 236-249; 
 
 Chap. XI, "Personality and Its Disturbance"
 
 6. OBEDIENCE 
 
 For the health and safety of the infant and the 
 inexperienced child, it is absolutely essential that he be 
 directed in his actions. Obedience is the means by 
 which the older, more experienced person guides the 
 child and protects him against the dangers of impulsive 
 action. 
 
 Yet obedience is not to be cultivated as being in 
 itself an end of our training. It must be considered an 
 instrument through which the child is led to discover 
 standards of conduct outside of his own impulses and 
 untrained desires. He is to pass from bUnd impulse 
 and whims to the guidance of personal authority; and 
 he is to pass further from obedience to personal author- 
 ity and external masters to self-control and obedience 
 to higher laws, which is true freedom. While each of 
 these modes is more dominant in its own particular 
 period, we must not assume that each is to be cultivated 
 exclusively, e. g., that early childhood is to be given 
 entirely to obedience to personal authority. Rather 
 should all possible opportunity be given to cultivate 
 the higher forms at the same time that the lower 
 forms are used. 
 
 Disobedience and stubbornness are not to be con- 
 sidered as indications of a strong will. On the con- 
 trary, they are generally due to the child's inability 
 to grasp and master himself. In certain cases they 
 may be the natural result in the child of wrong handling 
 
 23
 
 24 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 in his earlier years. Ready obedience, on the other 
 hand, may in many cases indicate merely lack of purpose 
 and the acceptance of suggestions as the easiest line to 
 follow. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 L THE NECESSITY OF OBEDIENCE 
 
 a. Guidance in infancy 
 
 b. Responsibility for decision in childhood 
 
 (1) For health 
 
 (2) For safety 
 
 (3) For conduct generally 
 
 c. Formation of important habits 
 
 2. DANGERS OF OBEDIENCE 
 
 a. Submission to the will of others 
 
 b. Weakening of responsibility, discretion, and initiative 
 
 c. Conflict between action and purpose 
 
 3. OBTAINING THE CHILD's COOPERATION 
 
 a. Secure confidence 
 
 b. Develop mutual understanding and community of 
 
 aims 
 
 c. Avoid rude intrusion upon the child's plans and 
 
 purposes 
 
 d. Avoid unnecessary, arbitrary, or thoughtless com- 
 
 mands 
 
 4. SUBLIMATION OF OBEDIENCE 
 
 a. Infant yields to suggestion 
 
 b. Child follows guidance 
 
 c. Later accepts personal authority 
 
 d. Eventually acts according to conscience, principles, 
 
 or law
 
 OBEDIENCE 25 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 97-162 
 
 Oilman, Charlotte Po — Concerning Children: 
 
 Chap. II, "Effect of Minding on the Mind"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Two and Two Together" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. VI, "The First Great Law" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 145-195 
 
 Kerr, Le Grand — Care and Training of Children: 146-161 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 203-215 
 
 SissoN, E. O, — Essentials of Character: 63-74 
 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 Chap. VIII, "Under Law" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Smith, Theodate L. — Obstinacy and Obedience: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905
 
 7. PUNISHMENT 
 
 Punishment originates in a primitive impulse akin 
 to vindictiveness. It is nevertheless seriously justified 
 by many, and inflicted for the purpose of preventing 
 the repetition of wrongdoing. This is on the assump- 
 tion (to a large degree gratuitous) that punishment acts 
 as a deterrent or inhibiter. Something may also be 
 said for the moral effect of penance — the curative 
 value of an experience that compels reflection, contri- 
 tion, and new resolutions. 
 
 We seek to prevent wrongdoing by a variety of 
 means; but when it does occur, as it will, we should 
 direct our attention to the child's weaknesses and 
 temptations, and seek to overcome these, rather than 
 to deal with the offense or with the resulting damage as 
 the important thing. 
 
 The need for punishment arises usually in our 
 failure to imderstand the child's impulses and reasoning. 
 With our superior strength we should impose penalties 
 only for the benefit of the child and its further growth, 
 not for our own comfort or relief. 
 
 Whatever form of punishment we use, we should 
 avoid producing antagonisms, estrangements, fears, or 
 other results that are in any way worse than the 
 offense we are trying to eradicate. Account should be 
 taken of the child's mental state at the time the offense 
 was committed, of the mental and moral development 
 he has attained, of his attitude and his individual 
 peculiarities. 
 
 26
 
 PUNISHMENT 27 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF PUNISHMENT 
 
 a. Instinctive striking back 
 
 b. Retaliation as "Justice" 
 
 c. Penalty as deterrent 
 
 d. Remedial treatment for moral improvement of of- 
 
 fender 
 
 2. EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT 
 
 a. Children's idea of punishment 
 . b. Inhibitory and deterrent 
 
 c. Temptations to evasion and dishonesty 
 
 d. Antagonisms and fe&rs 
 
 e. Development of hardness and cruelty 
 
 f. Repression 
 
 g. A negative agent at best 
 
 3. FORMS OF PUNISHMENT 
 
 a. "Natural" punishment 
 
 (1) Advantages 
 
 (2) Fallacies 
 
 b. Corporal punishment 
 
 c. Privations 
 
 (1) Of essentials 
 
 (2) Of indulgences 
 
 d. Imposition of tasks and hardships 
 
 e. Disapprobations 
 
 4. POSITIVE PRINCIPLES 
 
 a. Make clear connection between offense and punish- 
 
 ment 
 
 b. Separate offense and offender 
 
 (1) Discover motives 
 
 (2) Avoid "bad names" 
 
 c. Adapt progressively to child's level of intelligence and 
 
 moral development 
 
 d. Use child's concurrence and cooperation 
 
 5. NEGATIVE PRINCIPLES 
 
 a. Avoid humiUation 
 
 b. Avoid anger when manifesting indignation 
 
 c. Avoid excessive or cruel penalties
 
 28 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents: 
 Chap. Ill, "The Rule of Wit" 
 
 Adler, Felix — The Punishment of Children 
 
 Allen, A. W. — Home, School, and Vacation: 138-141 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 97-168 
 
 Oilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children : 
 
 Chap. II, "The Effect of Minding on the Mind": 
 Chap. Ill, "Two and Two Together" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. II, "The Problem of Punishment" 
 Sons and Daughters: 20-26, 245-200 
 
 Montessori, Maria — The Montessori Method: 
 Chap. V, "Discipline" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 
 
 Chap. XV, "The Nature and Function of Correc- 
 tive Discipline " ; 
 
 Chap. XVI, "Administration of Corrective Disci- 
 pline" 
 
 Kerr, Le Grand — Care and Training of Children: 162 
 
 Kirkpatrick, E. a. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. XI, "Development of Instincts — Regula- 
 tive" 
 The Individual in the Making: 205-215 
 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 
 Chap. VIII, "The Struggle with Law; On the Side 
 of the Law; The Wise Law-Giver"
 
 PUNISHMENT 29 
 
 Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: First Series, 26-28; 
 Second Series, 203-217, 218-233 
 Punishment as Seen hy Children: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, III, 235-245, 1894 
 
 PrisTER, Oscar — The Psychoanalytic Method: 558-561 
 
 Sears, C. H. — Home and School Punishments: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 159-187, 1899 
 
 Smith, Theodate, L. — Obstinacy and Obedience: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905 
 
 Spencer, Herbert — Education: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Moral Education"
 
 8. IMAGINATION 
 
 Imagination is the capacity of seeing things with the 
 eyes shut tight. It may mean the idle and passive 
 fantasy of the irresponsible dawdler and day-dreamer; 
 but it may also mean the vision of the statesman or 
 prophet or poet. It begins in the mere remembrances 
 of past experience with concrete things and sensations. 
 It develops through the child's dreams and fancies, 
 and through his plays and the assignment of personaUty 
 to his toys and to the other inanimate objects around 
 him. Because of the child's abihty to break off the 
 elements of his experience from their original settings 
 and to recombine them, imagination becomes, finally, 
 the directed and purposeful recombination of the 
 fragments of experience into new wholes. 
 
 Imagination is of tremendous daily importance in 
 the adjustment of the growing personality to its environ- 
 ment. It is the source of sympathy and understanding 
 of other persons. It makes possible the substitution 
 first of words and other symbols and finally of formless 
 feeUngs of relationship and meaning for the original 
 crude representations of objects and sensations ex- 
 perienced. In this way, thinking comes to be more 
 and more abstract. Imagination plays a large part in 
 the ability of the child to translate impressions re- 
 ceived through one sense — for example, hearing — 
 into understanding and action, as when the spoken 
 
 30
 
 IMAGINATION 31 
 
 instruction is translated into the appropriate deed, or 
 when the spoken description is translated into a clear 
 picture of the scene or object described. It plays a 
 large part in the development of the child's aspirations, 
 since through it he utilizes his reading, the theater, 
 movies, games, and other secondhand experiences to 
 think himself into a large variety of situations, and 
 to select for himself the kind of Hfe and conduct that 
 will serve as his model. Finally, it plays an important 
 role in the making of practical plans, in the solution of 
 problems, in the making of concrete things, and in the 
 invention of new devices to meet new situations. 
 
 To make possible the development of the imagina- 
 tion, there should be provided ample opportunities for 
 free play with a great variety of materials. There 
 should be stories appropriate to the successive years, 
 and pictures at all times. The child should have access 
 to various natural scenes, to institutions, to activities 
 of the community, and to the thought of others. All 
 children are given more or less to day-dreaming, which 
 is the normal outlet of the unconscious desires for self- 
 assertion and adventure; and this practice serves to a 
 limited extent in preparing the child in advance for 
 many situations he will have to meet. An excessive 
 indulgence in day-dreaming is apt, however, to draw 
 the child into himself and away from the realities and 
 responsibilities of the common life. In such cases, 
 special efforts must be made to provide an abimdance of 
 energetic and satisfying activities with real things and 
 real people.
 
 32 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ORIGIN AND NATURE OF IMAGINATION 
 
 a. Memory of sensory experience 
 
 b. Reproductive imagination 
 
 c. Productive imagination 
 
 (1) Passive 
 
 (2) Creative 
 
 2. DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGINATION 
 
 a. Natural growth 
 
 (1) Dreams and wishes 
 
 (2) Abstraction 
 
 (3) Animism 
 
 b. Stimulation through special experiences 
 
 (1) Stories 
 
 (2) Games 
 
 (3) Toys 
 
 (4) Pictures 
 
 (5) Dramatics 
 
 c. Apparent decline of imagination in adults 
 
 3. PRACTICAL IMPORTANCE OF IMAGINATION 
 
 a. Sympathy and understanding 
 
 b. Relation to thinking 
 
 c. Reading and hearing words 
 
 d. Planning, constructing, and inventing 
 
 e. Hopes and ambitions 
 
 f . Religious experience 
 
 4. EXCEPTIONAL AND MORBID ASPECTS OF IMAGINATION 
 
 a. Day-dreaming 
 
 b. Imaginary companions 
 
 c. Fear 
 
 d. Lying
 
 IMAGINATION 33 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. Ill, "When Your Child Imagines Things"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Lies Children Tell"; 
 Chap. V, "Being Afraid" 
 
 Harvey, N. A. — Imaginary Playmates and Other Mental 
 Phenomena of Children: 
 Chap. I, "Imaginary Playmates" 
 
 Nice, Margaret M. — A Child's Imagination: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXVI, 173-201, 1919 
 
 Smith, Nora A. — Training the Imagination: 
 The Outlook, LXIV, 459-461, 1900 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 136- 
 139, 155, 259-268 
 
 NoRS WORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
 Chap. IX, "Imagination" 
 
 Sully, James — S^wdy of Childhood: 25-63, 203 £f., 211 ff. 
 
 Technical 
 
 Chalmers, Lillian H. — Studies in Imagination: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 111-123, 1900 
 
 Dewey, John — Imagination and Expression: 
 
 Teachers' College Bulletin, March, 1919 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
 53-83 
 
 Winch, W. H. — Some Relations between Substance Memory 
 and Productive Imagination in School Children: 
 British Journal of Psychology, IV, 95-125, 1911
 
 9. TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 
 
 The child is not untruthful to begin with. He tries 
 to give a correct statement of an occurrence, but often 
 his version does not harmonize with the adult's under- 
 standing of facts and motives. Sometimes this is due 
 to his inexperience and awkwardness in interpretation 
 and expression. As his education progresses and his 
 vocabulary is enlarged, misstatements due to these 
 causes will gradually disappear. At other times mis- 
 statements are due to defects of sensation and percep- 
 tion and confusion of the imagined and remembered 
 with the immediate and actual. "WTiile such defects 
 and confusions are natural at an early age, they should 
 be corrected by education and training. Otherwise the 
 child gradually learns to take advantage of untruth, 
 and may acquire the habit of using it for a variety of 
 purposes. The treatment of untruth should be directed 
 to finding and removing the causes of temptations and 
 to cultivating ideals of honor and truthfulness. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 1. UBS THAT ARE NOT LIES 
 
 a. The child says what he means; but his meaning is 
 
 not clear, and his power of expression is Umited 
 
 b. Defects of sensation hamper recognition of the truth, 
 
 especially defective seeing and hearing 
 
 c. Defects of perception 
 
 (1) Yielding to suggestion 
 
 (2) Drawing unwarranted inferences 
 
 (3) Jumping to conclusions 
 
 34
 
 TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 35 
 
 d. Defects of interpretation, influenced by lack of experi- 
 ence, by analogies, by own wishes, by sense of 
 fitness 
 
 2. LIBS AND REALITY 
 
 a. The child's hold on reality is weak 
 
 b. Dreams are not distinguished from waking percep- 
 
 tions 
 
 c. Memories are confused with the immediate realities 
 
 d. Imagination overlaps the actual 
 
 e. Invention and make-believe invade concrete experi- 
 
 ence 
 
 3. LIES AND THE SELF 
 
 a. Escape from punishment 
 
 b. Mahngering; escape from the disagreeable 
 
 c. Lies to "enemies"; truth to "friends" 
 
 d. Secretiveness 
 
 e. The braggart; to astonish and mystify others 
 
 f. The call for attention; exhibitionism 
 
 4. LIES AND EXTERNAL PRESSURE 
 
 a. Excitement and passion of games 
 
 b. Rivalries and distractions 
 
 c. Frightening children into lying 
 
 d. Challenging children into lying 
 
 e. Example of older people 
 
 5. CONSCIENCE AND HEROISM 
 
 a. Lies to shield or help others 
 
 b. Lies to save the feelings 
 
 c. Prevarication 
 
 6. PREVENTIVE TREATMENT OF LYING 
 
 a. Find cause 
 
 b. Avoid restrictions, intimidations, frights, etc., that 
 
 furnish the temptations
 
 36 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 7. CONSTRUCTIVE EFFORTS TOWARD TRUTHFULNESS 
 
 a. Enrichment of sense experience 
 
 b. Training in expression 
 
 c. Experience with reality; hand work; nature study; 
 
 art; adventure 
 
 d. Cultivation of understanding through conversation, 
 
 discussion, and reading 
 
 e. Cultivation of ideals 
 
 f. Environment in which truthful relations are taken 
 
 for granted among adults; between adults and 
 children 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 43-46 
 
 Gould, F. J. — Moral Instruction in Theory and Practice: 
 139-145 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. IV, "The Lies Children Tell" 
 
 Anonymous — A Question of Conduct; Should He Have Told? 
 The Outlook, July 12, 1913 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 
 
 Chap. XI, "The Duty of Acquiring Knowledge" 
 
 Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
 200-208 
 
 Drummond, W. B. — An Introduction to Child Study: 287-292 
 
 Evans, Elida — The Problem of the Nervous Child: 253-256 
 
 Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct: 72-73 
 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 129-131 
 
 Leonard, Eugenie A. — A Parent's Study of Children's Lies: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXVII, 105-136, 1920
 
 TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD 37 
 
 SissoN, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 85-91 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 251-261, 438-439 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 205-206, 209, 230, 290, 298 
 
 Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies'. in Education: Second Series, 308- 
 313 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 
 
 Vol. I, Chap. VI, ''Children's Lies: Their Psychol- 
 ogy and Pedagogy" 
 
 Latham, H. L. — A Study of Falsehood: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 504-522, 1914 
 
 49353
 
 10. CURIOSITY 
 
 Plato called curiosity the "Mother of Knowledge," 
 and it may be thought of as an appetite for new experi- 
 ence or for new kinds of experience. In the infantile 
 stage it appears to be simply the desire for the satis- 
 factions that come from new sensations — seeing, hear- 
 ing, tasting, touching — and accounts for much of the 
 child's unlimited capacity for getting into mischief. 
 Curiosity appears not only in the incessant questioning 
 and in the handling and "trying" of all objects, but also 
 in the prying into closed spaces, in the playing of hiding- 
 and-finding games and in numberless experiments with 
 his own organs and suiTounding objects, such as distort- 
 ing the vision by pressing the eyeballs and as peering 
 between his fingers; and later it appears as the interest 
 in "stunts" and puzzles. The child should at each 
 stage be encouraged to find the answers to his questions 
 or the solutions to his problems, rather than to get 
 them ready-made from others or to abandon them 
 because the solutions involve too much efifort. 
 
 From this interest in the novel and hidden or forbid- 
 den may come exploratory wanderings. At first an 
 unconscious discomfort urges the child to find what lies 
 around the corner or beyond the horizon; later a 
 wondering about the foot of the rainbow or what fate 
 has in store for him; and at last, perhaps, a search for 
 the hidden meaning of life and destiny or for the lost 
 Atlantis. 
 
 36
 
 CURIOSITY 39 
 
 This irresistible impulse to reach in thought and in 
 feeUng beyond the immediate present is of great im- 
 portance in education, since it makes possible the fixing 
 of the attention so necessary for all kinds of learning, 
 as well as the leading on to new levels of thought, of 
 experience, and of ideals or purpose. The direction 
 and the satisfaction of curiosity cannot be left to chance. 
 
 Sublimation of curiosity may take the form of 
 systematic research in some branch of learning; of active 
 investigation into some current problem; of the pro- 
 fessionaUzing of some special interest as in certain 
 branches of law, medicine, industrial engineering, 
 administration, detective work, and so on; of the de- 
 velopment of a hobby involving the mastery of special- 
 ized information, exploration and the hke; and of 
 habitual open-mindedness. 
 
 Repression of curiosity, especially on the sex side, 
 leads often to the eavesdropping or " Peeping-Tom " 
 types of perversion; or to general indifference about 
 matters of no immediate concern ; to discouragement of 
 the imagination ; or to certain types of day-dreaming, in 
 which there is escape from the hardships and responsibili- 
 ties of progressive hving. A restricted or repressive envi- 
 ronment may also result in making gossip or other trivial 
 interests replace a natural curiosity that is normally 
 capable of cultivation into forms that are worth while. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 1. EARLY MANIFESTATIONS 
 
 a. Sensory and motor trials 
 
 (1) Staring 
 
 (2) Listening 
 
 (3) Grasping and tasting
 
 40 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 b. Games — Hide-and-Seek type 
 
 c. Searching activities 
 
 d. Comparison with animals 
 
 2. QUESTIONS 
 
 a. Forms of questions — What, Why 
 
 b. Answering questions 
 
 c. Idle questioning 
 
 d. Stunts, puzzles, tricks, games 
 
 e. Sex differences 
 
 f. Reanimation of curiosity at puberty 
 
 3. EXPLORATION AND VAGRANCY 
 
 a. The meaning of runaway at various ages 
 
 (1) The aimless wandering off 
 
 (2) Planned runaway 
 
 (3) Influence of other factors 
 
 b. Sex differences 
 
 c. Forcing of closed spaces, drawers, cupboards, etc. 
 
 4. IMPORTANCE FOR EDUCATION 
 
 a. Source of interest and attention 
 
 b. Grading of subjects, topics and methods according to 
 
 stages of development 
 
 c. Utilization of experimental method 
 
 d. Leading on from things, to facts, principles, laws 
 
 5. DIRECTION AND SUBLIMATION 
 
 a. Variety of occupation and experience 
 
 b. Travel and its substitutes — reading, theater, visit- 
 
 ing, and visitors 
 
 c. Variety of studies, access to satisfying information 
 
 d. Variety of personal contacts 
 
 e. From trivialities and gossip and scandal to higher 
 
 standards of "news" 
 
 6. PERVERSIONS 
 
 a. Runaways 
 
 b. Lying, romancing; day-dreaming 
 
 c. Peeping-Tom; voyeur 
 
 d. Eavesdropping, informer, gossip, and scandalmonger
 
 CURIOSITY 41 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 51-61, "An- 
 swering the Children's Questions" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 75-78, 91-95, 
 112-113, 151-154, 219-222 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XXIII, "The Skeptic", 130-131, 
 
 SissoN, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 9-12, 80-85 
 
 Swift, E. J. — Youth and the Race: 
 
 Chap. I, "The Spirit of Adventure" 
 
 Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 116-118, 218 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Groos, K\rl — The Play of Animals: 214-222 
 Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
 "Curiosity and Interest" (G. Stanley HaU), 84-141 
 (reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, X, 315- 
 358, 1903). (Although technical in form, this 
 paper is very concrete and helpful to an under- 
 standing of the many-sided manifestations of the 
 impulses studied.) 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 Chap. X, "Curiosity," 59-60 
 
 Technical 
 Hall, G. Stanley. — Adolescence: Vol. I, 85-86 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 
 "The Questioning Age," 75-90, 225, 240-242, 445- 
 447, 485 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
 63-66
 
 11. FEAR 
 
 Contrary to common belief, it appears from experi- 
 ments that fear of specific objects or dangers is not a 
 natural instinct but a cultivated attitude that is neither 
 useful nor unavoidable. Infants from very birth 
 manifest fear under certain well-defined conditions, 
 namely, a sharp sudden noise, a sudden pain, or being 
 suddenly dropped, or jarred, especially when just falling 
 asleep. The fear of dogs and other natural objects 
 seems to be acquired through association with the 
 barking, etc., and to be transferred to strange faces, 
 silent animals, fuzzy objects, strangely moving objects. 
 Any sudden sound or movement may result in a fright ; 
 and any object, person or situation associated with pain 
 or with fright may later arouse fear. In this way almost 
 any object may become a fear object. Later the child's 
 imagination projects the feeling of fear into the dark- 
 ness, into his solitude, into his discomfort or sickness, 
 or indeed into any mysterious situation. 
 
 Fear in infancy brings about clasping and other 
 random movements ; later it leads either to running- 
 away or escape movements, or to a more or less com- 
 plete inhibition of all voluntary movement. This 
 ''paralyzing" effect reaches the heart and blood- 
 vessels on the one hand, and the central associative 
 tracts of the brain on the other. Frequent frights 
 result in discouragement, timidity, secretiveness, and 
 anxiety. Various "phobias" involving serious morbid 
 
 42
 
 FEAR 43 
 
 conditions have been traced to infantile or childish 
 shocks related to fright. The bigoted and hostile 
 attitude toward strange ideas, toward foreigners, 
 toward innovations of various kinds, are in part manifes- 
 tations of unreasoned fear persisting from childhood. 
 In general, persecution and resort to violence for 
 attaining pubUc ends represent traces of the infantile 
 feehng of helplessness in the presence of danger or of 
 mysterious power. 
 
 Although fear may be effectively used as a deterrent 
 for infants and children, the wisdom of its employment 
 for "disciplinary" purposes is something worse than 
 doubtful. We must distinguish between fear and 
 caution, the former resting on ignorance, the latter on 
 knowledge. The child's imagination enables him to 
 transfer monsters and hobgoblins from stories and 
 menageries to the vacant darkness. But the same 
 capacity enables him to substitute the unfavorable 
 judgment of others, or of his conscience, for the physical 
 pain or punishment which he has already learned to 
 hate and to fear, and thus to sublimate his cowardice 
 into the "fear of God." 
 
 Since it is the unknown, or the unpredictable, or the 
 uncontrollable, that causes fear, the mental health and 
 the courage of the child require extensive and intensive 
 knowledge of his environment and of natural phenom- 
 ena, and the wide range of experience that gives mastery 
 and self-confidence. Since fear is the feeling of helpless- 
 ness and incompetence, we should avoid discouragement 
 through fright and ridicule; and we should give the 
 child every opportunity to acquire that control over 
 himself and over his environment which is essential for
 
 44 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 his development and self-expression. The best anti- 
 dotes for fear are curiosity that can find satisfaction, 
 and opportunity for the free outlet of the normal 
 impulses. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. SOURCES OF FEAR 
 
 a. Frights 
 
 (1) Startling sounds 
 
 (2) Sudden jar or dropping 
 
 (3) Sudden and unexpected pain 
 
 b. Substituted fright-objects 
 
 (1) Animals 
 
 (2) Ugly faces, etc. 
 
 (3) Furry surfaces 
 
 c. Projected fright-conditions 
 
 (1) Darkness 
 
 (2) Height 
 
 (3) Solitude 
 
 (4) Strange persons and objects 
 
 (5) Stories 
 
 d. Associated fright-concepts 
 
 (1) Authority, punishment, threats, brutality, etc. 
 
 (2) Judgment of others, disapproval, scolding, nag- 
 
 ging, ridicule 
 
 2. EFFECTS OF FEAR 
 
 a. Paralyzing and inhibitory 
 
 b. Flight 
 
 c. Discouragement 
 
 d. Anxiety 
 
 e. Secretiveness, lying 
 
 f. Cruelty, persecution, bigotry 
 
 3. USES OF FEAR 
 
 a. Necessary deterrent in infancy 
 
 b. Cultivation of caution 
 
 c. Abhorrence of anti-social impulses
 
 FEAR 45 
 
 4. PREVENTION AND TREATMENT 
 
 a. Avoid frights 
 
 b. Familiarize with environment and phenomena 
 
 c. Exalt courage and heroism 
 
 d. Avoid ridicule 
 
 e. Cultivate curiosity and exact knowledge 
 
 f . Substitute reason for impulse 
 
 g. Make game of resisting shocks 
 
 b. Direct aversions toward the mean and unworthy 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 BiRNEY, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Fear, Anxiety, and Grief" 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-M arrow: 
 Chap. V, "Being Afraid" 
 
 Mosso, Angelo — Fear: 
 
 Chap. XIII, "Fear in Children, Dreams" 
 RowE, S. H. — Fear in the Discipline of Children: 
 
 The Outlook, LX, 234, September 24, 1898 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 
 Modern Science Concerning Education: "Practical 
 
 and Theoretical Problems in Instinct and Habit" 
 
 (J. B. Watson), 51-99 
 King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 56-63 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 99-104 
 St. John, E. P. — Child Nature and Child Nurture: 
 
 Chap. IV, "How to Deal with the Child's Feajs" 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 
 Chap. VI, "Subject to Fear" 
 Wallas, G. — The Great Society: 
 
 Chap. VI, "Fear"
 
 46 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Technical 
 Frink, H. W. — Morbid Fears and Compulsions: 122-123, 
 252, 263-266; 
 Chap. VIII, "The Psychology of Anxiety Hysteria" 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — A Genetic Study of Fear: 
 
 American Journal of Psychology, XXL, 149 ff., 1914 
 
 Lord, H. G. — Psychology of Courage: 
 Chap. I-X, XIII 
 
 McDouGALL, W. — An Introduction to Social Psychology: 
 50-55 
 
 SiDis, B. — Fear, Anxiety, and Psychopathic Maladies: 
 
 J(mrnal of Abnormal Psychology, VI, 107 ff., 1911- 
 1912 
 
 Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
 havi&rist: 198-206 
 
 Williams, T, A. — Fear and Its Cure: 
 
 National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
 ceedings, 1914, 836
 
 12. IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 
 
 Imitation, which is a universal characteristic of 
 human beings of all ages, is to be thought of not as 
 representing a psychological quality or faculty, but as 
 the result of certain relations between the individual 
 and others. Any sensation or act that impresses the 
 child, whether through its intensity, through its 
 frequency, or through its pleasurable accompaniment, 
 will set up a reaction that tends to repeat the sensation, 
 or the reflex. Thus, a flash of light that makes him 
 blink (without frightening him) will result presently in a 
 succession of blinking. From imitating sounds and 
 gestures and movements, the child proceeds to react to 
 suggestions in the form of words, which at first have no 
 meaning except that they are associated with, and 
 suggest, actions. New words represent ideas and he 
 reacts to these. In short, he learns to understand other 
 people, to respond to their verbal expressions, in part 
 by learning the meaning of what is said or done to him 
 in terms of his own reaction to the impression he 
 receives. Thus imitation is for the young child, as it 
 is for the young of many other animals, the process 
 through which he acquires a large part of his adjust- 
 ment to his surroundings. 
 
 At about three years of age, as self-consciousness 
 begins to take form, there appears a period of con- 
 trariness, which may be thought of as the child's 
 experimentation in self-control or self-reliance. It is 
 
 47
 
 48 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 as though the child, seeing himself respond automati- 
 cally to suggestions from others, wonders whether he has 
 any control in the matter, and assures himself of his 
 own "freedom" by resisting or opposing these sugges- 
 tions. This stage presents a difficult problem unless 
 we are prepared to help the child find himself rather 
 than to insist upon our greater power. The opportunity 
 to discover his freedom in relation to his games, to the 
 making of things (large blocks, sand pile, etc.) that 
 give him models from which he may depart to his 
 heart's desire, may avoid "conflict of wills." The 
 simplest, the most primitive assertion of individuaHty 
 is just this inversion, an imitation by doing the opposite. 
 
 Imitation shows itself in a new phase when the 
 period of rivalry sets in, at about seven to nine years. 
 Here the self-assertiveness, or desire for notice, takes 
 the form of seeking to excel others. This is as though 
 the child, ignorant of his own possibihties and of the 
 resources of his environment, gets suggestions of what 
 to do from the doings of others ; but gets the satisfaction 
 of distinctiveness from doing the same thing in a 
 superlative or, at least, superior degree. 
 
 The development of the child's personality should 
 lead to the point where he deliberately selects the 
 models he is to follow, where he selects different models 
 for different purposes, not following his hero bindly in 
 all things, and where he finally designs his own behavior 
 or character pattern along distinctive lines. 
 
 The suggestibihty of the child places upon those 
 responsible for the direction of his development the 
 obHgation of surrounding him with worthy specimens 
 of sound and form and personality, whether at home
 
 IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 49 
 
 or in school or on the street, whether in the spoken 
 word or in the book, whether in the approvals or dis- 
 approvals, and above all in actual conduct. Imitation 
 will be influenced by the affections ; but often enough a 
 person who has aroused dislike will have made a 
 sufficiently strong impression to bring about uncon- 
 scious imitation. 
 
 While imitativeness with passivity results in flat, 
 conventionaUzed types of human beings, imitativeness 
 supplies the aggressive, purposeful person his greatest 
 resource for original and creative activities, 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. SOURCES 
 
 a. Motor outlet for stimulation 
 
 b. Reflex tending to reproduce stimulus, or to repetition 
 
 of reflex 
 
 c. Effects of sounds, grimaces, movements 
 
 2. DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Repetition 
 
 b. Obedience to suggestion or associated word, gesture, 
 
 etc. 
 
 c. Response to idea 
 
 d. Dramatization 
 
 e. Voluntary choice of models 
 
 f . Original recombinations 
 
 3. PRACTICAL EFFECTS 
 
 a. Protective value in infancy 
 
 b. Basis for language and other learning 
 
 c. Social cohesion 
 
 d. Effects upon sympathy and group attitudes
 
 50 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 4. APPLICATIONS 
 
 a. Selection of models for child's environment 
 
 b. Opportunity for self-assertion without conflict 
 
 c. Affection to reinforce guidance 
 
 d. Graded progression to individuality 
 
 e. Avoidance of overstressing either the conventional 
 
 proprieties or the extreme variants 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. VIII, " Development of Adaptive Instincts" 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 
 
 Chap. XV, ''Growth in Control of the Body" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 BoGARDUS, E. S. — Essentials of Social Psychology: 
 
 Chap. V, "The Social Operation of Imitation"; 
 Chap. VI, "Suggestion"; 
 Chap. VII, "Imitation"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Phenomena" 
 
 Gault, R. H. — Suggestion and Suggestibility: 
 
 American Journal of Sociology, XXV, 185-194, 1919 
 
 McDouGALL, William — A7i Introduction to Social Psychol- 
 ogy: 96-107, 325-345 
 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 70-73 
 
 WooDWORTH, R. S. — Psychology: 317-319, 546-550 
 
 Technical 
 
 Brown, Warner — Individual and Sex Differences in Sug- 
 gestibility 
 
 King, Irving — Psychology of Child Development: 
 Chap. X, "Imitation"
 
 IMITATION AND SUGGESTION 51 
 
 Sandiford, Peter — Mental and Physical Ldfe of School 
 Children: 
 Chap. XII, "Imitation and Suggestion" 
 
 Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
 haviorist: 259 
 
 WooDWORTH, R. S. — Dynamic Psychology: 66, 181-191
 
 13. INSTINCT AND HABIT 
 
 Every normal child is born with a nervous system 
 that is so arranged that various stimulations of the 
 skin or of the sense organs bring about fixed responses. 
 These responses to stimulation are unavoidable and in 
 many cases can be brought about in the first place in 
 no way except by the corresponding stimulation. 
 Certain combinations of these reactions are called 
 instincts, and they are often related to the adaptive 
 adjustment of the child to his surroundings, as in the 
 sucking response to an object brought into the mouth. 
 From time to time, in the course of the child's develop- 
 ment, there appear new modes of responding to the 
 stimulations aroused by the environment; and some of 
 the earlier instincts in turn disappear. 
 
 These native modes of reacting to the environment, 
 and the spontaneous interests and desires, are capable 
 of considerable modification, or of relatively permanent 
 fixation. The fixed modes of behavior, whether 
 identical with the oringinal ones, or modifications of 
 them, are called habits ; and these habits may eventually 
 represent practically the whole of the adult scheme 
 of conduct or character — that is, the unfaiUng mode of 
 action either as a matter of routine or as a matter of 
 responding to whatever new situation may present 
 itself. The formation of habits thus comes to be of 
 prime importance in the guidance of the child's develop- 
 ment. 
 
 52
 
 INSTINCT AND HABIT 53 
 
 The fixation of primitive modes of action comes 
 about ordinarily from continued repetition. But the 
 infant soon outgrows both the need and the opportunity 
 to repeat his primary responses without modification. 
 The modification of the instinctive activities is illus- 
 trated by the process through which the secretions of 
 the salivary glands (watering of the mouth) comes to be 
 a response to stimulation far removed from that which 
 is the primary or original ''cause" of the action, 
 namely, the tasting of satisfying (palatable) food. 
 We gradually substitute the sight or odor of food as a 
 stimulus to saHvation, then the sight of a picture, 
 perhaps, then the mention of food, or the sound of the 
 dinner bell, or the sight of printed words suggesting 
 food, or a dinner invitation. That is to say, in the 
 course of development, the child is capable of responding 
 automatically in a typical way to a variety of stimuli 
 that have been substituted for the original stimulus. 
 
 In the formation of habits the substitutions are 
 facihtated by pleasurable emotional accompaniments; 
 they are retarded or prevented by unpleasurable ac- 
 companiments. This is true whether the child is 
 ''learning" to form intellectual associations, or purely 
 muscular acts; and it is true in the formation of associa- 
 tions that result in attitudes toward people, toward 
 ideas, etc. 
 
 Education, or character formation, or training, 
 may be considered as a process of instinct-modification, 
 or habit-formation, and these involve not merely 
 repetitions (practise) but also the free and energetic 
 discharge of pleasurable feeling. The education of the 
 individual should be thought of as a continuous
 
 54 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 process, never finished; and eventually the child must 
 come to direct his own habit formation as a conscious 
 and deliberate adaptation to ideals. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. INHERITED BEHAVIOR PATTERNS 
 
 a. Stimulus and response 
 
 b. Kinds of native responses 
 
 c. Succession and fading out of instincts 
 
 2. MODIFICATION OF INSTINCTS 
 
 a. Conditioned reflex and association 
 
 b. Inhibition 
 
 c. "Learning" 
 
 3. FACTORS IN HABIT FORMATION 
 
 a. Intensity of stimulation or action 
 
 b. Frequency and duration of "practise" 
 
 c. Emotional element 
 
 4. HABIT AND SELF DIRECTION 
 
 a. Habit as acquired behavior pattern 
 
 b. Continued capacity for modification 
 
 c. Influence of suggestion and ideals 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 GoDDARD, H. H. — Psychologtj of the Normal and Subnormal: 
 Chap. XII, "Habit" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 167-176 
 
 Holmes, A. W. — Principles of Character Makiyig: 94-103, 
 110-112, 114-124; 
 Chap. VI, "The Making and Breaking of Habits"
 
 INSTINCT AND HABIT 55 
 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer, and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 Modern Science Concerning Education: "Practical 
 and Theoretical Problems in Instinct and Habits" 
 (J. B. Watson), 55-99 
 
 Non-Technical 
 NoRSWORTH and Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
 
 Chap. II, "The Characteristics of Original Nature " ; 
 Chap. Ill, "Tendencies Resulting in Action; Non- 
 Social Instincts"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Social Instincts"; 
 Chap. XI, "General Tendencies of all the Tenden- 
 cies — Habit and Learning" 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Principles of Teaching Based on Psy- 
 chology: 
 Chap. Ill, "Instincts and Capacities"; 
 Chap. VII, "Attention"; 
 Chap. XI, "Responses of Conduct" 
 
 Waddle, C. W. — An Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 Chap. V, "Non-Learned Human Behavior" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Cannon, W. B. — Bodily Changes in Fear, Pain, Hunger, and 
 Rage: 
 
 Chap. XII, "The Energizing Influence of Emo- 
 tional Excitement"; 
 
 Chap. XV, "The Inter-Relations of Emotions" 
 Crile, G. W. — Man, an Adaptive Mechanism: 
 
 Chap. I, "Adaptation to Environment"; 
 
 Chap. II, "The Nervous System"; 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Adaptation by Means of Contact 
 Ceptors"; 
 
 Chap. IV, "Adaptation by Means of Chemical 
 Ceptors and Chemical Activity"; 
 
 Chap. XII, "Action Patterns; Consciousness and 
 Sleep"
 
 56 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. XII, "Development of Instincts — Various 
 
 Resultant Instincts and Feelings"; 
 Chap. XV, "Heredity" 
 
 Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
 haviorist: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Hereditary Modes of Response: In- 
 stinct"; 
 
 Chap. VIII, "The Genesis and Retention of Ex- 
 plicit Bodily Habits"; 
 
 Chap. IX, "The Genesis and Retention of Explicit 
 and Implicit Language Habits"
 
 14. FREEDOM AND DISCIPLINE 
 
 In painful recognition of the fact that each human 
 being must attain to a mastery over the natural impulses 
 which interfere, when given free play, with his harmo- 
 nious relation too thers, we have through generations of 
 struggle developed the principle of discipline. It is 
 indeed necessary that we learn to control ourselves — 
 our actions, our speech, our feelings and our facial 
 expressions. Otherwise there is no living together and 
 human living means living together. 
 
 Moreover, it is necessary for each to learn to do 
 skilfully and cheerfullj^ many things that do not come 
 "naturally;" and it is often necessary to do what is 
 positively disagreeable. 
 
 For all these reasons "discipline" is resorted to. 
 And discipline has meant the coercion of the body and 
 soul, under penalty of fear and suffering, to the doing of 
 what is needed until the habits shall have been estab- 
 hshed. 
 
 The new psychology upon which rests the doctrine 
 of "interest" or freedom in education does not deny 
 that training and discipline are necessary. It ques- 
 tions merely the permanent effectiveness or value of 
 habits and attitudes acquired through coercion, as 
 compared with those acquired through the exploitation 
 of the child's spontaneous and cultivated interests. 
 
 It is found that there is no necessary connection 
 between suffering and virtue; that what is acquired 
 
 57
 
 58 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 under duress is rejected at the first opportunity; that 
 it is actually possible to get the desired self-control 
 and skill and character through appeals to interest; and 
 finally that the child can learn to use freedom as an 
 adult only through continuous and progressive experi- 
 ence with freedom. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THEORIES OF DISCIPLINE AND TRAINING 
 
 a. Authoritative direction and obedience 
 
 b. The burnt child — "Natural discipline" 
 
 c. Learn to do by doing 
 
 d. Development as self discovery 
 
 2. SCIENTIFIC BASES 
 
 a. Emotion and habit formation 
 
 b. The purpose in relation to concentration and effort 
 
 c. The interest as a unifying force 
 
 d. Freedom vs. compulsion as affecting attitude 
 
 e. Other disciplinary forces 
 
 (1) Pubhc opinion 
 
 (2) Rewards and punishments 
 
 3. EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOLS 
 
 a. Methods used 
 
 b. Results 
 
 c. Comparisons with older types of schools 
 
 (1) Scholarship 
 
 (2) Conduct 
 
 (3) Permanency of effect 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 Abbott, E. H. — On the Training of Parents: 
 Chap. Ill, "By Rule of Wit"
 
 FREEDOM AND DISCIPLINE 69 
 
 Adler, Felix — The Punishment of Children 
 
 Allen, Anna W. — Home, School, and Vacation: 116-159 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 
 "Obedience," 97-168 
 
 Oilman, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children: 
 
 Chap. II, "The Effect of Minding on the Mind" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and Tomorrow: 
 Chap. II, "Problems of Punishment"; 
 Chap. VI, "The First Great Law" 
 
 Kilpatrick, William H, — Horace Mann Studies in Pri- 
 mary Education: Teachers College Record, March, 
 1919 
 Project Method: Teachers College Record, October 
 12, 1918 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process: 
 
 Chap. XIII, "Formal vs. Intrinsic Values of Ex- 
 perience: The Doctrine of Formal Discipline" 
 
 Dewey, John — Interest and Discipline 
 
 Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of To-Morrow 
 
 Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 
 
 Chap. XIV, "The Progressive Application of De- 
 mocracy in Home and School Government"; 
 
 Chap. XV, "The Nature and Function of Correc- 
 tive DiscipUne" 
 
 James, William — Talks to Teachers: 
 Chap. X, "Interest"; 
 Chap. XI, "Attention" 
 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. XI, "Development of Instincts — Regula- 
 tive"
 
 60 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
 Chap. VI, "Attention" 
 
 SissoN, E. O. — Essentials of Character: 63-74 
 
 Technical 
 
 Spencer, Herbert — Education: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Moral Education" 
 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 Chap. VUI, "Under Law"
 
 15. CONSTRUCTING AND DESTROYING 
 
 From the random, formless movements of infancy 
 there gradually emerges organized activity that pro- 
 duces concrete effects upon the objects of the child's 
 environment. And many of these effects are of a 
 kind that are injurious, if not to the child, at least to 
 the objects. If these objects are of value, there is 
 protest against the " destructiveness " of the child, 
 although similar activities applied to worthless materials 
 are tolerated as being in no way objectionable. From 
 the child's viewpoint, however, these activities are to 
 be considered on the one hand as merely explorations 
 into the properties of the materials around him, and 
 on the other hand, as explorations into his own powers 
 over his environment. These destructive activities 
 probably have other elements in their make-up, such 
 as the satisfaction which the child finds in asserting 
 himself, and in producing results that he feels are 
 caused by himself. There is also the element of imita- 
 tion, as in so much of the child's activities in general. 
 
 The impulses leading to these destructive activities, 
 instead of being repressed, need mainly guidance and 
 development. With suitable play material and toys, 
 the impulses find outlet and satisfaction ; and gradually 
 the activities come to be organized into "constructive" 
 ones, involving higher and higher levels of interest, 
 and more and more remote purposes. As an element 
 in the child's intellectual education, the constructive 
 work seems to be increasingly appreciated; and for 
 
 61
 
 62 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 many children, a large amount of concrete experience, 
 especially of the manipulative and constructive kind, 
 is an essential basis for the formation of abstractions. 
 Constructive experience, developed under suitable 
 guidance, will not only replace random and destructive 
 or indifferent activities but may serve in forming the 
 proper attitudes and appreciations in relation to work- 
 manship and skill, as well as in the formation of ideals 
 of performance. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ORIGINS AND MANIFESTATIONS 
 
 a. Undifferentiated random movements 
 
 (1) Exercise of sensations 
 
 (2) Exercise of muscles 
 
 b. Curiosity factor 
 
 c. Imitation 
 
 d. Satisfaction in producing results 
 
 (1) Self-assertiveness 
 
 (2) "Sadistic" impulse (pleasure in causing suf- 
 
 fering) 
 
 e. Inventiveness 
 
 f. Sex differences 
 
 2. DEVELOPMENT AND DIRECTION 
 
 a. Toys 
 
 b. Things to take apart 
 
 c. Materials to work upon — paper, blocks, clay, sand, 
 
 cloth, etc. 
 
 d. Tools 
 
 e. Art materials 
 
 3. RELATION TO EDUCATION 
 
 a. Value of hand work as part of daily routine 
 
 (1) Release of tension 
 
 (2) Acquirement of motor and emotional control 
 
 b. Medium for discovering the work of the world 
 
 c. Means for reveahng special capacities and interests 
 
 d. Basis of experience for abstract thinking
 
 CONSTRUCTING AND DESTROYING 63 
 
 4. RELATION TO ATTITUDE 
 
 a. Valuation of things in terms of what it takes to 
 
 produce them 
 
 b. Appreciation of skill and workmanship 
 
 c. Development of satisfying means of self-expression 
 
 d. Development of purposes to higher levels 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 FORBUSH, W. B. — Manual of Play: 
 
 Chap. XVI, ''Constructive Play," 221-223; 
 Bibliography on constructive plays, games, and oc- 
 cupations, 337-343 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 183-191 
 
 Johnson, George E. — Education by Plays and Games: 45, 
 90, 98-99, 158-159 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A, — Fundamentals of Child Study: 62, 
 207-208, 265-268 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XV, "Construction," 127-128, 452-460 
 
 SiES, A. C. — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in Childhood, 
 Part II 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 
 62-63 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Dewey, John — School and Society: 31-33, 38 
 Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow: 
 
 Chap. IV, "Reorganizing the Curriculum"; 
 
 Chap. X, "Education through Industry" 
 Groos, Karl — The Play of Man: 97-101 
 Marot, Helen — The Creative Impulse in Industry: 
 
 Chap. I, "Production and Creative Effort"; 
 
 Chap. IV, "Educational Industry and Associated 
 Enterprises"
 
 64 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 
 
 Chap. VIII, "Vocational Education" 
 
 Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
 "Curiosity and Interest" (G. Stanley Hall), 84-141. 
 (Reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, X, 315- 
 358, 1903.) 
 
 Kent, Ernest B. — Constructive Interests of Children
 
 16. TOYS AND TOOLS 
 
 It is just as natural to work as it is to play, and it is 
 quite as necessary to play as it is to work. In the 
 course of his development, the normal child does both; 
 and a considerable part of the problem of directing the 
 child's development consists of building a bridge 
 between play and work that will make both types of 
 activity readily accessible at all stages. 
 
 Tools and toys may be considered as the material 
 instruments through which human beings express 
 themselves and impress their environment. The tran- 
 sition from the plaything to the work-thing is very 
 elusive; and it is of no importance whatever — except 
 for the fact that in many cases the transition is never 
 made. The prime function of the toy is related to the 
 form which play takes at any given time. In infancy, 
 when satisfaction is derived from simple sensations, 
 the toys are things to see, to hear, to touch, to bite, 
 and so on. Here, then, a spoon serves admirably, 
 for it is a handful to grasp, shiny to catch the eye, 
 hard enough to make a noise against the side of the 
 crib, and small enough to put into the mouth. The 
 child gets from such a 'Hoy" an abundance of muscular 
 and sensory exercise, it gives him something to do — 
 and that is the essential of the toy as it is of the tool. 
 
 Although work is sometimes distinguished from 
 play in that the latter yields satisfaction through the 
 activity itself, whereas the former yields satisfaction 
 
 65
 
 66 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 through the result of the activity, the separation is 
 not in fact so sharp. The child very early comes to be 
 interested in the results of his activity. While he 
 spends the first three years in merely getting acquainted 
 with the world around him, a part of this acquaintance 
 consists in knowing what changes can be produced on 
 the materials at hand. So that although he may 
 begin by touching and tasting, etc., he continues by 
 breaking or tearing, crushing or bending. This means 
 that he must get material for making. The arranging 
 and rearranging of blocks or spools, the rolling or 
 throwing of a ball, the blowing of a whistle, gradually 
 give way to paper and shears and paste, to clay and 
 crayon and needle. 
 
 When the child's imagination begins to invest the 
 objects around him with personality, or with traits 
 remembered and transferred from other things, the 
 toy is in the nature of a lay figure upon which he can 
 hang garments suitable for all occasions. The doll 
 then is merely a material symbol, and need not have 
 the detail and finish that a more critical adult would 
 demand. A stick will serve as a hobby horse, a box 
 drawn by a string is enough of a wagon. 
 
 When critical observation and command over the 
 muscles have progressed far enough, the child's interest 
 in things he wants and his interest in doing may be 
 combined in the project of making his own toys. From 
 this it is but a short step to work — that is, activity 
 that is interesting not in itself but because of the results 
 it yields. 
 
 The precise form which work and play take will 
 depend, in a given stage of development, upon the
 
 TOYS AND TOOLS 67 
 
 materials and activities that characterize the sur- 
 roundings. On a farm the child will have toy animals 
 and will play at gardening or dairying; in the city he 
 will have a toy fire engine and play at shopping or 
 parades. 
 
 The selection of toys must, therefore, be guided not 
 only by the age of the child, but by the stimuli and 
 suggestions that are likely to have meaning. And 
 tools or work-things must, in the same way, be not 
 only usable, but related to the things that the child will 
 want to do. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ACTIVITY ESSENTIAL TO GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Spontaneous or "play" activity 
 
 b. Directed or "work" activity 
 
 (1) Direction of activity by external compulsion 
 
 (2) Direction by interest or acceptance 
 
 2. GRADED INTERESTS AND CORRESPONDING PLAYTHINGS 
 
 a. First Three Years 
 Sensory experience 
 Getting acquainted with the world 
 Acquirement of control of larger muscles 
 
 (1) Rattle, ball, ring 
 
 (2) Striking, biting, whistle 
 
 (3) Spools, clothespins 
 
 (4) Pull by string 
 
 (5) Fill and empty 
 
 (6) Lift and carry 
 
 (7) Dress and undress (doll) 
 
 (8) Paper and paste 
 
 (9) Blocks 
 (10) Clay
 
 68 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 b. To Six Years 
 Imitation 
 Motion 
 Rhythm 
 
 (1) Dolls, animals 
 
 (2) Household tools, to help in reaj work 
 
 (3) Seesaw, swing, rocking-horse 
 
 (4) Gocart, kiddy-car, hobby-horse, wheelbarrow 
 
 (5) Cart, train, boat, fire engine, windmill 
 
 (6) Sand, water, measuring 
 
 (7) Making own toys, put together blocks, etc. 
 
 (8) Hammer and nails 
 
 (9) Toy furniture, tea set, kitchen set, play hostess 
 
 (10) Weaving, raffia, beads, basketry, knitting 
 
 (11) Crayon, paint, stencils 
 
 C. To Ten Years (from activity for its own sake and con- 
 trol of movements, to control of environment) 
 Rivalry 
 
 Sensitiveness to failure 
 Collecting 
 Constructing 
 
 (1) Plants to grow; garden 
 
 (2) Pets to care for; aquarium 
 
 (3) Scouting; Indians; hunting 
 
 (4) Policeman, letter-carrier, expressman, post- 
 
 office 
 
 (5) Robinhood; pioneers 
 
 (6) Dramatization; costumes and material for 
 
 making costumes; scenery, etc. 
 
 (7) Bow and arrow, boxing, sled, skating 
 
 (8) Athletic games 
 
 (9) Doll 
 
 d. Ten to Twelve Years 
 
 Transition to adolescence 
 
 Concrete results of activity desired — something to 
 
 show for effort 
 Recognition and approval 
 
 (1) Elaboration of skills initiated in earlier period 
 
 (2) Advance in handicrafts 
 
 (3) Printing press, art materials, sewing, etc. 
 
 (4) Substantial tools and working space
 
 TOYS AND TOOLS 69 
 
 e. Thirteen to Fifteen Years 
 
 Play of child becomes replaced by more systematic 
 pursuit of hobby 
 
 (1) Materials for experimentation 
 
 (2) Tools and materials for constructive arts and 
 
 crafts 
 
 (3) Musical instruments 
 
 (4) Athletic equipment 
 
 3. CLASSIFICATION OF TOYS 
 
 a. In Relation to Child's Activity 
 
 (1) Do nothing 
 
 (2) Look on 
 
 (3) Do with 
 
 b. As to Types of Activity 
 
 (1) Sensory appeal 
 
 (2) Manipulation 
 
 (3) Construction 
 
 (4) Operation 
 
 (5) Imitation of activities of others; participation 
 
 in service and activities 
 
 (6) Games 
 
 (7) Sports and athletics 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Beard, L. and A. — What a Girl Can Make and Do 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — A Montessori Mother: 
 
 Chap. IV, "Something about the Apparatus and 
 about the Theory Underlying It"; 
 
 Chap. V, "Description of the Rest of the Apparatus 
 and the Method for Writing and Reading"; 
 
 Chap. VI, "Some General Remarks about the 
 Montessori Apparatus in the American Home"; 
 
 Chap. VII, "The Possibility of American Adapta- 
 tions of, or Additions to, the Montessori Appa- 
 ratus"
 
 70 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Hickman, E, A. — Soft Toys and How to Make Them 
 
 Johnson, G. E. — Education by Plays and Games: 
 Chap. II, "Play in Education" 
 
 Sarg, Tony — The Tony Sarg Marionette Book 
 
 White, Mary — The Child's Rainy Day Book 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Adams, Morley — Toy Making in the Home 
 
 Johnson, G. F. — Toys and Toy Making 
 
 Koch, Fritz — Paper Toys and How to Make Them 
 
 Miller, Charles M. — Kitecraft 
 
 SiES, A. C. — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in Childhood: 
 Chap. II, 'Tlay and Work" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Moore, H. W. — Manual Training Toys 
 
 Polkinhorne, R. and M. — Toy Making in School and 
 Home 
 
 Sloane, Thomas 0. — Electric Toy Making for Amateurs 
 
 Thatcher, E. — Making Tin-Can Toys
 
 17. LANGUAGE AND SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The infant responds to various stimuli that reach his 
 senses through various meaningless jerks and contor- 
 tions, and through cries and gurgles. These sounds, 
 movements, and contortions gradually take on a 
 definite form, influenced by the sounds and gestures 
 that come to him and that he soon recognizes — that 
 is, associates with certain feehngs of pleasure, relief, 
 excitation, and so on. By repeating the sounds, or as 
 much of them as he can, he acquires ''language." 
 
 Since language, both as performance and as meaning, 
 is so closely dependent upon the child's experience, it is 
 wise to avoid the use of cunning mispronunciations 
 and distortions of the language we wish the child to 
 acquire; it is disconcerting and misleading to abuse 
 the words by giving them specialized, arbitrary, or 
 remote meanings. On the other hand, telling simple 
 stories in words that the child can understand, and 
 reading well written stories within the child's compre- 
 hension, will go far to establish a useful vocabulary 
 and to develop the concepts for which the words serve 
 as symbols. 
 
 The enrichment of the child's vocabulary and of his 
 mental content constitute so much of the intellectual 
 development of the child, that there should be constant 
 Unking up of his experience and his thought with his 
 language. The language should not be forced, but 
 should follow quickly upon experience ; there should be 
 
 71
 
 72 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 impression before expression, but expression should not 
 be inhibited or unduly delayed. In teaching reading 
 and writing the printed page or the process of making 
 conventional marks must not be treated as the immedi- 
 ate object of interest. It is more effective to arouse the 
 child's curiosity as to the story which the strange 
 marks have to tell, or his desire to tell others what he 
 has on his mind. 
 
 Most speech defects that are not the direct result of 
 imitation are due either to defective breathing and 
 vocalization, or to some structural irregularity. In the 
 former case, the cause is frequently found to be in an 
 emotional state brought on through fear or repression. 
 In any case, experts should be consulted. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. GROWTH OF LANGUAGE IN INFANCY 
 
 a. Earhest vocalizations inarticulate 
 
 b. Random movements and gestures 
 
 c. Recognition of words before attempted utterance 
 
 d. From cries and single words to sentences in three years 
 
 e. Language acquired through imitation; "Baby talk" 
 
 2. TRAINING IN LANGUAGE 
 
 a. Importance of correct pronunciation as model 
 
 b. Vocabulary dependent on environment 
 
 c. Reading aloud as source of language 
 
 d. Value of having child repeat stories read or told 
 
 3. GROWTH OF CONCEPTS 
 
 a. Expansion of the content of words 
 
 b. Dependence upon range of experience 
 
 c. Extension of experience through pictures, reading, etc. 
 
 d. Value of discussion in development of concepts
 
 LANGUAGE AND SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 73 
 
 4. WRITTEN LANGUAGE 
 
 a. Sound basis in spoken language 
 
 b. Interest in message before interest in medium 
 
 c. Pictures as language 
 
 5. PROBLEMS IN LATER LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Experience before expression 
 
 b. Content emphasized before form 
 
 c. Spelling to be mastered early 
 
 d. Grammar better studied later (after 12 years) 
 
 6. SPEECH defects; causes and treatment 
 
 a. Stammering 
 
 b. Stuttering 
 
 c. Lisping 
 
 d. Foreign and provincial accents 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Blanton, M. and S. — Speech Training for Children: 
 Chap. I, "The Speech Medium"; 
 Chap. II, "Speech Training and General Educa- 
 tion"; 
 Chap. Ill, "The Mechanisms of Speech"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Coordinations"; 
 Chap. V, "The Plastic Period"; 
 Chap. VI, "The Developing Speech Needs"; 
 Chap. VII, "Unhealthy Types of Speech Reaction" 
 Montessori, Maria — The Montessori Method: 
 Chap. XVIII, "Language in Childhood" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 Second Series, "How Words Get Content" 
 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 46- 
 48, 251-257, 306-308
 
 74 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Sandiford, p. — The Mental and Physical Life of School 
 Children: 
 Chap. XIX, "Development of Language in Chil-. 
 dren" 
 
 Waddle, C. W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 
 Chap. VU, "The Linguistic Development of Chil-' 
 dren" 
 
 Technical 
 
 CoNRADi, Edward — Speech Development in the Child: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XI, 328-380, 1904 
 
 King, Irving — The Social Aspects of Mental Development: 
 329-333, 345-351 
 
 Trettien, a. W. — Psychology of the Language Interest of 
 Children: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XI, 113-177, 1904 
 
 Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a Be- 
 haviorist: 
 Chap. IX, "The Genesis and Retention of Explicit 
 and Implicit Language Habits "
 
 18. FOREIGN LANGUAGES 
 
 Aside from the traditional overvaluation of foreign 
 language as a mark of culture, or as an adjunct to leisure 
 pursuits, there is a substantial worth in the mastery of 
 such languages both for purposes of personal power and 
 satisfaction, and for purposes of commercial or other 
 vocational application. 
 
 The acquisition of a foreign language during child- 
 hood, along with the mother tongue, has been shown 
 to carry certain disadvantages, such as the mixing of 
 idioms, the impurity of accent, etc., as well as to have 
 the theoretical disadvantages of obstructing complete 
 mastery of the mother tongue. These disadvantages, 
 which are to a degree dependent upon unsuitable 
 teachers or improper methods, are nevertheless out- 
 weighed by the advantage of greater facility of acquiring 
 two or more languages by the "natural" method of 
 imitation and use during the early years. The chief 
 disadvantage of learning foreign languages through 
 tutors or governesses at this time lies in the enforced 
 separation of the child from his companions, both 
 physically during the hours of instruction, and mentally 
 through the reduction in the quantity of common 
 experience and intercommunication. 
 
 The systematic teaching of a foreign language to 
 children who are already established in one language 
 tends to follow as closely as possible the natural 
 method, even in the higher grades and in the high 
 schools. 
 
 76
 
 76 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. DESIRABILITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE 
 
 a. Broadens sympathies 
 
 b. Makes accessible thought and life of other peoples 
 
 c. Enhances vocational equipment 
 
 (1) Commercial 
 
 (2) Professional 
 
 d. Enriches appreciation of own language 
 
 2. ADVANTAGES OF LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGE EARLY 
 
 a. Comes most easily as imitation; 
 
 Two or three languages apparently learned as easily 
 as one 
 
 b. Child's tongue more flexible; 
 
 Pronunciation becomes more difficult as child gets 
 older 
 
 3. DISADVANTAGES OF LEARNING EARLY 
 
 a. Distracts time and energy from mother tongue 
 
 b. Decreases sensitiveness to words and sentence struc- 
 
 ture 
 
 c. Leads to confusion of words and idioms 
 
 d. Leaves traces of interfering thought forms 
 
 e. Leaves traces of impure accents 
 
 4. METHODS FOR OLDER CHILDREN 
 
 a. Replacement of formal methods 
 
 b. Ascendancy of direct methods 
 
 c. Appeal to interest 
 
 d. Use of hearing first, then sight 
 
 e. Encouragement of pupil through more rapid acquisi- 
 
 tion of usable fragments of language 
 
 f . Available at all ages 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Berle, a. a. — The School in the Home: 23-49 
 Henderson, C. Hanford — What Is It to he Educated? 
 
 225-254, 348-355 
 Mill, J. Stuart — Autobiography: 1-36
 
 FOREIGN LANGUAGES 77 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Ballard, A. W. — The Direct Method Applied to American 
 Schools: 
 Educational Review, LI, 447-456, May, 1916 
 
 Calvin, T. — Good and Bad Reasons for Studying Modern 
 Languages in School: 
 The Modern Language Journal, V, October, 1920 
 
 Handschin, C. H. — The Teaching of Modern Languages in 
 the United States: 
 United States Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, 
 No. 3, 94-100 (Contains excellent bibliography 
 for more detailed study) 
 
 Kraus, C. a. — Why the Direct Method of Teaching a Foreign 
 Language: 
 Educational Review, LI, 254-267, 1916 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — Lectures on Langu/ige and Linguistic Methods 
 
 Starch, D. — Experimental Data on the Value of Studying 
 Modern Languages: 
 School Review, XXIII, 697-703, 1915 
 
 ZiCK, H. — Teaching Modern Languages in European Sec- 
 ondary Schools: 
 Educational Review, LI, 488-510, 1916 
 
 Technical 
 
 Ellison, L. — Children's Capacity for Abstract Thought as 
 Shown by Their Use of Language in the Definition 
 of Abstract Terms: 
 American Journal of Psychology, XIX, 253-260, 1908 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Some Psychological Aspects of Teaching 
 Modern Languages: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 256-263, 1914
 
 19. MANNERS 
 
 No problem in child training better illustrates the 
 difficulties arising from a separation of form and sub- 
 stance, than does the teaching of manners. The out- 
 ward conformity to conventionalized usage, or its 
 absence, is obvious to all ; the feelings of considerateness 
 or kindliness which these manners ostensibly manifest 
 may or may not be present. 
 
 Good manners are important just to the extent 
 that they facilitate human intercourse, and reduce 
 friction, misunderstanding and ill-feeling. They 
 cease to be important when they degenerate into ex- 
 pensive manifestations of class distinctions, or into 
 symbols of social advantage or exclusiveness. In 
 other words, manners are important as standard 
 practice to enable people to carry on; they are worse 
 than useless if they are worn as ornaments. 
 
 If these assumptions are sound, the first considera- 
 tion should be to cultivate in children kindly feelings, 
 sympathy, considerateness, and regard for the rights 
 and privileges and feelings of others. These results, 
 however, are not to be accomplished merely, or even 
 chiefly, by means of precepts or admonitions; they are 
 the results primarily of the child's imitation of the acts 
 manifesting such feelings, and of attitudes observable 
 in the conduct of their surrounding elders. If we are 
 not kind to those about us, including the child, no 
 amount of exhortation to kindness will do the trick; no 
 
 78
 
 MANNERS 79 
 
 artificial smiles and courtesies will do it. In the worst 
 of surroundings people will evolve some sort of manners, 
 by precisely those methods which the race has used in 
 the long course of time; we want our children to profit 
 as far as may be from the accumulated experience of 
 the past, in manners as in other matters. We must 
 therefore use all the legitimate educational devices for 
 getting early and surely what would otherwise be 
 uncertainly and incompletely accomplished in a lifetime. 
 
 This involves, then, in the second place, in addition 
 to the favorable environment which carries the outward 
 and visible signs of an inward and spiritual grace, a 
 varying amount of instruction in the way of occasion- 
 ally calling to the child's attention what he might 
 otherwise overlook or disregard. But the emphasis 
 should be upon the inward meaning at least as much as 
 upon the outward form; we do thus and so not because 
 it is ''considered proper," or because it is being done 
 in "good society," but because thus do we help, or 
 arouse good feeling, or avoid irritation, and so on. 
 
 As in other teaching, results are proportional to the 
 child's interest and good will, rather than to the 
 amount of drill or the number and severity of penalties 
 for failure. 
 
 Much of the manners of each generation of children 
 is produced outside the home and is beyond the control 
 of parents. The pictures he sees, the conversation he 
 overhears, his reading, his companions, casual com- 
 ments, a ghmpse of reahty, all produce their effect. 
 Moreover, it is to be expected that the symbohsm of 
 every generation will become to a degree meaningless 
 to the next, and be replaced by new forms. In so far as
 
 80 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 manners represent morals, we must demand only that 
 our children's manners be genuine, and we must strive 
 to make their morals sound, leaving room in our teach- 
 ings for the new ways of a new day. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ASPECTS OF MANNERS 
 
 a. Conventional conduct 
 
 b. Manifestation of civil relations 
 
 c. Symbol of "good breeding" 
 
 2. IMPORTANCE OF MANNERS 
 
 a. Facilitate human intercourse — standard practice 
 
 b. Reflect upon attitudes 
 
 (1) Considerateness 
 
 (2) Kindliness 
 
 (3) Regard 
 
 (4) Fairness 
 
 c. Develop poise, ease of bearing 
 
 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS 
 
 a. Unconscious imitation 
 
 b. Influence of approval or disapproval 
 
 c. Pleasurable consequences — trial and error 
 
 d. Conscious ideals 
 
 e. Sex differences 
 
 4. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 
 
 a. Importance of living models 
 
 (1) Conversation 
 
 (2) Deference to elders and strangers 
 
 (3) Treatment of help, tradesmen, functionaries, 
 
 etc. 
 
 (4) Treatment of equals and of children 
 
 b. Incidental instruction and guidance 
 
 c. Parties and games as occasions for practice 
 
 d. Stories and other reading 
 
 e. The theater and movies as school of manners 
 
 f . The school's share in formation of manners 
 
 g. Preserving spontaneity and genuineness of children 
 h. Leaving room for change
 
 MANNERS 81 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 BiRNEY, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood: 
 Chap. XIII, "On Manners" 
 
 Emerson, Ralph W. — Essay on Behavior 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 285-288 
 
 Hall, F. M. — Boys, Girls, Manners: 
 Chap. II, "HospitaUty" 
 
 Henderson, C. H. — What is It to be Educated? 102-103, 
 144-147 
 
 James, W. — Talks to Teachers: 
 
 Chap. IV, "Education and Behavior"; 
 Chap. VI, "Native Reactions and Acquired Reac- 
 tions" 
 
 Lutes, D. T. — Child, Home, and School: Chap. XIII 
 
 O'Shea, M. V. — Everyday Problems in Child Training: 
 240-244 
 
 Sneath and Hodges — Moral Training in School and Home: 
 80-81 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, cmd 
 Hygiene: 22, 312 
 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. VIII, "The Development of the Racial In- 
 stinct," 186-187 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 374-378 
 
 O'Shea, M. V. — Social Development and Education: 136-143
 
 20. THE USE OF MONEY 
 
 Money plays an important role in modern life. 
 Children should have experience with it so that they 
 may learn to handle it wisely. With the control of 
 money goes responsibility for its proper use. Children 
 may receive payment for rendering useful service, but 
 not for doing personal favors, nor for meeting their 
 recognized obligations. 
 
 Allowances are neither favors nor payments; money 
 is a necessary part of the child's daily adjustment, in 
 the same way as is clothing or language. Allowances 
 are furthermore allotments of the family income, as 
 instruments of education in the use of money. 
 
 The child should have experience in earning money 
 as well as in spending it; and he should acquire a due 
 appreciation of its significance and value in human 
 relations, but the danger of making money-getting the 
 main end of all effort must be guarded against. 
 
 The child derives a certain satisfaction from giving, 
 and generous impulses to aid others should be en- 
 couraged. To give to charities in the name of the 
 child gives him illegitimate satisfactions, since such 
 giving involves no sacrifice on his part and no real 
 sharing or participation. Children must learn the 
 meaning of poverty and the more effective means for 
 dealing therewith. 
 
 82
 
 THE USE OF MONEY 83 
 
 OUTLINE 
 L LEARNING THE VALUE OF MONEY 
 
 a. The importance of money in modern life 
 
 b. Child learns through experience and example 
 
 c. Progressive experience through buying and spending 
 
 Buying own clothes, etc. 
 
 d. Learning cost of upkeep, etc. 
 
 Keeping accounts, use of check book 
 
 2. ALLOWANCES 
 
 a. At what age? Amounts? 
 
 b. Control of money received by child 
 
 c. Deductions and fines for damage, negligence, etc. 
 
 d. Should allowances be withheld as a means of disci- 
 
 pline? 
 
 3. EARNING MONEY 
 
 a. Paying for home services 
 
 b. What kind of work may be paid for? 
 
 (1) Favors vs. purchasable services 
 
 (2) Duties vs. purchasable services 
 
 c. Opportunities for earning; business enterprise 
 
 (1) Boys and girls 
 
 (2) City and country 
 
 d. Control of money earned 
 
 e. Growth of family allegiance through cooperation in 
 
 financial projects 
 
 f. Money "making" necessary but not an end of life 
 
 (See outHne "Acquisitiveness" on the property 
 sense) 
 
 4. SAVING 
 
 a. Saving not an end in itself 
 
 (1) Inherent individual tendencies toward saving 
 
 or spending 
 
 (2) Training of interest in a remote objective 
 
 b. Saving should be for specific purposes 
 
 c. Teaching thrift principles and habits 
 
 Money is nice to have — but what for?
 
 84 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 5. ALMSGIVING 
 
 a. Children's interest expands to sympathy with others 
 
 b. Children's experiences with the needs of others 
 
 c. Charitable organizations and long-distance giving 
 
 Dependent poor 
 
 d. Giving and sharing 
 
 6. IDEAL ATTITUDE 
 
 Balanced appreciation of money as a means toward 
 justifiable ends 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 EwALD, C. — My Little Boy: 43-51, 51-64 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughter^: 107, 310-318 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 "Ought Children to be Paid for Domestic Ser- 
 vice?" (B. Dismorr), Second Series, 62-70 
 "Children's Sense of .Money" (Anna Kohler), First 
 Series, 323-331 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Use of Money 
 
 Technical 
 
 Monroe, W. S. — The Money Sense of Children: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 152-158
 
 21. ACQUISITIVENESS 
 
 The child begins at about three years to gather to 
 himself whatever he lays hands upon. Girls and boys 
 early acquire the desire to enlarge their accumulation, 
 and interest in gifts is largely related to this desire. 
 Later they find that things are to be had as rewards of 
 various kinds of merit. Still later they sally forth to 
 get by whatever means is in their power, and in many 
 cases the interest leads to more or less systematic 
 barter, especially with boys; and not infrequently to 
 stealing. 
 
 There is no discrimination to begin with; gradually 
 the collection becomes speciaUzed under various 
 influences — what there is to be had, the suggestions 
 in the conversation or activities of elders, curiosity 
 (especially concerning objects of nature), and senti- 
 mental associations, such as souvenirs of parties, 
 programs, posters, and so on. 
 
 The interest in collecting is stimulated by the 
 desire to enlarge in comparison with others (rivalry), 
 by the approval and admiration that can be drawn 
 forth, and by the satisfaction of attaining a high 
 standard. On the subjective side, it is influenced by 
 the satisfaction of overcoming various difficulties in 
 the way of attaining the standard (prowess). The 
 interests are likely to change as the child grows in 
 esthetic discrimination, as he acquires new interests 
 out of his reading or schooling or new acquaintances, 
 
 85
 
 86 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 and as he becomes more exacting in systems and 
 classifications. 
 
 Although the child's collecting may end in a vain 
 "hobby" or in a garretful of junk, it is capable of 
 being guided into an instrument of genuine culture. 
 The collecting interest gives for the time being a basis 
 for unifying studies and other activities, leads to more 
 concentration and greater exertion. Even the collec- 
 tion of "useless" things furnishes opportunity for 
 acquiring special knowledge, and at least an apprecia- 
 tion of expertness and respect for authority founded on 
 expertness. It leads to excursions into remoter corners 
 of the world of people and things and ideas. 
 
 The child should be encouraged to work his interest 
 intensively; and the shifting to new interests with the 
 advancing years should not be disparaged. The 
 interests of the child manifested in his collecting should 
 not be taken too seriously as indicating a natural 
 "bent " or a special vocational capacity. In most cases 
 it is likely to indicate merely a stage of development, 
 or an incidental influence of the environment. Instead 
 of seizing upon such an interest that happens to appeal 
 to elders as the final index of a future career, we should 
 deplore rather an early setthng down to a specialty 
 while there is the possibiUty for advance to a higher 
 level. 
 
 Collecting, unguided and uncontrolled, has its 
 dangers. Pursued too intently it leads to loss of per- 
 spective, and even to ruthlessness, as in the collecting 
 of birds' nests, or in the collecting of "souvenirs" by 
 college boys and girls. It may lead to the accumula- 
 tion of worthless junk, and to the withholding from use
 
 ACQUISITIVENESS 87 
 
 by others of materials that might be useful. Old 
 clothes, magazines, and books are junk in one house; in 
 another they might be truly useful and might better be 
 put to work wherever possible. But we also dislike to 
 throw away broken bric-a-brac and old furniture and 
 old letters that are of no earthly use to anyone. There 
 is the further danger of establishing false standards of 
 value through the artificial emphasis upon rarities; 
 snobbishness and pedantry and specious reput ability 
 feed upon the "pretentious rubbish" of the collector. 
 Whether as an avocation to supplement and enrich the 
 everyday activities, or as the chief interest in life, 
 collecting in some form or other serves to give color and 
 intensity to the later years. 
 
 The things the child acquires, whether in the early 
 unconscious stage, or in the later deliberate, purposeful 
 and systematic stage, are valued as expansions of the 
 personality; and property has its true significance 
 just in so far as it adds to spiritual stature. There is 
 thus grave danger in the development of property 
 interests on lower levels. Children should be en- 
 couraged to explore, to concentrate, and to clear the 
 deck for what has been selected as worth while. But 
 always explore further, and clear away what has been 
 rejected, or what is unused. Try out everything, but 
 not all at one time. The unused and the duplicate 
 should make way for what is of relatively lasting 
 interest. The collection may be the nucleus of a 
 museum or of a competence; it may also be the begin- 
 ning of a barbarous junk heap, or of miserliness. 
 
 The child's attitude toward the property of others 
 is a gradual development from his exclusive and
 
 88 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 jealous interest in his own. It is possible in the early 
 years to teach a child to consider the rights of others, 
 and certainly to refrain from abusing other people's 
 belongings. Later he can transfer to other people the 
 feehngs he has about his own things, and eventually 
 come to regard the ''rights" of property in the abstract, 
 not as distinguished from the rights of people, but as 
 a phase of human rights. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Tendency to gather indiscriminately begins at about 
 
 three years 
 
 b. As pronounced in girls as in boys ; may take different 
 
 forms 
 
 c. Gradually specialized under external influences 
 
 (1) Nature of available objects 
 / (2) Fashions — imitation and suggestion 
 
 (3) Curiosity 
 
 (4) Sentiment 
 
 d. Stimulated by rivalry 
 
 (1) Admiration and approval 
 
 (2) Desire to achieve; exploit 
 
 e. Modified by development of esthetic discrimination 
 
 or taste, and of intellectual powers 
 
 (1) Development of interest in system 
 
 (2) Changing interests and sentiments 
 
 2. FORMS 
 
 a. Sources 
 
 (1) Begins with random gathering in of miscellane- 
 
 ous articles 
 
 (2) Grows with reliance upon gifts 
 
 (3) Shifts to seeking rewards of "merit" 
 
 (4) Becomes desire to get as result of exertion 
 
 '^ (5) Usually ends in pursuit, in form of trade or 
 
 barter
 
 ACQUISITIVENESS 89 
 
 b. Incidence 
 
 (1) Odds and ends 
 
 (2) Bits of colored material — ribbons, glass, stone 
 
 (3) Pictures, coins, stamps 
 
 (4) Nature objects — insects, minerals, feathers, 
 
 flowers 
 
 (5) Books, autographs, portraits, historic me- 
 
 mentoes 
 
 (6) Trophies, souvenirs 
 
 (7) Rarities, antiques, objects of vertu, the unique 
 
 (8) An element in "business interest" 
 
 BENEFITS 
 
 a. Develops unifying interests and purposes, leading to 
 
 concentration of effort 
 
 b. Gives stimulus to planning and exertion 
 
 c. Develops special knowledge, relative expertness and 
 
 discrimination, ideas of order and classification 
 
 d. Leads to wider exploration into world of people and 
 
 things 
 
 e. Furnishes basis of consideration for the property 
 
 rights of others 
 
 f. Furnishes suggestions for later hobbies — "nature's 
 
 antidote against future boredom" 
 
 DANGERS 
 
 a. Loss of perspective through overemphasis 
 
 b. Ruthlessness through overintensity 
 
 c. Accumulation of useless junk 
 
 d. Relegation to idleness of useful objects and materials 
 
 e. Forcing of artificial interests and values, development 
 
 of exclusiveness, snobbishness, or pedantry on 
 basis of the "pretentious rubbish" 
 
 f. Enthusiast may become a bore 
 
 CONTROL 
 
 a. Explore ; the child should be encouraged to search for 
 
 new fields 
 
 b. Concentrate; the child should be encouraged to work 
 
 his immediate interest as intensively as possible, 
 with regard to time and energy and other de- 
 mands
 
 90 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 c. Advance; do not attach too much significance to the 
 
 material or the form of the collection at any 
 given time 
 
 d. Clear the deck; the child should be constantly en- 
 
 couraged to get rid as completely as may be of the 
 objects he is no longer "collecting" and of the 
 "duplicates" he has — both to make room for new 
 things, and to avoid idleness of the "useful" 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 104-107 
 HuBBELL, L. E. — The Child and His Room: 
 
 The House Beautiful, XLVII, 358-362, April, 1920 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 289-293 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Educational Psychology; Briefer Course: 20 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 " Children's Collections " (Earl Barnes), First Series, 
 
 144-146 
 "Children's Plays" (Genevra Sisson), First Series, 
 
 171-174 
 Darwin, Charles — Life and Letters: 1, 28, 31, 37, 38, 43 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 205-207 
 NoRswoRTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 
 
 52-54, 299 
 Waddle, C. W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 216-218 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall and Smith — Aspects of Child Life and Education: 
 "The Collecting Instinct" (Caroline Frear Burk), 
 205-240 (Reprinted from Pedagogical Seminary, 
 VII, 179-207, 1900)
 
 ACQUISITIVENESS 91 
 
 "The Psychology of Ownership" (France and 
 KUne), 241-286 (Reprinted from Pedagogical 
 Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899) 
 
 King, Ieving — Psychology of Child Development: 179-180 
 
 WiLTSE AND Hall — Children's Collections: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, I, 234-237, 1893
 
 22. INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 
 
 In the infant we may observe many movements 
 that are apparently set off by some external stimulus, 
 and others that seem to arise from something happening 
 within the child. While in a strict sense we cannot 
 conceive of activities being spontaneous, we may dis- 
 tinguish from the random and impulsive movements 
 those that appear to be related to the child's interests. 
 Where there is an element of choice, of prolonged 
 attention, of absorption to the disregard of stimulations 
 that would ordinarily ehcit a response, we have an 
 indication of something related to the individuaUty of 
 the child. Early in his development, however, there 
 begin to operate influences that restrict these spon- 
 taneous actions and interests, and interfere with them 
 in various ways. 
 
 The child is obHged to confine himself to lines of 
 conduct that are either approved or ignored by the 
 more powerful personalities of his environment. Some 
 of the things he is incHned to do are solemnly con- 
 demned as ''wrong," or are arbitrarily forbidden. 
 " Don't " comes to be the most familiar imperative; and 
 to the child the distinctions between what is permitted 
 or tolerated and what is forbidden, are very vague and 
 meaningless. 
 
 Yet it is quite necessary that the primitive freedom 
 of the child should be restrained. Nothing in the 
 nature of the organisms insures that the spontaneous 
 
 92
 
 INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 93 
 
 movements shall be at worst harmless. There is con- 
 stant danger of coming in conflict with the solid realities 
 and injurious forces of the surroundings. There are 
 stairs that permit painful falls, there are hot points 
 and surfaces that burn, there are things small enough to 
 put into the mouth but better kept out. Moreover, 
 there are other people, who will either receive considera- 
 tion or cause trouble. And finally, there are complex 
 relations between human beings that demand the 
 complete repression of many kinds of actions that are in 
 themselves neither good nor bad. All of these facts 
 impose the necessity for the ehmination of certain types 
 of interests and activities ; and the child must attain to 
 an adjustment to these facts whether he retains any 
 spontaneity or not. Unfortunately, for most people 
 there is retained only an insignificant area of free action, 
 or one that interferes substantially with their happy 
 relation to others. 
 
 It is possible to attain to social adjustment and at 
 the same time to retain a considerable amount of intel- 
 lectual and spiritual independence. There should be 
 provided for the child, from the earliest days, an ample 
 and a growing opportunity for spontaneous activity 
 in surroundings that are not only safe, but stimulating. 
 A great variety of material for playing and for making, 
 such as is so elaborately systematized in the kinder- 
 garten, or in the Montessori school, furnishes this 
 opportunity. A wide range, with freedom of choice, 
 encouragement in the simple efforts, the example of 
 older people trying to make things, to make up a song, 
 to tell a story, to draw a picture, furnish for the young 
 child the stimulus and at the same time the control for
 
 94 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 spontaneity and initiative. As the child grows older 
 he becomes aware of the relative values placed by his 
 contemporaries upon strict compliance with the con- 
 ventional, as against the inventive and original. The 
 child will need help in solving problems, in selecting 
 problems; he will need guidance to avoid serious blunders 
 or damage. But unnecessary restraints should never 
 be imposed on the theory that they have some magical 
 "disciplinary" value; nor should assistance extend to 
 the point of making him lean too heavily upon others. 
 Not every child is a genius, but every normal child 
 should have the opportunity to make the most of 
 himself, especially on the side of his distinctive qualities. 
 This means that we must cultivate ideals that make for 
 an honest experimental attitude, as against the lazy 
 acceptance of convenient finalities, that make for 
 courageous and aggressive facing of problems and of 
 one's own thoughts, as against the complacent accept- 
 ance of current but meaningless formulas. Beginning 
 with the shapeless movements that are satisfying in 
 themselves, we must seek to help the child develop well 
 organized, systematic schemes of action that fit into a 
 world of concrete realities, and that are under the guid- 
 ance not of whim or blind impulse, or of conventional 
 routine, but of reasoned principle. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 1. SOURCES OF ACTION 
 
 a. Movements forced in response to stimuli 
 
 b. "Spontaneous" action distinguished from random or 
 
 impulsive 
 
 c. Acquired modes of response to familiar or conven- 
 
 tional suggestion
 
 INITIATIVE AND SPONTANEITY 95 
 
 2. FREEDOM AND COERCION 
 
 a. Exposure to repressive influences 
 
 (1) Intimidation 
 
 (2) Disapprobation 
 
 b. Artificial and arbitrary criteria 
 
 c. Conventionalized inertia 
 
 3. CONTROLLED SPONTANEITY 
 
 a. Limitations on freedom 
 
 (1) The environment of matter and force 
 
 (2) The human restrictions 
 
 (3) Social needs 
 
 b. Achievement of control 
 
 4. TRAINING FOR INITIATIVE 
 
 a. Opportunity for self-expression 
 
 b. Encouragement 
 
 c. Stimulating example 
 
 d. Avoidance of too much help 
 
 e. Avoidance of arbitrary restraints 
 
 5. IDEAL AIMS 
 
 a. Experimental attitude 
 
 b. Courage to think through 
 
 c. Respect for objective reality 
 
 d. Direction by rational considerations 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Clapp, Henry Lincoln — The Development of Spontaneity, 
 Initiative, and Responsibility in School Children: 
 Education, XLI, 209-221, December, 1920 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 151-159 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Education for Initiative and Originality: 
 Teachers' College Record, XVIII
 
 96 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow: 
 Chap. VI, "Freedom and Individuality" 
 
 Hughes, James L. — FroebeVs Educational Laws: 154-178, 
 222-247 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 310- 
 323 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Individuality 
 
 Technical 
 
 Richards, Albertina A. — Motive in Education: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXVIII, 60-72, 1921
 
 23. AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 
 
 From unconsciously reaching out toward the objects 
 that catch his attention, and from unconsciously 
 imitating the actions and expressions of the people he 
 sees, the child gradually comes to be aware of wanting 
 things that are not present to his senses, and of wanting 
 to be like, or to do like, persons he does not see. When 
 the imagination has developed to a certain point, it 
 combines elements of past experience in new ways; and 
 any such combination that appeals to the child as 
 worthy of reahzation, becomes an ''ideal." 
 
 The personal ideals are thus constructed out of 
 observed models, to begin with. To be like father or 
 like mother, to have the power or the things that grown 
 folks have, to do what the mighty and admired men and 
 women of the limited environment — these become 
 objects of the heart's desire. 
 
 Ideals are progressive just because (and just to the 
 extent that) experience and ideas grow. The early 
 models that the child adopts are expanded and refined 
 through the influence of stories heard, pictures seen, 
 books read, personalities felt, through the witnessing 
 of drama upon the stage and in real life. 
 
 From a desire to secure pleasure or satisfaction for 
 himself, the child passes to an attitude toward his 
 group — he seeks both the recognition or admiration of 
 others and the opportunity to serve others. From the 
 hero as embodiment of envied or admired virtues, 
 
 97
 
 ^8 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 serving as an extraneous model, the ideal is assimilated 
 until the child comes to impersonate his hero and to 
 play the role as well as he can. In the end the attributes 
 of this ideal person become abstracted as principles or 
 rules of conduct. With each successive ideal or 
 ambition, the child may be guided into establishing 
 habits of conduct or of attitude that correspond to the 
 outstanding virtues of the ideal and of the period. 
 
 It is necessary to give the child not only an ever 
 growing opportunity to acquire new ideals, but also 
 every encouragement to put the present ideals into 
 practice. Otherwise there is no means for determining 
 relative values of ideals, or their practicability. We 
 must guard on the one hand against disparaging untried 
 ideals, with the danger of cynicism or indifference to all 
 ideahsm; and on the other hand, against approving a 
 vague reverence for untried ideals, with the correspond- 
 ing danger of sentimentalism. 
 
 Since the ideals expand with the child's acquaintance 
 in the world of human conduct and relations, attention 
 should be directed to the companions, literature, and 
 amusements, that furnish him so much of his incidental 
 information. The school, the church, the theater, the 
 current magazines and newspapers contribute more 
 or less systematically to the ideals of the rising genera- 
 tion. 
 
 Almost from the earliest years the child needs help 
 in formulating his ideals and purposes. This aid comes 
 largely in the form of precepts and proverbs, epigrams 
 and aphorisms. But we should neither depend too 
 much upon them as effective guides to the child's 
 decisions in conduct; nor commend them too pointedly
 
 AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 99 
 
 as valid guides. As the child grows older the oppor- 
 tunity to clear up his own thoughts and feelings through 
 discussions with companions and with more mature 
 persons can be of decided help. 
 
 At every stage the child should be encouraged to live 
 up to his ideal even at a sacrifice, for it is better to 
 hold fast and fail, than to weaken and gain through a 
 mischance. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. NATURE AND SOURCES 
 
 a. Conscious imagining of desires 
 
 b. Progressively modified during growth 
 
 c. Influenced by experience and suggestion 
 
 2. DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a. Desire for objects — things that yield pleasure 
 
 b. Imitation of heroes 
 
 c. Eagerness to excel (rivalry) 
 
 d. Abstract principles of conduct 
 
 3. USES 
 
 a. Furnish stimvihis to effort 
 
 b. Offer opportunity for inculcating desirable habits 
 
 c. Serve as nucleus for unifying interests, studies, etc. 
 
 d. Make possible development of a compelling purpose 
 
 e. Determine choice of career and of level of conduct 
 
 4. DANGERS 
 
 a. Indulgence in fantasy and day-dreaming, as escape 
 
 from reality and responsibility 
 
 b. Over-reaching to the impossible, ending in sentimen- 
 
 talism 
 
 c. Fixation at low level of satisfaction 
 
 d. Loss of faith in ideals
 
 100 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 5. GUIDANCE AND CONTROL 
 
 a. Example of surrounding personalities in home 
 
 b. Companions 
 
 c. Literature; biography 
 
 d. Stimulation and inspiration of school, church, theater, 
 
 etc. 
 
 e. Opportunity for graded objective experience 
 
 f. Aid in formulating purposes 
 
 g. Encouragement to hold fast 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Children's Ideals: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 3-12, 1900 
 
 Studies in Education: 
 
 "Children's Ambitions" (Hattie Mason Willard), 
 
 Second Series, 243-253 
 
 Bateman, W, G. — The Ideals of Some Western Children: 
 Educational Review, LI, 21-39 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. XI, "Children's Ideals and Ambitions" 
 Sons and Daughters: 
 "The Passing Ideal," 71-74; 
 "The DabbUng Adolescent," 75-78 
 
 Non^Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 "Type Study in Ideals" (Earl Barnes), Second 
 Series, 37-40, 78-80, 115-120, 157-160, 198-200, 
 237-240, 277-280, 319-320, 359-360 
 
 Bateman, W. G. — Some Western Ideals in the High School: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXIII, 570-584, 1916 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — Adler's Theory of Minderwertigkeit: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXII, 204-217, 1915
 
 AMBITIONS AND IDEALS 101 
 
 Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 "Negative Ideals" (Henry H. Goddard), Second 
 Series, 392-398 
 
 Chambers — W. G. — The Evolution of Ideals: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, X, 101-143, 1903 
 
 Hill, D. S. — Comparative Study of Children's Ideals: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 219-231, 1911
 
 24. RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 
 
 We are all rather completely immersed in competi- 
 tive pursuits. As a result, most of us are likely to take 
 the feelings of rivalry and the corresponding modes of 
 conduct for granted as natural. Moreover, most of us 
 are likely to justify these feelings and conduct as right 
 or necessary despite the obvious damage from the 
 scheme of relationships which habitual competition 
 involves. 
 
 What lies back of the competitive mode of behavior 
 is probably not a simple instinct or trait of "human 
 nature," but a speciahzed form of the desire for being 
 noticed, influenced by the imitation of what is going on 
 around us. The child begins very early to imitate 
 movements, sounds, facial expressions, gestures that 
 he observes; sooner or later he discovers that the 
 various tricks which at first yielded satisfaction in 
 themselves, or through the attention they drew upon 
 him, cease to satisfy ; and the only way he has of getting 
 attention is to do what others are doing, but to a 
 degree that is superlative. This rivalry is analogous 
 to the strutting of the male birds or the coy preenings 
 of the female ; these performances stimulate the animals 
 to further efforts in the same direction, and give the 
 appearance of "competition." 
 
 The value of rivalry for the developing child lies in 
 bringing to his attention, and stimulating his efforts 
 for, a variety of activities, and so in acquainting him 
 
 102
 
 RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 103 
 
 with the degrees to which he may hope to master the 
 different kinds of activity. His successes, in addition 
 to the skill derived from the effort and practice, con- 
 tribute to his self-esteem; his failures ought at least to 
 contribute to his respect for others. 
 
 There are dangers, however, in too insistent an 
 emphasis upon the importance of attaining the extreme 
 of achievement, or of excelling. After all, we cannot 
 excel in everything; and most of us cannot excel in 
 anything. To make the child value too highly the 
 winning in every competition or contest, instead of 
 the game, is not only to destroy his sportsmanship, but 
 to lay the foundations for more or less serious inferiority 
 complexes. These hurt the child by destroying his self- 
 esteem, by driving him to socially undesirable modes of 
 self-assertion, and by making him rationalize his own 
 status through disparaging the achievement of others. 
 This makes for envy, discontent, and hostility to the 
 group. 
 
 There are of course corresponding dangers to the 
 conceit and self-sufficiency of the child who does early 
 excel in the few things he has attempted, and who 
 is shrewd enough to avoid competition in doubtful 
 directions. 
 
 The development of the child's personality through 
 experience in competitive efforts should be directed 
 toward the discovery of satisfactions in group activities 
 that teach loyalty, cooperation and sacrifice toward 
 satisfaction involving not the individual's distinction 
 but the team's, or school's, or club's distinction, and 
 to that extent an enlargement of the child's capacity 
 to serve and to identify himself with the common
 
 104 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 interest. His personality should grow through his 
 identification of himself with progressively larger 
 groups. The interest should further be directed toward 
 the discovery of values, the pursuit of which will yield 
 satisfaction without involving loss or injury to others, 
 and which will at the same time make the self-assertion 
 distinctive and fruitful of the kind of recognition that is 
 desired. 
 
 The child needs opportunities for discovering as 
 much as possible of what is worth doing, of his own 
 capacities and Umitations, and of what distinctive 
 combinations of effort will yield the greatest value. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE NATURE OF RIVALRY 
 
 a. Comparison with lower animals 
 
 b. Source in self-assertiveness or desire for recognition 
 
 c. Conditioned by imitativeness 
 
 2. THE VALUE OF COMPETITIVE ACTIVITIES 
 
 a. The discovery of what kinds of activities there are 
 
 b. The discovery of own abilities and limitations 
 
 c. Stimulation to maximum effort 
 
 d. Respect for achievement of others 
 
 e. Development of group loyalties 
 
 3. THE DANGERS IN OVEREMPHASIS ON EXCELLING 
 
 a. To the winners 
 
 (1) Complacency and conceit 
 
 (2) Contempt for divergent types of achievement 
 
 (3) Lack of sympathy for others 
 
 b. To the losers 
 
 (1) Inferiority complexes 
 
 (2) Disparagement of conventional values 
 
 (3) Envy and discontent 
 
 (4) Hostility toward the group
 
 RIVALRY AND COMPETITION 105 
 
 c. To both winners and losers 
 
 (1) Distorted scale of values 
 
 (2) Arrest of development 
 
 4. THE NEEDS OF THE CHILD 
 
 a. Opportunity to discover own potentialities and limita- 
 
 tions 
 
 b. Opportunity for getting approval and recognition in 
 
 worthy achievement, whether in work, study, or 
 play 
 
 c. Opportunity to transfer the competitive interest 
 
 (1) From himself to the group 
 
 (2) From childish and cheap or conventional aims 
 
 to selected and distinctive aims 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 Drummond, W. B. — ^n Introduction to Child Study: 170, 
 220-221 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 144-147 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XXIV, "Big Injun," 328-331 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and 
 
 Hygiene: 83-86 
 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 68- 
 70, 208-209, 219-297 
 
 Tanner, A. E, — The Child: 65, 326 
 
 Techyiical 
 
 WooDWORTH, R. S. — Dynamic Psychology: 165-166, 489, 
 543
 
 25. CLUBS AND GANGS 
 
 The undifferentiated gregariousness which, in the 
 young child, finds comfort in the mere presence of 
 others, gradually gives way to a more discriminating 
 segregation of the like-minded. The boys and girls 
 will flock by themselves; and soon a number of boys 
 cUng together sufficiently to constitute a gang. They 
 are apparently held together about as much by their 
 aversion to other folks, especially older folks, as by 
 what they find interesting in one another. The 
 groupings of girls are not, as a rule, either so large, so 
 coherent, or so persistent as are those of boys. Girls 
 seem to be more easily satisfied with closer and more 
 restricted intimacies. 
 
 The activities of these groups vary from communal 
 dawdhngto the most ambitious projecting of andprepa- 
 ration for grand adventures on land and sea. For the 
 most part, however, they consist of playing games, 
 fighting other gangs, hunting or fishing, robbing 
 orchards, annoying unpopular neighbors, and holding 
 secret meetings in the role of pirates or highwaymen. 
 Occasionally these gangs persist, especially in the 
 larger cities, in the form of athletic or social clubs. 
 
 As in most of the spontaneous manifestations of 
 children's impulses, these groupings and activities 
 have in them both dangers and potentialities of great 
 social and personal value. The great danger lies in the 
 fact that leadership is random, that the community 
 
 106
 
 CLUBS AND GANGS 107 
 
 too easily antagonizes the group and its members, and 
 that no provision appears for the stimulation of the 
 further development of the gang's virtues. The 
 possibilities for making valuable contributions to the 
 development of its members and to the community as 
 a whole, appear from the very characteristics that dis- 
 tinguish the "bad" gang — extreme loyalty, readiness 
 for self-sacrifice, and the spirit of cooperation and 
 fidelity. These are all forces making for a high degree 
 of solidarity. If this sohdarity is enabled to expand 
 to the larger community, the result is in every respect 
 desirable. 
 
 A recognition of the possibilities latent in the gang 
 conspired with other forces about 1910, resulted in 
 systematic efforts to organize and standardize gang 
 interests, gang activities, and gang virtues into the 
 "Boy Scouts" and kindred organizations. Similar 
 experiments in large numbers were made on a small 
 scale in this country and various European countries 
 twenty or more years earlier. The Boy Scout move- 
 ment started at a time when all the conditions were 
 favorable, and when a few leaders of ability and imagi- 
 nation were available. Although boys do not, as a rule, 
 accept as readily as do girls direction of their gangs 
 from without, these large organizations have operated 
 in a manner that removes the appearance of external 
 direction, and that provides all the conditions favorable 
 to the stimulation of the very best of the social impulses 
 of youth.
 
 108 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE INTEGRATION OF GANGS 
 
 a. Spontaneous aggregation 
 
 b. Separation from outsiders 
 
 c. Development of common group interests 
 
 d. Appearance of leadership 
 
 e. Sex differences 
 
 2. THE ACTIVITIES 
 
 (More distinctive with boys) 
 
 a. Hunting, fishing, etc. 
 
 b. Quest of adventure 
 
 c. Tribal occupations 
 
 d. Fighting other gangs 
 
 e. Athletics and games 
 
 3. EFFECTS OF THE GANG 
 
 a. The gang virtues, tribal virtues 
 
 (1) "Be loyal to friend, be liar to enemy" 
 
 (2) Obedience to law (of the gang) 
 
 (3) SeK-sacrifice 
 
 (4) Cooperation 
 
 (5) Solidarity 
 
 b. The dangers 
 
 (1) Anti-social fixation 
 
 (2) Dissipation and failure to mature 
 
 (3) Misdirection through vicious leadership 
 
 c. The possibilities 
 
 (1) Discipline of the individual 
 
 (2) Development of social consciousness 
 
 (3) Adjustment of personality to others 
 
 4. DIRECTION AND GUIDANCE 
 
 a. Help in organization 
 
 b. Legitimization 
 
 c. Provision of meeting place 
 
 d. Standardization of pursuits and procedure 
 
 e. Formulation of ideals 
 
 f. Educational possibihties in Boy Scout and kindred 
 
 movements 
 
 g. Utihzation for systematic education 
 
 h. Possibilities for mixed clubs (boys and girls)
 
 CLUBS AND GANGS 109 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Curtis, H. S. — The Boy Scouts: 
 
 Educational Review, L, 495-508, 1915 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. — The Boy Problem: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Ways in Which Boys Spontaneously 
 
 Organize Socially"; 
 Chap. IV, "Social Organizations Formed for Boys 
 by Adults" 
 The Coming Generation: 
 Chap. VI, "How a Child Does His Thinking," 
 81-84, 346-353 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 57, 293-296 
 Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap, X, "Children's Gangs, Clubs, and Friend- 
 ships" 
 KiRTLEY, J. S. — That Boy of Yours: 
 Chap. XIV, "His Gang"; 
 Chap XV, "His Chums"; 
 Chap. XXII, "Organizing Boys" 
 Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 
 
 Chap. II, "The General Nature of the Gang"; 
 Chap. VI, "The Anthropology and Psychology of 
 
 the Gang"; 
 Chap. XI, "The Special Virtues of the Gang"; 
 Chap. XII, "The Gang in Constructive Social 
 Work" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 54, 
 
 118-120 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XXXIX, "Play and Drudgery"; 
 
 Chap. XL, "The Land of the Leal"; 
 
 Chap. XLI, "The Gang Standard"
 
 no OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Sheldon, H. D, — The Institutional Activities of American 
 Children: 
 American Journal of Psychology, IX, 425-448, 1898 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence; II, 396-404, 412-418, 
 428-430 
 
 Hartson, L. D. — The Psychology of the Club: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 353-414, 1911 
 
 Pamphlets 
 
 Boy Scouts of America 
 
 Scouting for Boys 
 
 What Scouts Do 
 
 The Manual of the Campfire Girls 
 
 The Woodcraft Manual for Boys 
 
 The Woodcraft Manual for Girl*
 
 26. FIGHTING 
 
 The most prominent emotional accompaniment of 
 fighting is anger, which is the feeling aroused primarily 
 by the restraint of action, and later by the frustration 
 of impulses by some discoverable agent. Thus we are 
 angry at the man who gets in our way as we are hurrying 
 to catch a train, but only a childish mind will feel anger 
 toward a storm that interferes with his plans. The 
 so-called fighting instinct is rather a complex of many 
 impulses. The hitting back element is obvious enough, 
 but does not account for the initiation of fighting. 
 There is present, in degrees varying with individuals as 
 well as with sex, the desire to inflict pain as seen in 
 bullying and teasing, or to receive pain (the masochistic 
 impulse) as seen also in a certain form of teasing, which 
 seems to be an invitation to "punishment." Both of 
 these may be special forms of self-assertiveness, or 
 unconscious search for attention or recognition. But 
 neither bullying nor teasing is perhaps altogether a 
 simple matter. There is present in fighting a relic of 
 feeUngs that point back, so to say, to the satisfaction 
 of the hunt and chase. And finally there is an element 
 suggestive of rivalry combat. This shows itself 
 strikingly in the fighting spirit aroused during later 
 adolescence, when the appearance of a second male 
 converts the good company of the female into an 
 extremely irritating situation for the first one. 
 
 The defensive and offensive activities constituting 
 
 111
 
 112 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 fight, have biological meaning in so far as they serve as 
 adaptive means for protection against inimical factors 
 of the environment and for the conquest of prey for 
 food, etc. 
 
 On the social plane fighting has been of value in the 
 conflicts of groups, tribes, nations, and so on; but is 
 probably to-day, in civilized man, a vestige fraught 
 with dangers if allowed to take its course undirected. 
 
 In the development of the child there are dangers 
 connected in the first place with the direct injuries 
 resulting from the use of force out of proportion to his 
 judgment and control (the risk of serious physical injury 
 increasing with age). In the second place there are 
 dangers connected with the estabUshment of attitudes 
 or values on relatively low stages of personal or social 
 evolution. 
 
 In the child's training it is therefore necessary in 
 the first place to allow frank fighting with children of 
 his own size, in order that the emotions leading to the 
 activities may not be repressed and turned into brooding 
 hatred and vindictiveness. It is good psychology to 
 let the child ''work off" his anger, or "get it out of his 
 system.". On the other hand, bullying an^ teasing 
 should be discouraged; although the most effective 
 discouragement is likely to come from a thorough-going 
 thrashing administered by a worm that has turned, or 
 by some other child. Later substitutes can be found 
 in wrestling and boxing and in organized athletic con- 
 tests in which the fight elements are more or less con- 
 ventionalized. Apart from the psychological effects 
 upon the circulation and glands, these contests have the 
 further advantage of training the child for deliberate
 
 FIGHTING 113 
 
 and calculating action while under stress, a very 
 important means of a*ttaining to control of temper and 
 moods. 
 
 Alongside of the training for control should proceed 
 the training that transfers the anger reaction from the 
 personal and physical restraints to the social and ideal 
 frustrations. This is, of course, a part of that training 
 which on the one hand enlarges the individual's con- 
 sciousness of "self" to include his family, school, com- 
 munity, nation, race — and on the other hand projects 
 his sensitiveness to injury from his own skin to the 
 vaguer but no less real concepts of '' fair play," "honor," 
 "justice," etc. 
 
 The fighting "instinct " may thus be preserved while 
 it is bekig guided to function on progressively higher 
 stages of human worth. Instead of becoming a bully 
 or a pugilist there is the possibility of becoming a 
 knight perpetually combating disease, or corruption, or 
 poverty, or injustice, or ignorance — or war; and with 
 the growth of knowledge and power and self-confidence 
 the negative and antagonistic forces may eventually 
 become the drive for positive and constructive efforts. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. COMPOSITION 
 
 a. Anger 
 
 b. Self-assertiveness 
 
 (1) Bullying 
 
 (2) Teasing 
 
 c. Chase and flight 
 
 d. Rivalry-combat
 
 114 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 2. USES 
 
 a. Biological 
 
 b. Social 
 
 3. DANGERS 
 
 a. Disproportionate effects 
 
 b. Fixations 
 
 4. TRAINING 
 
 a. Fighting as discipline 
 
 b. Sublimation to higher levels 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Abbott, E. H. — On the Training of Parents: 
 
 Chap. V, "For 'Tis Their Nature To" 
 
 Dickinson, G. A. — Your Boy: 13, 83-88 
 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 6-12 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 127-130 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 BoGARDUS, E. S. — Essentials of Social Psychology: 68-71, 
 221-236 
 
 James, William — The Moral Equivalent of War: 
 
 International Conciliation, No. 27, February, 1910 
 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 104-106 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XXV, "The Fighting Instinct" 
 
 McDouGALL, W. — Social Psychology: 
 
 Chap. XI, "Instinct of Pugnacity" 
 
 NoRswoRTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 54-, 
 57, 89-91
 
 FIGHTING 115 
 
 Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 65-71, 88-93 
 Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 37-40 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 322-324 
 
 Technical 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: I, 353-357
 
 27. PLAY 
 
 That type of puritanism that considers play a device 
 of the devil to mislead the children of man is perhaps 
 not more ancient than the insight which observes the 
 dulling effect of the repression of play impulses. How- 
 ever annoying the shouts of children at play may be 
 to a nervous adult trying to nap while the sun is 
 shining, however it may irritate us to see the children 
 prefer their foolish games to the very precious lessons 
 we seek to impress upon them, it remains true that 
 play, whether considered as an impulse or as an 
 indulgence, is neither wicked nor useless. 
 
 There are two groups of theories as to the meaning 
 of the play impulse in children, neither of them alto- 
 gether satisfactory. According to the one, children 
 do what they do as a preparation for the serious business 
 they will have to carry on later. This assumes a 
 purposeful implanting of impulses that have relations 
 to needs that are to appear later, or an evolution of 
 types in which the results of play during childhood 
 were of survival value to adults. If one is willing to 
 accept this kind of "explanation," he might as well 
 ask for the implanting of instincts that are ready to 
 work when needed. There is here an overemphasis 
 on the supposed adaptiveness of all human traits, or a 
 frank teleology. 
 
 The other group of theories assumes the so-called 
 law of biogenesis as universally applicable, and accord- 
 
 116
 
 PLAY 117 
 
 ingly looks upon the succession of impulses that the 
 child manifests in the course of the years as a recapitula- 
 tion of the outstanding activities of the various stages 
 in our ancestral history. This implies that the 
 cultural stage of the race at any time is the expression 
 of the organic evolution attained, or that somehow the 
 adjustive responses to the environment become fixed 
 in the heritage of the race. 
 
 Perhaps it suffices to look upon play as impulses to 
 action due to the general complexity and irritabiUty 
 of the organism, the form of the play being determined 
 by a combination of influences in the materials and 
 processes present in the environment. Play is thus the 
 progressively organized spontaneous activity of the 
 child as distinguished from activity that is either 
 mechanically acquired and meaningless routine move- 
 ment, or outwardly directed or enforced "work." 
 
 From this viewpoint we can at once see "play" 
 directly i elated to an optimum of physical exertion 
 and to a high emotional tone of a generally pleasurable 
 quality, both making for physical and spiritual health. 
 Moreover, as the child learns from his experiences, his 
 play reacts upon his mental processes, and so influences 
 further associations, thinking habits, and skill, as well 
 as his mental content. 
 
 For these reasons the spontaneous activities and 
 interests require guidance both in the sense of protecting 
 children against injurious or excessive activities, and 
 in the positive sense of furnishing them opportunities 
 and materials suitable to their successive stages of 
 development, to their prevailing interests, and to their 
 temperamental requirements. In this way the play
 
 118 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 of the child, from the shaking of a rattle to the organiza- 
 tion of amateur theatricals for the benefit of unfortu- 
 nates, is a vital education, and a progressive adjustment 
 to the finding of satisfaction in arduous, constructive 
 effort. The development of skill and endurance, the 
 cultivation of persistence and courage, are quite within 
 the effects of an intelligent direction of play interests. 
 Because play is spontaneous as well as unproductive 
 in a direct economic sense, children have been largely 
 left to their own resources, in too many cases with 
 incalculably injurious results. As we come to see the 
 importance of play both for the health and happiness 
 of the child day by day, and for his best development, 
 we must make more provision for play materials and 
 opportunities in school as well as in the home, and 
 eventually in the community at large. Through 
 playgrounds and parks, through recreation centers and 
 amusement halls, properly directed and supervised, 
 the children of the conununity must find the normal 
 outlets for their impulses under conditions that make 
 for the utmost satisfaction of the individual and the 
 greatest safety and welfare of the group. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THEORIES OF PLAY 
 
 a. Wanton, wasteful, trifling 
 
 b. Instinctive rehearsal for the game of life 
 
 c. Recapitulation of the race's struggle 
 
 2. VALUE OF PLAY 
 
 a. Physical effects 
 
 b. Relation to emotions and health 
 
 c. Mental reactions
 
 PLAY 119 
 
 3. DIEECTION OF PLAY 
 
 a. Educational possibilities 
 
 b. Grading of opportunities 
 
 c. Play and work 
 
 4. RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PLAY 
 
 a. Provision in the home 
 
 b. School 
 
 c. Community organization 
 
 (1) Playgrounds 
 
 (2) Recreation centers 
 
 (3) Amusements 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Addams, Jane — The Spirit of Youth and the City Street: 51-106 
 
 Curtis, H. S. — Education Through Play: 1-16, 17-26, 59-84, 
 
 345-355 
 GuLiCK, L. H. — Psychological, Pedagogical, and Religious 
 Aspects of Group Games: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 135-151, 1898 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 Chap. I, "Play is Serious"; 
 Chap. VII, "Play and Teaching"; 
 Chap. IX, "Play and Work"; 
 Chap. XI, "The Four Ages of Childhood" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Johnson, G. E. — Education by Play and Games: 
 
 Chap. I, "Theory, History, and Place of Play in 
 
 Education"; 
 Chap. II, "Play in Education" 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 
 Chap. IX, "Development of Adaptive Instincts — 
 Play"
 
 120 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 
 Chap. XX, "Play" 
 
 Waddle, Charles W. — An Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 Chap. VI, "The Play of Children" 
 
 Technical 
 Groos, Karl — The Play of Man: Pt. Ill
 
 28. TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 
 
 The instinct to wander is almost universal, at least 
 just before maturity. The reason we do not all become 
 vagrants lies apparently not so much in our indifference 
 to new scenes and experiences, as in our ability to adjust 
 ourselves more or less satisfactorily to a settled life. 
 
 The impulse to move forth will show itself in most 
 children as soon as there is reached a combination of 
 facility in locomotion with an imagination that extends 
 beyond the horizon — that is to say, in about the 
 fourth year. The desire to see what lies around the 
 corner or over the hill is perfectly legitimate; and its 
 satisfaction with the cooperation of an adult may pre- 
 vent the more dangerous surreptitious exploratory 
 flight, or the strain and chafing of unfulfilled longing. 
 The impulse is likely to attain its greatest force during 
 adolescence, when it combines with other forces that 
 push the child out of the monotony of his earlier routine. 
 
 The desire to wander is related intellectually to 
 curiosity, and emotionally to the romantic search for 
 adventure and mystery. It would seem more profitable 
 to deal with it in a constructive attempt to find satis- 
 fying indulgences and substitutes, rather than to 
 suppress it. Excursions and hikes can be arranged in 
 most cases, even where extensive travel is precluded. 
 To a certain extent reading and pictures and the movies 
 and theater can be made to serve as satisfying sub- 
 stitutes. 
 
 121
 
 122 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Not all runaways are to be attributed to the presence 
 of an exceptional urge. Under special circumstances, 
 every boy and every girl will become aware of the 
 desire to escape annoyance, or humiliation, or un- 
 pleasant tasks of home or school. Many runaways 
 are due to a temporary weakening of inhibition or 
 control, or to a sudden whim, related to an accumula- 
 tion of annoyances, or to friction with everyday 
 associates. In tracing runaway escapades to the sug- 
 gestiveness of the movies or of lurid literature, we must 
 not overlook the fact that these suggestions pertain 
 only to the form which the adventure may take, and 
 do not initiate anything foreign to the thought or 
 feelings of the child. The impulse to run away, as 
 distinguished from the more continuous love of travel 
 and adventure, is sporadic and dependent upon acute 
 dissatisfaction or discontent rather than upon positive 
 desires. It is negative in the sense that it represents 
 the desire to get away from the present, rather than a 
 seeking of something else, however vaguely defined. 
 
 It seems to be fairly well established that in certain 
 extreme and persistent forms the instinct to wander, 
 termed "nomadism" by Davenport, following Lowell, 
 is a definitely inherited trait. Nomadism occurs more 
 often in boys than in girls for apparently the same 
 reason that color-blindness does, namely, that it is due 
 to a ''sex-linked" character-determiner, which is trans- 
 mitted through daughters to grandsons: a girl manifests 
 this trait only if both her father and her maternal 
 grandfather have it. This trait is more likely to be 
 common in the pioneering stock of a young country 
 than in more settled peoples.
 
 TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 123 
 
 In such inherited nomadism the danger is that it 
 will not be recognized early enough to receive adequate 
 opportunity and stimulation for diversion into useful 
 channels. The nomadic impulse in a farm lad of the 
 prairies may take him to sea as a runaway and a 
 stowaway; but with a recognition of the tendency in 
 childhood it should be possible to plan not only for 
 systematic and legitimate outlets, but for systematic 
 training for some occupation that makes use of the 
 impulse in a constructive way. The genius of the great 
 explorers and travelers probably has as one of its 
 components this impulse to go out into the unknown, to 
 move from place to place, on without end. One need 
 not become an itinerant tinker; there are many re- 
 spectable and worth-while occupations open to the 
 individual for whom remaining in one place involves 
 too great a strain. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. NATURE AND ORIGIN OF IMPULSE 
 
 a. Relation to curiosity and romance 
 
 b. Normal, universal trait 
 
 c. Extreme form inherited 
 
 d. Morbid origins 
 
 2. MANIFESTATIONS 
 
 a. Childish runaways 
 
 b. Preadolescent and adolescent escapes 
 
 c. Permanent wanderers 
 
 d. Casual runaways 
 
 3. TREATMENT 
 
 a. Direct and authorized satisfaction of impulse 
 
 (1) Excursions 
 
 (2) Hikes, camping trips, etc. 
 
 (3) Travel
 
 124 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 b. Substitutes 
 
 (1) Reading 
 
 (2) Theater 
 
 (3) Pictures 
 
 (4) Museums 
 
 (5) Movies 
 
 c. Sublimation 
 
 Selection of and training for occupation that in- 
 volves travel 
 [See list of such occupations in Davenport's paper] 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 
 Chap. VIII, "The Wander Years" 
 
 KiRKPATRicK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 "The Migratory Instinct," 232 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: I, 348-349 
 
 Puffer, J. A. — The Boy and His Gang: 
 
 Chap. IX, "The Tribal Instincts and the Wander- 
 lust" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Davenport, C. B. — Nomadism, or the Wandering Impulse, 
 with Special Reference to Heredity: 7-68 
 
 Kline, L. W. — Truancy as Related to the Migrating Instinct: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, V, 381-420, 1898 
 Migratory Impulse versus Love of Home: 
 American Journal of Psychology, X, 1-81, 1898
 
 29. PETS AND PLANTS 
 
 There is no substitute for the values both intellectual 
 and moral which the child may derive from a certain 
 intimacy with hving things of other species. Aside 
 from the direct satisfactions which their companionship 
 and his occupation with their care yield, the keeping 
 of pets, whether plant or animal, opens the way for a 
 wide range of supplementary activities, furnishes a 
 large body of useful information, and establishes 
 habits of feeling and action of lasting benefit. 
 
 On the side of understanding, the child learns the 
 solid basis for organic existence in food, water, suitable 
 temperature, removal of waste, and so on, principles 
 that are readily carried over to his personal hygiene 
 or to the community's or the home's practical prob- 
 lems. On the side of responsibihty, he quickly realizes 
 the need for doing regularly and correctly, things whose 
 omission brings suffering or death. The daily contact 
 with plants or animals furnishes to those children who 
 do not live in the country amid domesticated animals 
 and crop plants an excellent opening for that body of 
 knowledge and interpretation concerning sex which it 
 is so essential to get early in hfe. 
 
 There are substantial difficulties in the way of 
 keeping such living companions in most town or city 
 homes; but they are worth overcoming if that is at all 
 possible. On the other hand, in the more crowded 
 communities, there are developments that make pos- 
 
 125
 
 126 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 sible for children the valuable contacts with living 
 things through the utilization of the common re- 
 sources, such as school, menagerie, garden, and so on. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS 
 
 a. Objective knowledge about living things 
 
 b. Experience for organization of later knowledge 
 
 c. The needs of organisms as basis for sanitation, 
 
 hygiene, etc. 
 
 d. Counteracting superstitious traditions and attitudes 
 
 e. Basis for sex education 
 
 2. EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS 
 
 a. Demand upon tenderness and consideration 
 
 b. Evoke carefulness and responsibilit}' 
 
 c. Aid in overcoming fear 
 
 3. DIRECT SATISFACTIONS 
 
 a. Joyous occupation and formation of hobbies 
 
 b. Companionship 
 
 c. Satisfying accessory occupations 
 
 (1) Building houses for pets 
 
 (2) Preparing ground for plants 
 
 4. OPPORTUNITIES FOR COMMUNITY SOLUTION 
 
 a. Use of public grounds for gardens 
 
 b. Cultivation of plants in school 
 
 c. Care of live animals in school 
 
 d. Wider use of pubHc gardens and menageries 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Adams, Morley — The Boy's Own Book of Pets and Hobbies 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 203-206
 
 PETS AND PLANTS 127 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 CoMSTOCK, Anna B. — Handbook of Nature Study for Teach- 
 ers and Parents: 924-928 
 
 Garrett, Laura B. — Animal Families in School 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hodge, Clifton F. — Nature Study and Life: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Children's Animals and Pets" 
 
 HoLTZ, Frederick L. — Nature Study: 
 Chap. VII, "Animal Study" 
 
 Practical 
 CoMSTOCK, Anna B. — The Pet Book 
 Crandall, Lee S. — Pets, Their History and Care 
 Verrill, a. Hyatt — Pets for Pleasure and Profit 
 
 Pamphlets 
 
 United States Department of Agriculture Bulletins on 
 Corn Clubs, Poultry Clubs, etc.
 
 30. > THE OUTDOOR LIFE 
 
 Very few "educated" men and women brought up 
 in modern cities would be able, if suddenly thrown 
 upon their own resources, to find their way about in 
 the woods, to say nothing of finding necessary food, 
 securing shelter or building a fire without the sophis- 
 ticated appUances that are purchased at the store. 
 There is, of course, no good reason why civilized people 
 should either return to the savage state, or even 
 acquire the primitive arts of life, for which the modern 
 city furnishes few outlets. But there are substantial 
 values to be derived from occasional or frequent returns 
 to the primitive, for like Antaeus we gain fresh strength 
 from every contact with mother earth. It is important 
 for children to acquire early in life both the direct 
 benefits of experiences with the world of nature, and a 
 fondness for such experiences that will insure their 
 continued recourse to them. 
 
 For the child not too much molded by city life there 
 is a wide range of satisfactions to be had from the direct 
 contact with outdoor things, animate and inanimate. 
 Fishing and hunting represent very early forms of 
 activity which still appeal strongly to man of to-day, and 
 which show themselves in the almost irresistible desire 
 to throw stones at birds and squirrels, to stalk animals, 
 and to let the mind wander afield through the open 
 window with the first smell of spring. If we consider 
 the destruction of hving things in response to these 
 
 128
 
 THE OUTDOOR LIFE 129 
 
 impulses to be inexcusably wanton, it is possible to 
 develop satisfying substitutes, as in the hobby of 
 ''shooting" game with a camera. At any rate the lure 
 of the wild or of the water is there and deserving of large 
 concessions, both for the physical health it makes 
 available and for the release it offers from the strains 
 of the artificialities of house and city. 
 
 On the educational side, outdoor life offers acquaint- 
 ance with the significant facts of nature ; the lessons of 
 inexorable law; the silences for thinking; limitless space 
 for perspective. The activities of the canoe or hunting 
 trip, of the long hike, or even of the cross-country tour 
 and the fixed camp, draw constantly upon the ingenuity 
 and rescourcefulness of the boy or girl, upon initiative 
 and upon self-reliance. Far from the markets for 
 standardized goods and services, one must either find 
 a way or learn to do without. The lessons of coopera- 
 tion, forbearance and considerateness are no less 
 marked. 
 
 Since it is not possible for most families to manage 
 the combined advantage of city hfe and country life 
 for their children, various schemes are being developed 
 to provide the opportunities of adequate outdoor 
 experience to increasing numbers of children. Besides 
 a considerable variety of summer camps and boarding 
 schools located in the country, there are country day 
 schools in the neighborhood of many a large city, the 
 city playground, the play school, the various organiza- 
 tions that occupy boys or girls with outdoor activitie^s, 
 and the excursions that are possible to a degree in almost 
 every school.
 
 130 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE BASIC NEED FOR CONTACT WITH THE OUTDOORS 
 
 a. The satisfaction of primitive impulses 
 
 b. The health factors 
 
 c. The strains of the complex city life 
 
 2. THE EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF THE OUTDOORS 
 
 a. Intellectual aspects 
 
 (1) The facts of nature 
 
 Animate: plants, animals 
 
 Inanimate: weather, stars, land, water 
 
 (2) The solitude and silence for thinking 
 
 (3) The constant evidence of inexorable law 
 
 b. Emotional aspects 
 
 (1) The moods of nature 
 
 (2) The effect of vastness on sense of perspective 
 
 and poise 
 
 (3) Development of esthetic interests 
 
 c. Socializing aspects 
 
 (1) Cooperation reduced to its elements 
 
 (2) Character effects of games 
 
 (3) Discovery of abihties and resources 
 
 (4) Development of self-reUance 
 
 (5) Demand upon initiative 
 
 3. SPECIAL PROVISION FOR CITY CHILDREN 
 
 a. Summer camps 
 
 b. Special organizations 
 
 (1) Scouts 
 
 (2) Woodcraft League 
 
 (3) Campfire Girls, etc. 
 
 c. Playgrounds 
 
 d. Excursions 
 
 e. Country day school 
 
 f . Country boarding school 
 
 g. Play schools
 
 THE OUTDOOR LIFE 131 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Curtis, H. S. — Education through Play: 
 
 Chap. VII, "The School Playgrounds of American 
 
 Cities"; 
 Chap. XII, "Recreation at Summer Schools"; 
 Chap. XIV, "The School Camp" 
 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. — The Coming Generation 
 
 Hough, Emerson — Out of Doors: 
 Chap. I and ad lib. 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education: 
 
 Chap. XXVII, "Nurture in the Big Injun Age"
 
 31. HOBBIES 
 
 The hobbies of adults represent the more highly 
 individualized remains of early play activities. While 
 we all desire leisure, either as an escape from disagree- 
 able tasks or simply as rest from excessive labor, how- 
 ever pleasant, comparatively few people have cultivated 
 permanently satisfying interests and occupations for 
 their leisure. The first value suggested by ''hobby" is 
 that of a refuge from tedium in old age or in enforced 
 idleness. But investigations show that very rarely 
 does an adult follow a spare-time pursuit that was not 
 cultivated in childhood. The foundation for hobbies 
 must be laid before adolescence, although there may 
 be endless refinement and speciahzation. 
 
 From the viewpoint of the child's development, a 
 hobby ordinarily does not appear very early. There 
 should be a wide range of play or spontaneous activity, 
 for it is through such activity that the child discovers 
 the world and himself. Gradually the more satisfying 
 activities will receive increasing amounts of time and 
 effort. It is important only that speciahzation be not 
 forced too early, as by limiting the range of oppor- 
 tunity, or by overdirection from adults, and that the 
 child learn to do whatever he does with zeal. 
 
 As a rule the spirit of play does not enter into the 
 major activities of life; it can best be preserved by 
 hobbies. They should therefore be cultivated for the 
 values which play yields. The pursuit of a hobby 
 
 132
 
 HOBBIES 133 
 
 stimulates effort, opens up lines of interest and main- 
 tains enthusiasms when there is nothing to do but work. 
 It serves as a means for unifying many diverse interests 
 and efforts, and to widen the sympathies by giving 
 experience in the field of varied pursuits and interests. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE SOURCES OF HOBBIES 
 
 a. Spare-time activities of children 
 
 b. Influence of companions, reading, local esteem for 
 
 various pursuits, casual factors 
 
 c. Gradual differentiation 
 
 d. Impress of individuality 
 
 2. THE VALUE OF HOBBIES 
 
 For the child 
 
 a. The educational values of play as spontaneous 
 
 activity and interest 
 
 (1) A means for becoming acquainted with sur- 
 
 roundings and with his own capacities and 
 Umitations 
 
 (2) A means for acquiring control of surroundings 
 
 and of himself 
 
 (3) A means for adjusting to other human beings 
 
 b. As experience with variety of materials and forces 
 
 (1) A means for unifying knowledge and skill 
 
 (2) A means for acquiring specialized expertness 
 
 c. As absorbing interest 
 
 (1) A source of stimulation to effort 
 
 (2) A source of insight to other people's interests 
 For the older person 
 
 a. A source of enthusiasm when most activities have 
 
 become routinized 
 
 b. A bond of interest with other enthusiasts 
 
 c. A helpful source of stimulation 
 
 d. A profitable occupation for free time
 
 134 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 3. THE NEEDS OF CHILDREN 
 
 a. Opportunity for widest contacts 
 
 b. Encouragement to try out whatever is humanly in- 
 
 teresting and socially tolerable 
 
 c. Approval of and sympathy for early enthusiasms 
 
 d. Avoidance of early specialization 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 75-78, 219-222 
 
 Non-Technical 
 BoNSER, Fredrick G. — School Work and Spare Time
 
 32. CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 
 
 Books constitute for most children one of the most 
 potent sources of inspiration and guidance. Their 
 selection is important at every stage, because it will 
 determine both how far children will continue to resort 
 to books, as well as the kinds of influence the books 
 will, for the time being, exert. 
 
 Books yield not only the information which they 
 record, but moral guidance and stimulus, interpretation 
 and insight into life, vicarious adventure and pastime. 
 Yet we must not expect every book to yield all of these 
 values. It is sufficient if a given book does only one or 
 another of the many useful things that a book can do. 
 
 The desirabiUty of a book will depend not upon the 
 number of different tasks that it performs, but on how 
 well it meets its main purpose. The information in a 
 book should be rehable. The sentiment it breathes 
 should be sound, the text should be well written, and 
 its style and illustrations should be in good taste. 
 From the viewpoint of a particular child a book should 
 be interesting, it should supply his needs, and it should 
 address him on his proper intellectual level. 
 
 These specifications, however, do not imply a static 
 test of good books, nor the possibility of selecting 
 "best" books. The growing child is normally shifting 
 his interests; what was a very interesting book yester- 
 day, is to-day stale, flat, and unprofitable. His intel- 
 lectual growth requires a graded body of reading. 
 
 135
 
 136 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Needs and interests change with the seasons and with 
 fashions. Events of local or of temporary importance 
 will call for a line of reading far from universal or 
 permanent. Historical celebrations or other special 
 occasions will determine what is best for the time and 
 place. 
 
 Further modifications of the good as well as of the 
 best will arise from the fact that changes are constantly 
 taking place in the arts and sciences, and the child's 
 reading should keep him measurably in sight of what 
 will concern his contemporaries in the years to come 
 and not restrict him to what startled his ancestors. 
 Moreover, there are constant developments in social 
 and public life which reflect themselves in fiction as 
 well as in books of travel, biography, poetry, and even of 
 a technical sort, as in books on means of transportation 
 and communication. The child's reading, however, 
 should not be confined to the new any more than to the 
 old. Acquaintance with certain classics is a necessary 
 part of the individual's equipment. Folk and fairy 
 tales of many peoples not only enrich later reading 
 and supply satisfying nurture to the child's imagination, 
 but they furnish a valuable introduction to the customs 
 and thinking of far-away peoples, thus meeting the 
 normal travel interest. It nevertheless remains true 
 that many of the fairy tales need careful editing to 
 make them of greatest value to our children. 
 
 In increasing numbers new books are forthcoming 
 that have the merits of the old with certain advantages 
 that the old can never have. This is particularly true 
 in the development of imaginative stories, which are 
 of such great value to young children. When fairy
 
 CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 137 
 
 tales were alone available in this field they were used 
 and preferred to other types of literature. But the 
 application of keener insight into the child's mind to the 
 writing of special books for children will gradually 
 replace certain of the older fairy tales, much to the 
 benefit of the children. 
 
 In the purchase of books for children we meet the 
 constant temptation of sets or series which offer to 
 save us the trouble of selecting what is worth while or 
 especially desirable. These sets, however, assume 
 standardized children, standardized needs, standardized 
 "best" reading. Their purchase does indeed save 
 considerable effort, but it also cuts off an avenue of 
 mutual interest between parent and child, since it 
 delegates and dismisses a function which should be 
 continuously exercised — that of deciding from time 
 to time what is most valuable for this particular child 
 in the present circumstances. The complete set, 
 moreover, will be sure to contain a considerable amount 
 of dead material, and its installation loses the stimulat- 
 ing value of novelty, which each separate book could 
 bring with it. 
 
 Even in the case of books intended chiefly as sources 
 of information, it is better to get the child accustomed 
 to consult specialized sources of information and 
 authoritative encyclopedia rather than diluted com- 
 pendia of universal knowledge, written down and 
 frequently distorted in the effort to adapt it to immature 
 minds. There is a certain air of finality in all such 
 compilations which leaves an undesirable intellectual 
 complacency with the young reader. 
 
 There are no doubt many children who can get
 
 138 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 nothing from the printed page unless the matter is 
 written down to them ; but we should at least give every 
 child an opportunity to sample genuine literature within 
 his comprehension until his limitations disclose them- 
 selves. For the adolescent especially is it desirable to 
 provide an introduction to serious fiction rather than 
 permit a continued indulgence in machine-made ro- 
 mance and adventure that help only to fix the outlook 
 and the appreciation at childish levels. 
 
 The child should early begin the slow accumulation 
 of his own library, and at the same time learn to read 
 books borrowed from libraries and other sources, for 
 it is well to acquire a discrimination that distinguishes 
 between books that are to be read and dismissed, and 
 books that are to remain permanent resources. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE VALUE OF READING 
 
 a. Communication from those remote in space and time 
 
 b. Source of information 
 
 c. Interpretation and meanings; aid to insight 
 
 d. Moral guidance 
 
 e. Inspiration and stimulus 
 
 f. Pastime, recreation 
 
 g. Vicarious adventure and experience 
 
 2. THE CRITERIA OF BOOKS 
 
 a. Information must be reliable 
 
 b. Sentiment must be sound 
 
 c. Taste must be good 
 
 d. Style and diction 
 
 3. THE RELATION OF BOOKS TO THE CHILD 
 
 a. Book must be interesting 
 (1) Individual variation
 
 CHILDREN'S BOOKS AND READING 139 
 
 (2) Shifting interests 
 
 Change with age 
 
 Local and passing occasions 
 
 (3) Arousing interests 
 
 b. Book must meet child's needs 
 
 c. Book must be suited to intellectual level 
 
 d. Books for adolescents 
 
 e. Danger of reading as indulgence and withdrawal from 
 
 reality 
 
 4. THE SELECTION OF BOOKS 
 
 a. Need for classics, fairy tales, fables, etc. 
 
 b. Need for the new 
 
 (1) Science, discovery, the arts 
 
 (2) Development of public relations 
 
 c. Eclectic series vs. single books 
 
 d. Compendia and encyclopedia 
 
 e. Selection a continuous process 
 
 5. BOOKS AND LIBRARIES 
 
 a. Advantage of owning books 
 
 b. Need for libraries and borrowed books 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Abler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 64-105 
 
 Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
 Chap. XII, "Fairy Tales and Artistic Conceptions" 
 
 Bryant, Sara Cone — Stories to Tell to Children 
 
 CoE, F, E. — First Book of Stories for the Story-Teller 
 
 Field, Walter T. — Fingerposts to Children's Reading 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters-: 192-197 
 
 Hunt, Clara W. — What Shall We Read to Children? 
 
 Lowe, Orton — Literature for Children
 
 140 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Lyman, Edna — Story Telling: What to Tell and How to 
 Tell It 
 
 Macy, John — A Guide to Reading 
 
 Moore, Annie C. — Roads to Childhood 
 
 Moses, Montrose J. — Children's Books and Reading 
 
 Olcott, Frances J. — The Children's Reading: 
 Chap. VI, "The Use of Fairy Tales"; 
 Chap. VII, "The Use of Fables"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Supplementary Remarks on Fables"; 
 Chap. IX, "Selected Stories from the Bible"; 
 Chap. X, "The Odyssey and the Ihad" 
 
 Sharp, Dallas L. — Education for Individuality: 
 Atlantic Monthly, June, 1920 
 
 The Federation for Child Study — A Selected List of 
 Books for Children (Revised annually)
 
 33. ARTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 
 
 Instead of thinking of "art" as something exclusive, 
 reserved for the exceptionally favored few, we must 
 think of it as a common human heritage limited only 
 by our varying capacities to appreciate and to create 
 beauty. From earliest infancy the child manifests 
 satisfactions resulting from mere sensation, such as 
 loud sounds, bright flashes of hght or color, touching of 
 the skin in various parts of the body. From such 
 simple satisfactions with simple stimuli, there gradually 
 emerges a progressive discrimination ; all sounds are no 
 longer alike, colors become differentiated, and forms of 
 distinct objects bring varying amounts of satisfaction. 
 The basic principles of art, the characteristics of what 
 all people deem "beautiful," can be felt long before 
 they can be formulated, or even before the philosopher's 
 formulation can be understood. But the appreciation 
 of harmony, as unity within variety, the satisfaction 
 with fitness or adaptation, and with economy, are 
 present with all normal children. 
 
 Interpretation as an intellectual process begins 
 usually with the attempt to analyze or evaluate more 
 complex art forms, such as poetry or drama; in the 
 development of critical literature the treatment of these 
 and painting, sculpture and architecture precede the 
 interpretation of music and the dance. In so far as 
 "interpretation" is wholly or chiefly esthetic, it pro- 
 ceeds from a sympathetic imitation of the model and is 
 
 141
 
 142 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 found for all the arts both at a relatively low stage of 
 culture and at an early stage in the child's development. 
 
 For the development of the child's creative im- 
 pulses, there must be first of all ample freedom for his 
 activities. This means of course more than merely 
 leaving him to himself, for it involves time and place 
 and materials with which to work — or play. It 
 means also the avoidance of overwhelming the child 
 with an excess of conventionalized forms, whether 
 in the way of nursery rhymes or of pictures to copy 
 or models to mold. In the second place, there must be 
 the opportunity to acquire an understanding of what 
 may be called the symbolism of art, the fact that one 
 thing may represent another, and may be legitimately 
 used for this purpose. We must not insist upon too 
 great literalness or "veracity" in the child's inventions. 
 Beauty, like truth, takes on a multitude of forms — ■ 
 and is not always naked. There must be stimulation 
 to effort, chiefly through quiet encouragement and 
 "constructive criticism," which consists apparently 
 of stressing the good points in the child's work and 
 ignoring the other ones. With broadening experience 
 and the discovery of new possibilities in theme and 
 medium, he learns his own resources as well as his 
 limitations. Instruction and inspiration must come in 
 accordance with the talents. 
 
 On the side of appreciation, both the home and the 
 school can do much more than is commonly attempted. 
 The influences, commercial and others, that tend to 
 degrade popular standards of taste need to be recognized 
 and systematically combatted by those who value 
 higher standards for their humanizing and socializing
 
 ARTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 143 
 
 effects as well as for the personal satisfactions they yield. 
 The parents who confine their efforts to saving their 
 own children from those degrading influences may find 
 in the end that they have merely oversensitized the 
 chosen few while the multiplication of ughness continues 
 unabated. The influence of the furniture and dress 
 and decorations in the child's surroundings, the subtle 
 suggestiveness of everyday comment and criticism, 
 the sights in the street, in pubhc places, in museums, 
 hold great possibihties. With the older child, these 
 influences may well be supplemented by lectures and 
 literature. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. ESTHETIC FEELINGS 
 
 a. Satisfaction from mere sensation 
 
 b. Discrimination, a process of growth 
 
 c. Esthetic response before the intellectual 
 
 2. GRADING OF THE ARTS 
 
 a. On side of creation 
 
 b. On side of appreciation 
 
 c. On side of interpretation 
 
 3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREATIVE IMPULSES 
 
 a. Freedom 
 
 b. Understanding of symbolism 
 
 c. Stimulation of effort 
 
 d. Inspiration and instruction 
 6. Mastery of technique 
 
 4. DEVELOPMENT OF APPRECIATION 
 
 a. Influence of surroundings 
 
 b. Social aspects 
 
 c. Suggestions and firuidance 
 
 d. Use of museums 
 
 e. Instruction and literature
 
 144 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 198-202 
 
 Hall and Others — Art Museums and Schools: 
 
 " Museums of Art and Teachers of History," 67-94 
 
 HuRLL, E, M. — How to Show Pictures to Children: 7-14; 
 Chap. Ill, "How the Picture Is Made"; 
 Chap. IV, "How to Make Pictures Tell Stories"; 
 Chap. VI, "Practical Suggestions to the Mother for 
 
 the Child's Picture Education"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Animal Pictures"; 
 Chap. X, "Story Pictures" 
 
 Scott, C. A. — Social Education: 
 Chap. XI, "Fine Art" 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 341-345, 373-380 
 
 WiNTERBURN, F. A. — The Mother in Education: 
 
 Chap. XII, "Self -Expression Through Drawing"; 
 Chap. XX, "vEsthetic Education" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Balliet, T. M. — The Domain of Art Education: 
 
 National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
 ceedings, 1916, 493-496 
 
 Cornell, G. A. — Art in the Kindergarten: 
 
 National Education Association Addresses and Pro- 
 ceedings, 1916, 307-310 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Youth: 42-45 
 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood: 
 
 Chap. IX, "The Child as Artist"
 
 ARTS IN THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 145 
 
 Technical 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: Second Series, 34, 
 74, 109, 151, 163, 231, 271, 314, 352, 388 
 
 Dewey, J. — Psychology: 
 
 Chap. XI, ''Sensuous Feeling"; 
 Chap. XV, ''.Esthetic FeeUng" 
 
 Pfister, O. — The Psychoanalytic Method: 388-404 
 
 WooDWORTH, R. S. — Psychology: 182-183, 512-517
 
 34. MUSIC 
 
 Society desires not only that children shall learn 
 certain useful things, but that they shall become men 
 and women of a certain type of personality. In select- 
 ing educational material, therefore, regard is had not 
 only to the value of what is learned for general and 
 special use, but also to the effect it may have upon 
 emotions, intellect, and character. With this aim in 
 mind, music in the educational development of the child 
 is a large factor affecting the emotional life. Modern 
 pedagogy and psychology advocate stimulating expres- 
 sion, and sound a warning note against suppression 
 and repression. 
 
 The experience of music should precede instruction 
 about music or the study of an instrument. People 
 sang and danced for thousands of years before there 
 was any written record of their music. A child who 
 has learned a large number of beautiful melodies "by 
 ear" and whose rhythmic sense has been developed by 
 marching, skipping, dancing, and rhythmic movements 
 in time to music, has a fund of musical experience that 
 will be invaluable to him later on, whether he is to play 
 an instrument or not. 
 
 Every child can and should be taught to listen 
 happily and intelligently to music in so far as his native 
 capacity will permit, just as he should be taught to 
 appreciate literature, whether he is going to write 
 books or not. 
 
 146
 
 MUSIC 147 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. IN THE HOME 
 
 a. For the young child 
 
 (1) Hearing and singing simple folk songs and nur- 
 
 sery rhymes 
 
 (2) Dramatizing songs and nursery rhymes 
 
 (3) Singing games 
 
 (4) Creating atmosphere of joy, and allowing child 
 
 to express himself 
 
 (5) The early appeal to and development of the 
 
 sense of melody and rhythm, the two strong- 
 est elements of music 
 
 b. For the entire family 
 
 (1) Singing beautiful songs in unison and in parts 
 
 (2) The great power of music as a social force 
 
 (3) The unifying effect of creating something beau- 
 
 tiful together 
 
 2. IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 a. Psychological function 
 
 (1) To arouse, express, and convey feelings 
 
 (2) The educative power of enjoyment 
 
 b. Social function 
 
 Group participation; chorus, school orchestra, folk 
 dancing 
 
 c. Utilization of music in festivals 
 
 (1) Music in the play 
 
 (2) Music as a framework for the play 
 
 d. Teaching the appreciation of music 
 
 e. School credit 
 
 (1) Allowance by the school of time for practicing 
 
 done at home 
 
 (2) Credit given by the school for standardized 
 
 instrumental work 
 
 f. Standard tests for musical capacity 
 
 3. INSTRUMENTAL TEACHING 
 
 a. At what age to begin 
 
 Dependent on the child's musical ability and in- 
 terest
 
 148 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 b. Individual lessons at home or in a school of music 
 
 Advantages of group study and of constant playing 
 for others 
 
 c. Practicing 
 
 (1) The deadening effect of endless repetitions 
 
 (2) The necessity of keeping the mind alert and 
 
 active 
 
 (3) Reading and memorizing 
 
 (4) The joy of reading music akin to the joy of 
 
 reading books 
 
 d. Modern methods of procedure 
 
 4. VALUE OF MECHANICAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 
 
 a. Player piano, victrola, etc, 
 
 (1) A means of creating a taste for and acquaint- 
 
 ance with the best music 
 
 (2) Careful discrimination in the selection of rec- 
 
 ords, the same as applied in the choice of 
 reading matter for our children 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Cady, Calvin B. — Music Education 
 Farnsworth, C. H. — How to Study Music 
 Mason, D. G. — A Child's Guide to Music 
 Seymour, Harriet A. — What Music Can Do For You 
 (All contain good Bibliographies) 
 
 Non-Technical 
 Smith, Hannah — Music and How It Came to be What It is 
 
 SuRETTE, T. W. — Music and Life: 
 
 Chap. II, "Music for Children"; 
 
 Chap. V, "The Opera"; 
 
 Chap. VI-VII, "The Symphony"
 
 MUSIC 149 
 
 Far the Child 
 Bacon, M. S. — Songs that Every Child Should Know 
 BuRCHENAL, ELIZABETH — Folk Donces 
 Davison and Surette — Rote Songs 
 Elliot, J. W. — Mother Goose Songs 
 Hadow, W. H. — Songs of the British Islands 
 Sharp, Cecil J. — Folk Songs, Chanteys, and Singing Games 
 
 For the Home 
 
 Bach, J. S, — Chorales (Selected by Bertha Elsmith and 
 T. W. Surette) 
 Sacred Songs (Arranged by Wullner) 
 
 Fink, Henry T., Editor — Fifty Master Songs by Twenty 
 Composers 
 
 Whitehead, J. R., Editor — Folk Songs and Other Songs for 
 Children 
 
 For the School 
 
 Chubb and Associates — Festivals and Plays: 
 
 Pt. II, "Music in the Festival" (Peter W. 
 Dykema). (Demonstrating how to use music in 
 connection with festivals, with full bibliography 
 of music and songs) 
 
 Kedson and Neal — English Folk Song and Dance 
 
 (Giving the origin of the folk song and its evolution 
 with a full bibliography upon English Folk Music. 
 The second half of the book treats of the English 
 Folk Dance) 
 
 Page, Kate Stearns — Robin Hood 
 
 (A short play introducing English folk songs and 
 dances of the Robin Hood period)
 
 150 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Sharp Cecil J. — An Introduction to the English Country 
 Dance 
 (The first part of the book gives a sketch oi the 
 history of the country dance and a description of 
 the steps. The second half consists of directions 
 for special dances. Pubhshed in parts)
 
 35. HEREDITY 
 
 With respect to every point that distinguishes a 
 person from his fellows, the most frequent question 
 asked is whether it is a native trait, or the result of 
 training or experience, or of other external influence 
 acting during the course of development. From a 
 biological viewpoint, what is inherited is the total of 
 potentialities, which can manifest themselves only in 
 the course of development under suitable conditions; 
 and, on the other hand, the effect of these conditions 
 depends in the last analysis upon the "inheritance" of 
 the organism. 
 
 There are practical problems whose solution depends 
 upon recognizing both the capacities of the child and 
 the bearing of the manifold external influences upon the 
 development of these capacities. Thus, on the physical 
 side, a child of a tall strain has the capacity to grow 
 taller than his companions, but his attainment of 
 maximum stature depends upon suitable feeding and 
 other environmental factors. And these same condi- 
 tions will enable another child to attain his maximum 
 development which will, however, be measurably less 
 than that of the first child. There is evidence to show 
 not only that mental peculiarities depend upon the 
 structure of the nervous and other systems of the body 
 (particularly muscles and glands) but that, wherever 
 they can be directly observed, they follow the same 
 forms of transmission from generation to generation as 
 
 161
 
 152 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 do the physical traits. This principle holds of the 
 emotional powers, of the temper or disposition, and of 
 any special talent. The individual at any given 
 moment represents the result of the interaction of all 
 of his inheritance and all of his individual experience, 
 whether favorable or unfavorable. 
 
 The characters present in the offspring of two 
 parents are found in some cases to lie midway between 
 the corresponding characters of the parents; but in 
 many cases the resemblance is altogether to one paront 
 or altogether to the other parent. Thus certain 
 characters show "dominance," as of dark eyes as against 
 blue eyes. In succeeding generations the children of 
 dark-eyed offspring of mixed parentage will "segregate," 
 some having blue eyes and some dark. The presence 
 of more or less complete dominance with subsequent 
 segregation has been observed with respect to hundreds 
 of characters in various plants and animals, including 
 man. 
 
 Each pair of contrasting characters present in the 
 lineage goes on combining and splitting up in succeeding 
 generations, altogether independently of other pairs of 
 characters. Each character thus behaves as an inde- 
 pendent unit. As a result we find that each child 
 resembles both parents (or both strains of ancestry) 
 not by having each trait in some condition inter- 
 mediate between the conditions of the two parents, but 
 by having some characters altogether like those of the 
 mother's side, and other characters altogether like those 
 of the father's side. 
 
 There are certain characters in human beings as 
 well as among other organisms, which seem to result
 
 HEREDITY 153 
 
 from the presence in the inheritance of two or more 
 transmitted factors. As a result the individual shows 
 peculiarities not to be recognized in either line of 
 ancestors (except where the factors and their mani- 
 festations are known) ; and as a further result there is 
 failure to transmit this combination (because of segrega- 
 tion) to future generations. This probably explains 
 why ''genius" is not only rare, but also never repeats 
 itself. 
 
 The physical basis for the facts of heredity is fairly 
 well understood, and is found in the structure and 
 behavior of the nuclear matter in germ cells. 
 
 Because of the early separation during development 
 of the living matter that is to form the germinal or 
 reproductive protoplasm, from that which is to form 
 the body of the individual, it becomes impossible to 
 influence the inheritance of the progeny through the 
 training or experience of the parents, although the 
 developing embryo, as well, perhaps, as the germ cell, 
 may be affected by disease, overwork or underfeeding. 
 There is thus no practical reality underlying the con- 
 cepts ''maternal impression," "transmission of modi- 
 fications," etc. 
 
 The practical application of an understanding of the 
 facts of heredity, so far as the individual is concerned, 
 will be directed to discovering native capacities worth 
 cultivating, native limitations that need compensating 
 through the cultivation of other traits, and the provid- 
 ing of an environment that will furnish the most favor- 
 able opportunity for healthy development. So far as 
 the community is concerned, there is need for recogniz- 
 ing that certain tj^es or strains of the population are
 
 154 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 more desirable than others, and for finding means of 
 encouraging the propagation of one, and restraining or 
 preventing the multipHcation of the other. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. VARIATION 
 
 a. Kinds of variation 
 
 (1) Physical 
 
 (2) Mental 
 
 b. Source of variation 
 
 (1) Nature 
 
 (2) Nurture 
 
 2. THE LAWS OF HEREDITY 
 
 a. Dominance 
 
 b. Segregation 
 
 c. Unit characters 
 
 d. Multiple factors 
 
 3. THE BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY 
 
 a. The physical bearers of character 
 
 b. Chromosome reduction 
 
 c. FertiKzation and the combining of characters 
 
 4. SPECIAL PROBLEMS 
 
 a. Prenatal influence 
 
 b. Transmission of modifications 
 
 c. Inheritance of disease 
 
 5. APPLICATIONS 
 
 a. Individual 
 
 (1) Discover limits and potentialities 
 
 (2) Furnish environment favoring desirable traits 
 
 (3) Avoid environment favoring undesirable traits 
 
 b. Social 
 
 (1) Principles of eugenics 
 
 (2) Cultivation of taste in personality
 
 HEREDITY 155 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 CoNKLiN, E. G. — Heredity and Environment in the Develop- 
 ment of Man: 
 Chap. V, "The Control of Heredity: Eugenics" 
 
 Downing, E. R. — The Third and Fourth Generation 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. XIV, "Heredity and Environment" 
 
 Jennings, H. L. — Suggestions of Modern Science Concerning 
 Education: 
 "The Biology of Children in Relation to Educa- 
 tion," 1-17 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Coulter and Others — Heredity and Eugenics: 
 
 Chap. I, "Recent Development in Heredity and 
 
 Evolution"; 
 Chap. Vni, " The Inheritance of Physical and Men- 
 tal Traits"; 
 Chap. IX, "The Geography of Man in Relation to 
 Eugenics" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Davenport, C. B. — Nomadism, or the Wandering Impulse, 
 with Special Reference to Heredity 
 Violent Temper and Its Inheritance 
 
 East and Jones — Inbreeding and Outbreeding: 
 Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Mechanism of Heredity"; 
 Chap. XII, "The Effect on the Individual"; 
 Chap. XIII, "The Intermingling of Races and Na- 
 tional Stamina"
 
 156 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 GuYER, M. — Being Well Born: 
 Chap. I, "Heredity"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Mendelism"; 
 
 Chap. IV, "Mendelism in Man," 29-60, 121-128, 
 138-163, 178-194 
 
 Morgan, T, H. — The Physical Basis of Heredity: 
 Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
 Chap. IV, "Mendel's Second Law"; 
 Chap. XVI, "Chromosomes as Bearers of Hered- 
 itary Units"; 
 Chap. XVII, "Cytoplasmic Inheritance"
 
 36. SEX EDUCATION 
 
 Entirely apart from the function of reproduction, 
 the presence of the sex organs in the body of the boy 
 or girl gives rise through the internal secretions to a 
 vast variety of impulses that in themselves have no 
 obvious relation either to reproduction of the species or 
 to other matters commonly thought of as constituting 
 "sex." The self-assertive impulses as well as the 
 altruistic ones, the interests that make possible art and 
 science and religion as well as the most perverse 
 degradations of the human spirit, seem to arise from 
 the sex constitution of the growing child. The same 
 impulses resting in the basic fact of sex are capable on 
 the one hand of the loftiest reaches of spiritual attain- 
 ment, or, on the other hand, of the lowest depths of 
 bestiality and perversion. 
 
 Knowledge of these relations between his spiritual 
 possibilities and the developing sex nature may well be 
 withheld from the growing child; but sooner or later 
 ignorance becomes a source of danger, not alone to the 
 individual himself, but more especially perhaps to the 
 younger people whose development is in the hands of 
 ignorant men and women. There is the shock that 
 comes when the child, having been compelled by the 
 taboos of respectables and by the depravity of his 
 irresponsible informants to consider sex as something 
 base, suddenly learns that his own parents have been 
 defiled by it. There is the danger of perversion when 
 
 157
 
 158 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 the upsurging desires can find no satisfactions, either in 
 the biologically normal though socially impermissible 
 sex relations, or in diversions into substitute interests 
 and activities. There is the danger of mental disturb- 
 ance when the repressed powers produce strains for 
 which the boy or girl can find no release. There is the 
 danger of seduction by older unscrupulous persons of 
 either sex; and there is the danger of the venereal 
 diseases with their train of calamity and tragedy. 
 
 These dangers of ignorance on the part of the 
 individual or of his guardians call for more serious 
 attention to the manifold unconscious manifestations 
 of sex in the child. This does not mean that the child 
 is to be informed at the earliest possible moment of 
 all that the race has learned. It means, in the first 
 place, the provision of conditions that are favorable to 
 the healthy growth of the body, and the healthy growth 
 of the spirit, which is in reality the healthy unfolding 
 of the whole organism, inclusive of sex. It means the 
 provision of exercise and cleanliness and games, and the 
 establishment of habits and interest that will continue 
 exercise and cleanliness and playing, as a part of the 
 day by day life through the years. It means the 
 cultivation of creative activities and habits that may 
 be retained through life as channels for the partial 
 drawing away of the transformed or sublimated sex 
 impulse, of which the normal, healthy boy or girl, 
 man or woman, has much more than is needed for the 
 fulfilling of the sexual function of reproduction, in 
 modern life. It means the cultivation of interest in 
 music and art and literature, in travel and adventure, 
 in the pursuit of science or of social reform, or of some
 
 SEX EDUCATION 159 
 
 growing hobby. The rehgious observances that men 
 and women retain through the years furnish, apart from 
 any aid they may give to strengthen the resolution, or 
 the resistance to temptation, a safety valve for the 
 emotional strain set up by the internal secretions of the 
 sex glands. To the extent of each individual's capacity, 
 there is need of opportunity to develop his idealism 
 and his various partial impulses, such as curiosity, 
 pugnacity, acquisitiveness, exhibitionism, etc., to the 
 highest possible level. 
 
 This is sex education of an implicit out very neces- 
 sary kind. We may prefer to call it recreation, or 
 character training, which indeed it is; but it is important 
 for the trainer of character to understand that he is 
 dealing with forces that have their source and their 
 end in the sex nature of the child. It is further neces- 
 sary, however, to give the child, from time to time, in 
 proportion to his ability to understand, certain explicit 
 information. The responsibility for this rests primarily 
 with the home, first because the needed instruction must 
 begin long before the child is ready for school, and 
 second because through furnishing the information as 
 needed the parent establishes a line of mutual under- 
 standing and confidence that is otherwise maintained 
 only with difficulty. By answering the child's ques- 
 tions as they arise, as to the source of babies or puppies, 
 by introducing from time to time more circumstantial 
 detail about the facts of sex in plants and animals, and 
 gradually about the various aspects of sex in human 
 life, the parent can bring the child by slow stages to 
 both knowledge and understanding, to both facts and 
 feelings that make for a wholesome attitude and for
 
 160 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 more certain self-control. The education should in- 
 clude not merely the physical facts of reproduction, the 
 particular sex manifestations of both sexes, sexual 
 diseases, etc., but also cover the sordid low standards 
 which make for prostitution, illegitimacy, and then lead 
 on and up to the meaning of marriage in its various 
 aspects and highest ideals. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. IMPORTANCE OF SEX IN LIFE 
 
 a. The internal secretions 
 
 b. Manifestations of sex in infancy 
 
 c. Connection between sex and the higher capacities 
 
 2. DANGERS OF IGNORANCE 
 
 a. Shock 
 
 b. Perversions 
 
 c. Repressions 
 
 d. Mental disturbances 
 
 e. Venereal diseases 
 
 3. REGIMEN FOR UTILIZING SEX IMPULSES 
 
 a. Physical health 
 
 b. Abundant exercise 
 
 c. Interest in games and athletics 
 
 d. Interest in creative activities 
 
 e. Formation of ideals 
 
 f. Cultivation of social and chivalrous attitudes 
 
 g. Attainment of self-control 
 
 4. INSTRUCTION ABOUT SEX 
 
 a. Responsibility of parent and other agencies 
 
 b. Timeliness of instruction 
 
 c. Material and method of instruction 
 
 d. Keep line of communication open
 
 SEX EDUCATION 161 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 Gallichan, Walter M. — Sex Education 
 Galloway, T. W. — The Father and His Boy 
 
 Biology of Sex for Parents and Teachers 
 Gruenberg, B. C. — Parents and Sex Education 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. XII, "The Stork or the Truth" 
 
 Hood, Mary G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls 
 Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman 
 Stowell, William L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers 
 
 Non-Technical 
 BiGELOW, Maurice A. — Sex Education 
 ExNER, Max J. — Problems and Principles of Sex Education 
 Geddes and Thompson — Sex 
 Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct: 
 
 Chap. X, "Conflicts Arising from Sex Conflicts"; 
 Chap. XI, "Conflicts Arising from Secret Sex 
 Knowledge" 
 Long, Constance — Psychology of Phantasy: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Sex as a Basis of Character"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Unconscious Factors in Sex Educa- 
 tion" 
 
 Stowell, W. L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers 
 Wedekind, Frank — Awakening of Spring 
 Anonymous — A Young Girl's Diary 
 
 Technical 
 
 BousEFiELD, Paul — The Elements of Practical Psychology: 
 Chap. Ill, "Evolution of the Erotic Impulse"
 
 162 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 FoERSTER, F. W. — Marriage and the Sex Problem 
 FoREL, August — The Sexual Question 
 Gruenberg, B. C. —High Schools and Sex Education 
 Moll, Albert — The Sexual Life of the Child 
 
 Pamphlets 
 
 Armstrong, D. B. and E. B. — Sex in Life for Adolescent 
 Boys and Girls 
 
 Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Children and Their Train- 
 ing: Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, 1919 
 
 Dennett, Mary Ware — The Sex Side of Life 
 Gardiner, Ruth Kimball — Your Daughter's Mother 
 Peabody, James E. — Some Experiments in Sex Education 
 
 in the Home and High School 
 The Parents' Part, issued by the Treasury Department, U. S. 
 Public Health Service
 
 37. ADOLESCENCE— PHYSICAL 
 
 The ''storm and stress" of adolescence, long con- 
 sidered as essentially characteristic of the period, 
 have been looked foi'ward to with fear and dread. A 
 better understanding of the causes for the undoubted 
 strains makes it seem possible that the child can be 
 piloted through adolescence without serious crises. 
 
 After a few years of steady physical growth, the 
 child presents an almost sudden acceleration of develop- 
 ment. This period is closely connected with the 
 approaching maturity of the reproductive organs, and 
 many at least of the physical and emotional changes are 
 initiated by the presence in the blood of specific sub- 
 stances produced by these organs. 
 
 The rapid and unequal growth of organs gives rise 
 not only to a rapid evolution of muscular and nervous 
 energies that must have safe channels for their dis- 
 charge, but also certain difficulties of conduct and 
 adjustment such as awkward traits in carriage and 
 action, many automatic movements, alternations of 
 overexertion and lassitude, and others. These ener- 
 gies need guidance and opportunities rather than suj)- 
 pression, and the physical and emotional health present 
 the chief problems of the period. 
 
 Physical activities in the form of sports and athletics 
 should be both more vigorous and better organized 
 than during the earher years. They serve as outlets 
 for the vast amount of energy generated, as means for 
 
 163
 
 164 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 perfecting control of the muscles, and as a means for 
 training in emotional and social adjustment. Hand 
 in hand with vigorous exercise there should, of course, 
 be not onl}^ abundance of suitable food and the assur- 
 ance of sufficient sleep, but a periodical physical 
 examination to detect the condition of the heart, etc., 
 and any need for corrective work. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1, PHYSICAL CHANGES 
 
 a. Sudden acceleration of growth 
 
 b. Unequal development of various tissues and organs 
 
 c. Rapid increase in muscular and nervous energy 
 
 d. The maturing of the sex organs 
 
 e. Chemical changes affecting appetite, fatigue, immu- 
 
 nity to disease 
 
 f. Increased sensory acuteness 
 
 EFFECTS IN CONDUCT 
 
 a. Awkwardness of movement 
 
 b. Modifications in posture and gait 
 
 c. Automatic movements 
 
 d. Overexertion alternating with lassitude 
 
 e. Marked irritability 
 
 f . Finicky appetite ; digestive disturbances 
 
 g. Advantages of steady habits during childhood 
 
 REGIMEN FOR SPECIAL NEEDS 
 
 a. Outlet for energy 
 
 (1) Vigorous games 
 
 (2) Gardening 
 
 (3) Cold bath 
 
 (4) Boxing 
 
 (5) Swimming 
 
 b. Compensation for energy 
 
 (1) Abundance of food; bulky rather than fine 
 
 (2) Abundance of sleep
 
 ADOLESCENCE — PHYSICAL 165 
 
 c. Corrections and habituations 
 
 (1) Formal gymnastics 
 
 (2) Manual occupations 
 
 (3) Athletics 
 
 (4) Musical instruments 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. XIII, "The Golden Age of Transition" 
 
 King, Irving — The High School Age: 
 
 Chap. II, "Physical Changes of the High School 
 
 Years"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Physical Development and School Effi- 
 ciency" 
 
 Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman: 
 
 Chap. I, "Physical Disturbances of Girlhood"; 
 Chap. V, "Menstruation"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Personal Hygiene"; 
 Chap. IX, "Bodily Functions" 
 
 Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period: 
 
 Chap. I, "Growth and the Development of Muscle 
 
 Power"; 
 Chap. II, " Physical Education " ; 
 Chap. Ill, "The Diseases of Adolescence"; 
 Chap. V, "Menstruation" 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 90-91 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 
 222-225 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 216-226
 
 166 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 
 
 Chap. I, "General Survey of the Period"; 
 
 Chap. II, "Growth and Other Physical Changes"; 
 
 Chap. VII, "Pathology and Hygiene" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. I, "Growth in Height and Weight"; 
 Chap. II, "Parts of Organs During Adolescence"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Growth of Motor Power and Function"; 
 Chap. IV, "Diseases of Body and Mind"; 
 Chap. IX, "Changes in the Senses and the Voice" 
 Youth: 
 Chap. I, " Preadolescence " ; 
 Chap. II, "The Muscles and Motor Powers in 
 
 General"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Industrial Education"; 
 Chap. IV, "Manual Training and Sloyd"; 
 Chap. V, "Gymnastics"; 
 Chap. VI, "Play, Sports, and Games" 
 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
 Chap. I, "A Preliminary Survey"; 
 Chap. II, "General Characteristics of the Various 
 
 Life Stages"; 
 Chap. Ill, "The Body"
 
 38. ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 
 
 The child's general satisfaction with himself and his 
 surroundings gives way during adolescence under the 
 pressure of a host of problems, difficulties, and malad- 
 justments. From indifference to matters not immedi- 
 ately related to pleasures and pains, he plunges into 
 intense curiosity and self-consciousness, and into 
 real though spasmodic concern with the standards of 
 adults. Curiosity may show itself in a great variety 
 of normal activities; but is also subject to ready per- 
 version under unwholesome surroundings. And this 
 applies to each of the impulses and interests that now 
 come to the front. 
 
 Satisfaction with routine and drill is replaced by 
 restlessness, leading often to truancy and erratic 
 action ; by doubts giving rise to religious disturbances, 
 and by inability to concentrate for long upon any 
 pursuit or undertaking. 
 
 After being for years apparently content with 
 activities and movements for their own sake, he sud- 
 denly acquires new purposes and interest in special 
 activities leading to definite results, whether in his 
 play or in his work. The interest in other people 
 becomes focused in friendship, and in loyalties to 
 companions of his own choosing. In the same way the 
 more or less habitual obedience and compliance with 
 rules is replaced by a spirit of criticism and revolt 
 
 167
 
 168 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 against authority, which usually means a selection of 
 his own leaders and his own ideals of conduct. 
 
 The delinquencies that become so marked at this 
 period may be considered as the special manifestations 
 of normal impulses in an environment that is radically 
 different from the one in which these impulses had their 
 origin. The restrictions which civihzed life necessarily 
 places upon the impulses may compel the child to find 
 satisfying outlets of a kind that are not suited to social 
 life, and as a result there appear lying, stealing, truancy, 
 vagrancy, sexual perversions, and other distressing 
 departures from healthy conduct. 
 
 Opportunity for self expression along many lines, 
 sjrmpathy in the rapidly changing plans and ambitions, 
 and full recognition of the child's right to his personality, 
 should make the transition a happier one for all con- 
 cerned. This is at any rate the "one chance to be a 
 little of an artist, a little of a genius, a little of a hero " — 
 if also to older eyes a little of a fool. But it is the folly 
 of this period that bears all the potentialities and all 
 the hope of something valuable and distinctive in the 
 individual. 
 
 The adolescent has many new desires, and stands in 
 need of stimulation, inspiration, and information. He 
 reaches out into the material world and takes to 
 himself what he can. From in discriminating gathering 
 of unattached objects he passes to systematic collecting 
 with growing discriminations; in the ascending scale of 
 values he passes from a prizing of material things for 
 their own sake to an appreciation of wealth for more 
 remote ends — or remains permanently arrested on a 
 particular level of development. Romance and ad-
 
 ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 169 
 
 venture make a special appeal and should have satis- 
 faction partly in new experiences, travel, etc., partly 
 in the substitutes furnished by literature, the theater, 
 etc. 
 
 There is equal need for an outlet to release the 
 tensions and to yield the satisfactions of making an 
 impression upon the persons and things of the environ- 
 ment. A variety of media in the arts and crafts, op- 
 portunity for oral and written expression, will divert 
 from the temptation to indulge in direct action upon 
 the person of a weaker associate. Varying degrees of 
 intimacy in personal contacts are required — from the 
 friend and confidant to the gang or club; and the 
 opposite sex should be met in social games, play, and 
 dancing. Opportunity for leadership and initiative, 
 for exhibition of prowess and attainment, and for 
 development of chivalry and the more generous im- 
 pulses should be a normal part of the surroundings. 
 
 The final need of the period is for integration. 
 While this need should be constantly kept in mind, there 
 is danger of pushing it too hastily to a finish, before all 
 the usable elements have had time to appear or develop. 
 On the one hand, there is danger of a fixed character, 
 narrowly hmited in its sympathies, its appreciations, 
 its visions; on the other hand, a failure to find a nucleus 
 about which pui-pose and growth may be organized — 
 dissipated versatiHty leading nowhere. In the former 
 case early maturity and arrested growth, with perhaps 
 effectively directed but specialized ability; in the 
 latter case, eternal youth, perhaps, but never a forceful 
 focusing of character. 
 
 Self-discovery is to be considered not some mystic
 
 170 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 finding of a finished personality that hes concealed 
 within the growing child. It must be a positive, 
 creative process, a synthesis of many elements, a 
 joining together more or less deliberately of the scattered 
 interests of adolescence, into a coherent and harmonious 
 system of ideals and purposes and habits. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. NEW INTERESTS AND IMPULSES 
 
 a. Sex-consciousness 
 
 b. Curiosity, basis of intellectual pursuits 
 
 c. Self-consciousness 
 
 d. Social interests 
 6. Creative impulse 
 
 f . Relation to authority 
 
 g. Delinquencies 
 
 2. THE NEEDS OF THE PERIOD 
 
 a. Impression (Resources for feeding emotional hunger) 
 
 (1) Acquisitiveness, collecting 
 
 (2) Romance and adventure, travel, literature, 
 
 theater 
 
 (3) Curiosity 
 
 b. Expression (Outlet for emotional energy) 
 
 (1) Creative activities; arts and crafts; dramatics 
 
 (2) Companionship; friendship, club, social gath- 
 
 erings, dancing 
 
 (3) Leadership; group activities and projects 
 
 (4) Service; outlet for chivalry, generosity, charity 
 
 c. Guidance 
 
 (1) In self-discovery 
 
 (2) In appreciation 
 
 (3) In formation of ideals 
 
 d. Rest 
 
 (1) Solitude and quiet 
 
 (2) Time to digest and assimilate
 
 ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 171 
 
 3. ATTITUDE OF ADULTS 
 
 a. Considerateness 
 
 b. Sympathy through intimate understanding 
 
 c. Encouragement 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Allen, Anna W. — Boys and Girls: 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, CXXV, 796-804, June, 1920 
 
 Betts, Geo. H. — Fathers and Mothers: 
 
 Chap. X, "Passing Over from Childhood" 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 Chap. XIII, "The Golden Age of Transition" 
 Sons and Daughters: 75-78 
 
 Healy, W. — Mental Conflict and Miscond-uct: 
 Chap. II, "General Principles"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Applications", 69-75 
 
 King, Irving — The High School Age: 
 
 Chap. VII, "The Birth of a New Self "; 
 
 Chap. VIII, " Characteristic Phases and Dangers of 
 
 the New Self"; 
 Chap. IX, "The High School Period in Retrospect" 
 
 Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "The Moral Disturbances of Girlhood" 
 
 Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period: 
 
 Chap. IV, "The Faults and Criminal Tendencies of 
 Adolescence" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 225- 
 
 233 
 Kirkpatrick, E. a. — The Individual in the Making: 226-250
 
 172 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Normal Development of the Instincts 
 
 and Emotions"; 
 Chap. IV, "Adolescent Love"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Juvenile Crime and Its Treatment" 
 
 Stedman, Henry R. — ■ Mental Pitfalls of Adolescence: 
 
 Medical and Surgical Journal, CLXXII, 695-713, 
 November, 1916 
 
 Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 
 
 Chap. II, "Criminal Tendencies of Boys: Their 
 Cause and Function" 
 Youth and the Race: 
 Chap. I, "The Spirit of Adventure"; 
 Chap. II, "The Way of Youth" 
 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. VI, "Emotion, or the Capacity to Feel"; 
 Chap. XI, "The Appreciation of Beauty in Nature 
 and Art" 
 
 Waddle, Charles W. — Introduction to Child Psychology: 
 243-250 
 
 Watson, J. B. — Psychology from the Viewpoint of a Be- 
 haviorist: 415-418 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. V, "Juvenile Faults^ Immoralities and 
 
 Crimes"; 
 Chap. VIII, " Adolescence in Literature, Biography, 
 
 and History"; 
 Chap. X, "Evolution of the FeeUngs and Instincts 
 
 Characteristic of Normal Adolescence"; 
 Chap. XV, "Social Instincts and Institutions"
 
 ADOLESCENCE — EMOTIONAL 173 
 
 Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene: 
 Chap. VII, "Faults, Lies, and Crimes"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Biographies of Youth"; 
 Chap. IX, "The Growth of Social Ideals"; 
 Chap. XII, "Moral and Rehgious Training"
 
 39. ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 
 
 The curiosity that appears on the intellectual plane 
 as a desire for knowledge, explanation, and understand- 
 ing, is a special phase of the basic trend that shows 
 itself in physical restlessness and discomfort, automatic 
 movements, and in apparently aimless manipulations. 
 And it manifests itself emotionally as a romantic 
 sentiment, a discontent with the immediate surround- 
 ings, a desire for adventure, and impossible day- 
 dreams. 
 
 The mind of the adolescent is rapidly expanding and 
 seeks knowledge of more than can possibly be learned 
 at first hand; hence an increase in the amount of 
 reading, when reading is not too difficult; and hence an 
 expansion in the range of subjects read. Information 
 thus obtained at second hand, through reading, lectures, 
 visits to museums, and so on, is readily absorbed, but 
 should of course be considered as supplementary to 
 first hand experience in the fields and woods, in the 
 shop, and laboratory and studio. Indeed, the effective 
 absorption of a considerable amount of such second- 
 hand imagery and abstraction will depend upon the 
 extent of the direct, concrete experience to which it 
 may be attached. 
 
 There is a searching further for aid in formulating 
 experience, with a certain readiness, in spite of the 
 critical attitude, to accept plausible or well com- 
 mended authorities on the wisdom of the race. There 
 
 174
 
 ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 175 
 
 should be every opportuDity, therefore, to become 
 acquainted with what the best and wisest have thought 
 and said. Yet narrow or sectarian indoctrination 
 should be scrupulously avoided, whether in religion or 
 in politics, whether in art or in business. 
 
 The academic activities of the adolescent should in 
 the earlier years consist of the accumulation of informa- 
 tion, with Uttle attempt at interpretation. Progres- 
 sively there should come increasing analysis and 
 organization. By analogy with the earlier develop- 
 ment of the large muscles, and the later use of the small 
 ones, the studies should deal at first with the broader 
 outlines; details and precision may be expected only 
 after specialized interests have begun to show them- 
 selves. 
 
 In general the studies of the high school period 
 concern themselves with an understanding of social 
 relations, as distinguished from the acquisition of 
 habits of conventional conduct necessary for social 
 adjustment. There should be a study of the indi- 
 vidual's place in the community; the reciprocal rights 
 and duties need now to be understood as well as 
 exercised; the discovery of types of service that are 
 worth while socially and that are at the same time 
 satisfying modes of self-expression ; the formulation of 
 principles; a study of the meanings to be found in 
 nature and in human experience. 
 
 These considerations should furnish the guide in the 
 selection of studies, as well as in the methods of treat- 
 ment: nature, especially in its organic aspects, with a 
 matter-of-fact study of sex and reproduction; social 
 sciences, the structure and functions of the civilized
 
 17G OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 community and of the family; the dynamics or evolu- 
 tion of institutions — a study of history, that is, which 
 indicates how we have come to our present state of 
 affairs; human achievement in the lives of men and 
 women of the past worth knowing; human nature, not 
 so much in formal psychology, as in drama and fiction; 
 interpretation through poetry and essays, serving as an 
 introduction to religious and philosophical literature. 
 
 In the infantile stage our curiosity, or hunger for 
 knowing, is but the desire for the satisfactions that 
 come from sensations. It appears not only in the 
 incessant questionings, but also as prying into closed 
 spaces, the playing of hide-and-find games, in distorting 
 the vision by pressing the eyeball, and in peering from 
 between the fingers. On the sublimation of curiosity, 
 see No. 38 Curiosity. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. EXPANSION OF INTERESTS 
 
 a. Eagerness for novelty 
 
 b. Omniverous intellectual appetite 
 
 c. Superficial and transitory of necessity 
 
 2. SHIFTING OF INTELLECTUAL ATTITUDE 
 
 a. From facts to meanings 
 
 b. From authority to reason 
 
 c. From convention to criticism 
 
 3. NEW INTEREST IN ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 a. From classification of materials to classification of 
 
 ideas 
 
 b. Search for systems 
 
 c. Integration of knowledge into principles
 
 ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 177 
 
 4. SEX DIFFERENCES 
 
 a. Girls develop earlier 
 
 b. Boys seek explanations earlier 
 
 c. Differentiation of "How?" from "Why?" questions 
 
 5. SELECTION OF STUDIES 
 
 a. Freedom in range of reading 
 
 b. Opportunity to sample all fields of intellectual ac- 
 
 tivity 
 
 c. Acquaintance wi,th basic groups of studies 
 
 (1) Language 
 
 (2) Sciences — natural and social 
 
 (3) Achievement — history and biography 
 
 (4) Interpretation — literature, criticism, and in- 
 
 troduction to philosophy 
 
 d. Thinking and inspiration as well as information 
 
 e. Danger of early specialization 
 
 6. IMPLICATION AS TO METHODS 
 
 a. Increasing freedom of choice 
 
 b. Increasing challenge to thought 
 
 c. Increasing opportunity for initiative and experimen- 
 
 tation 
 
 d. Encouragement of self-reliance 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 King, Irving — The High School Age: 
 
 Chap. V, "The Mental Changes of the Teens; the 
 
 Earlier Years"; 
 Chap. VI, "The Broadening Vision" 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 
 
 Chap. IX, "Later Adolescence" 
 Stout, J. E. — The High School: 
 
 Pt. I, Chap. II, "Factors Determining Function of 
 
 the High School"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Education of Girls"; 
 Pt. II, Chap. XI, "The Social Studies"
 
 178 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 
 
 Chap. I, "Standard of Human Power" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Dewey, J.—Hmo We Think: 12-13; 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Natural Resources in the Training of 
 
 Tliought"; 
 Chap. IV, "School Conditions and the Training of 
 
 Thought"; 
 Chap. V, "The Means and End of Mental Training; 
 
 the Psychological and the Logical" 
 
 Holmes, A. H. — Principles of Character Making: 255-263 
 
 Monroe, Paul — Principles of Secondary Education: 248- 
 250, 257, 287-310 
 
 NoRswoRTHY AND Whitley — Psychology of Childhood: 154- 
 159, 182-183, 292-294 
 
 Parker, S. C. — Methods of Teaching in High Schools: 
 
 331, 360; 
 Chap. IX, "Reflective Thinking"; 
 Chap. XIII, "Influence of Age on Learning"; 
 Chap. XIV, "Interest, the Basis of Economy in 
 
 Learning' ' 
 
 Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent: 
 
 Chap. V, "Scepticism: The Period of Storm and 
 Stress"; 
 
 Chap. VI, "Unification: The Philosophical Psycho- 
 sis"; 
 
 Chap. IX, "Education of Boys During Ado- 
 lescence"; 
 
 Chap. X, "Education of Girls During Adolescence" 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. IV, "The Mind: General Treatment"; 
 
 Chap. VII, "Intellect, or the Capacity to Think";
 
 ADOLESCENCE — INTELLECTUAL 179 
 
 Chap. X, "Intellectual Education and School 
 
 Work"; 
 Chap. XI, ''The Education of Girls"; 
 Chap. XIV, "The Pedagogy of Adolescence" 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 
 
 Vol. II; Chap. XVI, "Intellectual Development 
 
 and Education"; 
 Chap. XVII, "Adolescent Girls and Their Educa- 
 tion" 
 Youth: 
 Chap. X, "Intellectual Education and School 
 
 Work"; 
 Chap. XI, "The Education of Girls"
 
 40. COEDUCATION 
 
 The traditional separation of boys and girls duriiij^ 
 their schooling rested upon the different status of men 
 and women. With increasing access to economic 
 opportunities, education of girls was gradually ex- 
 tended until arbitrary restrictions are no longer toler- 
 ated. The separation of the sexes in educational insti- 
 tutions, wherever it exists, is at present justified on the 
 ground of native and permanent differences between 
 the sexes, requiring a differentiated treatment of boys 
 and girls. 
 
 Although the development of public schools for all 
 children compelled coeducation in the lower grades 
 for reasons of economy, this method has been in- 
 creasingly adopted in secondary and higher schools on 
 the ground that it best serves the major aims of educa- 
 tion. At present, approximately ninety per cent of the 
 children in secondary schools of this country are in 
 coeducational institutions; and about two thirds of 
 the young women attending colleges and universities 
 are in coeducational institutions. 
 
 The opposition to coeducation for high school and 
 college grades rests upon differences in the rate of 
 development between the sexes, differences in physical 
 endurance, danger of social distractions, and need for 
 differentiating studies. On the other hand, coeduca- 
 tion is not only more economical from an administrative 
 viewpoint, but it promotes cooperation and democracy 
 
 180
 
 COEDUCATION 181 
 
 between the sexes, trains in necessary social inter- 
 course, and diminishes sexual immorality. 
 
 The tendency in all education is to widen oppor- 
 tunity for differentiated studies adapted to needs of 
 various groups or individuals. Accordingly, coeduca- 
 tion of the sexes need not mean an identical program 
 of studies, or identical methods of instruction for all. 
 It means merely that a large part of the child's experi- 
 ence is to be shared with other children — including 
 those of the opposite sex. This permits at every stage 
 endless adjustments in accordance with the needs of the 
 individual and in accordance with the needs of various 
 groups, including boys or girls. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1 . HISTORICAL 
 
 a. Schools for boys only 
 
 b. Admission of girls to school 
 
 c. Establishment of schools for girls 
 
 d. Distinction between elementary and higher education 
 
 2. PRESENT USAGE 
 
 a. In the United States 
 
 (1) City and country 
 
 (2) Eastern and Western regions 
 
 (3) Elementary and higher schools 
 
 (4) Public and private schools 
 
 b. In other countries 
 
 (1) England and Scotland 
 
 (2) France 
 
 (3) Germany 
 
 (4) Sweden 
 
 (5) Italy 
 
 (6) Canada and Australia
 
 182 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 3. OPPOSITION TO COEDUCATION 
 
 a. Sexes develop unevenly from 11th to 15th year 
 
 b. Boys suffer from competition with girls in secondary 
 
 school period 
 
 (1) Precocity of girls 
 
 (2) Self-confidence of girls 
 
 c. Social life may become too intense 
 
 d. Girls predominate in high school, making boys lose 
 
 interest in studies and leave school 
 
 e. Intensive work too severe for girls in higher grades 
 
 f. Girls fail to develop certain finer feminine qualities 
 
 g. Boys fail to develop certain virile qualities 
 
 h. Differentiation of studies according to physical, cul- 
 tural, vocational, and social needs is retarded 
 
 4. ARGUMENTS FOR COEDUCATION 
 
 a. It is more economical 
 
 b. It makes for equality and democracy 
 
 c. It promotes capacity for cooperation 
 
 d. It makes for better mutual understanding, and for 
 
 a wholesome disillusionment 
 
 e. It diminishes immorality 
 
 f. It increases mutual respect on intellectual level 
 
 g. It facilitates acquisition of ease in social intercourse 
 h. It makes for development of more flexible types of 
 
 school administration 
 
 5. PRESENT TENDENCIES 
 
 a. Extension of secondary school organization into lower 
 
 grades 
 
 b. Recognition by schools of responsibility for meeting 
 
 wider range of needs — physical, vocational, civic, 
 cultural 
 
 c. Increasing opportunities for individualized or other 
 
 differentiated program in composite schools 
 
 d. A school for all the children, but not treating all alike
 
 COEDUCATION 183 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Dewey, John — Is Coeducation Injurious to Girls? 
 
 Ladies' Home Journal, XXVIII, 22, June, 1911 
 
 FiNCK, Hervey T. — Why Coeducation is Losing Ground: 
 Independent, LV, 301, 361, February 5, 12, 1903 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters: 58 
 
 Monroe, Paul — Encyclopedia of Education: 
 Article on "Coeducation" 
 
 Patterson, Herbert P. — The Logical Problem of Coedu- 
 cation: 
 Education, XXXVII, 112-115, 1916 
 
 Rice, Richard, Jr. — The Educational Value of Coeducation: 
 Independent, December 5, 1912 
 
 Slosson, E. E. — Coeducation from Another Standpoint: 
 Independent, LV, February 12, 1903 
 (An answer to the Finck article) 
 
 Woods, Alice, Editor — Advance in Coeducation: 
 Articles by various authors 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Angell, James R. — Some Reflections upon the Reaction 
 from Coeducation: 
 Popular Science Monthly, LXII, 5-26, 1902 
 
 Armstrong, J. E. — The Advantages of Limited Sex Segre- 
 gation in the High School: 
 School Review, XVIII, 338-350, 1910 
 
 Draper, Andrew — Coeducation in the United States: 
 
 Educational Review, XXV, 109-129, February, 1903 
 
 Gale, Zona — What of Coeducation? 
 Atlantic Monthly, July, 1914
 
 184 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and 
 Hygiene: 286-297 
 
 Jordan, David Starr — The Care and Culture of Men: 71-90 
 
 King, Irving — The High School Age: 220-224 
 
 Anonymous — Coeducation and Marriage: 
 
 Journal of Heredity, VIII, 43, January, 1917. 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: II, 617-647 
 Educational Problems: II, 586-593 
 
 Harper, Ida H. — The Permanency of Coeducation: 
 Independent, LV, March 12, 1903 
 
 Thomson, Helen B. — The Mental Traits of Sex
 
 41. CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 
 
 Most people do not choose occupations; they drift 
 into jobs. And for most people the job is not a 
 fulfillment and satisfaction of natural and legitimate 
 cravings, but a necessary and disagreeable grind. 
 For the normal child, the first need is an opportunity to 
 become acquainted with the kinds of work that the 
 world needs to have done — not merely in an academic 
 sense, but through direct contact and concrete sampling 
 of the activities and experiences that make up the 
 work. In the next place he needs to acquire an attitude 
 of workmanship, of interest in and desire for work — 
 work as activity, as means of self expression, and as 
 instrument of service. And finally, he must get a 
 set of standards or criteria of values with respect to 
 work — what the world has a right to demand of the 
 worker, and what the worker has a right to expect from 
 the work and from the world in return. In each of 
 these three aspects of the child's adjustment to the 
 problem of finding his occupation, the child is in- 
 fluenced by the material and the spiritual surround- 
 ings, whether at home or in school, or in the com- 
 munity at large. 
 
 In practice, the child's work should normally be an 
 outgrowth of his play and study. Every day the new 
 experiences actually serve to discover new interests and 
 capacities, and there is a gradual selection influenced by 
 the satisfactions derived from the various experiences, 
 
 185
 
 186 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 by the approval or disapproval of teachers and parents 
 and fellows, by the esteem in which the representatives 
 of various callings are held in the community, by the 
 outward and visible signs of social grace which these 
 representatives manifest. The interests of the child 
 show a progression corresponding to intellectual and 
 emotional development, but determined as to form by 
 what he sees going on around him. With this progres- 
 sion there should be a differentiation that eventually 
 leads to the selection of main lines of activity. While 
 the interest in a specialized activity is valuable in 
 focusing application and effort, the "life career motive" 
 should not be overworked, since it is undesirable to 
 force early specialization. On the other hand, the 
 interests nianifested at any given time, whether in 
 being a policeman or an Indian chief, may properly be 
 employed to further the estabUshment of those ideals or 
 habits that constitute the distinctive virtues of the 
 calling in question. 
 
 In the choice of an occupation, as in the evolution 
 of ideals, the child is influenced by his reading, the 
 pictures he sees, the conversations he overhears, and by 
 obscure flows of feeling, at least as much as by the 
 explicit and deliberate teachings of elders. In the 
 same way, too, choice may be influenced by defects or 
 by exceptional acuteness of one or another sense organ, 
 by timidities or fears or curiosities acquired early in life. 
 A frustration with a resultant stimulation of effort, 
 an inferiority complex with a resultant attempt at 
 compensation, may become factors in the choice of 
 occupation. 
 
 By attempting to use forethought and intelligence
 
 CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 187 
 
 we can unquestionably get better results than arise from 
 the policy of drift. But there is danger in attempting 
 to obtain short cuts, whether through the premature 
 speciahzation of training, or through some esoteric 
 determination of abihty — phrenology, palmistry, 
 astrology and other weird cults are always ready to 
 serve. On the other hand, increasing knowledge of the 
 significant factors in the unfolding of ability will give 
 us progressively better insight into the individual 
 child, and systematic tests of various kinds are becom- 
 ing daily more useful in detecting limitations and 
 capacities. But in the end concrete performance in a 
 variety of activities will serve most helpfully in deter- 
 mining what boys and girls can or can not do well. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. WHAT AN OCCUPATION IS TO THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 a. A body of specialized activities 
 
 b. A means of self-expression 
 
 c. A means for gaining recognition or approval 
 
 d. A means of rendering service 
 
 e. A source of income 
 
 2. IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL ADJUSTMENT 
 
 a. Economy of adequate distribution of workers 
 
 b. Contribution to happiness of indi\'idual8 
 
 c. Danger of invidious stratification of occupations 
 
 3. VOCATIONS AND HUMAN TALENTS 
 
 a. There is no necessary correlation between talents and 
 
 socially needed services 
 
 b. There is no necessary correlation between a child's 
 
 admirations and his abilities 
 
 c. The genius finds a new way of doing useful things 
 
 d. Mediocrity can follow suit 
 
 e. Social changes eliminate occupations and make way 
 
 for new ones
 
 188 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 4. THE child's need FOR SELF-DISCOVERY 
 
 a. An acquaintance with the kinds of work the world 
 
 needs to have done through actual work experi- 
 ence 
 
 b. An interest in and desire for work 
 
 c. Standards of value with respect to work 
 
 (1) Social or ethical justification 
 
 (2) Its contribution to the worker 
 
 (3) Its demand upon the worker — physically, 
 
 spiritually, socially 
 
 5. THE PROCESS 
 
 a. Self-revelation and development through play 
 
 b. Transition from play to work 
 
 c. Progressive differentiation of interests and preferred 
 
 activities — in play, in work, in study, through 
 the action of 
 
 (1) Inherent factors of sensitiveness and capacities 
 
 (2) Models for imitation 
 
 (3) Approval or disapproval of teachers and parent 
 
 (4) The community's esteem for types of service 
 
 or personality, or mode of living 
 
 (5) Suggestion from reading, etc. 
 
 (6) Deliberate guidance 
 
 (7) Personal limitations and emotional reactions 
 
 6. STANDARDIZED PROCEDURE 
 
 a. Danger of short cuts and charlatanism 
 
 b. Danger of early speciaUzation 
 
 c. School and home observations 
 
 d. Records of changing tastes, interests, preferences, etc. 
 
 e. Systematic tests 
 
 (1) Psychological 
 
 (2) Scholastic 
 
 (3) Specialized trade tests, etc. 
 
 f. Try-out experiences in school and industry 
 
 g. Use of hfe-career motive and other sources of stimu- 
 
 lation
 
 CHOOSING AN OCCUPATION 189 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 PoTpular 
 
 Barnes, Eabl — Studies in Education: 
 
 Second Series, 243-253, "Children's Ambitions" 
 
 FiLENE, Catherine — Careers for Women 
 
 HoERLE AND Saltzberg — The Girl and ihe Job 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Allen, F. J. — Guide to the Study of Occupations 
 
 Bloomfield, Meyer — Readings in Vocational Guidance: 
 " Selecting Young Men for Particular Jobs " (Her- 
 man Schneider) 
 
 "Charting Children in Cincinnati" (Helen Thomp- 
 son Woolley) 
 
 Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis: 
 Chap. XIII, "Selection of Vocations" 
 
 Gowin and Wheatley — Occupations 
 
 Technical 
 Bloomfield, Meyer — Readijujs in Vocational Guidance 
 Brewer, J. M. — The Vocational Guidance Movement
 
 42. TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 
 
 The child acquires the feehng of responsibility 
 gradually. The burden should be graded to correspond 
 to his ability to bear it, and should be steadily increased. 
 The feeling, as distinguished from habits of punctuality, 
 promptness, orderliness, and so on, arises from associa- 
 tion with others, from sympathy, and from the imagin- 
 ative participation in the effects upon others of the 
 various activities in which the children share. 
 
 Home responsibilities begin with the care of toys 
 and clothing, with helping in minor tasks, with con- 
 sideration for the routine of the establishment involving 
 other members of the household, with caring for 
 younger brothers and sisters, and with being rehed 
 upon to help the elders occasionally or regularly. 
 School responsibilities begin with punctuality, which is 
 primarily a social virtue, having to do with time values 
 of others and with the routine of a group. 
 
 In relation to other children on the playground, 
 social responsibiUty arises out of the feeling of fair play, 
 out of consideration for the rights of others, and out of 
 the idea of non-interference which playground experi- 
 ence develops. In organized groups involving team- 
 work, excursions, camping, and so on, the feeling of 
 responsibility acquires wider scope. The more pro- 
 gressive schools, both elementary and high, in all parts 
 of the country, are giving children increasing oppor- 
 tunity to share in the responsibility of the regular 
 
 190
 
 TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 191 
 
 class work as a social project. The so-called " socalized 
 recitation" partakes of a great variety of forms, but 
 always seeks to furnish the children actual practice in 
 the social virtues, especially responsibility. 
 
 In addition, however, to making good followers who 
 acknowledge authority and accept leadership as neces- 
 sary for safety, coordination of effort and progress, we 
 need further to develop that higher level of responsi- 
 bility which challenges authority when occasion arises, 
 which questions routine and rules. Democracy re- 
 quires that children, after learning to follow the lules, 
 learn further that rules are convenient devices for 
 facihtating human relations and procedure, and that 
 we are answerable for improving upon the rulas or even 
 for overthrowing them. The responsibility for leader- 
 ship is quite as urgent as that for followership. 
 
 In general, the feeling of responsibility, once well 
 started grows with the child's experience in social 
 relationships. As the child feels himself a member of a 
 larger and larger group or community, his responsi- 
 bility will be transferred to the members of the larger 
 group, or to the group as a whole; and conversely, his 
 feeling of the larger group will grow with the experience 
 which he shares with members in the larger relationship. 
 The problem is to make the child conscious of himself 
 in his capacity of gioup membership, or to feel himself 
 as the representative of the group, so that his decisions 
 and attitudes can be justified in terms of the general 
 need or v.-elfare. This end can be reached only through 
 much and varied experience in different social relation- 
 ships, through inspiring examples of conduct manifest- 
 ing the desired attitudes, and through guidance in the
 
 192 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 formulation of those ideals and general principles 
 that mark the highly evolved types of social and moral 
 adjustment. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. WHAT THE HOME MUST TEACH 
 
 a. Orderliness 
 
 (1) Things must be in their place, or we shall suf- 
 
 fer; toys, clothing, furniture, and appliances 
 in the room 
 
 (2) People must be in their places on time, or we 
 
 shall suffer; the routine of the household 
 
 b. Kindness 
 
 (1) Helpfulness makes us all happier 
 
 (2) Attitude toward paid helpers 
 
 (3) Hospitality toward strangers within the house, 
 
 visitors 
 
 c. Considerateness 
 
 (1) Keeping engagements 
 
 (2) Carrying out instructions 
 
 (3) Sharing in work 
 
 (4) Finding the purpose, not merely the words or 
 
 rules 
 
 (5) Reliability of word or promise 
 
 2. APPLICATION AND GROWTH IN THE SCHOOL 
 
 a. Punctualitj' required by orderliness and considerate- 
 
 ness 
 
 b. Observation of routine necessary for the protection of 
 
 individual rights 
 
 c. Recognition of authority or leadership necessary for 
 
 (1) Safety (e.g., fire drill) 
 
 (2) Expedition 
 
 (3) Progress 
 
 d. Questioning of routine and rules necessary for de- 
 
 mocracy 
 
 (1) Rules and regulations as empirical devices 
 
 (2) Rules subject to change with conditions; with 
 
 inventiveness and improvements
 
 TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 193 
 
 (3) Responsibility of individual toward improve- 
 ment of rules, etc. 
 e. Sharing responsibility 
 
 3. GROWTH AND APPLICATION AT PLAY 
 
 a. Non-interference, from experience with grabbing and 
 
 jostUng of others 
 
 b. Fair play, from experience with unfairness of others, 
 
 and with the group's penalties for unfairness 
 
 c. Teamwork, from experience in joint enterprises and 
 
 later from games involving division of labor or 
 special functions 
 
 4. GROWTH AND APPLICATION IN THE COMMUNITY 
 
 a. The thoroughfare: open to all, used by all, the con- 
 
 cern of all 
 
 (1) To maintain 
 
 (2) To keep clean 
 
 (3) To use considerately 
 
 b. Parks, playgrounds, etc.: these, too, are ours, for 
 
 joint use involves mutual obligations of consid- 
 erateness 
 
 c. Public gatherings, theater, concert, etc. : principle of 
 
 non-interference 
 
 d. Attitude toward strangers; general courtesy; help to 
 
 those seeking directions, information, etc. 
 
 e. Public spirit : the call of the community for help 
 
 f. I am my brother's keeper 
 
 5. METHODS 
 
 a. Manifestation of attitude on part of parents, teachers, 
 
 etc. 
 
 b. Interpretation of difficulties and demands, rather than 
 
 inculcation of mottoes, etc. 
 
 c. Aid in formulation of ideals and general principles, 
 
 on basis of experience and discussion 
 
 d. Opportunity for participation in home activities 
 
 e. Organization of joint activities in school 
 
 (1) For school service 
 
 (2) For community service
 
 194 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 f. Training in parliamentary procedure in elube, acbool 
 classes, etc. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Papular 
 
 Berle, a. a. — The School in the Home: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Mental Self -Organization '* 
 
 Bloomfield, M. — Vocational Guidance of Youth: 109-116 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy C. — Mothers and Children: 107-108 
 
 Hood, M. G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls: Chap. 
 XXV-XXVIII 
 
 Hughes, James L. — FroeheVs Educational Laws: 154-178 
 
 Latimer, C. — Girl and Woman: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "Moral Disturbances of Girlhood" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Adler, Felix — The Moral Instruction of Children: 
 
 Chap. XIII, "Duties Which Relate to Others"; 
 Chap. XIV, "Duties toward All Men"; 
 Chap. XV, "The Elements of Civic Duty" 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Educatimi: Second Series, 62-70, 
 203-217 
 
 Chance, Mrs. Burton — Self-Training for Mothers: 
 Chap. VIII, "Responsibility" 
 
 Oppenheim, N. — The Develo-pment of the Child: 
 
 Chap. VII, "The Value of the Child as a Witness in 
 
 Suits at Law"; 
 Chap. VIII, "The Development of the Child Crim- 
 inal" 
 
 Richmond, Ennis — The Mind of a Child: 56-65
 
 TRAINING IN SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 195 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — The Child: 
 
 Chap. VI, "Nature versus Nurture" 
 
 Technical 
 
 KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — The Individual in the Making: 
 171-174 
 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. IX, "Self-Consciousness and the Social 
 Order"
 
 43. RELIGIOUS TRAINING 
 
 Religion plays an important role in the development 
 of the personality and character of the child. Yet it is 
 impossible at the present time to formulate either a 
 definition of religion or a program of religious training 
 that would be acceptable to the majority of adults, 
 whether professional students of the subject or mere 
 laymen. 
 
 On the one hand we find theories of right and wrong 
 closely tied up with religious views, traditions and 
 conventions. On the other hand we find religious 
 theories intimately associated with theologies and with 
 speculations concerning the ultimate meaning and 
 nature of man and the universe. 
 
 It has seemed best, therefore, to present the most 
 helpful reference books on the psychology of religion 
 and on religious training, leaving it to the individual 
 and the group to adapt the deep thought and the 
 scientific study which these books represent to their 
 own needs. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents: 
 Chap. VI, "The Beginning of Wisdom" 
 
 FoRBUSH, W. B, — The Coming Generation: 
 
 Chap. VII, "The Religious Life of the Child"; 
 Chap. XXXII, "The Larger Nurture" 
 
 196
 
 RELIGIOUS TRAINING 197 
 
 Hartshorne, Hugh — Childhood and Character 
 
 Peabody, Francis G. — The Religious Education of an 
 American Citizen: 
 Chap. I, "The Rehgious Education of an American 
 
 Child"; 
 Chap. II, "The American Boy and His Home" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 
 
 Chap. I, "Problem of Unsectarian Moral Instruc- 
 tion" 
 
 Dawson, G. E. — The Child and His Religion 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: 
 
 "The Religious Training of Children" 
 Haviland, Mary S. — The Religion of a Child: 
 
 Pt. VII, "Character Training in Childhood" 
 
 Heathcote, Charles William — The Essentials of Religious 
 Education: Chap. VI-X 
 
 James, William — Varieties of Religious Experience 
 
 Ladd, George T. — The Child and Religion (Edited by 
 Thomas Stephens) : 
 Chap. Ill, "The Child's Capacity for Religion" 
 NoRSWORTHY AND Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood: 
 Chap. XIII, "Sequent Tendencies; Moral and Re- 
 ligious Development" 
 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence: 
 Chap. XIII, "The Rehgious Life" 
 
 Technical 
 
 CoE, George A. — Education in Religion and Morals: 
 Pt. II, "The Child"; 
 
 Chap, XXII, "Education and Rehgious Present 
 Problems"
 
 198 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 The Psychology of Religion: 
 
 Chap. XIX, "The Religious Nature of Man'' 
 A Social Theory of Religious Education 
 
 Leuba, James — Psychological Study of Religion: Pt. Ill, 
 Chap. X 
 
 McDouGALL, W. — Social Psychology: Chap. Ill, V-VI
 
 44. CIVIC INTERESTS 
 
 Civilization is an outgrowth of man's irresistible 
 gregariousness, which compels him either to learn to 
 get along passably well with others, or to withdraw 
 from the society of others. The process of learning 
 begins almost with birth, but it is not always continued 
 to the point of making a person both an independent 
 spirit and an acceptable member of a highly complex 
 community — two ends that are indispensable if life 
 is to be entirely satisfying. Through his contacts 
 with others the child eventually discovers himself as a 
 distinct personality, and then he proceeds to attach 
 those others to himself and to make them his own in a 
 very real sense. 
 
 From the common experiences with those nearest 
 him, he comes to identify himself with them; he is 
 sensitive to their approval, their rebukes, their indiffer- 
 ence; and to get from them the most satisfying reac- 
 tions, he is willing to do what will please them, he learns 
 the meaning of service. 
 
 As the child extends the circle of his acquaintances 
 from his immediate family to other children and adults 
 in his surroundings, to the school, the gang, the neigh- 
 borhood, and as he learns of the larger community of 
 his city, state and the human race, it is necessary for 
 him to enlarge his sympathies proportionately, if he is 
 not to remain an outcast hermit, or a partially socialized 
 gangster, or a narrow provincial. The gang is im- 
 
 199
 
 200 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 portant in cultivating certain social virtues of attitude 
 and conduct; the large community is essential for 
 broadening and harmonizing the interests and impulses. 
 
 In infancy and early childhood the suggestibihty of 
 the child unconsciously and automatically accepts the 
 leadership of the adults; but as the child comes to be 
 aware of himself and to experiment with himself, ho 
 becomes disposed to challenge arbitrary authority; and 
 unless completely repressed, will persist in his resistance 
 to tyranny, whether of the parents or of the school, 
 whether of the local bully or of the political usurper. 
 In a democracy the child should always have before 
 him the opportunity to choose his associates and his 
 leaders, if only for experience in sampling human 
 beings for his purposes. 
 
 Even young children have sufficient feeling for 
 regularity and order to accept the idea of a rule or a 
 law as guide to conduct; and from infancy this can be 
 well cultivated through a fairly rigid routine in the 
 details pertaining to personal health, sleeping, eating, 
 etc., etc. Children readily accept rules of a game and 
 it is important for them to learn that while existing 
 rules are to be obeyed, both laws and rules are practical 
 devices to facihtate human affairs, not to interfere; 
 and that laws, hke rules, are subject to change by 
 established methods, as changing human needs dictate. 
 
 Much of the "lawlessness" and of the anti-social 
 spirit found in youth, especially in the larger cities, 
 may be avoidable through more thorough and effective 
 schooling. But we must not overlook the fact that 
 much of it is simply a reflex of the prevailing attitude 
 of homes and of prominent members of the community,
 
 CIVIC INTERESTS 201 
 
 whose glaring violations of the welfare of others are not 
 always followed by the traditional wages of sin. We 
 cannot expect the children to be any better than the 
 rest of the community. We cannot expect the school 
 to counteract altogether the prevailing ideology. We 
 cannot expect the teachers to produce any substantial 
 change in the attitudes of the rising citizenry without 
 the wholehearted and energetic support of the rest of 
 the community, or at least of its more influential frac- 
 tion. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. RELATION OF INDIVIDUAL TO OTHERS 
 
 a. Early interest of child in other people 
 
 b. Discovers himself because of others 
 
 c. Forms attachments to most intimates 
 
 d. Necessity for learning to adjust 
 
 2. DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDARITY 
 
 a. Community interest with own people 
 
 b. Identifying self with own people 
 
 c. Desire to get approval and to please 
 
 d. Desire to serve 
 
 3. EXPANSION OF GROUP 
 
 a. From family, to neighborhood, etc. 
 
 b. Extension to school 
 
 c. The socializing effect of the gang 
 
 d. Need for progressive expansion of sympathies and 
 
 interests 
 
 4. RELATION TO LEADERSHIP 
 
 a. Suggestibility of child 
 
 b. Tendency to form personal attachments 
 
 c. Resistance to tyranny 
 
 d. Experience in selection of leaders
 
 202 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 5. FROM PERSONALITY TO LAW 
 
 a. Child's love of regularity and regulation 
 
 b. Rules of the game 
 
 c. Respect for law vs. fear of law 
 
 6. CIVIC ATTITUDE 
 
 a. Reflection of home and community 
 
 b. Teachings of school 
 
 c. Public spirit 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 Gould, F. J. — A National Need, the Civic Spirit in Educa- 
 tion 
 
 Moore, H. H. — The Youth and the Nation: 
 
 Chap. IV, "Should the Youth Enlist?" 
 Chap. V, "Choosing of Life Work"; 
 Chap. VI, "Preparation for Life Work" 
 Our Complex Civilization and the Genius of Youth: 
 School Review, XXIX, 617-627, October. 1921 
 
 Sharp, D. L. — Patrons of Democracy: 
 
 Atlantic Monthly, CXXIV, 649, November, 1919 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Beard, C. A. and M. R. — American Citizenship 
 
 Dunn, A. W. — Citizenship in School and Out: 
 Introduction, 1-23 
 
 Technical 
 Dunn, A. W. — Civic Education in Elementary Schools 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Educational Problems: II, Chap. XXIV, 
 "Civic Education"
 
 45. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 
 
 Every child is in a sense exceptional. Nevertheless 
 our studies of variations among children would never 
 lead to any practical results if we did not accept as 
 noiinal those children who show only slight deviations 
 from the average. Over half the children, approxi- 
 mately sixty per cent, may be classed as normal in the 
 sense that they depart from the theoretical average to 
 an extent that does not raise problems of a special kind. 
 The rest of the children depart in var^'ing degrees from 
 the normal in one or several respects involving special 
 consideration or treatment. We must recognize that 
 this is not a theoretical matter at all, but one purely of 
 satisfactory adjustment of the child to the world in 
 which he has to live. It is only because the program 
 which is fairly satisfactory for the average child fails 
 in practise to meet the requirements of a particular child 
 that this child is considered exceptional. The use of 
 tests is to facilitate diagnosis and to expedite adjust- 
 ment, not to discover what we would rather not know. 
 
 The most obvious shortcomings are those of a 
 physical nature — defective vision and hearing, crip- 
 pled limbs, speech defects. Children with these short- 
 comings should not be segregated, since they need to 
 learn early in life how to live with normal people. This 
 does not mean that they should be treated precisely as 
 are the normal children in the schoolroom. Obviously 
 a nearsighted child or one hard of hearing should have 
 
 208
 
 204 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 a front seat. When these defects are so serious as to 
 constitute total bhndness or deafness, it is necessary to 
 provide separate classes in an ordinary school, so that 
 these handicapped children may have the opportunity 
 of mingling with normal children on the playground, 
 etc. Of course, remediable defects call for specific treat- 
 ment quite apart from the educational service supplied 
 to the handicapped child. There are many minor 
 deficiencies which are important in causing mental or 
 educational retardation, and children who suffer from 
 them require specialized treatment. 
 
 The chief cause of retardation or backwardness is 
 mental deficiency, of which there are many degrees 
 calling for different kinds of treatment. Children 
 below normal in mental capacity are classified as 
 idiotic where the mentality does not develop beyond 
 the two or three year level, and as imbecile where it 
 reaches to the two to seven year level. Such children 
 can best be cared for in institutions and should be sent 
 there no matter what apparent advantages the home 
 may offer. It is important for parents to realize that 
 their children are much happier surrounded by com- 
 panions of their own age and mental development, 
 and in an environment which does not demand too 
 much for them. 
 
 The most difficult problem is that of the "moron " — 
 the person whose mentality lies approximately between 
 the ages of seven and twelve. For the sake of the child 
 as well as of society, it is important that morons be 
 recognized and that their capacities and limitations be 
 understood. There aie as many varieties among 
 morons as among normal individuals. With care, a
 
 THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 205 
 
 useful place in society can be found for each. What 
 this place is to be must be determined by individual 
 study on the part of specialists. It must never be 
 forgotten that these children are entitled to special 
 supervision since they present problems with which 
 their parents are usually unable to cope. 
 
 In regard to all mentally deficient children, it may 
 be said that while we cannot improve their mentality, 
 we have reached the point where, by a recognition of 
 their capacities and limitations, we can so place them 
 in our social scheme that they may lead happy and 
 useful lives. But for the prevention of their multi- 
 plication, as well as for their protection against dangers 
 of many kinds, the feeble-minded should be permanently 
 under custodial supervision. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. WHAT IS NORMAL? 
 
 a. Absolute standards 
 
 b. Statistical standards 
 
 c. Social standards 
 
 d. Pedagogical standards 
 
 2. PHYSICAL HANDICAPS 
 
 a. Blindness 
 
 b. Deafness 
 
 c. Deformity and physical inferiorities 
 
 3. REMEDIABLE OR PREVENTABLE CONDITIONS CAUSING RE- 
 
 TARDATION 
 
 a. Poor eyesight 
 
 b. Poor hearing 
 
 c. Infected tonsils 
 
 d. Adenoid growths 
 
 e. Bad teeth 
 
 f. Speech defects
 
 206 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 g. Chronic infections — chiefly 
 
 Tuberculosis 
 
 Syphilis 
 h. Malnutrition 
 i. Cardiac deficiencies 
 
 4. FEEBLEMINDEDNESS 
 
 a. Causes — usually hereditary 
 
 b. Grades 
 
 (1) Idiot 
 
 (2) Imbecile 
 
 (3) Moron 
 
 c. Basis for differentiating 
 
 (1) Development 
 
 (2) Performance 
 
 (3) Special tests 
 
 5. NERVOUS AND PSYCHOPATHIC 
 
 a. Epileptic 
 
 b. Psychotic 
 
 c. Unstable 
 
 6. DISPOSITION AND TREATMENT 
 
 a. Value of early recognition 
 
 b. Clinic study and treatment 
 
 c. Distinction between permanent and curable defects 
 
 d. Segregation for treatment 
 
 (1) Medical or surgical 
 
 (2) Pedagogical 
 
 e. Permanent custodial care for feebleminded 
 
 (1) For sake of the individual 
 
 (2) For sake of the community and the race 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 Ayres, Leonard P. — Laggards in Our Schools: 
 
 Chap. XI, "Physical Defects and School Progress" 
 Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Children and Their Training: 
 
 Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919
 
 THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DEFICIENT 207 
 
 Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts of Mental Hygiene for 
 Teachers: 
 Mental Hygiene, III, 11-15, January, 1919 
 
 GoDDARD, H. H. — Feeblemindedness, Its Causes and Conse- 
 quences: 
 Chap. I, "Social Problems"; 
 Chap. X, "Practical Applications" 
 
 Groszmann, M. p. E. — The Exceptional Child: 
 
 Chap. XXIII, "General Provisions for Variations 
 
 from Type"; 
 Chap. XXIV, "Provisions for Exceptional Children 
 
 in Schools and Institutions" 
 
 HoLLiNGWORTH, Leta S. — Psychology of Subnormal Chil- 
 dren 
 
 Morgan, T. — The Backward Child 
 
 Patri, Angelo — The Child Who Fails: 
 
 Red Cross Magazine, XV, 35-39, February, 1920 
 
 WooDROW, H. W. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
 Chap. I, "Introduction"; 
 Chap. II, "The Measurement of Intelligence"; 
 Chap. Ill, "Brightness and Dullness"; 
 Chap. V, "Physical Defects" 
 
 Wright, John Dutton — What the Mother of a Deaf Child 
 Ought to Know 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Blanton, Margaret and Smiley — Speech Training for 
 Children: 
 "The Hygiene of Speech" 
 
 Bronner, Augusta F. — Psychology of Special Abilities and 
 Disabilities 
 
 Cameron, Hector C. — The Nervous Child
 
 208 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Holmes, Arthur W. — The Conservation of the Child: 
 Chap. V, "Classification of Clinical Cases"; 
 Chap. VI, "Method of Classification of Clinical 
 Cases" 
 
 Lapage, C. Paget — Feeblemindedness in Children of School 
 Age 
 
 Technical 
 
 GoDDARD, H. H. — Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal 
 
 Healy, William — The Individual Delinquent: 447-589 
 
 Kelyneck, T. N. — Defective Children 
 
 Tredgold, a. F. — Mental Deficiency: 
 
 Chap. I, "The Nature of Mental Deficiency"; 
 Chap. VIII, "Feeblemindedness in Children"; 
 Chap. XVIII, "Mental Tests and Case Taking" 
 
 Wallin, J. E. W. — Problems of Subnormality: 
 
 Chap. I, "Changing Attitude Toward the Sub- 
 normal"; 
 Chap. IV, "The Problem of the Feebleminded in 
 Its Educational and Social Bearings" 
 The Mental Health of the School Child: 
 Chap. XIV, "The Relation of Oral Hygiene to Effi- 
 cient Mentation in Backward Children"; 
 Chap. XV, "Methods of Measuring the Ortho- 
 phrenic Effects of the Removal of Physical Handi- 
 caps" 
 Handicapped Children: 
 
 American Journal of School Hygiene, IV, 29-53, 
 September, 1920
 
 46. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — 
 DELINQUENT 
 
 The children and adults whose conduct does not 
 meet with the requirements of social living have been 
 explained in a variety of ways. According to some, the 
 delinquent represents a heritable type of personality, 
 or a person whose misconduct is directly or indirectly, 
 due to physical defects of constitution, to acquired 
 disease, or to mental deficiency. It is true that the 
 deUnquents show a large proportion of physically and 
 mentally deficient personalities, and that mental and 
 physical deficiencies are inherited; but it is very 
 questionable whether the theory of a criminal type 
 can be established. At most it may be said that 
 certain types of personality find it difficult to adjust 
 themselves to life in a complex society, and that near 
 the limits these types do not adjust themselves at all. 
 
 It is found more helpful to-day to consider dehn- 
 quency as a mode of conduct resulting from defective 
 development of the child's system of habits and feelings. 
 The failure to acquire the desired habit may be due to 
 shortcomings in the environment or to forces acting 
 to distort or pervert the behavior into undesirable 
 forms. Accordingly, the problem becomes one of 
 preventing delinquency, rather than of segregating 
 the criminal or delinquent types early in life, or of 
 penalizing those whose way of living is repugnant to 
 the common sense and interests of the community. 
 
 209
 
 210 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Among the more common forces making for delin- 
 quency are adverse home conditions — such, that is, as fail 
 to provide the child at each stage with adequate oppor- 
 tunities for self expression and with adequate guidance. 
 The growing child must acquire a technique of conti'ol 
 of materials and forces, including those of his own 
 body, whereby he may duly impress those around him 
 in a way that brings satisfaction and approval. 
 Whether this technique is acquired through work or 
 play, through schooling or self directed activities, it is 
 essential that it takes forms which are socially accept- 
 able. The alternative is a spontaneous or fortuitous 
 discovery of methods for obtaining the needed satisfac- 
 tions, and these methods constitute the delinquent 
 conduct in most cases. Not alone suitable recreational 
 opportunities, but the companionship of adults and 
 other children, and exposure to inspiring and stimulat- 
 ing forces, such as books and pictures, speakers and 
 theaters, churches and community celebrations, must 
 play a part. In many cases, too, delinquency repre- 
 sents a mode of behavior that is quite normal at an 
 earlier stage, but not suited to the more developed 
 stages of living; it is a sort of arrested development, a 
 retention of infantile standards and ideals and habits 
 that should be outgrown. 
 
 The restoration of a young person from a delinquent 
 mode of life to one that is socially and mentally normal 
 involves first, a separation from the earlier environment 
 with its accustomed stimulations and suggestions to 
 objectionable conduct, and second, a retraining that 
 will establish self confidence and self respect, chiefly 
 by paeans of activities that permit the acquirement of a
 
 THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — DELINQUENT 211 
 
 satisfying control over the self and over the environ- 
 ment. Institutional care may prevent further delin- 
 quency, but to be of lasting value it must aim at 
 restoring the individual to normal life in accordance 
 with his special needs and hmitations. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. WHAT IS DELINQUENCY? 
 
 a. The delinquent as a type of human being 
 
 (1) Criminal type theory 
 
 (2) Relation to physical defects 
 
 (3) Relation to mental defects 
 
 b. Delinquency as a mode of conduct 
 
 (1) Meaning of maladjustment 
 
 (2) Specific sources or direction of maladjustment 
 
 Persons 
 
 School 
 
 Special objects or activities 
 
 (3) Importance of early years 
 
 2. PREVENTION OF DELINQUENCY 
 
 a. Adverse home conditions 
 
 b. Need for opportunity for self-expression 
 
 (1) Impulses must find outlet 
 
 (2) Personality must impress environment 
 
 (3) Play and work 
 
 c. Companionship of other children and of adults 
 
 d. Sources of inspiration and stimulation 
 
 e. Instruction and guidance 
 
 3. REHABILITATION 
 
 a. Isolation from early environment and "temptation" 
 
 b. Opportunity for regaining self-confidence and self- 
 
 respect 
 
 (1) Recreation and social contacts 
 
 (2) Experience with success 
 
 (3) Retraining 
 
 c. Shortcomings of institutional methods
 
 212 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Addams, Jane — Spirit of Youth and the City Streets 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Studies in Education: 
 
 First Series, "A Bad Girl's Story," 107-109 
 
 Swift, E. J. — Mind in the Making: 
 
 Chap, II, "Criminal Tendencies in Boys" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 GoDDARD, Henry H. — Juvenile Delinquency 
 
 Kenworthy, Marion E. — The Logic of Delinquency: 
 Papers and Proceedings American Sociological 
 Society, XVI. 1922 
 
 Miner, J. B. — Deficiency and Delinquency: 
 
 Chap. X, "Bad School Adjustment as a Cause of 
 
 Delinquency"; 
 Chap. XI, "Deficiency as a Cause of Delinquency" 
 
 Taft, Jessie — Some Problems in Delinquency: Papers and Pro- 
 ceedings American Sociological Society, XVI. 1922 
 
 Thurston, Henry W. — Delinquency and Spare Time 
 
 Technical 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence: 
 
 Chap. V, "Juvenile Faults, Immoralities and 
 Crimes" 
 
 Healy, William — The Individual Delinquent: 
 Bk. I, General Data
 
 47. THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — vSUPERIOR 
 
 Some children show very early in Hfe general or 
 special abilities of a high order, and continue for many 
 years in advance of others of the same age. In some 
 cases, however, the early ripening of ordinary ability 
 leaves the child at adolescence a disappointing medi- 
 ocrity, because so much is commonly expected of him. 
 It is difficult ordinarily to distinguish these two types 
 of precocity, although there is some evidence to link 
 the latter form with some abnormality in the glands of 
 internal secretion. In any case, precocity need not of 
 itself cause alarm, since it is quite compatible with 
 both physical health and mental balance. Where it 
 represents high degree of native ability, the hereditary 
 factor is probably prominent; but we must remember 
 that "intelhgence" is not a "unit" character, depending 
 on a single germinal determinant, but rather the 
 resultant of many hereditary elements. 
 
 Occasionally children appear that are for the m.ost 
 part indistinguishable from their fellows, except for a 
 single outstanding talent. The excessive development 
 of this will create the impression and produce the effect 
 of high ability, even where the other capacities are 
 decidedly below the average. The cultivation of 
 special talents will of course depend upon the capacities 
 and interests of the child, as well as upon external condi- 
 tions that make such cultivation of value. There 
 must be some prospect of compensation or approval to 
 warrant the efforts required by high specialization. 
 
 213
 
 214 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 The recognition of ability, whether general or 
 special, is becoming increasingly important for both 
 the individual and the community. Genius is some- 
 times suspected where there is nothing but a speciahzed 
 technique of self-assertiveness or some nervous dis- 
 turbance. It is probable, however, that in many 
 cases a high degree of development is attained as a 
 result of overtraining or overcompensating for some 
 real or imaginary defect. The child of exceptional 
 ability will show his departure from the ordinary first 
 through the delicacy of sense perception and discrimina- 
 tion, then by accuracy of muscular coordination, later 
 by the activity of his imagination, and in the highest 
 reaches by ability for abstract thinking and critical 
 reaction to suggestions that come to him. Mental 
 tests have not yet been refined to the point of giving us 
 prompt and certain indications of genius in very young 
 children, but as far as they have gone, they are of 
 decided value in diagnosing the more common useful 
 capacities. 
 
 It often happens that the exceptional child of 
 superior abihty needs more than ordinary attention to 
 his health, since he is likely to be easily overstimulated. 
 He should of course have free access to every usable 
 avenue of self expression, that he may early discover 
 effective media in which to work and play; and he 
 should have the advantage of association with satisfying 
 and stimulating companions. This will mean in many 
 cases that children of superior ability should be segre- 
 gated for portions of their time, both in school and in 
 some of their play, in order that their educational 
 progress may be commensurate with their abilities.
 
 THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — SUPERIOR 215 
 
 Such segregation carries of course the danger of develop- 
 ing a certain unwholesome arrogance or conceit; this 
 is to be avoided by emphasis upon character and 
 service rather than upon intellectual or artistic achieve- 
 ment. Unless these children of genuine superiority 
 acquire early the principle of noblesse oblige, society 
 would be better off without their education. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. PRECOCITY 
 
 a. Early manifestations of ability of high order 
 
 (1) General 
 
 (2) Special 
 
 b. Early maturing of ordinary ability 
 
 c. CompatibiUty with health and balance 
 
 d. Hereditary factor 
 
 2. COMPENSATING SPECIALIZATION 
 
 a. Development of single talent by mediocre individual 
 
 b. Factors determining specialization 
 
 (1) Native capacity and interest 
 
 (2) Casual stimulation or suggestion 
 
 (3) FeeUng of inferiority 
 
 3. RECOGNITION OF SPECIAL ABILITY 
 
 a. Genius versus psychasthenia 
 
 b. Sequence of manifestations 
 
 (1) Sensory impressions 
 
 (2) Muscular coordination 
 
 (3) Imagination 
 
 (4) Abstract thinking; critical ability 
 
 4. PRACTICAL NEEDS 
 
 a. Protection of health 
 
 b. Free access to means of self-expression 
 
 c. Association with satisfying and stimulating com- 
 
 panions
 
 216 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 d. Opportunity for educational progress commensurate 
 
 with growth-capacity 
 
 e. Social adjustment 
 
 f. Protection against development of conceit 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 . Groszmann, M. p. E. — The Exceptional Child: 
 
 Chap. VII, "Exceptionally Bright Children" 
 Terman, L. M. — The Intelligence of School Children: 
 
 Chap. XI, "Case Studies of Forty-One Superior 
 
 Children" 
 An Experiment in Infant Education: 
 Journal of Applied Psychology, II, 219-228, 1918 
 Wallin, J. E. W. — The Mental Health of the School Child: 
 372-380, 104, 128-129 
 
 Non-Technical 
 DoLBEAR, Katherine E. — Precocious Children: 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XIX, 461-491, 1912 
 • Garrison, Burke, and Hollingworth — Psychology of a 
 Prodigious Child: 
 Journal of Applied Psychology, I, 101-110, 1917 
 Stern, W. — The Supernormal Child: 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, II, 143-148, 181- 
 190, 1911 
 
 Terman, L. M. — Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XX, 529-537, 1915 
 
 Whipple, Guy M. — The Supernormal Child: 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, II, 164-165, 287- 
 288, 1911 
 
 Technical 
 Coy, Genevieve — The Mentality of a Gifted Child: 
 
 Journal of Applied Psychology, II, 299-307, 1918
 
 THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD — SUPERIOR 217 
 
 Henry, Theodore S. — Classroom Problems in the Education 
 of Gifted Children: 
 Nineteenth Yearbook National Society for the Study 
 of Education, Pt. II 
 
 McDonald, R. A. F. — Adjustment of School Organization to 
 Various Population Groups 
 
 Race, Henrietta V. — A Study of a Class of Children: 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, IX, 91-98, 1918 
 
 Terman, L. M. — The Intelligence of School Children: 
 
 Chap. X, "Some Facts About Fifty-Nine Superior 
 Children " 
 
 Whipple, Guy M. — Classes for Gifted Children
 
 48. MENTAL HYGIENE 
 
 The mental health of adults depends upon a com- 
 plete unification of the physical, emotional and intel- 
 lectual forces of the individual; its foundation must be 
 laid in childhood — or rather, it is a process which 
 must be initiated in childhood and maintained con- 
 tinuously. While the energies available for this in- 
 tegrating process depend decidedly upon the physical 
 organism, the health of the latter is in turn influenced 
 by the mental and emotional disturbances. The unity 
 of spirit is both a means of successful coping with the 
 problems of life, and a condition for getting from life 
 its full measure of satisfaction. 
 
 In order that we may better assist the child in the 
 establishment of the essential mental habits, we must 
 first understand the common urges and desires which 
 dominate us all, and the processes by which these forces 
 come to be both for the individual and for the race the 
 means for the highest achievements. On the other 
 hand, we must recognize the more common failures in 
 adjustment, as they show themselves in even the 
 youngest children. Escape from the hardships of 
 reality through evasion of responsibility, through 
 resort to the world of dream, through constant ex- 
 planation or apology, through antagonism to the 
 thinking commonsense of others, through an assump- 
 tion of weakness, ignorance, incapacity, or through any 
 other method, is always an indication of some dis- 
 
 218
 
 MENTAL HYGIENE 219 
 
 harmony between the various desires and impulses of 
 the child. 
 
 The task of parents and educators consists of 
 insuring to the child means and opportunities for 
 organizing and modifying the innate urges and cravings 
 in such ways as will make possible satisfying self- 
 expression and thereby both a development of his 
 capacities and their concentration upon worthy objec- 
 tives. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. IMPORTANCE OF MENTAL HYGIENE 
 
 a. Relation to general health 
 
 b. Relation to successful adjustment 
 
 c. Relation to satisfaction with life 
 
 2. COMMON SYMPTOMS OF MALADJUSTMENT 
 
 a. Shirking of personal responsibility 
 
 b. Escape from reality to fantasy or day-dreaming 
 
 c. Overrationalization of conduct 
 
 d. Persistent contrariness 
 
 e. Manifestations of inferiority or suspicions 
 
 3. NEEDS OF CHILD AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The general need is for the conditioning of instinctive 
 or spontaneous activities into forms that are both 
 satisfying to the individual and acceptable to 
 society, or suitable for later development. 
 
 a. Babyhood 
 
 (1) Adjustment of seK-preserving instincts 
 
 (2) Adjustment of pleasure-pain or sex instincts 
 
 b. Pre-school period 
 
 (1) Conflict of instinctive cravings with adjust- 
 
 ment to family relationship 
 
 (2) Necessity for establishing standard habite
 
 220 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 c. Pre-adolescent period 
 
 (1) Development of social attitude 
 
 Toward other members of the family 
 Toward playfellows 
 Toward other people 
 
 (2) School adjustments 
 
 Evaluation of individual capacities and in- 
 terests 
 Recognition of individual limitations 
 Opportunity for successful achievement 
 
 d. Adolescent period 
 
 (1) Organization and unification of energies of in- 
 
 dividual with group interests and ideals 
 
 (2) Aid to adjustment through self-understanding 
 
 (3) Recognition of possible sources of conflict 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Popular 
 
 Abbott, E. Stanley — Program for Mental Hygiene in the 
 Public Schools: 
 Mental Hygiene, IV, 320-330, April, 1920 
 
 Blanchard, Phyllis — The Adolescent Girl 
 
 Cameron, H. C. — The Nervous Child 
 
 Campbell, Macfie C. — Nervous Children and Their 
 Training: 
 Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919 
 
 Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts of Mental Hygiene for 
 Teachers: 
 Mental Hygiene, III, 11-15, January, 1919 
 
 Gesell, Arnold — Mental Hygiene and the Public School: 
 Mental Hygiene, 111, 4-10, January, 1919 
 
 Stern, Adolph — Parent and Child: 
 
 American Medicine, New Series, XIII, 145-151, 
 March, 1918
 
 MENTAL HYGIENE 221 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Miller, H. Crichton — The New Psychology and the Teacher 
 
 Richards, Esther L. — Some Adaptive Difficulties Found in 
 School Children: 
 Mental Hygiene, IV, 331-363, April, 1920 
 The Role of the Situation in Psychopathological Con- 
 ditions: 
 Mental Hygiene, V, 449-467, July, 1921 
 
 Stedman, Henry R. — Menial Pitfalls of Adolescence: 
 
 Medical and SurgicalJ our nal, CXXXII, 695-713, 
 November, 1916 
 
 Strecker, E. a. — Mai-Behavior Viewed as an Out-Patient 
 Mental and Nervous Clinic Problem: 
 Mental Hygiem, V, 225-238, April, 1921 
 
 White, William A. — Childhood: The Golden Period for Men- 
 tal Hygiene: 
 Mental Hygiene, IV, 257-267, April, 1920 
 
 Technical 
 
 Bronner, Augusta F. — The Psychology of Special Abilities 
 and Disabilities
 
 49. MENTAL TESTS 
 
 Mental tests are being increasingly used with 
 children owing to the realization that through their 
 use one can gain, in a short time, unbiased information 
 of a very definite nature regarding the child's mentality. 
 
 About 1903, Alfred Binet devised the first practical 
 test for obtaining the measure of a child's general 
 intelligence. His big contribution to the subject was 
 the standardization of tests according to chronological 
 age of normal children. Binet made no attempt to 
 differentiate the various types of ability. These tests 
 were found to fill such a vital need that they have been 
 revised for use in many countries, and are still in 
 general use. The generally accepted American revision 
 is Terman's, 1916. 
 
 Terman's efforts were directed toward standardiz- 
 ing the tests for use among American children from 
 three years of age upward. For this purpose over ten 
 thousand children were tested. These tests are now 
 used in many schools and in all psychological clinics 
 for preUminary classifications. By this means children 
 can be divided according to their mentality into 
 normal, subnormal, and supernormal. Although the 
 tests do not pretend to throw light on anything but 
 general inteUigence, they do give some information as 
 to memory, language ability, general information, etc. 
 This information, however, is so meager that it is useful 
 only as a guide for further testing. 
 
 222
 
 MENTAL TESTS 223 
 
 Reliable as such tests are for evaluating general 
 intelligence, it is well to remember that they should 
 always be supplemented by additional tests for special 
 abilities. 
 
 There are tests for mechanical ability, for language 
 ability, for general information, for learning ability, 
 for apperception, for musical ability, etc. Of all tests 
 of this type. Seashore's tests for musical ability have 
 been most completely worked out. 
 
 Special ability tests should enable us to predict the 
 type of work for which the child is best suited, where 
 there is a decided talent or limited general ability. 
 
 Both General Intelligence and Special Ability tests 
 can be called Capacity Tests; in contrast to these, we 
 have Achievement Tests. The latter should be used 
 in all schools as a means of ascertaining progress in 
 each stud3^ By their uf-e comparisons can be made 
 between teachers, methods of teaching, and the effects 
 of varying school conditions such as length of period, 
 ventilation, etc. 
 
 These Achievement Tests can be given by teachers 
 with little or no special training. The General Intelli- 
 gence and Special Ability Tests require both training in 
 test giving, and a grounding in psychological principles. 
 
 It is recognized that in many cases various obscure 
 physical and emotional factors seriously influence the 
 child's performance even under favorable outward 
 conditions; accordingly, the interpretation of "Intelli- 
 gence Quotient" and other findings should be left to 
 experts. 
 
 Helpful as the mental test has proved itself to be, 
 many new and better tests will surely be developed in
 
 224 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 the years to come, especially those dealing with the 
 volitional and emotional side of life. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. USES 
 
 a. For adjustment of individual's progress 
 
 b. For classification of groups in schools and institutions 
 
 2. HISTORY AND PRENCIPLE 
 
 a. Basis of Binet's tests 
 
 b. Terman revision 
 
 c. Army tests 
 
 3. TYPES OF ABILITY TESTS 
 
 a. Language 
 
 b. Manipulation and mechanical 
 
 c. Learning ability 
 
 d. Musical 
 
 e. Mathematical 
 
 4. EDUCATIONAL TESTS 
 
 a. Material 
 
 b. Standard 
 
 5. LIMITATIONS OF TESTS 
 
 a. Correlation of various abilities 
 
 b. Relative values 
 
 c. Emotional factors 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 Downey, June E. — Standardized Tests and Mental Inher- 
 itance: 
 Journal of Heredity, IX, November, 1918 
 
 GiLLiNGHAM, Anna — The Bright Child in the School: 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, X, 237-252, May- 
 June, 1919
 
 MENTAL TESTS 225 
 
 Seashore and Others — Mentality Tests: A Symposium: 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, VII, 163-167, 
 229-240, 278-286, 348-360, 1916-1917 
 
 Starch, Daniel — Educational Psychology 
 
 Terman, L. M. — Intelligence of School Children: 
 
 Chap. I, "Some Principles of Intelligence Testing"; 
 Chap. XII, "Intelligence Tests in Vocational and 
 Educational Guidance" 
 
 WooDROW, H. W. — Brightness and Dullness in Children: 
 Chap. II, "The Measurement of Intelligence" 
 
 Non-Technical 
 
 Bronner, Augusta F. — The Psychology of Special Abilities 
 and Disabilities 
 
 Dewey, Child, and Ruml — Methods and Results of Testing 
 School Children: Pt. I 
 
 Holling WORTH, Leta S. — Psychology of Special Disability 
 in Spelling 
 
 Seashore, C. E. — Psychology of Musical Talent 
 
 Technical 
 Downey, June E. — Will-Temperament and Its Testing 
 PiNTNER AND Paterson — A Scalc of Performance Tests 
 Starch, Daniel — Educational Measurements 
 Terman, L. M. — The Measurement of Intelligence 
 Whipple, G. M. — Manual of Mental and Physical Tests 
 Whipple, G. M., Editor — Intelligence Tests and Their Use
 
 50. THE FESTIVAL IN THE CHILD'S 
 EDUCATION 
 
 The festival always represents a joint enterprise that 
 involves planning and preparation, that arouses the 
 disposition for display, and that finds a special occasion 
 or pretext, or purpose. Occasions may be furnished by 
 patriotic, rehgious, historical or even purely senti- 
 mental or mythical anniversaries or events. The 
 purpose may be frankly that of insuring a good time 
 for the participants and their friends, or it may include 
 some remoter beneficence, such as the gathering of 
 funds for some worthy cause or philanthropy. 
 
 There are various forms which such joint under- 
 takings may assume, as theatrical performance, pagean- 
 try, pantomime, "minstrel show," a bazaar, or country 
 fair. There is usually an element of the carnival spirit 
 in the preparations for the festival, whatever the 
 eventual form may be, and that is one of the valuable 
 features from an educational viewpoint. 
 
 In spite of being a joint enterprise, the festival offers 
 excellent opportunities for the discovery and display of 
 individual capacities. Although it is usually a very 
 deUberate and elaborately prepared affair, it gives 
 children excellent opportunities for spontaneity. And 
 while it is designed to make impressions upon others 
 than the participants, it is an excellent vehicle for self- 
 expression. The elaborateness of the plans are limited 
 only by the talents and resourcefulness of the children. 
 
 226
 
 FESTIVAL IN CHILD'S EDUCATION 227 
 
 Everything that they learn by way of schooling, and 
 everything they can do in the way of inventing and 
 designing and executing, whether in form and color or 
 in materials and music, finds an outlet in this type of 
 "play." 
 
 The social side of the training comes from the need 
 for cooperation and teamwork, from a conscious divi- 
 sion of labor with the consequent need for giving each 
 participant due regard for his services, from the mani- 
 festation of differentiated abilities caUing for admiration 
 and appreciation. Some of the individual gains appear 
 in increased self-confidence and poise, improved speech, 
 experience in organization and in the technical arts 
 involved in the production. 
 
 So great is the value of such experience for social 
 and esthetic reasons as well as for the aid it gives in self- 
 discovery, that every community should promote it 
 through extra-school activities as well as encourage it in 
 the schools. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FESTIVAL 
 
 a. A joint enterprise 
 
 b. For a special occasion or purpose 
 
 c. Designed for display 
 
 d. Involving preparation 
 
 2. TYPES OF FESTIVAL WORK 
 
 a. The play 
 
 b. The pageant 
 
 c. The pantomime 
 
 d. The bazaar or its equivalent
 
 228 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 3. SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE APPLIED 
 
 a. Art — designing and execution of 
 
 (1) Posters 
 
 (2) Invitations 
 
 (3) Costumes 
 
 (4) Scenery 
 
 (5) Properties 
 
 b. History 
 
 (1) For details 
 
 (2) For atmosphere 
 
 c. English 
 
 (1) Oral 
 
 (2) Written 
 
 d. Mathematics 
 
 (1) Financing the project 
 
 (2) Calculation of material, space, costs, etc. 
 
 e. Business 
 
 (1) Advertising 
 
 (2) Organization 
 
 (3) Management 
 
 f. Music 
 
 (1) Vocal 
 
 (2) Instrumental 
 
 g. Physical training 
 
 (1) Posture 
 
 (2) The dance 
 
 4. VALUES TO THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 a. The testing of the abihties of self 
 
 b. Means for self-expression 
 
 c. Appreciation of talents in others 
 
 d. Poise 
 
 e. Better speech 
 
 f . Experience in organization and cooperation 
 
 g. Training in independent action 
 h. Awakening of community spirit 
 
 i. Appreciation of beauty in 
 
 (1) Thought 
 
 (2) I^anguage 
 
 (3) Music
 
 FESTIVAL IN CHILD'S EDUCATION 229 
 
 (4) Color 
 
 (5) Form 
 
 (6) Movement 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Baker, W. — Dramatic Technique 
 
 Bates and Orr — Pageants and Pageantry 
 
 (Chapters on the structural elements, history, and 
 subject-matter of a pageant; its organization, 
 staging, etc.) 
 Beegle and Crawford — Community Drama and Pageantry 
 (Pictures of pageant stages and Greek pageant cos- 
 tumes) 
 Chubb, Percival — Festivals and Plays: 
 
 Pt. VI, Chap. XXIII, "Dramatization in the 
 
 Primary Grades, Types of Material, Pantomime "; 
 
 Chap. XXIV, ''Dramatization in Primary Grades, 
 
 Dialogue, and Modified Pantomime"; 
 Chap. XXV, "Development in the Middle School, 
 
 Grades Four, Five, and Six"; 
 Chap. XXVI, "Method of Work" 
 Langerfeld, a. — The ^Esthetic Attitude 
 Mackay, Constance D. — Costumes and Scenery for Ama- 
 teurs 
 (Pictures, and tells where to get patterns for cos- 
 tumes for American pageantry; contains plates 
 of all costimaes from Indian days to the present) 
 Needham, Mary M. — Folk Festivals: Their Growth and How 
 to Give Them 
 (Chapters on use of festivals in connection with 
 children's games. Elementary treatment of popu- 
 lar history, of familiar holidays and characters, 
 such as May-day and Pierrot. Contains bibli- 
 ography)
 
 230 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Taft, Linwood — The Technique of Pageantry 
 
 WiTHtNGTON, RoBEKT — English Pageantry: 
 
 (Detailed study of elements of pageantry rooted in 
 early customs of English life; extensive bibli- 
 ography) 
 
 Books on Folk Dancing 
 
 BuRCHENAL, ELIZABETH — American Country Dances 
 Dances of the People 
 
 Crampton, C. Ward — Second Folk Dance Book 
 
 CuRWEN. J. — Folk Dances of Europe 
 
 Fletcher, Alice C. — Indian Games and Dances 
 
 Lincoln, Jennbtte C. — Festival Dance Booh 
 
 Woodcraft Manual for Girls
 
 51. COOPERATION BETWEEN SCHOOL AND 
 
 HOME 
 
 For the more effective promotion of the common 
 aims of school and home, and for the purpose of 
 strengthening the service which each carries on of 
 itself, it is desirable that parents and teachers cooperate 
 more systematically than they have heretofore done. 
 A mothers' club can do many things that will be helpful 
 to the school, just as a teachers' association can do 
 much to advance professional spirit and the technique 
 of teaching and school management, and make the life 
 of the teacher and pupils happier. But an association 
 of parents and teachers will find to hand definite tasks 
 to employ the resources and ingenuity of all who can 
 or will give their services. 
 
 It is desirable that through such an organization, 
 whether formally conducted or not, the teachers and 
 parents become thoroughly acquainted in the matters 
 that concern them jointly, and with one another's 
 problems and methods, with the possibilities and 
 limitations. Among the common problems are those 
 of securing promptness and regularity of attendance; 
 the maintenance of standards of cleanliness and 
 appearance; the reporting of illness; deciding upon 
 legitimate excuses for school absences and detentions; 
 and the interpretation of school reports. For each 
 class in a school a closer and more intimate approach 
 between the parents and the individual teachers should 
 
 231
 
 232 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 do much to clear up misunderstandings, to adjust 
 programs in accordance with individual needs, to 
 improve working conditions both at home and in school. 
 The school and home should recognize the need of 
 calling in the expert for physical as well as mental 
 problems. Parents and teachers should learn jointly 
 to make use of the light the experts can throw on 
 individual problems. This gives a valuable oppor- 
 tunity for working and thinking together. 
 
 A parent-teacher organization will find opportunity 
 for exchange of services mutually beneficial. Individ- 
 ual parents engaged in specialized occupations are 
 increasingly bringing to the school the benefit of their 
 experience in a form that is not only helpful as a 
 contribution to ''vocational guidance," but helpful as 
 general information on conditions of life at home and 
 abroad and on various aspects of scholarship and 
 research. Groups of mothers, who generally have 
 more time at their disposal, sei^ve by organizing and 
 guiding excursions from the school to points of historical 
 or industrial interest, to farms or parks and museums, 
 and to places that may serve purely recreational ends. 
 Such groups may also help materially by obtaining 
 various things for which the general school funds do 
 not usually make provisions, such as pictures, phono- 
 graphs and records, motion picture machines and films, 
 additional books for the hbrary, special pieces of 
 apparatus, plant and animal material for nature study, 
 the loan of materials for use in connection with various 
 studies, and so on. Old costumes, furniture, utensils, 
 manuscripts, pictures are often thus made available to 
 the great enhancement of the interest in and effective-
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME 233 
 
 ness of historical studies, geography, literature, biog- 
 raphy, science, and so on. 
 
 Both parents and teachers can come to recognize 
 that while the home must retain its primacy in society, 
 the school must assume responsibility for certain tj^Des 
 of leadership since it is through the school that society 
 transmits many of its new achievements and dis- 
 coveries. Organized cooperation should provide a 
 form of extension teaching whereby both parents and 
 teachers may become acquainted with the progress of 
 thought and research in fields related to the upbringing 
 of children. Thus lectures may be arranged on 
 psychological, social, economic and educational topics, 
 conferences with leaders and specialists on various 
 concrete problems, such as sex education, backward 
 children, mental hygiene, vocational guidance, the 
 selection of college, foreign languages, leisure time 
 pursuits, educational value of athletics, and so on. 
 With increasing leisure on the part of adults, and in- 
 creasing complexity and perplexity of educational 
 problems, there seems every reason for more of the 
 conamunity's thoughts and talents being directed to the 
 work of the school. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 1. THE COMMON PROBLEMS AND AIMS 
 
 a. Best development of children 
 
 b. Most favorable adjustment of children 
 
 c. Economy of time and attention 
 
 d. Financial aspects 
 
 2. MUTUAL ACQUAINTANCE 
 
 a. What teachers need to know about the homes
 
 234 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 b. What parents need to know about the school 
 
 (1) Punctuality and attendance 
 
 (2) Standards of cleanliness and appearance 
 
 (3) Health supervision and reporting 
 
 (4) Detentions and other penalties 
 
 (5) Interpretation of reports 
 
 (6) Legitimate absences and excuses 
 
 c. What both need to know about particular children 
 
 (1) Class-groups of parents 
 
 (2) Adjustment of individual programs 
 
 (3) Modification of requirements and attitudes 
 
 3. EXCHANGE OF SERVICES 
 
 a. What parents can bring to school 
 
 (1) Speciahzed knowledge and experience 
 
 (2) Additional services 
 
 Help with excursions 
 Luncheon service 
 Entertainments 
 
 (3) Supplementary material aid 
 
 Loans of various materials 
 
 Gifts 
 
 Funds for special needs 
 
 b. Use of school as continuation-education center for 
 
 parents and teachers 
 
 (1) Lectures 
 
 (2) Conferences 
 
 (3) Study groups 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Popular 
 
 ' Adler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children: 
 
 Chap. V, "The Moral Outfit of Children on Enter- 
 ing School" 
 Allen, Annie Winsor — Home, School, and Vacation: 1-21, 
 54-65, 161-199
 
 SCHOOL AND HOME 235 
 
 Allen, William H. — Civics and Health: 
 
 Pt. 1, Chap. I, "Health, A Civic Obligation"; 
 Pt. II, Chap. XI, "Nervousness of Teacher and 
 Pupil" 
 '' Dewey, John — Schools of Tomorrow: 
 
 Chap. VII, "The Relation of the School to the 
 Community" 
 FoRBUSH, W. B. — The Coming Generation: 178-187, 275-285 
 GiLLiNGHAM, A, — One Child's Struggle in the Preparation for 
 Life: 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XX, 343-359, 1913 
 Griggs, E. H. — Moral Education: 101-113 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow: 
 
 24-27 
 Latimer, C. W, — Girl and Woman: 
 
 Chap. IX, "Daily Life During School Days" 
 McCoNAUGHY, James L. — The Home and the School 
 Swift, Edgar J. — Mind in the Making: 
 
 Chap. Ill, "The School and the Individual"; 
 Chap. IV, "Reflex Neuroses and Their Relation to 
 Development" 
 Thaler, William H. — Modern Ideals of Child Behavior, 
 and Their Influence on American Life: 
 Education, XLI, 141-151, November, 1920 
 
 N on- Technical 
 
 King, Irving — The Psychology of Child Development: 
 
 Chap. I, "Child Psychology, Its VaHdity and Aims" 
 
 Technical 
 
 ^ KiRKPATRiCK, E. A. — Fundamentals of Child Study: 
 Chap. XVI, "Individuality"; 
 Chap. XVIII, "Child Study AppUed in Schools"
 
 236 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Pamphlets 
 
 Study Programs — San Diego Federation of Parent-Teacher 
 Associations, 1920-1921 
 
 Organization Monograph — Parents and Teachers' Associa- 
 tion, Ethical Culture School, New York
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Abbott, Ernest H. — On the Training of Parents; Hough- 
 • ton Mifflin, 1908 
 
 Abbott, E. Stanley — Program for Mental Hygiene in the 
 Public Schools; Mental Hygiene, IV, 320-330, April, 1920 
 
 Adams, Morley — The Boy's Own Book of Pets and Hobbies; 
 Religious Tract Society, London, 1912 
 Toy Making in the Home; Jack, London 
 
 ^ Addams, Jane — The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets; 
 Macmillan, 1909 
 
 ^ Abler, Felix — Moral Instruction of Children; Apple ton, 
 1892 
 The Punishment of Children; Reprint from Ethical Ad- 
 dresses, Society for Ethical Culture, New York, April 
 and May, 1898 
 Allen, Annie Winsor — Boys and Girls; Atlantic Monthly, 
 June, 1920 
 Home, School, and Vacation; Houghton Mifflin, 1907 
 
 Allen, F. J — Guide to the Study of Occupations; Harvard 
 University Press, 1921 
 
 Allen, William H. — Civics and Health; Ginn, 1909 
 
 Angell, James Rowland — Some Reflections upon the Re- 
 action from Coeducation; Popular Science Monthly, LXII, 
 5-26, 1902 
 
 Anonymous — Organization Monograph; Parents and Teach- 
 ers' Association, Ethical Culture School, New York 
 237
 
 238 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Study Program; San Diego Federation of Parent-Teacher 
 
 Associations, 1920-1921 
 A Selected List of Books for Children; Federation for Child 
 
 Study, 1920 
 A Young Girl's Diary; Seltzer, 1921 
 Coeducation and Marriage; Journal of Heredity, VIII, 43, 
 
 January, 1917 
 What Scouts Do; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
 Scouting for Boys; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
 Boy Scouts of America; Boy Scouts of America, 1913 
 Aemstrong, D. B. and E. B. — Sex in Life: For Adolescent 
 
 Boys and Girls; American Social Hygiene Association 
 
 Armstrong, J. E. — The Advantages of Limited Sex Segre- 
 gation in the High School; School Review, XVIII, 338- 
 350, 1910 
 
 Ayres, Leonard P. — Laggards in Our Schools; Survey 
 Associates, 1913 
 
 Bach, J. S. — Chorales (Selected by Bertha Elsmith and T. 
 
 W. Surette) ; Boston Music Company 
 Sacred Songs (Arranged by Wallner) ; Breitkopf and Hartel 
 Bacon, Mary S. H. — Songs that Every Child Should Knov>; 
 
 Grosset, 1915 
 Bagley, W. C. — The Educative Process; Macmillan, 1913 
 
 Baker, W. — Dramatic Technique; Harvard University 
 Press 
 
 Ballard, Anna Woods — The Direct Method and Its Appli- 
 cation to American Schools; Educational Review, LI, 447- 
 456, May, 1916 
 
 Balliet, T. M. — The Domain of Art Education; National 
 Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1916, 
 493-496 
 
 Barnes, Earl — Children's Ideals; Pedagogical Seminary, 
 VII, 3-12, 1900
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 239 
 
 Punishment as Seen by Children; Pedagogical Seminary, 
 III, 235-245, 1894 
 
 Studies in Education, Series I and II; Author, Philadelphia, 
 1897, 1903 
 
 Bateman, W. G. — Some Western Ideals in the High School; 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXIII, 570-584, 1916 
 
 Bates, Esther W. — Pageants and Pageantry; Ginn, 1912 
 
 Beagle and Crawford — Community Drama and Pageantry; 
 Yale University Press, 1916 
 
 Beard, C. A. and M. R. — American Citizenship; Mac- 
 millan, 1915 
 
 Beard, Lina and Adelia — What a Girl Can Make and Do; 
 Scribner, 1914 
 
 Benedict and Talbot — Metabolism and Growth from Birth 
 to Puberty; Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1921 
 
 Berle, a. a. — The School in the Home; Moffat Yard, 1915 
 
 Betts, George H. — Fathers and Mothers; Bobbs Merrill, 
 1915 
 
 BiGELOW, Maurice A. — Sex Education; Macmillan, 1918 
 
 BiRNEY, Mrs. Theodore — Childhood; Stokes, 1905 
 
 Blanchard, Phyllis — The Adolescent Girl; Moffat Yard, 
 1920 
 
 Blanton, Margaret and Smiley — Speech Training for 
 Children; Century, 1919 
 
 Bloomfield, Meyer — Readings in Vocational Guidance; 
 Ginn, 1915 
 Vocational Guidance of Youth; Houghton Mifflin, 1911 
 
 BoGARDUS, Emory S. — Essentials of Social Psychology; Uni- 
 versity of Southern California Press, 1920
 
 240 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 BoNSER, Frederick G. — School Work and Spare Time; 
 Survey Committee of the Cleveland Foundation, Pub. 
 No. 28, 1918 
 
 BousEFiELD, Paul — The Elements of Practical Psychology; 
 Button, 1920 
 
 Brewer, J. M. — The Vocational Guidance Movement; Mac- 
 millan, 1916 
 
 Brill, A. A. — Fundamental Conceptions of Psychoanalysis; 
 Harcourt Brace, 1921 
 
 Bronner, Augusta F. — Psychology of Special Abilities and 
 Disabilities; Little Brown, 1919 
 
 Brown, Warner — Individual and Sex Differences in Sug- 
 gestibility; University of California Publications in Psy- 
 chology, 1916 
 
 Bruce, H. Addington — Handicaps of Childhood; Little, 
 
 Brown, 1917 
 Burbank, Luther — The Training of the Human Plant; 
 
 Century, 1907 
 Burchenal, Elizabeth — American Country Dances; Schir- 
 mer, 1918 
 Dances of the People; Schirmer, 1913 
 Folk Dances; Schirmer, 1909 
 
 Burk, Caroline Frear — Aspects of Child Life and Educa- 
 tion (Hall and Smith): The Collecting Instinct; Re- 
 printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VII, 179-207, 1900 
 
 Bryant, Sara Cone — Stories to Tell to Children; Houghton 
 Mifflin, 1907 
 
 Cady, Calvin B. — Music Education; Summy, 1904 
 
 Calvin, T. — Good and Bad Reasons for Studying Modern 
 Languages in School; Modern Language Journal, V, Oc- 
 tober, 1920
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 241 
 
 Cameron, Hector C. — The Nervous Child; Oxford Medical 
 Publications, 1919 
 
 Campbell, C. Macfie — Nervous Children and Their Train- 
 ing; Mental Hygiene, III, 16-23, January, 1919 
 
 Cannon, Walter B. — Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, 
 Fear, and Rage; Appleton, 1915 
 
 Cartwright, Harriet G. — Song Treasury; Macmillan, 
 1920 
 
 Chalmers, Lillian H. — Studies in Imagination; Peda- 
 gogical Seminary, VII, 111-123, 1900 
 
 Chambers, W. G. — The Evolution of Ideals; Pedagogical 
 Seminary, X, 101-143, 1903 
 
 Chance, Maria S. B. — Self Training for Mothers; Lip- 
 pincott, 1914 
 
 Chubb and Associates — Festivals and Plays: Part II, 
 "Music in the FestivaV (Peter W. Dykema); Harper, 
 1912 
 
 Clapp, Henry Lincoln — The Development of Spontaneity, 
 Initiative, and Responsibility in School Children; Educa- 
 tion, XLI, 209-221, December, 1920 
 
 Coe, Fanny E. — First Book of Stories for the Story Teller; 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1910 
 
 Coe, George A. — A Social Theory of Religious Education; 
 Scribner, 1918 
 Education in Religion and Morals; Fleming Revell 
 The Psychology of Religion; University of Chicago Press, 
 1917 
 
 V Comstock, Anna B. — Handbook of Nature Study for 
 Teachers and Parents; Comstock, 1914 
 The Pet Book; Comstock, 1914
 
 242 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 CoNKLiN, E. G. — Heredity and Environment in the Develop- 
 ment of Man (Second Edition) ; N. W. Harris Lecture, 
 1914; Princeton University Press, 1918 
 
 CoNRADi, Edward — Speech Development in ihe Child; Peda- 
 gogical Seminary, XI, 328-380, 1904 
 
 Cornell, G. A. — Art in the Kindergarten; National Educa- 
 tion Association Addresses and Proceedings, 1916, 307- 
 310 
 
 Coulter and Others — Heredity and Eugenics; University 
 of Chicago Press, 1912 
 
 ' Crampton, C. Ward — Second Folk Dance Book; Barnes, 
 1915 
 
 Crandall, Lee S. — Pets, Th ir History and Care; Holt, 
 1917 
 
 Crile, G. W. — Man, An Adaptive Mechanism; Appleton, 
 1916 
 
 ^ Curtis, Henry S. — Education Through Play; Macmillan, 
 1917 
 Th Boy Scouts; Educational Reviiw, L, 495-508, 1915 
 
 CuRWEN, J. — Folk Dances of Europr; Fischer 
 
 Darw n, Charles — Life and Letters, I ; Appleton, 1903 
 
 Davenport, Charles B. — The Feebly Inhibited: Nomadism 
 or the Wand ring Impulse w th Specia' Reference to 
 He ed y; Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915 
 Violen Tempe and Its Inherit nee Eugenics Record 
 Office, Bulletin No. 12, 1915 
 
 Davison and Sueette — Rote Songs; Boston Music Com- 
 pany 
 
 Dawson, G. E. — The Child and His Religion; University of 
 Chicago Press, 1908
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 243 
 
 Dearborn, Walter F. — Facts oj Mental Hygiene for 
 
 Teachers; Menial Hygiene, III, 11-15, Janua;y, 1919 
 Dennett, Mary Ware — The Sex Side of Life; Author 
 Dennett, Roger H. — Exercise and Diet in Relation to 
 Growth; New York Medical Journal, XCVII, 756-759, 
 1913 
 The Healthy Baby {Revised Edition); Macmillan, 1922 
 
 Dewey, Child, and Ruml — Methods and Results of Test- 
 ing School Children; Dutton, 1920 
 
 Dewey, John — How We Think; Heath, 1910 
 
 Imagination and Expression; Teachers College Bulletin, 10, 
 
 March, 1919 
 Interest and Discipline; Houghton Mifflin, 19l3 
 Is Coeducation Injurious to Girlsf Ladies Home Journal, 
 
 June, 1911 
 Psychology; American Book, 1891 
 
 School and Society (Revised Edition") • University of Chi- 
 cago Press, 1915 
 
 Dewey, John and Evelyn — Schools of Tomorrow; Dutton, 
 1915 
 
 Dickinson, Georqe A. — Your Boy: His Nature and Nurture; 
 Doran, 1909 
 
 Ditman, N. E. — Home Hygiene and Prevention of Disease; 
 Duffield, 1912 
 
 Downey, June E. — Standardized Tests and Mental Inher- 
 itances; Journal of Heredity, IX, 311-314, 1918 
 Will-Temperament and Its Testing; World Book Co., 
 1922 
 
 Downing, E. R. — The Third and Fourth Generation; Uni- 
 versity of Chicago Press, 1918 
 
 Draper, Andrew — Coeducation in he United States; Edu- 
 cational Review, XXV, 109-129, February, 1903
 
 244 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Drummond, Margaret — Five Years Old or Thereabouts; 
 Arnold, 1920 
 
 Drummond, W. B. — An Introiluction to Child Study; Long- 
 mans Green, 1912 
 
 Dunn, A. W. — Citizenship In School and Out; Heath, 1919 
 Civic Education in Elementary Schools; U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Bulletin No. 17, 1915 
 
 East and Jones — Inbreeding and Outbreeding; Lippincott, 
 1919 
 
 Elliot, J. W. — Mother Goose Songs; M< Loughlin 
 
 Ellison, L. — Children's Capacity for Abstract Thought as 
 Shown by Their Use of Language in the Defini'ion of 
 Abstract Terms; American Journal of Psychology, XIX, 
 253-260, April, 1908 
 
 Emerson, R. W. — Essay on Behavior; ' Houghton Mifflin 
 
 Evans, Elida — The Problem of the Nervous Child; Dodd 
 Mead, 1920 
 
 Ewald, Carl — My Little Boy; Scribner, 1906 
 
 ExNER, Max J. — Problems and Principles of Sex Education; 
 Association Press, 1915 
 
 Farnsworth, C. H. — How to Sudy Music; Macmillan, 
 1920 
 
 Field, Walter T. — Fingerposts to Children's Reading; 
 McClurg, 1914 
 
 Filene, Catherine — Careers for Women; Houghton Mif- 
 flin, 1919 
 
 Finck, Hervey T. — Why Coeducation is Losing Ground; 
 Independent, LV, 301, 361, February 5, 12, 1903 
 
 Fink, Henry T. — Fifty Masters Songs by Twenty Com- 
 posers; Ditson, 1903
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 245 
 
 Fisher, Dorothy — A Montessori Mother; Holt, 1912 
 Mothers and Children; Holt, 1915 
 
 Fisher, L. — Health Care of the Baby; Funk and Wagnalls, 
 1915 
 Health Care of the Growing Child; Funk and Wagnalls, 1915 
 
 Fletcher, Alice C. — Ind'an Games and Dances; Birchard, 
 1915 
 
 FoERSTER, F. W. — Marriage and the Sex Problem; Stokes, 
 1912 
 
 FoRBusH, W. B. — Manual of Play; American Institute of 
 Child Life, 1914 
 The Boy Problem; Pilgrim Press, 1913 
 The Coming Generation; Appleton, 1913 
 
 FoREL, August — The Sexual Question; Rebman 
 
 France and Kline — Aspects of Child Life and Education 
 (Hall and Smith): The Psychology of Ownership; Re- 
 printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899 
 
 Frink, H. W. — Morbid Fears and Compulsions; Moffatt 
 Yard, 1918 
 
 Gale, Zona — What of Coeducation? Atlantic Monthly, July, 
 1914 
 
 Gallichan, Walter M. — Sex Education; Small Maynard, 
 1921 
 
 Galloway, T. W. — Biology of Sex for Parents and Teachers; 
 Heath, 1913 
 
 Galloway, T. W. — The Father and His Boy; Association 
 Press, 1921 
 
 Gardiner, Ruth Kimball — Your Daughter's Mother; Amer- 
 ican Social Hygiene Association, 1921 
 
 Garrett, Laura B. — Animal Families in School; Bureau 
 of Educational Experiments, Bulletin No. 2
 
 246 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Gault, Robert H. — Suggestion and Suggestibility; Amer- 
 ican Journal of Sociology, XXV, 185-194, 1919 
 
 Geddes and Thomson — Sex; Holt, 1914 
 
 Gesell, Arnold — Me7ital Hygiene and the Public School; 
 Mental Hygiene, III, 4-10, January, 1919 
 
 GiLLiNGHAM, Anna — One Child's Struggle in the Preparation 
 for Life; Pedagogical Seminary, XX, 343-359, 1913 
 The Bright Child and the School; Journal of Educational 
 Psychology, X, 237-252, May, June, 1919 
 
 GiLMAN, Charlotte P. — Concerning Children; Small May- 
 
 nard, 1900 
 GoDDARD, Henry H. — Feehlemindedness, Its Causes and 
 Consequences; Macmillan, 1914 
 Juvenile Delinquency; Dodd Mead, 1921 
 Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal; Dodd Mead, 
 1918 
 Gould, F. J.— A National Need, The Civic Spirit in Edu- 
 cation; Moral Education League, London, 1913 
 Moral Instruction in Theory and Practice; Longmans Green, 
 1913 
 GowTN AND Wheatley — Occupotions; Ginn, 1916 
 Griggs, Edward H. — Moral Education; Huebseh, 1916 
 
 Groos, Karl — Play of Man; Appleton, 1901 
 
 The Play of Animals; Appleton, 1898 
 Groszmann, M. p. E. — The Exceptional Child; Scribner, 
 
 1917 
 Gruenbbrg, Benjamin C. — The Parent and Sex Education; 
 I. Children Under School Age; American Social Hygiene 
 
 Association, 1922 
 High Schools and Sex Education; U. S. Public Health 
 Service, 1922
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 247 
 
 Gruenberg, S. M. — Sons and Daughters; Holt, 1916 
 Your Child To-Day and To-Morrow (Second Edition); 
 Lippincott, 1920 
 
 GuLicK, Luther M. — Exercise and Rest; Russell Sage Foun- 
 dation, Department of Child Hygiene 
 Psychological, Pedagogical, and Religious Aspects of Group 
 Games; Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 135-151, 1898 
 
 GuYER, Michael — Being Well Born; Bobbs Merrill, 1916 
 
 Hadow, W. H. — Songs of the British Islands; Curwen 
 
 Hall, Florence Marion — Boys, Girls, and Manners; 
 Estes, 1913 
 
 Hall, G. Stanley — Adolescence; Appleton, 1904 
 A Genetic Study of Fear; American Journal of Psychology, 
 
 XXV, 149, 1914 
 Aspects of Child Life and Education; Appleton, 1921 
 Educational Problem; Appleton, 1911 
 Some Psychological Aspects of Teaching Modern Language; 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXI, 256-263, 1914 
 Youth, Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene; Appleton, 
 
 1914 
 
 Hall and Smith — Curiosity and Interest; Pedagogical Sem- 
 inary, X, 314-358, 1903 
 
 Hall and Wiltse — Children's Collections; Pedagogical 
 Seminary, I, 234-237, 1891 
 
 Hall and Others — Museums of Art and Teachers of His- 
 tory; Scribner, 1913 
 
 Handschin, C. H. — The Teaching of Modern Languages in 
 the United States; U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
 No. 3, 1913 
 
 Harper, Ida H. — The Permanency of Coeducation; Inde- 
 pendent, LV, 606-608, March 12, 1903
 
 248 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Hartshorne, Hugh — Chi'dhood and Character: An Intro- 
 
 duciion to he Siudy of the Religious Life of Children; 
 
 Pilgrim Press, 1919 
 Hartson, L. D. — The Psychology of Ihe Club; Pedagogical 
 
 Seminary, XVIII, 353-414, 1911 
 Harvey and Others — Imaginary Playmates; Author, 1918 
 Haviland, Mary S. — The Religion of a Child; Small May- 
 
 nard, 1921 
 Healy, William — Mental Conflicts and Misconduct; Little 
 
 Brown, 1917 
 The Individual Delinquent; Little Brown, 1918 
 
 Heathcote, Charles W. — The Essentials of Religious Edur- 
 
 cation; Sherman French, 1916 
 Heller, Harriet Hickox — Thumb-Sucking; American 
 
 Institute of Child Life, Monograph No. 282, 1914. 
 
 Henderson, C. Hanford — What Is It to Be Educated? 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1914 
 
 Henry, Theodore S. — Classroom Problems in the Education 
 of Gifted Children; Nineteenth Yearbook National 
 Society for the Study of Education, Pt. II, 1920, Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111. 
 
 HiCHMAN, F. A. — Soft Toys and Hotv to Make Them; Scott, 
 
 1917 
 Hills, D. S. — Comparative Study of Children's Ideals; 
 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XVIII, 219-231, 1911 
 
 Hodge, Clifton — Nature Study and Life; Ginn, 1902 
 
 HoERLE AND Saltzberg — The Girl and the Job; Holt, 1919 
 
 Hollingworth, Leta S. — Psychology of Special Disability 
 in Spelling; Teachers College Contribution to Education, 
 1918 
 Psychology of Subnormal Children; Macmillan, 1920
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 249 
 
 Holmes, Arthur — Principles of Character Making; Lippin- 
 cott, 1913 
 The Conservatism of the Child; Lippincott, 1912 
 
 Holt, Edwin B. — The Freudian Wish; Holt, 1915 
 
 Holt, L. Emmett — The Care and Feeding of Children; 
 Appleton, 1920 
 
 HoLTZ, Frederick L. — Nature Study; Scribner, 1908 
 
 Hoobler, Raymond — Diseases Influencing Growth; New 
 York Medical Journal, XCVH, 769-771, April 12, 1913 
 
 Hood, Mary G. — For Girls and the Mothers of Girls; Bobbs 
 
 Merrill, 1914 
 Hough, Emerson — Out of Doors; Appleton, 1915 
 HuBBBLL, L. E. — The Child and His Room; The House 
 
 Beautiful, XLVH, 358-362, April, 1920 
 Hughes, James L. — FroebeVs Educational Laws; Appleton, 
 
 1897 
 Hunt, Clara W.~What Shall We Read to Children? 
 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1915 
 HuRLL, Estelle May — How to Show Pictures to Children; 
 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1914 
 James, William — Moral Equivalent of War; Kindergarten 
 
 Magazine, XXH, 291-294, 308-312, May, June, 1910 
 Talks to Teachers; Holt, 1916 
 Varieties of Religious Experience; Longmans Green, 1902 
 
 Jennings, Watson, Meyer and Thomas — Suggestions of 
 Modern Science Concerning Education; Macmillan, 1917 
 
 Johnson, George E. — Education by Play and Games; 
 Ginn, 1907 
 Toys and Toy Making; Longmans Green, 1912 
 
 , Jordan, David Starr — Care and Culture of Men; Wagner 
 Harr, 1917
 
 250 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Kedson and Neal — English Folk Song and Dance; Cam- 
 bridge University Press 
 Kelyneck, Theophilus — Defective Children; Wood, 1915 
 
 Kent, Ernest B. — The Constructive Interests of Children; 
 Teachers College, Columbia University, 1903 
 
 Ken WORTHY, Marion E. — The Logic of Delinquency; 
 Papers and Proceedings American Sociological Society, 
 XVI, 1922 
 
 Kerr, LeGrand — Care and Training of Children; Funk 
 and Wagnalls, 1910 
 
 KiLPATRiCK, William H. — Horace Mann Studies in Primary 
 EdvA^ation; Teachers College Record, March, 1919 
 Project Method; Teachers College Record, October 12, 1918 
 
 King, Irving — The High School Age; Bobbs Merrill, 1914 
 The Psychology of Child Development; University of 
 
 Chicago Press, 1903 
 Social Aspects of Mental Development; Macmillan, 1912 
 
 Kinne and Cooley — Clothing and Health; Macmillan, 1916 
 
 Kirkpatrick, E. a. — Fundamentals of Child Study; Mac- 
 millan, 1917 
 
 Studies in Development and Learning; Archives of Psychol- 
 ogy, II, 4-21, 54-57, 65-66, 68-70, 79-85, 88-101, March, 
 1909 
 
 The Individual in the Making; Houghton Mifflin, 1912 
 
 The Use of Money; Bobbs Merrill, 1915 
 
 Kirtley, J. S. — That Boy of Yours; Doran, 1912 
 
 Kline, L. W. — Migratory Impulse versus Love of Home; 
 American Journal of Psychology, X, 1-81, 1898 
 Truancy as Related to the Migrating Instinct; Pedagogical 
 Seminary, V, 381-420, 1898
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 
 
 Kline and France — Aspects of Child Life and Education 
 (Hall and Smith): The Psychology of Ownership; Re- 
 printed from Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 421-470, 1899 
 
 Koch, Fritz — Paper Toys and How to Make Them; Koch 
 Paper Toy Company, Philadelphia 
 
 Krause, Carl A. — Why the Direct Method for a Modern 
 Language? Educational Review, LI, 254-267, 1916 
 
 Ladd, George T. — The Child and Religion; Putnam 
 
 Langerfeld, a. — The Esthetic Attitude; Harcourt Brace, 
 1920 
 
 La Page, C. Paget — Feeblemindedness in Children of School 
 Age; Longmans Green, 1911 
 
 Latham, H. L. — A Study of Falsehood; Pedagogical Semi- 
 nary, XXI, 504-522, 1914 
 
 Latimer, Caroline W. — Girl and Woman; Appleton, 1909 
 
 Laurie, Simon S. — Lectures on Language and Linguistic 
 Method in the School; Simpkins Marshall, 1893 
 
 Lay, Wilfrid — The Child's Unconscious Mind; Dodd 
 Mead, 1919 
 
 Lee, Joseph — Play in Education; Macmillan, 1918 
 
 Leonard, Eugenie A. — A Parent's Study of Children's Lies; 
 Pedagogical Seminary, XXVII, 105-136, Jmie, 1920 
 
 Leuba, James — A Psychological Study of Religion; Mac- 
 millan, 1912 
 
 Long, Constance — Psychology of Phantasy; Balliere Tin- 
 dall and Cox, 1920 
 
 Lord, Herbert Gardiner — Psychology of Courage; Luce, 
 
 1918 
 Lowe, Orton — Literature for Children; Macmillan, 1914 
 
 Lyman, Edna — Story Telling: What to Tell and How to 
 Tell It; McClurg, 1915
 
 252 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Mackenzie, R. T. — Exercise in Education and Medicine; 
 Saunders, 1917 
 
 McCoNAUGHT, James L. — The Home and the School; Jour- 
 nal of Education, March, 1919 
 
 McDonald, R. A.F. — Adjustment of School Organization to 
 Various Population Groups; Teachers College Contri- 
 butions to Education, 1915 
 
 McDougall, William — An Introduction to Social Psychol- 
 ogy; Luce, 1921 
 
 Mackay, Constance D. — Costume and Scenery for Ama- 
 teurs; Holt, 1915 
 
 Macy, John — A Guide to Reading; Doubleday Page, 1913 
 
 Marot, Helen — The Creative Impulse in Industry: A 
 Proposition for Educators; Button, 1918 
 
 Mason, D. G. — A Child's Guide to Music; Baker, 1910 
 
 Mendel, Lafayette B. — Nutrition and Growth; Harvey 
 Lectures, X, 101-131, 1915 
 
 Mill, John Stuart — Autobiography; Holt 
 
 Miller, Charles M. — Kitecraft; Manual Arts Press 
 
 Miller, H. Crichton — The New Psychology and the 
 Teacher; Jarrolds, 1921 
 
 Miner, J. B. — Deficiency and Delinquency; Warwick and 
 York, 1918 
 
 Moll, Albert — The Sexual Life of the Child; Macmillan, 
 1921 
 
 Monroe, Paul — Encyclopedia of Education; Macmillan, 
 1911 
 Principles of Secondary Education; Macmillan, 1914 
 
 Monroe, William S. — The Money Sense of Children; 
 Pedagogical Seminary, VI, 152-158, 1899
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 
 
 MoNTESSORi, Maria — The Montessori Method; Stokes, 1912 
 
 Moore, Annie Carroll — Roads to Childhood; Doran, 1920 
 
 Moore, Harry H, — Our Complex Civilization and the Genius 
 of Youth; School Review, XXIX, 617-627, October, 1921 
 The Youth and the Nation; Macmillan, 1917 
 
 Moore, Harris W. — Manual Training Toys for the Boy's 
 Workshop; Manual Arts Press, 1912 
 
 Morgan, T. — The Backward Child; Putnam, 1914 
 
 Morgan, Thomas Hunt — The Physical Basis of Heredity; 
 Lippincott, 1919 
 
 Moses, Montrose J, — Children's Books and Reading; 
 Mitchell Kennerley, 1907 
 
 Mosso, Angelo — Fear; Longmans Green, 1896 
 
 Murray and Smith — Child Under Eight; Arnold, 1919 
 
 Needham, Mary M. — Folk Festivals: Their Growth and 
 How to Give Them; Huebsch, 1912 
 
 Nice, Margaret M. — A Child's Imagination; Pedagogical 
 
 Seminary, XXVI, 173-201, June, 1919 
 Norsworthy and Whitley — The Psychology of Childhood; 
 
 Macmillan, 1918 
 Olcott, Frances J. — The Children's Reading; Houghton 
 
 Mifflin, 1912 
 Oppenheim, N, — The Development of the Child; Macmillan, 
 
 1898 
 
 O'Shea, Michael Vincent — Everyday Problems in Child 
 Training; Parents Library, Drake, 1920 
 Social Development and Education; Houghton Mifflin, 1909 
 
 Page, Kate Stearns — Rohinhood; Boston Music Company 
 
 Pare:er, Samuel Chester — Methods of Teaching in High 
 Schools; Ginn, 1915
 
 254 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Patri, Angelo — The Child Who Fails; Red Cross Magazine, 
 XV, February, 1920 
 
 Patterson, Herbert P. — The Logical Problem of Co- 
 education; Education, XXXVII, 112-115, 1916 
 
 Peabody, Francis G. — The Religious Education of an 
 American Citizen; Macmillan, 1918 
 
 Peabody, James E. — Some Experiments in Sex Education 
 in the Home and High School: American Social Hygiene 
 Association, 1921 
 
 Pfister, Oscar — The Psychoanalytic Method; Moffat Yard, 
 
 1919 
 PiNTNER AND Patbrson — A ScaU of Performance Tests; 
 
 Appleton, 1917 
 Polkinhorne, Ruby K. and Mabel I. — Toy Making in 
 
 School and Home; Hubbell Sea vers, 1916 
 Puffer, J. Adams — The Boy and His Gang; Houghton 
 
 Mifflin, 1912 
 Ramsey, W. R. — Care and Feeding of Infants and Children; 
 
 Lippincott, 1916 
 
 Rasmussen, Vilhelm — Child Psychology, I: Development 
 in the Fir si Four Years; Gyldendal, 1920 
 
 Read, Mary L. — Mothercraft Manual; Little Brown, 1916 
 
 Rice, Richard, Jr. — The Educational Value of Coeducation; 
 Independent, LXXIII, 1304-1306, December 5, 1912 
 
 Richards, Albertina A. — Motive in Education; Pedagog- 
 ical Seminary, XXVIII, 60-72, 1921 
 
 Richards, Esther L. — Some Adaptive Difficulties Found in 
 School Children; Mental Hygiene, IV, 331-363, April, 
 1920 
 The Role of the Situation in Psychopathological Conditions; 
 Mental Hygiene, V, 449-467, July, 1921
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 
 
 Richmond, Ennis — The Mind of a Child; Longmans Green, 
 
 1902 
 Rose, M. S. — Feeding the Family; Macmillan, 1917 
 RowE, S. H. — Fear in the Discipline of Children; Outlook, 
 
 LX, September 24, 1898 
 Sandiford, Peter — The Mental and Physical Life of School 
 
 Children; Longmans Green, 1915 
 Sarg, Tony — The Marionette Book; Huebsch, 1921 
 Schneider, Herman — Readings in Vocational Guidance 
 
 (Meyer Bloomfield) : Selecting Young Men for Particular 
 
 Jobs; Ginn, 1915 
 Scott, Colin A. — Social Education; Ginn, 1908 
 Sears, C. H. — Home and School Punishments; Pedagogical 
 
 Seminary, VI, 159-187, 1899 
 Seashore, Carl E. — (Editor) Mentality Tests, A Symposium; 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, VII, 163-166, 229-240, 
 
 278-286, 348-360 
 (Author) Psychology of Musical Talent; Silver Burdett, 1919 
 Seton, Ernest Thompson — Woodcraft Manual for Boys; 
 
 Doubleday Page, 1918 
 Woodcraft Manual for Girls; Doubleday Page, 1918 
 
 Seymour, Harriet A. — What Music Can Do for You: A 
 
 Guide for the Uninitiated; Harper, 1920 
 Sharp, Cecil J. — An Introduction to the English Country 
 
 Dance; Novell© 
 Folk Songs, Chanteys and Singing Games; Novello 
 
 Sharp, Dallas L. — Education for Individuality; Atlantic 
 Monthly, June, 1920 
 Patrons of Democracy; Atlantic Monthly, November, 1919 
 
 Sheldon, H. D. — The Institutional Activities of American 
 Children; American Journal of Psychology, IX, 425-448, 
 July, 1898
 
 256 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 SiDis, Boris — Fear, Anxiety, and Psychopathic Maladies; 
 Journal of Abnormal Psychology, VI, 107, 1911-1912 
 
 SiES, Alice Corbin — Spontaneous and Supervised Play in 
 Childhood; Macmillan, 1922 
 
 SissoN, E. O. — Essentials of Character; Macmillan, 1910 
 
 Slaughter, J. W. — The Adolescent; Macmillan, 1917 
 
 Sloane, Thomas O. — Electric Toy Making for Amateurs; 
 Henley 
 
 Slosson, E. E. — Coeducation from Another Standpoint; In- 
 dependent, IN, 366-370, February 12, 1903 
 
 Smith, Hannah — Music and How It Came to Be What It Is; 
 Scribner, 1898 
 
 Smith, Nora A. — Training the Imagination; Outlook, LXIV, 
 February 24, 1900 
 
 Smith, Theodatb L. — Obstinacy and Obedience; Pedagogical 
 Seminary, XII, 27-54, 1905 
 
 Sneath and Hodges — Moral Training in School and Home; 
 Macmillan, 1913 
 
 Spencer, Herbert — Education; Appleton 
 Starch, Daniel — Educational Measurements; Macmillan, 
 1916 
 Educational Psychology; Macmillan, 1911 
 Some Experimental Data on the Value of Studying Modern 
 Languages; School Review, XXIII, 697-703, 1915 
 
 Starr, Louis — The Adolescent Period; Blakiston, 1915 
 
 Stedman, Henry R. — Mental Pitfalls of Adolescence; Bos- 
 ton Medical and Surgical Journal, CLXXII, 695-713, 
 November, 1916 
 
 Stern, Adolph — Parent and Child; American Medicine 
 (New Series), XIII, 145-151, March, 1918
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 
 
 Stern, W. — The Supernormal Child: 
 
 Journal of Educational Psychology, II, 143-148, 181- 
 190, 1911 
 
 Stout, John Elbert — High School: Its Function, Organi- 
 zation, and Administration; Heath, 1914 
 
 Stowell, William L. — Sex for Parents and Teachers; Mac- 
 millan, 1921 
 
 Strecker, Edward A. — Mai-Behavior Viewed as an Out- 
 Patient Mental and Nervous Clinic Problem; Mental 
 Hygiene, V, 225-238, April, 1921 
 
 Sully, James — Studies of Childhood; Appleton, 1914 
 
 Surette, T. W. — Music and Life: A Study of the Relations 
 Between Ourselves and Music; Houghton Mifflin, 1917 
 
 Swift, Edgar J. — Mind in the Making; Scribner, 1908 
 Youth and the Race; Scribner, 1915 
 
 Taft, Jessie — Some Problems in Delinquency; Papers and 
 Proceedings American Sociological Society, XVI, 1922 
 
 Taft, Linwood — The Technique of Pageantry; Barnes, 1921 
 
 Tanner, A. E. — Adler's Theory of Minderwertigkeit; Peda- 
 gogical Seminary, XXIII, 204-217, 1915 
 The Child; Rand McNally, 1915 
 
 Terman, L. M. — The Hygiene of the School Child; Houghton 
 Mifflin, 1914 
 The Intelligence of School Children; Houghton Mifflin, 1919 
 The Measurement of Intelligence; Houghton Mifflin, 1916 
 
 Terman, L. M. and Anonymous — An Experiment in 
 Infant Education; Journal Applied Psychology, II, 219- 
 228, 1918 
 
 Thaler, William H. — Modern Ideals of Child Behavior, and 
 their Influence on American Ldfe; Education, XLI, 141- 
 151, November, 1920 
 
 Thatcher, E, — Making Tin Can Toys; Lippincott, 1919
 
 258 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 Thomson, Helen B. — The Mental Traits of Sex; University 
 of Cambridge Press, 1903 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. — Individuality; Houghton Mifflin, 1911 
 Education for Initiative and Originality; Teachers College 
 
 Record, XVHI, 1916 
 Educational Psychology; Briefer Course. Teachers College, 
 
 Columbia University, 1914 
 Principles of Teaching Based on Psychology; Seiler, 1920 
 
 Thurston, Henry W. — Delinquency and Spare Time; 
 Cleveland Foundation, 1918 
 
 Tracy, Frederick — The Psychology of Adolescence; 
 Macmillan, 1920 
 
 Tredgold, a. F. — Mental Deficiency; Wood, 1920 
 
 Trettien, a. W. — Psychology of the Language Interest of 
 Children; Pedagogical Seminary, XI, 113-177, 1904 
 
 Twbddell, F. — How to Take Care of the Baby; Bobbs 
 Merrill, 1915 
 
 U.S. Children's Bureau — Bulletins on Mal-Nutrition, 
 Milk, Infant Care, etc.; Government Printing Office, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture — Bulletins on Corn 
 Clubs, Poidtry Clubs, etc.; Government Printing Office, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 U.S. Public Health Service — The Parent's Part; Govern- 
 ment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Verrill, a. Hyatt — Pets for Pleasure and Profit; Scribner, 
 1915 
 
 Vincent, Swale — Glands of Internal Secretions; Arnold, 
 1912 
 
 Waddle, C. W. — An Introduction to Child Psychology; 
 Houghton Mifflin, 1918
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 
 
 Wallas, Graham — The Great Society; Macmillan, 1919 
 
 Wallin, J. E. W. — Handicapped Children; American Jour- 
 nal of School Hygiene, IV, 29-53, September, 1920 
 Mental Health of School Child; Yale University Press, 1914 
 Problems of Suhnormality; World Book, 1917 
 
 Watson, John B. — Psychology from the Standpoint of a 
 Behaviorist; Lippincott, 1919 
 The Psychology of Infancy; Scientific Monthly, December, 
 1921 
 Wedekind, Frank — Awakening of Spring; Browni, 1910 
 
 Whipple, Guy M. — Classes for Gifted Children; Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111., 1919 
 
 Intelligence Tests and Their Use; Twenty-First Yearbook 
 National Society for the Study of Education, Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111., 1922 
 
 Manual of Mental and Physical Tests; Warwick and York, 
 1915 
 White, William A. — Childhood, The Golden Period for 
 Mental Hygiene; Mental Hygiene, IV, 257-267, April, 
 1920 
 
 Mental Hygiene of Childhood; Little Brown, 1919 
 
 White, Mary — The Child's Rainy Day Book; Doubleday 
 Page, 1905 
 
 Whitehead, James R. (Editor) — Folk Songs and Other 
 Songs for Children; Ditson, 1903 
 
 Williams, T. A. — Fear and Its Cure; National Education 
 Association Proceedings and Addresses, 1914, 836 
 
 WiLTSE, Sara E. — Children's Collections; Pedagogical Sem- 
 inary, I, 234-237, 1893 
 
 Winch, W. H. — Some Relations Between Substance Memory 
 and Productive Imagination in School Children; British 
 Journal of Psychology, IV, 95-125, May, 1911
 
 260 OUTLINES OF CHILD STUDY 
 
 WiNTBRBURN, F. A. — The Mother in Education; McBride, 
 1914 
 
 WiTHiNGTON, Robert — English Pageantry; Harvard Uni- 
 versity Press, 1918 
 
 WooDROW, Herbert W. — Brightness and Dullness in 
 Children; Lippincott, 1919 
 
 Woods, Alice (Editor) — Advance in Coeducation; Sidgwick 
 and Jackson, 1919 
 
 WooDWORTH, Robert S. — Dynamic Psychology; Columbia 
 University Press, 1918 
 Psychology — A Study of Mental Life; Holt, 1921 
 
 WooLLEY, Helen Thompson — Readings in Vocational 
 Guidance (Meyer Bloomfield): Charting Children in 
 Cincinnati; Ginn, 1915 
 
 Wright, John Button — What the Mother of a Deaf Child 
 Ought to Know; Stokes, 1915 
 
 ZiCK, H. — Teaching Modern Languages in European 
 Secondary Schools; Educational Review, LI, 488-501, 1916
 
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